en,pcm,Subject
"first amendment: cases, controversies, and contexts ruthann robson professor of law& university distinguished professor city university of new york (cuny) school of law cali elangdell press 2020 second edition robson the first amendment i about the author ruthann robson is professor of law and university distinguished professor at the city university of new york (cuny) school of law.","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo): about di cases, controversies, and contexts ruthann robson professor of law and university distinguished professor city university of new york (cuny) school of law",Government
"she is also the editor ofthe three volume set, i nternational library of essays in sexuality& law(2011).","She be di editor of di three volume set, international library of essays for sexuality& law(2011)",Government
she is one of two editors ofthe constitutional law professors blog and a frequent commentator on constitutional and sexuality issues.,She dey one of two editor of di constitutional law professors blog and she be frequent commentator on constitutional and sexuality issues,Government
"she is one ofthe 26 professors selected for inclusion in what the best law teachers do(harvard university press,2013).","Di 26 professors wey dey selected for inclusion for what di best law teachers do(harvard university press,2013).",Government
"robson the first amendment ii notices this is the second edition of this casebook, updated january 2020.","Robson the First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) ii notices say this na the second edition of this casebook, updated january 2020.",Government
cali and cali elangdell press do not assert copyright in us government works or other public domain material included herein.,Dem no assert copyright for us government work or oda public domain material wey dey included herein.,Government
"suggested attribution format for original work: ruthann robson, first amendment: cases, controversies, and contexts, published by cali elangdell press.","attribution format wey them suggest for ogbonge work: ruthann robson, First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo): cases, controversies, and contexts, wey cali elangdell press publish.",Government
cali and elangdell are united states federally registered trademarks owned by the center for computer-assisted legal instruction.,cali and elangdell na united states federally registered trademarks wey de owned by the center for computer-assisted legal instruction.,Government
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the cali graphical logo is a trademark and may not be used without permission.,Di cali graphical logo dey trademark and no dey use without permission,Government
"should you create derivative works based on the text of this book or other creative commons materials therein, you may not use this book's cover art and the aforementioned logos, or any derivative thereof, to imply endorsement or otherwise without written permission from cali.","Dem no use dis book cover art and di aforementioned logos, or any derivative thereof, to imply endorsement or odawise without written permission from cali.",Government
this material does not contain nor is intended to be legal advice.,Di material no suppose dey use for legal advice.,Government
the editors have endeavored to provide complete and accurate information in this book.,Di editor don endeavor to provide complete and accurate information for dis book,Government
"however, cali does not warrant that the information provided is complete and accurate.",Di Cali no warrant say di information wey dey provided na complete and accurate,Government
cali disclaims all liability to any person for any loss caused by errors or omissions in this collection of information.,CALI no go take blame for any loss wey person get because of mistake or something wey dem forget for this book.,Government
"isbn: 979-8-89904-007-8 robson the first amendment iii about cali elangdell press the center for computer-assisted legal instruction(cali) is: a nonprofit organization with over 200 member us law schools, an innovative force pushing legal education toward change for the better.","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) iii about cali elangdell press di center for computer-assisted legal instruction(cali) na: a nonprofit organization wit over 200 member us law school, innovative force push legal education toward change for di better",Government
"there are benefits to cali membership for your school, firm, or organization.","Your school, office, or group fit benefit if dem follow join CALI.",Government
elangdell is our electronic press with a mission to publish more open books for legal education.,eLangdell na our electronic press wey get plan to publish more books wey open for law education.,Government
"how do we define""open?""","how we gotake define""open?""",Government
"compatibility with devices like smartphones, tablets, and e-readers; aswell as print.","Devices like smartphones, tablets, e-readers, and print. go de compatible",Government
the right for educators to remix the materials through more lenient copyright policies.,Teachers get right to change the book anyhow dem want because the copyright rules no too tight.,Government
the ability for educators and students to adopt the materials for free.,Teachers and students fit get the materials for free.,Government
find available and upcoming elangdell titles at elangdell. cali. org.,Dem find available and upcoming elangdell titles for elangdell. cali. org,Government
"show support for cali by following us on facebook and twitter, and by telling your friends and colleagues where you received your free book.","Support CALI, follow us for Facebook and Twitter, and tell your friends and colleagues where you forget your free book.",Government
robson the first amendment iv preface this casebook is intended to be used in an upper-division course covering the first amendment to the united states constitution.,Di casebook dey use for upper-division course wey dey cover First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) to di united states constitution.,Government
it is intended for 13 or 14 week semester that meets once or twice per week.,E dey intended for 13 or 14 week semester wey meet once or twice per week.,Government
the casebook is organized with the speech clauses as part one and the religion clauses as part two.,Di casebook dey organized wit di speech clauses as part one and di religion clauses as part two.,Government
"unlike many other courses, there is no accepted organizational scheme within these broad areas.",Dino accept organizational scheme wey dey within dis broad areas.,Government
"as the introduction notes, first amendment doctrine, especially within freedom of speech, presents a varied and h aphazard landscape.","As the introduction talk, First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) doctrine, especially for freedom of speech side, be like ground wey get many ups and downs.",Government
the casebook follows a scheme that has proven effective in my years of teaching the course to hundreds of students.,Di casebook follow scheme wey dey proven effective for my years of teaching di course to hundreds of students.,Government
the selection of cases tends toward the most recent and these tend to be less heavily edited.,Di selection of cases dey toward di most recent and dem dey less heavily edited.,Government
these recent cases often contain extended discussions of earlier cases that are not included in the casebook.,Di recent cases often contain extended discussion of earlier cases wey no include for casebook.,Government
the excerpted cases and all cases in the notes contain the official citation.,di part wey dem comot for di cases and all cases wey de di notes contain di official citation.,Government
"however, within the text of excerpted cases, the full citations of cases are not included: only the case name and year appears the first time the case is cited within the opinion.",Only di case name and year appear di first time di case dey cited within di opinion.,Government
"moreover, case citations are not always indicated by ellipses.",Di case citations no dey always indicated by ellipses.,Government
"when content is omitted, this is indicated by this symbol:* * *.",E dey indicated by dis symbol:* *,Government
"the court's use of centered asterisks, often near the end of an opinion, is preserved as spaced and centered: * * *this casebook has been immeasurably improved by comments from my students in first amendment at cuny school of law.",Di casebook don improve by comments from my students for First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) for cuny school of law.,Government
"a special gratitude to those students in the class in the spring of 2015 when a""dry run""of the casebook was used.","Na special gratitude to those students for di class for di spring of 2015 wen a""dry run""of di casebook dey use.",Government
"their engagement with the materials and original contributions, as well as their notations of typog raphical errors, are deeply appreciated.","I really appreciate how dem take join body with the work, their own ideas, and even how dem find mistakes for spelling.",Government
the press as guardian ofthe public's right to know?,di press wey be guardian ofthe public's right to know?,Government
the ascendency of commercial speech?,The way commercial speech dey gain power?,Government
"text congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or ofthe press; or the right ofthe people to peaceably assemble, and to petition the government from redress of grievances.","Dem make no law respect di establishment of religion, or prohibiting di free exercise thereof; or di right of di pipo to peaceably assemble, and to petition di goment from redress of grievances.",Government
the religion clauses the religion clauses are two separate but intertwined clauses.,Di religion clauses di religion clauses dey two separate but intertwined clauses,Government
"first, the text forbids congress making laws respecting""an establishment of religion.""","Di text forbid congress make law respecting""an establishment of religion""",Government
"the establishment clause- - -more properly denominated an anti-establishment clause or disestablishmen t clause, but routinely called the establishment clause- -means at its most basic that there cannot be a government religion.","Di establishment clause- - -more properly denominate anti establishment clause or disestablishmen t clause, but routinely call di establishment clause- -means at its most basic say e no be government religion.",Government
"this is distinct from many other nations in which there is a national religion, including great britain's church of england.","Dina distinct from many oda nations wey dey national religion, including great britain's church of england.",Government
"more specific meanings of what an""establishment"" of religion might mean have been the subject of numerous cases and controversies.","more meanings wey de specific for wetin ""establishment""of religion fit mean have been the subject of numerous cases and controversies.",Government
most vexing have been government support for religious education and for government displays of religiosity.,Di most vexing don be government support for religious education and for government display of religiosity,Government
"second, the text forbids congress making laws that would prohibit""the free exercise""of religion.","Di text forbid congress make laws wey go prohibit""the free exercise""of religion",Government
"this""freedom of religion""clause means at its most basic that government cannot outlaw a religion.","wetin ""freedom of religion""clause mean at its most basic be say government no fit outlaw a religion.",Government
"again, the history of england is instructive including criminal trials for heresy.","again, di history of england dey instructive including criminal trials for heresy.",Government
"and again, the more specific meanings of""prohibiting"" and""free exercise""have been the subject of numerous cases and controversies.","Di more specific meaning of""prohibiting"" and""free exercise""don dey subject of numerous case and controversies.",Government
the extent to which the government must accommodate religious beliefs and practices has been the most contentious.,Di extent to which di goment must accommodate religious beliefs and practices don dey di most contentious.,Government
"the free speech clause the first amendment's ""freedom of speech""clause is the primary means of protecting expression.","Di free speech clause First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo)'s ""freedom of speech""clause dey di primary means of protect expression",Government
it is the clause that most people think of when they think ofthe first amendment and it occupies a central place in first amendment doctrine and theory.,Di clause wey most pipo think of wen dem think of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) and dem occupy central place for First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) doctrine and theory.,Government
"indeed, other first amendment rights are often grounded in the free speech clause.",First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) rights dey ground for di free speech clause.,Government
(part one treats the extensive doctrine under the speech clause).,(part one dey treat di extensive doctrine wey de under di speech clause).,Government
"c. the press clause the text's ""or ofthe press""language immediately after the prohibition ofthe abridgement of freedom of speech might seem to guarantee freedom ofthe press as a separate right.",The Press Clause. That part wey talk 'or ofthe press' right after 'freedom of speech' fit look like say freedom ofthe press na standing right on its own.,Government
"doctrinally, the""free press""clause is often coextensive with the""free speech""clause.","Di""free press""clause dey coextensive wit di""free speech""clause.",Government
robson the first amendment 2 d. the assembly clause the assembly clause has not been the source of rights or doctrinal explication.,Di assembly clause di assembly clause no be di source of rights or doctrinal explication,Government
some ofthe framers imagined the clause to be superfluous and its interpretation has proven this to be true.,Some of di framers imagine di clause to be superfluous and im interpretation don prove dis to true.,Government
"e. the petition clause like the assembly clause, the petition clause has not been the source of robust rights under the first amendment.","di petition clause like di assembly clause, di petition clause no be di source of robust rights under First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).",Government
"however, in borough of duryea v. guarnieri,564 u. s. (2011), the court held that the petition clause and the speech clause are not necessarily coextensive.",Di court tok say di petition clause and di speech clause no dey coextensive.,Government
"in that case, a public employee brought a first amendment claim that he had been terminated in retaliation for filing a grievance, i. e, a ""petition.""","For dat case, public employee don bring First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) claim say hin dey terminated for retaliation for filing grievance, i. e, petition.",Government
"the court held, however, that the petition clause should be interpreted in this case as coextensive with speech clause doctrine which would require the employee to be speaking about a matter of public concern.",Di petition clause go interpret for dis case as coextensive wit speech clause doctrine wey go require di employee to speak about matter of public concern.,Government
"f. association: the""missing"" clause note that the text ofthe first amendment does not contain the word""association ""although it is often thought to include it.","Di""missing"" clause note say di text of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) no contain di word""association ""although e dey thought to include am",Government
"this right, grounded in the speech clause, is often said to begin with the court's decision in naacp v. alabama ex rel.","Di right, ground for di speech clause, dey often tok say to begin wit di court decision for naacp v. alabama ex rel.",Government
"in addition to the right to anonymity in belonging to an organization as in naacp, other assoc iational first amendment rights include the ability of organizations to determine their membership in light of anti-discrimination laws.","Di right to anonymity for belonging to organization as for naacp, oda assoc iational First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) rights include di ability of organization to determine dia membership for light of anti-discrimination laws.",Government
international perspectives the rights encompassed in the united states constitution's first amendment are generally included inhuman rights documents and other national constitutions.,Di rights wey dey carry for di united state constitution's First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) dey include for human rights documents and oda national constitutions.,Government
"the prohibition of government religion, as mentioned above, is less universal.","Di prohibition of government religion, as mention above, dey less universal.",Government
"the universal declaration of human rights(1947) provides: article 18 everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.","Di right includes freedom to change hin religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or for community wit odas and for public or private, to manifest hin religion or belief for teaching, practice, worship and observance.",Government
"article 19 everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.","article 19 everyone get the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions wey no get interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.",Government
article 20(1) everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.,article 20(1) everyone get di right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.,Government
(2)no one maybe compelled to belong to an association.,Na one no dey compelle to belong to association,Government
the international covenant on civil and political rights (iccpr) (1966)provides: article 181.,The ICCPR (1966)say: Article 181.,Government
"everyone shall have the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion.","everyone go get di right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion.",Government
"this right shall include freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief of his choice, and freedom, either individually or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in worship, observance, practice and teaching.","Di right shall include freedom to have or to adopt religion or belief of hin choice, and freedom, either individually or for community wit odas and for public or private, to manifest hin religion or belief for worship, observance, practice and teaching.",Government
noone shall be subject to coercion which would impair his freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief of his choice.,Nano one go dey subject to coercion wey go impair hin freedom to have or to adopt religion or belief of hin choice.,Government
"freedom to manifesto ne's religion or beliefs maybe subject only to such limitations as are prescribed by law and are necessary to protect public safety, order, health, or morals or the fundamental rights and freedoms of others.","Di freedom to manifesto ne's religion or beliefs dey subject only to such limitations as dem dey prescribed by law and dey necessary to protect public safety, order, health, or morals or di fundamental rights and freedom of odas.",Government
"the states parties to the present covenant undertake to have respect for the liberty of parents and, when applicable, legal guardians to ensure the religious and moral education of their children in conformity with their own convictions.","di states de party to the present covenant undertake to have respect for di liberty of parents and, when applicable, legal guardians to ensure the religious and moral education of their children in conformity with their own convictions.",Government
everyone shall have the right to hold opinions without interference.,Dem go get di right to hold opinions without interference,Government
"everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression; this right shall include freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his choice.","Di right go include freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, or through any oda media of hin choice.",Government
the exercise ofthe rights provided for in paragraph 2 of this article carries with it special duties and responsibilities.,Di exercise of di rights wey dey provided for paragraph 2 of dis article carry wit special duties and responsibilities.,Government
"it may therefore be subject to certain restrictions, but these shall only be such as are provided by law and are necessary:(a) for respect ofthe rights or reputations of others;(b) for the protection of national security or of public order (ordre public), or of public health or morals.","E fit be therefore subject to certain restrictions, but these go be only wetin de provided by law and wey de necessary:(a) for respect of di rights or reputations of others;(b) for di protection of Di way wey dem take dey protect di kontri, di pipo wey dey di kontri, and di tins wey important for di kontri from bad tins wey fit happen from outside or inside, including make sure say terrorist no go cause trouble, or say anoder kontri no go spy on dem or of public order (ordre public), or of Di science and practice of keeping whole communities and populations healthy or morals.",Government
any propaganda for war shall be prohibited by law.,any propaganda for war go de prohibited by law.,Government
"any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence shall be prohibited by law.","Di advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred wey constitute incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence go prohibited by law.",Government
article 21 the right of peaceful assembly shall be recognized.,Di right of peaceful assembly go be recognized.,Government
"no restrictions maybe placed on the exercise of this right other than those imposed in conformity with the law and which are necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security or public safety, public order (ordre public), the protection of public health or morals or the protection ofthe rights and freedoms of others.","For di interest of Di way wey dem take dey protect di kontri, di pipo wey dey di kontri, and di tins wey important for di kontri from bad tins wey fit happen from outside or inside, including make sure say terrorist no go cause trouble, or say anoder kontri no go spy on dem or public safety, public order (ordre public), di protection of Di science and practice of keeping whole communities and populations healthy or morals or di protection of di rights and freedom of odas.",Government
"everyone shall have the right to freedom of association with others, including the right to form and join trade unions for the protection of his interests.","Di right to freedom of association wit odas, including di right to form and join trade unions for di protection of hin interest.",Government
"no restrictions maybe placed on the exercise of this right other than those which are prescribed by law and which are necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security or public safety, public order( ordre public), the protection of public health or morals or the protection ofthe rights and freedoms of others.","For di interest of Di way wey dem take dey protect di kontri, di pipo wey dey di kontri, and di tins wey important for di kontri from bad tins wey fit happen from outside or inside, including make sure say terrorist no go cause trouble, or say anoder kontri no go spy on dem or public safety, public order( ordre public), di protection of Di science and practice of keeping whole communities and populations healthy or morals or di protection of di rights and freedom of odas.",Government
this article shall not prevent the imposition of lawful restrictions on members ofthe armed forces and ofthe police in their exercise of this right.,this article no go prevent di imposition of lawful restrictions on members of di armed forces and of di police in their exercise of dis right.,Government
"nothing in this article shall authorize states parties to the international labour organisation convention of 1948 concerning freedom of association and protection ofthe right to organize to take legislative measures which would prejudice, or to apply the law in such a manner as to prejudice, the guarantees provided for in that convention.","Di article go authorize state parties to di international labour organisation convention of 1948 concerning freedom of association and protection of di right to organize to take legislative measures wey go prejudice, or to apply di law for such manner as to prejudice, di guarantees wey dem provide for dat convention.",Government
note the qualifications and balancing in the iccpr and the mandate for the prohibition of hate speech.,Di qualification and balancing for di iccpr and di mandate for di prohibition of hate speech.,Government
"when the united states adopted the iccpr in 1992, it specifically included a reservation regarding article 20: that article 20 does not authorize or require legislation or other action by the united states that would restrict the right of free speech and association protected by the constitution and laws ofthe united states.","Di united state adopt di iccpr for 1992, e specifically include reservation regarding article 20: say article 20 no authorize or require legislation or oda action by di united state wey go restrict di right of free speech and association protected by di constitution and laws of di united state.",Government
"the senate committee report additionally robson the first amendment 4 implicitly rejected any balancing of free expression rights against other rights even if allowed under the iccpr in favor of adherence to first amendment doctrine, senate comm.","Di senate committee report additionally robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 4 implicitly robson any balancing of free expression rights against oda rights even if allowed under di iccpr for favor of adherence to First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) doctrine, senate comm.",Government
"on foreign relations, report on the international covenant on civil and political rights, s. exec.","on foreign relations, report on di international covenant on civil and political rights, s. exec.",Government
the constitution ofthe republic of south africa(1996) is considered among the most progressive in the world.,Di constitution of di republic of south Africa(1996) dey consider among di most progressive for di world,Government
"religious observances maybe conducted at state or state-aided institutions, provided that a. those observances follow rules made by the appropriate public authorities; b. they are conducted on an equitable basis; and c. attendance at them is free and voluntary.","Di religious observances go conduct for state or state-aided institutions, provided say a. those observances go follow rules make di appropriate public authorities; b. dem dey conduct on equitable basis; and c. attendance for dem dey free and voluntary.",Government
"systems of personal and family law under any tradition, or adhered toby persons professing a particular religion.","Di system of personal and family law under any tradition, or adhered toby persons wey dey professing particular religion.",Government
"everyone has the right to freedom of expression, which includes a. freedom ofthe press and other media; b. freedom to receive or impart information or ideas; c. freedom of artistic creativity; and d. academic freedom and freedom of scientific research.","Di right to freedom of expression, wey include freedom of di press and oda media; b. freedom of artistic creativity; and d. academic freedom and freedom of scientific research.",Government
"assembly, demonstration, picket and petition everyone has the right, peacefully and unarmed, to assemble, to demonstrate, to picket and to present petitions.","assembly, demonstration, picket and petition everyone has the right, peacefully and unarmed, to assemble, to demonstrate, to picket and to present petitions.",Government
freedom of association everyone has the right to freedom of association.,Di right to freedom of association wey be di right to freedom of association.,Government
political rights 1.,Di political rights 1.,Government
"every citizen is free to make political choices, which includes the right a. to form a political party; b. to participate in the activities of, or recruit members for, a political party; and c. to campaign for a political party or cause.","Di every citizen dey free to make political choices, wey include di right a. to form political party; b. to participate for di activities of, or recruit members for, political party; and c. to campaign for political party or cause.",Government
state action and incorporation against the states the united states constitution has two important features that are vital in the consideration of its first amendment.,Di united state action and incorporation against di state di united state constitution don two important feature wey dey vital for di consideration of its First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).,Government
"first, there is the requirement of""state action""as evinced by the opening words ofthe text: congress shall make no law.","Di requirement of""state action""as evinced by di opening words of di text: congress go make no law",Government
"like other constitutional protections(with the notable exception ofthe thirteenth amendment), the first amendment is a guarantee against infringement by the government rather than private actors.",First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) dey guarantee against infringement by di government no be private actors.,Government
"robson the first amendment 5 the first amendment is notable, however, in that people often invoke it against when they are""silenced"" by criticism or even interrupted on a talk show.","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) dey notable, however, for say pipo often invoke am against wen dem dey""silence"" by criticism or even interrupt on talk show.",Government
"second, there is the question of fe deralism.",Di question of fe deralism na di question of fe deralism,Government
"importantly, while t he first amendment constrains only government, it constrains all governments.","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) constrain only goment, e constrain all goment.",Government
"although the text begins""congress shall make not law,""the provisions ofthe first amendment have been applied to the states(and thus their subdivisions) through the process of selective incorporation under the fourteenth amendment's due process clause.","Di text begin""congress go make no law,""di provision of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) don apply to di states(and thus dia subdivisions) through di process of selective incorporation under di fourteenth amendment Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system clause.",Government
"the first amendment's speech clause is considered the first ofthe rights in the bill of rights to be incorporated against the states, see gitlow v.","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo)'s speech clause dey consider di first of di rights for di bill of rights to be incorporated against di states, see gitlow v.",Government
"in near v. minnesota,283 u. s. 697, 707 (1931), the court noted discussed the press clause and stated it "" is no longer open to doubt that the liberty ofthe press and of speech is within the liberty safeguarded by the due process clause ofthe fourteenth amendment from invasion by state action.""",Di court tok say di press clause dey open to doubt say di liberty of di press and of speech dey inside di liberty safeguarded by di due process clause of di fourteenth amendment from invasion by state action,Government
the religion clauses were likewise deemed applicable to the states in the twentieth century.,Di religion clauses dey likewise dey applicable to di states for di twentieth century.,Government
"in cantwell v. connecticut, 310 u. s. 296, 303(1940), the court held that the""fundamental concept of liberty embodied""in the due process clause ofthe fourteenth amendment"" embraces the liberties guaranteed by the first amendment.","Di court tok say di""fundamental concept of liberty wey dey embodied""for di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system clause of di fourteenth amendment"" embraces di liberties wey First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).",Government
""" it continued, the ""first amendment declares that congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.",First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) declare say congress go make no law respect di establishment of religion or prohibiting di free exercise thereof.,Government
the fourteenth amendment has rendered the legislatures ofthe states as incompetent as congress to enact such laws.,Di fourteenth amendment don render di legislatures of di state as incompetent as congress to enact such laws.,Government
"""however, because cantwell did not involve the establishment clause, the case of everson v. board of education, 330 u. s. 1(1947), decided seven years later, is generally considered authority for the proposition that the establishment clause applies with equal force to the states as to the federal government.","Di case of everson v. board of education, 330 u. s. 1(1947), decide seven years later, na generally consider authority for di proposition say di establishment clause dey appli wit equal force to di state as to di federal government.",Government
there is one current united states supreme court justice who has expressed the opinion that the establishment clause is not incorporated against the states.,Di current united states supreme court justice wey don express di opinion say di establishment clause no incorporated against di state.,Government
"see town of greece v. galloway, 572 u. s. (2015)(thomas, j, concurring); elk grove unified school dist.","Thomas, j, concurring; elk grove unified school dist.",Government
"justice thomas has argued that unlike the free exercise clause, which protects an individual right, the ""text and history ofthe establishment clause strongly suggest that it is a federalism provision intended to prevent congress from interfering with state establishments.","Dem argu say unlike di free exercise clause, wey protect individual right, di text and history of di establishment clause strongly suggest say congress dey interferin wit state establishments.",Government
"""elk grove, 542 u. s. at 49.","Di grove, 542 u. s. at 49",Government
"under thomas's view, states could""establish"" a religion, or, at the very least, the actions of states regarding establishment should be analyzed with less rigor.","Thomas's view, states go establish religion, or, at di very least, di actions of states regarding establishment go dey analyse wit less rigor.",Government
"the vast majority of first amendment practitioners and scholars, as well as judges, consider the establishment clause to be applicable to the states and their subdivisions.","Plenty of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) practitioners and scholars, as well as judges, consider di establishment part of di law to be applicable to di states and dia subdivisions.",Government
"however, the history is a bit more nuanced.",Di history dey more nuanced,Government
"consider the original articles of amendment to the constitution: congress ofthe united states begun and held at the city of new-york, on wednesday the fourth of march, one thousand seven hundred and eighty-nine (1789).","Di congress of di united state begun and hold for di city of new york, on wednesday di fourth of march, one thousand seven hundred and eighty-nine (1789).",Government
"articles in addition to, and amendment ofthe constitution ofthe united states of america, proposed by congress and ratified by the legislatures ofthe several states, pursuant to the fifth article ofthe original constitution.","Articles for addition to, and amendment of di constitution(di big law-book)of di united states of america, proposed by congress(di big law-makers)and ratified by di legislatures of di several states, pursuant to di fifth article of di original constitution(di big law-book).",Government
"original amendments passed by congress to be ratified by states article the first. after the first enumeration required by the first article ofthe constitution, there shall be one representative for every thirty thousand, until the number shall amount to one hundred, after which the proportion shall be so regulated by congress, that there shall be not less than one hundred representatives, nor less than one representative for every forty thousand persons, until the number of representatives shall amount to two hundred; after which the proportion shall be so regulated by robson the first amendment 6 congress, that there shall not be less than two hundred representatives, nor more than one representative for every fifty thousand persons.","For di first enumeration wey di constitution go dey pass by di first article of di constitution, e go be one representative for every thirty thousand, until di number of representatives go mount to one hundred, until di number of representatives go amount to two hundred; afta di number of representatives go amount to two hundred; afta di number of representatives go amount to two hundred; afta di number of representatives shall amount to two hundred; afta di number of representatives go amount",Government
"article the second. no law, varying the compensation for the services ofthe senators and representatives, shall take effect, until an election of representatives shall have intervened.","Di second. no law, varying di compensation for di services of di senators and representatives, go take effect, until election of representatives go intervene.",Government
"article the third. congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or ofthe press; or the right ofthe people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.","Dem make no law respect di establishment of religion, or prohibiting di free exercise of di press, or di right of di pipo peaceably to assemble, and to petition di goment for redress of grievances.",Government
articles/amendments one and two are not ratified by the states.,Di states no dey ratified by di state.,Government
"thus, article/amendment third becomes article/amendment first: the current first amendment.",Di current First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) third become article amendment first: di current First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo),Government
(note that article/amendment two became the 27th amendment in 1992.),Dem note say article amendment two bec am di 27th amendment for 1992.,Government
"nevertheless, the framers ofthe constitution were undoubtedly influenced by the history of england and their own experiences regarding both speech and religion.",Di framers of di constitution wey dey influence by di history of england and dia own experience regarding both speech and religion.,Government
"in terms of speech and press, the ""licensing""of publications and criminal prosecutions for sedition were important.","Di""licensing"" of publications and criminal prosecutions for sedition dey important.",Government
"in terms of religion, the violent history of religious conflicts in great britain and the rest of europe were paramount, especially given that the some ofthe states were colonies founded on religious motives.","Di violent history of religious conflicts for great Britain and di rest of Europe dey paramount, especially given say di some of di state dey colonies wey dey found on religious motives.",Government
"theoretical perspectives in addition to the usual theoretical perspectives governing constitutional interpretation such as originalism and living constitutionalism, the first amendment provokes some distinct theoretical perspectives.","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) provoke some distinct theoretical perspectives wey dey governing constitutional interpretation such as originalism and living constitutionalism, di firstamendment provok some distinct theoretical perspectives.",Government
"the absolutist perspective ofthe first amendment gains credence from the language ofthe amendment: congress shall make""no law""as compared to other restraints in the bill of rights such as the fourth amendment's language of""unreasonable searches and seizures.""","Di absolutist perspective of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) gain credence from di language of di amendment: congress go make""no law""as compare to oda restraints for di bill of rights such as di fourth amendment's language of""unreasonable searches and seizures",Government
"while this absolutist perspective has not prevailed, it is often evoked, explicitly or implicitly, in first amendment arguments.","Di absolutist perspective no prevailed, e dey often evoked, explicitly or implicitly, for First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) argument.",Government
"the notion of free speech is often premised on a""marketplace of ideas""metaphor that appeared in early cases.","Di notion of free speech dey often premised on a ""Wetin be say make idear dem dey compete wit one anoda for pipo to sabi wetin be truth, like one big market wey idear dem dey trade, na im make dem call am 'marketplace of idear', wey mean say every bodi get chance to yan, to share tori, to argue, to disagree, to agree, and to choose wetin dem believe""metaphor wey dey appear for early case.",Government
"this capitalist sentiment conceptualizes a free enterprise competition requiring little, if any, government regulation.","Dis capitalist sentiment conceptualizes a free enterprise competition requiring little, if any dey, goment regulation.",Government
"another influential view is that of alexander meiklejohn which envisions a more proactive view for government in ensuring democratic processes; this might mean that the government regulates abusive speech, for example, in the interest of democracy.","Di influential view dey say of alexander meiklejohn wey dey envisions more proactive view for goment for ensuring democratic process; dis might mean say di goment regulat abusive speech, for example, for di interest of democracy.",Government
"a good discussion comparing these two views is robert post, reconciling theory and doctrine in first amendment jurisprudence, 88 cal.","Di good discussion wey dey comparing dis two views na robert post, reconciling theory and doctrine for First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) jurisprudence,88 cal.",Government
"other views highlight an individualistic understanding of free speech, akin to other rights accorded to autonomous persons.","Di views highlight individualistic understanding of free speech, akin to oda rights wey dey accord to autonomous persons.",Government
"however, no overarching theoretical perspective explains the disarray of free speech theories and doctrines, especially because the distinctions between theory and doctrine are often blurry.","Nano overarching theoretical perspective explain di disarray of free speech diories and doctrines, especially because di distinctions wey dey between theory and doctrine dey often blurry.",Government
even the question of whether expression qualifies as speech can be complicated.,Di question of whether expression qualifies as speech go complicate.,Government
the categorization of types of expression- - -for example political or commercial- - - is debated.,Di categorization of types of expression- -for example political or commercial- - -dey debated,Government
"moreover, the exclusion of some types of speech, for example obscenity, is also fraught.","Di exclusion of some type of speech, for example obscenity, dey also fraught.",Government
"concepts such as""chilling speech""or ""secondary effects"" waver between theory and doctrine.","Di concepts such as""chilling speech""or ""secondary effects"" wey dey between theory and doctrine.",Government
"similarly, the status of religion is not amenable to an overall theoretical perspective.",Di status of religion no dey amenable to overall theoretical perspective,Government
"in some senses, the two religion clauses are at odds if each is extended to its logical conclusion.",Di two religion clauses dey at odds if each dey extend to dia logical conclusion.,Government
"the establishment clause, more accurately called the anti-establishment clause, generally means that the government should not put its imprimatur on religion.","Di establishment clause, more accurately call di anti establishment clause, generally mean say di goment no put im imprimatur on religion",Government
"however, the free exercise clause generally means that the government should accommodate religious beliefs.",Di free exercise clause generally mean say di goment go accommodate religious beliefs.,Government
"the issue is often when""accommodation,"" especially of majority beliefs, becomes an""establishment"" of religion objectionable to minority religious believers or nonbelievers.","Di issue dey often when""accommodation, especially of majority beliefs, become establishment""of religion wey dey objectionable to minority religious believers or nonbelievers.",Government
"additionally, protection of religious expression has been subject to legislative action.","Di additionally, protection of religious expression don subject to legislative action.",Government
robson the first amendment 7 vii.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 7 vii.,Government
the challenges of first amendment cases and controversies there are several challenges to any study ofthe first amendment.,Di challenges of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) case and controversies dey several challenges to any study of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).,Government
"first, many first amendment cases, especially those involving speech and speech-related issues, evoke numerous doctrines.","Di first, many First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) case, especially those wey dey involving speech and speech-related issues, evoke numerous doctrines.",Government
"at times, the issue is what doctrine should apply.",Di issue dey what doctrine go apply.,Government
"as professor julie nice has explained, a typical dispute can involve many of first amendment doctrines allowing the court to""choose from among these various doctrines to frame and structure its analysis""with an eye toward the likely result.","Di typical dispute go involve many of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) doctrines allow di court to""choose from among dis different doctrines to frame and structure its analysis""wit eye toward di lIkely result.",Government
"nice, how equality constitutes liberty: the alignment of cls v. martinez,38 hastings const.","Di alignment of cls v. martinez,38 hastings const.",Government
"in martinez, the court could have focused on the law school's policy as content or even viewpoint based or whether the law school created a public forum or the public university setting or the conditions ofthe benefit of student group recognition or compelled speech or compelled association or free exercise of religion or on the prohibition of establishment of religion.",Di court go focus on di law school policy as content or even viewpoint based or whether di law school create public forum or di public university setting or di condition of di benefit of student group recognition or compelled association or free exercise of religion or on di prohibition of establishment of religion.,Government
professor nice suggests that a fundamental question is whether the court has been consistent in selecting which doctrine will frame its decision.,Di professor nice suggest say a fundamental question dey whether di court don consistent for selecting which doctrine go frame dia decision.,Government
there is a good argument that the court has not been consistent in selecting doctrinal frames.,Di court no dey consistent for selecting doctrinal frame.,Government
"martinez maybe a""textbook example,""but it is not at all unusual.","Di martinez no be textbook example, but e no dey unusual.",Government
many- - -perhaps even the majority- - - of cases involve a choice of doctrine.,Di majority- - - of case involve choice of doctrine.,Government
this makes studying and litigating first amendment cases challenging.,Dis makes studying and litigating First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) cases challenging.,Government
a second challenge is doctrinal incoherence even within distinct doctrines.,Di second challenge dey doctrinal incoherence even inside distinct doctrines.,Government
this is not to say that there are not settled tests; there are.,Dem no say e no dey settled tests; e dey.,Government
this makes the first amendment a consistent choice for those drafting bar examination questions!,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) make First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) consistent choice for those draft bar examination questions!,Government
"nevertheless, the court is often undermining its own previously announced tests.",Di court dey often undermining its own previously announced tests.,Government
"third, the sheer number, the often extensive length, and the regularity of fractured and closely divided opinions by the united states supreme court can make first amendment study challenging.","Third, di sheer number, di often extensive length, and di regularity of fractured and closely divided opinions by di united states di big-oga kot fit make First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) study challenging.",Government
"until the first world war, the court devoted little attention to the first amendment, but since then it has decided more than 500 cases that discuss the first amendment.","Di court devoted little attention to First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo), but since then e don decide more than 500 case wey dey discuss First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).",Government
"ofcourse, not all of these cases are landmark cases or rest exclusively on first amendment grounds.",Di case dey landmark cases or rest exclusively on First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) grounds.,Government
"nevertheless, there is much material.",E dey much material.,Government
"fourth and finally, other federal courts aswell as state courts routinely decide first amendment cases, many of which are groundbreaking or involve cutting-edge and unresolved questions of law.","Di federal courts aswell as state courts routinely decide First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) case, many of which dey groundbreaking or involve cutting-edge and unresolved questions of law.",Government
these four challenges implicate this casebook.,Di four challenges implicate dis casebook.,Government
"first, b ecause of numerous doctrinal frames within a single case, there is little agreement about organization and placement of cases within that organization.","Di first, b ecause of numerous doctrinal frame wey dey inside single case, e dey little agreement about organization and placement of case wey dey inside di organization.",Government
"thus, casebooks and study aids deploy a dizzying array of schemes and references to illustrative cases.","Dis, casebooks and study aids dey di dizzying array of schemes and references to illustrative case.",Government
"generally speaking, however, there is sharp divide between the speech and religion clauses(although a case may address both of these).",Di sharp divide between di speech and religion clauses(although case dey address both of dis).,Government
"additionally, within speech, there are distinct doctrines governing the press, public employees and public school students, and commercial speech, although these doctrines often overlap with other doctrines.","Di doctrines dey govern di press, public employees and public school students, and commercial speech, although dis doctrines often overlap wit oda doctrines.",Government
this casebook deploys an organization that has worked well in previous years and points to doctrinal selection issues as they occur.,Di casebook deploy organization wey dey work well for previous years and points to doctrinal selection issues as dem occur.,Government
"second, and not unlike other constitutional cases, the court's articulation of a test in one case maybe undermined by later cases.",Di court's articulation of test for one case dey undermined by later cases.,Government
"this casebook clearly identifies the landmark""tests"" and then examines their status.","Di casebook clearly identify di landmark""tests"" and then examine dia status",Government
"robson the first amendment 8 third, the number and length ofthe supreme court's first amendment cases makes for difficult editing choices.","Dem robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 8 third, di number and length of di supreme court's First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) case make for difficult editing choices.",Government
the major cases are all included or referenced.,Di major cases dey all include or reference,Government
the casebook's inclusion preference has generally been toward more recent cases and these cases have been more lightly edited to provide more context for current controversies.,Di casebook's inclusion preference don generally goward more recent cases and dis case don dey more lightly edited to provide more context for current controversies.,Government
"fourth and finally, the notes reference lower federal court and state court cases.",Di notes reference lower federal court and state court case.,Government
these cases often provide important context for developing doctrine and issues.,Di case don provide important context for developing doctrine and issues.,Government
"the alien and sedition acts signed into law by president john adams, who reportedly later came to regret it, the ""alien and sedition acts""are an example of laws enacted during the""founding generation.""","Di""alien and Law wey no allow person talk or do sometin wey go against goment, wey dem go fit call am treason or rebel wey dey sign into law by president john adams, wey reportedly later kom to regret am, di ""alien and Law wey no allow person talk or do sometin wey go against goment, wey dem go fit call am treason or rebel wey dey signed into law by president john adams, wey reportedly later kom to regret am, di ""alien and Law wey no allow person talk or do sometin wey go against goment, wey dem go fit call am treason or rebel wey dey signed into law by president john adams, wey reportedly later kom to regret am, di ""alien and Law wey no allow person talk or do sometin wey go against goment, wey dem go fit call am treason or rebel wey dey signed into law by president john adams,",Government
"be it enacted by the senate and house of representatives ofthe united states of america in congress assembled, that whenever there shall be a declared war between the united states and any foreign nation or government, or any invasion or predatory incursion shall be perpetrated, attempted, or threatened against the territory ofthe united states, by any foreign nation or government, and the president ofthe united states shall make public proclamation ofthe event, all natives, citizens, denizens, or subjects ofthe hostile nation or government, being males ofthe age of fourteen years and upwards, who shall be within the united states, a nd not actually naturalized, shall be liable to be apprehended, restrained, secured and removed, as alien enemies.","Di senate and house of representatives of di united states of America for congress assembled, say whenever e dey declare war between di united state and any foreign nation or government, or any invasion or predatory incursion shall be perpetrate, attempted, or threatened against di territory of di united state, by any foreign nation or government, and di president of di united state go make public proclamation of di event, all natives, citizens, and di president of di united state go make public",Government
"and be it further enacted, that after any proclamation shall be made as aforesaid, it shall be the duty ofthe several courts ofthe united states, and of each state, having criminal jurisdiction, and ofthe several judges and justices ofthe courts ofthe united states, and they shall be, and are hereby respectively, authorized upon complaint, against any alien or alien enemies, as aforesaid, who shall be resident and at large within such jurisdiction or district, to the danger ofthe public peace or safety, and contrary to the tenor or intent of such proclamation, or other regulations which the president ofthe united states shall and may establish in the premises, to cause such alien or aliens to be duly apprehended and convened before such court, judge or justice; and after a full examination and robson the first amendment 11 hearing on such complaint.","Di duty of di several courts of di united state, and of each state, having criminal jurisdiction, and of di several judges and justices of di courts of di united state, and dem shall be, and dem shall be, and dem shall be, and be dem further enacted, say afta any proclamation shall be di duty of di several courts of di united state, and dem shall be di duty of di several judges and justices of di courts of di united",Government
"and sufficient cause therefor appearing, shall and may order such alien or aliens to be removed out ofthe territory ofthe united states, or to give sureties of their good behaviour, or to be otherwise restrained, conformably to the proclamation or regulations which shall and maybe established as aforesaid, and may imprison, or otherwise secure such alien or aliens, until the order which shall and maybe made, as aforesaid, shall be performed.","As aforesaid, shall and go order such alien or aliens to dey remove out of di territory of di united states, or to give sureties of dia good behaviour, or to be odawise restrained, conformably to di proclamation or regulations wey shall and go establish as aforesaid, and go secure such alien or aliens, until di order wey shall and go make, as aforesaid, shall be performed.",Government
"and be it further enacted, that it shall be the duty ofthe marshal ofthe district in which any alien enemy shall be apprehended, who by the president ofthe united states, or by order of any court, judge or justice, as aforesaid, shall be required to depart, and to be removed, as aforesaid, to provide therefor, and to execute such order, by himself or his deputy, or other discreet person or persons to be employed by him, by causing a removal of such alien out ofthe territory ofthe united states; and for such removal the marshal shall have the warrant ofthe president ofthe united states, or ofthe court, judge or justice ordering the same, as the case maybe.","Di duty of di marshal of di district wey any alien enemy shall be, wey by di president of di united states, or by order of any court, judge or justice, as aforesaid, go dey require to depart, and to execute such order, by himself or hin deputy, or oda discreet person or persons wey dem dey employed by him, as aforesaid, go execute such order, by himself or hin deputy, or oda discreet person or person wey dey employed by him,",Government
"and be it further enacted and declared, that if any person shall be prosecuted under this act, for the writing or publishing any libel aforesaid, it shall be lawful for the defendant, upon the trial of robson the first amendment 12 the cause, to give in evidence in his defence, the truth ofthe matter contained in republication charged as a libel.","For di trial of robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 12 di cause, to give in evidence for hin defence, di truth of di matter wey dey contain for republication charge as a libel.",Government
"and the jury who shall try the cause, shall have a right to determine the law and the fact, under the direction ofthe court, as in other cases.","Di jury wey go try di cause, go have right to determine di law and di fact, under di direction of di court, as in oda cas",Government
"and be it further enacted, that this act shall continue and bein force until the third day of march, one thousand eight hundred and one, and no longer: provided, that the expiration ofthe act shall not prevent or defeat a prosecution and punishment of any offence against the law, during the time it shall bein force.","Di act go continue and be for force until di third day of march, one thousand eight hundred and one, and no longer.",Government
are these acts consistent with our contemporary ideas ofthe high regard in which the framers held the first amendment?,Di act consistent wit awa contemporary ideas of di high regard wey di framers hold First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo)?,Government
"how do ideas of criticism ofthe government and"" citizenship""merge in the acts?","How do ideas of criticism of di goment and"" citizenship""merge for di act?",Government
consider 50 u. s. c.,Di u. s. c,Government
"consider the proposed""violent radicalization and homegrown terrorism prevention act""which would seek to address ""ideologically based violence- the use, planned use, or threatened use of force or violence by a group or individual to promote the group or individual's political, religious, or social beliefs.""","Di proposed""violent radicalization and homegrown terrorism prevention act"" wey go seek to address ""ideologically based violence- di use, planned use, or threatened use of force or violence by group or individual to promote di group or individual's political, religious, or social beliefs",Government
clear and present dangers a.,E dey clear and present dangers a,Government
the challenge of world war i schenck v. united states 249 u. s. 47(1919) mr.,Di challenge of world war i schenck v. united states 249 u. s. 47(1919) mr.,Government
justice holmes delivered the opinion ofthe court.,Di justice holmes deliver di opinion of di court,Government
this is an indictment in three counts.,Dem dey indictment for three counts,Government
"the first charges a conspiracy to violate the espionage act of june 15, 1917, c. 30, 3, 40 stat.","Di first charges a conspiracy to spoil di espionage act of june 15, 1917, c. 30, 3, 40 stat.",Government
"the count alleges overt acts in pursuance ofthe conspiracy, ending in the distribution ofthe document set forth.","Di count allege overt acts for pursuance of di conspiracy, ending for di distribution of di document set forth.",Government
"the second count alleges a conspiracy to commit an offence against the united states, towit, to use the mails for the transmission of matter declared to be nonmailable by title xii,2 ofthe act of june 15, 1917, towit, the above mentioned document, with an averment ofthe same overt acts.","Di second count allege a conspiracy to commit an offence against di united state, towit, to use di mails for di transmission of matter wey dey nonmailable by title xii,2 of di act of june 15, 1917, towit, di above mention document, wit averment of di same overt acts.",Government
the third count charges an unlawful use ofthe mails for the transmission ofthe same matter and otherwise as above.,Di third count charge unlawful use of di mails for di transmission of di same matter and odawise as above.,Government
the defendants were found guilty on all the counts.,Di defendants dey found guilty on all di counts.,Government
"they setup the first amendment to the constitution forbidding congress to make any law abridging the freedom of speech, or ofthe press, and bringing the case here on that ground have argued some other points also of which we must dispose.","Dem setup First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) to di constitution forbidding congress to make any law abridging di freedom of speech, or of di press, and bring di case here on dat ground don argu some oda points wey we must dispose.",Government
"it is argued that the evidence, if admissible, was not sufficient to prove that the defendant schenck was concerned in sending the documents.","Di argued say di evidence, if admissible, no fit prove say di defendant schenck dey concerned for sending di document.",Government
"according to the testimony, schenck said he was general secretary ofthe socialist party, and had charge ofthe socialist headquarters from which the robson the first amendment 13 documents were sent.","Di testimony, schenck tok say he dey general secretary of di socialist parti, and dey charge of di socialist headquarters from which di robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 13 document dey send.",Government
he identified a book found there as the minutes ofthe executive committee ofthe party.,Di executive committee of di party don identify book wey dey found there as di minutes of di executive committee of di party.,Government
"the book showed a resolution of august 13, 1917, that 15, 000 leaflets should be printed on the other side of one of them in use, to be mailed to men who had passed exemption boards, and for distribution.","Di book show resolution of august 13, 1917, say 15, 000 leaflets go printed on di oda side of one of dem for use, to be mail to men wey don pass exemption boards, and for distribution.",Government
schenck personally attended to the printing.,Di schenck personally attend to di printing,Government
"on august 20, the general secretary's report said""obtained new leaflets from printer and started work addressing envelopes""&c, and there was a resolve that comrade schenck be allowed$125 for sending leaflets through the mail.","Di general secretary report tok say""obtained new leaflets from printer and start work address envelopes""&c, and di resolve say comrade schenck be allowed$125 for sending leaflets through di mail.",Government
he said that he had about fifteen or sixteen thousand printed.,He tok say hin get about fifteen or sixteen thousand printed,Government
"there were files ofthe circular in question in the inner office which he said were printed on the other side ofthe one sided circular, and were there for distribution.","Di inside office wey hin tok say na files of di circular for question for di inner office wey hin tok say dem printed on di oda side of di one sided circular, and dem dey there for distribution.",Government
other copies were proved to have been sent through the mails to drafted men.,Di copies dey prove to dey send through di mails to draft men.,Government
"without going into confirmatory details that were proved, no reasonable man could doubt that the defendant schenck was largely instrumental in sending the circulars about.",Na reasonable mango doubt say di defendant schenck dey largely instrumental for sending di circular about.,Government
"in impassioned language, it intimated that conscription was despotism in its worst form, and a monstrous wrong against humanity in the interest of wall street's chosen few.","E intimated say conscription despotism for its worst form, and a monstrous wrong against humanity for di interest of wall street's chosen few.",Government
"it said""do not submit to intimidation,""but inform, atleast, confined itself to peaceful measures such as a petition for the repeal ofthe act.","Dem tok say no submit to intimidation, but for form, at least, confine imself to peaceful measures such as petition for di repeal of di act.",Government
"the other and later printed side ofthe sheet was headed""assert your rights.""","Di one and later printed side of di sheet dey head""assert your rights""",Government
"it stated reasons for alleging that anyone violated the constitution when he refused to recognize""your right to assert your opposition to the draft,""and went on if you do not assert and support your rights, you are helping to deny or disparage rights which it is the solemn duty of all citizens and residents ofthe united states to retain.","Estate reasons say anyone violated di constitution wen hin refused to recognize""your right to assert your opposition to di draft,""and goon if you no assert and support your rights, you dey help to deny or disparage rights wey dey di solemn duty of all citizens and residents of di united state to retain.",Government
"it described the arguments on the other side as coming from cunning politicians and a mercenary capitalist press, and even silent consent to the conscription law as helping to support an infamous conspiracy.","Dem described di argument on di oda side as e show from politicians wey get wuruwuru and mercenary capitalist press, and even silent consent to di conscription law as dem help support an infamous conspiracy.",Government
"it denied the power to send our citizens away to foreign shores to shoot up the people of other lands, and added that words could not express the condemnation such coldblooded ruthlessness deserves,&c, &c, winding up,""you must do your share to maintain, support and uphold the rights ofthe people of this country.""","Dem denied di power to send awa citizens away to foreign shores to shoot up di pipo of oda lands, and added say words no express di condemnation wey coldblooded ruthlessness dey,&c, andc, wind up,""you must do your share to maintain, support and uphold di rights of di pipo of dis kontri.",Government
"ofcourse, the document would not have been sent unless it had been intended to have some effect, and we do not see what effect it could be expected to have upon persons subject to the draft except to influence them to obstruct the carrying of it out.",We no see what effect wey dey expected to have upon persons subject to di draft except to influence dem to obstruct di carrying of am out.,Government
the defendants do not deny that the jury might find against them on this point.,Di defendants no deny that di jury go find against demon dis point.,Government
"but it is said, suppose that that was the tendency of this circular, it is protected by the first amendment to the constitution.","Dem tok say na di tendency of dis circular, e dey protected by First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) to di constitution",Government
two ofthe strongest expressions are said to be quoted respectively from well known public men.,Di strongest expression wey dey quote respectively from well known public men.,Government
"it well maybe that the prohibition of laws abridging the freedom of speech is not confined to previous restraints, although to prevent them may have been the main purpose, as inti mated in patterson v. colorado(1907).","Di prohibition of laws wey dey open di freedom of speech no dey confined to previous restraints, although to prevent dem no be di main purpose, as inti mated for patterson v. colorado(1907).",Government
"we admit that, in many places and in ordinary times, the defendants, in saying all that was said in the circular, would have been within their constitutional rights.","We admit say, for many place and for ordinary times, di defendants, for say all wey dey tok for di circular, go dey within dia constitutional rights.",Government
but the character of every act depends upon the circumstances in which it is done.,Di character of every act depend upon di circumstances wey dem dey done,Government
the most stringent protection of free speech would not protect a man in falsely shouting fire in a theatre and causing a panic.,Di most stringent protection of free speech no protect a man for falsely shout fire for theatre and causing panic.,Government
it does not even protect a man from an injunction against uttering words that may have all the effect of force.,E no even protect a man from injunction against uttering words wey dey suppose get all di effect of force.,Government
the question in every case is whether the words used are used in such circumstances and are of such a nature as to create a clear and present danger that they will bring about the substantive evils that congress has a right to prevent.,Di question for every case na whether di words wey dey use for such circumstances and dey of such a nature as to create clear and present danger wey dem go bring about di substantive evils wey congress get right to prevent.,Government
it is a question of proximity and degree.,E dey question of proximity and degree,Government
"when a nation is at war, many things that might be said in time of peace are such a hindrance to its effort that their utterance will not be endured so long as men fight, and that no court could regard them as protected by any constitutional right.","Di things wey dey tok for time of peace no be hindrance to dia effort say dia utterance no be endured so long as men fight, and say no court could regard dem as protected by any constitutional right.",Government
"it seems to be admitted that, if an actual obstruction ofthe recruiting service were proved, liability for words that produced that effect might be enforced.","Di suppose admit say, if di actual obstruction of di recruiting service dey prove, liability for words wey produce say effect might be enforced.",Government
"the statute of 1917, in 4, punishes conspiracies to obstruct, as well as actual obstruction.","Di statute of 1917, for 4, punishes conspiracies to obstruct, as well as actual obstruction.",Government
"if the act(speaking, or circulating a paper), its tendency, and the intent with which it is done are the same, we perceive no ground for saying that success alone warrants making the act a crime.",We perceive no ground for say success alone warrant make di act a crime.,Government
"indeed, that case might be said to dispose ofthe present contention if the precedent covers all media concludendi.",Di case suppose tok say to dispose of di present contention if di precedent cover all media concludendi.,Government
"but, as the right to free speech was not referred to specially, we have thought fit to add a few words.","As di right to free speech no referred to specially, we don think fit add few words",Government
robson the first amendment 14 it was not argued that a conspiracy to obstruct the draft was not within the words ofthe act of 1917.,Dem no argu say conspiracy to obstruct di draft no within di words of di act of 1917.,Government
"the words are""obstruct the recruiting or enlistment service,""and it might be suggested that they refer only to making it hard to get volunteers.","Di words dey ""obstruct di recruiting or enlistment service,""and dem suggest say dem refer only to make dem hard to get volunteers.",Government
"recruiting heretofore usually having been accomplished by getting volunteers, the word is apt to call up that method only in our minds.",Di word dey apt to call up dat method only in awa minds.,Government
"but recruiting is gaining fresh supplies for the forces, as well by draft as otherwise.","But recruiting dey gain fresh supplies for di forces, as well by draft as odawise.",Government
it is put as an alternative to enlistment or voluntary enrollment in this act.,E dey put as alternative to enlistment or voluntary enrollment for dis act.,Government
abrams v. united states 250 u. s. 616(1919) justice clarke delivered the opinion ofthe court; justice holmes filed a dissenting opinion in which justice brandeis joined.,Di justice clarke don iver di opinion wey justice brandeis joined.,Government
justice clarke delivered the opinion ofthe court.,Di justice clarke deliver di opinion of di court,Government
"on a single indictment, containing four counts, the five plaintiffs in error, hereinafter designated the defendants, were convicted of conspiring to violate provisions ofthe espionage act of congress.","Di plaintiffs for error, hereinafter designated di defendants, dey convicted of conspirin to violate provision of di espionage act of Congress.",Government
"each ofthe first three counts charged the defendants with conspiring, when the united states was at war with the imperial government of germany, to unlawfully utter, print, write and publish: in the first count, ""disloyal, scurrilous and abusive language about the form of government ofthe united states;""in the second count, language ""intended to bring the form of government ofthe united states into contempt, scorn, contumely and disrepute;"" and in the third count, language ""intended to incite, provoke and encourage resistance to the united states in said war.""","Di second count, language ""intended to bring di form of government of di united state into contempt, scorn, contumely and disrepute; and for di second count, language ""intended to bring di form of government of di united state into contempt, scorn, contumely and disrepute; and for di second count, language ""intended to bring di form of government of di united state into contempt, scorn, contumely and disrepute; and for di second count, language ""intended to bring di form of government of di united state",Government
"the charge in the fourth count was that the defendants conspired, when the united states was at war with the imperial german government, unlawfully and willfully, by utterance, writing, printing and publication, to urge, incite and advocate curtailment of production of things and products, to -wit, ordnance and ammunition, necessary and essential to the prosecution ofthe war.","Di charge for di fourth count na say di defendants conspired, wen di united state dey war wit di imperial German goment, unlawfully and willfully, by utterance, writing, printing and publication, to urge, incite and advocate curtailment of production of things and products, to -wit, ordnance and ammunition, necessary and essential to di prosecution of di war.",Government
the offenses were charged in the language ofthe act of congress.,Di offenses dey charge for di language of di act of congress.,Government
"these excerpts sufficiently show that, while the immediate occasion for this particular outbreak of lawlessness on the part ofthe defendant alien anarchists may have been resentment caused by our government's sending troops into russia as a strategic operation against the germans on the eastern battle front, yet the plain purpose of their propaganda was to excite, at the supreme crisis ofthe war, disaffection, sedition, riots, and, as they hoped, revolution, in this country for the purpose of embarrassing, and, if possible, defeating the military plans ofthe government in europe.","Di immediate occasion for dis particular outbreak of lawlessness on di part of di defendant alien anarchists don dey resentment, for di supreme crisis of di war, disaffection, sedition, riots, and, as dem hope, revolution, for dis kontri for dis kontri for dis kontri for dis kontri for dis kontri for dis kontri for dis kontri for dis kontri for di supreme crisis of di war, disaffection, sedition, riots, and, as dem hope, revolution, for dis kontri for dis",Government
"a technical distinction may perhaps be taken between disloyal and abusive language applied to the form of our government or language intended to bring the form of our government into contempt and disrepute, and language of like character and intended to produce like results directed against the president and congress, the agencies through which that form of government must function in time of war.","Di technical distinction wey dey take between disloyal and abusive language wey dey applied to di form of our goment into contempt and disrepute, and language wey dey like character and intended to produce like results directed against di president and congress, di agencies wey dey through awa goment into contempt and disrepute, and language wey dey like character and intended to produce like results wey dey against di president and congress, di agencies wey dem dey",Government
"but it is not necessary to a decision of this case to consider whether such distinction is vital or merely formal, for the language of these circulars was obviously intended to provoke and to encourage resistance to the united states in the war, as the third count runs, and the defendants, in terms, plainly urged and advocated a resort to a general strike of workers in ammunition factories for the purpose of curtailing the production of ordnance and munitions necessary and essential to the prosecution ofthe war as is charged in the fourth count.","Di language of dis circulars dey suppose to consider whether such distinction dey vital or merely formal, for di language of dis circulars dey suppose to provoke and to encourage resistance to di united states for di war, as di third count run, and di defendants, for terms, plainly urge and advocate a resort to a general strike of workers for ammunition factories for di purpose of curtailing di production of ordnance and munitions necessary and",Government
"thus, it is clear not only that some evidence, but that much persuasive evidence, w as before the jury tending to prove that the defendants were robson the first amendment 15 guilty as charged in both the third and fourth counts ofthe indictment, and, under the long established rule of law hereinbefore stated, the judgment ofthe district court must be affirmed.","E dey clear no only say some evidence, but say much persuasive evidence, w as before di jury tok say di defendants dey robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 15 guilty as charge for both di third and fourth count of di indictment, and, under di long established rule of law wey dey state, di judgment of di district court must be affirmed.",Government
justice holmes dissenting[mr.,Justice holmes dissenting[mr.,Government
justice brandeis joins].,Di justice brandeis join].,Government
this indictment is founded wholly upon the publication of two leaflets which i shall describe in a moment.,Di indictment dey found wit di publication of two leaflets wey i go describe for moment.,Government
"the first count charges a conspiracy pending the war with germany to publish abusive language about the form of government ofthe united states, laying the preparation and publishing ofthe first leaflet as overt acts.","Di first count charge conspiracy pending di war wit germany to publish abusive language about di form of government of di united state, laying di preparation and publishing of di first leaflet as overt act.",Government
"the second count charges a conspiracy pending the war to publish language intended to bring the form of government into contempt, laying the preparation and publishing ofthe two leaflets as overt acts.","Di second count charge conspiracy pending di war to publish language wey dey suppose bring di form of goment into contempt, laying di preparation and publishing of di two leaflets as overt act.",Government
"the third count alleges a conspiracy to encourage resistance to the united states in the same war, and to attempt to effectuate the purpose by publishing the same leaflets.","Di third count allege conspiracy to encourage resistance to di united states for di same war, and to attempt to effectuate di purpose by publishing di same leaflets.",Government
"the fourth count lays a conspiracy to incite curtailment of production of things necessary to the prosecution ofthe war and to attempt to accomplish it by publishing the second leaflet, to which i have referred.","Di fourth count lays conspiracy to incite curtailment of production of things wey dey necessary to di prosecution of di war and to attempt to accomplish am by publishing di second leaflet, to which i don referred.",Government
the first of these leaflets says that the president's cowardly silence about the intervention in russia reveals the hypocrisy ofthe plutocratic gang in washington.,Di first of dis leaflets tok say di president's cowardly silence about di intervention for russia reveal di hypocrisy of di plutocratic gang for washington.,Government
"it intimates that""german militarism combined with allied capitalism to crush the russian evolution"" --goes on that the tyrants ofthe world fight eachother until they see a common enemy-- working class enlightenment, when they combine to crush it, and that now militarism and capitalism combined, though not openly, to crush the russian revolution.","Di tyrants of di world fight each oda until dem see common enemy wey dey work class enlightenment, wen dem combine to crush am, and say now militarism and capitalism combined, though no openly, to crush di russian revolution",Government
"it says that there is only one enemy ofthe workers ofthe world, and that is capitalism; that it is a crime for workers of america,&c, to fight the workers' republic of russia, and ends""awake!","E tok say na only one enemy of di workers of di world, and say na capitalism; say na crime for workers of America,&c, to fight di workers' republic of russia, and end""awake!",Government
"awake, you workers ofthe world, revolutionists!""","Di workers of di world, revolutionists!""",Government
a note adds it is absurd to call us pro-german.,Di note add say e dey absurd to call us pro-german,Government
we hate and despise german militarism more than do you hypocritical tyrants.,We hate and despise german militarism more than do you hypocritical tyrants.,Government
we have more reasons for denouncing german militarism than has the coward ofthe whitehouse.,We get more reasons for denouncing german militarism than get di coward of di whitehouse.,Government
"the other leaflet, headed ""workers-- wake up,""with abusive language says that america together with the allies will march for russia to help the czeckoslovaks in their struggle against the bolsheviki, and that this time the hypocrites shall not fool the russian emigrants and friends of russia in america.","Di oda leaflet, headed ""workers-- wake up,""wit abusive language tok say America toge dir wit di allies go march for russia to help di czeckoslovaks for dia struggle against di bolsheviki, and say dis time di hypocrites no fool di russian emigrants and friends of russia for America.",Government
"it tells the russian emigrants that they now must spit in the face ofthe false military propaganda by which their sympathy and help to the prosecution ofthe war have been called forth, and says that, with the money they have lent or are going to lend,""they will make bullets not only for the germans, but also for the workers soviets of russia,""and further, workers in the ammunition factories, you are producing bullets, bayonets, cannon, to murder not only the germans, but also your dearest, best, who are in russia and are fighting for freedom.","Di russian emigrants say di y now must spit for di face of di false military propaganda wey dia sympathy and help to di prosecution of di war don call forth, and tok say, wit di money wey dem don lent or go lend, dem go make bullets no only for di Germans, but also for di workers soviets of russia, and further, workers for di ammunition factories, you dey produce bullets, bayonets, cannon, to carry bullets, bayonets, cannon",Government
"it then appeals to the same russian emigrants at some length not to consent to the ""inquisitionary expedition to russia,""and says that the destruction ofthe russian revolution is""the politics ofthe march to russia.""","Di russian revolution dey di politics of di march to russia, and say di destruction of di russian revolution na di politics of di march to russia.",Government
"the leaflet winds up by saying""wo rkers, our reply to this barbaric intervention has to be a general strike!""","Di leaflet winds up by say""wo rkers, our reply to dis barbaric intervention go be general strike!""",Government
"and, after a few words on the spirit of revolution, exhortations not to be afraid, and some usual tall talk ends,""woe unto those who will bein the way of progress.","Na few words on di spirit of revolution, exhortations no dey afraid, and some usual tall talk end,""woe unto those wey go be for di way of progress.",Government
let solidarity live!,For solidarity live!,Government
"no argument seems tome necessary to show that these pronunciamentos in no way attack the form of government ofthe united states, or that they do not support either ofthe first two counts.","Nano argument seem tome necessary to show say dis pronunciamentos for no way attack di form of government of di united state, or say dem no support either of di first two counts.",Government
what little i have to say about the third count maybe postponed until i have considered the fourth.,I don consider di fourth count until i don consider di fourth.,Government
"with regard to that, it seems too plain to be denied that the suggestion to workers in the ammunition factories that they are producing bullets to murder their dearest, and the further advocacy of a general strike, both in the second leaflet, do urge curtailment of production of things necessary to the prosecution ofthe war within the meaning ofthe act of may 16, 1918, c. 75, 40 stat.","Di suggestion to workers for ammunition factories wey dem produce bullets to murder dia dearest, and di further advocacy of general strike, both for di second leaflet, do urge curtailment of production of things wey dey ecessary to di prosecution of di war within di meaning of di act of May 16, 1918, c. 75, 40 stat.",Government
"but to make the conduct criminal, that statute requires that it should be""with intent by such curtailment to cripple or hinder the united states in the prosecution ofthe war.""",Di statute require say e go be wit intent by such curtailment to cripple or hinder di united state for di prosecution of di war,Government
it seems tome that no such intent is proved.,I seem tome say no such intent dey prove,Government
"robson the first amendment 16 i am aware, of course, that the word intent as vaguely used in ordinary legal discussion means no more than knowledge at the time ofthe act that the consequences said to be intended will ensue.","Dem aware, of course, say di word intent as vaguely use for ordinary legal discussion means no more than knowledge for di time of di act say di consequences wey dem tok say di consequences wey dem tok say di consequences wey dem dey intended go ensue.",Government
even less than that will satisfy the general principle of civil and criminal liability.,Di general principle of civil and criminal liability go satisfy di general principle of civil and criminal liability,Government
"a man may have to pay damages, may be sent to prison, at common law might be hanged, if, at the time of his act, he knew facts from which common experience showed that the consequences would follow, whether he individually could foresee them or not.","Di time of hin act, hin know facts from which common experience show say di consequences go follow, whether hin individually could foresee dem or no.",Government
"but, when words are used exactly, a deed is not done with intent to produce a consequence unless that consequence is th e aim ofthe deed.",Di deed no dey done wit intent to produce consequence unless say consequence dey th e aim of di deed.,Government
"it maybe obvious, and obvious to the actor, that the consequence will follow, and he maybe liable for it even if he regrets it, but he does not do the act with intent to produce it unless the aim to produce it is the proximate motive ofthe specific act, although there maybe some deeper motive behind.","E no dey obvious, and obvious to di actor, say di consequence go follow, and hin no do di act wit intent to produce am unless di aim to produce am, but hin no do di act wit intent to produce am unless di aim to produce am, but hin no do di act wit intent to produce am unless di aim to produce am, but hin no do di act wit intent to produce am unless di aim to produce am, but hin no do di act wit intent to produce am unless di aim to produce am na di proximate motive of di specific act, but hin",Government
it seems tome that this statute must be taken to use its words in a strict and accurate sense.,E seem tome say dis statute must take use dia words for strict and accurate sense.,Government
they would be absurd in any other.,E go dey absurd for any oda,Government
"a patriot might think that we were wasting money on aeroplanes, or making more cannon of a certain kind than we needed, and might advocate curtailment with success, yet, even if it turned out that the curtailment hindered and was thought by other minds to have been obviously likely to hinder the united states in the prosecution ofthe war, no one would hold such conduct a crime.","Di patriot might think say we dey wasting money on aeroplanes, or make more cannon of certain kind wey we need, and might advocate curtailment wit success, yet, even if e turnout say di curtailment dey hinder di united state for prosecution of di war, no one go hold such conduct a crime.",Government
"the power undoubtedly is greater in time of war than in time of peace, because war opens dangers that do not exist at other times.","Di power undoubtedly dey greater for time of war than for time of peace, because war open dangers wey no exist for oda times.",Government
"but, as against dangers peculiar to war, as against others, the principle ofthe right to free speech is always the same.",Di principle of di right to free speech na di same.,Government
it is only the present danger of immediate evil or an intent to bring it about that warrants congress in setting a limit to the expression of opinion where private rights are not concerned.,Di present danger of immediate evil or an intent to bring im about say congress dey setting limit to di expression of opinion wey private rights no dey concerned.,Government
congress certainly cannot forbid all effort to change the mind ofthe country.,Di congress no fit forbid all effort to change di mind of di kontri.,Government
"now nobody can suppose that the surreptitious publishing of a silly leaflet by an unknown man, without more, would present any immediate danger that its opinions would hinder the success ofthe government arms or have any appreciable tendency to do so.","Di surreptitious publishing of silly leaflet by unknown man, without more, go present any immediate danger for di government arms or get any appreciable tendency to do so.",Government
"publishing those opinions for the very purpose of obstructing, however, might indicate a greater danger, and, at any rate, would have the quality of an attempt.","Di very purpose of obstructing, however, might indicate a great danger, and, at any rate, go get di quality of an attempt.",Government
an intent to prevent interference with the revolution in russia might have been satisfied without any hindrance to carrying on the war in which we were engaged.,Di intent to prevent interference wit di revolution for russia go dey satisfied without any hindrance to carry on di war wey we dey engage,Government
"the second leaflet is the only o ne that affords even a foundation for the charge, and there, without invoking the hatred of german militarism expressed in the former one, it is evident from the beginning to the end that the only object ofthe paper is to help russia and stop american intervention there against the popular government-- not to impede the united states in the war that it was carrying on.","Di second leaflet dey di only o ne wey dey afford even foundation for di charge, and there, without invoking di hatred of German militarism express for di former one, e dey evident from di beginning to di end say di only o ne wey dey carry foundation for di charge, and there, without invoking di hatred of German militarism express for di former one, e dey evident from di end say di only o ne wey dey carry di united states for di war wey",Government
"to say that two phrases, taken literally, might import a suggestion of conduct that would have interference with the war as an indirect an d probably undesired effect seems tome by no means enough to show an attempt to produce that effect.","Di two phrases, taken literally, go import suggestion of conduct wey go get interference wit di war as indirect an d probably undesired effect seem tome by no means enough to show an attempt to produce dat effect.",Government
"even if i am technically wrong, and enough can be squeezed from these poor and puny anonymities to turn the color of legal litmus paper, i will add, even if what i think the necessary intent were shown, the most nominal punishment seems tome all that possibly could be inflicted, unless the defendants are to be made to suffer not for what the indictment alleges, but for the creed that they av ow-- a creed that i believe to be the creed of ignorance and immaturity when honestly held, as i see no reason to doubt that it was robson the first amendment 17 held here, but which, although made the subject of examination at the trial, no one has a right even to consider in dealing with the charges before the court.","I go add, even if wetin i think di necessary intent dey show, di most nominal punishment dey show, di most nominal punishment wey dem dey show, but for di creed wey dem dey suppose to suffer no for what di indictment allege, but for di creed wey dem dey suppose, but for di creed wey dem dey suppose to suffer no for what di indictment dey allege, but for di creed wey dey suppose dey",Government
persecution for the expression of opinions seems tome perfectly logical.,Di persecution for di expression of opinions dey perfectly logical,Government
"if you have no doubt of your premises or your power, and want a certain result with all your heart, you naturally express your wishes in law, and sweep away all opposition.","If you go get without question of your premises or your power, and want a certain result wit all your heart, you naturally express your wishes for law, and sweep away all opposition.",Government
"to allow opposition by speech seems to indicate that you think the speech impotent, as when a man says that he has squared the circle, or that you do not care wholeheartedly for the result, or that you doubt either your power or your premises.","Di speech impotent, as when a man tok say hin don squared di circle, or say you no care wholeheartedly for di result, or say you doubt either your power or your premises.",Government
"but when men have realized that time has upset many fighting faiths, they may come to believe even more than they believe the very foundations of their own conduct that the ultimate good desired is better reached by free trade in ideas-- that the best test of truth is the power ofthe thought to get itself accepted in the competition ofthe market, and that truth is the only ground upon which their wishes safely can be carried out.","Di best test of truth dey di power of di thought to get imself accepted for di competition of di market, and say truth dey di only ground wey dem dey reach for di competition of di market, and say truth dey di only ground wey dem dey reach for di competition of di market, and say truth dey di only ground wey dem dey reach for di competition of di market, and say truth dey di only ground wey dem dey reach di ultimate good desired dey reach di ultimate good desired",Government
"that, at any rate, is the theory of our constitution.","For any rate, na di theory of our constitution",Government
"it is an experiment, as all life is an experiment.","E dey experiment, as all life dey experiment",Government
"every year, if not everyday, we have to wager our salvation upon some prophecy based upon imperfect knowledge.",We don wager awa salvation upon some prophecy based upon imperfect knowledge.,Government
"while that experiment is part of our system, i think that we should be eternally vigilant against attempts to check the expression of opinions that we loathe and believe to be fraught with death, unless they so imminently threaten immediate interference with the lawful and pressing purposes ofthe law that an immediate check is required to save the country.","I think say we go dey vigilant against attempts to check di expression of opinions wey we dey loathe and believe to be fraught wit death, unless dem so imminently threaten immediate interference wit di lawful and pressing purpose of di law say immediate check dey required to save di country.",Government
history seems tome against the notion.,Di history seem tome against di notion.,Government
"only the emergency that makes it immediately dangerous to leave the correction of evil counsels to time warrants making any exception to the sweeping command,""congress shall make no law.",Di emergency wey dey make im immediately dangerous to leave di correction of evil counsels to time warrant make any law.,Government
"abridging the freedom of speech.""",Di freedom of speech,Government
"ofcourse, i am speaking only of expressions of opinion and exhortations, which were all that were uttered here, but i regret that i cannot put into more impressive words my belief that, in their conviction upon this indictment, the defendants were deprived of their rights under the constitution ofthe united states.","I dey speaking only of expression of opinion and exhortations, wey dey all wey dey utter here, but i regret say i no put into more impressive words my belief say, for dia conviction upon dis indictment, di defendants deprive dia rights under di constitution of di united state.",Government
"note: justice oliver wendell holmes justice holmes wrote the court's decision in schenck v. united states, decided march 3, 1919.","Di justice oliver wendell holmes justice holmes write di court decision for schenck v. united state, decide march 3, 1919.",Government
"in the next term, justice holmes wrote the now-famous dissent in abrams v. united states, decided november 20, 1919.","Di next term, justice holmes write di now famous dissent for abrams v. united state, decide november 20, 1919.",Government
scholars posit various explanations for holmes' change over the summer.,Di scholars posit different explanations for holmes change over di summer.,Government
one explanation is holmes' discussions with his friend judge learned hand.,Di one explanation dey holmes discussion within friend judge learn hand,Government
another view is that holmes' views did not so much change as become refined; holmes never repudiated schenck.,One view na say holmes' views no dey change as holmes dey refined; holmes never repudiated schenck.,Government
what do you think ofthe differences between holmes' opinions in the two cases?,Di difference wey dey between holmes' opinion for di two case?,Government
robson the first amendment 18 gitlow v. new york 268 u. s. 652(1925) justice sanford delivered the opinion ofthe court; justice holmes filed a dissenting opinion in which justice brandeis joined.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 18 gitlow v. new york 268 u.652 (1925)justice sanford don iver di opinion of di court; justice holmes don file dissenting opinion wey justice brandeis join.,Government
justice sanford delivered the opinion ofthe court.,Di justice sanford deliver di opinion of di court.,Government
"benjamin gitlow was indicted in the supreme court of new york, with three others, for the statutory crime of criminal anarchy.","Di supreme court of new york, wit three odas, for di statutory crime of criminal anarchy.",Government
"new york penal laws,160, 161.","Di new york penal laws,160, 161",Government
its material provisions are:160.,Di material provision dey: 160,Government
criminal anarchy defined.,Di criminal anarchy define.,Government
"criminal anarchy is the doctrine that organized government should be overthrown by force or violence, or by assassination ofthe executive head or of any ofthe executive officials of government, or by any unlawful means.","Di doctrine wey organized goment go dey overthrow by force or violence, or by assassination of di executive head or of any of di executive officials of government, or by any unlawful means.",Government
the advocacy of such doctrine either by word of mouth or writing is a felony.,Di advocacy of such doctrine either by word of mouth or writing na felony.,Government
advocacy of criminal anarchy.,Advocacy of criminal anarchy.,Government
any person who:1.,Di person wey dey:1.,Government
"by word of mouth or writing advocates, advises or teaches the duty, necessity or propriety of overthrowing or overturn ing organized government by force or violence, or by assassination ofthe executive head or of any ofthe executive officials of government, or by any unlawful means; or, 2.","Di duty, necessity or propriety of overthrowing or overturn ing organized goment by force or violence, or by assassination of di executive head or of any of di executive officials of government, or by any unlawful means; or, 2.",Government
"prints, publishes, edits, issues or knowingly circulates, sells, distributes or publicly displays any book, paper, document, or written or printed matter in any form, containing or advocating, advising or teaching the doctrine that organized government should be overthrown by force, violence or any unlawful means is guilty of a felony and punishable by imprisonment or fine, or both.","Di doctrine wey organized goment go overthrow force, violence or any unlawful means dey guilty of a felony and punishable by imprisonment or fine, or both.",Government
the indictment was in two counts.,Di indictment dey for two counts,Government
"the first charged that the defendant had advocated, advised and taught the duty, necessity and propriety of overthrowing and overturning organized government by force, violence and unlawful means, by certain writings therein set forth entitled""the left wing manifesto""; the second, that he had printed, published and knowingly circulated and distributed a certain paper called""the revolutionary age,""containing the writings s et forth in the first count advocating, advising and teaching the doctrine that organized government should be overthrown by force, violence and unlawful means.","Di first charge wey di defendant don advocate, advise and taught di duty, necessity and propriety of overthrowing and overturning organized goment by force, violence and unlawful means, by certain writings wey dey set forth for di first count advocating, advising and advise and taught di duty, necessity and propriety of overthrowing and overturning organized goment by force, violence and unlawful means, by certain writings wey dey e dey",Government
membership in both is open to aliens aswell as citizens.,Di membership for both dey open to aliens aswell as citizens,Government
"the left wings ection was organized nationally at a conference in new york city in june,1919, attended by ninety delegates from twenty different states.","Di left wings ection dey organized nationally for conference for new york city for june,1919, attend ninety delegates from twenty different states.",Government
"the conference elected a national council, of which the defendant was a member, and left to it the adoption of a""man ifesto.""","Di conference elected national council, of which di defendant dey member, and left to am di adoption of a""man ifesto""",Government
"this was published in the revolutionary age, the official organ ofthe left wing.","Di revolutionary age, di official organ of di left wing.",Government
"the defendant was on the board of managers ofthe paper, and was its business manager.","Di defendant dey onboard of managers of di paper, and na its business manager.",Government
"he arranged for the printing ofthe paper, and took to the printer the manuscript ofthe first issue which contained the left wing manifesto, and also a communist program and a program ofthe left wing that had been adopted by the conference.","E arrange for di printing of di paper, and tok to di printer di manuscript of di first issue wey contain di left wing manifesto, and also a communist program and program of di left wing wey dey adopted by di conference.",Government
"sixteen thousand copies were printed, which were delivered at the premises in new york city used as the office ofthe revolutionary age and the headquarters ofthe left wing, and occupied by the defendant and other officials.","Di premises for new york city use as di office of revolutionary age and di headquarters of di left wing, and occupied by di defendant and oda officials.",Government
"these copies were paid for by the defendant, as business manager ofthe paper.","Di copies dey paid for di defendant, as business manager of di paper.",Government
"employees at this office wrapped and mailed out copies ofthe paper under the defendant's direction, and copies were sold from this office.","Di employees for dis office wrapped and mailed out copies of di paper under di defendant direction, and copies dey sold from dis office.",Government
"it was admitted that the defendant signed a card subscribing to the manifesto and program ofthe left wing, which all applicants were required to sign before being admitted to membership; that he went to different parts ofthe state to speak to branches ofthe socialist party about the principles of robson the first amendment 19 the left wing and advocated their adoption, and that he was responsible for the manifesto as it appeared, that ""h e knew ofthe publication, in a general way, and he knew of its publication afterwards, and is responsible for its circulation.""","Di defendant don sign card subscribing to di manifesto and program of di left wing, wey all applicants dey required to sign before membership, and say hin dey responsible for di manifesto and program of di left wing, and say hin dey responsible for di manifesto and program of di left wing, and say hin dey responsible for di manifesto and program of di left wing, and say hin dey responsible for di manifesto and program of di left wing, and say hin dey responsible for di manifesto and program of di left",Government
there was no evidence of any effect resulting from the publication and circulation ofthe manifesto.,Di evidence of any effect result from di publication and circulation of di manifesto.,Government
no witnesses were offered in behalf ofthe defendant.,Di defendant dey offer witnesses for behalf of di defendant.,Government
"the then recent strikes in seattle and winnipeg were cited as instances of a development already verging on revolutionary action and suggestive of proletarian dictatorship, in which the strike-workers were ""trying to usurp the functions of municipal government"", and revolutionary socialism, it was urged, must use these mass industrial revolts to broaden the strike, make it general and militant, and develop it into mass political strikes and revolutionary mass action for the annihilation ofthe parliamentary state.","Di first recent strikes for seattle and winnipeg dey cited as instances of development wey dey already verging on revolutionary action and suggestive of proletarian dictatorship, wey di strike-workers wey dey suppose use mass political strike and revolutionary mass action for di annihilation of di parliament, and revolutionary mass action for di annihilation of di parliament, and revolutionary mass action for di annihilation of di parliament.",Government
"the sole contention here is, essentially, that as there was no evidence of any concrete result flowing from the publication ofthe manifesto or of circumstances showing the likelihood of such result, the statute as construed and applied by the trial court penalizes the mere utterance, as such, of ""doctrine""having no quality of incitement, without regard either to the circumstances of its utterance or to the likelihood of unlawful sequences, and that, as the exercise ofthe right of free expression with relation to government is only punishable""in circumstances involving likelihood of substantive evil,""the statute contravenes the due process clause ofthe fourteenth amendment.","Di sole contention here dey, essentially, say as di evidence of any concrete result wey dey reach di publication of di manifesto or of circumstances show di likelihood of unlawful sequences, di statute as di trial court dey penalize di mere utterance, because of dat, of ""doctrine""having no quality of incitement, without regard either to di circumstances of its utterance or to di likelihood of unlawful sequences, and say, as di exercise of di right of free expression wit relation",Government
"the argument in support of this contention rests primarily upon the following propositions:1st, that the""liberty"" protected by the fourteenth amendment includes the liberty of speech and ofthe press, and 2nd, that while liberty of expression""is not absolute,""it maybe restrained""only in circumstances where its exercise bears a causal relation with some substantive evil, consummated, attempted or likely,""and as the statute""takes no account of circumstances,""it unduly restrains this liberty and is therefore unconstitutional.","Di liberty wey dey protected by di fourteenth amendment includes di liberty of expression and of di press, and 2nd, say while liberty of expression no dey absolute, e dey restrained""only for circumstances wey dem dey exercise bear causal relation wit some substantive evil, consummated, attempted or likely,""and as di statute""take no account of circumstances, and as di statute""take no account of circumstances, and as di statute""take no",Government
"the precise question presented, and the only question which we can consider under this writ of error, then is whether the statute, as construed and applied in this case by the state courts, deprived the defendant of his liberty of expression in violation ofthe due process clause ofthe fourteenth amendment.","E dey whether di statute, as construct and applied for dis case by di state courts, deprive di defendant of hin liberty of expression for violation of di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system clause of di fourteenth amendment.",Government
"the statute does not penalize the utterance or publication of abstract""doctrine"" or academic discussion having no quality of incitement to any concrete action.","Di statute does no penalize di utterance or publication of abstract""law style""or academic discussion having no quality of incitement to any concrete action.",Government
it is not aimed against mere historical or philosophical essays.,E no dey aimed against mere historical or philosophical essays,Government
it does not restrain the advocacy of changes in the form of government by constitutional and lawful means.,Dem no restrain di advocacy of change for di form of government by constitutional and lawful means.,Government
"what it prohibits is language advocating, advising or teaching the overthrow of organized government by unlawful means.","Dem prohibit na language advocating, advising or teach di overthrow of organized goment by unlawful means.",Government
these words imply urging to action.,These words imply urging to action.,Government
"advocacy is defined in the century dictionary as:""1.","Di century dictionary as:""1.",Government
"the act of pleading for, supporting, or recommending; active espousal.""","Di act of pleading for, supporting, or recommending; active espousal.""",Government
"it is not the abstract""doctrine"" of overthrowing organized government by unlawful means which is denounced by the statute, but the advocacy of action for the accomplishment of that purpose.","Di abstract""doctrine"" of overthrow organized goment by unlawful means wey dey denounced by di statute, but di advocacy of action for di accomplishment of dat purpose.",Government
"it was so construed and applied by the trial judge, who specifically charged the jury that: a mere grouping of historical events and a prophetic deduction from them would neither constitute advocacy, advice or teaching of a doctrine for the overthrow of government by force, violence or unlawful means.","Di trial judge, wey specifically charg di jury say: mere grouping of historical events and prophetic deduction from dem go constitute advocacy, advice or teach of doctrine for di overthrow of government by force, violence or unlawful means.",Government
"robson the first amendment 20 the manifesto, plainly, is neither the statement of abstract doctrine nor, as suggested by counsel, mere prediction that industrial disturbances and revolutionary mass strikes will result spontaneously in an inevitable process of evolution in the economic system.","Di manifesto, plainly, na either di statement of abstract doctrine nor, as counsel, mere prediction say industrial disturbances and revolutionary mass strikes go result spontaneously for inevitable process of evolution for di economic system.",Government
"it advocates and urges in fervent language mass action which shall progressively foment industrial disturbances and, through political mass strikes and revolutionary mass action, overthrow and destroy organized parliamentary government.","Di advocate and urge for fervent language mass action wey go progressively foment industrial disturbances and through political mass strike and revolutionary mass action, overthrow and destroy organized parliamentary goment.",Government
it concludes with a call to action in these words: the proletar iat revolution and the communist reconstruction of society-- the struggle for these-- is now indispensable.,"Di proletar iat revolution and di communist reconstruction of society, di struggle wey dey indispensable.",Government
the communist international calls the proletariat ofthe world to the final struggle!,Di communist international call di proletariat of di world to di final struggle!,Government
"this is not the expression of philosophical abstraction, the mere prediction of future events; it is the language of direct incitement.","Di expression of philosophical abstraction, di mere prediction of future events; na di language of direct incitement.",Government
"the means advocated for bringing about the destruction of organized parliamentary government, namely, mass industrial revolts usurping the functions of municipal government, political mass strikes directed against the parliamentary state, and revolutionary mass action for its final destruction, necessarily imply the use of force and violence, and, in their essential nature, are inherently unlawful in a constitutional government of law and order.","Di means wey dey advocate for bring about di destruction of organized parliamentary government, namely, mass industrial revolts wey dey use against di parliamentary state, and revolutionary mass action for dia final destruction, necessarily imply di use of force and violence, and, for dia essential nature, dey inherently unlawful for constitutional government of law and order.",Government
"that the jury were warranted in finding that the manifesto advocated not merely the abstract doctrine of overthrowing organized government by force, violence and unlawful means, but action to that end, is clear.","Di manifesto don advocate no merely di abstract doctrine of overthrow organized government by force, violence and unlawful means, but action to dat end, dey clear.",Government
"for present purposes, we may and do assume that freedom of speech and ofthe press which are protected by the first amendment from abridgment by congress are among the fundamental personal rights and""liberties"" protected by the due process clause ofthe fourteenth amendment from impairment by the states.","We go assume say freedom of speech and of di press wey dey protected by First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) from abridgment by congress dey among di fundamental personal rights and""liberties"" wey dey protected by di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system clause of di fourteenth amendment from impairment by di states.",Government
"that a state in the exercise of its police power may punish those who abuse this freedom by utterances inimical to the public welfare, tending to corrupt public morals, incite to crime, or disturb the public peace, is not open to question.","Di state for di exercise of its police power go punish those wey abuse dis freedom by utterances inimical to di public welfare, tending to corrupt public morals, incite to crime, or disturb di public peace, no open to question.",Government
these imperil its own existence as a constitutional state.,These imperil im own existence as a constitutional state.,Government
"freedom of speech and press, said story(supra) does not protect disturbances to the public peace or the attempt to subvert the government.",Di freedom of speech and press tok say story(supra) no protect disturbances to di public peace or di attempt to subvert di government.,Government
it does not protect publications or teachings which tend to subvert or imperil the government or to impede or hinder it in the performance of its governmental duties.,E no protect publications or teachings wey dey subvert or imperil di goment or to impede or hinder am for di performance of its governmental duties.,Government
it does not protect publications prompting the overthrow of government by force; the punishment of those who publish articles which tend to destroy organized society being essential to the security of freedom and the stability ofthe state.,Di punishment of those wey publish articles wey dey destroy organized society wey dey essential to di security of freedom and di stability of di state.,Government
"and a state may penalize utterances which openly advocate the overthrow ofthe representative and constitutional form of government ofthe united states and the several states, by violence or other unlawful means.","Di state go penalize utterances wey openly advocate di overthrow of di representative and constitutional form of government of di united states and di several states, by violence or oda unlawful means.",Government
"in short, this freedom does not deprive a state ofthe primary and essential right of self-preservation, which, so long as human governments endure, they cannot be denied.","Di freedom no deprive state of di primary and essential right of self-preservation, wey, so long as human goment endure, dem no dey denied.",Government
"such utterances, by their very nature, involve danger to the public peace and to the security ofthe state.","Di utterances, by dia very nature, involve danger to di public peace and to di security of di state.",Government
"they threaten breaches ofthe peace, and ultimate revolution.","Dem threaten breach of di peace, and ultimate revolution.",Government
and the immediate danger is none the less real and substantial because the effect of a given utterance cannot be accurately foreseen.,Di immediate danger dey none di less real and substantial because di effect of a given utterance no be accurately foreseen.,Government
the state cannot reasonably be required to measure the danger from every such utterance in the nice balance of a jeweler's scale.,Di state no need reasonably be required to measure di danger from every such utterance for di nice balance of jeweler scale.,Government
"a single revolutionary spark may kindle a fire that, smouldering for a time, may burst into a sweeping and destructive conflagration.","Di single revolutionary spark don kindle fire wey, smoulder for time, burst into sweeping and destructive conflagration.",Government
"it cannot be robson the first amendment 21 said that the state is acting arbitrarily or unreasonably when, in the exercise of its judgment as to the measures necessary to protect the public peace and safety, it seeks to extinguish the spark without waiting until it has enkindled the flame or blazed into the conflagration.","Di state dey acting arbitrarily or unreasonably wen, for di exercise of its judgment as to di measures wey dey necessary to protect di public peace and safety, e seeks to extinguish di spark without waiting until e don kindled di flame or blazed into di conflagration.",Government
"it cannot reasonably be required to defer the adoption of measures for its own peace and safety until the revolutionary utterances lead to actual disturbances ofthe public peace or imminent and immediate danger of its own destruction; but it may, in the exercise of its judgment, suppress the threatened danger in its incipiency.",Di revolutionary utterances lead to actual disturbances of di public peace and safety until di revolutionary utterances lead to actual disturbances of di public peace or imminent and immediate danger of im own destruction; but e no need to defer di adoption of measures for im own peace and safety until di revolutionary utterances lead to actual disturbances of di public peace or imminent and immediate danger of im own destruction; but e no need to defer di adoption of measure,Government
"we cannot hold that the present statute is an arbitrary or unreasonable exercise ofthe police power ofthe state unwarrantably infringing the freedom of speech or press, and we must and do sustain its constitutionality.","We no hold say di present statute dey arbitrary or unreasonable exercise of di police power of di state unwarrantably infringing di freedom of speech or press, and we must and do sustain its constitutionity.",Government
"we need not enter upon a consideration ofthe english common law rule of seditious libel or the federal sedition act of 1798, to which reference is made in the defendant's brief.","We need not enter upon consideration of di english common law rule of seditious libel or di federal Law wey no allow person talk or do sometin wey go against goment, wey dem go fit call am treason or rebel of 1798, to which reference dey made for di defendant's brief.",Government
these are so unlike the present statute that we think the decisions under them cast no helpful light upon the questions here.,Dem dey so unlike di present statute wey we think di decision under dem cast no helpful light upon di questions here.,Government
"and finding, for the reasons stated, that the statute is not, in itself, unconstitutional, and that it has not been applied in the present case in derogation of any constitutional right, the judgment ofthe court of appeals is affirmed.","For di reasons state, say di statute no dey unconstitutional, and say e no dey apply for di present case for derogation of any constitutional right, di judgment of di court of appeals dey affirmed.",Government
"m r. justice holmes, dissenting.","Di justice holmes, dissenting.",Government
justice brandeis andi are of opinion that this judgment should be reversed.,I dey opinion say dis judgment go reversed.,Government
"the general principle of free speech, it seems tome, must be taken to be included in the fourteenth amendment, in view ofthe scope that has been given to the word""liberty"" as there used, although perhaps it maybe accepted with a somewhat larger latitude of interpretation than is allowed to congress by the sweeping language that governs or ought to govern the laws ofthe united states.","Di general principle of free speech, e seem tome, must be taken to be included for di fourteenth amendment, for view of di scope wey dey give to di word""liberty"" as wey dey use, although perhaps e go accept wit somewhat larger latitude of interpretation wey dey allowed to congress by di sweeping language wey governor ought to govern di laws of di united state.",Government
"if i am right, then i think that the criterion sanctioned by the full court in schenck v. united states applies.",I think say di criterion wey sanction by di full court for schenck v. united state applies.,Government
the question in every case is whether the words used are used in such circumstances and are of such a nature as to create a clear and present danger that they will bring about the substantive evils that[the state]has a right to prevent.,Di question for every case na whether di words wey dey use for such circumstances and dey of such a nature as to create clear and present danger wey dem go bring about di substantive evils wey dey bring about di substantive evils wey [the state]go prevent.,Government
"it is said that this manifesto was more than a theory, that it was an incitement.","E dey tok say dis manifesto dey more than theory, say e dey incitement",Government
every idea is an incitement.,Di idea dey incitement,Government
"it offers itself for belief, and, if believed, it is acted on unless some other belief outweighs it or some failure of energy stifles the movement at its birth.","If believe, e dey acting on unless some oda belief outweigh amor some failure of energy stifles di movement for its birth.",Government
the only difference between the expression of an opinion and an incitement in the narrower sense is the speaker's enthusiasm for the result.,Di only di difference between di expression of opinion and an incitement for di narrower sense dey di speaker's enthusiasm for di result.,Government
eloquence may set fire to reason.,Dem set fire to reason.,Government
"but whatever maybe thought ofthe redundant discourse before us, it had no chance of starting a present conflagration.","Di redundant discourse before us, na no chance of start present conflagration.",Government
"if, in the long run, the beliefs expressed in proletarian dictatorship are destined to be accepted by the dominant forces ofthe community, the only meaning of free speech is that they should be given their chance and have their way.","If, for di long run, di beliefs wey dey express for proletarian dictatorship don be accepted by di dominant forces of di community, di only meaning of free speech na say dem go give dia chance and get dia way.",Government
"if the publication of this document had been laid as an attempt to induce an uprising against government at once, and not at some indefinite time in the future, it would have presented a different question.","Di publication of dis document don dey laid as an attempt to induce an uprising against government at once, and no for some indefinite time for di future, e go get different question.",Government
"the object would have been one with which the law might deal, subject to the doubt whether there was any danger that the publication could produce any result, or in other words, whether it was not futile and too remote from possible consequences.","Di law go deal, subject to di doubt whether any danger wey di publication go produce any result, or in oda words, whether dem no fit produce any result, or in oda words, whether dem no fit produce any result, or in oda words, whether dem no fit produce any result, or in oda words, whether dem no dey futile and too remote from possible consequences.",Government
"but the indictment alleges the publication, and nothing more.","Di indictment dey allege di publication, and nothing more",Government
robson the first amendment 22 whitney v. california 274 u. s. 357(1927) justice sanford delivered the opinion ofthe court; justice brandeis filed a concurring opinion in which justice holmes joined.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 22 whitney v. california 274 u. s. 357(1927) justice brandeis filed a concurring opinion wey justice holmes joined,Government
"by a criminal information filed in the superior court of alameda county, california, the plaintiff in error was charged, in five counts, with violations ofthe criminal syndicalism act of that state.","Di plaintiff for error dey charge, for five counts, wit violations of di criminal syndicalism act of dat state.",Government
"she was tried, convicted on the first count, and sentenced to imprisonment.","She dey tried, convicted on di first count, and sentenced to imprisonment",Government
"the term""criminal syndicalism"" as used in this act is hereby defined as any doctrine or precept advocating, teaching or aiding and abetting the commission of crime, sabotage (which word is hereby defined as meaning willful and malicious physical damage or injury to physical property), or unlawful acts of force and violence or unlawful methods of terrorism as a means of accomplishing a change in industrial ownership or control, or effecting any political change.","Di term""criminal syndicalism"" wey dey use for dis act dey defined as any doctrine or precept wey dey advocate, teaching or aiding and abetting di commission of crime, sabotage (which word dey defined as meaning willful and malicious physical damage or injury to physical property), or unlawful methods of terrorism as means of accomplishing a change for industrial ownership or control, or effect any political change.",Government
any person who:.,Di person wey dey:.,Government
"organizes or assists in organizing, or is or knowingly becomes a member of, any organization, society, group or assemblage of persons organized or assembled to advocate, teach or aid and abet criminal syndicalism.","Di member of, any organization, society, group or assemblage of persons wey dey organize or assemblage of persons wey dey organize or assembled to advocate, teach or aid and abet criminal syndicalism.",Government
is guilty of a felony and punishable by imprisonment.,Na guilty of a felony and punishable by imprisonment.,Government
"the first count ofthe information, on which the conviction was had charged that, on or about november 28, 1919, in alameda county, the defendant, in violation ofthe criminal syndicalism act, did then and there unlawfully, willfully, wrongfully, deliberately and feloniously organize and assist in organizing, and was, is, and knowingly became a member of an organization, society, group and assemblage of persons organized and assembled to advocate, teach, aid and abet criminal syndicalism.","Di conviction dey charge say, on or about november 28, 1919, for alameda county, di defendant, for violation of di criminal syndicalism act, don charge say, on or about november 28, 1919, for alameda county, di defendant, for violation of di criminal syndicalism act, don charge say, on or about november 28, 1919, for alameda county, di defendant, for violation of di criminal syndicalism act, don charge say, on or about november 28, 1919, for alameda county, di defendant",Government
"this local sent delegates to the national convention ofthe socialist party held in chicago in 1919, which resulted in a split between the""radical"" group and the oldwing socialists.","Di local send delegates to di national convention of di socialist party wey dey chicago for 1919, wey result in split between di""radical"" group and di oldwing socialists.",Government
"the""radicals"" --to whom the oakland delegates adhered-- being ejected, went to another hall, and formed the communist labor party of america.","Di""radicals"" wey di oakland delegates adhered, go to one hall, and formed di communist labor party of America.",Government
"its constitution provided for the membership of persons subscribing to the principles ofthe party and pledging themselves to be guided by its platform, and for the formation of state organizations conforming to its platform as the supreme declaration ofthe party.",Di constitution provided for di membership of persons wey dey subscribing to di principles of di party and pledging themselves to be guided by di platform as di supreme declaration of di party.,Government
"shortly thereafter, the local oakland withdrew from the socialist party and sent accredited delegates, including the defendant, to a convention held in oakland in november,1919, for the purpose of organizing a california branch ofthe communist labor party.","Di local oakland witdrew from di socialist party and send accredited delegates, including di defendant, to convention wey dey for oakland for november,1919, for di purpose of organizing california branch of di communist labor party.",Government
"the defendant, after taking out a temporary membership in the communist labor party, attended this convention as a delegate and took an active part in its proceedings.","Di defendant, after taking out temporary membership for di communist labor party, attend dis convention as delegate and tok active part for its proceedings.",Government
"she was elected a member ofthe credentials committee, and, as its chairman, made a report to the convention upon which the delegates were seated.","She dey elected member of di credentials committee, and, as im chairman, make report to di convention wey di delegates dey seated.",Government
"she was also appointed a member ofthe resolutions committee, and, as such, signed the following resolution in reference to political action, among others proposed by the committee: the c. l. p.",Di c. l. p.,Government
"of california fully recognizes the value of political action as a means of spreading communist propaganda; it insists that, in proportion to the development ofthe economic strength ofthe working class, it, the working class, m ust also develop its political power.","E insist say, for proportion to di development of di economic strength of di working class, im, di working class, m ust develop im political power.",Government
"of california proclaims and insists that the capture of political power, locally or nationally by the revolutionary working class, can be of tremendous assistance to the workers in their struggle of emancipation.","Di capture of political power, locally or nationally by di revolutionary working class, go be of tremendous assistance to di workers for dia struggle of emancipation.",Government
"therefore, we again urge the workers who are possessed ofthe right of franchise to cast their votes for the party which represents their immediate and final interest-- the c. l. p.",We again urge di workers wey dey possess di right of franchise to cast dia votes for di party wey represent dia immediate and final interest-- di c. l. p.,Government
"the minutes show that this resolution, with the others proposed by the committee, was read by its chairman to the convention before the committee on the constitution had submitted its report.","Di minutes show say dis resolution, wit di oda proposed by di committee, dey read by di chairman to di convention before di committee on di constitution.",Government
"according to the recollection ofthe defendant, however, she herself read this resolution.","Di recollection of di defendant, however, she herself read dis resolution",Government
"thereafter, before the report ofthe committee on the constitution had been acted upon, the defendant was elected an alternate member ofthe state executive committee.",Di defendant elected alternate member of di state executive committee.,Government
"the constitution, as finally read, was then adopted.","As finally read, di constitution, as finally read, dey adopted.",Government
"this provided that the organization should be named the communist labor party of california; that it should be""affiliated with""the communist labor party of america, and subscribe to its program, platform and constitution, and, ""through this affiliation,""be ""joined with the communist international of moscow;""and that the qualifications for membership should be those prescribed in then ational constitution.","Dem tok say di organization go be di communist labor party of california; say e go affiliate wit di communist labor party of America, and subscribe to di program, platform and constitution, and, ""through dis affiliation, be di communist international of moscow""and say di qualifications for membership go be di national constitution.",Government
"the proposed resolutions were later taken, up and all adopted except that on political action, which caused a lengthy debate, resulting in its defeat and the acceptance ofthe national program in its place.","Di proposed resolutions dey later take, up and all adopted except say on political action, wey defeat and di acceptance of di national program for its place.",Government
"after this action, the defendant, without, so far as appears, making any protest, remained in the convention until it adjourned.","Di defendant, without, so far as appear, make any protest, remain for di convention until dem adjourned.",Government
"she later attended as an alternate member one or two meetings ofthe state executive committee in san jose and san francisco, and stated, on the trial, th at she was then a member ofthe communist labor party.","Di trial, she later attend as alternate member one or two meetings of di state executive committee for san jose and san francisco, and state, on di trial, th at she be member of di communist labor party.",Government
"she also testified that it was not her intention that the communist labor party of california should bean instrument of terrorism or violence, and that it was not her purpose or that ofthe convention to violate any known law.","She testified say di communist labor party of california go be instrument of terrorism or violence, and say di convention go violate any known law.",Government
"in the light of this preliminary statement, we now take up, insofar as they require specific consideration, the various grounds upon which it is here contended that the syndicalism act and its application in this case is repugnan t to the due process and equal protection clauses ofthe fourteenth amendment.","We now take up, insofar as dem require specific consideration, di various grounds wey dem dey upon which di syndicalism act and its application for dis case dey repugnan to di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system and equal protection clauses of di fourteenth amendment.",Government
"while it is not denied that the evidence warranted the jury in finding that the defendant became a member of and assisted in organizing the communist labor party of california, and that this was organized to advocate, teach, aid or abet criminal syndicalism as defined by the act, it is urged that the act, as here construed and applied, deprived the defendant of her liberty without due process of law in that it has made her action in attending the oakland convention unlawful by reason of""a subsequent event brought about against her will by the agency of others,""with no showing of a specific intent on her part to join in the forbidden purpose ofthe association, and merely because, by reason of a lack of""prophetic"" understanding, she failed to foresee the quality that others would give to the convention.","Di act, as here dey construct and applied, deprive di defendant of her liberty without Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system of law for say dem don make her action for attending di oakland convention unlawful by di act, e dey urge say di act, as here construct and apply, deprive di defendant of her liberty without Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system of law for say dem don make her action for attending di oakland convention unlawful by di act, e no dey deprive di defendant of her liberty without Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system",Government
"the argument is, in effect, that the character ofthe state organization could not be robson the first amendment 24 forecast when she attended the convention; that she had no purpose of helping to create an instrument of terrorism and violence; that she took part in formulating and presenting to the convention a resolution which, if adopted, would have committed the new organization to a legitimate policy of political reform by the use ofthe ballot; that it was not until after the majority ofthe convention turned out to be""contrary -minded, and other less temperate policies prevailed,""that the convention could have taken on the character of criminal syndic alism, and that, as this was done over her protest, her mere presence in the convention, however violent the opinions expressed therein, could not thereby become a crime.","Di argument dey, in effect, say di character of di state organization no go robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 24 forecast wen she attend di convention; say she tok part for formulating and presenting to di convention a resolution wey, if adopted, go dey committe di new organization to legitimate policy of political reform by di use of di ballot; say e no dey until after di majority of di convention turned out to be contrary-",Government
"this contention, while advanced in the form of a constitutional objection to the act, is in effect nothing more than an effort to review the weight ofthe evidence for the purpose of showing that the defendant did not join and assist in organizing the communist labor party of california with a knowledge of its unlawful character and purpose. * * * 2.","Di contention, while advanced for di form of constitutional objection to di act, dey in effect nothing more than effort to review di weight of di evidence for di purpose of show say di defendant no join and assist for organizing di communist labor party of california wit knowledge of its unlawful character and purpose.",Government
it is clear that the syndicalism act is not repugnant to the due process clause by reason of vagueness and uncertainty of definition.,E na clear say di syndicalism act nano repugnant to di rule wey say everything must follow law way by reason of vagueness and uncertainty of definition.,Government
"neither is the syndicalism act repugnant to the equal protection clause on the ground that, as its penalties are confined to those who advocate a resort to violent and unlawful methods as a means of changing industrial and political conditions, it arbitrarily discriminates between such persons and those who may advocate a resort to these methods as a means of maintaining such conditions.","Di syndicalism act repugnant to di equal protection clause on di ground say, as di penalties dey confined to those wey dey advocate resort to violent and unlawful methods as means of maintaining such conditions, e arbitrarily discriminate between such persons and those wey dey advocate resort to these methods as means of maintain such conditions.",Government
"nor is the syndicalism act, as applied in this case, repugnant to the due process clause as a restraint ofthe rights of free speech, assembly, and association.","Nor na di syndicalism act, as applied for dis case, repugnant to di rule wey say everything must follow law way as a restraint of di rights of free talk, gathering, and association.",Government
"by enacting the provisions ofthe syndicalism act, the state has declared, through its legislative body, that to knowingly be or become a member of or assist in organizing an association to advocate, teach or aid and abet the commission of crimes or unlawful acts of force, violence or terrorism as a means of accomplishing industrial or political changes involves such danger to the public peace and the security ofthe state, that these acts should be penalized in the exercise of its police power.","Di state don declare, through its legislative body, say to knowingly be or become member of or assist for organizing association to advocate, teach or aid and abet di commission of crimes or unlawful acts of force, violence or terrorism as means of accomplishing industrial or political change dey involves such danger to di public c peace and di security of di state, say dem dey penaled for di exercise of its police power.",Government
that determination must be given great weight.,Di determination must give great weight.,Government
"every presumption is to be indulged in favor ofthe validity ofthe statute, and it may not be declared unconstitutional unless it is an arbitrary or unreasonable attempt to exercise the authority vested in the state in the public interest.","Di presumption dey to be indulged for favor of di validity of di statute, and e no dey clared unconstitutional unless e dey arbitrary or unreasonable attempt to exercise di authority wey dey vested for di state for di tin wey concern everybody for society, wey be say e important for all of us.",Government
the essence ofthe offense denounced by the act is the combining with others in an association for the accomplishment ofthe desired ends through the advocacy and use of criminal and unlawful methods.,Di essence of di offense dey denounced by di act na di combining wit odas for association for di accomplishment of di desired ends through di advocacy and use of criminal and unlawful methods.,Government
it partakes ofthe nature of a criminal conspiracy.,Di nature of criminal conspiracy dey partakes of di nature of criminal conspiracy.,Government
that such united and joint action involves even greater danger to the public peace and security than the isolated utterances and acts of individuals is clear.,Di united and joint action dey involve even greater danger to di public peace and security than di isolated utterances and acts of individuals dey clear.,Government
"we cannot hold that, as here applied, the act is an unreasonable or arbitrary exercise ofthe police power ofthe state, unwarrantably infringing any right of free speech, assembly or association, or that those persons are protected from punishment by the due process clause who abuse such rights by joining and furthering an organization thus menacing the peace and welfare ofthe state.","As here apply, di act dey unreasonable or arbitrary exercise of di police power of di state, unwarrantable or arbitrary exercise of di police power of di state, unwarrantably infringing any right of free speech, assembly or association, or say those persons dey protected from punishment by di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system clause wey abuse such rights by joining and furthering an organization thus dey menacing di peace and welfare of di state.",Government
robson the first amendment 25 we find no repugnancy in the syndicalism act as applied in this case to either the due processor equal protection clauses ofthe fourteenth amendment on any ofthe grounds upon which its validity has been here challenged.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 25 we find no repugnancy for di syndicalism act as applied for dis case to either di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system or equal protection clauses of di fourteenth amendment on any of di grounds wey dem dey challenge.,Government
"justice brandeis, concurring [mr.","Justice brandeis, concurring [mr.",Government
justice holmes joins in this opinion].,Di justice holmes join di opinion,Government
"miss whitney was convicted ofthe felony of assisting in organizing, in the year 1919, the communist labor party of california, of being a member of it, and of assembling with it.","Na miss whitney dey convicted of di felony of assistin in organizing, for di year 1919, di communist labor party of california, of being member of am, and of assembling wit am.",Government
these acts are held to constitute a crime because the party was formed to teach criminal syn dicalism.,Di act dey hold to constitute crime bikos di party dey form to teach criminal syndicalism.,Government
the statute which made these acts a crime restricted the right of free speech and of assembly theretofore existing.,Di statute wey make dis act crime restrict di right of free speech and of assembly theretofore exist.,Government
"the claim is that the statute, as applied, denied to miss whitney the liberty guaranteed by the fourteenth amendment.","Di claim na say di statute, as applied, denied to miss whitney di liberty wey di fourteenth amendment.",Government
the felony which the statute created is a crime very unlike the old felony of conspiracy or the old misdemeanor of unlawful assembly.,Di felony wey di statute create na crime very unlike di old felony of conspiracy or di old misdemeanor of unlawful assembly.,Government
"the mere act of assisting informing a society for teaching syndicalism, of becoming a member of it, or of assembling with others for that purpose, is given the dynamic quality of crime.","Di mere act of assistin informing society for teaching syndicalism, of becoming member of am, or of assembling wit odas for dat purpose, dey give di dynamic quality of crime.",Government
there is guilt although the society may not contemplate immediate promulgation ofthe doctrine.,Di society no dey contemplate immediate promulgation of di doctrine.,Government
"thus, the accused is to be punished not for contempt, incitement, or conspiracy, but for a step in preparation, which, if it threatens the public order at all, does so only remotely.","Di accused dey punished no for contempt, incitement, or conspiracy, but for step for preparation, wey, if dem threaten di public order for all, does so only remotely.",Government
"the novelty in the prohibition introduced is that the statute aims not at the practice of criminal syndicalism, nor even directly at the preaching of it, but at association with those who propose to preach it.","Di novelty for di prohibition introduced na say di statute aims no at di practice of criminal syndicalism, nor even directly at di preaching of am, but at association wit those wey propose to preach am.",Government
"despite arguments to the contrary which had seemed tome persuasive, it is settled that the due process clause ofthe fourteenth amendment applies to matters of substantive law aswell as to matters of procedure.",Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system clause of di fourteenth amendment dey appli to matters of substantive law aswell as to matters of procedure.,Government
"thus, all fundamental rights comprised within the term liberty are protected by the federal constitution from invasion by the states.","As, all fundamental rights wey dey within di term liberty dey protected by di federal constitution from invasion by di states.",Government
"the right of free speech, the right to teach, and the right of assembly are, of course, fundamental rights.","Di right of free speech, di right to teach, and di right of assembly na, of course, fundamental rights.",Government
these may not be denied or abridged.,Dem no dey denied or abridged,Government
"but, although the rights of free speech and assembly are fundamental, they are not, in their nature, absolute.","Di rights of free speech and assembly dey fundamental, dem no dey, for dia nature, absolute.",Government
"their exercise is subject to restriction if the particular restriction proposed is required in order to protect the state from destruction or from serious injury, political, economic, or moral.","Di exercise dey subject to restriction if di particular restriction wey dey required for order to protect di state from destruction or from serious injury, political, economic, or moral.",Government
"that the necessity which is essential to a valid restriction does not exist unless speech would produce, or is intended to produce, a clear and imminent danger of some substantive evil which the state constitutionally may seek to prevent has been settled.","Di necessity wey dey essential to valid restriction no exist unless speech go produce, or dey intended to produce, clear and imminent danger of some substantive evil wey di state constitutionally go seek to prevent.",Government
"it is said to be the function ofthe legislature to determine whether, at a particular time and under the particular circumstances, the formation of, or assembly with, a society organized to advocate criminal syndicalism constitutes a clear and present danger of substantive evil, and that, by enacting the law herein question, the legislature of california determined that question in the affirmative.","Di legislature go determine whether, for a particular time and under di particular circumstances, di formation of, or assembly wit, society organized to advocate criminal syndicalism constitute clear and present danger of substantive evil, and say, by enacting di law here for question, di legislature of california determin say, di legislature of california determin say, di legislature of california determin say, di legislature of california determin say question for di affirmative.",Government
"the legislature must obviously decide, in the first instance, whether a danger exists which calls for a particular protective measure.","Di legislature must obviously decide, for di first instance, whether danger exist, wey call for protective measure.",Government
"but where a statute is valid only in case certain conditions exist, the enactment ofthe statute cannot alone establish the facts which are essential to its validity.",Di enactment of di statute no fit alone establish di facts wey dey essential to its validity.,Government
"prohibitory legislation has repeatedly been held invalid, because unnecessary, where the denial of liberty involved was that of engaging in a particular business.",Di denial of liberty wey dey involved na say dey engage for particular business.,Government
"the power ofthe courts to strike down an offending law is no less when the interests involved are not property rights, but the fundamental personal rights of free speech and assembly.","Di power of di courts to strike down offending law dey no less wen di interests involved no dey property rights, but di fundamental personal rights of free speech and assembly.",Government
"this court has not yet fixed the standard by which to determine when a danger shall be deemed clear; how remote the danger maybe and yet be deemed present, and what degree of evil shall be deemed sufficiently substantial to justify resort to abridgement of free speech and assembly as the means of protection.","Di court no dey fixed di standard by which to determine when danger go dey clear; how remote di danger go dey present, and how remote di danger go dey deemed present, and how degree of evil go dey deemed sufficient to justify resort to abridgement of free speech and assembly as di means of protection.",Government
"to reach sound conclusions on these matters, we must bear in mind why a state is, ordinarily, denied the power to prohibit dissemination of social, economic and political doctrine which a vast majority of its citizens believes to be false and fraught with evil consequence.","We must bear in mind why a state dey, ordinarily, denied di power to prohibit dissemination of social, economic and political doctrine wey a di most part of its citizens believe to be false and fraught wit evil consequence.",Government
"those who won our independence believed that the final end ofthe state was to make men free to develop their faculties, and that, in its government, the deliberative forces should prevail over the robson the first amendment 26 arbitrary.","Di final end of di state dey make men free to develop dia faculties, and say, for its goment, di deliberative forces go prevail over di robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 26 arbitrary.",Government
"they valued liberty both as an end, and as a means.","Dem value liberty both as end, and as means.",Government
"they believed liberty to be the secret of happiness, and courage to be the secret of liberty.","Dem believe liberty to be di secret of happiness, and courage to be di secret of liberty.",Government
"they believed that freedom to think as you will and to speak as you think are means indispensable to the discovery and spread of political truth; that, without free speech and assembly, discussion would be futile; that, with them, discussion affords ordinarily adequate protection against the dissemination of noxious doctrine; that the greatest menace to freedom is an inert people; that public discussion is a political duty, and that this should be a fundamental principle ofthe american government.","Di greatest menace to freedom na inert pipo; say public discussion don afford ordinarily adequate protection against di dismination of noxious doctrine; say di greatest menace to freedom na inert pipo; say, wit free speech and assembly, discussion go fit be fundamental principle of di american government; say, without free speech and assembly, discussion go fit be fundamental principle of di american government; say di greatest menace to freedom dey necessary to di discovery and spread of political",Government
they recognized the risks to which all human institutions are subject.,Di risk wey all human institutions dey subject.,Government
"but they knew that order cannot be secured merely through fear of punishment for its infraction; that it is hazardous to discourage thought, hope and imagination; that fear breeds repression; that repression breeds hate; that hate menaces stable government; that the path of safety lies in the opportunity to discuss freely supposed grievances and proposed remedies, and that the fitting remedy for evil counsels is good ones.","Dem know say order no fit secure merely through fear of punishment for im infraction; say fear breeds hate, hope and imagination; say fear breeds repression breed hate; say fear breeds hate; say fear breeds hate stable government; say di path of safety lies for di opportunity to discuss freely supposed grievances and proposed remedies, and say di fitting remedy for evil counsels dey good ones.",Government
"believing in th e power of reason as applied through public discussion, they eschewed silence coerced by law-- the argument of force in its worst form.","Di argument of force wey dey apply through public discussion, dem dey echewed silence coerced by law-- di argument of force for its worst form",Government
"recognizing the occasional tyrannies of governing majorities, they amended the constitution so that free speech and assembly should be guaranteed.",Di constitution don amend di constitution so say free speech and assembly go guarantee.,Government
fear of serious injury cannot alone justify suppression of free speech and assembly.,Di fear of serious injury no fit justify suppression of free speech and assembly.,Government
men feared witches and burnt women.,Dem fear witches and burn women,Government
it is the function of speech to free men from the bondage of irrational fears.,E na di function of talk to free men from di bondage of irrational fears.,Government
"to justify suppression of free speech, there must be reasonable ground to fear that serious evil will result if free speech is practiced.",Na reasonable ground to fear say serious evil go result if free speech dey practice.,Government
there must be reasonable ground to believe that the danger apprehended is imminent.,E must be reasonable ground to believe say di danger wey dey pprehended na imminent,Government
there must be reasonable ground to believe that the evil to be prevented is a serious one.,Di evil to be prevented na serious one.,Government
every denunciation of existing law tends in some measure to increase the probability that there will be violation of it.,Di every denunciation of existing law don dey in some measure to increase di probability say there go be violation of am,Government
condonation of a breach enhances the probability.,Di probability dey enhance di probability.,Government
expressions of approval add to the probability.,Di probability dey add to di probability.,Government
propagation ofthe criminal state of mind by teaching syndicalism increases it.,Di criminal state of mind by teaching syndicalism increase am,Government
advocacy of law-breaking heightens it still further.,Di advocacy of law-breaking heightens dey still further,Government
"but even advocacy of violation, however reprehensible morally, is not a justification for denying free speech where the advocacy falls short of incitement and there is nothing to indicate that the advocacy would be immediately acted on.","Di advocacy dey violation, however reprehensible morally, no dey justification for denying free speech wey di advocacy dey short of incitement and nothing to indicate say di advocacy go dey immediately acting on.",Government
"the wide difference between advocacy and incitement, between preparation and attempt, between assembling and conspiracy, must be borne in mind.","Di wide di difference between advocacy and incitement, between preparation and attempt, between assembling and conspiracy, must be borne for mind.",Government
"in order to support a finding of clear and present danger, it must be shown either that immediate serious violence was to be expected or was advocated, or that the past conduct furnished reason to believe that such advocacy was then contemplated.","For order to support a finding of clear and present danger, e must show either say immediate serious violence wey dey expected or dey advocate, or say di past conduct dey furnished reason to believe say such advocacy dey suppose believe say such advocacy dey suppose believe say such advocacy dey suppose believe say such advocacy dey suppose reach, or say di past conduct dey furnished reason to believe say such advocacy dey suppose believe say",Government
those who won our independence by revolution were not cowards.,Di awa independence by revolution no cowards.,Government
they did not fear political change.,Dem no fear political change.,Government
they did not exalt order at the cost of liberty.,Dem no exalt order for di cost of liberty,Government
"to courageous, self -reliant men, with confidence in the power of free and fearless reasoning applied through the processes of popular government, no danger flowing from speech can be deemed clear and present unless the incidence ofthe evil apprehended is so imminent that it may befall before there is opportunity for full discussion.","For courageous, self -reliant men, wit confidence for di power of free and fearless reasoning wey dey applied through di process of popular goment, no danger flow from speech go dey clear and present unless di incidence of di evil wey dey suppose dey present unless di incidence of di evil wey dey suppose dey present unless di incidence of di evil wey dey suppose dey present unless di incidence of di evil wey dey",Government
"if there be time to expose through discussion the falsehood and fallacies, to avert the evil by the processes of education, the remedy to be applied is more speech, not enforced silence.","Di remedy to be applied na more speech, no enforce silence.",Government
only an emergency can justify repression.,Di emergency don justify repression,Government
such must be the rule if authority is to be reconciled with freedom.,Di rule if authority dey reconcile wit freedom,Government
"such, in my opinion, is the command ofthe constitution.","I opinion, na di command of di constitution.",Government
it is therefore always open to americans to challenge a law abridging free speech and assembly by showing that there was no emergency justifying it.,E dey always open to Americans to challenge law abridging free speech and assembly by show say no emergency justify am,Government
"moreover, even imminent danger cannot justify resort to prohibition of these functions essential to effective democracy unless the evil apprehended is relatively serious.",Di danger no justify resort to prohibition of dis functions wey dey essential to effective democracy unless di evil dey suspect.,Government
prohibition of free speech and assembly is a measure so stringent that it would be inappropriate as the means for averting a relatively trivial harm to society.,Di prohibition of free speech and assembly dey measure so stringent say e go dey inappropriate as di means for averting relatively trivial harm to society.,Government
"a police measure maybe unconstitutional merely because the remedy, although effective as means of protection, is unduly harsh or oppressive.","Di remedy, although effective as means of protection, dey unduly harsh or oppressive",Government
"thus, a state might, in the exercise of its police power, make any trespass upon the land of another a crime, regardless ofthe results or ofthe intent or purpose ofthe trespasser.","Di state might, for di exercise of its police power, make any trespass upon di land of one crime, regardless of di results or of di intent or purpose of di trespasser.",Government
"it might, also, punish an attempt, a conspiracy, or an incitement to commit the trespass.","Di suppose, also, punish an attempt, conspiracy, or incitement to commit di trespass.",Government
"but it is hardly conceivable that this court would hold constitutional a statute which punished as a felony the mere voluntary assembly with a society formed to teach that pedestrians had the moral right to cross unenclosed, unposted, wastelands and to advocate their doing so, even if there was imminent danger that advocacy would robson the first amendment 27 lead to a trespass.","Di court go hold constitution a statute wey dey punished as felony di mere voluntary assembly wit society formed to teach say pedestrians get moral right to cross unenclosed, unposted, wastelands and to advocate dia do so, even if e dey imminent danger say advocacy go robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 27 lead to a trespass.",Government
the fact that speech is likely to result in some violence or in destruction of property is not enough to justify its suppression.,Di fact say speech dey likely to result for some violence or for destruction of property no enough to justify its suppression.,Government
there must be the probability of serious injury to the state.,Di probability of injury to di state must be di probability of serious injury to di state,Government
"among free men, the deterrents ordinarily to be applied to prevent crime are education and punishment for violations ofthe law, not abridgment ofthe rights of free speech and assembly.","Di deterrents wey dey ordinarily apply to prevent crime na education and punishment for violations of di law, no dey abridgment of di rights of free speech and assembly.",Government
"the legislative declaration, like the fact that the statute was passed and was sustained by the highest court ofthe state, creates merely a rebuttable presumption that these conditions have been satisfied.","Di legislative declaration, like di fact say di statute pass and dey sustained by di highest court of di state, create merely rebuttable presumption say dis conditions don satisfied.",Government
"whether in 1919, when miss whitney did the things complained of, there was in california such clear and present danger of serious evil might have been made the important issue in the case.","For 1919, wen miss whitney don complain of, e dey for california such clear and present danger of serious evil go make di important issue for di case.",Government
she might have required that the issue be determined either by the court or the jury.,She go require say di issue be determined either by di court or di jury.,Government
"she claimed below that the statute, as applied to her, violated the federal constitution; but she did not claim that it was void because there was no clear and present danger of serious evil, nor did she request that the existence of these conditions of a valid measure thus restricting the rights of free speech and assembly be passed upon by the court or a jury.","She no claim say di statute, as apply to her, violated di federal constitution; but she no claim say di existence of dis condition of valid measure wey dey restrict di rights of free speech and assembly be pass upon by di court or jury.",Government
"on the other hand, there was evidence on which the court or jury might have found that such danger existed.",Di court or jury go find say such danger exist.,Government
"in th e present case, however, there was other testimony which tended to establish the existence of a conspiracy, on the part of members ofthe international workers ofthe world, to commit present serious crimes, and likewise to show that such a conspiracy would be furthered by the activity ofthe society of which miss whitney was a member.","Di testimony wey dey suppose establish di existence of conspiracy, on di part of members of di international workers of di world, to commit present serious crimes, and likewise to show say such conspiracy would be further by di activity of di society of which miss whitney dey member.",Government
"under these circumstances, the judgment ofthe state court cannot be disturbed.",Di judgment of di state court no be disturbed.,Government
"as the court makes clear in gitlow in 1925, the first amendment is incorporated against the states through the liberty provision ofthe due process clause ofthe fourteenth amendment.",First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) dey incorporated against di state through di liberty provision of di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system clause of di fourteenth amendment.,Government
note in later cases how the question of incorporation resurfaces.,Di question of incorporation resurface,Government
note also the relationship between due process arguments and first amendment arguments.,Note also di how two things dey related Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system arguments and first amendment arguments.,Government
"the court decided debs v. united states, 249 u. s. 211(1919), the same year as sch enck, on which it largely relied.","Di court decide debs v. united states,249 u. s. 211(1919), di same year as sch enck, wey dey largely relied.",Government
"in this brief opinion, the court upheld eugene debs' conviction for an antiwar speech criticizing united states involvement in world war i and upheld the espionage act of 1917.","For dis brief wetin dem talk, di kot upheld eugene debs' conviction for an antiwar talk criticizing united states involvement for world war i and upheld di espionage act of 1917.",Government
debs was a prominent labor organizer and candidate ofthe socialist party of america for the us presidency.,Na prominent labor organizer and candidate of di socialist party of America for di us presidency.,Government
"indeed, debs was a candidate in the 1920 presidential election while he was in prison fo r this conviction; he earned more than 3%of the vote.","Di indeed, debs be candidate for di 1920 presidential election while hin dey for prison fo r dis conviction; hin earned more than 3%of di vote.",Government
"president woodrow wilson denounced debs as a""traitor"" and refused to grant clemency, but in 1921, president horace harding commuted debs' sentence to timeserved and soon after the two met personally.","Di president woodrow wilson dey denounced debs as""traitor"" and refused to grant clemency, but for 1921, president horace harding commut debs' sentence to timeserved and soon after di two met personally.",Government
debs died in 1926.,Di debs dey die for 1926.,Government
"like eugene debs, anita whitney was also wellknown.","As eugene debs, anita whitney dey wellknown",Government
how does the social or political status ofthe speaker influence the court?,Di social or political status of di speaker influence di court?,Government
"what is the relevance ofthe characterization ofthe defendants as ""poor and puny anonymities "" in holmes' dissent in abrams?",Di relevance of di characterization of di defendants as poor andpuny anonymities for holmes' dissent for abrams?,Government
"the oftcalled ""war hypothesis""of first amendment speech doctrine is derived from these cases.","Di oft call""war hypothesis""of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) speech doctrine dey derived from dis case.",Government
"is there language in the cases that would support a""war is different""perspective?","Di language for di case wey go support a""war dey different""perspective?",Government
robson the first amendment 28 b.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 28 b.,Government
labor unrest bridges v. california 314 u. s. 252(1941) justice black delivered the opinion ofthe court.,Di justice black deliver di opinion of di court.,Government
"justice frankfurter filed ad issenting opinion joined by the chief justice[stone ], justice roberts and justice byrnes.","Di chief justice[stone ], justice roberts and justice byrnes",Government
justice black delivered theo pinion ofthe court.,Di justice black deliver di opinion of di court,Government
"these two cases, while growing out of different circumstances and concerning different parties, both relate to the scope of our national constitutional policy safeguarding free speech and a free press.","These two cases, while growing out of different circumstances and concerning different parties, both relate to di scope of our national constitutional policy safeguarding free talk and a free news pipo.",Government
all ofthe petitioners were adjudged guilty and fined for contempt of court by the superior court of los angeles county.,Di petitioners don adjudged guilty and fine for contempt of court by di superior court of los angeles county.,Government
"their conviction rested upon comments pertaining to pending litigation which were published in newspapers. in the superior court, and later in the california supreme court, petitioners challenged the state's action as an abridgment, prohibited by the federal constitution, of freedom of speech and ofthe press; but the superior court overruled this contention, and the supreme court affirmed.","Di superior court, and later for di california supreme court, petitioners challenge di state action as abridgment, prohibited by di federal constitution, of freedom of speech and of di press; but di supreme court affirm di contention, and di supreme court affirm di contention, and di supreme court affirm di contention, and di supreme court affirm.",Government
the importance ofthe constitutional question prompted us to grant certiorari.,Di importance of di constitutional question prompt us to grant certiorari,Government
"the freedom ofthe press and rights of conscience, those choicest privileges ofthe people, are unguarded in the british constitution.""","Di freedom of di press and rights of conscience, those choicest privileges of di pipo, dey unguard for di british constitution.",Government
"and madison elsewhere wrote that""the state ofthe press.",Di state of di press.,Government
"under the common law, cannot.","For di common law, no fit.",Government
"be the standard of its freedom in the united states.""",Di standard of its freedom for di united state,Government
there are no contrary implications in any part ofthe history ofthe period in which the first amendment was framed and adopted.,Nano contrary implications for any part of di history of di period wey First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) don framed and adopted.,Government
"no purpose in ratifying the bill of rights was clearer than that of securing for the people ofthe united states much greater freedom of religion, expression, assembly, and petition than the people of great britain had ever enjoyed.","Di bill of rights dey clearer than say of securing for di pipo of di united state much greater freedom of religion, expression, assembly, and petition wey di pipo of great britain don enjoy.",Government
"it cannot be denied, for example, that the religious test oath or the restrictions upon assembly then prevalent in england would have been regarded as measures which the constitution prohibited the american congress from passing.",Di religious test oath or di restrictions wey di constitution prohibite di american congress from passing.,Government
"and since the same unequivocal language is used with respect to freedom ofthe press, it signifies a similar enlargement of that concept aswell.","Di same unequivocal language dey use wit respect to freedom of di press, na similar enlargement of dat concept aswell.",Government
"ratified as it was while the memory of many oppressive english restrictions on the enumerated liberties w as still fresh, the first amendment cannot reasonably be taken as approving prevalent english practices.","For di memory of many oppressive english restrictions wey dey enumerated liberties w as still fresh, di firstamendment no be reasonably take as approve prevalent english practices.",Government
"on the contrary, the only conclusion supported by history is that the unqualified prohibitions laid down by the framers were intended to give to liberty ofthe press, as to the other liberties, the broadest scope that could be countenanced in an orderly society.","Di only conclusion wey history supported by history na say di unqualified prohibitions wey di framers dey intended to give to liberty of di press, as to di oda liberties, di broadest scope wey dey countenance for orderly society.",Government
the implications of subsequent american history confirm such a construction ofthe first amendment.,Di implications of subsequent american history confirm such a construction of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).,Government
"to be sure, it occurred no more to the people who lived in the decades following ratification than it would to us now that the power of courts to protect themselves from disturbances and disorder in the courtroom by use of contempt proceedings could seriously be challenged as conflicting with constitutionally secured guarantees of liberty.",Di people wey dey live for di decades following ratification than e goto us now say di power of courts to protect themselves from disturbances and disorder for di courtroom by use of contempt proceedings go seriously challenge as conflicting wit constitutionally secured guarantees of liberty.,Government
"in both state and federal courts, this power has been universally recognized.",Di power don universally recognise.,Government
but attempts to expand it in the postratification years evoked popular reactions that bespeak a feeling of jealous solicitude for freedom ofthe press.,Di postratification years dey evoked popular reactions wey bespeak a feeling of jealous solicitude for freedom of di press.,Government
"in pennsylvania and new york, for example, heated controversies arose over alleged abuses in the robson the first amendment 29 exercise ofthe contempt power, which in both places culminated in legislation practically forbidding summary punishment for publications.","for example, heat controversies arose over alleged abuses for di robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 29 exercise of di contempt power, wey for both places culminated for legislation practically forbidding summary punishment for publications.",Government
"if they can be justified at all, it must bein terms of some serious substantive evil which they are designed to avert.",E must be using some serious substantive evil wey dem dey designed to avert.,Government
the substantive evil here sought to be averted has been variously described below.,Di substantive evil wey dey sought to be averted don dey variously described below.,Government
it appears to be double: disrespect for the judiciary; and disorderly and unfair administration of justice.,Disrespect for di judiciary; and disorderly and unfair administration of justice,Government
the assumption that respect for the judiciary can be won by shielding judges from published criticism wrongly appraises the character of american public opinion.,Di assumption say respect for di judiciary go win by shield judges from published criticism wrongly appraises di character of american public opinion.,Government
"for it is a prized american privilege to speak one's mind, although not always with perfect good taste, on all public institutions.","Na a prized american privilege to speak one mind, although no always wit perfect good taste, on all public institutions.",Government
"and an enforced silence, however limited, solely in the name of preserving the dignity ofthe bench, would probably engender resentment, suspicion, and contempt much more than it would enhance respect.","Di name of preserving di dignity of di bench, go probably engender resentment, suspicion, and contempt much more than e go enhance respect.",Government
"the other evil feared, disorderly and unfair administration of justice, is more plausibly associated with restricting publications which touch upon pending litigation.","Di oda evil fear, disorderly and unfair administration of justice, dey more plausibly associated wit restricting publications wey touch upon pending litigation.",Government
"the very word""trial"" connotes decisions on the evidence and arguments properly advanced in open court.","Di very word""trial"" connotes decision on di evidence and argument properly advanced for open court.",Government
"legal trials are not like elections, to be won through the use ofthe meeting-hall, the radio, and the newspaper.","Di legal trial no dey like election, to be won through di use of di meeting-hall, di radio, and di newspaper.",Government
"but we cannot start with the assumption that publications ofthe kind here involved actually do threaten to change the nature of legal trials, and that to preserve judicial impartiality, it is necessary for judges to have a contempt power by which they can close all channels of public expression to all matters which touch upon pending cases.","We no start wit di assumption say publications of di kind here involved don threaten to change di nature of legal trials, and say to preserve judicial impartiality, e dey necessary for judges to close all channels of public expression to all matters wey dem touch upon pending case.",Government
"we must therefore turn to the particular utterances herein question and the circumstances of their publication to determine to what extent the substantive evil of unfair administration of justice was a likely consequence, and whether the degree of likelihood was sufficient to justify summary punishment.",We must turn to di particular utterances here for question and di circumstances of dia publication to dey justify summary punishment.,Government
the los angeles times editorials.,Di los angeles times editorials.,Government
"the times-mirror company, publisher ofthe los angeles times, and l. d.","Di times-mirror company, publish r of di los angeles times, and l. d.",Government
"hotchkiss, its managing editor, were cited for contempt for the publication of three editorials.","Di managing editor, dey cited for contempt for di publication of three editorials.",Government
"both found by the trial court to be responsible for one ofthe editorials, the company and hotchkiss were each fined$100.","Di trial court go be responsible for one of di editorials, di company and hotchkiss dey each fine$100.",Government
"the company alone was held responsible for the other two, and was fined$100 more on account of one, and $300 more on account ofthe other.","Di company alone dey hold responsible for di oda two, and dem fine$100 more on account of one, and $300 more on account of di oda",Government
the$300 fine presumably marks the most serious offense.,Di$300 fine presumably marks di most serious offense.,Government
"the editorial thus distinguished was entitled""probation f or gorillas?""","Di editorial wey dey distinguished na""probation f or gorillas?""",Government
"after vigorously denouncing two members of a labor union who had previously been found guilty of assaulting nonunion truck drivers, it closes with the observation:""judge a. a. scott will make a serious mistake if he grants probation to matthew shannon and kennan holmes.","Dem close wit di observation:""judge a. a. scott go make serious mistake if dem grants probation to matthew shannon and kennan holmes.",Government
"this community needs the example of their assignment to the jute mill.""",Di community need di example of dia assignment to di jute mill,Government
judge scott had previously set a day(about a month after the publication)for passing upon the application of shannon and holmes for probation and for pro nouncing sentence.,Di judge scott don previously set day(about a month afta di publication)for pass upon di application of shannon and holmes for probation and for pro nouncing sentence.,Government
"the basis for punishing the publication as contempt was by the trial court said to be its""inherent tendency""and by the[california] supreme court its""reasonable tendency""to interfere with the orderly administration of justice in an action then before a court for consideration.",Di basis for punishing di publication as contempt wey di trial court tok say be di reasonable tendency to interfere wit di orderly administration of justice for action then before court for consideration.,Government
"in accordance with what we have said on the""clear and present danger""cases, neither""inherent tendency""nor ""reasonable tendency""is enough to justify a restriction of free expression.","We don tok on di""clear and present danger""case, neither""inherent tendency""nor ""reasonable tendency""dey enough to justify restriction of free expression",Government
"but even if they were appropriate measures, we should find exaggeration in the use of those phrases to describe the facts here.",We go find exaggeration for di use of those phrases to describe di facts here.,Government
while a motion for anew trial was pending in a case involving a dispute between ana. f.,Di motion for new trial dey pending for case involving dispute between ana. f.,Government
of l. union and a c. i. o.,Di union and c. i. o.,Government
"union of which bridges was an officer, he either caused to be published or acquiesced in the publication of a telegram which he had sent to the secretary of labor.","Di union of which bridges dey officer, hin either caused to be published or acquiesced for di publication of telegram wey he send to di secretary of labor.",Government
"the telegram referred to the judge's decision as""outrageous""; said that attempted enforcement of it would tie up the port of los angeles and involve the entire pacific coast; and concluded with the announcement that the c. i. o.",Di telegram tok say di c. i. o.,Government
"union, representing some twelve thousand members, did ""not intend to allow state courts to override the majority vote of members in choosing its officers and representatives and to override the national labor relations board.""",Dem no intend to allow state courts to override di majority vote of members for choosing dia officers and representatives and to override di national labor relations board,Government
"apparently bridges' conviction is not rested at all upon his use ofthe word""outrageous.""","Di apparently bridges' conviction no rest for all upon hin use of di word""outrageous""",Government
the remainder ofthe telegram fairly construed appears to be a statement that if the court's decree should robson the first amendment 30 be enforced there would be a strike.,Di remainder of di telegram fairly constructed appear to be statement say if di court's decree go robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 30 be enforce,Government
"it is not claimed that such a strike would have been in violation ofthe terms ofthe decree, nor that in any other way it would have run afoul ofthe law of california.","E no claim say such strike go be for violation of di terms of di decree, nor say for any oda way e go run foul of di law of california.",Government
"on no construction, therefore, can the telegram be taken as a threat either by bridges or the union to follow an illegal course of action.",Di telegram be threat either by bridges or di union to follow illegal course of action.,Government
"moreover, this statement of bridges was made to the secretary of labor, who is charged with official duties in connection with the prevention of strikes.","Di statement of bridges dey made to di secretary of labor, wey dey charge wit official duties for connection wit di prevention of strikes.",Government
whatever the cause might be if a strike was threatened or possible the secretary was entitled to receive all available information.,Di cause might be if strike dey threatened or possible di secretary dey entitled to receive all available information,Government
"indeed, the supreme court of california recognized that, publication in the newspapers aside, in sending the message to the secretary, bridges was exercising the right of petition to a duly accredited representative ofthe united states government, a right protected by the first amendment.","Di supreme court of california don recogniz say, publication for di newspapers aside, for sending di message to di secretary, bridges dey exercis di right of petition to a duly accredited representative of di united states goment, a right protected by di firstamendment.",Government
it must be recognized that bridges was a prominent labor leader speaking at a time when public interest in the particular labor controversy was at its height.,"E must recognize say bridges dey prominent labor lead wey dey speaking for time wen tin wey concern everybody for society, wey be say e important for all of us for di particular labor controversy dey at its height.",Government
"the observations we have previously made here upon the timeliness and importance of utterances as emphasizing rather than diminishing the value of constitutional protection, and upon the breadth and seriousness ofthe censorial effects of punishing publications in the manner followed below, are certainly no less applicable to a leading spokesman for labor than to a powerful newspaper taking another point of view. * * *again, we find exaggeration in the conclusion that the utterance even""tended"" to interfere with justice.","We find exaggeration for di conclusion say di utterance even dey emphasizing no be di value of constitutional protection, and upon di breadth and seriousness of di censorial effects of punishing publications for di manner wey dey follow below, dey no less applicable to leading spokesman for labor than to a powerful newspaper take another point of view.",Government
"if there was electricity in the atmosphere, it was generated by the facts; the charge added by the bridges telegram can be dismissed as negligible.",Di charge wey dey add by di bridges telegram don dey dismiss as negligible.,Government
"the words of mr. justice holmes, spoken in reference to very different facts, seem entirely applicable here:""i confess that i cannot find in all this or in the evidence in the case anything that would have affected a mind of reasonable fortitude, a nd still less can i find there anything that obstructed the administration of justice in any sense that i possibly can give to those words.""","I confess say i no find for all dis or for di evidence for di case anything wey dey affect a mind of reasonable fortitude, a nd still less fit find anything wey dey affect di administration of justice for any sense wey i fit give to dis words",Government
"justice frankfurter, with whom concurred the chief justice, mr.","Di chief justice frankfurter, wit wey dey concurr di chief justice, mr.",Government
justice roberts and mr.,Di justice roberts and mr,Government
"justice byrnes, dissenting.","Justice byrnes, dissenting.",Government
our whole history repels the view that it is an exercise of one ofthe civil liberties secured by the bill of rights for a leader of a large following or for a powerful metropolitan newspaper to attempt to overawe a judge in a matter immediately pending before him.,Di whole history repels di view say e dey exercise of one of di basic freedoms and rights wey law protect every person from government interference wey dey secure by di bill of rights for a leader of large following or for powerful metropolitan newspaper to attempt to overawe a judge for matter immediately pending before him.,Government
"the view ofthe majority deprives california of means for securing to its citizens justice according to law means which, since the union was founded, have been the possession, hitherto unchallenged, of all the states.","Di view of di majority deprive california of means for securing to its citizens justice according to law means wey, since di union don found, don be di possession, hitherto unchallenged, of all di state.",Government
this sudden break with the uninterrupted course of constitutional history has no constitutional warrant.,Di udden break wit di uninterrupted course of constitutional history don no constitutional warrant.,Government
to find justification for such deprivation ofthe historic powers ofthe states is to misconceive the idea of freedom of thought and speech as guaranteed by the constitution.,Di constitution go find justification for such deprivation of di historic powers of di states dey to misconceive di idea of freedom of thought and speech as guaranteed by di constitution.,Government
justice minton joined.,Di justice wey dey joined,Government
justice frankfurter and justice jackson filed concurring opinions.,Justice frankfurter and justice jackson filed concurring opinions.,Government
justice black and douglas filed dissenting opinions.,Justice black and douglas filed dissenting opinions.,Government
justice clark took no part in the consideration or decision of this case.,Di justice clark tok no part for di consideration or decision of dis case,Government
chief justice vinson announced the judgment ofthe court.,Di chief justice vinson don announce di judgment of di court,Government
"petitioners were indicted in july,1948, for violation ofthe conspiracy provisions ofthe smith act,54 stat.","For july,1948, for violation of di conspiracy provisions of di smith act,54 stat.",Government
"the pretrial motion to quash the indictment on the grounds, inter alia, that the statute was unconstitutional was denied.","Di pretrial motion to quash di indictment on di grounds, inter alia, say di statute no dey unconstitutional.",Government
a verdict of guilty as to all the petitioners was returned by the jury.,Di jury don return a verdict of guilty as to all di petitioners don return di jury.,Government
the court of appeals affirmed the convictions.,Di court of appeal affirm di convictions.,Government
"we granted certiorari, limited to the following two questions:(1) whether either 2 or 3 ofthe smith act, inherently or as construed and applied in the instant case, violates the first amendment and other provisions ofthe bill of rights;(2) whether either 2 or 3 ofthe act, inherently or as construed and applied in the instant case, violates the first and fifth amendments because of indefiniteness.","We grant certiorari, limited to di following two questions:(1) whether either 2 or 3 of di act, inherently or as construct and applied for di instant case, violate di first and fifth amendment and oda provisions of di bill of rights;(3) whether either 2 or 3 of di act, inherently or as construct and applied for di instant case, violate di first and fifth amendment and oda provisions of di bill of rights;(3) whether either 2 or 3 of di act, inherently or as",Government
"it shall be unlawful for any person to attempt to commit, or to conspire to commit, any ofthe acts prohibited by the provisions of this title.""","Di title shall be unlawful for any person to attempt to commit, or to conspire to commit, any of di acts prohibited by di provision of dis title",Government
"the indictment charged the petitioners with wilfully and knowingly conspiring(1) to organize as the communist party ofthe united states of america a society, group and assembly of persons who teach and advocate the overthrow and destruction ofthe government ofthe united states by force and violence, and (2)knowingly and wilfully toad vocate and teach the duty and necessity of overthrowing and destroying the government ofthe united states by force and violence.","Di indictment charge di petitioners wit wilfully and knowingly conspirin to organize as di communist party of di united state of America society, group and assembly of persons wey teach and advocate di overthrow and destruction of di government of di united state by force and violence, and (2)knowingly and knowingly toad vocate and teach di duty and necessity of overthrowing and destruction of di government of di united state by force and violence, and (2)knowingly and knowingly toad vocate and teach di duty",Government
the indictment further alleged that 2 ofthe smith act proscribes these acts and that any conspiracy to take such action is a violation of 3 ofthe act.,Di indictment further allege say 2 of di smith act proscribe dis act and say any conspiracy to take such action na violation of 3 of di act.,Government
"robson the first amendment 32 the trial ofthe case extended over nine months, six of which were devoted to the taking of evidence, resulting in a record of 16, 000 pages.","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 32 di trial of di case extended over nine months, six of which dey devoted to di take of evidence, resulting for record of 16, 000 pages",Government
our limited grant ofthe writ of certiorari has removed from our consideration any question as to the sufficiency ofthe evidence to support the jury's determination that petitioners are guilty ofthe offense charged.,Di limited grant of di writ of certiorari don remove from awa consideration any question as to di sufficiency of di evidence to support di jury's determination say petitioners dey guilty of di offense charged.,Government
it will be helpful in clarifying the issues to treat next the contention that the trial judge improperly interpreted the statute by charging that the statute required an unlawful intent before the jury could convict.,E goto help for clarifying di issues wey di trial judge improperly interpret di statute by charging say di statute require unlawful intent before di jury go convict.,Government
"the existence of a mens rea is the rule of, rather than the exception to, the principles of angloamerican criminal jurisprudence.","Di existence of mens rea na di rule of, no be di exception to, di principles of angloamerican criminal jurisprudence.",Government
"the obvious purpose ofthe statute is to protect existing government, not from change by peaceable, lawful and constitutional means, but from change by violence, revolution and terrorism.","Di obvious purpose of di statute dey protect existing goment, no from change by peaceable, lawful and constitutional means, but from change by violence, revolution and terrorism.",Government
that it is within the power ofthe congress to protect the government ofthe united states from armed rebellion is a proposition which requires little discussion.,E dey within di power of di congress to protect di goment of di united states from armed rebellion na proposition wey require little discussion.,Government
"whatever theoretical merit there maybe to the argument that there is a""right"" to rebellion against dictatorial governments is without force where the existing structure ofthe government provides for peaceful and orderly change.",Di argument say di right to rebellion against dictatorial governments dey without force wey di existing structure of di goverment provide for peaceful and orderly change.,Government
"we reject any principle of governmental helplessness in the face of preparation for revolution, which principle, carried to its logical conclusion, must lead to anarchy.","We reject any principle of governmental helplessness for di face of preparation for revolution, which principle, carried to im logical conclusion, must lead to anarchy.",Government
noone could conceive that it is not within the power of congress to prohibit acts intended to overthrow the government by force and violence.,Di power of congress to prohibit acts wey dey suppose to overthrow di government by force and violence.,Government
"the question with which we are concerned here is not whether congress has such power, but whether the means which it has employed conflict with the first and fifth amendments to the constitution.","Di question wey we dey concerned here dey no whether congress don employ such power, but whether di means wey dem employ conflict wit di first and fifth amendments to di constitution.",Government
"one ofthe bases for the contention that the means which congress has employed are invalid takes the form of an attack on the face ofthe statute on the grounds that by its terms it prohibits academic discussion ofthe merits of marxismleninism, that it stifles ideas and is contrary to all concepts of a free speech and a free press.",Na one of di bases for di contention say di means wey congress don employ na invalid take di form of attack on di face of di statute on di grounds say di means wey congress don employ na invalid take di form of attack on di face of di statute on di grounds say di means wey congress don employ na invalid take di form of attack on di face of di statute on di grounds say di means wey congress don employ na invalid take di form of attack on di face of di statute on di grounds say di means we,Government
"although we do not agree that the language itself has that significance, we must bear in mind that it is the duty ofthe federal courts to interpret federal legislation in a manner not inconsistent with the demands ofthe constitution.",Di duty of di federal courts to interpret federal legislation for a manner no inconsistent wit di demand of di constitution.,Government
"it is directed at advocacy, not discussion.","E dey direct for advocacy, no discussion.",Government
"thus, the trial judge properly charged the jury that they could not convict if they found that petitioners did""no more than pursue peaceful studies and discussions or teaching and advocacy in the realm of ideas.""",Di trial judge don charge di jury say dem no fit convict if dem find say petitioners no dey pursue peaceful studies and discussion or teaching and advocacy for di realm of ideas,Government
"he further charged that it was not unlawful""to conduct in an american college or university a course explaining the philosophical theories set forth in the books which have been placed in evidence.""","Di further charge say e no dey unlawful""to conduct for American college or university course wey dey explain di philosophical diories wey dey set forth for di books wey dey place for evidence",Government
"such a charge is in robson the first amendment 33 strict accord with the statutory language, and illustrates the meaning to be placed on those words.","Di charge dey for robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 33 strict accord wit di statutory language, and dey illustrate di meaning wey dey place on those words",Government
"congress did not intend to eradicate the free discussion of political theories, to destroy the traditional rights of americans to discuss and evaluate ideas without fear of governmental sanction.","Congress(di big law-makers)did no intend to eradicate di free discussion of political theories, to destroy di traditional rights of americans to discuss and evaluate ideas without fear of governmental sanction.",Government
rather congress was concerned with the very kind of activity in which the evidence showed these petitioners engaged.,Di congress dey concerned wit di kind of activity wey di evidence show dis petitioners engage.,Government
"but although the statute is not directed at the hypothetical cases which petitioners have conjured, its application in this case has resulted in convictions for the teaching and advocacy ofthe overthrow ofthe government by force and violence, which, even though coupled with the intent to accomplish that overthrow, contains an element of speech.","Di statute no direct for di hypothetical case wey petitioners don conjured, di application for dis case don result in convictions for di teaching and advocacy of di overthrow of di goment by force and violence, wey, even though couple wit di intent to accomplish say overthrow, contains element of speech.",Government
"for this reason, we must pay special heed to the demands ofthe first amendment marking out the boundaries of speech.",We must pay special heed to di demand of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) marking out di boundaries of speech.,Government
it is for this reason that this court has recognized the inherent value of free discourse.,Di court don recognise di inherent value of free discourse.,Government
"an analysis ofthe leading cases in this court which have involved direct limitations on speech, however, will demonstrate that both the majority ofthe court and the dissenters in particular cases have recognized that this is not an unlimited, unqualified right, but that the societal value of speech must, on occasion, be subordinated to other values and considerations.","Di majority of di court and di dissenters for particular case don recognize say dis no be unlimited, unqualified right, but say di societal value of speech must, on occasion, be subordinated to oda values and considerations.",Government
no important case involving free speech was decided by this court prior to schenck v. united states(1919).,Di court prior to schenck v. united states(1919).,Government
"indeed, the summary treatment accorded an argument based upon an individual's claim that the first amendment protected certain utterances indicates that the court at earlier dates placed no unique emphasis upon that right.",Di summary treatment accord argument based upon individual's claim say First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) protected certain utterances indicate say di court for earlier dates place no unique emphasis upon dat right.,Government
it was not until the classic dictum of justice holmes in the schenck case that speech per se received that emphasis in a majority opinion.,Di classic dictum of justice holmes for di schenck case wey speech per se receive say emphasis for majority opinion.,Government
"that case involved a conviction under the criminal espionage act,40 stat.","Say case involved a conviction under di criminal espionage act,40 stat.",Government
the question the court faced was whether the evidence was sufficient to sustain the conviction.,Di question di court face na whether di evidence dey sufficient to sustain di conviction.,Government
"writing for a unanimous court, justice holmes stated that the""question in every case is whether the words used are used in such circumstances and are of such a nature as to create a clear and present danger that they will bring about the substantive evils that congress has a right to prevent.""",Di question for every case dey whether di words wey dey use for such circumstances and dey of such a nature as to create clear and present danger wey dem go bring about di substantive evils wey congress get right to prevent.,Government
but these dissents did not mark a change of principle.,Dem no mark change of principle but dem no mark change of principle but dem no mark change of principle,Government
the dissenters doubted only the probable effectiveness ofthe puny efforts toward subversion.,Di dissenters doubted only di probable effectiveness of di puny efforts toward subversion.,Government
"in abrams, they wrote,""i do not doubt for a moment that by the same reasoning that would justify punishing persuasion to murder, the united states constitutionally may punish speech that produces or is intended to produce a clear and imminent danger that it will bring about forthwith certain substantive evils that the united states constitutionally may seek to prevent.""","I without question for moment say by di same reasoning wey dey justify punishing persuasion to murder, di united state constitutionally go punish speech wey produce or dey intended to produce clear and imminent danger wey di united state constitutionally go seek to prevent.",Government
"the dissents, we repeat, in emphasizing the value of speech, were addressed to the argument ofthe sufficiency ofthe evidence.","We repeat, for emphasizing di value of speech, we dey address to di argument of di sufficiency of di evidence.",Government
the next important case before the court in which free speech was the crux ofthe conflict was gitlow v. new york(1925).,Di next important case before di court wey free speech na di crux of di conflict na gitlow v. new york(1925).,Government
"the majority refused to apply the""clear and present danger""test to the specific utterance.","Di majority refused to apply di""clear and present danger""test to di specific utterance.",Government
"its reasoning was as follows: the""clear and present danger""test was applied to the utter ance itself in schenck because the question was merely one of sufficiency of evidence under an admittedly constitutional statute.","Di""clear and present danger""test dey applied to di utter ance wey dey schenck because di question dey merely one of sufficiency of evidence under admittedly constitutional statute.",Government
"gitlow, however, presented a different question.",Di question wey dey presented a different question,Government
"there a legislature had found that a certain kind of speech was, itself, harmful and unlawful.",Di legislature don find say certain kind of speech dey harmful and unlawful,Government
"the constitutionality of such a state statute had to be adjudged by this court just as it determined the constitutionality of any state statute, namely, whether the statute was""reasonable.""","Dem determin di constitutionality of such state statute, namely, whether di statute dey reasonable",Government
"since it was entirely reasonable for a state to attempt to protect itself from violent overthrow, the statute was perforce reasonable.","Di statute dey reasonable for state to attempt to protect imself from violent overthrow, di statute dey perforce reasonable.",Government
"the only robson the first amendment 34 question remaining in the case became whether there was evidence to support the conviction, a question which gave the majority no difficulty.","Di only robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 34 question wey dey remain for di case be whether evidence to support di conviction, a question wey give di majority no difficulty.",Government
"justices holmes a nd brandeis refused to accept this approach, but insisted that wherever speech was the evidence ofthe violation, it was necessary to show that the speech created the""clear and present danger""of the substantive evil which the legislature had the right to prevent.","Di justices holmes a nd brandeis refused to accept dis approach, but insist say wherever speech dey di evidence of di violation, e dey necessary to show say di speech create di""clear and present danger""of di substantive evil wey di legislature get di right to prevent.",Government
"justices holmes and brandeis, then, made no distinction between a federal statute which made certain acts unlawful, the evidence to support the conviction being speech, and a statute which made speech itself the crime.","Dem make no distinction between federal statute wey make certain acts unlawful, di evidence to support di conviction wey dey speech, and a statute wey make speech imself di crime.",Government
"this approach was emphasized in whitney v. california(1927), where the court was confronted with a conviction under the california criminal syndicalist statute.","Di approach dey emphasized for whitney v. california(1927), wen di court dey confront wit conviction under di california criminal syndicalist statute.",Government
"the court sustained the conviction, justices brandeis and holmes concurring in the result.","Di court tok say di court tok say di conviction, justice brandeis and holmes concurrin for di result.",Government
"in their concurrence they repeated that even though the legislature had designated certain speech as criminal, this could not prevent the defendant from showing that there was no danger that the substantive evil would be brought about.","Di legislature don design certain speech as criminal, dis go no prevent di defendant from show say di substantive evil go dey brought about.",Government
"although no case subsequent to whitney and gitlow has expressly overruled the majority opinions in those cases, there is little doubt that subsequent opinions have inclined toward the holmes -brandeis rationale.","Di case subsequent to whitney and gitlow don expressly overruled di majority opinions for dis case, although no case subsequent to whitney and gitlow don expressly overruled di majority opinions for di holmes -brandeis rationale.",Government
"speech is not an absolute, above and beyond control by the legislature when its judgment, subject to review here, is that certain kinds of speech are so undesirable as to warrant criminal sanction.","Di judgment, subject to review here, na say certain kind of speech no dey absolute, above and beyond control by di legislature wen im judgment, subject to review here, na say certain kinds of speech no dey undesirable as to warrant criminal sanction.",Government
"nothing is more certain in modern society than the principle that there are no absolutes, that a name, a phrase, a standard has meaning only when associated with the considerations which gave birth to the nomenclature.","Di principle say nothing dey more certain for modern society than di principle say nano absolutes, say a name, a phrase, a standard don mean only when associated wit di considerations wey dem give birth to di nomenclature.",Government
to those who would paralyze our government in the face of impending threat by encasing it in a semantic straitjacket we must reply that all concepts are relative.,We must reply say all concepts dey relative.,Government
"in this case we are squarely presented with t he application ofthe ""clear and present danger""test, and must decide what that phrase imports.","Di case we dey squarely presented wit t he application of di""clear and present danger""test, and must decide what dat phrase import",Government
we first note that many ofthe cases in which this court has reversed convictions by use of this or similar tests have been based on the fact that the interest which the state was attempting to protect was itself too insubstantial to warrant restriction of speech.,We first note say many of di case wey dis court don revers convictions by use of dis or similar tests don based on di fact say di interest wey di state dey attempt to protect dey too insubstantial to warrant restriction of speech.,Government
"indeed, this is the ultimate value of any society, for if a society cannot protect its very structure from armed internal attack, it must follow that no subordinate value can be protected.","Di ultimate value of any society, for if society no protect its structure from armed internal attack, e must follow say no subordinate value no be protected.",Government
"if, then, this interest maybe protected, the literal problem which is presented is what has been meant by the use ofthe phrase""clear and present danger""of the utterances bringing about the evil within the power of congress to punish.","Di literal problem wey be di use of di phrase""clear and present danger""of di utterances wey dey bring about di evil within di power of congress to punish.",Government
"obviously, the words cannot mean that before the government may act, it must wait until the putsch is about to be executed, the plans have been laid and the signal is awaited.","Di words no mean say before di goment go act, e must wait until di putsch dey about to be executed, di plan dey laid and di signal dey awaited.",Government
"if government is aware that a group aiming at its overthrow is attempting to indoctrinate its members and to commit them to a course whereby they will strike when the leaders feel the circumstances permit, action by the government is required.","If goment dey aware say a group wey dey aiming at its overthrow dey attempt to indoctrinate im members and to commit dem to course wey dem fit strike wen di leaders feel di circumstances allow, action by di goment dey required.",Government
"the argument that there is no need for government to concern itself, for government is strong, it possesses ample powers to put down a rebellion, it may defeat the revolution with ease needs no answer.","Di argument say no need for government to concern imself, for government dey strong, e possess plenti powers to put down rebellion, e fit defeat di revolution wit ease needs no answer.",Government
for that is not the question.,Di question dey no di question,Government
"certainly an attempt to overthrow the government by force, even though doomed from the outset because of inadequate numbers of power ofthe revolutionists, is a sufficient evil for congress to prevent.","E dey certainly an attempt to overthrow di government by force, even though doomed from di outset because of inadequate numbers of power of di revolutionists, na sufficient evil for congress to prevent.",Government
"the damage which such attempts create both physically and politically to a nation makes it impossible to measure the validity in terms ofthe probability of success, or the immediacy of a successful attempt.","Dem create both physically and politically to a nation make dem impossible to measure di validity for terms of di probability of success, or di immediacy of a successful attempt.",Government
"the situation with which justices holmes and brandeis were concerned in gitlow was a comparatively isolated event, bearing little relation in their minds to any substantial threat to the safety ofthe community.","Di situation wey justices holmes and brandeis dey concerned for gitlow na comparatively isolated event, bearing little relation for dia minds to any substantial threat to di safety of di community.",Government
"if the ingredients ofthe reaction are present, we cannot bind the government to wait until the catalyst is added.",We no bind di goment to wait until di catalyst dey add.,Government
robson the first amendment 35 affirmed.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 35 affirmed.,Government
"justice frankfurter, concurring in affirm ance ofthe judgment.","Di justice frankfurter, concurrin for affirm ance of di judgment.",Government
"the appellants maintain that they have a right to advocate a political theory, so long, at least, as their advocacy does not create an immediate danger of obvious magnitude to the very existence of our present scheme of society.","Di appellants maintain say dia right to advocate political theory, so long, at least, as dia advocacy no create immediate danger of obvious magnitude to di very existence of our present scheme of society.",Government
"on the other hand, the government asserts the right to safeguard the security ofthe nation by such a measure as the smith act.",Di goment assert di right to safeguard di security of di nation by such measure as di smith act.,Government
our judgment is thus solicited on a conflict of interests ofthe utmost concern to the well-being ofthe country.,Di judgment dey thus solicit on conflict of interest of di utmost concern to di wellbeing of di kontri.,Government
"this conflict of interests cannot be resolved by a dogmatic preference for one or the other, nor by a sonorous formula which is in fact only a euphemistic disguise for an unresolved conflict.","Di conflict of interest no be resolve by a dogmatic preference for one or di oda, nor by a sonorous formula wey dey euphemistic disguise for unresolved conflict.",Government
"if adjudication is to be a rational process, we cannot escape a candid examination ofthe conflicting claims with full recognition that both are supported by weighty title-deeds.",We no escape candid examination of di conflicting claims wit full recognition say both dey support weighty title-deeds.,Government
"like the war power, which is indeed an aspect ofthe power of self-preservation, it is subject to applicable constitutional limitations.","Di war power, wey dey indeed aspect of di power of self-preservation, e dey subject to constitutional limitations.",Government
it exacts obedience even during periods of war; it is applicable when war clouds are not figments ofthe imagination no less than when they are.,E dey applicable when war clouds no dey figments of di imagination no less than wen dem dey.,Government
"the first amendment categorically demands that""congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or ofthe press; or the right ofthe people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.""","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) don demand say""congress go make no law respect di establishment of religion, or prohibiting di free exercise of di press, or di right of di pipo peaceably to assemble, and to petition di goment for redress of grievances",Government
"the right of a man to think what he pleases, to write what he thinks, and to have his thoughts made available for others to hear or read hasan engaging ring of universality.","Di right of a man to think what he dey please, to write what he think, and to make hin thoughts make available for odas to hear or read.",Government
the smith act and this conviction under it no doubt restrict the exercise of free speech and assembly.,Di smith act and dis conviction under im without question restrict di exercise of free speech and assembly.,Government
"does that, without more, dispose ofthe matter?","Di matter, without more, dispose of di matter?",Government
"just as there are those who regard as invulnerable every measure for which the claim of national survival is invoked, there are those who find in the constitution a wholly unfettered right of expression.","Na those wey dey regard as invulnerable every measure for which di claim of national survival dey invoked, na those wey find in di constitution a wholly unfettered right of expression.",Government
such literalne ss treats the words ofthe constitution as though they were found on apiece of outworn parchment instead of being words that have called into being a nation with a past to be preserved for the future.,Na such literalne ss treat di words of di constitution as though dem dey found on piece of outworn parchment forstead of being words wey dey call into being nation wit past to be preserved for di future.,Government
"not what words did madison and hamilton use, but what was it in their minds which they conveyed?","Di words wey dem dey madison and hamilton use, but what dem dey india mind wey dem convey?",Government
free speech is subject to prohibition of those abuses of expression which a civilized society may forbid.,Di free speech dey subject to prohibition of those abuses of expression wey civilized society dey forbid.,Government
"as in the case of every other provision ofthe constitution that is not crystallized by the nature of its technical concepts, the fact that the first amendment is no t self-defining and self-enforcing neither impairs its usefulness nor compels its paralysis as a living instrument.",Di fact say First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) no be self-defining and self-enforcing no dey impairs its usefulness nor compels dia paralysis as a living instrument.,Government
but how are competing interests to be assessed?,Di competition interest wey dey assessed? but how dey compete interest wey dey assessed?,Government
"since they are not subject to quantitative ascertainment, the issue necessarily resolves itself into asking, who is to make the adjustment?","Dem no dey subject to quantitative ascertainment, di issue necessarily resolve imself into asking, who dey make di adjustment?",Government
full responsibility for the choice cannot be given to the courts.,Di choice no be giv ento di courts.,Government
courts are not representative bodies.,Di court no dey representative bodies,Government
they are not designed to be a good reflex of a democratic society.,"Di societi wey dey giv pipul power, either direkt or thru dem wey dem vote, and wey dey protect individul right and freedom, like say make every bodi get chance to tok and contribut to how dem go govern dem no be good reflex of societi wey dey giv pipul power, either direkt or thru dem wey dem vote, and wey dey protect individul right and freedom, like say make every bodi get chance to tok and contribut to how dem go govern dem.",Government
"their judgment is best informed, and therefore most dependable, within narrow limits.","Dia judgment na best informed, and so sake of dat most dependable, within narrow limits.",Government
"their essential quality is detachment, founded on independence.","Di essential quality dey detachment, found on independence.",Government
"history teaches that the independence ofthe judiciary is jeopardized when courts become embroiled in the passions ofthe day and assume primary responsibility in choosing between competing political, economic and social pressures.","Di history teach say di independence of di judiciary dey jeopardized wen courts dey embroiled for di passion of di day and assume primary responsibility for choosing between competing political, economic and social pressures.",Government
"robson the first amendment 36 * * *but in no case has a majority of this court held that a legislative judgment, even as to freedom of utterance, maybe overturned merely because the court would have made a different choice between the competing interests had the initial legislative judgment been for it to make.","Di majority of dis court tok say legislative judgment, even as to freedom of utterance, go dey overturned merely because di court go make different choice between di competing interests wey dey get di initial legislative judgment, even as to freedom of utterance, go make dem make.",Government
"but there is underlying validity in the distinction between advocacy and the interchange of ideas, and we do not discard a useful tool because it maybe misused.","Di validity for di distinction between advocacy and di interchange of ideas, and we no dey discard useful tool wey dey misused.",Government
that such a distinction could be used unreasonably by those in power against hostile or unorthodox views does not negate the fact that it maybe used reasonably against an organization wielding the power ofthe centrally controlled international communist movement.,Di fact say such distinction go use reasonably by those in power against hostile or unorthodox views no dey negate di fact say e go use reasonably against organization wey dey controlled international communist movement.,Government
the object ofthe conspiracy before us is so clear that the chance of error in saying that the defendants conspired to advocate rather than to express ideas is slight.,Di chance of error for say di defendants conspired to advocate no be to express ideas dey slight.,Government
mr. justice douglas quite properly points out that the conspiracy before us is not a conspiracy to overthrow the government.,Di conspiracy before us no dey conspiracy to overthrow di government.,Government
but it would be equally wrong to treat it as a seminar in political theory.,E go dey wrong to treat am as seminar for political theory but e go be equally wrong to treat am as seminar for political theory.,Government
"m r. justice jackson, concurring.","M r. justice jackson, concurring.",Government
the court has never before done so andi think it should not do so now.,I think e no go do so now.,Government
"conspiracies of labor unions, trade associations, and news agencies have been condemned, although accomplished, evidenced and carried out, like the conspiracy here, chiefly by letter-writing, meetings, speeches and organization.","Di conspiracy of labor unions, trade associations, and ofis wey dey collect, write, and share tori give odas wey dey do news, like akwukwo, magazi, and redio and telivishon steshon don condem, although accomplished, evidence and carried out, like di conspiracy here, chiefly by letter-writing, meetings, speeches and organization.",Government
"indeed, this court seems, particularly in cases where the conspiracy has economic ends, to be applying its doctrines with increasing severity.","Di court seem, particularly for case wey di conspiracy don economic ends, to be apply dia doctrines wit increasing severity.",Government
"while i consider criminal conspiracy a dragnet device capable of perversion into an instrument of injustice in the hands of a partisan or complacent judiciary, it hasan established place in our system of law, an d no reason appears for applying it only to concerted action claimed to disturb interstate commerce and withholding it from those claimed to undermine our whole government.","I consider criminal conspiracy a dragnet device wey dey capable of perversion into instrument of injustice for di hands of partisan or complacent judiciary, e don establish place for awa system of law, an d no reason appear for applying am only to concerted action wey dey claim to disturb interstate commerce and witholding am from those wey dey claim to undermine awa whole goment.",Government
"advocacy or exposition ofthe doctrine of communal property ownership, or any political philosophy unassociated with advocacy of its imposition by force or seizure of government by unlawful means could not be reached through conspiracy prosecution.","Di advocacy or exposition of di doctrine of communal property ownership, or any political philosophy wey dey associated wit advocacy of imposition by force or seizure of goment by unlawful means no be reach through conspiracy prosecution.",Government
"but it is not forbidden to put down force or violence, it is not forbidden to punish its teaching or advocacy, and the end being punishable, there is no doubt ofthe power to punish conspiracy for the purpose.","E no dey forbidden to put down force or violence, but e no dey forbidden to punish dia teaching or advocacy, and di end beingpunishable, na without question of di power to punish conspiracy for di purpose.",Government
"there is no constitutional right to""gang up""on the government.","Di goment no dey constitutional right to""gang up""on di government",Government
"while i think there was power in congress to enact this statute and that, as applied in this case, it cannot be held unconstitutional, i add that i have little faith in the long-range effectiveness of this conviction to stop the rise ofthe communist movement.","I add say, as i think di power for congress to enact dis statute and say, as e dey applied for dis case, e no fit hold unconstitutional, i add say e no get faith for di long-range effectiveness of dis conviction to stop di rise of di communist movement.",Government
communism will not goto jail with these communists.,Di communism no go jail wit dis communists.,Government
no decision by this court can forestall revolution whenever the existing government fails to command the respect and loyalty ofthe people and sufficient distress and discontent is allowed to grow up among the masses.,Di court don forestall revolution wenever di existing goment fail to command di respect and loyalty of di pipo and sufficient distress and discontent dey allowed to grow up among di masses.,Government
many failures by fallen governments attest that no government can long prevent revolution by outlawry.,Di many failures by fallen goment don attest say no go prevent revolution by outlawry.,Government
"corruption, ineptitude, inflation, oppressive taxation, militarization, injustice, and loss of leadership capable of intellectual initiative in domestic or foreign affairs are allies on which the communists count to bring opportunity knocking to their door.",Di communists count to bring opportunity knocking to dia door.,Government
sometimes i think they maybe mistaken.,I think dem dey mistaken.,Government
but the communists are not building just for today the rest of us might profit by their example.,Di communists no building just for today di rest of us go profit by dia example.,Government
"m r. justice black, dissenting.","M r. justice black, dissenting.",Government
these petitioners were not charged with an attempt to overthrow the government.,Di petitioners no charge wit an attempt to overthrow di government.,Government
they were not charged with overt acts of any kind designed to overthrow the government.,Di goment no charge wit overt act of any kind wey dey designed to overthrow di goment.,Government
they were not even charged with saying anything or writing anything designed to overthrow the government.,Di goment no dey charge wit say anything or writing anything wey dey designed to overthrow di government.,Government
the robson the first amendment 37 charge was that they agreed to assemble and to talk and publish certain ideas at a later date: the indictment is that they conspired to organize the communist party and to use speech or newspapers and other publications in the future to teach and advocate the forcible overthrow ofthe government.,Di indictment dey say dem conspir to organize di communist party and to use speech or newspapers and oda publications for di future to teach and advocate di forcible overthrow of di government.,Government
"no matter how it is worded, this is a virulent form of prior censorship of speech and press, which i believe the first amendment forbids.","E dey virulent form of prior censorship of speech and press, wey i believe First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) forbid.",Government
"undoubtedly, a governmental policy of unfetter ed communication of ideas does entail dangers.",Di governmental policy of unfetter ed communication of ideas don entail dangers.,Government
"to the founders of this nation, however, the benefits derived from free expression were worth the risk.",Di benefits wey dem dey from free expression deyworth di risk.,Government
"they embodied this philosophy in the first amendment's command that""congress shall make no law.","Dis philosophy for First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) command say""congress go make no law.",Government
"abr idging the freedom of speech, or ofthe press.","Di freedom of speech, or of di press",Government
"atleast as to speech in the realm of public matters, i believe that the""clear and present danger""test does not""mark the furthermost constitutional boundaries of protected expression""but does""no more than recognize a minimum compulsion ofthe bill of rights.""","I believe say di""clear and present danger""test no dey mark di furthermost constitutional boundaries of protected expression but no dey recognize minimum compulsion of di bill of rights",Government
bridges v. california.,Di bridges v. california,Government
"so long as this court exercises the power of judicial review of legislation, i cannot agree that the first amendment permits us to sustain laws suppressing freedom of speech and press on the basis of congress' or our own notions of mere ""reasonab leness.""","I no agree say First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) don allow us to sustain laws suppressing freedom of speech and press on di basis of congress or awa own notions of mere ""reasonab leness""",Government
such a doctrine waters down the first amendment so that it amounts to little more than an admonition to congress.,Di doctrine water down First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) so say e amount to little more than admonition to congress.,Government
"the amendment as so construed is not likely to protect any but those""safe"" or orthodox views which rarely need its protection.","Di amendment as so construed no likely to protect any but those""safe"" or orthodox views wey dey rarely need im protection.",Government
"there is hope, however, that in calmer times, when present pressures, passions and fears subside, this or some later court will restore the first amendment liberties to the high preferred place where they belong in a free society.","Di hope, however, say for calmer times, wen present pressures, passions and fear subside, dis or some later court go restore di first amendment liberties to di high preferred place wey dem belong for free society.",Government
"m r. justice douglas, dissenting.","M r. justice douglas, dissenting.",Government
"if this were a case where those who claimed protection under the first amendment were teaching the techniques of sabotage, the assassination ofthe president, the filching of documents from public files, the planting of bombs, the art of street warfare, and the like, i would have no doubts.","Di case wey dem claim protection under di firstamendment dey teach di techniques of sabotage, di assassination of di president, di filching of document from public files, di planting of bombs, di art of street warfare, and di like, i go get without question.",Government
the freedom to speak is not absolute; the teaching of methods of terror and other seditious conduct should be beyond the pale along with obscenity and immorality.,Di teaching of methods of terror and oda seditious conduct dey beyond di pale along wit obscenity and immorality.,Government
this case was argued as if those were the facts.,Di case dey argued as if those dey di facts,Government
the argument imported much seditious conduct into the record.,Di argument imported much seditious conduct into di record.,Government
"that is easy and it has popular appeal, for the activities of communists in plotting and scheming against the free world are common knowledge.",Di activities of communists for plotting and scheming against di free world dey common knowledge.,Government
but the fact is that no such evidence was introduced at the trial.,Di fact na say no such evidence dey introduced for di trial,Government
there is a statute which makes a seditious conspiracy unlawful.,Di statute wey make a seditious conspiracy unlawful.,Government
"petitioners, however, were not charged with a""conspiracy to overthrow""the government.","Di petitioners no charge wit a""conspiracy to overthrow""di government",Government
they were charged with a conspiracy to form a party and groups and assemblies of people who teach and advocate the overthrow of our government by force or violence and with a conspiracy to advocate and teach its overthrow by force and violence.,Dem charge wit conspiracy to form party and groups and assemblies of pipo wey teach and advocate di overthrow of awa government by force or violence and wit conspiracy to advocate and teach im overthrow by force and violence.,Government
it may well be that indoctrination in the techniques of terror to destroy the government would be indictable under either statute.,E dey well be say indoctrination for di techniques of terror to destroy di goment go dey indictable under either statute.,Government
but the teaching which is condemned here is of a different character.,Di teaching wey dey condemned here dey different character.,Government
those books are to soviet communism what mein kampf was to nazism.,Di books dey to soviet communism wey dey kampf nato nazism.,Government
"if they are understood, the ugliness of communism is revealed, its deceit and cunning are exposed, the nature of its activities becomes apparent, and the chances of its success less likely.","Di ugliness of communism dey reveal, im deceit and cunning dey exposed, di nature of im activities become apparent, and di chance of im success less likely.",Government
"that is not, of course, the reason why robson the first amendment 38 petitioners chose these books for their classrooms.",Di reason wey robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 38 petitioners dey choose these books for dia classroom.,Government
they are fervent communists to whom these volumes are gospel.,Dem dey fervent communists to whom dis volume dey gospel.,Government
they preached the creed with the hope that someday it would be acted upon.,Dem preach di creed wit di hope say someday e go act upon.,Government
"the opinion ofthe court does not outlaw these texts nor condemn them to the fire, as the communists do literature offensive to their creed.","Di opinion of di court no outlaw dis text nor condemn dem to di fire, as di communists do literature offensive to dia creed.",Government
"but if the books themselves are not outlawed, if they can lawfully remain on library shelves, by what reasoning does their use in a classroom become a crime?","Di books themselves no dey outlaw, if dem go lawfully remain on library shelves, by what reasoning does dem use for classroom become crime?",Government
"it would not be a crime under the act to introduce these books to a class, though that would be teaching what the creed of violent overthrow ofthe government is.","E no be crime under di act to introduce these books to class, though wey go teach what di creed of violent overthrow of di government dey.",Government
"the act, as construed, requires the element of intent that those who teach the creed believe in it.","Di act, as construed, require di element of intent wey dem teach di creed believe for am.",Government
the crime then depends not on what is taught but on who the teacher is.,Di crime no depend noon what dey taught but on who di teacher dey.,Government
"that is to make freedom of speech turn not on what is said, but on the intent with which it is said.","E dey make freedom of speech turn noon what dey tok, but on di intent wit wey dey tok",Government
once we start down that road we enter territory dangerous to the liberties of every citizen.,We start down dat road wey we enter territory dangerous to di liberties of every citizen.,Government
speech innocuous one year may at another time fan such destructive flames that it must be halted in the interests ofthe safety ofthe republic.,Di speech fornocuous one year may at another time fan such destructive flames wey dey halt for di interest of di safety of di republic.,Government
that is the meaning ofthe clear and present danger test.,Di meaning of di clear and present danger test,Government
"when conditions are so critical that there will be no time to avoid the evil that the speech threatens, it is time to call a halt.","Di condition dey so critical say when conditions dey so critical say no time to avoid di evil wey di speech threaten, na time to call a halt.",Government
"otherwise, free speech which is the strength ofthe nation will be the cause of its destruction.",Di free speech wey dey di strength of di nation go be di cause of its destruction,Government
"yet free speech is the rule, not the exception.","For free speech na di rule, no di exception.",Government
there must be some immediate injury to society that is likely if speech is allowed.,Di need be some injury to society wey dey likely if speech dey allowed.,Government
"the classic statement of these conditions was made by mr. justice brandeis in his concurrin g opinion in whitney v. california***i had assumed that the question ofthe clear and present danger, being so critical an issue in the case, would be a matter for submission to the jury.","I tok say di question of di clear and present danger, being so critical an issue for di case, go be matter for submission to di jury.",Government
"this record, however, contains no evidence whatsoever showing that the acts charged, viz,","Di record, however, contains no evidence wey dey show say di act charge, viz,",Government
"the teaching ofthe soviet theory of revolution with the hope that it will be realized, have created any clear an d present danger to the nation.","Di teaching of di soviet theory of revolution wit di hope say im go realize, don create any clear an d present danger to di nation.",Government
"the court, however, rules to the contrary.","Di court, however, rules to di contrary",Government
but the primary consideration is the strength and tactical position of petitioners and their converts in this country.,Di primary consideration na di strength and tactical position of petitioners and dia converts for dis kontri.,Government
on that there is no evidence in the record.,Di record no dey evidence for di record,Government
"if we are to take judicial notice ofthe threat of communists within the nation, it should not be difficult to conclude that as a political party they are of little consequence.",E no dey difficult to conclude say as political party wey dey of little consequence.,Government
communists in this country have never made a respectable or serious showing in any election.,For dis kontri no make respectable or serious showing for any election.,Government
communism in the world scene is no bogeyman; but communism as a political faction or party in this country plainly is.,But communism for di world scene no bogeyman; but communism as political faction or party for dis kontri no bogeyman; but communism as political faction or party for dis kontri plainly dey.,Government
communism has been so thoroughly exposed in this country that it has been crippled as a political force.,Di communism don dey so thoroughly exposed for dis kontri say e don cripple as political force,Government
free speech has destroyed it as an effective political party.,Di free speech don destroy am as effective political party.,Government
it is inconceivable that those who went up and down this country preaching the doctrine of revolution which petitioners espouse would have any success.,E dey inconceivable say those wey go up and down dis kontri preaching di doctrine of revolution wey petitioners espouse go get any success.,Government
"in days of trouble and confusion, when bread lines were long, when the unemployed walked the streets, when people were starving, the advocates of a shortcut by revolution might have a chance to gain adherents.",Di advocates of shortcut by revolution go get chance to gain adherents.,Government
but today there are no such conditions.,But today no dey such condition but today no dey no such condition.,Government
the country is not in despair; the people know soviet communism; the doctrine of soviet revolution is exposed in all of its ugliness and the american people want none of it.,Di people know soviet communism; di doctrine of soviet revolution dey exposed for all of its ugliness and di american pipo want none of it,Government
"how it can be said that there is a clear and present danger that this advocacy will succeed is, therefore, a mystery.","Di advocacy go succeed na, therefore, a mystery.",Government
"some nations less resilient than the united states, where illiteracy is high and where democratic traditions are only budding, might have to take drastic steps and jail these men for merely speaking their creed.","For some nations less resilient than di united states, wia illiteracy dey high and wia democratic traditions dey only budding, might go take drastic step and jail dis men for merely speaking dia creed",Government
but in america they are miserable merchants of unwanted ideas; their wares remain unsold.,Dem dey miserable merchants of unwanted ideas; dia wares remain unsold.,Government
the fact that their ideas are abhorrent does not make them powerful.,Di fact say dia ideas dey abhorrent no make dem powerful,Government
"the political impotence ofthe communists in this country does not, of course, dispose ofthe problem.","Di political impotence of di communists for dis kontri no, of course, dispose of di problem.",Government
"their numbers; their positions in industry and government; the extent to which they have in fact infiltrated the police, the armed services, transportation, stevedoring, power plants, munitions robson the first amendment 39 works, and other critical places these facts all bear on the likelihood that their advocacy ofthe soviet theory of revolution will endanger the republic.","Di extent wey dem don infiltrate di police, di armed services, transportation, stevedoring, power plant, munitions robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 39 works, and oda critical place wey dem don bear on di likelihood say dia advocacy of di soviet theory of revolution go endanger di republic.",Government
but the record is silent on these facts.,Di record dey silent on dis facts,Government
"if we are to proceed on the basis of judicial notice, it is impossible for me to say that the communists in this country are so potent or so strategically deployed that they must be suppressed for their speech.",Di communists for dis kontri dey so potent or so strategically deployed say dem must dey suppress for dia speech.,Government
to believe that petitioners and their following are placed in such critical positions as to endanger the nation is to believe the incredible.,Di petitioners and dia following dey place for such critical position as to endanger di nation dey to believe di incredible,Government
"it is safe to say that the followers ofthe creed of soviet communism are known to the f. b. i.; that in case of war with russia they will be picked up overnight as were all prospective saboteurs at the commencement of world war ii; that the invisible army of petitioners is the best known, the most beset, and the least thriving of any fifth column in history.","Di followers of di creed of soviet communism na di best known, di most beset, and di least thriving of any fifth column for history.",Government
only those held by fear and panic could think otherwise.,Di only those wey dey fear and panic go think odawise.,Government
the constitution provides no exception.,Di constitution provide no exception.,Government
"this does not mean, however, that the nation need hold its hand until it is in such weakened condition that there is no time to protect itself from incitement to revolution.","Dem no mean, however, say di nation need hold hand until dem dey in such weakened condition say no time to protect imself from incitement to revolution.",Government
seditious conduct can always be punished.,Di seditious conduct don always dey punished,Government
but the command ofthe first amendment is so clear that we should not allow congress to call a halt to free speech except in the extreme case of peril from the speech itself.,Di command of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) dey clear say we no allow congress to call halt to free speech except for di extreme case of peril from di speech itself.,Government
the first amendment makes confidence in the common sense of our people and in their maturity of judgment the great postulate of our democracy.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) make confidence for di common sense of our pipo and for dia maturity of judgment di gre for postulate of awa democracy.,Government
"its philosophy is that violence is rarely, if ever, stopped by denying civil liberties to those advocating resort to force.","Di philosophy dey say violence dey rarely, if ever, stop by denying Di basic freedoms and rights wey law protect every person from government interference to those advocating resort to force.",Government
"the first amendment reflects the philosophy of jefferson""that it is time enough for the rightful purposes of civil government, for its officers to interfere when principles breakout into overt acts against peace and good order.""","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) reflect di philosophy of jefferson say time enough for di rightful purposes of civil goment, for dia officers to interfere wen principle breakout into overt acts against peace and good order.",Government
the political censor has no place in our public debates.,Di political censor no place for awa public debates.,Government
"unless and until extreme and necessitous circumstances are shown, our aim should be to keep speech unfettered and to allow the processes of law to be invoked only when the provocateurs among us move from speech to action.",Di aim go be to keep speech unfettered and to allow di process of law to be invoked only when di provocateurs among us move from speech to action.,Government
"the opinions in dennis are lengthy and review the earlier world war i cases, including holmes' dissen ts.","Di opinion for dennis dey lengthy and review di earlier world war i case, including holmes' dissen ts",Government
"how is communism portrayed in dennis, especially when compared to earlier political viewpoints?","Di how dey communism dey portray for dennis, especially wen compare to earlier political viewpoints?",Government
how do the portrayals of communism compare to current views of communism?,How do di portrayals of communism compare to current views of communism?,Government
are there current political viewpoints that seem commensurate with the court's view of communism?,Di current political viewpoints wey dey commensurate wit di court view of communism?,Government
"the court considers the smith act""on its face""and as applied.","Di court consider di smith act""on its face""and as apply.",Government
what are the arguments that it is facially unconstitutional as a violation ofthe first amendment?,Di arguments wey dey facially unconstitutional as a violation of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo)?,Government
robson the first amendment 40 iii.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 40 iii.,Government
"""offensive""speech chaplinsky v. new hampshire 315 u. s. 568(1942) mr.",offensive talk chaplinsky v. new hampshire 315 u. s. 568(1942) mr.,Government
justice murphy delivered the opinion ofthe [unanimous] court.,Dem deliver di opinion of di[unanimous ]court.,Government
"the complaint charged that appellant, with force and arms, in a certain public place in said city of rochester, to -wit, on the public sidewalk on the easterly side of wakefield street, near unto the entrance ofthe city hall, did unlawfully repeat the words following, addressed to the complainant, that is to say,""you area god damned racketeer"" and""a damned fascist and the whole government of rochester are fascists or agents of fascists,""the same being offensive, derisive and annoying words and names.","Di complainant, wit force and arms, for certain public place for said city of rochester, to -wit, on di public sidewalk on di public sidewalk on di easterly side of wakefield street, near unto di entrance of di city hall, don unlawfully repeat di words wey dey address to di complainant, say dem dey say,""you dey damned fascist and di whole goment of rochester dey fascist or agent of fascists or agent of fascists or agent of fascist",Government
there is no substantial dispute over the facts.,Nano substantial dispute over di facts,Government
chaplinsky was distributing the literature of his sect on the streets of rochester on a busy saturday afternoon.,Di chaplinsky dey distribut di literature of hin sect on di streets of rochester on busy saturday afternoon,Government
"members ofthe local citizenry complained to the city marshal, bowering, that chaplinsky was denouncing all religion as a""racket.""",Di local citizenry complain say chaplinsky dey denouncing all religion as racket,Government
"bowering told them that chaplinsky was lawfully engaged, and then warned chaplinsky that the crowd was getting restless.","Dem tell chaplinsky say chaplinsky dey lawfully engage, and dem warn chaplinsky say di crowd dey restless.",Government
"bowering repeated his earlier warning to chaplinsky, who then addressed to bowering the words set forth in the complaint.","Dem tok say bowering repeat hin earlier warning to chaplinsky, wey tok say dem address to bowering di words wey dem set forth for di complaint.",Government
chaplinsky's version ofthe affair was slightly different.,Di chaplinsky version of di affair dey different.,Government
"he testified that, when he met bowering, he asked him to arrest the ones responsible for the disturbance.","Di testified say, wen hin meet bowering, hin ask am to arrest di ones wey dey responsible for di disturbance.",Government
"in reply, bowering cursed him and told him to come along.","Dem dey reply, bowering dey curse him and tell him to kom along",Government
"appellant admitted that he said the words charged in the complaint, with the exception ofthe name ofthe deity.","Di appellant admitted say hin aid di words wey dem charge for di complaint, wit di exception of di name of di deity.",Government
"it is now clear that""freedom of speech and freedom ofthe press, which are protected by the first amendment from infringement by congress, are among the fundamental personal rights and liberties which are protected by the fourteenth amendment from invasion by state action.""","Di freedom of speech and freedom of di press, wey dey protected by First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) from infringement by congress, dey among di fundamental personal rights and liberties wey dey protected by di fourteenth amendment from invasion by state action.",Government
"allowing the broadest scope to the language and purpose ofthe fourteenth amendment, it is well understood that the right of free speech is not absolute at all times and under all circumstances.",Di right of free speech no absolute for all times and under all circumstances.,Government
"there are certain well defined and narrowly limited classes of speech, the prevention and punishment of which have never been thought to raise any constitutional problem.",Di prevention and punishment of which no dey thought to raise any constitutional problem.,Government
"these include the lewd and obscene, the profane, the libelous, and the insulting or""fighting"" words-- those which, by their very utterance, inflict injury or tend to incite an immediate breach ofthe peace.","Dem include di lewd and obscene, di profane, di libelous, and di insulting or""fighting"" words, those wey, by dia very utterance, inflict injury or tend to incite immediate breach of di peace.",Government
"it has been well observed that such utterances are no essential part of any exposition of ideas, and are of such slight social value as a step to truth that any benefit that maybe derived from them is clearly outweighed by the social interest in order and morality.","E don observe say such utterances no dey essential part of any exposition of ideas, and dey of such slight social value as step to truth say any benefit wey dey derived from dem dey clearly outweighed by di social interest for order and morality.",Government
"resort to epithets or personal abuse is not in any proper sense communication of information or opinion safeguarded by the constitution, and its punishment as a criminal act would raise no question under that instrument.","Di resort to epithets or personal abuse no dey for any proper sense communication of information or opinion safeguarded by di constitution, and its punishment as criminal act go raise no question under dat instrument.",Government
cantwell v. connecticut(1940).,Dem connecticut(1940).,Government
robson the first amendment 41 we are unable to say that the limited scope ofthe statute as thus construed[by the new hampshire supreme court] contravenes the constitutional right of free expression.,Di limited scope of di statute as thus construct[by di new hampshire supreme court] contravenes di constitutional right of free expression.,Government
"it is a statute narrowly drawn and limited to define and punish specific conduct lying within the domain of state power, the use in a public place of words likely to cause a breach ofthe peace.","Di statute narrowly drawn and limited to define and punish specific conduct wey dey lying inside di domain of state power, di use for public place of word likely to cause breach of di peace.",Government
this conclusion necessarily disposes of appellant's contention that the statute is so vague and indefinite as to render a conviction thereunder a violation of due process.,Di conclusion necessarily dispos of appellant's contention say di statute dey so vague and indefinite as to render conviction wey dey violation of Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system.,Government
"a statute punishing verbal acts, careful ly drawn so as not unduly to impair liberty of expression, is not too vague for a criminal law.","Di statute wey dey punishing verbal act, careful ly draw so as no unduly to impair liberty of expression, no dey too vague for criminal law.",Government
"nor can we say that the application ofthe statute to the facts disclosed by the record substantially or unreasonably impinges upon the privilege of free speech. argument is unnecessary to demonstrate that the appellations ""damned racketeer"" and""damned fascist""are epithets likely to provoke the average person to retaliation, and thereby cause a breach ofthe peace.","Di application of di statute to di facts disclosed by di record substantially or unreasonably impinge upon di privilege of free speech. argument dey unnecessary to demonstrate say di appellations ""damned racketeer"" and""damned fascist"" dey epithets likely to provoke di average person to retaliation, and thereby cause breach of di peace",Government
the refusal ofthe state court to admit evidence of provocation and evidence bearing on the truth or falsity ofthe utterances is open to no constitutional objection.,Di refusal of di state court to admit evidence of provocation and evidence bearing on di truth or falsity of di utterances dey open to no constitutional objection.,Government
"whether the facts sought to be proved by such evidence constitute a defense to the charge, or maybe shown in mitigation, are questions for the state court to determine.","Di facts wey dey proved by such evidence constitute defense to di charge, or wey dey show in mitigation, dey seriouso ns for di state court to determine.",Government
"our function is fulfilled by a determination that the challenged statute, on its face and as applied, doe s not contravene the fourteenth amendment.","Di function dey fulfilled by determination say di challenged statute, on its face and as applied, doe no contravene di fourteenth amendment.",Government
cohen v. california 403 u. s. 15(1971) mr.,Cohen v. california 403 u. s. 15(1971) mr.,Government
justice harlan delivered the opinion ofthe court.,Dem deliver di opinion of di court.,Government
"justice blackmun filed a dissenting opinion, in which the chief justice[burger ]and justice black joined.",Di chief justice[burger ]and justice black join am.,Government
"this case may seem at first blush too inconsequential to find its way into our books, but the issue it presents is of no small constitutional significance.","Di case suppose seem at first blush too inconsequential to find im way into awa books, but di issue wey dey present no small constitutional significance.",Government
"appellant paul robert cohen was convicted in the los angeles municipal court of violating that part of california penal code 415 which prohibits ""maliciously and willfully disturb[ing]the peace or quiet of any neighborhood or person.","Di appellant paul robert cohen dey convicted for los angeles municipal court of violating say part of california penal code 415 wey prohibit ""maliciously and willfully disturb di peace or quiet of any neighborhood or person.",Government
he was given 30 days' imprisonment.,E don give 30 days' imprisonment,Government
"the facts upon which his conviction rests are detailed in the opinion ofthe court of appeal of california, second appellate district, as follows:""on april 26, 1968, the defendant was observed in the los angeles county courthouse in the corridor outside of division 20 ofthe municipal court wearing a jacket bearing the words`fuck t he draft' which were plainly visible.",Di defendant dey observe for di los angeles county courthouse for di corridor outside of division 20 of di municipal court wear jacket bearing di words`fuck thin draft' wey dey plainly visible.,Government
there were women and children present in the corridor.,Na women and children wey dey present for di corridor,Government
the defendant was arrested.,Di defendant arrest di defendant,Government
the defendant testified that he wore the jacket knowing that the words were on the jacket as a means of informing the public ofthe depth of his feelings against the vietnam war and the draft.,Di defendant testified say hin wore di jacket know say di words dey on di jacket as means of informing di public of di depth of hin feelings against di vietnam war and di draft.,Government
"""the defendant did not engage in, nor threaten to engage in, nor did anyone as the result of his conduct in fact commit or threaten to commit any act of violence.","Di defendant no engage for, nor threaten to engage for, nor threaten to commit any act of violence.",Government
"the defendant did not make any loud or unusual noise, nor was there any evidence that he uttered any sound prior to his arrest.""","Di defendant no make any loud or unusual noise, nor dey there any evidence wey dem utter any sound prior to hin arrest",Government
"in affirming the conviction the court of appeal held that""offensive conduct""means ""behavior which has a tendency to provoke others to acts of violence or to in turn disturb the peace,""and that the state had proved this element because, on the facts of this case,""[i]t was certainly reasonably foreseeable that such conduct might cause others to rise upto commit a violent act against the person ofthe defendant or attempt to forceably remove his jacket.""","Di state don prove say""offensive conduct""means ""behavior wey dey tendency to provoke oda to acts of violence or to in turn disturb di peace, and say di state don prove dis element because, on di facts of dis case,""[i]t certainly reasonably foreseeable say such conduct go cause odas to rise upto commit violent act against di person of di defendant or attempt to forceably remove hin jacket",Government
the california supreme court declined review by a divided vote.,Di california supreme court decline review by a divide vote.,Government
the conviction quite clearly rests upon the asserted offensiveness ofthe words cohen used to convey his message to the public.,Di conviction quite clearly rest upon di asserted offensiveness of di words cohen use to convey hin message to di public.,Government
"the only""conduct"" which the state sought to punish is the fact of communication.","Di only""conduct"" wey di state sought to punish na di fact of communication.",Government
"thus, we deal here with a conviction resting solely upon""speech,"" not upon any separately identifiable conduct which allegedly was intended by cohen to be perceived by others as expressive of particular views but which, on its face, does not necessarily convey any message and hence arguably could be regulated without effectively repressing cohen's ability to express himself.","We deal here wit conviction wey dey rest solely upon""speech,"" no upon any separately identifiable conduct wey dey intended by cohen to be perceived by odas as expressive of particular views but e no dey necessarily convey any message and hence arguably could dey regulated without effectively repressing cohen's ability to express himself",Government
"further, the state certainly lacks power to punish cohen for the underlying content ofthe message the inscription conveyed.",Di state certainly lack power to punish cohen for di underlying content of di message di inscription convey.,Government
"atleast so long as there is no showing of an intent to incite disobedience to or disruption ofthe draft, cohen could not, consistently with the first and fourteenth amendments, be punished for asserting the evident position on the inutility or immorality ofthe draft his jacket reflected.","Di first and fourteenth amendments, dey punished for asserting di evident position on di inutility or immorality of di draft, cohen no fit, consistently wit di first and fourteenth amendments, bepunished for asserting di evident position on di inutility or immorality of di draft hin jacket reflected.",Government
"appellant's conviction, then, rests squarely upon his exercise ofthe ""freedom of speech""protected from arbitrary governmental interference by the constitution and can be justified, if at all, only as a valid regulation ofthe manner in which he exercised that freedom, not as a permissible prohibition on the substantive message it conveys.","Di appellant's conviction, then, rest squarely upon hin exercise of di""freedom of speech""protected from arbitrary governmental interference by di constitution and no be as a valid regulation of di manner wey hin exercise say freedom, no as a permissible prohibition on di substantive message wey dem conveys.",Government
"this does not end the inquiry, of course, for the first and fourteenth amendments have never been thought to give absolute protection to every individual to speak whenever or wherever he pleases, or to use any form of address in any circumstances that he chooses.","Di inquiry no end di inquiry, of course, for di first and fourteenth amendments no dey thought to give absolute protection to every individual to speak wenever or wherever he choose, or to use any form of address for any circumstances wey he choose.",Government
"in this vein, too, however, we think it important to note that several issues typically associated with such problems are not presented here.",We think e important to note say several issues wey dey associated wit such problems no dey present here.,Government
"in the first place, cohen was tried under a statute applicable throughout the entire state.","Di first place, cohen dey tried under statute wey dey applicable throughout di entire state.",Government
"any attempt to support this conviction on the ground that the statute seeks to preserve an appropriately decorous atmosphere in the courthouse where cohen was arrested must fail in the absence of any language in the statute that would have put appellant on notice that certain kinds of otherwise permissible speech or conduct would nevertheless, under california law, not be tolerated in certain places.","Di statute seeks to preserve appropriately decorous atmosphere for di courthouse wey cohen dey arrested must fail for di absence of any language for di statute wey dem put appellant on notice say certain kinds of odawise permissible speech or conduct go nevertheless, under california law, no be tolerated for certain place.",Government
"no fair reading ofthe phrase""offensive conduct""can be said sufficiently to inform the ordinary person that distinctions between certain locations are thereby created.","Nano fair reading of di phrase""offensive conduct""don tok sufficiently to inform di ordinary person say distinctions between certain locations dey thereby create.",Government
"in the second place, as it comes to us, this case cannot be said to fall within those relatively few categories of instances where prior decisions have established the power of government to deal more comprehensively with certain forms of individual expression simply upon a showing that such a form was employed.","As e kom to us, dis case no fit fall within those relatively few categories of instances wey prior decision don establish di power of goment to deal more comprehensively wit certain form of individual expression simply upon showing say such form dey employed.",Government
"this is not, for example, an obscenity case.","Dis no be, for example, an obscenity case.",Government
"whatever else maybe necessary to give rise to the states' broader power to prohibit obscene expression, such expression must be, in some significant way, erotic.","Di state' broader power to prohibit obscene expression, such expression must be, for some significant way, erotic.",Government
it cannot plausibly be maintained that this vulgar allusion to the selective service system would conjure up such psychic stimulation in anyone likely to be confronted with cohen's crudely defaced jacket.,Di vulgar allusion to di selective service system go conjure up such psychic stimulation for anyone likely to confront wit cohen crudely defaced jacket.,Government
"this court has also held that the states are free to ban the simple use, without a demonstration of additional justifying circumstances, of socalled ""fighting words,""those personally abusive epithets which, when addressed to the ordinary citizen, are, as a matter of common knowledge, inherently likely to provoke violent reaction.","Di court don also hold say di state dey free to ban di simple use, without demonstration of additional justifying circumstances, of socalled ""fighting words,""those personally abusive epithets wey dey suppose provoke violent reaction.",Government
chaplinsky v. new hampshire(1942).,Chaplinsky v. new hampshire(1942).,Government
"while the four-letter word displayed by cohen in relation to the draft is not uncommonly employed in a personally provocative fashion, in this instance it was clearly not""directed to the person ofthe hearer.""","Di four-letter word wey dey display by cohen for relation to di draft no dey employ for personally provocative fashion, for dis instance na clearly no dey direct to di person of di hearer.",Government
no individual actually or likely to be present could reasonably have regarded the words on appellant's jacket as a direct personal insult.,Nano individual actually or likely to be present could reasonably have regard di words on appellant jacket as direct personal insult.,Government
nor do we have here an instance ofthe exercise ofthe state's police power to prevent a speaker from intentionally provoking a given group to hostile reaction.,Di state police power to prevent a speaker from intentionally provoking a given group to hostile reaction,Government
"there is, as noted above, no showing that anyone who saw cohen was in fact violently aroused or that appellant intended such a result.","As wey dey note above, no show say anyone wey saw cohen dey violently aroused or say appellant dey suppose carry such result.",Government
"finally, in arguments before this court much has been made ofthe claim that cohen's distasteful mode of expression was thrust upon unwilling or unsuspecting viewers, and that the state might therefore legitimately act as it did in order to protect the sensitive from otherwise unavoidable exposure to appellant's crude form of protest.","Di court don make di claim say cohen's distasteful mode of expression dey thrust upon unwilling or unsuspecting viewers, and say di state go legitimately act as e go protect di sensitive from odawise unavoidable exposure to appellant crude form of protest.",Government
"ofcourse, the mere presumed presence of unwitting robson the first amendment 43 listeners or viewers does not serve automatically to justify curtailing all speech capable of giving offense.","Ofcourse, di mere presumed presence of unwitting robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 43 listeners or viewers does no serve automatically to justify curtailing all talk capable of giving offense.",Government
"while this court has recognized that government may properly actin many situations to prohibit intrusion into the privacy ofthe home of unwelcome views and ideas which cannot be totally banned from the public dialogue, we have at the same time consistently stressed that""we are often`captives' outside the sanctuary ofthe home and subject to objectionable speech.""",Di court don recognize say goment go properly act for many situations to prohibit intrusion into di privacy of di home and subject to objectionable speech.,Government
"the ability of government, consonant with the constitution, to shut off discourse solely to protect others from hearing it is, in other words, dependent upon a showing that substantial privacy interests are being invaded in an essentially intolerable manner.","Di ability of government, consonant wit di constitution, to shut off discourse solely to protect odas from hearing am, in oda words, dependent upon a show say substantial privacy interests dey invaded for di essentially intolerable manner.",Government
any broader view of this authority would effectively empower a majority to silence dissidents simply as a matter of personal predilections.,Any broader view of dis authority would effectively empower a majority to silence dissidents simply as a matter of personal predilections.,Government
"in this regard, persons confronted with cohen's jacket were in a quite different posture than, say, those subjected to the raucous emissions of sound trucks blaring outside their residences.","Di regard, persons confront wit cohen jacket na very different posture than, say, dem subject to di raucous emissions of sound truck blaring outside dia house.",Government
those in the los angeles courthouse could effectively avoid further bombardment of their sensibilities simply by averting their eyes.,Di los angeles courthouse go effectively avoid further bombardment of dia sensibilities simply by averting dia eyes.,Government
"and, while it maybe that one has a more substantial claim to a recognizable privacy interest when walking through a courthouse corridor than, for example, strolling through central park, surely it is nothing like the interest in being free from unwanted expression in the confines of one's own home.","for example, one get more substantial claim to recognizable privacy interest wey dey walking through courthouse corridor, for example, strolling through central park, surely nothing like di interest wey dey free from unwanted expression for di confines of one own home.",Government
"given the subtlety and complexity ofthe factors involved, if cohen's ""speech""was otherwise entitled to constitutional protection, we do not think the fact that some unwilling""listeners"" in a public building may have been briefly exposed to it can serve to justify this breach ofthe peace conviction where, as here, there was no evidence that persons powerless to avoid appellant's conduct did in fact object to it, and where that portion ofthe statute upon which cohen's conviction rests evinces no concern, either on its face or as construed by the california courts, with the special plight ofthe captive auditor, but, instead, indiscriminately sweeps within its prohibitions all""offensive conduct""that disturbs ""any neighborhood or person.""","We no think di fact say some unwilling""listeners"" for public building don dey briefly exposed to dem go justify dis breach of di peace conviction wia, as here, no evidence say persons powerless to avoid appellant conduct don dey for true object to am, and wia dat portion of di statute wey cohen's conviction wey dey suppose to justify dis breach of di peace conviction, if cohen's conviction dey suppose to justify dis breach of",Government
"it is whether california can excise, as ""offensive conduct,""one particular scurrilous epithet from the public discourse, either upon the theory ofthe court below that its use is inherently likely to cause violent reaction or upon a more general assertion that the states, acting as guardians of public morality, may properly remove this offensive word from the public vocabulary.","E dey whether california fit excise, as offensive conduct, one particular scurrilous epithet from di public discourse, either upon di theory of di court below say im use dey likely to cause violent reaction or upon a more general assertion say di state, acting as guardians of public morality, go properly remove dis offensive word from di public vocabulary.",Government
the rationale ofthe california court is plainly untenable.,Di rationale of di california court na plainly untenable,Government
"at most it reflects an ""undifferentiated fear or apprehension of disturbance[which] is not enough to overcome the right to freedom of expression.""","Dem reflect di ""undifferentiated fear or apprehension of disturbance[which] no enough to overcome di right to freedom of expression",Government
tinker v. des moines indep.,Dem tinker v. des moines indep,Government
community school dist.,Di community school dist.,Government
we have been shown no evidence that substantial numbers of citizens are standing ready to strike out physically at whoever may assault their sensibilities with execrations like that uttered by cohen.,We don show no evidence say substantial numbers of citizens dey standing ready to strike out physically for whoever dey assault dia sensibilities wit execrations like say cohen.,Government
"there maybe some persons about with such lawless and violent proclivities, but that is an insufficient base upon which to erect, consistently with constitutional values, a governmental power to force persons who wish to ventilate their dissident views into avoiding particular forms of expression.","Di suppose be some persons wey dey wit lawless and violent proclivities, but say na insufficient base wey dey upon which to erect, consistently wit constitutional values, a gomental power to force persons wey wish to ventilate dia dissident views into avoid particular form of expression.",Government
"the argument amounts to little more than the self-defeating proposition that to avoid physical censorship of one who has not sought to provoke such a response by a hypothetical coterie ofthe violent and lawless, the states may more appropriately effectuate that censorship themselves.","Di argument amount to little more than di self-defeating proposition wey to avoid physical censorship of one wey no sought to provoke such response by hypothetical coterie of di violent and lawless, di states go more appropriately effectuate say censorship themselves.",Government
"admittedly, it is not so obvious that the first and fourteenth amendments must be taken to disable the states from punishing public utterance of this unseemly expletive in order to maintain what they regard as a suitable level of discourse within the body politic.",E no dey obvious say di first and fourteenth amendments go take to disable di state from punishing public utterance of dis unseemly expletive for order to maintain what dem regard as a suitable level of discourse within di bodi politic.,Government
"we think, however, that examination and reflection will reveal the shortcomings of a contrary viewpoint.","We think, however, say examination and reflection go reveal di shortcoming of contrary viewpoint.",Government
"at the outset, we cannot overemphasize that, in our judgment, most situations where the state has a justifiable interest in regulating speech will fall within one or more ofthe various established exceptions, discussed above but not applicable here, to the usual rule that governmental bodies may not prescribe the form or content of individual expression.","Di judgment, most situations wey di state don get justifiable interest for regulating speech go fall within one or more of di various established exceptions wey dey discuss above but no dey applicable here, to di usual rule say gomental bodies no prescribe di form or content of individual expression.",Government
equally important to our conclusion is the constitutional backdrop against which our decision must be made.,Di constitutional backdrop wey we dey against awa decision must make.,Government
the constitutional right of free expression is powerful medicine in a society as diverse and populous as ours.,Di constitutional right of free expression dey powerful medicine for society as diverse and populous as ours.,Government
"it is designed and intended to remove governmental restraints from the arena of public discussion, putting the decision as to what views shall be voiced largely into the hands of each of us, in the hope that use of such robson the first amendment 44 freedom will ultimately produce a more capable citizenry and more perfect polity and in the belief that no other approach would comport with the premise of individual dignity and choice upon which our political system rests.","E dey design and intended to remove governmental restraints from di arena of public discussion, putting di decision as to what views wey dey voice largely into di hands of each of us, in di hope say use of such robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 44 freedom go ultimately produce more capable citizenry and more perfect polity and in di belief say no oda approach go dey adopt wit di premise of individual dignity and choice wey awa political system rest.",Government
"see whitney v. california(1927) (brandeis, j, concurring).","See whitney v. california(1927) (brandeis, j, concurring).",Government
"to many, the immediate consequence of this freedom may often appear to be only verbal tumult, discord, and even offensive utteranc e. these are, however, within established limits, in truth necessary side effects ofthe broader enduring values which the process of open debate permits us to achieve.","Di immediate consequence of dis freedom dey only verbal tumult, discord, and even offensive utteranc e.",Government
"that the air may at times seem filled with verbal cacophony is, in this sense not a sign of weakness but of strength.",Di sense no be sign of weakness but of strength,Government
"we cannot lose sight ofthe fact that, in what otherwise might seem a trifling and annoying instance of individual distasteful abuse of a privilege, these fundamental societal values are truly implicated.","We no lose sight of di fact say, for what odawise might seem trifling and annoying instance of individual distasteful abuse of privilege, dis fundamental societal values dey implicate.",Government
"that is why ""[w]holly neutral futilities.","Na why ""[w]holly neutral futilities.",Government
"come under the protection of free speech as fully as do keats' poems or donne's sermons,""and why""so long as the means are peaceful, the communication need not meet standards of acceptability.""","Di protection of free speech as fully as do keats' poems or donne's sermons, and why""so long as di means no meet standards of acceptability",Government
"against this perception ofthe constitutional policies involved, we discern certain more particularized considerations that peculiarly call for reversal of this conviction.",We discern certain more particularized considerations wey dem call for reversal of dis conviction.,Government
"first, the principle contended for by the state seems inherently boundless.",Di principle wey dey contended for by di state dey inherently boundless.,Government
how is one to distinguish this from an y other offensive word?,How dey one to distinguish dis from offensive word?,Government
surely the state has no right to cleanse public debate to the point where it is grammatically palatable to the most squeamish among us.,Di state no go cleanse public debate to di point wey dey grammatically palatable to di most squeamish among us.,Government
yet no readily ascertainable general principle exists for stopping short of that result were we to affirm the judgment below.,E no readily ascertainable general principle exist for stop short of dat result wey we go affirm di judgment below.,Government
"for, while the particular four-letter word being litigated here is perhaps more distasteful than most others of its genre, it is nevertheless often true that one man's vulgarity is another's lyric.","Di particular four-letter word wey dey litigated here dey perhaps more distasteful than most oda of its genre, while di particular four-letter word wey dey litigated for, while di particular four-letter word wey dey litigated here no dey true say one man's vulgarity dey one's lyric.",Government
"indeed, we think it is largely because governmental officials cannot make principled distinctions in this area that the constitution leaves matters of taste and style so largely to the individual.",We think e dey largely because governmental officials no make principled distinctions for dis area say di constitution leave matters of taste and style so largely to di individual.,Government
"additionally, we cannot overlook the fact, because it is well illustrated by the episode involved here, that much linguistic expression serves a dual communicative function: it conveys not only ideas capable of relatively precise, detached explication, but otherwise inexpressible emotions aswell.","We no dey overlook di fact, because di linguistic expression dey well illustrated by di episode involved here, say much linguistic expression dey serve dual communicative function: e dey suppose dey detached, detached explication, but odawise inexpressible emotions aswell.",Government
"in fact, words are often chosen as much for their emotive as their cognitive force.","For fact, words dey often chosen as much for dia emotive as dia cognitive force",Government
"we cannot sanction the view that the constitution, while solicitous ofthe cognitive content of individual speech, has little or no regard for that emotive function which, practically speaking, may often be the more important element ofthe overall message sought to be communicated.","We no sanction di view say di constitution, while solicitous of di cognitive content of individual speech, no be di more important element of di overall message wey dey communicate.",Government
"indeed, governments might soon seize upon the censorship of particular words as a convenient guise for banning the expression of unpopular views.","Indeed, governments might soon seize upon di censorship of particular words as a convenient guise for banning di how person talk im mind of unpopular views.",Government
"we have been able, as noted above, to discern little social benefit that might result from running the risk of opening the door to such grave results.","We don able, as not above, to discern little social benefit wey might result from running di risk of opening di door to such grave results.",Government
"it is, in sum, our judgment that, absent a more particularized and compelling reason for its actions, the state may not, consistently with the first and fourteenth amendments, make the simple public display here involved of this single four-letter expletive a criminal offense.","Di state no, consistently wit di first and fourteenth amendments, make di simple public display here involved of dis single four letter expletive a criminal offense.",Government
"because that is the only arguably sustainable rationale for the conviction here at issue, the judgment below must be reversed.",Di judgment below must reversed.,Government
"m r. justice blackmun, with whom the chief justice[burger ]and mr.",Di chief justice[burger ]and mr.,Government
"justice black join, dissenting.","Justice black join, dissenting.",Government
"as a consequence, this court's agonizing over first amendment values seems misplaced and unnecessary.",Di court's agonizing over First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) values dey misplace and unnecessary.,Government
"[the second reason concerns the court's"" jurisdiction""over the constitutional question].",Di second reason concern di court's jurisdiction over di constitutional question].,Government
"justice white, dissenting opinion, discussing the second reason, omitted].","Di second reason, omitted].",Government
robson the first amendment 45 notes 1.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 45 notes 1.,Government
"the exclusion of certain types of speech as unprotected by the first amendment is often described as the ""categorical"" approach.","Di exclusion of certain type of speech as unprotected by First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) dey often described as di ""categorical"" approach.",Government
consider the categories of speech that the court excludes from first amendment consideration.,Di categories of speech wey di court exclude from First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) consideration.,Government
what is the first amendment doctrine that develops for those categories?,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) doctrine wey develop for those categories?,Government
is it operative in the next cases?,Di operative for di next case?,Government
"why does the court reject the""appropriately decorous atmosphere in the courthouse""for sustaining cohen's conviction?","Di court reject di""appropriately decorous atmosphere for di courthouse""for sustaining cohen conviction?",Government
distinguishing protected advocacy brandenburg v. ohio 395 u. s. 444(1969) per curiam opinion for the court.,Dem distinguishing protected advocacy brandenburg v. ohio 395 u. s. 444(1969) per curiam opinion for di court.,Government
justice douglas and justice black filed concurrin g opinions.,Justice douglas and justice black filed concurrin g opinions.,Government
per curiam opinion for the court.,Di court reject di curiam opinion for di court,Government
"the appellant, a leader of a ku klux klan group, was convicted under the ohio criminal syndicalism statute for ""advocat[ing].","Di appellant, leader of ku klux klan group, dey convicted under di ohio criminal syndicalism statute for ""advocat[ing].",Government
"the duty, necessity, or propriety of crime, sabotage, violence, or unlawful methods of terrorism as a means of accomplishing industrial or political reform""and for""voluntarily assembl[ing] with any society, group, or assemblage of persons formed to teach or advocate the doctrines of criminal syndicalism.""","Di duty, necessity, or propriety of crime, sabotage, violence, or unlawful methods of terrorism as means of accomplishing industrial or political reform""and for""voluntarily assembling wit any society, group, or assemblage of persons wey dey formed to teach or advocate di doctrines of criminal syndicalism as means of accomplishing industrial or political reform""and for""voluntarily assembling wit any society, group, or assemblage of persons wey dey formed to teach or advocate di doctrin",Government
"he was fined$1, 000 and sentenced to one to 10 years' imprisonment.","E dey fine$1, 000 and sentenced to one to 10 years' imprisonment",Government
"the appellant challenged the constitutionality ofthe criminal syndicalism statute under the first and fourteenth amendments to the united states constitution, but the intermediate appellate court of ohio affirmed his conviction without opinion.","Di appellant challenge di constitutionality of di criminal syndicalism statute under di first and fourteenth amendments to di united states constitution, but di intermediate appellate court of ohio affirm hin conviction wit opinion.",Government
"the supreme court of ohio dismissed his appeal, sua sponte, ""for the reason that no substantial constitutional question exists herein.""","Di supreme court of ohio dismiss hin appeal, Sua sponte, ""for di reason say no substantial constitutional question exist herein.",Government
it did not file an opinion or explain its conclusions.,E no file opinion or explain im conclusions,Government
"appeal was taken to this court, and we noted probable jurisdiction.",We not probable jurisdiction.,Government
"the record shows that a man, identified at trial as the appellant, telephoned an announcer-reporter on the staff of a cincinnati television station and invited him to come to a ku klux klan""rally"" to be held at a farm in hamilton county.","Di record show say a man, identified for trial as di appellant, telephone an announcer-reporter on di staff of a cincinnati television station and invite him to kom to a ku klux klan""rally"" to be for farm for hamilton county.",Government
"with the cooperation ofthe organizers, the reporter and a cameraman attended the meeting and filmed the events.","Di organizers, di reporter and cameraman attend di meeting and film di events",Government
portions ofthe films were later broadcast on the local station and on a national network.,Di films don later broadcast on di local station and on national network.,Government
the prosecution's case rested on the films and on testimony identifying the appellant as the person who communicated with the reporter and who spoke at the rally.,Di prosecution's case rest on di films and on testimony identifying di appellant as di person wey communicate wit di reporter and wey spoke for di rally.,Government
"the state also introduced into evidence several articles appearing in the film, including a pistol, a rifle, a shotgun, ammunition, a bible, and a red hood worn by the speaker in the films.","Di state also introduce into evidence several artic wey dey appear for di film, including pistol, rifle, shotgun, ammunition, bible, and red hood wey di speaker for di films.",Government
"one film showed 12 hooded figures, some of whom carried firearms.","One film showed 12 hooded figures, some of whom carried firearms.",Government
"they were gathered around a large wooden cross, which they burned.","Diy dey gather around large wooden cross, wey dem burn.",Government
noone was present other than the participants and the newsmen who made the film.,Di participants and di newsmen wey make di film.,Government
"most ofthe words uttered during the scene were incomprehensible when the film was projected, but scattered phrases could be understood that were derogatory of negroes and, in one instance, of jews.","Di words wey dey utter for di scene dey incomprehensible wen di film dey project, but scattered phrases dey derogatory of negroes and, for one instance, of Jews.",Government
"another scene on the same film showed the appellant, in klan regalia, making a speech.","Di scene on di same film show di appellant, for klan regalia, make speech",Government
"the speech, in full, was as follows:""this is an organizers' meeting.","Di speech, for full, na as follow:"" dis dey organizers' meeting",Government
"we have had quite a few members here today which are we have hundreds, hundreds of members throughout the state of ohio.","We don get quite few members here today wey be we get hundreds, hundreds of members throughout di state of ohio.",Government
the klan has more members in the robson the first amendment 46 state of ohio than does any other organization.,Di klan don more members for robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 46 state of ohio than does any oda organization.,Government
"we're not a revengent organization, but if our president, our congress, our supreme court, continues to suppress the white, caucasian race, it's possible that there might have to be some revengeance taken.","Di president, awa congress, awa supreme court, continue to suppress di white, caucasian race, im possible say e go get some revengeance taken.",Government
"""we are marching on congress july the fourth, four hundred thousand strong.","We dey march on congress july di fourth, four hundred thousand strong.",Government
"from there we are dividing into two groups, one group to march on st. augustine, florida, the other group to march into mississippi.","We divide two groups, one group to march on st. augustine, florida, di oda group to march into mississippi.",Government
"the second film showed six hooded figures one of whom, later identified as the appellant, repeated a speech very similar to that recorded on the first film.","Di second film show six hooded figure one of whom, later identified as di appellant, repeat speech very similar to dat record on di first film.",Government
"the reference to the possibility of ""revengeance"" was omitted, and one sentence was added:""personally, i believe the nigger should be returned to africa, the jew returned to israel.""","Di reference to di possibility of ""revengeance"" dey omitted, and one sentence dey add:""personally, i believe di nigger go return to Africa, di Jew return to israel",Government
"though some ofthe figures in the films carried weapons, the speaker did not.",Di speaker no dey.,Government
the ohio criminal syndicalism statute was enacted in 1919.,Di ohio criminal syndicalism statute dey enacted for 1919.,Government
"from 1917 to 1920, identical or quite similar laws were adopted by 20 states and two territories.","For 1917 to 1920, identical or quite similar laws dey adopt 20 states and two territories.",Government
"in 1927, this court sustained th e constitutionality of california's criminal syndicalism act, the text of which is quite similar to that ofthe laws of ohio.","Di court tok say di constitutionality of california criminal syndicalism act, di text of which dey similar to say of di laws of ohio.",Government
whitney v. california(1927).,Wey whitney v. california(1927).,Government
"the court upheld the statute on the ground that, without more,""advocating"" violent means to effect political and economic change involves such danger to the security ofthe state that the state may outlaw it.","Di court upheld di statute on di ground say, without more,""advocating"" violent means to effect political and economic change involves such danger to di security of di state wey di state go outlaw am.",Government
but whitney has been thoroughly discredited by later decisions.,But whitney don dey thoroughly discredited by later decision,Government
see dennis v. united states(1951).,Di dennis v. united state(1951).,Government
these later decisions have fashioned the principle that the constitutional guarantees of free speech and free press do not permit a state to forbid or proscribe advocacy ofthe use of force or of law violation except where such advocacy is directed to inciting or producing imminent lawless action and is likely to incite or produce such action.,Di later decision don fashion di principle say di constitutional guarantees of free speech and free press no allow state to forbid or proscribe advocacy of di use of force or of law violation except wia such advocacy dey direct to incite or produce such action.,Government
"as we said in noto v. united states(1961), ""the mere abstract teaching.","We tok for noto v. united states(1961), "" di mere abstract teaching.",Government
"ofthe moral propriety or even moral necessity for a resort to force and violence, is not the same as preparing a group for violent action and steeling it to such action.""","Di moral propriety or even moral necessity for a resort to force and violence, no dey di same as preparing group for violent action and steeling am to such action",Government
a statute which fails to draw this distinction impermissibly intrudes upon the freedoms guaranteed by the first and fourteenth amendments.,Di statute wey fail to draw dis distinction impermissibly intrudes upon di freedom wey dey guaranteed by di first and fourteenth amendments.,Government
it sweeps within its condemnation speech which our constitution has immunized from governmental control.,Di constitution don immunize from governmental control.,Government
"measured by this test, ohio's criminal syndicalism act cannot be sustained.","Di test, ohio's criminal syndicalism act no dey sustained.",Government
neither the indictment nor the trial judge's instructions to the jury in anyway refined the statute's bald definition ofthe crime in terms of mere advocacy not distinguished from incitement to imminent lawless action.,Di indictment nor di trial judge instructions to di jury for anyway refine di statute's bald definition of di crime for terms of mere advocacy no distinguished from incitement to imminent lawless action.,Government
"accordingly, we are here confronted with a statute which, by its own words and as applied, purports to punish mere advocacy and to forbid, on pain of criminal punishment, assembly with others merely to advocate the described type of action.","We dey confront wit a statute wey, by its own words and as applied, purport to punish mere advocacy and to forbid, on pain of criminal punishment, assembly wit odas merely to advocate di described type of action.",Government
such a statute falls within the condemnation ofthe first and fourteenth amendments.,Di statute dey fall within di condemnation of di first and fourteenth amendments.,Government
"the contrary teaching of whitney v. california, cannot be supported, and that decision is therefore overruled.","Di contrary teaching of whitney v. california, no be supported, and say decision no dey overruled.",Government
"justice douglas, concurring.","Justice douglas, concurring.",Government
"while i join the opinion ofthe court, i desire to enter a caveat.","I dey join di opinion of di court, i desire to enter caveat",Government
"the""clear and present danger""test was adumbrated by mr. justice holmes in a case arising during world war ia war""declared"" by the congress, not by the chief executive.","Di""clear and present danger""test dey adumbrated by mr. justice holmes for case wey dey arising during world war i war""declared"" by di congress, no by di chief executive.",Government
"the case was schenck v. united states, where the defendant was charged with attempts to cause insubordination in the military and obstruction of enlistment.","Di case dey schenck v. united states, wey di defendant charge wit attempt to cause insubordination for di military and obstruction of enlistment.",Government
"robson the first amendment 47 the court quite properly overrules whitney v. california, which involved advocacy of ideas which the majority ofthe court deemed unsound an d dangerous.","Di court quite properly overrules whitney v. california, wey dey involved advocacy of ideas wey di majority of di court dey unsound an d dangerous.",Government
"mr. justice holmes, though never formally abandoning the""clear and present danger""test, moved closer to the first amendment ideal* * * in dissent in gitlow v. new york.","Di justice holmes, though never formally abandon di""clear and present danger""test, moved closer to First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) ideal",Government
"justice black, concurring [omitted] hess v. indiana 414 u. s. 105(1973) per curiam opinion for the court.","Justice black, concurring [omitted] hess v. indiana 414 u. s. 105(1973) per curiam wetin dem talk for di kot.",Government
"justice rehnquist filed a dissenting opinion, in which the chief justice and justice blackmun joined.","Di chief justice and justice blackmun filed dissenting opinion, wey di chief justice and justice blackmun joined.",Government
gregory hess appeals from his conviction in the indiana courts for violating the state's disorderly conduct statute.,Di gregory hess appeal from hin conviction for di indiana court for violating di state's disorderly conduct statute.,Government
"appellant contends that his conviction should be reversed because the statute is unconstitutionally vague, because the statute is overbroad in that it forbids activity that is protected under the first and fourteenth amendments, and because the statute, as applied here, abridged his constitutionally protected freedom of speech, these contentions were rejected in the city court, where hess was convicted, and in th e superior court, which reviewed his conviction.","Di statute dey overbroad for say di statute dey unconstitutionally vague, because di statute dey unconstitutionally vague, because di statute dey overbroad for say di statute dey unconstitutionally vague, because di statute dey unconstitutionally vague, because di statute dey unconstitutionally vague, because di statute dey unconstitutionally vague, because di statute dey unconstitutionally vague, because di statute dey abridge hin constitutionally protected freedom of speech,",Government
"the supreme court of indiana, with one dissent, considered and rejected each of hess' constitutional contentions, and accordingly affirmed his conviction.","Di supreme court of indiana, wit one dissent, consider and reject each of hess' constitution contentions, and accordingly affirm hin conviction.",Government
the events leading to hess' conviction began with an antiwar demonstration on the campus of indiana university.,Di events wey dey leading to hess' conviction began wit antiwar demonstration for di campus of indiana university.,Government
"in the course ofthe demonstration, approximately 100 to 150 ofthe demonstrators moved onto a public street and blocked the passage of vehicles.","For di course of di demonstration, approximately 100 to 150 of di demonstrators moved onto a everybody street and blocked di passage of vehicles.",Government
"when the demonstrators did not respond to verbal directions from the sheriff to clear the street, the sheriff and his deputies began walking up the street, and the demonstrators in their path moved to the curbs on either side, joining a large number of spectators who had gathered.","Di demonstrators no respond to verbal direction from di sheriff to clear di street, di sheriff and hin deputies began walking up di street, and di demonstrators for dia path moved to curbs on either side, join a large number of spectators wey dey gather.",Government
hess was standing off the street as the sheriff passed him.,Di sheriff pass am.,Government
"the sheriff heard hess utter the word""fuck"" in what he later described as aloud voice and immediately arrested him on the disorderly conduct charge.","Di sheriff hear hess utter di word""fuck"" for wen he later described as loud voice and immediately arrest him on di disorderly conduct charge.",Government
"it was later stipulated that what appellant had said was""we'll take the fucking street later,""or ""we'll take the fucking street again.""","Na later stipulated say we go take di fucking street later, or ""we go take di fucking street again""or ""we go take di fucking street again",Government
"two witnesses who were in the immediate vicinity testified, apparently without contradiction, that they heard hess' words and witnessed his arrest.","Di two witnesses wey dey inside di immediate vicinity testified, apparently without contradiction, say dem hear hess' words and witness hin arrest.",Government
"they indicated that hess did not appear to be exhorting the crowd to go back into the street, that he was facing the crowd and not the street when he uttered the statement, that his statement did not appear to be addressed to any particular person or group, and that his tone, although loud, wa s no louder than that ofthe other people in the area.","Dem tok say hess no appear to dey exhort di crowd to go back into di street, say hin tone, although loud, wa s no louder than di oda pipo for di area.",Government
indiana's disorderly conduct statute was applied in this case to punish only spoken words.,Na Indiana's disorderly conduct statute dey applied for dis case to punish only spoken words,Government
"it hardly needs repeating that""[t]he constitutional guarantees of freedom of speech forbid the states to punish the use of words or language not within`narrowly limited classes of speech.'""",Di constitutional guarantee of freedom of speech forbid di state to punish di use of words or language no within`narrowly limited class of speech.,Government
"the words here did not fall within any of these""limited classes.""","Di words here no fall within any of dis""limited class""",Government
"in the first place, it is clear that the indiana court specifically abjured any suggestion that hess' words could be punished as obscene.",Di indiana court specifically abjur any suggestion say hess' words go dey punished as obscene.,Government
"by the same token, any suggestion that hess' speech amounted to""fighting words,"" chaplinsky v. new hampshire(1942), could not withstand scrutiny.","Di same token, any suggestion say hess' speech amount to""fighting words"", chaplinsky v. new hampshire(1942), no fit get scrutiny.",Government
"even if under other circumstances this language could be regarded as a personal insult, the evidence is undisputed that hess' statement was not directed to any person or group in particular.",Di evidence dey undisputed say hess' statement no dey direct to any person or group for particular.,Government
"although the sheriff testified that he was offended by robson the first amendment 48 the language, he also stated that he did not interpret the expression as being directed personally at him, and the evidence is clear that appellant had his back to the sheriff at the time.","Di sheriff testified say hin dey offended by robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 48 di language, hin tok say hin no interpret di expression as being direct personally for hin, and di evidence dey clear say appellant no dey back to di sheriff for di time.",Government
"thus, under our decisions, the state could not punish this speech as""fighting words.""","Di state no dey punish dis speech as""fighting words""",Government
"at best, however, the statement could be taken as counsel for present moderation; at worst, it amounted to nothing more than advocacy of illegal action at some indefinite future time.","For worst, di statement go take as counsel for present moderation; at worst, di statement go take as counsel for present moderation; at worst, e amount to nothing more than advocacy of illegal action for some indefinite future time.",Government
this is not sufficient to permit the state to punish hess' speech.,Dis no sufficient to allow di state to punish hess' speech.,Government
"under our decisions,""the constitutional guarantees of free speech and free press do not permit a state to forbid or proscribe advocacy ofthe use of force or of law violation except where such advocacy is directed to inciting or producing imminent lawless action and is likely to incite or produce such action.""",Di constitutional guarantees of free speech and free press no allow state to forbid or proscribe advocacy of di use of force or of law violation except wia such advocacy dey direct to incite or produce imminent lawless action.,Government
brandenburg v. ohio(1969).,Brandenburg v. ohio(1969).,Government
"since the uncontroverted evidence showed that hess' statement was not directed to any person or group of persons, it cannot be said that he was advocating, in the normal sense, any action.","Di uncontroverted evidence show say hess statement no direct to any person or group of persons, e no be tok say e dey advocatin, for di normal sense, any action.",Government
"and since there was no evidence, or rational inference from the import ofthe language, that his words were intended to produce, and likely to produce, imminent disorder, those words could not be punished by the state on the ground that they had""a `tendency to lead to violence.'","Nano evidence, or rational inference from di import of di language, say hin words dey produce, and likely to produce, imminent disorder, those words no be punished by di state on di ground say dem dey suppose produce, imminent disorder, those words could no be punished by di state on di ground say dem no go produce, imminent disorder, those words no bepunished by di state on di ground say dem dey suppose lead to violence.",Government
"accordingly, the motion to proceed in forma pauperis is granted and the judgment ofthe supreme court of indiana is reversed.",Di motion to proceed for forma pauperis don grant and di judgment of di supreme court of indiana don reversed.,Government
"m r. justice rehnquist, with whom the chief justice and mr.",Di chief justice and mr.,Government
"justice blackmun join, dissenting.","Justice blackmun join, dissenting.",Government
the court's per curiam opinion rendered today aptly demonstrates the difficulties inherent in substituting a different complex of factual inferences for the inferences reached by the courts below.,Di court's per curiam opinion render today aptly demonstrat di difficulties wey dey inherent for substituting different complex of factual inferences for di inferences wey di courts below.,Government
"since it is not clear tome that the court has a sufficient basis for its action, i dissent.","E no clear tome say di court don get sufficient basis for its action, i dissent.",Government
"it should be noted at the outset that the case was tried de novo in the superior court of indiana upon a stipulated set of facts, and, therefore, th e record is perhaps unusually colorless and devoid of life.","Di case dey try de novo for di superior court of indiana upon stipulated set of facts, and, therefore, di record dey perhaps unasually colorless and devoid of life",Government
"nevertheless, certain facts are clearly established.","Di facts dey clearly establish, certain facts dey clearly established",Government
appellant was arrested during the course of an antiwar demonstration conducted at indiana university in may 1970.,Di appellant dey arrest for di course of antiwar demonstration conducted for indiana university for May 1970.,Government
"the demonstration was of sufficient size and vigor to require the summoning of police, and both the sheriff's department and the bloomington police department were asked to help university officials and police remove demonstrators blocking doorways to a campus building.","Di demonstration dey of sufficient size and vigor to require di summoning of police, and both di sheriff's department and di bloomington police department dey ask to help university officials and police remove demonstrators block doorways to campus building.",Government
"at the time th e sheriff arrived,""approximately 200-300 persons""were assembled at that particular building.","Di time th e sheriff arrive,""approximately 200-300 persons""dey assembled for di particular building.",Government
"the doorways eventually were cleared of demonstrators, but, in the process, two students were placed under arrest.","Di doorways dey clear of demonstrators, but, for di process, two students dey place under arrest.",Government
this action did not go unnoticed by the demonstrators.,Di action no go unnoticed by di demonstrators.,Government
"as the stipulation notes,""[i]n apparent response to these arrests, about 100-150 ofthe persons who had gathered as spectators went into indiana avenue in front of bryan hall and in front ofthe patrol car in which the two arrestees had been placed.""","Di stipulation note,""[i]n apparent response to dis arrests, about 100-150 of di person wey dey gather as spectators go into indiana avenue for front of bryan hall and for front of di patrol car wey di two arrestees don place",Government
"thus, by contrast to the majority's somewhat antiseptic description of this massing as being""[i]n the course ofthe demonstration,""the demonstrators' presence in the street was not part ofthe normal""course ofthe demonstration""but could reasonably be construed as an attempt to intimidate and impede the arresting officers.","Di majority's somewhat antiseptic description of dis massing as being""[i]n di course of di demonstration, di demonstrators presence for di street no dey part of di normal""course of di demonstration""but could reasonably dey construct as an attempt to intimidate and impede di arresting officers.",Government
"furthermore, as the stipulation also notes, the demonstrators""did not respond to verbal directions""from the sheriff to clear the street.","As di stipulation note, di demonstrators no respond to verbal directions from di sheriff to clear di street.",Government
"thus, the sheriff and his deputies found it necessary to disperse demonstrators by walking up the street directly into their path.",Di sheriff and hin deputies found im necessary to disperse demonstrators by walking up di street directly into dia path.,Government
only at that point did the demonstrators move to the curbs.,Di demonstrators move to di curbs,Government
"the stipulation contains only one other declaration of fact: that sheriff thrasher arrested the appell ant, gregory hess, for disorderly conduct.","Sheriff thrasher arrest di appellant, gregory hess, for disorderly conduct.",Government
"the remainder ofthe stipulation merely summarizes testimony, particularly the testimony of sheriff thrasher, two female witnesses(both students at indiana university)who were apparently part ofthe crowd, and d r. owen thomas, a professor of english at the university.","Di remainder of di stipulation merely summarizes testimony, particularly di testimony of sheriff thrasher, two female witnesses(both students for indiana university) wey dey part of di crowd, and d r. owen thomas, professor of english for di university.",Government
"the only""established"" facts which emerge from these summaries are that""hess was standing off the street on the eastern curb of indiana avenue""and that he said, in the words ofthe trial court,""w e'll take the fucking street later(or again).""","Di only""established"" facts wey emerge from dis summaries na say""hess dey standing off di street on di eastern curb of indiana avenue""and say hin tok say, for di words of di trial court,""w e go take di fucking street later(or again).",Government
"the two female witnesses testified, as the majority correctly observes, that they were not offended by hess' statement, that it robson the first amendment 49 was said no louder than statements by other demonstrators,""that hess did not appear to be exhorting the crowd to go back into the street,""that he was facing the crowd, and ""that his statement did not appear to be addressed to any particular person or group.""","Di two female witnesses testify, as di majority correctly observe, say dem no dey reach di crowd, and say hin statement no dey address any particular person or group.",Government
"the majority makes much of this ""uncontroverted evidence,"" but i am unable to find anywhere in the opinion an explanation of why it must be believed.","Di majority make much of dis ""uncontroverted evidence,"" but i no dey unable to find anywhere for di opinion an explanation of why e must be believe.",Government
"surely the sentence""we'll take the fucking street later(or again)""is susceptible of characterization as an exhortation, particularly when uttered in aloud voice while facing a crowd.","Di sentence""we go take di fucking street later(or again)dey susceptible of characterization as exhortation, particularly wen utter in loud voice while face crowd.",Government
"the opinions of two defense witnesses cannot be considered proof to the contrary, since the trial court was perfectly free to reject this testimony if it so desired.",Di trial court dey perfectly free to reject dis testimony if im so desired.,Government
"perhaps, as these witnesses and the majority opinion seem to suggest, appellant was simply expressing his views to the world at large, but that is surely not the only rational explanation.","As dis witnesses and di majority opinion dey suggest, appellant dey express hin views to di world for large, but say dem no dey only di only rational explanation.",Government
"the majority also places great emphasis on appellant's use ofthe word""later,"" even suggesting at one point that the statement""could be taken as counsel for present moderation.""","Di majority also place great emphasis on appellant use of di word""later,"" even suggest at one point say di statement go take as counsel for present moderation.",Government
"the opinion continues:""[a]t worst, it amounted to nothing more than advocacy of illegal action at some indefinite future time.""","Di opinion continue:""[a]t worst, e amount to nothing more than advocacy of illegal action for some indefinite future time",Government
"from that observation, the majority somehow concludes that the advocacy was not directed towards inciting imminent action.",Di majority somehow conclude say di advocacy no direct towards inciting imminent action.,Government
"but whatever other theoretical interpretations maybe placed upon the remark, there are surely possible constructions ofthe statement which would encompass more or less immediate and continuing action against the harassed police.",Di remark na surely possible construction of di statement wey go encompass more or less immediate and continuing action against di harassed police.,Government
they should not be rejected out of hand because of an unexplained preference for other acceptable alternatives.,Dem no be reject out of hand because of di unexplained preference for oda alternatives.,Government
the simple explanation for the result in this case is that the majority has interpreted the evidence differently from the courts below.,Di simple explanation for di result for dis case na say di majority don interpret di evidence differently from di courts below.,Government
"in doing so, however, i believe the court has exceeded the proper scope of our review.",I believe di court don exceeded di proper scope of our review.,Government
"rather than considering the""evidence"" in the light most favorable to the appellee and resolving credibility questions against the appellant, as many of our cases have required, the court has instead fashioned its own version of events from a paper record, some ""uncontroverted evidence,""and a large measure of conjecture.","Di court don fashion dia own version of events from paper record, some ""uncontroverted evidence""for di light most favorable to di appellee and resolve credibility questions against di appellant, as many of awa case don require, di court don fashion dia own version of events from paper record, some ""uncontroverted evidence,""and large measure of conjecture.",Government
"since this is not the traditional function of any appellate court, and is surely not a wise or proper use ofthe authority of this court, i dissent.","Di traditional function of any appellate court, and dey surely no dey wise or proper use of di authority of dis court, i dissent.",Government
the court in brandenburg articulated a standard to distinguish protected advocacy from unprotected speech.,Di kot for brandenburg articulated a standard to distinguish protected advocacy from unprotected talk.,Government
make sure you can articulate that standard.,Make sure you fit articulate dat standard,Government
"the court in brandenburg overr ules whitney v. california explicitly, reasoning that the ohio syndicalism act at issue in brandenburg is similar to the california syndicalism act under which whitney was prosecuted.",Di ohio syndicalism act for issue for brandenburg dey similar to di california syndicalism act under which whitney dey prosecuted.,Government
"should other cases also have been overruled, as justice douglas seems to have suggested in his dissent?","As justice douglas don suggest for hin dissent, as justice douglas don suggest for hin dissent?",Government
"is there an argument that the speech in brandenburg was actually more of a""clear and present""danger than the speech in whitney?","Di argument say di speech for brandenburg dey more of a""clear and present""danger than di speech for whitney?",Government
the dissent in hess suggests that the statements and acts of hess are less clear that the court describes them.,Di dissent for hess suggest say di statement and act of hess dey less clear say di court describe dem,Government
can you revise the statements and the acts of hess so that they would be unprotected under the brandenburg standard?,Dem revise di statement and di act of hess so say dem go dey unprotected under di brandenburg standard?,Government
"importantly, and similar to cohen, hess was convicted under a disorderly conduct statute but was able to raise a first amendment claim to the statute as applied to his speech acts.","Di importantly, and similar to cohen, hess dey convicted under disorderly conduct statute but dey able to raise First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) claim to di statute as apply to hin speech act.",Government
"note: the heckler's veto the danger of provoking violence by speech is sometimes said to pose the problem ofthe ""he ckler's veto.""","Di heckler's veto di danger of provoking violence by speech dey tok say to pose di problem of di""he ckler's veto""",Government
"can a rowdy crowd or ""hecklers"" essentially extinguish a speaker's first amendment rights by posing a danger of violence?","Fit a rowdy crowd or ""hecklers"" essentially extinguish a speaker's First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) rights by posing a danger of violence?",Government
"on the other hand, can apathetic or nonviolent listeners essentially grant a speaker first amendment protection.","On di other hand, fit apathetic or nonviolent listeners essentially grant a speaker First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) protection.",Government
"a crowd gathered, seemingly mostly of children, who yelled back and threw items at the""preachers.""","Di crowd wey dey gather, seemingly mostly of children, wey yelle back and threw items for di""preachers""",Government
the throwing and yelling escalated.,Di throwing and yelling escalated.,Government
"a law enforcement officer from the county asked the bible believers to leave, and -when pressed- saying they would be cited for disorderly conduct:""you need to leave.","Di law enforcement officer from di county asked di bible believers to leave, and -when pressed- say dem need to leave.",Government
"if you don't leave, we're going to cite you for disorderly.",We go cite you for disorderly.,Government
you're creating a disturbance.,We dey create disturbance.,Government
"this is crazy!""","E dey crazy!""",Government
they were eventually escorted out.,E dey eventually escort out.,Government
members ofthe bible believers brought suit in federal court arguing that their first amendment rights were violated.,Di bible believers don bring suit for federal court arguing say dia First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) rights dey violated.,Government
the district judge granted summary judgment in favor ofthe county and its officials.,Di district judge grant summary judgment for favor of di county and its officials,Government
"on appeal, a divided sixth circuit panel affirmed, with the dissenting judge arguing that the""law enforcement is principally required to protect lawful speakers over and above law-breakers.""",Di dissenting judge tok say di law enforcement dey principally required to protect lawful speakers over and above law-breakers,Government
the sixth circuit en banc vacated the panel opinion.,Di sixth circuit en banc vacated di panel opinion.,Government
what do you think the proper result should be and why?,Di proper result go be and why?,Government
"holder v. humanitarian law project 561 u. s. 1(2010) roberts, c. j, delivered the opinion ofthe court, in which stevens, scalia, kennedy, thomas, and alito, jj,","roberts, c. j, deliver di opinion of di court, wey stevens, scalia, kennedy, thomas, and alito, jj.",Government
"breyer, j, filed a dissenting opinion, in which ginsburg and sotomayo r, jj,","Di breyer, j, filed dissenting opinion, wey ginsburg and sotomayo r, jj, filed dissenting opinion, wey ginsburg and sotomayo r, jj.",Government
chief justice roberts delivered the opinion ofthe court.,Dem deliver di opinion of di court.,Government
"congress has prohibited the provision of""material support or resources""to certain foreign organizations that engage in terrorist activity.",Di congress don prohibit di provision of material support or resources to certain foreign organizations wey engage for terrorist activity.,Government
"that prohibition is based on a finding that the specified organizations""are so tainted by their criminal conduct that any contribution to such an organization facilitates that conduct.""",Di specific organizations dey so tainted by dia criminal conduct say any contribution to such organization facilitate say conduct.,Government
"antiterrorism and effective death penalty act of 1996 (aedpa), 301(a)(7),110 stat.","Aedpa), 301(a)(7),110 stat.",Government
the plaintiffs in this litigation seek to provide support to two such organizations.,Di plaintiffs for dis litigation seek to provide support to two such organization.,Government
"plaintiffs claim that they seek to facilitate only the lawful, nonviolent purposes of those groups, and that applying the material-support law to prevent them from doing so violates the constitution.","Di plaintiffs claim say dem seek to facilitate only di lawful, nonviolent purpose of those groups, and say dem apply di material-support law to prevent dem from do so violate di constitution.",Government
"in particular, they claim that the statute is too vague, in violation ofthe fifth amendment, and that it infringes their rights to freedom of speech an d association, in violation ofthe first amendment.","Di claim say di statute dey too vague, for violation of di fifth amendment, and say dem dey viola dia rights to freedom of speech an association, for violation of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).",Government
we conclude that the material-support statute is constitutional as applied to the particular activities plaintiffs have told us they wish to pursue.,We conclude say di material-support statute dey constitutional as apply to di particular activities plaintiffs don tell us dem wish to pursue.,Government
"we do not, however, address the resolution of more difficult cases that may arise under the statute in the future.","We no, however, address di resolution of more difficult case wey dey arise under di statute for di future.",Government
"robson the first amendment 51 i this litigation concerns 18 u. s. c. 2339b, which makes it a federal crime to""knowingly provid[e] material support or resources to a foreign terrorist organization.""","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 51 i dis litigation concern 18 u. s. c. 2339b, wey make di federal crime to""knowingly provide material support or resources to foreign terrorist organization.",Government
"congress has amended the definition of""material support or resources""periodically, but at present it is defined as follows:""[t]he term 'material support or resources' means any property, tangible or intangible, or service, including currency or monetary instruments or financial securities, financial services, lodging, training, expert advice or assistance, safehouses, false documentation or identification, communications equipment, facilities, weapons, lethal substances, explosives, personnel(1 or more individuals who maybe or include oneself), and transportation, except medicine or religious materials.""","Di term 'material support or resources' means any property, tangible or intangible, or service, including currency or monetary instrument or financial securities, financial services, lodging, training, expert advice or assistance, safehouses, false documentation or identification, communications equipment, facilities, weapons, lethal substances, explosives, personnel(1 or more individuals wey dey be or include, safehouses, false documentation or identification, communications equipment, facilities, weapons, lethal substances, explosives, personnel(1",Government
"the authority to designate an entity a""foreign terrorist organization""rests with the secretary of state.","Di authority to designate an entity a""foreign terrorist organization""rests wit di secretary of state.",Government
"she may, in consultation with the secretary ofthe treasury and the attorney general, so designate an organization upon finding that it is foreign, engages in""terrorist activity""or ""terrorism,""and thereby""threatens the security of united states nationals or the national security ofthe united states.""","She may, for consultation wit di secretary of di treasury and di attorney general, so design organization upon finding say e dey foreign, engage for""terrorist activity""or ""terrorism,""and e dey threaten di security of united states national or di way wey dem take dey protect di kontri, di pipo wey dey di kontri, and di tins wey important for di kontri from bad tins wey fit happen from outside or inside, including make sure say terrorist no go cause trouble, or say anoder kontri no go spy on dem of di united state.",Government
"'[n]ational security' means the national defense, foreign relations, or economic interests ofthe united states.""","Di national defense, foreign relations, or economic interest of di united state",Government
an entity designated a foreign terrorist organization may seek review of that designation before the d. c. circuit within 30 days of that designation.,Di entity designated foreign terrorist organization go seek review of dat designation before did. c. circuit within 30 days of dat designation.,Government
"in 1997, the secretary of state designated 30 groups as foreign terrorist organizations.","For 1997, di secretary of state designated 30 groups as foreign terrorist organizations.",Government
see 62 fed.,Dem see 62 fed,Government
"two of those groups are the kurdistan workers' party(also known as the partiya karkeran kurdistan, or pkk)and the liberation tigers of tamil eelam (ltte).","Di partiya karkeran kurdistan, or pkk)and di liberation tigers of tamil eelam (ltte) and di liberation tigers of tamil eelam (ltte).",Government
the pkk is an organization founded in 1974 with the aim of establishing an independent kurdish state in southeastern turkey.,Di pkk na organization wey dey found for 1974 wit di aim of establish independent kurdish state for southeastern turkey.,Government
the l tte is an organization founded in 1976 for the purpose of creating an independent tamil state in sri lanka.,Di l tte na organization wey dey found for 1976 for di purpose of create independent tamil state for sri lanka.,Government
the district court in this action found that the pkk and the ltte engage in political and humanitarian activities.,Di district court for dis action find say di pkk and di ltte engage for political and humanitarian activities.,Government
"the government has presented evidence that both groups have also committed numerous terrorist attacks, some of which have harmed american citizens.","Di goment don present evidence say both groups don commit numerous terrorist attack, some of which don harmed american citizens.",Government
the ltte sought judicial review of its designation as a foreign terrorist organization; the d. c. circuit upheld that designation.,Di ltte sought judicial review of its designation as foreign terrorist organization; di d. c. circuit upheld say designation.,Government
the pkk did not challenge its designation.,Di pkk no challenge dia designation.,Government
brief for petitioners in no.,Di brief for petitioners for no.,Government
"ii,10 (hereinafter brief for plaintiffs); app.",Di brief for plaintiffs; app.,Government
"in 1998, plaintiffs filed suit in federal court challenging the constitutionality ofthe material-support statute, 2339b.","Di plaintiffs filed suit for federal court challenging di constitutionality of di material-support statute, 2339b.",Government
"plaintiffs claimed that they wished to provide support for the humanitarian and political activities ofthe pkk and the ltte in the form of monetary contributions, other tangible aid, legal training, and political advocacy, but that they could not do so for fear of prosecution under 2339b.","Di plaintiffs claim say dem wish support for di humanitarian and political activities of di pkk and di ltte for di form of monetary contributions, oda tangible aid, legal training, and political advocacy, but say dem no do so for fear of prosecution under 2339b.",Government
"as relevant here, plaintiffs claimed that the material-support statute was unconstitutional on two grounds: first, it violated their freedom of speech and freedom of association under the first amendment, because it criminalized their provision of material support to the pkk and the ltte, without requiring the government to prove that plaintiffs had a specific intent to further the unlawful ends of those organizations.","Di plaintiffs claimed say di material-support statute dey unconstitutional on two grounds: first, e violated dia freedom of speech and freedom of association under First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo), because e criminalize dia provision of material support to di pkk and di ltte, without requiring di goment to prove say plaintiffs dey violate dia provision of material support to di pkk and di ltte, without requiring di goment to prove say plaintiffs get specific intent to further di unlawful",Government
"second, plaintiffs argued that the statute was unconstitutionally vague.","Di second, plaintiffs argu say di statute dey unconstitutionally vague.",Government
"uniting and strengthening america by providing appropriate tools required to intercept and obstruct terrorism act of 2001(patriot act),80 5(a)(2)(b),115 stat.","Di patriot act),80 5(a)(2)(b),115 stat.",Government
"intelligence reform and terrorism prevention act of 2004 (irtpa), 6603, 118 stat.","Intelligence reform and terrorism prevention act of 2004 (irtpa), 6603, 118 stat.",Government
"robson the first amendment 52 in irtpa, congress clarified the mental state necessary to violate 2339b, requiring knowledge ofthe foreign group's designation as a terrorist organization or the group's commission of terrorist acts.","Dem clarify di mental state wey dey necessary to violate 2339b, requiring knowledge of di foreign group's designation as terrorist organization or di group's commission of terrorist acts.",Government
"it also defined""expert advice or assistance""to mean""advice or assistance derived from scientific, technical or other specialized knowledge.""","E also define""expert advice or assistance""to mean""advice or assistance wey dey derived from scientific, technical or oda specialized knowledge",Government
"finally, irtpa clarified the scope ofthe term""personnel"" by providing:""no person maybe prosecuted under [2339b] in connection with the term 'personnel' unless that person has knowingly provided, attempted to provide, or conspired to provide a foreign terrorist organization with 1 or more individuals(who maybe or include himself)to work under that terrorist organization's direction or control or to organize, manage, supervise, or otherwise direct the operation of that organization.","Dem clarify di scope of di term 'personnel' unless say person don knowingly provide, or conspired to provide, or conspired to provide, or conspired to provide foreign terrorist organization wit 1 or more individuals(who go fit work under dat terrorist organization direction or control or to organize, manage, supervise, or odawise direct di operation of dat organization.",Government
"individuals who act entirely independently ofthe foreign terrorist organization to advance its goals or objectives shall not be considered to be working under the foreign terrorist organization's direction and control.""",Di individuals wey act independently of di foreign terrorist organization to advance dia goals or objectives no be considered to be work under di foreign terrorist organization's direction and control.,Government
we granted both petitions.,We granted both petitions.,Government
they raise three constitutional claims.,Dem raise three constitutional claims.,Government
"first, plaintiffs claim that 2339b violates the due process clause ofthe fifth amendment because these four statutory terms are impermissibly vague.",Di plaintiffs claim say 2339b violate di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system clause of di fifth amendment because dis four statutory terms dey impermissibly vague.,Government
"second, plaintiffs claim that 2339b violates their freedom of speech under the first amendment.","Di second, plaintiffs claim say 2339b viola dia freedom of speech under di firstamendment.",Government
"third, plaintiffs claim that 2339b violates their first amendment freedom of association.","Di third, plaintiffs claim say 2339b viola dia First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) freedom of association",Government
plaintiffs do not challenge the above statutory terms in all their applications.,Di plaintiff no challenge di above statutory terms for all dia applications.,Government
"rather, plaintiffs claim that 2339b is invalid to the extent it prohibits them from engaging in certain specified activities.",Di plaintiffs claim say 2339b dey invalid to di extent dem prohibit dem from engaging for certain specific activities.,Government
"plaintiffs also state that"" the ltte was recently defeated militarily in sri lanka,""so ""[m]uch ofthe support the tamil organizations and dr. jeyalingam sought to provide is now moot.""","Di lte don defeat militarily for sri lanka, so ""[m]uch of di support di tamil organizations and dr. jeyalingam sought to provide na now moot",Government
"plaintiffs thus seek only to support the ltte ""asa political organization outside sri lanka advocating for the rights of tamils.""","Di plaintiffs don seek only to support di ltte ""as political organization outside sri lanka advocating for di rights of tamils",Government
"counsel for plaintiffs specifically stated at oral argument that plaintiffs no longer seek to teach the ltte how to present claims for tsunamirelated aid, because the ltte now""has no role in sri lanka.""","Di counsel for plaintiffs specifically state for oral argument say plaintiff no longer seek to teach di ltte how to present claims for tsunamirelated aid, because di ltte no dey role for sri lanka.",Government
"for that reason, helping the ltte negotiate a peace agreement with sri lanka appears to be moot aswell.","For dat reason, help di ltte negotiate peace agreement wit sri lanka dey moot aswell.",Government
"thus, we do not consider the application of 2339b to those activities here.",We no consider di application of 2339b to those activities here,Government
one last point.,One last point.,Government
plaintiffs seek preenforcement review of a criminal statute.,Plaintiffs seek preenforcement review of a criminal statute.,Government
"before addressing the merits, we must be sure that this is a justiciable case or controversy under article iii.",We must sure say dis dey justiciable case or controversy under article iii.,Government
"we conclude that it is: plaintiffs face""a credible threat of prosecution""and ""should not be required to await and undergo a criminal prosecution as the sole means of seeking relief.""","We conclude say plaintiffs face credible threat of prosecution""and ""no need to await and undergo criminal prosecution as di sole means of seeking relief",Government
"they contend that we should interpret the material-support statute, when applied to speech, to require proof that a defendant intended to further a foreign terrorist organization's illegal activities.","Dem contend say we go interpret di material-support statute, wen apply to speech, to require proof say a defendant go further a foreign terrorist organization's illegal activities.",Government
"that interpretation, they say, would end the litigation because robson the first amendment 53 plaintiffs' proposed activities consist of speech, but plaintiffs do not intend to further unlawful conduct by the pkk or the ltte.","Di interpretation, dem tok say, e go end di litigation because robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 53 plaintiffs proposed activities wey dey speech, but plaintiffs no intend to end di litigation because robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 53 plaintiffs' proposed activities wey dey speech, but plaintiff no intend to further unlawful conduct by di pkk or di ltte.",Government
we reject plaintiffs' interpretation of 2339b because it is inconsistent with the text ofthe statute.,We reject plaintiffs' interpretation of 2339b bikos e dey inconsistent wit di text of di statute.,Government
"it then specifically describes the type of knowledge that is required:""to violate this paragraph, a person must have knowledge that the organization is a designated terrorist organization.","For violate dis paragraph, a person must get knowledge say di organization dey designated terrorist organization",Government
"that the organization has engaged or engages in terrorist activity, or that the organization has engaged or engages in terrorism.","Di organization don engage or engage for terrorist activity, or say di organization don engage or engage for terrorism activity",Government
"congress plainly spoke to the necessary mental state for a violation of 2339b, and it chose knowledge about the organization's connection to terrorism, not specific intent to further the organization's terrorist activities.","Di congress plainly tok to di necessary mental state for violation of 2339b, and e tok knowledge about di organization's connection to terrorism, no specific intent to further di organization's terrorist activities.",Government
there is no basis whatever in the text of 2339b to read the same provisions in that statute as requiring intent in some circumstances but not others.,Di text of 2339b to read di same provisions for dat statute as requiring intent for some circumstances but no odas.,Government
"it is therefore clear that plaintiffs are asking us not to interpret 2339b, but to revise it.","E dey clear say plaintiffs dey ask us no interpret 2339b, but to revise am",Government
"""a conviction fails to comport with due process if the statute under which it is obtained fails to provide a person of ordinary intelligence fair notice of what is prohibited, or is so standardless that it authorizes or encourages seriously discriminatory enforcement.""","Di conviction fail to comport wit due process if di statute under which dem dey obtained fail to provide a person of ordinary intelligence fair notice of what dey prohibited, or dey standardless say dem authorize or encourage seriously discriminatory enforcement.",Government
united states v. williams(2008).,Di united state v. williams(2008),Government
"""but 'perfect clarity and precise guidance have never been required even of regulations that restrict expressive activity.'",But 'perfect clarity and precise guidance don require even of regulations wey restrict expressive activity.,Government
"""williams (quoting ward v. rock against racism(1989).",williams(quoting ward v. rock against racism(1989).,Government
the court of appeals did not adhere to these principles.,Di court of appeal no adhere to dis principles.,Government
"instead, the lower court merged plaintiffs' vagueness challenge with their first amendment claims, holding that portions ofthe material- support statute were unconstitutionally vague because they applied to protected speech--regardless of whether those applications were clear.","Di lower court dey merg plaintiffs' vagueness challenge wit dia First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) claim, holding say portions of di material- support statute dey unconstitutionally vague because dem apply to protected speech--regardless of whether dem dey clear.",Government
"the court stated that, even if persons of ordinary intelligence understood the scope ofthe term""training,"" that term would ""remai[n] impermissibly vague""because it could""be read to encompass speech and advocacy protected by the first amendment.""","Di court tok say, even if persons of ordinary intelligence dey understand di scope of di term""training"", say term go ""remai[n] impermissibly vague"" bikos im go read to encompass speech and advocacy protected by di firstamendment.",Government
"it also found""service"" and a portion of""expert advice or assistance""to be vague because those terms covered protected speech.","E also found""service"" and a portion of""expert advice or assistance""to be vague because those terms covered protected talk.",Government
that rule makes no exception for conduct in the form of speech.,Di rule make no exception for conduct for di form of speech.,Government
"thus, even to the extent a heightened vagueness standard applies, a plaintiff whose speech is clearly proscribed cannot raise a successful vagueness claim under the due process clause ofthe fifth amendment for lack of notice.","Di extent a heightened vagueness standard applies, plaintiff wey dey clearly proscribed no raise successful vagueness claim under di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system clause of di fifth amendment for lack of notice.",Government
and he certainly cannot do so based on the speech of others.,Di speech of odas no dey based on di speech of odas,Government
"such a plaintiff may have a valid overbreadth claim under the first amendment, but our precedents make clear that a fifth amendment vagueness challenge does not turn on whether a law applies to a substantial amount of protected expression.",Di precedent make clear say a fifth amendment vagueness challenge no turn on whether law applies to substantial amount of protected expression.,Government
otherwise the doctrines would be substantially redundant.,Di doctrines go dey substantially redundant.,Government
"under a proper analysis, plaintiffs' claims of vagueness lack merit.",Di plaintiffs' claim of vagueness lack merit.,Government
both plaintiffs and the government take extreme positions on this question.,Di plaintiffs and di goment take extreme position on dis question,Government
"plaintiffs claim that congress has banned their""pure political speech.""","Di plaintiffs claim say congress don bann dia""pure political speech""",Government
it robson the first amendment 54 has not.,E robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 54 don no.,Government
"under the material-support statute, plaintiffs may say anything they wish on any topic.","Di material-support statute, plaintiffs go say anything dem wish on any topic.",Government
"they may speak and write freely about the pkk and ltte, the governments of turkey and sri lanka, human rights, and international law.","Di goment of turkey and sri lanka, human rights, and Rules and agreements wey control how countries relate and deal with eachother.",Government
they may advocate before the united nations.,Di united nations go advocate before di united nations.,Government
"as the government states:""the statute does not prohibit independent advocacy or expression of any kind.""",Di statute no prohibit independent advocacy or expression of any kind,Government
"congress has not, therefore, sought to suppress ideas or opinions in the form of""pure political speech.""","Congress get no, so sake of dat, sought to suppress ideas or opinions for di form of""pure political talk.""",Government
"rather, congress has prohibited""material support,""which most often does not take the form of speech at all.","Di congress don prohibite ""material support"" wey most often no take di form of speech for all.",Government
"and when it does, the statute is carefully drawn to cover only a narrow category of speech to, under the direction of, or in coordination with foreign groups that the speaker knows to be terrorist organizations.4 for its part, the government takes the foregoing too far, claiming that the only thing truly at issue in this litigation is conduct, not speech.","Di goment take di foregoing too far, claiming say di only thing truly for issue for dis litigation dey conduct, no speech.",Government
the government argues that the proper standard of review is therefore the one set out in united states v. o'brien(1968).,Di goment argu say di proper standard of review dey therefore di one set out for united states v. o'brien(1968).,Government
"in that case, the court rejected a first amendment challenge to a conviction under a generally applicable prohibition on destroying draft cards, even though o'brien had burned his card in protest against the draft.","Di court reject First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) challenge to a conviction under generally applicable prohibition on destroy draft cards, even though o'brien don burned hin card for protest against di draft.",Government
"in so doing, we applied what we have since called""intermediate scrutiny,""under which a""content -neutral regulation will be sustained under the first amendment if it advances important governmental interests unrelated to the suppression of free speech and does not burden substantially more speech than necessary to further those interests.""","We dey apply what we don call""intermediate scrutiny,""under which a""content -neutral regulation go dey sustained under First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) if im advance important governmental interests unrelated to di suppression of free speech and no dey burden substantially more speech than necessary to further those interests",Government
"turner broadcasting system, inc. v. fcc(1997)(citing o'brien).","Turner broadcasting system, inc. v. fcc(1997)(citing o'brien).",Government
"the government is wrong that the only thing actually at issue in this litigation is conduct, and therefore wrong to argue that o'brien provides the correct standard of review.","Di goment dey wrong say di only thing wey dey issue for dis litigation dey conduct, and therefore wrong to argue say o'brien provide di correct standard of review.",Government
"o'brien does not provide the applicable standard for reviewing a contentbased regulation of speech, see r. a. v. v. st. paul(1992); texas v. johnson(1989), and 2339b regulates speech on the basis of its content.","O'brien does no provide di applicable standard for reviewing a contentbased regulation of talk, see r. a. v. v. st. paul(1992); texas v. johnson(1989), and 2339b regulates talk on di basis of im content.",Government
"plaintiffs want to speak to the pkk and the ltte, and whether they may do so under 2339b depends on what they say.","Di plaintiffs want to speak to di pkk and di ltte, and whether dem go do so under 2339b depend on what dem say.",Government
"if plaintiffs' speech to those groups imparts a""specific skill""or communicates advice derived from""specialized knowledge""--for example, training on the use of international law or advice on petitioning the united nations--then it is barred.","for example, if plaintiffs' speech to those groups impart""specific skill""or communicate advice wey dey from Rules and agreements wey control how countries relate and deal with eachother or advice on petitioning di united nations",Government
"on the other hand, plaintiffs' speech is not barred if it imparts only general or unspecialized knowledge.","For di oda hand, plaintiffs' speech no dey barre if im impart only general or unspecialized knowledge.",Government
the government argues that 2339b should nonetheless receive intermediate scrutiny because it generally functions as a regulation of conduct.,Di goment argues say 2339b go nonetheless receive intermediate scrutiny bikos e generally function as regulation of conduct.,Government
"that argument runs headlong into a number of our precedents, most prominently cohen v. california(1971).","Say argument runs headlong into a number of our precedents, most prominently cohen v. california(1971).",Government
"cohen also involved a generally applicable regulation of conduct, barring breaches ofthe peace.","Cohen also involved a generally applicable regulation of conduct, barring breaches of di peace.",Government
"but when cohen was convicted for wearing a jacket bearing an epithet, we did not apply o'brien.","But wen cohen dey convicted for wear jacket bearing epithet, we no apply o'brien.",Government
"instead, we recognized that the generally applicable law was directed at cohen because of what his speech communicated--he violated the breach ofthe peace statute because ofthe offensive content of his particular message.","We recognize say di generally applicable law dey direct for cohen because of how hin speech communicate, hin violated di breach of di peace statute because of di offensive content of hin particular message.",Government
we accordingly applied more rigorous scrutiny and reversed his conviction.,We accordingly apply more rigorous scrutiny and reversed hin conviction.,Government
this suit falls into the same category.,Di suit fall into di same category.,Government
"the law here maybe described as directed at conduct, as the law in cohen was directed at breaches ofthe peace, but as applied to plaintiffs the conduct triggering coverage under the statute consists of communicating a message.","Di law wey described as direct for conduct, as di law for cohen dey direct for conduct, as di law for cohen dey direct at breaches of di peace, but as plaintiffs di conduct trigger coverage under di statute dey apply to plaintiffs di conduct trigger coverage under di statute dey apply to plaintiffs di conduct trigger message.",Government
"as we explained in texas v. johnson:""if the[government's] regulation is not related to expression, then the less stringent standard we announced in united states v. o'brien for regulations of noncommunicative conduct controls.","If di[government's] regulation no related to expression, then di less stringent standard wey we announce for united states v. o'brien for regulations of noncommunicative conduct controls.",Government
"if it is, then we are outside of o'brien 's test, and we must[apply] a more demanding standard.""",We must[apply] a more demanding standard,Government
b the first amendment issue before us is more refined than either plaintiffs or the government would have it.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) issue before us dey refined than plaintiffs or di goment go get am,Government
"it is not whether the government may prohibit pure political speech, or may prohibit material support in the form of conduct.","Di goment no go prohibit pure political speech, or go prohibit material support for di form of conduct.",Government
it is instead whether the government may prohibit what plaintiffs want to do--provide material support to the pkk and ltte in the form of speech.,Di goment go prohibit what plaintiffs want to do material support to di pkk and ltte for di form of speech.,Government
everyone agrees that the government's interest in combating terrorism is an urgent objective ofthe highest order.,Di goment's interest for combating terrorism na urgent objective of di highest order.,Government
"plaintiffs' complaint is that the ban on material support, applied to what they wish to robson the first amendment 55 do, is not""necessary to further that interest.""","Di plaintiffs' complaint na say di ban on material support, wey dem wish to robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 55 do, no necessary to further dat interest",Government
"the objective of combating terrorism does not justify prohibiting their speech, plaintiffs argue, because their support will advance only the legitimate activities ofthe designated terrorist organizations, not their terrorism.","Di objective of combating terrorism no justify prohibiting dia speech, plaintiffs argue, because dia support go advance only di legitimate activities of di designated terrorist organization, no dia terrorism.",Government
whether foreign terrorist organizations meaningfully segregate support of their legitimate activities from support of terrorism is an empirical question.,Di empirical question wey foreign terrorist organizations meanfully segregate support of dia legitimate activities from support of terrorism na empirical question.,Government
"when it enacted 2339b in 1996, congress made specific findings regarding the serious threat posed by international terrorism.",Dem make specific findings regarding di serious threat posed by international terrorism.,Government
"one of those findings explicitly rejects plaintiffs' contention that their support would not further the terrorist activities ofthe pkk and ltte: ""[f]oreign organizations that engage in terrorist activity are so tainted by their criminal conduct that any contribution to such an organization facilitates that conduct.""","Na one of those findings explicitly reject plaintiffs' contention say dia support no further di terrorist activities of di pkk and ltte: ""[f]oreign organizations wey dey engage for terrorist activity dey tainted by dia criminal conduct say any contribution to such organization facilitate dat conduct.",Government
"plaintiffs argue that the reference to""any contribution""in this finding meant only monetary support.","Di plaintiffs argue say di reference to""any contribution""for dis finding meant only monetary support",Government
"there is no reason to read the finding to be so limited, particularly because congress expressly prohibited so much more than monetary support in 2339b.","Nano reason to read di finding to be so limited, particularly because congress expressly prohibited so much more than monetary support for 2339b.",Government
"congress's use ofthe term""contribution"" is best read to reflect a determination that any form of material support furnished""to"" a foreign terrorist organization should be barred, which is precisely what the material-support statute does.","Di congress's use of di term""contribution"" dey best read to reflect determination say any form of material support wey dey furnished""to"" foreign terrorist organization go dey barre, wey dey exactly what di material-support statute does.",Government
"indeed, when congress enacted 2339b, congress simultaneously removed an exception that had existed in 2339a(a) (1994 ed.)","As congress enacted 2339b, congress simultaneously remove an exception wey dey exist for 2339a(a) (1994 ed.)",Government
"for the provision of material support in the form of""humanitarian assistance to persons not directly involved in""terrorist activity.","For di provision of material support for di form of""humanitarian assistance to persons no directly involved for""terrorist activity.",Government
"aedpa 323, 110 stat.","Di aedpa 323, 110 stat",Government
that repeal demonstrates that congress considered and rejected the view that ostensibly peaceful aid would have no harmful effects.,Dem consider and reject di view say ostensibly peaceful aid go get no harmful effect.,Government
we are convinced that congress was justified in rejecting that view.,We dey convinced say congress dey justified for reject say view,Government
the pkk and the ltte are deadly groups.,Di pkk and di ltte deadly groups,Government
"""the pkk's insurgency has claimed more than 22, 000 lives.""","Di pkk's insurgency don claim more than 22, 000 lives",Government
"the ltte has engaged in extensive suicide bombings and political assassinations, including killings ofthe sri lankan president, security minister, and deputy defense minister.","Di ltte don engage for extensive suicide bombings and political assassinations, including killing of di sri lankan president, security minister, and deputy defense minister.",Government
"""on january 31, 1996, the ltte exploded a truck bomb filled with an estimated 1, 000 pounds of explosives at the central bank in colombo, killing 100 people and injuring more than 1, 400.","Na january 31, 1996, di ltte exploded truck bomb filled wit 1, 000 pounds of explosives for di central bank for colombo, killing 100 pipo and injuring more than 1, 400.",Government
"this bombing was the most deadly terrorist incident in the world in 1996.""",Di bombing na di most deadly terrorist incident for di world for 1996,Government
"it is not difficult to conclude as congress did that the ""tain[t]"" of such violent activities is so great that working in coordination with or at the command ofthe pkk and ltte serves to legitimize and further their terrorist means.","Di ""tain[t]"" of such violent activities dey so great say work for coordination wit or at di command of pkk and ltte serve to legitimize and further dia terrorist means.",Government
"material support meant to ""promot[e] peaceable, lawful conduct,""can further terrorism by foreign groups in multiple ways.","Di material support wey dey meant to ""promot[e] peaceable, lawful conduct, can further terrorism by foreign groups for multiple ways.",Government
"""material support""is a valuable resource by definition.","Di""material support""na valuable resource by definition",Government
such support frees up other resources within t he organization that maybe put to violent ends.,Na such support free up oda resources wey dey inside t he organization wey dey put to violent ends.,Government
"it also importantly helps lend legitimacy to foreign terrorist groups--legitimacy that makes it easier for those groups to persist, to recruit members, and to raise funds--all of which facilitate more terrorist attacks.","Di also importantly help lend legitimacy to foreign terrorist groups, legitimacy wey make dem easier for those groups to persist, to recruit members, and to raise funds, all of which facilitate more terrorist attack.",Government
"""terrorist organizations do not maintain organizational 'firewalls' that would prevent or deter.",Dem no maintain organizational firewalls wey go prevent or deter.,Government
"sharing and commingling of support and benefits.""",E dey share and commingling of support and benefit,Government
"""[i]nvestigators have revealed how terrorist groups systematically conceal their activities behind charitable, social, and political fronts.""","Di vestigators don reveal how terrorist groups systematically conceal dia activities behind charitable, social, and political fronts",Government
"m. levitt, hamas: politics, charity, and terrorism in the service of jihad 2-3(2006).","Di politics, charity, and terrorism for di service of jihad 2-3(2006).",Government
"""indeed, some designated foreign terrorist organizations use social and political components to recruit personnel to carry out terrorist operations, and to provide support to criminal terrorists and their families in aid of such operations.""","Di designated foreign terrorist organization use social and political component to recruit personnel to carry out terrorist operations, and to provide support to criminal terrorists and dia families for aid of such operations",Government
"money is fungible, and""[w]hen foreign terrorist organizations that have a dual structure raise funds, they highlight the civilian and humanitarian ends to which such moneys could be put.""","Di foreign terrorist organization wey don get dual structure raise funds, dem highlight di civilian and humanitarian ends to which such money dey put.",Government
"but""there is reason to believe that foreign terrorist organizations do not maintain legitimate financial firewalls between those funds raised for civil, nonviolent activities, and those ultimately used to support violent, terrorist operations.""","Di reason to believe say foreign terrorist organization no maintain legitimate financial firewalls between those funds wey dey rais for civil, nonviolent activities, and those ultimately use to support violent, terrorist operations.",Government
"thus, ""[f]unds raised ostensibly for charitable purposes have in the past been redirected by some terrorist groups to fund the purchase of arms and explosives.""","For di past, ""[f]unds raised ostensibly for charitable purposes don redirect some terrorist groups to fund di purchase of arms and explosives",Government
"there is evidence that the pkk and the ltte, in particular, have not""respected the line between humanitarian and violent activities.""","Di pkk and di ltte, especially, don respect di line between humanitarian and violent activities",Government
"the dissent argues that there is""no natural stopping place""for the proposition that aiding a foreign terrorist organization's lawful activity promotes the terrorist organization as a whole.",Di dissent argues say no natural stop place for di proposition say aiding foreign terrorist organization's lawful activity promote di terrorist organization as a whole.,Government
but congress has settled on just such a natural stopping place: the statute reaches only material support robson the first amendment 56 coordinated with or under the direction of a designated foreign terrorist organization.,Di statute reach only material support robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 56 coordinated wit or under di direction of a designated foreign terrorist organization.,Government
independent advocacy that might be viewed as promoting the group's legitimacy is not covered.,Di independent advocacy wey dey viewed as promoting di group legitimacy no dey covered.,Government
providing foreign terrorist groups with material support in any form also furthers terrorism by straining the united states' relationships with its allies and undermining cooperative efforts between nations to prevent terrorist attacks.,Di united states' relationship wit its allies and undermining cooperative efforts between nations to prevent terrorist attack.,Government
"we see no reason to question congress's finding that""international cooperation is required for an effective response to terrorism, as demonstrated by the numerous multilateral conventions in force providing universal prosecutive jurisdiction over persons involved in a variety of terrorist acts, including hostage taking, murder of an internationally protected person, and aircraft piracy and sabotage.""","We see no reason to question congress's finding say international cooperation dey required for effective response to terrorism, as demonstrate by di numerous plenti bilateral conventions for force provide universal prosecutive jurisdiction over persons wey dey involved for a variety of terrorist act, including hostage taking, murder of internationally protected person, and aircraft piracy and sabotage.",Government
"the materialsupport statute furthers this international effort by prohibiting aid for foreign terrorist groups that harm the united states' partners abroad:""a number of designated foreign terrorist organizations have attacked moderate governments with which the united states has vigorously endeavored to maintain close an d friendly relations,""and those attacks""threaten [the]social, economic and political stability""of such governments.","A number of designated foreign terrorist organizations don attack moderate goment wit wich di united states don vigorously endeavor to maintain close di d friendly relations, and those attack""threaten [the social, economic and political stability""of such goment.",Government
"""[o]ther foreign terrorist organizations attack our nato allies, thereby implicating important and sensitive multilateral security arrangements.""","Di foreign terrorist organization attack awa nato allies, thereby implicating important and sensitive plentiilateral security arrangements",Government
"for example, the republic of turkey--a fellow member of nato--is defending itself against a violent insurgency waged by the pkk.","Di republic of turkey--a fellow member of nato, dey defend imself against violent insurgency waged by di pkk.",Government
"that nation and our other allies would react sharply to americans furnishing material support to foreign groups like the pkk, and would hardly be mollified by the explanation that the support was meant only to further those groups'""legitimate"" activities.","Dem react sharply to Americans furnishing material support to foreign groups like di pkk, and go hardly dey mollified by di explanation say di support dey meant only to further those groups'""legitimate"" activities.",Government
"from turkey's perspective, there likely are no such activities.",Di likely dey no such activities.,Government
"c in analyzing whether it is possible in practice to distinguish material support for a foreign terrorist group's violent activities and its nonviolent activities, we do not rely exclusively on our own inferences drawn from the record evidence.",We no rely exclusively on awa own inference wey dey draw from di record evidence.,Government
we have before us an affidavit stating the executive branch's conclusion on that question.,We don before us affidavit wey dey stat di part of government wey dey carry out and enforce laws— led by President or Prime Minister's conclusion on dat question.,Government
"the state department informs us that""[t]he experience and analysis ofthe u. s. government agencies charged with combating terrorism strongly suppor[t]"" congress's finding that all contributions to foreign terrorist organizations further their terrorism.","Di state department inform us say""[t]he experience and analysis of di u. s. goment agencies charge wit combating terrorism strongly suppor[t]"" congress's finding say all contributions to foreign terrorist organization further dia terrorism",Government
"mckune affidavit, app.","Di affidavit, app.",Government
"in the executive's view:""given the purposes, organizational structure, and clandestine nature of foreign terrorist organizations, it is highly likely that any material support to these organizations will ultimately inure to the benefit of their criminal, terrorist functions--regardless of whether such support was ostensibly intended to support non-violent, non- terrorist activities.""","Di purpose, organizational structure, and clandestine nature of foreign terrorist organization, e dey highly likely say any material support to dis organizations go ultimately inure to di benefit of dia criminal, terrorist functions, regardless of whether such support go support non-violent, non- terrorist activities",Government
"that evaluation ofthe facts by the executive, like congress's assessment, is entitled to deference.","Di executive, like congress's assessment, dey entitled to deference.",Government
this litigation implicates sensitive and weighty interests of national security and foreign affairs.,"Dis litigation implicates sensitive and weighty interests of Di way wey dem take dey protect di kontri, di pipo wey dey di kontri, and di tins wey important for di kontri from bad tins wey fit happen from outside or inside, including make sure say terrorist no go cause trouble, or say anoder kontri no go spy on demand foreign affairs.",Government
"the pkk and the ltte have committed terrorist acts against american citizens abroad, and the material- support statute addresses acute foreign policy concerns involving relationships with our nation's allies.","Di pkk and di ltte don committe terrorist acts against american citizens abroad, and di material- support statute addresses acute wetin koncern how govment of one kontri dey relate with odas kontri, like how dem go dey do business, make peace or fight concerns wey dey involving relationships wit our nation's allies.",Government
"we do not defer to the government's reading ofthe first amendment, even when such interests are at stake.","We no defer to di goment reading of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo), even if such interest dey stake.",Government
"we are one with the dissent that the government's""authority and expertise in these matters do not automatically trump the court's own obligation to secure the protection that the constitution grants to individuals.""",We dey one wit di dissent say di goment's authority and expertise for dis matter no automatically trump di court's own obligation to secure di protection wey di constitution grant to individuals,Government
"but when it comes to collecting evidence and drawing factual inferences in this area,""the lack of competence on the part ofthe courts is marked,""and respect for the government's conclusions is appropriate.","Di lack of competence on di part of di courts dey marked,""the lack of competence on di part of di courts dey marked,""and respect for di goment's conclusions dey ppropriaate.",Government
"in that case, the application ofthe statute turned on the offensiveness ofthe speech at issue.",Di application of di statute turn on di offensiveness of di speech for issue.,Government
"observing that""one man's vulgarity is another's lyric,""we invalidated cohen's conviction in part because we concluded that""governmental officials cannot make principled distinctions in this area.""","We dey observing say one man's vulgarity dey one's lyric, we dey invalidated cohen's conviction for part because we concluded say""governmental officials no make principle distinctions for dis area",Government
"in this litigation, by contrast, congress and the executive are uniquely positioned to make principled distinctions between activities that will further terrorist conduct and undermine united states foreign policy, and those that will not.","Di litigation, by contrast, congress and di executive dey uniquely position to make principled distinctions between activities that go further terrorist conduct and undermine united states wetin koncern how govment of one kontri dey relate with odas kontri, like how dem go dey do business, make peace or fight, and those wey no fit.",Government
robson the first amendment 57 we also find it significant that congress has been conscious of its own responsibility to consider how its actions may implicate constitutional concerns.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 57 we also find significant say congress don conscious of its own responsibility to consider how im actions dey implicate constitutional concerns.,Government
"first, 2339b only applies to designated foreign terrorist organizations.","First, 2339b only applies to designated foreign terrorist organizations.",Government
"there is, and always has been, a limited number of those organizations designated by the executive branch, and any groups so designated may seek judicial review ofthe designation.","Di part of government wey dey carry out and enforce laws— led by President or Prime Minister, and any groups wey dey designated go seek judicial review of di designation.",Government
"second, in response to the lower courts' holdings in this litigation, congress added clarity to the statute by providing narrowing definitions ofthe terms""training,"" ""personnel,""and ""expert advice or assistance,""as well as an explanation ofthe knowledge required to violate 2339b.","Di second, for response to di lower courts' holdings for dis litigation, congress add clarity to di statute by providing narrowing definition of di terms""training,"" ""personnel,""and ""expert advice or assistance, as well as explanation of di knowledge need to violate 2339b.",Government
"third, in effectuating its stated intent not to abridge first amendment rights, congress has also displayed a careful balancing of interests in creating limited exceptions to the ban on material support.","Di third, for effectuating its state intent no to abridge First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) rights, congress don show careful balancing of interests for creating limited exceptions to di ban on material support.",Government
"the definition of material support, for example, excludes medicine and religious materials.","Di definition of material support, for example, excludes medicine and church religion materials.",Government
"in this area perhaps more than any other, the legislature's superior capacity for weighing competing interests means that""we must be particularly careful not to substitute our judgment of what is desirable for that of congress.""","Di legislature's superior capacity for weighing competing interests means say""we must substitute awa judgment of what dey desirable for dat of congress.",Government
"finally, and most importantly, congress has avoided any restriction on independent advocacy, or indeed any activities not directed to, coordinated with, or controlled by foreign terrorist groups.","Di congress don avoid any restriction on independent advocacy, or indeed any activities wey dey direct to, coordinated wit, or controlled by foreign terrorist groups.",Government
"at bottom, plaintiffs simply disagree with the considered judgment of congress and the executive that providing material support to a designated foreign terrorist organization--even seemingly benign support --bolsters the terrorist activities of that organization.",Di plaintiffs simply disagree wit di considered judgment of Congress and di executive wey provide material support to a designated foreign terrorist organization--even seemingly benign support --bolsters di terrorist activities of dat organization.,Government
"that judgment, however, is entitled to significant weight, and we have persuasive evidence before us to sustain it.",We don persuasive evidence before us to sustain am,Government
"given the sensitive interests in national security and foreign affairs at stake, the political branches have adequately substantiated their determination that, to serve the government's interest in preventing terrorism, it was necessary to prohibit providing material support in the form of training, expert advice, personnel, and services to foreign terrorist groups, even if the supporters meant to promote only the groups' nonviolent ends.","Di political branch don adequately substantiated dia determination say, to serve di goment interest for Di way wey dem take dey protect di kontri, di pipo wey dey di kontri, and di tins wey important for di kontri from bad tins wey fit happen from outside or inside, including make sure say terrorist no go cause trouble, or say anoder kontri no go spy on demand foreign affairs for stake, di political branch don adequately substantiated dia determination say, to serve di government interest for preventing terrorism, e dey necessary to prohibit providing material support for di form of training, expert advice, personnel, and services to foreign terrorist groups, even if di supporters meant to promote only di groups' nonviolent ends.",Government
we turn to the particular speech plaintiffs propose to undertake.,We turn to di particular talk plaintiffs propose to undertake.,Government
"first, plaintiffs propose to""train members of[the] pkk on how to use humanitarian and international law to peacefully resolve disputes.""","First, plaintiffs propose to""train members of[di] pkk on how to use humanitarian and Rules and agreements wey control how countries relate and deal with eachother to peacefully resolve disputes.""",Government
"congress can, consistent with the first amendment, prohibit this direct training.","Di congress can, consistent wit di firstamendment, prohibit dis direct training.",Government
"this possibility is real, not remote.","Di possibility dey real, no remote.",Government
"second, plaintiffs propose to""teach pkk members how to petition various representative bodies such as the united nations for relief.""","Second, plaintiffs propose to""teach pkk members how to complaint various representative bodies such as di united nations for relief.""",Government
"the government acts within first amendment strictures in banning this proposed speech because it teaches the organization how to acquire""relief,"" which plaintiffs never define with any specificity, and which could readily include monetary aid.","Di goment act within First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) strictures for banning dis proposed speech bikos e teach am di organization how to acquire""relief,"" wey plaintiffs no define wit any specificity, and wey go readily include monetary aid.",Government
"finally, plaintiffs propose to""engage in political advocacy on behalf of kurds who live in turkey,""and ""engage in political advocacy on behalf of tamils who live in sri lanka.""","Di plaintiffs propose to""engage for political advocacy on behalf of kurds wey live for turkey,""and ""engage for political advocacy on behalf of tamils wey live for sri lanka,""and ""engage for political advocacy on behalf of tamils wey live for sri lanka",Government
"in responding to the foregoing, the dissent fails to address the real dangers at stake.",Di dissent fail to address di real dangers for stake.,Government
it instead considers only the possible benefits of plaintiffs' proposed activities in the abstract.,E dey consider only di possible benefits of plaintiffs' proposed activities for di abstract.,Government
the dissent seems unwilling to entertain the prospect that training and advising a designated foreign terrorist organization on how to take advantage of international entities might benefit that organization in away that facilitates its terrorist activities.,Di dissent seem unwilling to entertain di prospect say training and advising a designated foreign terrorist organization on how to take advantage of international entities go benefit say organization for away wey dey facilitate its terrorist activities.,Government
"in the dissent's world, such training is all to the good.",Di training dey all to di good,Government
"congress and the executive, however, have concluded that we live in a different world: one in which the designated foreign terrorist organizations""are so tainted by their criminal conduct that any contribution to such an organization facilitates that conduct.""",One for wen di designated foreign terrorist organization dey so tainted by dia criminal conduct say any contribution to such organization facilitate say conduct.,Government
"one in which, for example,""the united nations high commissioner for refugees was forced to close a kurdish refugee camp in northern iraq because the camp had come under the control ofthe pkk, and the pkk had failed to respect its 'neutral and humanitarian nature.'","Di united nations high commissioner for refugees don force to close a kurdish Temporary place wey dem build to house pipo wey run from their country for northern iraq because di camp don kom under di control of di pkk, and di pkk don fail to respect its 'neutral and humanitarian nature.'",Government
"""training and advice on how to work with the united nations could readily have helped the pkk in its efforts to use the united nations camp as a base for terrorist activities.",Di training and advice on how to work wit di united nations go readily help di pkk for its efforts to use di united nations camp as base for terrorist activities.,Government
"robson the first amendment 58 if only good can come from training our adversaries in international dispute resolution, presumably it would have been unconstitutional to prevent american citizens from training the japanese government on using international organizations and mechanisms to resolve disputes during world war ii.","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 58 if only good fit kom from training our adversaries for international dispute resolution, presumably e go unconstitutional to prevent american citizens from training di japanese goment on using international organization and mechanisms to resolve disputes during Wahala wey happen for 1939 reach 1945, wey all kontri for world join bodi, dem form two group, one dey call dem Allies, anoda one dey call dem Axis, na im be di big fight wey everybody sabi.",Government
"it would, under the dissent's reasoning, have been contrary to our commitment to resolving disputes through"" 'deliberative forces,'"" (quoting whitney v. california(1927) (brandeis, j, concurring)), for congress to conclude that assisting japan on that front might facilitate its war effort more generally.",For congress to conclude say assisting Japan on dat front go facilitate im war effort more generally.,Government
that view is not one the first amendment requires us to embrace.,Di view noone First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) require us to embrace.,Government
all this is not to say that any future applications ofthe material-support statute to speech or advocacy will survive first amendment scrutiny.,Dem no say any future applications of di material-support statute to speech or advocacy go survive First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) scrutiny.,Government
it is also not to say that any other statute relating to speech and terrorism would satisfy the first amendment.,Dem no say any oda statute wey dey relating to speech and terrorism go satisfy First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).,Government
"in particular, we in no way suggest that a regulation of independent speech would pass constitutional muster, even if the government were to show that such speech benefits foreign terrorist organizations.","We no go suggest say regulation of independent speech go pass constitutional muster, even if di goment dey show say such speech benefits foreign terrorist organization.",Government
we also do not suggest that congress could extend the same prohibition on material support at issue here to domestic organizations.,We no suggest say congress go extend di same prohibition on material support for issue here to domestic organizations.,Government
"we simply hold that, in prohibiting the particular forms of support that plaintiffs seek to provide to foreign terrorist groups, 2339b does not violate the freedom of speech.","We simply hold say, for prohibiting di particular form of support wey plaintiffs seek provide to foreign terrorist groups, 2339b no violate di freedom of speech.",Government
plaintiffs argue that the statute criminalizes the mere fact of their associating with the pkk and the lt te.,Di statute criminalize di mere fact of dia associating wit pkk and di lt te.,Government
any burden on plaintiffs' freedom of association in this regard is justified for the same reasons that we have denied plaintiffs' free speech challenge.,Dem justifie for di same reason wey we dey denied plaintiffs' free speech challenge.,Government
"it would be strange if the constitution permitted congress to prohibit certain forms of speech that constitute material support, but did not permit congress to prohibit that support only to particularly dangerous and lawless foreign organizations.","Di constitution no allow congress to prohibit certain form of speech wey constitute material support, but no allow congress to prohibit say support only to particularly dangerous and lawless foreign organizations.",Government
congress is not required to ban material support to every group or none at all.,Di congress no need to ban material support to every group or none for all.,Government
"the preamble to the constitution proclaims that the people ofthe united states ordained and established that charter of government in part to""provide for the common defence.""","Di preamble to di constitution proclaim say di pipo of di united states ordain and establish say charter of goment for part to""provide for di common defence""",Government
"as madison explained, ""[s]ecurity against foreign danger is.","As madison explain, ""[s]ecurity against foreign danger dey.",Government
"an avowed and essential object ofthe american union.""",E dey avowed and essential object of di american union,Government
t he federalist no.,Di federalist no.,Government
"we hold that, in regulating the particular forms of support that plaintiffs seek to provide to foreign terrorist organizations, congress has pursued that objective consistent with the limitations ofthe first and fifth amendments.","We hold say, for regulating di particular form of support wey plaintiffs seek provide to foreign terrorist organization, congress don pursue say objective consistent wit di limitations of di first and fifth amendments.",Government
"the judgment ofthe united states court of appeals for the ninth circuit is affirmed in part and reversed in part, and the cases are remanded for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.","Di judgment of di united states court of appeal for di ninth circuit dey reversed for part and reversed for part, and di case dey remanded for further proceedings consistent wit dis opinion.",Government
it is so ordered.,E dey so ordered,Government
"justice breyer, with whom justices ginsburg and sotomayor join, dissenting.","Justice breyer, wit whom justices ginsburg and sotomayor join, dissenting.",Government
"like the court, and substantially for the reasons it gives, i do not think this statute is unconstitutionally vague.",I no think dis statute dey unconstitutionally vague.,Government
but i cannot agree with the court's conclusion that the constitution permits the government to prosecute the plaintiffs criminally for engaging in coordinated teaching and advocacy furthering the designated organizations' lawful political objectives.,I no agree wit di court's conclusion say di constitution don allow di goment prosecute di plaintiff criminally for engaging for coordinated teaching and advocacy furthering di designated organization' lawful political objectives.,Government
"in my view, the government has not met its burden of showing that an interpretation ofthe statute that would prohibit this speech- and association-related activity serves the government's compelling interest in combating terrorism.",Di goment no meet im burden of show say interpretation of di statute wey go prohibit dis speech- and association-related activity serve di goment's compelling interest for combating terrorism.,Government
andi would interpret the statute as normally placing activity of this kind outside its scope.,I go interpret di statute as normally place activity of dis kind outside its scope.,Government
"robson the first amendment 59 i***in my view, the government has not made the strong showing necessary to justify under the first amendment the criminal prosecution of those who engage in these[described] activities.",Di goment no make di strong showing necessary to justify under First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) di criminal prosecution of those wey engage for dis[described] activities.,Government
all the activities involve the communication and advocacy of political ideas and lawful means of achieving political ends.,Di activities deyinvolve di communication and advocacy of political ideas and lawful means of achieving political ends.,Government
"even the subjects the plaintiffs wish to teach--using international law to resolve disputes peacefully or petitioning the united nations, for instance--concern political speech.","Even di subjects di plaintiffs wish to teach--using Rules and agreements wey control how countries relate and deal with eachother to resolve disputes peacefully or petitioning di united nations, for example--concern political talk.",Government
"we cannot avoid the constitutional significance of these facts on the basis that some of this speech takes place outside the united states and is directed at foreign governments, for the activities also involve advocacy in this country directed to our government and its policies.","We no avoid di constitutional significance of dis facts on di basis say some of thin speech take place outside di united states and dey directed for foreign governments, for di activities also involve advocacy for dis kontri wey dey directed to awa government and its policy.",Government
"the plaintiffs, for example, wish to write and distribute publications and to speak before the united states congress.","Di plaintiffs, for example, wish to write and distribute publications and to speak before di united states congress(di big law-makers).",Government
that this speech and association for political purposes is the kind of activity to which the first amendment ordinarily offers its strongest protection is elementary.,Di speech and association for political purposes dey di kind of activity wey First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) ordinarily offers its strongest protection dey elementary.,Government
"although in the court's view the statute applies only where the pkk helps to coordinate a defendant's activities, the simple fact of""coordination"" alone cannot readily remove protection that the first amendment would otherwise grant.","Di court view di statute appli only wia di pkk help to coordinate defendant's activities, di simple fact of""coordination"" alone no readily remove protection wey First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) go grant.",Government
"that amendment, after all, also protects the freedom of association.","Di amendment, after all, also protect di freedom of association",Government
"""coordination""with a political group, like membership, involves association.","coordination wit a political group, like membership, involves association.",Government
"""coordination""with a group that engages in unlawful activity also does not deprive the plaintiffs ofthe first amendment's protection under any traditional ""categ orical"" exception to its protection.","Di group wey engage for unlawful activity no deprive di plaintiffs of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo)'s protection under any traditional ""categ orical"" exception to dia protection.",Government
the plaintiffs do not propose to solicit a crime.,Di plaintiffs no propose to solicit crime.,Government
they will not engage in fraud or defamation or circulate obscenity.,Dem no engage for fraud or defamation or circulate obscenity.,Government
"united states v. stevens(2010) (describing""categories"" of unprotected speech).","Discribing ""categories""of unprotected speech).",Government
"and the first amendment protects advocacy even of unlawful action so long as that advocacy is not""directed to inciting or producing imminent lawless action and.",Di first amendment protect advocacy even of unlawful action so long assay advocacy no dey direct to inciting or producing imminent lawless action and.,Government
"likely to incite or produce such action.""","Likely to incite or produce such action.""",Government
"brandenburg v. ohio, (1969)(per curiam) (emphasis added).",Emphasis add).,Government
"here the plaintiffs seek to advocate peaceful, lawful action to secure political ends; and they seek to teach others how to do the same.","Di plaintiffs seek to advocate peaceful, lawful action to secure political ends; and dem seek to teach oda how to do di same.",Government
noone contends that the plaintiffs' speech to these organizations can be prohibited as incitement under brandenburg.,Nano one contend say di plaintiffs' speech to dis organization go prohibit as incitement under brandenburg.,Government
"moreover, the court has previously held that a person who associates with a group that uses unlawful means to achieve its ends does not thereby necessarily forfeit the first amendment's protection for freedom of association.",Di court don tok say a person wey dey associat wit group wey use unlawful means to achieve its ends no dey necessarily forfeit First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo)'s protection for freedom of association.,Government
"after all, this court has recognized that not"" '[e]ven the war power. remove[s]constitutional limitations safeguarding essential liberties.'","Di court don recognise say no "" '[e]ven di war power, remove constitutional limitations safeguarding essential liberties.",Government
"thus, there is no general first amendment exception that applies here.",Di general First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) exception wey dey applies here,Government
"if the statute is constitutional in this context, it would have to come with a strong justification attached.","Di statute dey constitutional for di context, e go get strong justification attached.",Government
"it is not surprising that the majority, in determining the constitutionality of criminally prohibiting the plaintiffs' proposed activities, would apply, not the kind of intermediate first amendment standard that applies to conduct, but "" 'a more demanding standard.'","Di majority, for determining di constitutionality of criminally prohibiting di plaintiffs' proposed activities, go apply, no di kind of intermediate First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) standard wey dey apply to conduct, but "" 'a more demanding standard.",Government
"""indeed, where, as here, a statute applies criminal penalties and atleast arguably does soon the basis of content-based distinctions, i should think we would scrutinize the statute and justifications ""strictly""--to determine whether the prohibition is justified by a""compelling"" need that cannot be""less restrictively"" accommodated.","I go think we go scrutinize di statute and justifications ""strictly""--to determine whether di prohibition dey justified by a""compelling"" need wey no be""less restrictively"" accommodated.",Government
"but, even if we assume for argument's sake that""strict scrutiny""does not apply, no one c an deny that we must at the very least""measure the validity ofthe means adopted by congress against both the goal it has sought to achieve and the specific prohibitions ofthe first amendment.""","Na even if we assume for argument sake say""strict scrutiny no apply, no one c an deny say we must at di very least""measure di validity of di means adopted by congress against both di goal wey dey achieve and di specific prohibitions of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo)""",Government
"and here i need go no further, for i doubt that the statute, as the government would interpret it, can survive any reasonably applicable first amendment standard.","I need go no further, for i doubt say di statute, as di goment go interpret am, fit survive any reasonably applicable First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) standard.",Government
"the government does identify a compelling countervailing interest, namely, the interest in protecting the security ofthe united states and its nationals from the threats that foreign terrorist organizations robson the first amendment 60 pose by denying those organizations financial and other fungible resources.","Di goment don identify compelling countervailing interest, namely, di interest for protect di security of di united states and its nationals from di threats wey foreign terrorist organization robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 60 pose by denying those organizations financial and oda fungible resources.",Government
but i do dispute whether the interest can justify the statute's criminal prohibition.,I do dispute whether di interest fit justify di statute criminal prohibition.,Government
"to put the matter more specifically, precisely how does application ofthe statute to the protected activities before us help achieve that important security-related end?",Na how does application of di statute to di protected activities before us help achieve important security-related end?,Government
the government makes two efforts to answer this question.,Di goment make two effort to answer dis question,Government
"first, the government says that the plaintiffs' support for these organizations is ""fungible"" in the same sense as other forms of banned support.","Di government tok say di plaintiffs support for dis organization dey ""fungible"" for di same sense as oda form of banned support",Government
"being fungible, the plaintiffs' support could, for example, free up other resources, which the organization might put to terrorist ends.","Di plaintiffs' support go, for example, free up oda resources, wey di organization go put toter rorist ends.",Government
"the proposition that the two very different kinds of""support"" are ""fungible,"" however, is not obviously true.","Di proposition say di two different kinds of""support"" dey ""fungible,"" however, no dey true.",Government
"there is no obvious way in which undertaking advocacy for political change through peaceful means or teaching the pkk and ltte, say, how to petition the united nations for political change is fungible with other resources that might be put to more sinister ends in the way that donations of money, food, or computer training are fungible.","Nano obvious way wey dey undertaking advocacy for political change through peaceful means or teaching di pkk and ltte, say how to petition di united nations for political change through peaceful means or teaching di pkk and ltte, say how to petition di united nations for political change through peaceful means or teaching di pkk and ltte, say how to petition di united nations for political change dey fungible wit oda resources wey dey put to more sinister ends",Government
"it is far from obvious that these advocacy activities can themselves be redirected, or will free other resources that can be directed, towards terrorist ends.","E dey far from obvious say dis advocacy activities go redirect, or go free oda resources wey dey direct, towards terrorist ends.",Government
"thus, we must determine whether the government has come forward with evidence to support its claim.",We must determine whether di goment don kom forward wit evidence to support im claim.,Government
the government has provided us with no empirical information that might convincingly support this claim.,Di goment don provide us wit no empirical information wey might convincingly support dis claim.,Government
"instead, the government cites only to evidence that congress was concerned about the ""fungible"" nature in general of resources, predominately money and material goods.","Di goment cite only to evidence say congress dey concern about di ""fungible"" nature for general of resources, predominately money and material goods.",Government
"it points to a congressional finding that""foreign organizations that engage in terrorist activity are so tainted by their criminal conduct that any contribution to such an organization facilitates that conduct.""",Di congressional finding say foreign organization wey engage for terrorist activity dey so tainted by dia criminal conduct say any contribution to such organization facilitate say conduct.,Government
h. r. rep. no.,Dir. rep. no.,Government
"finally, the government refers to a state department official's affidavit describing how ostensibly charitable contributions have either been""redirected"" to terrorist ends or, even if spent charitably, have ""unencumber[ed] funds raised from other sources for use in facilitating violent, terrorist activities and gaining political support for these activities.""","Di goment to talk about state department official's affidavit say ostensibly charitable contributions don either been""redirected"" to terrorist ends or, even if spent charitably, don ""unencumber[ed] funds wey dey collect from oda source for use for facilitating violent, terrorist activities and gain political support for dis activities.",Government
"declaration of kenneth r. mckune, app.","Declaration of kenneth r. mckune, app.",Government
the most one can sayin the government's favor about these statements is that they might be read as offering highly general support for its argument.,Di most one go say for di goment's favor about dis statement na say dem go read as offering highly general support for its argument.,Government
"the statements do not, however, explain in any detail how the plaintiffs' political-advocacy -related activities might actually be ""fungible"" and therefore capable of being diverted to terrorist use.","Di statements do no, but, explain for any detail how di plaintiffs' political-advocacy -related activities might actually be ""fungible"" and so sake of dat capable of being diverted to terrorist use.",Government
"nor do they indicate that congress itself was concerned with""support"" of this kind.","Dem indicate say congress dey concerned wit""support"" of dis kind",Government
"the affidavit refers to""funds,"" ""financing,""and ""goods""--none of which encompasses the plaintiffs' activities.","Di affidavit refers to""funds,"" ""financing,""and ""goods""--none of which encompasses di plaintiffs' activities.",Government
"the statutory statement and the house report use broad terms like""contributions"" and""services"" that might be construed as encompassing the plaintiffs' activities.","Di statutory statement and di house report use broad terms like""contributions"" and""services"" wey dey construct as encompassing di plaintiffs activities.",Government
"but in context, those terms are more naturally understood as referring to contributions of goods, money, or training and other services(say, computer programming)that could be diverted to, or free funding for, terrorist ends.","Di terms dey more naturally understood as referring to contributions of goods, money, or training and oda services(say, computer programming) wey dey diverted to, or free funding for terrorist ends.",Government
peaceful political advocacy does not obviously fall into these categories.,Di peaceful political advocacy no dey fall into dis category.,Government
an d the statute itself suggests that congress did not intend to curtail freedom of speech or association.,Dem suggest say congress no intend to curtail freedom of speech or association.,Government
"second, the government says that the plaintiffs' proposed activities will ""bolste[r] a terrorist organization's efficacy and strength in a community""and ""undermin[e] this nation's efforts to delegitimize and weaken those groups.""","Di goment tok say di plaintiffs proposed activities go ""bolste[r] terrorist organization's efficacy and strength for community""and ""undermin[e] dis nation's efforts to delegitimize and weaken those groups",Government
"in the court's view, too, the constitution permits application ofthe statute to activities ofthe kind at issue in part because those activities could provide a group that engages in terrorism with""legitimacy.""","Di constitution don allow application of di statute to activities of di kind wey dey issue for part because those activities go provide group wey engage for terrorism wit""legitimacy""",Government
"the court suggests that, armed with this greater""legitimacy,"" these organizations will more readily be able to obtain material support ofthe kinds congress plainly intended to ban--money, arms, lodging, and the like.","Di court suggest say, armed wit dis greater""legitimacy,"" dem go more readily be able to obtain material support of di kinds congress plainly intended to ban--money, arms, lodging, and di like.",Government
"yet the government does not claim that the statute forbids any speech ""legitimating"" a terrorist group.","Di goment no claim say di statute forbid any speech ""legitimating"" terrorist group",Government
"rather, it reads the statute as permitting(1) membership in terrorist organizations,(2) robson the first amendment 61 ""peaceably assembling with members ofthe pkk and ltte for lawful discussion,""or (3)""independent advocacy""on behalf of these organizations.","E read di statute as allow(1) membership for terrorist organization,(2) robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 61 ""peaceably assembling wit members of di pkk and ltte for lawful discussion, or (3)""independent advocacy""on behalf of dis organization.",Government
"the court, too, emphasizes that activities not"" coordinated with"" the terrorist groups are not banned.","Di court, too, emphasize say activities no coordinated wit di terrorist groups no dey banned.",Government
"and it argues that speaking, writing, and teaching aimed at furthering a terrorist organization's peaceful political ends could""mak[e] it easier for those groups to persist, to recruit members, and to raise funds.""","Di argues say speaking, writing, and teaching wey dey aimed at furthering terrorist organization peaceful political ends go easier for those groups to persist, to recruit members, and to raise funds",Government
"but this""legitimacy"" justification cannot by itself warrant suppression of political speech, advocacy, and association.","Di""legitimacy"" justification no dey warrant suppression of political speech, advocacy, and association",Government
"speech, association, and related activities on behalf of a group will often, perhaps always, h elp to legitimate that group.","Di speech, association, and related activities for behalf of a group go often, perhaps always, h elp to legitimate dat group.",Government
"thus, were the law to accept a ""legitimating"" effect, in and of itself and without qualification, as providing sufficient grounds for imposing such a ban, the first amendment battle would be lost in untold instances where it should be won.","Di law to accept a ""legitimating"" effect, for and of imself and without qualification, as providing sufficient grounds for imposing such ban, First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) battle go dey lost for untold instances wey dem dey won.",Government
"once one accepts this argument, there is no natural stopping place.",Di argument dey no natural stop place.,Government
"the argument applies as strongly to""independent"" as to""coordinated"" advocacy.","Di argument applies as strongly to""independent"" as to""coordinated"" advocacy.",Government
"that fact is reflected in part in the government's claim that the ban here, so supported, prohibits a lawyer hired by a designated group from filing on behalf of that group an amicus brief before the united nations or even before this court.","Di ban here, so supported, prohibits lawyer wey be designated group from filing on behalf of dat group an amicus brief before di united nations or even before dis court.",Government
that fact is also reflected in the difficulty of drawing a line designed to accept the legitimacy argument in some instances but not in others.,Di fact dey reflect in di difficulty of drawing line wey dey designed to accept di legitimacy argument for some instance but no for odas.,Government
"it is inordinately difficult to distinguish when speech activity will and when it will not initiate the chain of causation the court suggests--a chain that leads from peaceful advocacy to""legitimacy"" to increased support for the group to an increased supply of material goods that support its terrorist activities.","Di court suggest say chain wey lead from peaceful advocacy to""legitimacy"" to increased support for di group to increased supply of material goods wey dey support di terrorist activities.",Government
"even were we to find some such line of distinction, its application would seem so inherently uncertain that it would often, perhaps always,""chill"" protected speech beyond its boundary.","We go find some line of distinction, im application go seem so uncertain say e go often, perhaps always,""chill"" protected speech beyond its boundary.",Government
"in short, the justification, put forward simply in abstract terms and without limitation, must always, or it will never, be sufficient.","For short, di justification, put forward simply for abstract terms and without limitation, must always, or e will never, be sufficient.",Government
"given the nature ofthe plaintiffs' activities,""always"" cannot possibly be the first amendme nt's answer.","Di nature of di plaintiffs activities,""always"" no be di first amendme nt's answer.",Government
neither congress nor the government advanced these particular hypothetical claims.,Na neither congress nor di goment advanced dis particular hypothetical claims.,Government
"moreover, the risk that those who are taught will put otherwise innocent speech or knowledge to bad use is omnipresent, atleast where that risk rests on little more than(even informed)speculation.","Di risk say those wey dey taught go put odawise innocent speech or knowledge to bad use dey omnipresent, atleast wia dat risk rest on little more than(even informed)speculation.",Government
"hence to accept this kind of argument without more and to apply it to the teaching of a subject such as international human rights law is to adopt a rule of law that, contrary to the constitution's text and first amendment precedent, would automatically forbid the teaching of any subject in a case where national security interests conflict with the first amendment.","Di rule of law wey, contrary to di constitution's text and First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) precedent, go automatically forbid di teaching of any subject wey Di way wey dem take dey protect di kontri, di pipo wey dey di kontri, and di tins wey important for di kontri from bad tins wey fit happen from outside or inside, including make sure say terrorist no go cause trouble, or say anoder kontri no go spy on dem interest conflict wit First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).",Government
the constitution does not allow all such conflicts to be decided in the government's favor.,Di constitution no allow all such conflicts to decide for di goment favor.,Government
"in particular, i would read the statute as criminalizing firstamendment -protected pure speech and association only when the defendant knows or intends that those activities will assist the organization's unlawful terrorist actions.",I go read di statute as criminalizing firstamendment -protected pure speech and association only wen di defendant know or intend say those activities go assist di organization's unlawful terrorist actions.,Government
"under this reading, the government would have to show, at a minimum, that such defendants provided support that they knew was significantly likely to help the organization pursue its unlawful terrorist aims.","Di goment go show, at minimum, say such defendants don provide support wey dem know na significantly likely to help di organization pursue im unlawful terrorist aims.",Government
but it does not protect that activity where a defendant purposefully intends it to help terrorism or where a defendant knows(or willfully blinds himself to the fact)that the activity is significantly likely to assist terrorism.,E no protect say activity wey defendant purposefully intend to help terrorism or wia defendant know(or willfully blind himself to di fact)say di activity dey likely to assist terrorism.,Government
"where the activity fits into these categories of purposefully or knowingly supporting terrorist ends, the act of providing material robson the first amendment 62 support to a known terrorist organization bears a close enough relation to terrorist acts that, in my view, it likely ca n be prohibited notwithstanding any first amendment interest.","Di act of providing material robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 62 support to a known terrorist organization bear close enough relation to terrorist ends, di act of providing material robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 62 support to a known terrorist organization, di act of providing material robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 62 support to a known terrorist organization bear close enough relation to terrorist ends, di act of providing material robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 62 support to a known terrorist organization, di act of providing material robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 62 support to",Government
"at the same time, this reading does not require the government to undertake the difficult task of proving which, as between peaceful and nonpeaceful purposes, a defendant specifically preferred; knowledge is enough.","Di reading no require di goment to undertake di difficult task of proving wich, as between peaceful and nonpeaceful purposes, defendant specifically preferred; knowledge dey enough.",Government
"this fourth requirement flows directly from the statute's use ofthe word""material.""","Di fourth requirement flow directly from di statute's use of di word""material""",Government
"that word can mean being of a physical or worldly nature, but it also can mean""being of real importance or great consequence.""","Di word don mean being of physical or worldly nature, but e also don mean""being of real importance or great consequence",Government
webster 's third new international dictionary 1392 (1961).,Ester 's first new international dictionary 1392 (1961).,Government
"here, it must mean the latter, for otherwise the statute, applying only to physical aid, would not apply to speech at all.","E must mean di latter, for odawise di statute, apply only to physical aid, no apply to speech for all.",Government
"and if the statute applies only to support that would likely be of real importance or great consequence, it must have importance or consequence in respect to the organization's terrorist activities.","If di statute appli only to support wey dey real importance or great consequence, e must have importance or consequence for respect to di organization's terrorist activities.",Government
"that is because support that is not significantly likely to help terrorist activities, for purposes of this statute, neither has""importance"" nor is of""great consequence.""","Di statute no dey significantly likely to help terrorist activities, for purpose of dis statute, no dey significantly likely to help terrorist activities, for purpose of dis statute, neither don get""importance"" nor dey of""great consequence""",Government
that history makes clear that congress primarily sought to end assistance that takes the form of fungible donations of money or goods.,Di history make clear say congress primarily sought end assistance wey dey take di form of fungible donations of money or goods.,Government
"as part ii makes clear, there is a""serious"" doubt--indeed, a""grave"" doubt--about the constitutionality ofthe statute insofar as it is read to criminalize the activities before us.","As part ii make clear, e dey serious doubt--about di constitutionity of di statute insofar as e read to criminalize di activities before us.",Government
"we therefore must""read the statute to eliminate""that constitutional ""doub[t] so long as such a reading is not plainly contrary to the intent of congress.","We therefore must""read di statute to eliminate""say constitutional ""doub[t] so long because of dat reading no dey contrary to di intent of congress.",Government
"for this reason, the majority's statutory claim that congress did not use the word""knowingly"" as i would use it is beside the point.","Di majority statutory claim say congress no use di word""knowingly"" as i go use am beside di point.",Government
our consequent reading is consistent with the statute's text; it is consistent with congress' basic intent; it interprets but does not significantly add to what the statute otherwise contains.,Di consequent reading dey consistent wit di statute text; e dey consistent wit congress' basic intent; e dey interpret but no dey add to what di statute odawise contains.,Government
we should adopt it.,We go adopt am,Government
"hence, i should think the majority would wish the lower courts to reconsider this aspect ofthe cases, applying a proper standard of review.","I go think di majority go wish di lower courts to reconsider dis aspect of di case, apply proper standard of review.",Government
"when deciding such cases, courts are aware and must respect the fact that th e constitution entrusts to the executive and legislative branches the power to provide for the national defense, and that it grants particular authority to the president in matters of foreign affairs.","Di constitution dey entrust to di executive and legislative branch di power to provide for di national defense, and say im grant particular authority to di president for matters of foreign affairs.",Government
"nonetheless, this court has also made clear that authority and expertise in these matters do not automatically trump the court's own obligation to secure the protection that the constitution grants robson the first amendment 63 to individuals.",Di court don make clear say authority and expertise for dis matters no automatically trump di court's own obligation to secure di protection wey di constitution grant robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 63 to individuals.,Government
"in these cases, for the reasons i have stated, i believe the court has failed to examine the government's justifications with sufficient care.",I believe di court don fail to examine di government's justifications wit sufficient care.,Government
"it has failed to insist upon specific evidence, rather than general assertion.","E don fail to insist upon specific evidence, no be general assertion.",Government
it has failed to require tailoring of means to fit compelling ends.,E don fail to require tailoring of means to fit compelling ends,Government
and ultimately it deprives the individuals before us ofthe protection that the first amendment demands.,E deprive di individuals before us of di protection wey First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) demand.,Government
"that is why, with respect, i dissent.","Na why, wit respect, i dissent",Government
how should the congressional intent not to abridge first amendment rights be understood?,Di congressional intent no to abridge First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) rights be understand?,Government
does chief justice roberts's opinion for the court or justice breyer's dissenting opinion have the better view?,Di chief justice roberts opinion for di court or justice breyer's dissenting opinion don di better view?,Government
holder v. humanitarian law project is a preenforcement challenge.,Di humanitarian law project dey preenforcement challenge,Government
"are there possible situations in which a""material support""prosecution could be successfully challenged as violative ofthe first amendment?",Di possible situation wey a material support prosecution go successfully challenge as violative of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo)?,Government
"what is the ""fungible"" analysis?","Di ""fungible"" analysis?",Government
how does that relate to speech?,How does dat relate to speech?,Government
"speech must be distinguished from""mere"" conduct, although the first amendment certainly protects expressive conduct and symbolic speech, which are subject to definitional disputes.","Di firstamendment certainly protect expressive conduct and symbolic speech, wey dey subject to definitional disputes.",Government
"the content of speech may place it in various categories of speech, some more protected and some less protected as evinced by levels of scrutiny.","Di content of talk may place e for various categories of talk, some more protected and some less protected as evinced by levels of scrutiny.",Government
"consider whether this ""categorical approach""to protectable speech is workable.","Di ""categorical approach""to protectable speech dey workable",Government
"defining expression we often express ourselves through gestures and""conduct.""","Di expression wey we often express awaselves through gestures and""conduct""",Government
should these be protected to the same extent as speech?,Dem dey protected to di same extent as speech?,Government
how should the expressive aspect of conduct be assessed?,How should di expressive aspect of conduct be assessed?,Government
"united states v. o'brien 391 u. s. 367(1968 )warren, c. j, delivered the opinion ofthe court; marshall, j, took no part in the consideration ofthe case; harlan, j, filed a concurring opinion.","Di united states v. o'brien 391 u. s. 367(1968) warren, c. j, deliver di opinion of di court; marshall, j, tok no part for di consideration of di case; marshall, j, filed a concurring opinion.",Government
"douglas, j, filed a dissenting opinion.","Douglas, j, filed a dissenting opinion.",Government
chief justice warren delivered the opinion ofthe court.,Di chief justice warren deliver di opinion of di court.,Government
"on the morning of march 31, 1966, david paul o'brien and three companions burned their selective service registration certificates on the steps ofthe south boston courthouse.","Di morning of march 31, 1966, david paul o'brien and three companions burn dia selective service registration certificate for di steps of di south boston courthouse.",Government
"a sizable crowd, including several agents ofthe federal bureau of investigation, witnessed the event.","Di event dey sizable crowd, including several agents of di federal bureau of investigation, witness di event.",Government
"immediately after the burning, members ofthe crowd began attacking o'brien and his companions.",Di crowd began attack o'brien and hin companions.,Government
an fbi agent ushered o'brien to safety inside the courthouse.,Di fbi agent usher o'brien to safety inside di courthouse.,Government
"after he was advised of his right to counsel and to silence, o'brien stated to fbi agents that he had burned his registration certificate because of his beliefs, knowing that he was violating federal law.","E tok say e don advise of hin right to counsel and to silence, o'brien state to fbi agents say hin don burn hin registration certificate bikos of hin beliefs, know say hin violate federal law.",Government
"he produced the charred remains ofthe certificate, which, with his consent, were photographed.","E produce di charred remains of di certificate, wey, within consent, dey photographed",Government
"for this act, o'brien was indicted, tried, convicted, and sentenced in the united states district court for the district of massachusetts.","Di act, o'brien dey indicted, tried, convicted, and sentenced for di united state district court for di district of massachusetts.",Government
he did not contest the fact that he had burned the certificate.,He no contest di fact say hin burn di certificate.,Government
"he stated in argument to the jury that he burned the certificate publicly to influence others to adopt his antiwar beliefs, as he put it,""so that other people would reevaluate their positions with selective service, with the armed forces, and reevaluate their place in the culture of today, to hopefully consider my position.""","Di jury tok say dem burn di certificate publicly to influence oda pipo to adopt hin antiwar beliefs, as hin put am,""so say oda pipo go reevaluate dia position wit selective service, wit di armed forces, and reevaluate dia place for di culture of today, to hopefully consider my position",Government
"the indictment upon which he was tried charged that he""willfully and knowingly did mutilate, destroy, and change by burning.","Di indictment wey dem tried charge say hin suppose mutilate, destroy, and change by burning.",Government
"in the district court, o'brien argued that the 1965 amendment prohibiting the knowing destruction or mutilation of certificates was unconstitutional because it was enacted to abridge free speech, and because it served no legitimate legislative purpose.","For di district court, o'brien argu say di 1965 amendment prohibiting di knowing destruction or mutilation of certificate dey unconstitutional because e dey enacted to abridge free speech, and e dey serve no legitimate legislative purpose.",Government
"the district court rejected these arguments, holding that the statute on its face did not abridge first amendment rights, that the court was not competent to inquire into the motives of congress in enacting the 1965 amendment, and that the amendment was a reasonable exercise ofthe power of congress to raise armies.","Di district court don reject dis argument, holding say di statute on its face no abridge First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) rights, say di court no competent to inquire into di motive of congress for enacting di 1965 amendment, and say di amendment no be reasonable exercise of di power of congress to raise armies.",Government
"on appeal, the court of appeals for the first circuit held the 1965 amendment unconstitutional as a law abridging freedom of speech.",Di court of appeal for di first circuit held di 1965 amendment unconstitutional as law wey dey open freedom of speech.,Government
"when a male reaches the age of 18, he is required by the universal military training and service act to register with a local draft board.",Di universal military training and service act to register wit local draft board.,Government
"he is assigned a selective service number, and within five days he is issued a registration certificate (sss form no.","Di selective service number, and within five days hin issue registration certificate (sss form no.",Government
"subsequently, and based on a questionnaire completed by the registrant, he is assigned a classification denoting his eligibility for induction, and ""[a]s soon as practicable"" thereafter he is issued a notice of classification (sss form no.","Di registrant dey assigned a classification denoting hin eligibility for induction, and ""[a]s soon as practicable"" thereafter hin issue notice of classification(ss form no.",Government
"this initial classification is not necessarily permanent, and if in the interim before induction the registrant's status changes in some relevant way, he maybe reclassified.","Di initial classification no necessarily permanent, and if for di interim before induction di registrant status change for some relevant way, hin go be reclassified.",Government
"after such a reclassification, the local board""as soon as practicable"" issues to the registrant anew notice of classification.","Di local board""as soon as practicable"" issues to di registrant new notice of classification, di local board""as soon as practicable"" issues to di registrant new notice of classification.",Government
"both the registration and classification certificates are small white cards, approximately 2 by 3 inches.","Di registration and classification certificate dey small white card, approximately 2 by 3 inches.",Government
"the registration certificate specifies the name ofthe registrant, the date of registration, and the number and address ofthe local board with which he is registered.","Di registration certificate dey specifi di name of di registrant, di date of registration, and di number and address of di local board wey dem registered.",Government
"also inscribed upon it are the date and place ofthe registrant's birth, his residence at registration, his physical description, his signature, and his selective service number.","Di date and place of di registrant's birth, hin residence for registration, hin physical description, hin signature, and hin selective service number",Government
"the selective service number itself indicates his state of registration, his local board, his year of birth, and his chronological position in the local board's classification record.","Di selective service number wey dem dey indicate hin state of registration, hin local board, hin year of birth, and hin chronological position for di local board's classification record",Government
"the classification certificate shows the registrant's name, selective service number, signature, and eligibility classification.","Di classification certificate shows di registrant's name, selective service number, signature, and eligibility classification.",Government
"it specifies whether he was so classified by his local board, an appeal board, or the president.","E dey specifie whether hin dey classified by hin local board, an appeal board, or di president.",Government
it contains th e address of his local board and the date the certificate was mailed.,Di address of hin local board and di date di certificate dey mail.,Government
"both the registration and classification certificates bear notices that the registrant must notify his local board in writing of every change in address, physical condition, and occupational, marital, family, dependency, and military status, and of any other fact which might change his classification.","Di registrant must notify hin local board for writing of every change for address, physical condition, and occupational, marital, family, dependency, and military status, and of any oda fact wey go change hin classification.",Government
both also contain a notice that the registrant's selective service number should appear on all communications to his local board.,Di registrant's selective service number go appear on all communications to hin local board.,Government
congress demonstrated its concern that certificates issued by the selective service system might be abused well before the 1965 amendment here challenged.,Di congress demonstrate im concern say certificate issued by di selective service system go abus well before di 1965 amendment here challenge.,Government
"we note at the outset that the 1965 amendment plainly does not abridge free speech on its face, and we do not understand o'brien to argue otherwise.","We note at di outset say di 1965 amendment no abridge free speech on its face, and we no understand o'brien to argue odawise.",Government
amended 12(b) (3)on its face deals with conduct having no connection with speech.,Amended 12(b) (3)on im face deals wit conduct having no connection wit talk.,Government
"it prohibits the knowing destruction of certificates issued by the selective service system, and there is nothing necessarily expressive about such conduct.","Di selective service system dey prohibit di knowing destruction of certificate issue by di selective service system, and na othing necessarily expressive about such conduct.",Government
"the amendment does not distinguish between public and private destruction, and it does not punish only destruction engaged in for the purpose of expressing views.","Di amendment no distinguish between public and private destruction, and e no punish only destruction wey dey engage for di purpose of expressing views.",Government
"robson the first amendment 66 o'brien nonetheless argues that the 1965 amendment is unconstitutional in its application to him, and is unconstitutional as enacted because what he calls the""purpose"" of congress was""to suppress freedom of speech.""","Di 1965 amendment na unconstitutional for howe dey work for him, and na unconstitutional ashe call di""purpose"" of congress na""to suppress freedom of speech.",Government
we consider these arguments separately.,We consider dis argument separately.,Government
"o'brien first argues that the 1965 amendment is unconstitutional as applied to him because his act of burning his registration certificate was protected""symbolic speech""within the first amendment.","O'brien first argues say di 1965 amendment dey unconstitutional as hin act of burn hin registration certificate dey protected""symbolic speech""within First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).",Government
"his argument is that the freedom of expression which the first amendment guarantees includes all modes of""communication of ideas by conduct,""and that his conduct is within this definition because he did it in""demonstration against the war and against the draft.""","Di freedom of expression wey First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) guarantees include all modes of""communication of ideas by conduct, and say hin conduct dey inside dis definition because hin conduct dey inside dis definition because hin conduct dey inside di draft.",Government
"we cannot accept the view that an apparently limitless variety of conduct can be labeled ""speech"" whenever the person engaging in the conduct intends thereby to express an idea.","We no accept di view say apparently limitless variety of conduct go label ""speech"" whenever di person engaging for di conduct intend to express idea.",Government
"however, even on the assumption that the alleged communicative element in o'brien's conduct is sufficient to bring into play the first amendment, it does not necessarily follow that the destruction of a registration certificate is constitutionally protected activity.","Di assumption say di alleged communicative element for o'brien conduct dey sufficient to bring into play First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo), e no follow say di destruction of registration certificate dey constitutionally protected activity.",Government
"this court has held that when""speech"" and ""nonspeech"" elements are combined in the same course of conduct, a sufficiently important governmental interest in regulating the nonspeech element can justify incidental limitations on first amendment freedoms.","Di court don tok say when""speech"" and ""nonspeech"" elements dey combined for di same course of conduct, sufficiently important goment interest for regulating di nonspeech element fit justify incidental limitations on First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) freedoms.",Government
"to characterize the quality ofthe governmental interest which must appear, the court has employed a variety of descriptive terms: compelling; substantial; subor dinating; paramount; cogent; strong.",Di court don employ variety of descriptive terms: compelling; substantial; subor dinating; paramount; cogent; strong.,Government
"whatever imprecision inheres in these terms, we think it clear that a government regulation is sufficiently justified if it is within the constitutional power ofthe government; if it furthers an important or substantial governmental interest; if the governmental interest is unrelated to the suppression of free expression; and if the incidental restriction on alleged first amendment freedoms is no greater than is essential to the furtherance of that interest.",We think say a government regulation dey sufficiently justified if di governmental interest dey unrelated to di suppression of free expression; and if di incidental restriction on alleged First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) freedoms no dey essential to di furtherance of dat interest.,Government
"we find that the 1965 amendment to 12(b) (3)of the universal military training and service act meets all of these requirements, and consequently that o'brien can be constitutionally convicted for violating it.","Di 1965 amendment to 12(b) (3)of di universal military training and service act meet all of dis requirements, and consequently say o'brien fit be constitutionally convicted for violating am",Government
the constitutional power of congress to raise and support armies and to make all laws necessary and proper to that end is broad and sweeping.,Di constitution power of congress to raise and support armies and make all laws necessary and proper to dat end dey broad and sweeping.,Government
and legislation to insure the continuing availability of issued certificates serves a legitimate and substantial purpose in the system's administration.,Dem go insure di continuing availability of issued certificate serve legitimate and substantial purpose for di system administration.,Government
we think it also apparent that the nation has a vital interest in having a system fo r raising armies that functions with maximum efficiency and is capable of easily and quickly responding to continually changing circumstances.,Di nation don dey vital interest for having system fo r raise armies wey function wit maximum efficiency and dey capable of quickly respond to continually changing circumstances.,Government
"for these reasons, the government has a substantial interest in assuring the continuing availability of issued selective service certificates.",Di goment don dey substantial interest for assuring di continuing availability of issue selective service certificate.,Government
it is equally clear that the 1965 amendment specifically protects this substantial governmental interest.,Di 1965 amendment specifically protect dis substantial governmental interest.,Government
we perceive no alternative means that would more precisely and narrowly assure the continuing availability of issued selective service certificates than a law which prohibits their wilful mutilation or destruction.,We perceive no alternative means wey go more precisely and narrowly assure di continuing availability of issue selective service certificate than law wey prohibit dia wilful mutilation or destruction.,Government
the 1965 amendment prohibits such conduct and does nothing more.,Di 1965 amendment prohibits such conduct and does nothing more.,Government
"in other words, both the governmental interest and the operation ofthe 1965 amendment are limited to the noncommunicative aspect of o'brien's conduct.",Di governmental interest and di operation of di 1965 amendment dey limited to di noncommunicative aspect of o'brien's conduct.,Government
the governmental interest and the scope ofthe 1965 amendment are limited to preventing harm to the smooth and efficient functioning ofthe selective service system.,Di governmental interest and di scope of di 1965 amendment dey limited to prevent harm to di smooth and efficient functioning of di selective service system.,Government
"when o'brien deliberately rendered unavailable his registration certificate, he wilfully frustrated this governmental interest.","For when o'brien deliberately render unavailable hin registration certificate, hin hopefully frustrate dis governmental interest.",Government
"for this noncommunicative impact of his conduct, and for nothing else, he was convicted.","Di noncommunicative impact of hin conduct, and for nothing else, hin dey convicted.",Government
"o'brien finally argues that the 1965 amendment is unconstitutional as enacted because what he calls the""purpose"" of congress was""to suppress freedom of speech.""","O'brien finally argu say di 1965 amendment dey unconstitutional as enacted because wey dem call di""purpose"" of congress dey""to suppress freedom of speech",Government
"we reject this argument because under settled principles the purpose of congress, as o'brien uses that term, is n ot a basis for declaring this legislation unconstitutional.","We reject dis argument because under settled principles di purpose of congress, as o'brien use dat term, dey n ot basis for declaring dis legislation unconstitutional.",Government
there was little floor debate on this legislation in either house.,Di legislation for either house.,Government
only senator thurmond commented on its substantive features in the senate.,Di only senator thurmond comment on di substantive features for di senate.,Government
"after his brief statement, and without any additional substantive comments, the bill, h. r. 10306, passed the senate.","Di bill, h. r. 10306, pass di senate",Government
in the house debate only two congressmen addressed themselves to the amendment congressmen rivers and bray.,Di house debate only two congressmen dey dress themselves to di amendment congressmen rivers and bray.,Government
the bill was passed after their statements without any further debate by a vote of 393 to 1.,Di bill don pass afta dia statements without any further debate by vote of 393 to 1.,Government
"it is principally on the basis ofthe statements by these three congressmen that o'brien makes his congressional-""purpose"" argument.","E dey principally on di basis of di statement by dis three congressmen wey o'brien make hin congressional-""purpose"" argument",Government
"we note that if we were to examine legislative purpose in the instant case, we would be obliged to consider not only these statements but also the more authoritative reports ofthe senate and house armed services committees.","We note say if we dey examine legislative purpose for di instant case, we go dey oblige to consider only dis statement but also di more authoritative reports of di senate and house armed services committees.",Government
the portions of those reports explaining the purpose ofthe amendment are reproduced in the appendix in their entirety.,Di portion of those report wey dey explain di purpose of di amendment dey reproduced for di appendix for dia entirety.,Government
"while both reports make clear a concern with the""defiant"" destruction of socalled ""draft cards""and with""open"" encouragement to others to destroy their cards, both reports also indicate that this concern stemmed from an apprehension that unrestrained destruction of cards would disrupt the smooth functioning ofthe selective service system.","For both reports make clear concern wit di""defiant"" destruction of socalled ""draft cards""and wit""open"" encouragement to oda to destroy dia cards, both report also indicate say dis concern stem from apprehension say unrestrained destruction of cards go disrupt di smooth functioning of di selective service system.",Government
"since th e 1965 amendment to 12(b) (3)of the universal military training and service act is constitutional as enacted and as applied* * * we vacate the judgment ofthe court of appeals, and reinstate the judgment and sentence ofthe district court.","We vacate di judgment of di court of appeals, and reinstate di judgment and sentence of di district court.",Government
spence v. washington 418 u. s. 405(1974) per curiam.,Spence v. washington 418 u. s. 405(1974) per curiam.,Government
"douglas, j, filed a concurring opinion.","Di douglas, j, filed a concurring opinion.",Government
"burger, c. j.",C. j.,Government
filed a dissenting opinion.,Dem filed dissenting opinion.,Government
"rehnquist, j, filed a dissenting opinion, in which burger, c. j, and white, j, joined.","Di rehnquist, j, filed dissenting opinion, wey burger, c. j, and white, j. join.",Government
per curiam.,For curiam.,Government
"appellant displayed a united states flag, which he owned, out ofthe window of his apartment.","Di appellant display united states flag, wey hin owned, out of di window of hin apartment.",Government
affixed to both surfaces ofthe flag was a large peace symbol fashioned of removable tape.,Di flag dey large peace symbol fashioned of removable tape.,Government
"appellant was convicted under a washington statute forbidding the exhibition of a united states flag to which is attached or superimposed figures, symbols, or other extraneous material.","Di appellant dey convicted under washington statute forbidding di exhibition of united states flag wey dey attach or superimposed figures, symbols, or oda extraneous material.",Government
the supreme court of washington affirmed appellant's conviction.,Di supreme court of washington don affirm appellant's conviction.,Government
"it rejected appellant's contentions that the statute under which he was charged, on its face and as applied, contravened the first amendment, as incorporated by the fourteenth amendment, and was void for vagueness.","E reject appellant's contentions say di statute under which hin charged, on its face and as apply, contraven First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo), as incorporated by di fourteenth amendment, and dey void for vagueness.",Government
"robson the first amendment 68 i on may 10, 1970, appellant, a college student, hung his united states flag from the window of his apartment on private property in seattle, washington.","Dem robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 68 i on May 10, 1970, appellant, college student, hung hin united states flag from di window of hin apartment on private property for seattle, washington.",Government
"the flag was upside down, and attached to the front and back was a peace symbol (i. e, a circle enclosing a trident)made of removable black tape.","Di flag dey upside down, and attach to di front and back na peace symbol (i. e, circle enclosing a trident)made of removable black tape.",Government
the window was above the ground floor.,Di window dey above di ground floor,Government
the flag measured approximately three by five feet and was plainly visible to passersby.,Di flag measure approximately three by five feet and dey plainly visible to passersby.,Government
the peace symbol occupied roughly half ofthe surface ofthe flag.,Di peace symbol occupi roughly half of di surface of di flag.,Government
three seattle police officers observed the flag and entered the apartment house.,Di three seattle police officers observe di flag and enter di apartment house.,Government
"they were met at the main door by appellant, who said:""i suppose you are here about the flag.",Isuppose you dey here about di flag,Government
"appellant permitted the officers to enter his apartment, where they seized the flag and arrested him.","Di appellant permitted di officers to enter hin apartment, wia dem seize di flag and arrest am",Government
appellant cooperated with the officers.,Di officer cooperate wit di officers.,Government
there was no disruption or altercation.,Nano disruption or altercation.,Government
appellant was not charged under washington's flag -desecration statute.,Di appellant no charge under washington flag -desecration statute.,Government
s ee wash. rev.,S ee wash. rev.,Government
"code 9. 86. 030, as amended.",As amended.,Government
"rather, the state relied on the so-called ""improper use""statute, wash. rev.","Rather, di state relied on di so-called ""improper use""statute, wash. rev.",Government
code 9. 86. 020.,Dem code 9. 86. 020.,Government
"this statute provides, in pertinent part:""no person shall, in any manner, for exhibition or display:""(1) place or cause to be placed any word, figure, mark, picture, design, drawing or advertisement of any nature upon any flag, standard, color, ensign or shield ofthe united states or of this state.","Di statute provide, for any manner, for exhibition or display:""(1) place or cause to place any word, figure, mark, picture, design, drawing or advertisement of any nature upon any flag, standard, color, ensign or shield of di united state or of dis state.",Government
"or""(2) expose to public view any such flag, standard, color, en sign or shield upon which shall have been printed, painted or otherwise produced, or to which shall have been attached, appended, affixed or annexed any such word, figure, mark, picture, design, drawing or advertisement.","Dem expose to public view any such flag, standard, color, en sign or shield upon which shall dey printed, painted or odawise produced, or to which shall dey attach, affixed or annexed any such word, figure, mark, picture, design, drawing or advertisement.",Government
"he said that his purpose was to associate the american flag with peace instead of war and violence:""i felt there had been so much killing and that this was not what america stood for.",I tok say hin purpose nato associate di american flag wit peace forstead of war and violence,Government
appellant further testified that he chose to fashion the peace symbol from tape so that it could be removed without damaging the flag.,Di appellant further test say hin go fashion di peace symbol from tape so say e go remove di flag.,Government
the state made no effort to controvert any of appellant's testimony.,Di state made no effort to controvert any of di person wey carry di case go up's testimony.,Government
"the trial court instructed the jury in essence that the mere act of displaying the flag with the peace symbol attached, if proved beyond a reasonable doubt, was sufficient to convict.","Di trial court instruct di jury for essence say di mere act of display di flag wit di peace symbol attached, if proved beyond reasonable doubt, na sufficient to convict.",Government
there was no requirement of specific intent to do anything more than display the flag in that manner.,Di requirement of specific intent to do anything more than display di flag for dat manner.,Government
the jury returned a verdict of guilty.,Di jury return verdict of guilty,Government
"the court sentenced appellant to 10 days in jail, suspended, and to a$75 fine.","Di court sentenced appellant to 10 days for jail, suspended, and to$75 fine.",Government
the washington court of appeals reversed the conviction.,Di washington court of appeal revers di conviction.,Government
it held the improper-use statute overbroad and invalid on its face under the first and fourteenth amendments.,E held di improper-use statute overbroad and invalid on im face under di first and 14th amendments.,Government
"with one justice dissenting and two concurring in the result, the washington supreme court reversed and reinstated the conviction.",Di washington supreme court reversed and reinstate di conviction.,Government
"first, this was a privately owned flag.",E dey privately owned flag,Government
in a technical property sense it was not the property of any government.,E no dey property of any government,Government
we have no doubt that the state or national governments constitutionally may forbid anyone from mishandling in any manner a flag that is public property.,We without question say di state or national goment constitutionally go forbid anyone from mishandling for any manner a flag wey dey public property,Government
but this is a different case.,Na different case but dis dey different case but dis dey different case but dis dey different case,Government
"second, appellant displayed his flag on private property.","Di second, appellant display hin flag on private property",Government
he engaged in no trespass or disorderly conduct.,Dem engage for no trespass or disorderly conduct.,Government
"nor is this a case that might be analyzed in terms of reasonable time, place, or manner restraints on access to a public area.","Di case wey dey analyze for terms of reasonable time, place, or manner restraint for access to public area.",Government
"third, the record is devoid of proof of any risk of breach ofthe peace.",Di record dey devoid of proof of any risk of breach of di peace.,Government
it was not appellant's purpose to incite violence or even stimulate a public demonstration.,E be no di person wey carry di case go up's purpose to incite violence or even stimulate a everybody demonstration.,Government
there is no evidence that any crowd gathered or that appellant made any effort to attract attention beyond hanging the flag out of his own window.,Di evidence say any crowd gather or say appellant make any effort to attract attention beyond hanging di flag out of hin own window.,Government
"indeed, on the facts stipulated by the parties there is no evidence that anyone other than the three police officers observed the flag.",Di facts wey di parties stipulated by di parties no dey evidence say anyone oda than di three police officers observe di flag.,Government
"robson the first amendment 69 fourth, the state concedes, as did the washington supreme court, that appellant engaged in a form of communication.","Di state concede, as di washington supreme court, say appellant engage for form of communication.",Government
"although the stipulated facts fail to show that any member ofthe general public viewed the flag, the state's concession is inevitable on this record.","Di stipulated facts fail to show say any member of di general public viewed di flag, di state's concession dey inevitable for dis record.",Government
"the undisputed facts are that appellant ""wanted people to know that i thought america stood for peace.""","Di undisputed facts dey say appellant ""wanted pipo to know say i thought America stood for peace",Government
"to be sure, appellant did not choose to articulate his views through printed or spoken words.",Di appellant no choose to articulate hin views through printed or spoken words.,Government
"it is therefore necessary to determine whether his activity was sufficiently imbued with elements of communication to fall within the scope ofthe first and fourteenth amendments, for as the court noted in united states v. o'brien,""[w]e cannot accept the view that an apparently limitless variety of conduct can be labeled`speech' whenever the person engaging in the conduct intends thereby to express an idea.""",E no accept di view say apparently limitless variety of conduct don label`speech' wenever di person engaging for di conduct intend to express an idea.,Government
"but the nature of appellant's activity, combined with the factual context and environment in which it was undertaken, lead to the conclusion that he engaged in a form of protected expression.","Di nature of appellant activity, combined wit di factual context and environment wey dem dey undertaken, lead to di conclusion say he engage for form of protected expression.",Government
the court for decades has recognized the communicative connotations ofthe use of flags.,Di court for decades don recognise di communicative connotation of di use of flags.,Government
"in many of their uses flags area form of symbolism comprising a""primitive but effective way of communicating ideas.","For many of dia use flags dey form of symbolism wey dey form of symbolism wey dey comprising a""primitive but effective way of communicating ideas",Government
board of education v. barnette (1943).,Board of education v. barnette (1943).,Government
on this record there can be little doubt that appellant communicated through the use of symbols.,Na little doubt say appellant communicate through di use of symbols.,Government
the symbolism included not only the flag but also the superimposed peace symbol.,Di symbolism include only di flag but also di superimposed peace symbol,Government
"moreover, the context in which a symbol is used for purposes of expression is important, for the context may give meaning to the symbol.","Di context wey symbol dey use for purpose of expression dey important, for di context go give meaning to di symbol.",Government
"a flag bearing a peace symbol and displayed upside down by a student today might be interpreted as nothing more than bizarre behavior, but it would have been difficult for the great majority of citizens to miss the drift of appellant's point at the time that he made it.",For di great majority of citizens to miss di drift of peace symbol and display upside down by a student today might be difficult for di great majority of citizens to miss di drift of appellant point for di time wey he make am.,Government
"it maybe noted, further, that this was not an act of mindless nihilism.",Di act of mindless nihilism no dey act of mindless nihilism,Government
"rather, it was a pointed expression of anguish by appellant about the then-current domestic and foreign affairs of his government.",Na pointed expression of anguish by appellant about di then-current domestic and foreign affairs of hin government.,Government
"an intent to convey a particularized message was present, and in the surrounding circumstances the likelihood was great that the message would be understood by those who viewed it.","Di likelihood dey great say di message go dey present, and for di surrounding circumstances di likelihood dey great say di message go understand di message.",Government
we are confronted then with a case of prosecution for the expression of an idea through activity.,Di case of prosecution for di expression of idea through activity.,Government
"moreover, the activity occurred on private property, rather than in an environment over which the state by necessity must have certain supervisory powers unrelated to expression.","Di activity dey occur on private property, no be for environment wey di state by necessity must have certain supervisory power wey dey related to expression.",Government
"accordingly, we must examine with particular care the interests advanced by appellee to support its prosecution.",We must examine wit particular care di interest wey dey advanced by appellee to support dia prosecution.,Government
the court did not define this interest; it simply asserted it.,Di court no define dis interest; e simply assert am,Government
"mr. justice rehnquist's dissenting opinion today, adopts essentially the same approach.",Dem adopt essentially di same approach.,Government
"presumably, this interest might be seen as an effort to prevent the appropriation of a revered national symbol by an individual, interest group, or enterprise where there was a risk that association ofthe symbol with apart icular product or viewpoint might be taken erroneously as evidence of governmental endorsement.",Di interest dey seen as effort to prevent di appropriation of national symbol wit particular product or viewpoint wey dey suppose take erroneously as evidence of governmental endorsement.,Government
"alternatively, it might be argued that the interest asserted by the state court is based on the uniquely universal character ofthe national flag as a symbol.",Di interest wey di state court dey based on di uniquely universal character of di national flag as symbol.,Government
"f or the great majority of us, the flag is a symbol of patriotism, of pride in the history of our country, and ofthe service, sacrifice, and valor ofthe millions of americans who in peace and war have joined together to build and to defend a nation in which self-government and personal liberty endure.","Di flag dey symbol of patriotism, of pride for di history of awa kontri, and of di service, sacrifice, and value of di millions of Americans wey for peace and war don join together to build and to defend a nation for which self-government and personal liberty endure.",Government
it evidences both the unity and diversity which are america.,Dem evidence both di unity and diversity wey dey America.,Government
for others the flag carries in varying degrees a different message.,Di flag carry for varying degrees a different message.,Government
"""a person gets from a symbol the meaning he puts into it, and what is one man's comfort and inspiration is another's jest and scorn.""","Di person get from symbol di meaning he put into am, and what dey one man's comfort and inspiration dey another's jest and scorn",Government
board of education v. barnette.,Board of education v. barnette.,Government
"it might be said that we all draw something from our national symbol, for it is capable of conveying simultaneously a spectrum of meanings.","E go tok say we all draw something from our national symbol, for e dey capable of conveying simultaneously spectrum of meanings.",Government
"if it maybe destroyed or permanently disfigured, it could be argued that it will lose its capability of mirroring the sentiments of all who view it.",E go argued say im go lose im capability of mirroring di sentiments of all wey view am,Government
but we need not decide in this case whether the interest advanced by the court below is valid.,We need no decide for dis case wen di interest advanced by di court below dey valid.,Government
"we assume, arguendo, that it is.","We assume, arguendo, say na.",Government
the statute is nonetheless unconstitutional as applied to appellant's activity.,Di statute no dey unconstitutional as apply to appellant's activity.,Government
there was no risk that appellant's acts would mislead viewers into assuming that the robson the first amendment 70 government endorsed his viewpoint.,Dem no risk say appellant's act go mislead viewers into assuming say di robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 70 goment endorse hin viewpoint.,Government
"to the contrary, he was plainly and peacefully protesting the fact that it did not.","Di contrary, hin dey plainly and peacefully protest di fact say e no dey.",Government
appellant was not charged under the desecration statute nor did he permanently disfigure the flag or destroy it.,Di appellant no dey charge under di desecration statute nor do he permanently disfigure di flag or destroy am,Government
he displayed it as a flag of his country in away closely analogous to the manner in which flags have always been used to convey ideas.,He display am as flag of hin kontri for way closely analogous to di manner wey flags dey use to convey ideas,Government
"moreover, his message was direct, likely to be understood, and within the contours ofthe first amendment.","Di message dey direct, likely to understand, and within di contours of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).",Government
"given the protected character of his expression and in light ofthe fact that no interest the state may have in preserving the physical integrity of a privately owned flag was significantly impaired on these facts, the conviction must be invalidated.","Given di protected character of his how person talk im mind and for light of di fact say no interest di state may get for preserving di physical integrity of a privately owned flag be significantly impaired on these facts, di conviction must be invalidated.",Government
the judgment is reversed.,Di judgment dey reversed,Government
"justice white join, dissenting.","Justice white join, dissenting.",Government
the court holds that a washington statute prohibiting persons from attaching material to the american flag was unconstitutionally applied to appellant.,Di court tok say washington statute prohibiting persons from attaching material to di american flag dey unconstitutionally applied to appellant.,Government
"although i agree with the court that appellant's activity was a form of communication, i do not agree that the first amendment prohibits the state from restricting this activity in furtherance of other important interests.","I no agree wit di court say appellant activity dey form of communication, i no agree am for First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) prohibit di state from restrict dis activity for furtherance of oda important interests.",Government
andi believe the rationale by which the court reaches its conclusion is unsound.,I believe di rationale wey di court reach dia conclusion na unsound.,Government
"""[t]he right of free speech is not absolute at all times and under all circumstances.""",Di right of free speech no absolute for since forever and under all circumstances,Government
"this court has long recognized, for example, that some forms of expression are not entitled to any protection at all under the first amendment, despite the fact that they could reasonably be thought protected under its literal language.","Di court don recognize, for example, say some forms of expression no dey entitled to any protection for all under First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo), despite di fact say dem no dey suppose be protected under di literal language.",Government
see roth v. united states(1957).,Di roth v. united state(1957).,Government
the court has further recognized that even protected speech maybe subject to reasonable limitation when important countervailing interests are involved.,Di court don recogniz say even protected speech go subject to reasonable limitation wen important countervailing interests dey involved.,Government
"citizens are not completely free to commit perjury, to libel other citizens, to infringe copyrights, to incite riots, or to interfere unduly with passage through a public thoroughfare.","Citizens nano completely free to commit perjury, to libel other citizens, to infringe copyrights, to incite riots, or to interfere unduly wit passage through a everybody thoroughfare.",Government
"the right of free speech, though precious, remains subject to reasonable accommodation to other valued interests.","Di right of free speech, though precious, dey subject to reasonable accommodation to oda valued interests.",Government
"since a state concededly may impose some limitations on speech directly, it would seem to follow a fortiori that a state may legislate to protect important state interests even though an incidental limitation on free speech results.","Di state concededly don impose some limitations on speech directly, e go follow a fortiori say a state don impose some limitations on speech directly, e go follow a fortiori say a state go legislate to protect important state interests even though incidental limitation on free speech results.",Government
"virtually any law enacted by a state, when viewed with sufficient ingenuity, could be thought to interfere with some citizen's preferred means of expression.","For virtually any law wey dey enacted by state, wen dey viewed wit sufficient ingenuity, could be thought to interfere wit some citizen's preferred means of expression.",Government
"but noone would argue, i presume, that a state could not prevent the painting of public buildings simply because a particular class of protesters believed their message would best be conveyed through that medium.","I presume, say a state no prevent di painting of public buildings simply because a particular class of protesters believe dia message go best convey through dat medium.",Government
"had appellant here chosen to tape his peace symbol to a federal courthouse, i have little doubt that he could be prosecuted under a statute properly drawn to protect public property.",I get little doubt say hin go prosecut under a statute properly drawn to protect public property.,Government
"yet the court today holds that the state of washington cannot limit use ofthe american flag, at least insofar as its statute prevents appellant from using a privately owned flag to convey his personal message.","Di court today tok say di state of washington no limit use of di american flag, at least insofar as its statute prevent appellant from using privately owned flag to convey hin personal message.",Government
"expressing its willingness to assume, arguendo, that washington has a valid interest in preserving the integrity ofthe flag, the court nevertheless finds that interest to be insufficient in this case.","Di court nevertheless find say washington don get valid interest for preserving di integrity of di flag, di court no find say interest to be insufficient for dis case.",Government
"to achieve this result the court first devalues the state's interest under these circumstances, noting that""no interest the state may have in preserving the physical integrity of a privately owned flag was significantly impaired on these facts.","Di court first devalues di state interest under dis circumstances, noting say no interest di state go get for preserving di physical integrity of privately owned flag dey significantly impaired on dis facts.",Government
"the court takes pains to point out that appellant didn ot""permanently disfigure the flag or destroy it,""and emphasizes that the flag was displayed""in away closely analogous to the manner in which flags have always been used to convey ideas.""","Di court take pains to show say appellant don n ot""permanently disfigure di flag or destroy am,""and emphasize say di flag don display""in way closely analogous to di manner wey dem use convey ideas.",Government
"the court then restates the notion that such state interests are secondary to messages which are""direct, likely to be understood, and within the contours ofthe first amendment.""","Di court tok say such state interests dey secondary to messages wey dey direct, likely to understand, and within di contours of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).",Government
"in my view the first premise demonstrates a total misunderstanding ofthe state's interest in the integrity ofthe american flag, and the second premise places the court in the position either of ultimately favoring appellant's message because of its subject matter, a position about which almost all members ofthe majority have only recently expressed doubt, or, alternatively, of making the flag available for a limitless succession of political and commercial messages.","Di first premise demonstrate total misunderstanding of di state interest for di integrity of di American flag, and di second premise place di court for di position either of ultimately favoring appellant's message bikos of its subject matter, and di second premise place di court for di position either of ultimately favoring appellant's message bikos of its subject matter, and di second premise place di court for di position either of ultimately favoring appellant's message because of its subject matter, and di second premis",Government
"the fact that the state has a valid interest in preserving the character ofthe flag does not mean, of course, that it can employ all conceivable means to enforce it.","Di fact say di state don get valid interest for preserving di character of di flag no mean, of course, say e fit employ all conceivable means to enforce am",Government
it certainly could not require all citizens to own the flag or compel citizens to salute one.,Dem no require all citizens to own di flag or compel citizens to salute one.,Government
"it presumably cannot punish criticism ofthe flag, or the principles for which it stands, any more than it could punish criticism of this country's policies or ideas.","E presumably no punish criticism of di flag, or di principles wey dem stand, any more than e go punish criticism of dis kontri policy or ideas.",Government
but the statute in this case demands no such allegiance.,Di statute for dis case demand no such allegiance but di statute for dis case demand no such allegiance,Government
its operation does not depend upon whether the flag is used for communicative or noncommunicative purposes; upon whether a particular message is deemed commercial or political; upon whether the use ofthe flag is respectful or contemptuous; or upon whether any particular segment ofthe state's citizenry might applaud or oppose the intended message.,Di flag no depend upon whether di flag dey use for communicative or noncommunicative purposes; upon whether any particular segment of di state citizenry might applaud or oppose di intended message.,Government
it simply withdraws a unique national symbol from the roster of materials that maybe used as a background for communications.,E simply withdraw unique national symbol from di roster of materials wey dey use as background for communications.,Government
"since i do not believe the constitution prohibits washington from making that decision, i dissent.","I no believe di constitution prohibit washington from make dat decision, i dissent.",Government
"texas v. johnson 491 u. s. 397(1989) brennan, j, delivered the opinion ofthe court, in which marshall, blackmun, scalia, and kennedy, jj,","Dem deliver di opinion of di court, wey marshall, blackmun, scalia, and kennedy, jj, deliver di opinion of di court, wey marshall, blackmun, scalia, and kennedy, jj.",Government
"kennedy, j, filed a concurring opinion.","Kennedy, j, filed a concurring opinion.",Government
"rehnquist, c. j, filed a dissenting opinion, in which white and o'connor, jj,","Di rehnquist, c. j, filed dissenting opinion, wey white and o'connor, jj, filed dissenting opinion, wey white and o'connor, jj, filed dissenting opinion, wey white and o'connor, jj.",Government
"stevens, j, filed a dissenting opinion.","Stevens, j, filed a dissenting opinion.",Government
justice brennan delivered the opinion ofthe court.,Dem deliver di opinion of di court.,Government
"after publicly burning an american flag as a means of political protest, gregory lee johnson was convicted of desecrating a flag in violation of texas law.","gregory lee johnson dey convicted of desecrating a flag as means of political protest, gregory lee johnson dey convicted of desecrating a flag for violation of texas law.",Government
this case presents the question whether his conviction is consistent with the first amendment.,Di case present di question wey hin conviction dey consistent wit First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).,Government
we hold that it is not.,We hold say nano,Government
"as explained in literature distributed by the demonstrators and in speeches made by them, the purpose of this event was to protest the policies ofthe reagan administration and of certain dallas-based corporations.",Di purpose of dis event be to protest di policies of di reagan administration and of certain dallas-based corporations.,Government
"the demonstrators marched through the dallas streets, chanting political slogans and stopping at several corporate locations to stage""die -ins""intended to dramatize the consequences of nuclear war.","Di demonstrators marche through di dallas streets, chant political slogans and stop for several corporate locations to stage""die -ins"" wey dey suppose dramatize di consequences of nuclear war.",Government
"on several occasions they spray -painted the walls of buildings and overturned potted plants, but johnson himself took no part in such activities.","For several occasions dem spray -painted di wall of buildings and overturned potted plant, but johnson himself tok no part for such activities.",Government
"he did, however, accept an american flag handed to him by a fellow protestor who had taken it from a flagpole outside one ofthe targeted buildings.",Di fellow protestor wey don take am from flagpole outside one of di target buildings.,Government
"the demonstration ended in front of dallas city hall, where johnson unfurled the american flag, doused it with kerosene, and set it on fire.","Di demonstration ended for front of dallas city hall, wey johnson unfurled di american flag, doused am wit kerosene, and set am on fire.",Government
"while the flag burned, the protestors chanted: ""america, the red, white, and blue, we spit on you.""","Di protestors chant say America, di red, white, and blue, we spit on you",Government
"after the demonstrators dispersed, a witness to the flag burning collected the flag's remains and buried them in his backyard.","Di demonstrators disperse, a witness to di flag burning collect di flag remains and buri dem for hin backyard.",Government
"noone was physically injured or threatened with injury, though several witnesses testified that they had been seriously offended by the flag burning.","Di witnesses testified say dem dey physically injured or threatened wit injury, though several witnesses testified say dem dey seriously offended by di flag burning.",Government
"ofthe approximately 100 demonstrators, johnson alone was charged with a crime.","Di approximately 100 demonstrators, johnson alone dey charge wit crime",Government
the only criminal offense with which he was charged was the desecration of a venerated object in violation of tex.,Di only criminal offense wey dem charge am na di desecration of a venerated object for violation of tex.,Government
penal code ann.,Di penal code wey dey ann,Government
"after a trial, he was convicted, sentenced to one year in prison, robson the first amendment 72 and fined$2, 000.","Di trial, he dey convicted, dey prison, robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 72 and fine$2, 000.",Government
"the court of appeals for the fifth district of texas at dallas affirmed johnson's conviction, but the texas court of criminal appeals reversed, holding that the state could not, consistent with the first amendment, punish johnson for burning the flag in these circumstances.","Di court of appeals for di fifth district of texas for dallas affirm johnson conviction, but di texas court of criminal appeal reversed, holding say di state no fit, consistent wit First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo), punish johnson for burn di flag for dis circumstances.",Government
we granted certiorari and now affirm.,We granted certiorari and now affirm.,Government
this fact somewhat complicates our consideration of his conviction under the first amendment.,Di fact somewhat complicate awa consideration of hin conviction under First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).,Government
"we must first determine whether johnson's burning ofthe flag constituted expressive conduct, permitting him to invoke the first amendment in challenging his conviction.","We must first determine whether johnson burn di flag constitut expressive conduct, allow him to invoke First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) for challenging hin conviction.",Government
"see, e. g, spence v. washington(1974).","See, e. g, spence v. washington(1974).",Government
"if his conduct was expressive, we next decide whether the state's regulation is related to the suppression of free expression.",We next decide whether di state regulation dey related to di suppression of free expression,Government
"see, e. g, united states v. o'brien(1968); spence.","See, e. g, united states v. o'brien(1968); spence.",Government
"if the state's regulation is not related to expression, then the less stringent standard we announced in united states v. o'brien for regulations of noncommunicative conduct controls.",Di less stringent standard wey we announce for united states v. o'brien for regulation of noncommunicative conduct controls.,Government
"if it is, then we are outside of o'brien's test, and we must ask whether this interest justifies johnson's conviction under a more demanding standard.",Di interest justifies johnson's conviction under a more demanding standard.,Government
"a third possibility is that the state's asserted interest is simply not implicated on these facts, and in that event the interest drops out ofthe picture.","Di state's assert interest no dey implicated on dis facts, and for dat event di interest dey dropout of di picture.",Government
"the first amendment literally forbids the abridgment only of""speech,"" but we have long recognized that its protection does not end at the spoken or written word.","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) literally forbid di abridgment only of""speech"" but we don recognize say im protection no end for di spoken or written word",Government
"while we have rejected""the view that an apparently limitless variety of conduct can be labeled`speech' whenever the person engaging in the conduct intends thereby to express an idea,""o'brien, we have acknowledged that conduct maybe ""sufficiently imbued with elements of communication to fall within the scope ofthe first and fourteenth amendments,""spence.","We don reject""the view say di apparently limitless variety of conduct go label`speech' wenever di person engaging for di conduct intend to express idea, o'brien, we don acknowledg say conduct no be sufficiently imbued wit elements of communication to fall within di scope of di first and fourteenth amendments, spence.",Government
"in deciding whether particular conduct possesses sufficient communicative elements to bring the first amendment into play, we have asked whether""[a]n intent to convey a particularized message was present, and [whether]the likelihood was great that the message would be understood by those who viewed it.""","We don ask whether particular conduct possess sufficient communicative elements to bring First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) into play, we don ask whether""[a]n intent to convey a particularized message wey dey present, and [whether]di likelihood dey great say di message go dey understand am.",Government
"hence, we have recognized the expressive nature of students' wearing of black armbands to protest american military involvement in vietnam, tinker v. des moines independent community school dist.","We don recognise di expressive nature of students wear black armbands to protest American military involvement for vietnam, tinker v. des moines independent community school dist.",Government
especially pertinent to this case are our decisions recognizing the communicative nature of conduct relating to flags.,Di decision wey dey recognize di communicative nature of conduct wey dey relating to flags.,Government
that we have had little difficulty identifying an expressive element in conduct relating to flags should not be surprising.,We get little difficulty identifying expressive element for conduct relating to flags no be surprising.,Government
"the very purpose of a national flag is to serve as a symbol of our country; it is, one might say,""the one visible manifestation of two hundred years of nationhood.""","Di very purpose of national flag dey serve as symbol of our kontri; na, one might say, di one visible manifestation of two hundred years of nationhood.",Government
"johnson burned an american flag as part- indeed, as the culmination- of a political demonstration that coincided with the convening ofthe republican party and its renomination of ronald reagan for president.",Di culmination- of political demonstration wey dey coincided wit di convening of di republican party and its renomination of ronald reagan for president.,Government
"the expressive, overtly political nature of this conduct was both intentional and overwhelmingly apparent.","Di expressive, overtly political nature of dis conduct na both intentional and overwhelmingly apparent.",Government
"it may not, however, proscribe particular conduct because it has expressive elements.","E no dey, however, proscribe particular conduct because e don expressive elements.",Government
"robson the first amendment 73 thus, although we have recognized that where""`speech' and `nonspeech' elements are combined in the same course of conduct, a sufficiently important governmental interest in regulating the nonspeech element can justify incidental limitations on first amendment freedoms,""o'brien, we have limited the applicability of o'brien's relatively lenient standard to those cases in which""the governmental interest is unrelated to the suppression of free expression.""[","We don recognize say where""speech and nonspeech elements dey combined for di same course of conduct, sufficiently important governmental interest for regulating di nonspeech element fit justify incidental limitations on First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) freedoms, o'brien, we don recognize say di governmental interest dey unrelated to di suppression of free expression.",Government
we]have highlighted the requirement that the governmental interest in question be unconnected to expression in order to come under o'brien's less demanding rule.,We don highlight di requirement say di governmental interest for question be unconnected to expression for order to kom under o'brien's less demanding rule.,Government
"in order to decide whether o'brien's test applies here, therefore, we must decide whether texas has asserted an interest in support of johnson's conviction that is unrelated to the suppression of expression.",We must decide whether texas don assert an interest for support of johnson conviction wey dey unrelated to di suppression of expression.,Government
"if we find that an interest asserted by the state is simply not implicated on the facts before us, we need not ask whether o'brien 's test applies.",We need no ask whether o'brien 's test applies.,Government
the state offers two separate interests to justify this conviction: preventing breaches ofthe peace and preserving the flag as a symbol of nationhood and national unity.,Di state offer two separate interest to prevent breaches of di peace and preserving di flag as symbol of nationhood and national unity.,Government
we hold that the first interest is not implicated on this record and that the second is related to the suppression of expression.,We hold say di first interest no implicate on dis record and say di second dey related to di suppression of expression,Government
a texas claims that its interest in preventing breaches ofthe peace justifies johnson's conviction for flag desecration.,Di interest for preventing breaches of di peace justifies johnson conviction for flag desecration.,Government
"however, no disturbance ofthe peace actually occurred or threatened to occur because of johnson's burning ofthe flag.",Nano disturbance of di peace dey occur or threatened to occur because of johnson burni di flag.,Government
"although the state stresses the disruptive behavior ofthe protestors during their march toward city hall, it admits that""no actual breach ofthe peace occurred at the time ofthe flagburning or in response to the flagburning.""","Di state stress di disruptive behavior of di protestors during dia march toward city hall, e admit say no actual breach of di peace occur for di time of di flagburning or in response to di flagburning",Government
our precedents do not countenance such a presumption.,We no dey countenance such presumption,Government
"to accept texas' arguments that it need only demonstrate""th e potential for a breach ofthe peace,""and that every flag burning necessarily possesses that potential, would be to eviscerate our holding in brandenburg.","E need only demonstrate""th e potential for a breach of di peace,""and say every flag burning necessarily possess say potential, go be to eviscerate awa holding for brandenburg.",Government
this we decline to do.,Dis we decline to do.,Government
"nor does johnson's expressive conduct fall within that small class of""fighting words""that are""likely to provoke the average person to retaliation, and thereby cause a breach ofthe peace.""","Di johnson expressive conduct fall within dat small class of""fighting words"" wey dey likely to provoke di average person to retaliation, and thereby cause breach of di peace",Government
the state need not worry that our holding will disable it from preserving the peace.,Di state need no worry say awa holding go disable am from preserving di peace,Government
"we do not suggest that the first amendment forbids a state to prevent""imminent lawless action.""","We no suggest say First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) forbid a state to prevent""imminent lawless action""",Government
"and, in fact, texas already has a statute specifically prohibiting breaches ofthe peace, which tends to confirm that texas need not punish this flag desecration in order to keep the peace.","For fact, texas don get statute specifically prohibiting breaches of di peace, wey dey confirm say texas need no punish dis flag desecration for order to keep di peace.",Government
b the state also asserts an interest in preserving the flag as a symbol of nationhood and national unity.,Di state also assert interest for preserving di flag as symbol of nationhood and national unity.,Government
"in spence, we acknowledged that the government's interest in preserving the flag's special symbolic value""is directly related to expression in the context of activity""such as affixing a peace symbol to a flag.","We acknowledge say di goment interest for preserving di flag special symbolic value""is directly related to expression for di context of activity""such as affixing peace symbol to a flag.",Government
we are equally persuaded that this interest is related to expression in the case of johnson's burning ofthe flag.,We dey equally persuad say dis interest dey related to expression for di case of johnson burn di flag,Government
"the state, apparently, is concerned that such conduct will lead people to believe either that the flag does not stand for nationhood and national unity, but instead reflects other, less positive concepts, or that the concepts reflected in the flag do not in fact exist, that is, that we do not enjoy unity as a nation.","Di state, apparently, dey concerned say such conduct go lead pipo to believe either say di flag no stand for nationhood and national unity, but instead reflect oda, less positive concepts, or say di concepts wey dey reflected for di flag no exist, but instead reflect oda, less positive concepts, or say di concepts wey dey reflected for di flag no exist, say we no enjoy unity as nation.",Government
"these concerns blossom only when a person's treatment ofthe flag communicates some message, and thus are related""to the suppression of free expression""within the meaning of o'brien.","Di concerns blossom only when a person's treatment of di flag communicat some message, and thus dey related""to di suppression of free expression"" wey dey within di meaning of o'brien.",Government
we are thus outside of o'brien's test altogether.,We dey outside of o'brien's test altogether,Government
robson the first amendment 74 iv it remains to consider whether the state's interest in preserving the flag as a symbol of nationhood and national unity justifies johnson's conviction.,Di state's interest for preserving di flag as symbol of nationhood and national unity justifies johnson's conviction.,Government
"moreover, johnson was prosecuted because he knew that his politically charged expression would cause""serious offense.""","Na moreover, johnson dey prosecuted bikos hin politically charge expression go cause""serious offense""",Government
"if he had burned the flag as a means of disposing of it because it was dirty or torn, he would not have been convicted of flag desecration under this texas law: federal law designates burning as the preferred means of disposing of a flag""when it is in such condition that it is no longer a fitting emblem for display,""36 u. s. c.","Di texas law designate burning as di preferred means of disposing of flag wey dey inside such condition say e no dey fitting emblem for display,36 u. s. c.",Government
"the texas law is thus not aimed at protecting the physical integrity ofthe flag in all circumstances, but is designed instead to protect it only against impairments that would cause serious offense to others.","Di texas law no dey aim to protect di physical integrity of di flag for all circumstances, but dey design instead to protect im only against impairments wey dey cause serious offense to odas.",Government
texas concedes as much.,Di texas concede as much,Government
"we must therefore subject the state's asserted interest in preserving the special symbolic character ofthe flag to""the most exacting scrutiny.""","We must so sake of dat subject di state's asserted interest for preserving di special symbolic character of di flag to""di most exacting scrutiny.""",Government
texas argues that its interest in preserving the flag as a symbol of nationhood and national unity survives this close analysis.,Di texas argu say its interest for preserving di flag as symbol of nationhood and national unity survive disclose analysis.,Government
"quoting extensively from the writings of this court chronicling the flag's historic and symbolic role in our society, the state emphasizes the""`special place'""reserved for the flag in our nation.","Di state dey describe di flag's historic and symbolic role for our society, di state dey emphasize di""special place'"" wey dey reserved for di flag in awa nation.",Government
"the state's argument is not that it hasan interest simply in maintaining the flag as a symbol of something, no matter what it symbolizes; indeed, if that were the state's position, it would be difficult to see how that interest is endangered by highly symbolic conduct such as johnson's.","Di state argument no be say e don get interest simply for maintaining di flag as symbol of something, no matter which e symbolizes; indeed, if e dey symbol of something, no matter which e symbolizes; indeed, if e dey symbol of something, no matter which e symbolizes; indeed, if e dey symbol of something, no matter which e symbolizes; indeed, if e dey symbol of something, no matter which e symbolizes; indeed, if e dey symbolizes; indeed, if",Government
"rather, the state's claim is that it hasan interest in preserving the flag as a symbol of nationhood and national unity, a symbol with a determinate range of meanings.","Di state's claim na say e get interest for preserving di flag as symbol of nationhood and national unity, symbol wit a determinate range of meanings.",Government
"according to texas, if one physically treats the flag in away that would tend to cast doubt on either the idea that nationhood and national unity are the flag's referents or that national unity actually exists, the message conveyed thereby is a harmful one and therefore maybe prohibited.","For texas, if one physically treat di flag for away wey dey suppose cast doubt on either di idea say nationhood and national unity dey di flag's referent or say national unity dey exist, di message wey dem convey hereby dey harmful one and e dey prohibited.",Government
"if there is a bedrock principle underlying the first amendment, it is that the government may not prohibit the expression of an idea simply because society finds the idea itself offensive or disagreeable.",Di goment no prohibit di expression of idea simply because society find di idea offensive or disagreeable.,Government
we have not recognized an exception to this principle even where our flag has been involved.,We no recognize an exception to dis principle even if we dey involved.,Government
"to bring its argument outside our precedents, texas attempts to convince us that even if its interest in preserving the flag's symbolic role does not allow it to prohibit words or some expressive conduct critical ofthe flag, it does permit it to forbid the outright destruction ofthe flag.","Di texas attempt to convince us say even if im interest for preserving di flag's symbolic role no allow am to prohibit words or some expressive conduct critical of di flag, e no allow am to forbid di outright destruction of di flag.",Government
the state's argument cannot depend here on the distinction between written or spoken words and nonverbal conduct.,Di state's argument no fit depend here on di distinction between written or spoken words and nonverbal conduct.,Government
"that distinction, we have shown, is of no moment where the nonverbal conduct is expressive, as it is here, and where the regulation of that conduct is related to expression, as it is here.","Di distinction wey we show, na of no moment wey di nonverbal conduct dey expressive, as e dey here, and where di regulation of dat conduct dey related to expression, as e dey here.",Government
"in addition, both barnette and spence involved expressive conduct, not only verbal communication, and both found that conduct protected.","Di barnette and spence dey involved expressive conduct, no only verbal communication, and both found say conduct protected",Government
"texas' focus on the precise nature of johnson's expression, moreover, misses the point of our prior decisions: their enduring lesson, that the government may not prohibit expression simply because it disagrees with its message, is not dependent on the particular mode in which one chooses to express an idea.","texas focus on di precise nature of johnson expression, moreover, miss di point of awa prior decisions: dia enduring lesson, say di goment no prohibit expression simply because dia disagree wit dia message, no dey depend on di particular mode wey one choose to express idea",Government
"if we were to hold that a state may forbid flag burning wherever it is likely to endanger the flag's symbolic role, but allow it wherever burning a flag promotes that role- as where, for example, a person ceremoniously burns a dirty flag- we would be saying that when it comes to impairing the flag's physical integrity, the flag itself maybe used as a symbol- as a substitute for the written or spoken word or a""short cut from mind to mind""- only in one direction.",We go tok say when a person dey burn dirty flag- we go tok say when a person dey burn dirty flag- we go tok say when a person dey burn dirty flag- we go suppose dey use as symbol- as a substitute for di written or spoken word.,Government
"we would be permitting a state to""prescribe what shall be orthodox""by saying that one may burn the flag to convey one's attitude toward it and its referents only if one does not endanger the flag's representation of nationhood and national unity.","We go allow state to""prescribe what shall be orthodox""by say one go burn di flag to convey one attitude toward di flag and its referents only if one no endanger di flag's representation of nationhood and national unity.",Government
robson the first amendment 75 we never before have held that the government may ensure that a symbol be used to express only one view of that symbol or its referents.,Di goment go ensure say symbol be use to express only one view of dat symbol or its referents.,Government
"indeed, we would not be surprised to learn that the persons who framed our constitution and wrote the amendment that we now construe were not known for their reverence for the union jack.",We no dey surprised to learn say di person wey dey framed awa constitution and write di amendment wey we no dey known for dia reverence for di union jack.,Government
the first amendment does not guarantee that other concepts virtually sacred to our nation as aw hole- such as the principle that discrimination on the basis of race is odious and destructive- will go unquestioned in the marketplace of ideas.,"Di firstamendment no guarantee say odious concepts virtually sacred to awa nation as whole -such as di principle say discrimination on di basis of race dey odious and destructive- go unquestioned for di Wetin be say make idear dem dey compete wit one anoda for pipo to sabi wetin be truth, like one big market wey idear dem dey trade, na im make dem call am 'marketplace of idear', wey mean say every bodi get chance to yan, to share tori, to argue, to disagree, to agree, and to choose wetin dem believe.",Government
see brandenburg v. ohio(1969).,See brandenburg v. ohio(1969).,Government
"we decline, therefore, to create for the flag an exception to the joust of principles protected by the first amendment.","We decline, so sake of dat, to create for di flag an exception to di joust of principles protected by First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).",Government
"it is not the state's ends, but its means, to which we object.","Di state's ends, but im means, to which we object.",Government
"it cannot be gainsaid that there is a special place reserved for the flag in this nation, and thus we do not doubt that the government has a legitimate interest in making efforts to ""preserv[e] the national flag as an unalloyed symbol of our country.""","We without question say di goment don dey legitimate interest for making efforts to ""preserv[e] di national flag as unalloyed symbol of awa kontri",Government
"we reject the suggestion, urged at oral argument by counsel for johnson, that the government lacks""any state interest whatsoever""in regulating the manner in which the flag maybe displayed.","We reject di suggestion, urge for oral argument by counsel for johnson, say di goment lack""any state interest whatsoever""for regulating di manner wey di flag dey display",Government
"congress has, for example, enacted precatory regulations describing the proper treatment ofthe flag, and we cast no doubt on the legitimacy of its interest in making such recommendations.","for example, congress don enacted precatory regulations describing di proper treatment of di flag, and we cast without question on di legitimacy of its interest for make such recommendations.",Government
"to say that the government hasan interest in encouraging proper treatment ofthe flag, however, is not to say that it may criminally punish a person for burning a flag as a means of political protest.","Di goment don dey interest for encouraging proper treatment of di flag, however, dey no say di goment don encourage proper treatment of di flag as means of political protest.",Government
"""national unity as an end which officials may foster by persuasion and example is not in question.",Di national unity as end wey officials go foster by persuasion and example no dey question.,Government
"the problem is whether under our constitution compulsion as here employed is a permissible means for its achievement.""",Di problem dey whether under our constitution compulsion as here employ na permissible means for its achievement,Government
we are fortified in today's conclusion by our conviction that forbidding criminal punishment for conduct such as johnson's will not endanger the special role played by our flag or the feelings it inspires.,We dey fortified for today's conclusion by our conviction say forbidding criminal punishment for conduct such as johnson's no endanger di special role wey we dey play by our flag or di feeling we inspire.,Government
"to paraphrase justice holmes, we submit that nobody can suppose that this one gesture of an unknown man will change our nation's attitude towards its flag.",We submit say nobody fit suppose say dis one gesture of unknown mango change our nation's attitude towards dia flag.,Government
"see abrams v. united states(1919) (holmes, j, dissenting).","See abrams v. united states(1919) (holmes, j, dissenting).",Government
"our decision is a reaffirmation ofthe principles of freedom and inclusiveness that the flag best reflects, and ofthe conviction that our toleration of criticism such as johnson's is a sign and source of our strength.","Di decision dey reaffirmation of di principles of freedom and inclusiveness wey di flag best reflect, and of di conviction say awa toleration of criticism wey dey johnson's dey sign and source of awa strength.",Government
"indeed, one ofthe proudest images of our flag, the one immortalized in our own national anthem, is ofthe bombardment it survived at fort mchenry.","One of di proudest images of our flag, di one wey dey immortalized for our own national anthem, na of di bombardment wey dey survive for fort mchenry.",Government
"it is the nation's resilience, not its rigidity, that texas sees reflected in the flag- and it is that resilience that we reassert today.","Di nation's resilience, no its rigidity, wey texas sef reflect for di flag- and it dey say resilience wey we reassert today.",Government
the way to preserve the flag's special role is not to punish those who feel differently about these matters.,Di way to preserve di flag special role no dey punish those wey feel differently about dis matters.,Government
it is to persuade them that they are wrong.,E dey to persuade dem say dem dey wrong,Government
"""to courageous, self -reliant men, with confidence in the power of free and fearless reasoning applied through the processes of popular government, no danger flowing from speech can be deemed clear and present, unless the incidence ofthe evil apprehended is so imminent that it may befall before there is opportunity for full discussion.","Di courageous, self -reliant men, wit confidence for di power of free and fearless reasoning wey dey applied through di process of popular goment, no danger flow from speech go dey clear and present, unless di incidence of di evil wey dey clear and present, unless di incidence of di evil wey dey suppose dey fall before di opportunity for full discussion.",Government
"if there be time to expose through discussion the falsehood and fallacies, to avert the evil by the processes of education, the remedy to be applied is more speech, not enforced silence.""","Di remedy to dey apply na more speech, no enforce silence.",Government
"whitney v. california(1927) (brandeis, j, concurring).","Whitney v. california(1927) (brandeis, j, concurring).",Government
"and, precisely because it is our flag that is involved, one's response to the flag burner may exploit the uniquely persuasive power ofthe flag itself.","Di flag wey dey involved, one response to di flag burner go exploit di uniquely persuasive power of di flag itself.",Government
"we can imagine no more appropriate response to burning a flag than waving one's own, no better way to counter a flag burner's message than by saluting the flag that burns, no surer means of preserving the dignity even ofthe flag that burned than by - as one witness here did- according its remains a respectful burial.","We fit imagine no more appropriate response to burn flag than waving one own, no better way to counter flag burner's message than by saluting di flag wey burn, no better way to dey preserving di dignity even of di flag wey burn.",Government
"we do not consecrate the flag by punishing its desecration, for in doing so we dilute the freedom that this cherished emblem represents.",Di cherished emblem represent di freedom wey dis cherished emblem represent.,Government
the state's interest in preventing breaches ofthe peace does not support his conviction because johnson's conduct did not threaten to disturb the peace.,Di state's interest for preventing breaches of di peace no support hin conviction because johnson conduct no threaten to disturb di peace.,Government
nor does the state's interest in preserving the flag as a symbol of nationhood and robson the first amendment 76 national unity justify his criminal conviction for engaging in political expression.,Di state's interest for preserving di flag as symbol of nationhood and robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 76 national unity justify hin An official court decision saying person is guilty of a crime for engaging for political expression.,Government
the judgment ofthe texas court of criminal appeals is therefore affirmed.,Di judgment of di texas court of criminal appeals dey affirmed.,Government
"chief justice rehnquist, with whom justice white and justice o'connor join, dissenting.","Chief justice rehnquist, wit whom justice white and justice o'connor join, dissenting.",Government
"in holding this texas statute unconstitutional, the court ignores justice holmes' familiar aphorism that""a page of history is worth a volume of logic.""","Di court ignor justice holmes' familiar aphorism say""a page of history dey worth volume of logic",Government
"for more than 200 years, the american flag has occupied a unique position as the symbol of our nation, a uniqueness that justifies a governmental prohibition against flag burning in the way respondent johnson did here.","Di american flag don occupi unique position as di symbol of awa nation, a uniqueness wey justifies a governmental prohibition against flag burning for di way respondent johnson do here.",Government
"it does not represent the views of any particular political party, and it does not represent any particular political philosophy.","E no represent di views of any particular political party, and e no represent any particular political philosophy.",Government
"the flag is not simply another""idea"" or""point of view""competing for recognition in the marketplace of ideas.","Di flag no be simply one""idea"" or point of view"" wey dey compete for recognition for di Wetin be say make idear dem dey compete wit one anoda for pipo to sabi wetin be truth, like one big market wey idear dem dey trade, na im make dem call am 'marketplace of idear', wey mean say every bodi get chance to yan, to share tori, to argue, to disagree, to agree, and to choose wetin dem believe.",Government
"millions and millions of americans regard it with an almost mystical reverence regardless of what sort of social, political, or philosophical beliefs they may have.","Di millions and millions of Americans regard am wit almost mystical reverence regardless of what sort of social, political, or philosophical beliefs wey dem don get.",Government
"fletcher v. peck (1810) (marshall, c.","Di peck (1810) (marshall, c.",Government
uncritical extension of constitutional protection to the burning ofthe flag risks the frustration ofthe very purpose for which organized governments are instituted.,Di uncritical extension of constitutional protection to di burning of di flag risk di frustration of di very purpose wey organized goment dey instituted.,Government
"the court decides that the american flag is just another symbol, about which not only must opinions pro and con be tolerated, but for which the most minimal public respect may not be enjoined.","Di court decide say di american flag dey just one symbol, about which no only must opinions pro and con dey tolerate, but for which di most minimal public respect no dey tolerate, but for which di most minimal public respect no dey tolerate, but for which di most minimal public respect no be enjoined.",Government
"the government may conscript men into the armed forces where they must fight and perhaps die for the flag, but the government may not prohibit the public burning ofthe banner under which they fight.","Di goment no conscript men into di armed forces wey dem fit fight and perhaps die for di flag, but di goment no prohibit di public burning of di banner under which dem fight.",Government
"stevens, j, dissenting.","Na stevens, j, dissenting",Government
"as the court analyzes this case, it presents the question whether the state of texas, or indeed the federal government, has the power to prohibit the public desecration ofthe american flag.","E present di question wey di state of texas, or indeed di federal goment, don dey power to prohibit di public desecration of di american flag.",Government
the question is unique.,Di question dey unique,Government
"in my judgment rules that apply to a host of other symbols, such as state flags, armbands, or various privately promoted emblems of political or commercial identity, are not necessarily controlling.","Di judgment rules wey dey apply to host of oda symbols, such as state flags, armbands, or various privately promoted emblems of political or commercial identity, no dey kontrol.",Government
"even if flag burning could be considered just another species of symbolic speech under the logical application ofthe rules that the court has developed in its interpretation ofthe first amendment in other contexts, this case hasan intangible dimension that makes those rules inapplicable.",Di case don dey intangible dimension wey dey make those rules inapplicable.,Government
"a country's flag is a symbol of more than ""nationhood and national unity.""","Di kontri flag dey symbol of more than ""nationhood and national unity""",Government
it also signifies the ideas that characterize the society that has chosen that emblem aswell as the special history that has animated the growth and power of those ideas.,Di idea wey characterize di society wey don chosen say emblem aswell as di special history wey don animate di growth and power of those ideas.,Government
"the fleurs -de-lis and the tricolor both symbolized ""nationhood and national unity,""but they had vastly different meanings.","Di fleurs -de-lis and di tricolor both symbolized ""nationhood and national unity""but dem don dey different meanings.",Government
"the message conveyed by some flags- the swastika, for example- may survive long after it has outlived its usefulness as a symbol of regimented unity in a particular nation.","Di message wey dey convey by some flags- di swastika, for example- go survive long afta hin usefulness as symbol of regimented unity for a particular nation.",Government
so it is with the american flag.,Di american flag dey wit di american flag,Government
"it is more than a proud symbol ofthe courage, the determination, and the gifts of nature that transformed 13 fledgling colonies into a world power.","Di proud symbol of di courage, di determination, and di gift of nature wey transform 13 fledgling colonies into world power.",Government
"it is a symbol of freedom, of equal opportunity, of religious tolerance, and of goodwill for other peoples who share our aspirations.","Di symbol of freedom, of equal opportunity, of religious tolerance, and of goodwill for oda pipo wey share awa aspirations.",Government
the symbol carries its message to dissidents both at home and abroad who may have no interest at all in our national unity or survival.,Di symbol carry dia message to dissidents both for home and abroad wey no get interest for all for our national unity or survival.,Government
the value ofthe flag as a symbol cannot be measured.,Di value of di flag as symbol no dey measure,Government
"even so, i have no doubt that the interest in preserving that value for the future is both significant and legitimate.",I without question say di interest for preserving dat value for di future dey both significant and legitimate.,Government
conceivably that value will be enhanced by the court's conclusion that our national commitment to free expression is so strong that robson the first amendment 77 even the united states as ultimate guarantor of that freedom is without power to prohibit the desecration of its unique symbol.,Di court's conclusion say awa national commitment to free expression dey so strong say robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 77 even di united states as ultimate guarantor of say freedom dey without power to prohibit di desecration of its unique symbol,Government
but i am unpersuaded.,I dey unpersuaded but i dey unpersuaded but i dey unpersuaded but i dey unpersuaded but i dey unpersuaded but i dey unpersuaded but i dey unpersuaded but i dey unpersuaded but i dey unpersuaded but i dey unpersuaded but i dey unpersuaded but i dey unpersuaded but i dey unpersuade,Government
"the creation of a federal right to post bulletin boards and graffiti on the washington monument might enlarge the market for free expression, but at a cost i would not pay.","Di creation of federal right to post bulletin board and graffiti on di washington monument go enlarge di market for free expression, but at a cost i no pay.",Government
"similarly, in my considered judgment, sanctioning the public desecration ofthe flag will tarnish its value- both for those who cherish the ideas for which it waves and for those who desire to don the robes of martyrdom by burning it.","For my considered judgment, sanction di public desecration of di flag go tarnish its value- both for those wey desire to don di robes of martyrdom by burn am.",Government
"that tarnish is not justified by the trivial burden on free expression occasioned by requiring that an available, alternative mode of expression- including uttering words critical ofthe flag, be employed.","Di trivial burden on free expression wey dey employed by requiring say a available, alternative mode of expression- including uttering words critical of di flag, be employed.",Government
it is appropriate to emphasize certain propositions that are not implicated by this case.,Di case dey appropriate to emphasize certain propositions wey dey implicate by dis case.,Government
"the statutory prohibition of flag desecration does not""prescribe what shall be orthodox in politics, nationalism, religion, or other matters of opinion or force citizens to confess by word or act their faith therein.""","Di statutory prohibition of flag desecration does no""prescribe what shall be orthodox for politics, nationalism, religion, or other matters of wetin dem talk or force citizens to confess by word or act dia faith therein.""",Government
west virginia board of education v. barnette (1943).,West virginia board of education v. barnette (1943).,Government
the statute does not compel any conductor any profession of respect for any idea or any symbol.,Di statute does no compel any conductor any profession of respect for any idea or any symbol.,Government
"nor does the statute violate""the government's paramount obligation of neutrality in its regulation of protected communication.""","Nor does di statute spoil""di goment' paramount obligation of neutrality for im regulation of protected communication.""",Government
"young v. american mini theatres, inc. (1976)(plurality opinion).",Di plurality opinion).,Government
the content of r espondent's message has no relevance whatsoever to the case.,Di content of r espondent's message no dey relevance whatsoever to di case.,Government
"the concept of ""desecration"" does not turn on the substance ofthe message the actor intends to convey, but rather on whether those who view the act will take serious offense.","Di concept of ""desecration"" no turn on di substance of di message di actor intend to convey, but rather on whether those wey view di act go take serious offense.",Government
"accordingly, one intending to convey a message of respect for the flag by burning it in a public square might nonetheless be guilty of desecration if he knows that others- perhaps simply because they misperceive the intended message- will be seriously offended.",Di one wey dey tend to convey message of respect for di flag by burning am for public square suppose nonetheless be guilty of desecration if dem know say dem misperceive di intended message- go dey seriously offended if dem know say oda- perhaps simply because dem misperceive di intended message- go be seriously offended if dem know say oda- perhaps simply because dem misperceive di intended message- go be seriously offended.,Government
"indeed, even if the actor knows that all possible witnesses will understand that he intends to send a message of respect, he might still be guilty of desecration if he also knows that this understanding does not lessen the offense taken by some of those witnesses.",Di actor know say all possible witnesses go understand say di message of respect no dey lessen di offense wey dey take by some witnesses.,Government
"thus, this is not a case in which the fact that""it is the speaker's opinion that gives offense""provides a special""reason for according it constitutional protection,""fcc v. pacifica foundation(1978) (plurality opinion).","Di case no dey case wey di fact say""it dey di speaker opinion wey give offense""provide special""reason for according constitutional protection, fcc v. pacifica foundation(1978) (plurality opinion).",Government
"the case has nothing to do with ""disagreeable ideas.""",Di case don nothing to do wit disagreeable ideas,Government
"it involves disagreeable conduct that, in my opinion, diminishes the value of an important national asset.","Di conduct wey dey disagreeable conduct, for my opinion, dey di value of important national asset.",Government
"the court is therefore quite wrong in blandly asserting that respondent""was prosecuted for his expression of dissatisfaction with the policies of this country, expression situated at the core of our first amendment values.""","Di court dey therefore wrong for hin expression of dissatisfaction wit di policies of dis kontri, expression wey dey situated for di core of our First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) values.",Government
respondent was prosecuted because ofthe method he chose to express his dissatisfaction with those policies.,Di respondent dey prosecut because of di method he go express hin dissatisfaction wit those policy.,Government
"had he chosen to spray-paint - or perhaps convey with a motion picture projector- his message of dissatisfaction on the facade ofthe lincoln memorial, there would be no question about the power ofthe government to prohibit his means of expression.","Dem choose to spray-paint - or perhaps convey wit motion picture projector- hin message of dissatisfaction on di facade of di lincoln memorial, na no question about di power of di government to prohibit hin means of expression",Government
the prohibition would be supported by the legitimate interest in preserving the quality of an important national asset.,Di prohibition go support di legitimate interest for preserving di quality of important national asset.,Government
"though the asset at stake in this case is intangible, given its unique value, the same interest supports a prohibition on the desecration ofthe american flag.","Di asset for stake for dis case dey intangible, given its unique value, di same interest support prohibition on di desecration of di american flag.",Government
"[fn*see below the ideas of liberty and equality have been an irresistible force in motivating leaders like patrick henry, susan b. anthony, and abraham lincoln, schoolteachers like nathan hale and booker t. washington, the philippine scouts who fought at bataan, and the soldiers who scaled the bluff at omaha beach.","Di idea of liberty and equality don dey irresistible force for motivating leaders like patrick henry, susan b. anthony, and abraham lincoln, schoolteachers like nathan hale and booker t. washington, schoolteachers like nathan hale and booker t. washington, schoolteachers like nathan hale and booker t. washington, schoolteachers like nathan hale and booker t. washington, schoolteachers like nathan hale and booker t. washington, schoolteachers like nathan hale and booker",Government
if those ideas are worth fighting for- and our history demonstrates that they are- it cannot be true that the flag that uniquely symbolizes their power is not itself worthy of protection from unnecessary desecration.,Di history demonstrate say dem dey true say di flag wey uniquely symbolizes dia power no dey worthy of protection from unnecessary desecration.,Government
[footnote* ]the court suggests that a prohibition against flag desecration is not content neutral because this form of symbolic speech is only used by persons who are critical ofthe flag or the ideas it represents.,Di court suggest say a prohibition against flag desecration no content neutral because dis form of symbolic speech no dey use by persons wey dey critical of di flag or di ideas wey dey represent.,Government
in making this suggestion the court does not pause to consider the far-reaching consequences of its introduction of disparate-impact analysis into our first amendment jurisprudence.,Di court no pause to consider di far reaching consequences of dia introduction of disparate-impact analysis into awa First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) jurisprudence.,Government
it seems obvious that a prohibition against the desecration of a gravesite is content neutral even if it denies some protesters the right to make a symbolic statement by extinguishing the flame in arlington cemetery where john f. kennedy is buried while permitting others to salute the flame by bowing their heads.,E dey obvious say a prohibition wey dey against di desecration of gravesite dey content neutral even if dem dey allow some protesters di right to make symbolic statement by extinguishing di flame by bowing dia head.,Government
"few would doubt that a protester wh o extinguishes the flame has robson the first amendment 78 desecrated the gravesite, regardless of whether he prefaces that act with a speech explaining that his purpose is to express deep admiration or unmitigated scorn for the late president.","Di few go doubt say protester wey dey extinguish di flame don robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 78 desecrated di gravesite, regardless of whether he preface say hin purpose dey express deep admiration or unmitigated scorn for di late president.",Government
"likewise, few would claim that the protester who bows his head has desecrated the gravesite, even if he makes clear that his purpose is to show disrespect.","Di protesTer wey bow hin head don desecrated di gravesite, even if hin make clear say hin purpose dey show disrespect.",Government
"in such a case, as in a flag burning case, the prohibition against desecration has absolutely nothing to do with the content ofthe message that the symbolic speech is intended to convey.",Di prohibition against desecration don absolutely nothing to do wit di content of di message that di symbolic speech.,Government
is the american flag unique?,Na di american flag unique?,Government
does the difference of opinion on this issue fully explain the contrary conclusions ofthe court and the dissents?,Does di difference of wetin dem talk on dis issue fully explain di contrary conclusions of di kot and di dissents?,Government
"note that congress reacted to texas v. johnson by passing the flag protection act of 1989, 103 stat.","Dem react to texas v. johnson bypass sing di flag protection act of 1989, 103 stat.",Government
"the house of representatives has passed a resolution to amend the united states constitution, the flag desecration amendment, to specifically permit congress to pass legislation to prohibit the physical desecration ofthe flag ofthe united states, but the proposed constitutional amendment has not been enthusiastically advanced.","Di house of representatives don pass resolution to amend di united state constitution, di flag desecration amendment, to specifically allow congress pass legislation to prohibit di physical desecration of di flag of di united state, but di proposed constitutional amendment no dey enthusiastically advanced.",Government
what is the o'brien standard?,Di o'brien standard?,Government
why did the court find it inapplicable in texas v. johnson?,Di court find am inapplicable for texas v. johnson?,Government
what is the argument that the o'brien standard should not have been applicable in o'brien?,Di argument say di o'brien standard no dey applicable for o'brien?,Government
what is the spence test?,Di spence test?,Government
"how does it apply in the context of public school dress codes that prohibit ""saggy pants,""""gang attire,"" fishnet tights, gender non-conforming clothes or males wearing facial make-up?","Di context of public school dress code wey prohibit ""saggy pants,""""gang attire,"" fishnet tights, gender nonconforming clothes or male wear facial make-up?",Government
"how does a specific prohibition influence the analysis of whether an""expression"" is sufficient under spence?","How does a specific prohibition influence di analysis of whether an""expression"" dey sufficient under spence?",Government
"tinker v. des moines independent community school district, 393 u. s. 503(1969), involved students wearing black armbands which the court held was expressive conduct.","Di moines for ependent community school district, 393 u. s. 503(1969), involved students wear black armband wey di court hold expressive conduct.",Government
"in clark v. community for creative non-violence,468 u. s. 288(1984), the court assumed but did not decide that sleeping could be expressive conduct.","For clark v. community for creative non violence,468 u. s. 288(1984), di court no decide say sleeping go expressive conduct.",Government
the context was a challenge to a national park service regulation prohibiting camping in certain parks as applied to prohibit demonstrators from sleeping ind. c.'s lafayette park and the mall in connection with a demonstration intended to call attention to the plight ofthe homeless.,Di context dey challenge to national park service regulation prohibiting camping for certain parks as apply to prohibit demonstrators from sleeping ford. c.'s lafayette park and di mall for connection wit demonstration wey dey call attention to di plight of di homeless.,Government
"the national park service allowed""symbolic tents""but disallowed sleeping in those tents.","Di national park service allowed""symbolic tents""but disallowed sleeping for di tents.",Government
the court found that there was a substantial governmental interest(preserving park property)unrelated to the suppression ofthe arguably protected expressive sleeping and upheld the park regulation.,Di court find say a substantial governmental interest(preserving park property)unrelated to di suppression of di arguably protected expressive sleeping and upheld di park regulation.,Government
"clark was central to some ofthe first amendment litigation surrounding ""occupy""in 2011.","Di clark dey central to some of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) litigation surrounding ""occupy""for 2011.",Government
robson the first amendment 79 ii.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 79 ii.,Government
"hate speech the conflict between""free speech""and equality is a persistent one.","Di conflict between""free speech""and equality dey persistent one.",Government
"the next two cases resolve the balance indifferent ways, but they are generally thought not to conflict.","Di next two cases resolve di balance for different way, but dem dey generally thought no conflict.",Government
how do you explain the differences between the next two cases?,How do you explain di differences between di next two cases?,Government
"white, j, filed an opinion con curring in the judgment, in which blackmun and o'connor, jj,","Di opinion wey blackmun and o'connor, jj, filed opinion concurring for di judgment, wey blackmun and o'connor, jj.",Government
"joined, and in which stevens, j, joined except as to part i-a.","For which stevens, j. join, and for which stevens, j. join except as to part i-a",Government
"blackmun j, filed an opinion concurring in the judgment.","Di blackmun j, filed opinion for di judgment.",Government
"stevens, j, filed an opinion con curring in the judgment, in part i of which white and blackmun, jj,","Di stevens, j, filed opinion concurring for di judgment, for part i of which white and blackmun, jj, filed opinion concurring for di judgment, for part i of which white and blackmun, jj, filed opinion concurring for di judgment, for part i of which white and blackmun, jj, filed opinion concurring for di judgment, for part i of which white and black",Government
justice scalia delivered the opinion ofthe court.,Dem deliver di opinion of di court.,Government
"in the predawn hours of june 21, 1990, petitioner and several other teenagers allegedly assembled a crudely made cross by taping together broken chair legs.","For di predawn hours of june 21, 1990, di person wey start di case for big-oga kot and several other teenagers allegedly assembled a crudely made cross by taping together broken chair legs.",Government
they then allegedly burned the cross inside the fenced yard of a black family that lived across the street from the house where petitioner was staying.,Diy allegedly burn di cross inside di fenced yard of black family wey dey live across di street from di house wey petitioner dey stay.,Government
"although this conduct could have been punished under any of a number of laws, one ofthe two provisions under which respondent city of st. paul chose to charge petitioner (then a juvenile)was the st. paul bias-motivated crime ordinance, st. paul, minn, legis.","Di conduct go dey punished under any of laws, one of di two provisions under which respondent city of st. paul go charge petitioner (then juvenile)na di st. paul bias-motivated crime ordinance, st. paul, minn, legis.",Government
"code 292. 02(1990), which provides:""whoever places on public or private property a symbol, object, appellation, characterization or graffiti, including, but not limited to, a burning cross or nazi swastika, which one knows or has reasonable grounds to know arouses anger, alarm or resentment in others on the basis of race, color, creed, religion or gender commits disorderly conduct an d shall be guilty of a misdemeanor.""","Wey dey place on public or private property symbol, symbol, appellation, characterization, characterization or graffiti, wey one know or get reasonable grounds to know arouses anger, alarm or resentment for oda on di basis of race, color, creed, religion or gender commit disorderly conduct an d shall be guilty of misdemeanor",Government
"petitioner moved to dismiss this count on the ground that the st. paul ordinance was substantially overbroad and impermissibly content based, and therefore facially invalid under the first amendment.","Di st. paul ordinance dey substantially overbroad and impermissibly content based, and therefore facially invalid under First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).",Government
"the trial court granted this motion, but the minnesota supreme court reversed.","Di trial court gran dis motion, but di minnesota supreme court reversed.",Government
"that court rejected petitioner's overbreadth claim because, as construed in prior minnesota cases, the modifying phrase ""arouses anger, alarm or resentment in others""limited the reach ofthe ordinance to conduct that amounts to""fighting words,""i. e,""conduct that itself inflicts injury or tends to incite immediate violence.","Di modifying phrase ""arouses anger, alarm or resentment for odas"" limited di reach of di ordinance to conduct dat amount to""fighting words"", i. e,""conduct say dem dey carry injury or e dey incite immediate violence.",Government
"the court also concluded that the ordinance was not impermissibly content based because, in its view,""the ordinance is a narrowly tailored means toward accomplishing the compelling governmental interest in protecting the community against bias- motivated threats to public safety and order.""","Di court also concluded say di ordinance no dey content based because, for its view,"" di ordinance no dey content based means toward accomplishing di compelling governmental interest for protect di community against bias- motivated threats to public safety and order.",Government
we granted certiorari.,We grant certiorari.,Government
"accordingly, we accept the minnesota supreme court's authoritative statement that the ordinance reaches only those expressions that constitute""fighting words""within the meaning of chaplinsky.","We accept di minnesota supreme court's authoritative statement say di ordinance reach only those expression wey constitute""fighting words""inside di meaning of chaplinsky.",Government
"petitioner and his amici urge us to modify the scope ofthe chaplinsky formulation, thereby invalidating the ordinance as""substantially overbroad.""","Di petitioner and hin amici urge us to modify di scope of di chaplinsky formulation, thereby invalidating di ordinance as""substantially overbroad""",Government
we find it unnecessary to consider this issue.,We find am unnecessary to consider dis issue.,Government
"assuming, argue ndo, that all ofthe expression reached by the ordinance is proscribable under the""fighting words""doctrine, we nonetheless conclude that the ordinance is facially unconstitutional in that it prohibits otherwise permitted speech solely on the basis ofthe subjects the speech addresses.",We no conclude say di ordinance dey facially unconstitutional for say dem prohibit odawise permitted speech solely on di basis of di subjects di speech addresses.,Government
robson the first amendment 80 the first amendment generally prevents government from proscribing speech or even expressive conduct because of disapproval ofthe ideas expressed.,Dem robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 80 First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) generally prevent government from proscribing speech or even expressive conduct because of disapproval of di ideas expressed.,Government
contentbased regulations are presumptively invalid.,Di contentbased regulations dey presumptively invalid.,Government
"from 1791 to the present, however, our society, like other free but civilized societies, has permitted restrictions upon the content of speech in a few limited areas, which are""of such slight social value as a step to truth that any benefit that maybe derived from them is clearly outweighed by the social interest in order and morality.""","Di society, like oda free but civilized societies, don permitted restrictions upon di content of speech for few limited areas, wey dey""of such slight social value as step to truth say any benefit wey dey derived from dem dey clearly outweighed by di social interest for order and morality.",Government
"we have recognized that""the freedom of speech""referred toby the first amendment does not include a freedom to disregard these traditional limitations.",We don recogniz say di freedom of speech wey dey referred toby di firstamendment no include freedom to disregard dis traditional limitations.,Government
"our decisions since the 1960'shave narrowed the scope ofthe traditional categorical exceptions for defamation, see new york times co. v. sullivan(1964); gertz v. robert welch, inc. (1974)and for obscenity, see miller v. california(1973), but a limited categorical approach has remained an important part of our first amendment jurisprudence.","Di 1960's don narrow di scope of di traditional categorical exceptions for defamation, see new york times co. v. sullivan(1964) and for obscenity, see miller v. california(1973) and for obscenity, see miller v. california(1973) and for obscenity, see miller v. california(1973) and for obscenity, see miller v. california(1973) and for obscenity, see miller v. california(1973) and for obscenity, see miller v. california(197",Government
"we have sometimes said that these categories of expression are""not within the area of constitutionally protected speech,""or that the""protection ofthe first amendment does not extend""to them.","We don tok say dis categories of expression no dey inside di area of constitutionally protected speech, or say di""protection of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) no extend""to dem",Government
"such statements must be taken in context, however, and are no more literally true than is the occasionally repeated shorthand characterizing obscenity ""as not being speech at all.""","Di occasionally repeat shorthand characterizing obscenity ""as no dey speech for all",Government
"what they mean is that these areas of speech can, consistently with the first amendment, be regulated because of their constitutionally proscribable content (obscenity, defamation, etc.)","Di areas of speech fit, consistently wit di firstamendment, be regulated because of dia constitutionally proscribable content (obscenity, defamation, etc.)",Government
"thus, the government may proscribe libel; but it may not make the further content discrimination of proscribing only libel critical ofthe government.",Di goment no proscribe libel; but e no make di further content discrimination of proscribing only libel critical of di government.,Government
"that would mean that a city council could enact an ordinance prohibiting only those legally obscene works that contain criticism ofthe city government or, indeed, that do not include endorsement ofthe city government.","Di city council go enact an ordinance prohibiting only those legally obscene works wey contain criticism of di city government or, indeed, say no include endorsement of di city government.",Government
"such a simplistic, all -or-nothing-at-all approach to first amendment protection is at odds with common sense and with our jurisprudence aswell.","Di simplistic, all -or-nothing-at-all approach to First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) protection dey at odds wit common sense and wit awa jurisprudence aswell.",Government
"it is not true that"" fighting words""have at most a""de minimis"" expressive content, or that their content is in all respects""worthless and undeserving of constitutional protection;""sometimes they are quite expressive indeed.","E no true say"" fight words""don dey for most a""de minimis"" expressive content, or say dia content dey for all respects""worthless and undeserving of constitutional protection;""sometimes dem dey quite expressive indeed.",Government
"we have not said that they constitute""no part ofthe expression of ideas,""but only that they constitute""no essential part of any exposition of ideas.""","We no tok say dem constitute no part of di expression of ideas, but only say dem constitute""no part of di expression of ideas,""but only say dem constitute""no part of any exposition of ideas",Government
chaplinsky (emphasis added).,Emphasis add).,Government
"the proposition that a particular instance of speech can be proscribable on the basis of one feature(e. g, obscenity) but not on the basis of another(e. g, opposition to the city government)is commonplace and has found application in many contexts.","Di proposition say a particular instance of speech no be proscribable on di basis of one feature(e. g, obscenity) but noon di basis of one feature(e. g, opposition to di city goment) dey commonplace and don find application for many contexts.",Government
"we have long held, for example, that nonverbal expressive activity can be banned because ofthe action it entails, but not because ofthe ideas it expresses- so that burning a flag in violation of an ordinance against outdoor fires could be punishable, whereas burning a flag in violation of an ordinance against dishonoring the flag is not.","We don hold, for example, say nonverbal expressive activity no dey banned because of di action wey dey entails, but no because of di ideas wey dey express- so say burning flag for violation of an ordinance against dishonoring di flag no dey.",Government
"similarly, we have upheld reasonable""t ime, place, or manner""restrictions, but only if they are""justified without reference to the content ofthe regulated speech.""","We don upheld reasonable""t ime, place, or manner""restrictions, but only if dem dey""justified without reference to di content of di regulated speech",Government
"ward v. rock against racism(1989); see also clark v. community for creative non-violence (1984)(noting that the o'brien test differs little from the standard applied to time, place, or manner restrictions).","Na clark v. community for creative non violence(1984) (noting say di o'brien test differ little from di standard applied to time, place, or manner restrictions).",Government
"and just as the power to proscribe particular speech on the basis of anon -content element(e. g, noise) does not entail the power to proscribe the same speech on the basis of a content element, so also the power to proscribe it on the basis of one content element(e. g, obscenity) does not entail the power to proscribe it on the basis of other content elements.","Di power to proscribe particular speech on di basis of one content element(e. g, noise) no entail di power to proscribe di same speech on di basis of one content element, so also di power to proscribe di same speech on di basis of one content element(e. g, obscenity) no entail di power to proscribe di same speech on di basis of one content element, so also di power to proscribe di same speech on di basis of one content element(e. g, noise)",Government
"in other words, the exclusion of""fighting words""from the scope ofthe first amendment simply means that, for purposes of that amendment, the unprotected features ofthe words are, despite their verbal character, essentially a ""nonspeech"" element of communication.","Di exclusion of""fighting words""from di scope of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) simply mean say, for purpose of dat amendment, di unprotected feature of di words despite dia verbal character, essentially a ""nonspeech"" element of communication.",Government
"fighting words are thus analogous to a noisy sound truck: each is, as justice frankfurter recognized, a ""mode of speech,""both can be used to convey an idea; but neither has, in and of itself, a claim upon the first amendment.","As justice frankfurter recognize, a mode of speech, both go use to convey idea; but neither don get, for and of itself, claim upon di firstamendment.",Government
"as robson the first amendment 81 with the sound truck, however, so also with fighting words: the government may not regulate use based on hostility- or favoritism -towards the underlying message expressed.",Di goment no regulate use based on hostility- or favoritism -towards di underlying message express.,Government
"a government must either proscribe al l speech or no speech at all,""post (stevens, j, concurring in judgment).","Di goment must either proscribe al l speech or no speech for all, post (stevens, j, concurrin for judgment).",Government
that easy target is ofthe concurrences' own invention.,Di easy target dey of di concurrences' own invention,Government
"in our view, the first amendment imposes not an ""underinclusiveness"" limitation, but a""content discrimination""limitation, upon a state's prohibition of proscribable speech.","For our view, First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) imposes no an ""underinclusiveness"" limitation, but a""content discrimination""limitation, upon a state's prohibition of proscribable talk.",Government
"there is no problem whatever, for example, with a state's prohibiting obscenity (and other forms of proscribable expression)only in certain media or markets, for although that prohibition would be ""underin clusive,"" it would not discriminate on the basis of content.","for example, wit state's prohibiting obscenity (and oda form of proscribable expression)only for certain media or market, for example, wit a state's prohibiting obscenity (and oda form of proscribable expression)only for certain media or market, for although dat prohibition no dey discriminate on di basis of content.",Government
even the prohibition against content discrimination that we assert the first amendment requires is not absolute.,Di prohibition against content discrimination wey we assert First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) require no absolute.,Government
it applies differently in the context of proscribable speech than in the area of fully protected speech.,Di context of proscribable speech dey differently for di context of proscribable speech wey dey fully protected speech,Government
"the rationale ofthe general prohibition, after all, is that content discrimination""raises the specter that the government may effectively drive certain ideas or viewpoints from the marketplace.""","Di rationale of di general prohibition, after all, na say content discrimination""raise di specter say di goment go effectively drive certain ideas or viewpoints from di marketplace.",Government
but content discrimination among various instances of a class of proscribable speech often does not pose this threat.,But content discrimination wey dey among various instances of class of proscribable speech no pose dis threat.,Government
"when the basis for the content discrimination consists entirely ofthe very reason the entire class of speech at issue is proscribable, no significant danger of idea or viewpoint discrimination exists.","Di basis for di content discrimination dey entirely of di very reason di entire class of speech for issue dey proscribable, no significant danger of idea or viewpoint discrimination exist.",Government
"such a reason, having been adjudged neutral enough to support exclusion ofthe entire class of speech from first amendment protection, is also neutral enough to form the basis of distinction within the class.","Dem adjudged neutral enough to support exclusion of di entire class of speech from First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) protection, dey neutral enough to form di basis of distinction within di class.",Government
"to illustrate: as tate might choose to prohibit only that obscenity which is the most patently offensive in its prurience - i. e, that which involves the most lascivious displays of sexual activity.","As tate go choose to prohibit only say obscenity wey dey di most patently offensive for its prurience - i. e, dat wey dey involve di most lascivious display of sexual activity.",Government
"but it may not prohibit, for example, only that obscenity which includes offensive political messages.","E no prohibit, for example, only say obscenity wey dey include of offensive political message.",Government
"and the federal government can criminalize only those threats of violence that are directed against the president, see 18 u. s. c.","Di federal goment go criminalize only those threats of violence wey dem direct against di president, see 18 u. s. c.",Government
"see watts v. united states(1969) (upholding the facial validity of 871 because ofthe ""overwhelmin[g] interest in protecting the safety of[the] chief executive and in allowing him to perform his duties without interference from threats of physical violence"").","Di facial validity of 871 because of di ""overwhelmin[g] interest wey dey protect di safety of[the] chief executive and for allow him perform hin duties without interference from threat of physical violence"").",Government
but the federal government may not criminalize only those threats against the president that mention his policy on aid to inner cities.,Di federal goment no criminalize only those threats against di president wey mention hin policy on aid to inner cities.,Government
"and to take a final example(one mentioned by justice stevens, post), a state may choose to regulate price advertising in one industry, but not in others, because the risk of fraud(one ofthe characteristics of commercial speech that justifies depriving it of full first amendment protection is in its view greater there.","Di state go choose to regulate price advertising for one industry, but no for odas, because di risk of fraud(one of di characteristics of commercial speech wey justifie depriving im of full First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) protection dey for its view greater there.",Government
but a state may not prohibit only that commercial advertising that depicts men in a demeaning fashion.,Di state no prohibit only say commercial advertising wey depict men for demeaning fashion but a state no prohibit only say commercial advertising wey depict men for demeaning fashion,Government
"another valid basis for according differential treatment to even a contentdefined subclass of proscribable speech is that the subclass happens to be associated with particular""secondary effects""of the speech, so that the regulation is""justified without reference to the content ofthe.","Di valid basis for according differential treatment to even contentdefined subclass of proscribable speech na say di subclass dey associated wit particular""secondary effects""of di speech, so say di regulation dey""justified without reference to di content of di speech.",Government
"a state could, for example, permit all obscene live performances except those involving minors.","Di state go, for example, allow all obscene live performance except those involving minors.",Government
"moreover, since words can in some circumstances violate laws directed not against speech but against conduct(a law against treason, for example, is violated by telling the enemy the nation's defense secrets), a particular content-based subcategory of a proscribable class of speech can be swept up incidentally within the reach of a statute directed at conduct, r ather than speech.","Di content-based subcategory of a proscribable class of speech no dey violate laws directly against speech but against conduct(a law against treason, for example, dey violated by telling di enemy di nation's defense secrets), a particular content-based subcategory of a proscribable class of speech no dey violated by telling di enemy di nation's defense secrets, a particular content-based subcategory of a proscribable class of speech no",Government
"thus, for example, sexually derogatory""fighting words,""among other words, may produce a violation of title vii's general prohibition against sexual discrimination in employment practices,42 u. s. c.","for example, sexually derogatory""fighting words,""among oda words, dey produce violation of title vii general prohibition against sexual discrimination for employment practices,42 u. s. c.",Government
"where the government does no t target conduct on the basis of its expressive content, acts are not shielded from regulation merely because they express a discriminatory idea or philosophy.","Di goment no dey target conduct on di basis of its expressive content, act no dey shield from regulation merely because dem express discriminatory idea or philosophy.",Government
"indeed, to validate such selectivity (where totally proscribable speech is at issue), it may not even be necessary to identify any particular""neutral"" basis, so long as the nature ofthe content discrimination is such that there is no realistic possibility robson the first amendment 82 that official suppression of ideas is afoot.","For validate such selectivity (where totally proscribable speech dey issue), e no be necessary to identify any particular""neutral"" basis, so long as di nature of di content discrimination dey afoot.",Government
(we cannot think of any first amendment interest that would stand in the way of a state's prohibiting only those obscene motion pictures with blue-eyed actresses.),We no think of any First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) interest wey go stand for di way of state prohibiting only those obscene motion pictures wit blue-eyed actresses.,Government
"save f or that limitation, the regulation of""fighting words,""like the regulation of noisy speech, may address some offensive instances and leave other, equally offensive, instances alone.","Di regulation of""fighting words""like di regulation of noisy speech, go address some offensive instances and leave oda, equally offensive, instances alone.",Government
"although the phrase in the ordinance, ""arouses anger, alarm or resentment in others,""has been limited by the minnesota supreme court's construction to reach only those symbols or displays that amount to""fighting words,""the remaining, unmodified terms make clear that the ordinance applies only to""fighting words""that insult, or provoke violence,""on the basis of race, color, creed, religion or gender.""","Di phrase for di ordinance, ""arouses anger, alarm or resentment for odas, although di phrase for di ordinance, ""arouses anger, alarm or resentment for odas, dey limited by di minnesota supreme court construction to reach only those symbols or display say amount to""fighting words"" wey dey provoke violence,""on di basis of race, color, creed, religion or gender.",Government
"displays containing abusive invective, no matter how vicious or severe, are permissible unless they are addressed to one ofthe specified disfavored topics.","Di displays wey dey containing abusive invective, no matter how vicious or severe, dey permissible unless dem dey address one of di disfavored topics.",Government
"those who wish to use""fighting words""in connection with other ideas- to express hostility, for example, on the basis of political affiliation, union membership, or homosexuality- are not covered.","for example, those wey wish to use""fighting words""for connection wit oda ideas- to express hostility, for example, on di basis of political affiliation, union membership, or homosexuality- no covered.",Government
the first amendment does not permit st. paul to impose special prohibitions on those speakers who express views on disfavored subjects.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) no allow st. paul to impose special prohibitions on those speakers wey express views on disfavored subjects.,Government
"in its practical operation, moreover, the ordinance goes even beyond mere content discrimination to actual viewpoint discrimination.",Di ordinance go even beyond mere content discrimination to actual viewpoint discrimination.,Government
"displays containing some words- odious racial epithets, for example- would be prohibited to proponents of all views.","Dem show some words- odious racial epithets, for example- go prohibite to proponents of all views.",Government
"but""fighting words""that do not themselves invoke race, color, creed, religion, or gender- aspersions upon a person's mother, for example- would seemingly be usable ad libitum in the placards of those arguing in favor of racial, color, etc,","But""fighting words"" wey no dey invoke race, color, creed, religion, or gender- aspersions upon a person's mother, for example- go seemingly be usable ad libitum for di placards of those arguin for favor of racial, color, etc.",Government
"tolerance and equality, but could not be used by those speakers' opponents.",But could no use those speakers' opponents,Government
"one could hold up a sign saying, for example, that all""anti -catholic bigots""are misbegotten; but not that all ""papists"" are, for that would insult and provoke violence""on the basis of religion.""","One go hold up sign say, for example, say all""anti -catholic bigots"" dey misbegotten; but no say all ""papists"" dey, for say e go insult and provoke violence""on di basis of religion",Government
"what we have here, it must be emphasized, is not a prohibition of fighting words that are directed at certain persons or groups(which would be facially valid if it met the requirements ofthe equal protection clause); but rather, a prohibition of fighting words that contain(as the minnesota supreme court repeatedly emphasized)messages of""bias -motivated""hatred and, in particular, as applied to this case, messages ""based on virulent notions of racial supremacy.""","E no be prohibition of fighting words wey dey direct for certain persons or groups (wey dey facially valid if dem meet di requirements of di equal protection clause)but rather, a prohibition of fighting words wey dey equal protection clause).",Government
"one must wholeheartedly agree with the minnesota supreme court that""[i]t is the responsibility, even the obligation, of diverse communities to confront such notions in whatever form they appear,""but the manner of that confrontation cannot consist of selective limitations upon speech.","One must wholeheartedly agree wit di minnesota supreme court say""[i]t dey di responsibility, even di obligation, of diverse communities to confront such notions for whatever form dem dey appear, but di manner of dat confrontation no fit consist of selective limitations upon speech.",Government
the point ofthe first amendment is that majority preferences must be expressed in some fashion other than silencing speech on the basis of its content.,Di point of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) na say majority preferences must express for some fashion oda than silencing speech on di basis of its content,Government
"despite the fact that the minnesota supreme court and st. paul acknowledge that the ordinance is directed at expression of group hatred, justice stevens suggests that this""fundamentally misreads"" the ordinance.","Di ordinance dey direct for expression of group hatred, justice stevens suggest say dis""fundamentally misread"" di ordinance.",Government
"it is directed, he claims, n otto speech of a particular content, but to particular ""injur[ies]"" that are ""qualitatively different"" from other injuries.","Di claim, n otto speech of particular content, but to particular ""injur[ies] wey dey different"" from oda injuries.",Government
this is wordplay.,Di wordplay na wordplay,Government
"what makes the anger, fear, sense of dishonor, etc,","Di anger, fear, sense of dishonor, etc.",Government
"produced by violation of this ordinance distinct from the anger, fear, sense of dishonor, etc,","Di ordinance distinct from di ger, fear, sense of dishonor, etc.",Government
"produced by other fighting words is nothing other than the fact that it is caused by a distinctive idea, conveyed by a distinctive message.","Di fact say e dey caused by distinctive idea, conveyed by distinctive message.",Government
the first amendment cannot be evaded that easily.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) no be evaded easily.,Government
"specifically, they assert that the ordinance helps to ensure the basic human rights of members of groups that have historically been subjected to discrimination, including the right of such group members to live in peace where they wish.","Di ordinance help to ensure di basic human rights of members of groups wey don dey subject to discrimination, including di right of such group members to live for peace where dem wish.",Government
"we do not doubt that these interests are robson the first amendment 83 compelling, and that the ordinance can be said to promote them.","We without question say dis interests dey robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 83 compelling, and say di ordinance go tok say di ordinance go promote dem",Government
"but the""danger of censorship""presented by a facially content-based statute, requires that that weapon be employed only where it is ""necessary to serve the asserted[compelling] interest.""","Di""danger of censorship"" wey dey presented by a facially content-based statute, require say weapon be employ only where im dey ""necessary to serve di asserted[compelling] interest",Government
"the existence of adequate contentneutral alternatives thus""undercut[s] significantly""any defense of such a statute, casting considerable doubt on the government's protestations that""the asserted justification is in fact an accurate description ofthe purpose and effect ofthe law.""","Di existence of adequate contentneutral alternatives wey dey undercut significantly""any defense of such statute, casting considerable doubt on di goment protestations say""the asserted justification dey for true accurate description of di purpose and effect of di law.",Government
"the dispositive question in this case, therefore, is whether content discrimination is reasonably necessary to achieve st. paul's compelling interests; it plainly is not.","Di dispositive question for dis case, na whether content discrimination dey reasonably necessary to achieve st. paul's compelling interest; e no dey no.",Government
"an ordinance not limited to the favored topics, for example, would have precisely the same beneficial effect.","Di ordinance no limited to di favored topics, for example, go get exactly di same beneficial effect.",Government
"in fact, the only interest distinctively served by the content limitation is that of displaying the city council's special hostility towards the particular biases thus singled out.",Di only interest wey dey served by di content limitation dey say of display di city council special hostility towards di particular biases thus single out.,Government
that is precisely what the first amendment forbids.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) don dey precisely what di firstamendment forbid,Government
the politicians of st. paul are entitled to express that hostility- but not through the means of imposing unique limitations upon speakers who(however benightedly) disagree.,Di politicians of st. paul dey entitled to express say hostility- but no through di means of imposing unique limitations upon speakers wey (however benightedly) disagree.,Government
let there be no mistake about our belief that burning across in someone's front yard is reprehensible.,Nano mistake about our belief say burn cross for someone front yard dey reprehensible.,Government
but st. paul has sufficient means at its disposal to prevent such behavior without adding the first amendment to the fire.,Di st. paul don sufficient means for dia disposal to prevent such behavior without add First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) to di fire.,Government
"the judgment ofthe minnesota supreme court is reversed, and the case is remanded for proceedings not inconsistent with this opinion.","Di judgment of di Minn Esta supreme court dey reversed, and di case dey remanded for proceedings no inconsistent wit dis opinion.",Government
"justice white, with whom justice blackmun and justice o'connor join, and with whom justice stevens joins except as to part i-a, concurring in the judgment.","Di justice white, wit whom justice blackmun and justice o'connor join, and wit whom justice stevens join except as to part i-a, and wit whom justice stevens join",Government
"however, our agreement ends there.",Di agreement end there.,Government
"this case could easily be decided within the contours of established first amendment law by holding, as petitioner argues, that the st. paul ordinance is fatally overbroad because it criminalizes not only unprotected expression but expression protected by the first amendment.","As petitioner argues, say di st. paul ordinance dey fatally overbroad because dem criminalize no only unprotected expression but expression protected by First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).",Government
"indeed, by characterizing fighting words as a form of""debate,"" the majority legitimates hate speech as a form of public discussion.","Dem characterize fighting words as form of public discussion, di majority legitimate hate speech as form of public discussion",Government
"the majority appears to believe that its doctrinal revisionism is necessary to prevent our elected lawmakers from prohibiting libel against members of one political party, but not another, and from enacting similarly preposterous laws.","Di majority dey believe say im doctrinal revisionism dey necessary to prevent awa elected lawmakers from prohibiting libel against members of one political party, but noone, and from enacting similarly preposterous laws.",Government
the majority is misguided.,Di majority dey misguided,Government
"although the first amendment does not apply to categories of unprotected speech, such as fighting words, th e equal protection clause requires that the regulation of unprotected speech be rationally related to a legitimate government interest.","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) no apply to categories of unprotected speech, such as fighting words, th e equal protection clause require say di regulation of unprotected speech be rationally related to legitimate government interest.",Government
"a defamation statute that drew distinctions on the basis of political affiliation or""an ordinance prohibiting only those legally obscene works that contain criticism ofthe city government,""would unquestionably fail rational-basis review.","Di defamation statute wey drew distinctions on di basis of political affiliation or""an ordinance prohibiting only those legally obscene works wey contain criticism of di city goment"" go unquestionably fail rational-basis review.",Government
"[a&b omitted]c the court has patched up its argument with an apparently nonexhaustive list of ad hoc exceptions, in what can be viewed either as an attempt to confine the effects of its decision to the facts of this case, robson the first amendment 84 or as an effort to anticipate some ofthe questions that will arise from its radical revision of first amendment law.","Di court don patch up its argument wit apparently nonexhaustive list of ad hoc exceptions, for wey go see either as an attempt to confine di effects of di decision to di facts of dis case, robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 84 or as effort to anticipate some of di facts of dis case, robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 84 or as effort to anticipate some of di questions wey go arise from di radical revision of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) law.",Government
"for instance, if the majority were to give general application to the rule on which it decides this case, today's decision would call into question the constitutionality ofthe statute making it illegal to threaten the life ofthe president.","If di majority go give general application to di rule wey dem decide dis case, today decision go call into question di constitutionality of di statute making dem illegal to threaten di life of di president.",Government
"surely, this statute, by singling out certain threats, incorporates a content-based distinction; it indicates that the government especially disfavors threats against the president, as opposed to threats against all others.","Di statute, by singling out certain threats, dey incorporate content-based distinction; say di goment especially disfavor threats against di president, as oppose to threats against all odas.",Government
"but because the government could prohibit all threats, and not just those directed against the president, under the court's theory, the compelling reasons justifying the enactment of special legislation to safeguard th e president would be irrelevant, and the statute would fail first amendment review.","Di goment go prohibit all threats, and no just those directed against di president, under di court's theory, di compelling reasons wey dey justify di enactment of special legislation to safeguard th e president go fail First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) review.",Government
"to save the statute, the majority has engrafted the following exception onto its newly announced first amendment rule: content-based distinctions maybe drawn within an unprotected category of speech if the basis for the distinctions is""the very reason the entire class of speech at issue is proscribable.""","Di majority don engraf di following exception onto di newly announce First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) rule: content-based distinctions don dey draw within di unprotected category of speech if di basis for di distinctions dey""the very reason di entire class of speech for issue dey proscribable",Government
"thus, the argument goes, the statute making it illegal to threaten the life ofthe president is constitutional, since th e reasons why threats of violence are outside the first amendment(protecting individuals from the fear of violence, from the disruption that fear engenders, and from the possibility that the threatened violence will occur)have special force when applied to the person ofthe president.""","Di argument go, di statute make dem illegal to threaten di life of di president na constitutional, since di reason wey threats of violence dey outside First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) (protect individuals from di fear of violence, from di disruption wey fear engender, and from di possibility say di threatened violence go occur)don special force wey dey apply to di person of di president.",Government
the exception swallows the majority's rule.,Di exception don allow di majority rule.,Government
"certainly, it should apply to the st. paul ordinance, since ""the reasons why[fighting words]are outside the first amendment.",Di reason wey dey why[fighting words]dey outside First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo),Government
"have special force when applied to[groups that have historically been subjected to discrimination].""",Di group wey dey historically dey subject to discrimination],Government
"to avoid the result of its own analysis, the court suggests that fighting words are simply a mode of communication, rather than a contentbased category, and that the st. paul ordinance has not singled out a particularly objectionable mode of communication.","Di court suggest say fighting words dey simply a mode of communication, no be contentbased category, and say di st. paul ordinance no fit singled out a particularly objectionable mode of communication.",Government
"again, the majority confuses the issue.",Di majority confuse di issue,Government
"a prohibition on fighting words is not a time, place, or manner restriction; it is a ban on a class of speech that conveys an overriding message of personal injury and imminent violence, a message that is at its ugliest when directed against groups that have long been the targets of discrimination.","E dey ban on class of speech wey dey conveys overriding message of personal injury and imminent violence, a message wey dey for its ugliest wen dey direct against groups wey dey long been di target of discrimination.",Government
"accordingly, the ordinance falls within the first exception to the majority's theory.",Di ordinance fall within di first exception to di majority's theory.,Government
"its selection of this case to rewrite first amendment law is particularly inexplicable, because the whole problem could have been avoided by deciding this case under settled first amendment principles.","Di whole problem wey dey avoid by deciding dis case under settled First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) law dey particularly inexplicable, because di whole problem could dey avoid di whole problem wey dey avoid by deciding dis case under settled First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) law dey particularly inexplicable, because di whole problem could dey avoid by deciding dis case under settled First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) law dey particularly inexplicable, because di whole problem could dey avoid dis case under settled First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) law dey particular",Government
"however, i would decide the case on overbreadth grounds.",I go decide di case on overbreadth grounds.,Government
"we have emphasized time and again that overbreadth doctrine is an exception to the established principle that""a person to whom a statute may constitutionally be applied will not be heard to challenge that statute on the ground that it may conceivably be applied unconstitutionally to others, in other situations not before the court.""","We don emphasize time and again say overbreadth doctrine dey exception to di established principle say""a person to whom a statute go constitutionally be applied no be hear to challenge say statute on di ground say e go conceivably be applied unconstitutionally to odas, for oda situation no before di court.",Government
"a defendant being prosecuted for speech or expressive conduct may challenge the law on its face if it reaches protected expression, even when that person's activities are not protected by the first amendment.",Di defendant wey dey prosecut for speech or expressive conduct dey challenge di law on its face if dia activities no dey protected by First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).,Government
"this is because""th e possible harm to society in permitting some unprotected speech to go unpunished is outweighed by the possibility that protected speech of others maybe muted.""",Di possible harm to society wey dey allow some unprotected speech to go unpunished dey outweighed by di possibility say protected speech of odas go muted,Government
"although the ordinance, as construed, reaches categories of speech that are constitutionally unprotected, it also criminalizes a substantial amount of expression that- however repugnant - is shielded by the first amendment.","Di ordinance, as construct, reach categories of speech wey dey constitutionally unprotected, e also criminalize substantial amount of expression wey dey shielded by di firstamendment.",Government
"the mere fact that expressive activity causes hurt feelings, offense, or resentment does not render the expression unprotected.","Di mere fact say expressive activity cause hurt feelings, offense, or resentment no render di expression unprotected.",Government
"in the first amendment context, ""[c]riminal statutes must be scrutinized with particular care; those that make unlawful a substantial amount of constitutionally protected conduct maybe held facially robson the first amendment 85 invalid even if they also have legitimate application.""","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) context, ""[c]riminal statutes must be scrutinized wit particular care; those wey make unlawful a substantial amount of constitutionally protected conduct must dey hold facially robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 85 invalid even if dem also have legitimate application",Government
the st. paul antibias ordinance is such a law.,Di st. paul antibias ordinance dey such law.,Government
"although the ordinance reaches conduct that is unprotected, it also makes criminal expressive conduct that causes only hurt feelings, offense, or resentment, and is protected by th e first amendment.","Di ordinance reach conduct wey dey unprotected, e also make criminal expressive conduct wey dey unprotected, e also make criminal expressive conduct wey dey cause only hurt feelings, offense, or resentment, and dey protected by th e firstamendment.",Government
the ordinance is therefore fatally overbroad and invalid on its face.,Di ordinance dey therefore fatally overbroad and invalid on its face,Government
"its decision is an arid, doctr inaire interpretation, driven by the frequently irresistible impulse of judges to tinker with the first amendment.","Di decision na arid, doctr inaire interpretation, driven by di frequently irresistible impulse of judges to tinker wit First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).",Government
"the decision is mischievous at best, and will surely confuse the lower courts.","Di decision dey mischievous for best, and go surely confuse di lower courts.",Government
"justice blackmun, concurring in the judgment.",Di justice blackmun wey dey concurrin for di judgment.,Government
"the majority opinion signals one of two possibilities: it will serve as precedent for future cases, or it will not.","Di majority opinion signals one of two possibilities: e go serve as precedent for future case, or e no fit.",Government
either result is disheartening.,Dem dey disheartening,Government
"in the first instance, by deciding that a state cannot regulate speech that causes great harm unless it also regulates speech that does not(setting law and logic on their heads), the court seems to abandon the categorical approach, and inevitably to relax the level of scrutiny applicable to content- based laws.","Di court seem to abandon di categorical approach, and inevitably to relax di level of scrutin wey dey based laws.",Government
"as justice white points out, this weakens the traditional protections of speech.","As justice white points out, dis weaken di traditional protection of speech.",Government
"if all expressive activity must be accorded the same protection, that protection will be scant.","If all expressive activity must accord di same protection, dat protection go be scant.",Government
the simple reality is that the court will never provide child pornography or cigarette advertising the level of protection customarily granted political speech.,Di simple reality na say di court go provide child pornography or cigarette advertising di level of protection customarily grant political speech.,Government
"if we are forbidden from categorizing, as the court has done here, we shall reduce protection across the board.","Di court don done here, we go reduce protection across di board.",Government
"it is sad that, in its effort to reach a satisfying result in this case, the court is willing to weaken first amendment protections.","E dey sad say, for its effort to reach satisfying result for dis case, di court don willing to weaken First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) protections.",Government
"in the second instance is the possibility that this case will not significantly alter first amendment jurisprudence but, instead, will be regarded as an aberration -a case where the court manipulated doctrine to strike down an ordinance whose premise it opposed, namely, that racial threats and verbal assaults are of greater harm than other fighting words.","Di second instance dey di possibility say dis case no significantly change First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) jurisprudence but, instead, go dey regard as a aberration -case wey di court manipulate doctrine to strike down di ordinance wey dey suppose strike down di ordinance wey dey suppose strike down, namely, say racial threats and verbal assaults dey of great harm than oda fighting words.",Government
"if this is the meaning of today's opinion, it is perhaps even more regrettable.","Di meaning of today's opinion, na perhaps even more regrettable.",Government
"justice stevens, with whom justice white and justice blackmun join as to part i, concurring in the judgment.","Di ustice stevens, wit wey justice white and justice blackmun join as to part i, concurrin for di judgment.",Government
"drawing on broadly worded dicta, the court establishes a near-absolute ban on content-based regulations of expression, and holds that the first amendment prohibits the regulation of fighting words by subject matter.","Drawing on broadly worded dicta, di kot establishes a near-absolute ban on content-based regulations of how person talk im mind, and holds say First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) prohibits di regulation of fighting words by subject matter.",Government
"thus, while the court rejects the ""allor-nothing -at-all""nature ofthe categorical approach, it promptly embraces an absolutism of its own: within a particular ""proscribable"" category of expression, the court holds, a government must either proscribe all speech or no speech at all.","Di court reject di ""allor-nothing -at-all""nature of di categorical approach, e promptly embraces an absolutism of its own: within a particular ""proscribable"" category of expression, di court hold, a goment must either proscribe all speech or no speech for all.",Government
"this aspect ofthe court's ruling fundamentally misunderstands the role robson the first amendment 86 and constitutional status of contentbased regulations on speech, conflicts with the very nature of first amendment jurisprudence, and disrupts well-settled principles of first amendment law.","Di aspect of di court ruling fundamentally misunderstand di role robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 86 and constitutional status of contentbased regulations on speech, conflict wit di very nature of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) jurisprudence, and disrupt well settled principles of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) jurisprudence, and disrupt well settled principles of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) law.",Government
"core political speech occupies the highest, most protected position; commercial speech and nonobscene, sexually explicit speech are regarded as a sort of secondclass expression; obscenity and fighting words receive the least protection of all.","Di core political speech occupy di highest, most protected position; commercial speech and nonobscene, sexually explicit speech dey regar as a sort of secondclass expression; obscenity and fighting words receive di least protection of all.",Government
"assuming that the court is correct that this last class of speech is not wholly""unprotected,"" it certainly does not follow that fighting words and obscenity receive the same sort of protection afforded core political speech.","Di court dey correct say dis last class of speech no dey unprotected, e no follow say fighting words and obscenity receive di same sort of protection wey dey afford core political speech.",Government
"yet, in ruling that proscribable speech cannot be regulated based on subject matter, the court does just that.","For ruling say proscribable speech no be regulated based on subject matter, di court no just say.",Government
"perversely, this gives fighting words greater protection than is afforded commercial speech.",Di give fighting words great protection than dey afta commercial speech.,Government
"if congress can prohibit false advertising directed at airline passengers without also prohibiting false advertising directed at bus passengers, and if a city can prohibit political advertisements in its buses, while allowing other advertisements, it is ironic to hold that a city cannot regulate fighting words based on""race, color, creed, religion or gender,""while leaving unregulated fighting words based on""union membership.","Di ironic to hold say a city no regulate fighting words wey dey based on race, color, creed, religion or gender, and if a city go prohibit false advertising directed for bus passengers, and if a city go prohibit false advertising directed for bus passengers, and if a city go prohibit false advertising directed for bus passengers, and if a city go prohibit false advertising directed for bus passengers, and if a city go prohibit false advertising directed",Government
the court today turns first amendment law on its head: communication that was once entirely unprotected(and that still can be wholly proscribed) is now entitled to greater protection than commercial speech- and possibly greater protection than core political speech.,Di court today turn First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) law on its head: communication wey dey once entirely unprotected(and e still dey entitled to greater protection than commercial speech- and possibly greater protection than core political speech.,Government
"these concerns, which i have noted on other occasions, lead me to find justice white's response to the court's analysis unsatisfying.","Di concerns, wey i don not on oda occasions, lead me to find justice white's response to di court analysis unsatisfying.",Government
"admittedly, the categorical approach to the first amendment has some appeal: either expression is protected or it is not- the categories create safe harbors for governments and speakers alike.",Di categorical approach to First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) don some appeal: either expression dey protected or no - di categories create safe harbors for government and speakers alike.,Government
"but this approach sacrifices subtlety for clarity, and is, i am convinced, ultimately unsound.","Di approach sacrifice subtlety for clarity, and na, i am convinced, ultimately unsound.",Government
"as an initial matter, the concept of""categories"" fits poorly with the complex reality of expression.","Di concept of""categories"" fit poorly wit di complex reality of expression.",Government
"few dividing lines in first amendment law are straight and unwavering, and efforts at categorization inevitably give rise only to fuzzy boundaries.","Di few dividing line for First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) law dey straight and unwavering, and efforts for categorization go give rise only to fuzzy boundaries.",Government
"our definitions of ""obscenity,"" and""public forum,""illustrate this all too well.","Our definitions of ""obscenity,"" and""everybody forum,""illustrate dis all too well.",Government
"the quest for doctrinal certainty through the definition of categories and subcategories is, in my opinion, destined to fail.","Di quest for doctrinal certainty through di definition of categories and subcategories dey, for my mind, suppose fail.",Government
"moreover, the categorical approach does not take seriously the importance of context.",Di categorical approach no take seriously di importance of context.,Government
the meaning of any expression and the legitimacy of its regulation can only be determined in context.,Di meaning of any expression and di legitimacy of its regulation no be determined for context.,Government
"whether, for example, a picture or a sentence is obscene cannot be judged in the abstract, but rather only in the context of its setting, its use, and its audience.","for example, a picture or sentence dey obscene no be judge for di abstract, but rather only for di context of its setting, its use, and its audience.",Government
"similarly, although legislatures may freely regulate most nonobscene child pornography, such pornography that is part of""a serious work of art, a documentary on behavioral problems, or a medical or psychiatric teaching device""may be entitled to constitutional protection; the ""question whether a specific act of communication is protected by the first amendment always requires some consideration of both its content and its context.""","Di""question wey dey suppose regulate most nonobscene child pornography, such pornography wey dey part of""a serious work of art, a documentary on behavioral problems, or medical or psychiatric teaching device""go dey entitled to constitutional protection; di ""question wey dey suppose ensure say a specific act of communication dey protected by First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) always require some consideration of both dia content and its context.",Government
the categorical approach sweeps too broadly when it declares that all such expression is beyond the protection ofthe first amendment.,Di categorical approach sweep too widely wen dem declare say all such expression dey beyond di protection of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).,Government
"unlike the court, i do not believe that all contentbased regulations are equally infirm and presumptively invalid; unlike justice white, i do not believe that fighting words are wholly unprotected by the first amendment.","I no believe say all contentbased regulations dey equally infirm and presumptively invalid; unlike justice white, i no believe say all contentbased regulations dey equally infirm and presumptively invalid; unlike justice white, i no believe say all contentbased regulations dey equally infirm and presumptively invalid; unlike justice white, i no believe say all contentbased regulations dey equally infirm and presumptively invalid; unlike justice white, i no",Government
"to the contrary, i believe our decisions establish a more complex and subtle analysis, one that considers the content and context ofthe regulated speech, and the nature and scope ofthe restriction on speech.","I believe awa decision establish more complex and subtle analysis, one wey consider di content and context of di regulated speech, and di nature and scope of di restriction on speech.",Government
"applying this analysis and assuming arguendo (as the court does)that the st. paul ordinance is not overbroad, i conclude that such a selective, subject matter regulation on proscribable speech is constitutional.","I conclude say na selective, subject matter regulation on proscribable speech dey constitutional.",Government
not all content-based regulations are alike; our decisions clearly recognize that some content-based restrictions raise more constitutional questions than others.,Di decision clearly recognize say some content-based restrictions dey raise more constitutional questions than odas.,Government
"although the court's analysis of contentrobson the first amendment 87 based regulations cannot be reduced to a simple formula, we have considered a number of factors in determining the validity of such regulations.","Di court analysis of contentrobson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 87 based regulations no dey reduce to simple formula, we don consider number of factors wey dey determining di validity of such regulations.",Government
"taken together, these several considerations persuade me that the st. paul ordinance is not an unconstitutional contentbased regulation of speech.",Di several considerations persuade me say di st. paul ordinance no dey unconstitutional contentbased regulation of speech.,Government
"thus, were the ordinance not overbroad, i would vote to uphold it.","Di ordinance no overbroad, i go vote to uphold am",Government
wisconsin v. mitchell 508 u. s. 476(1993) chief justice rehnquist delivered t he opinion ofthe unanimous court.,Di chief justice rehnquist deliver di opinion of di unanimous court.,Government
respondent todd mitchell's sentence for aggravated battery was enhanced because he intentionally selected his victim on account ofthe victim's race.,Di respondent tok say mitchell's sentence for aggravated battery dey enhanced because hin intentionally selected hin victim on account of di victim race.,Government
the question presented in this case is whether this penalty enhancement is prohibited by the first and fourteenth amendments.,Di question wey dey presented for dis case na whether dis penalty enhancement dey prohibited by di first and fourteenth amendments.,Government
"on the evening of october 7, 1989, a group of young black men and boys, including mitchell, gathered at an apartment complex in kenosha, wisconsin.","Di group of young black men and boys, including mitchell, gather for apartment complex for kenosha, witcossin.",Government
"several members ofthe group discussed a scene from the motion picture""mississippi burning""in which a white man beat a young black boy who was praying.","Di group discuss scene from di motion picture""mississippi burning"" wey white man beat young black boy wey dey praying.",Government
"the group moved outside and mitchell asked them: ""`do you all feel hyped upto move on some white people?'""","Di group move outside and mitchell asked them: ""'do you all feel hype upto move on some white pipo?",Government
"shortly thereafter, a young white boy approached the group on the opposite side ofthe street where they were standing.",Di young white boy approach di group on di opposite side of di street wey dem dey standing.,Government
"as the boy walked by, mitchell said:""`you all want to fuck somebody up?","Di boy walk by, mitchell tok say:"" you all want to fuck somebody up?",Government
"there goes a white boy; go get him.'""",Di white boy go get am,Government
mitchell counted to three and pointed in the boy's direction.,Di mitchell count to three and pointed for di boy's direction,Government
"the group ran toward the boy, beat him severely, and stole his tennis shoes.","Di group ran toward di boy, beat hin severely, and stole hin tennis shoes.",Government
the boy was rendered unconscious and remained in a coma for four days.,Di boy dey render unconscious and remain for coma for four days,Government
"after a jury trial in the circuit court for kenosha county, mitchell was convicted of aggravated battery.",Dem convicted of aggravated battery,Government
that offense ordinarily carries a maximum sentence of two years' imprisonment.,Say offense ordinarily carries a maximum sentence of two years' imprisonment.,Government
"but because the jury found that mitchell had intentionally selected his victim because ofthe boy's race, the maximum sentence for mitchell's offense was increased to seven years under 939. 645.","Di jury find say mitchell get intentionally selected hin victim because of di boy race, di maximum sentence for mitchell's offense dey increased to seven years under 939. 645.",Government
"that provision enhances the maximum penalty for an offense whenever the defendant ""[i]ntentional ly selects the person against whom the crime.","Di defendant ""[i]ntentional ly select di person against whom di crime.",Government
is committed.,E dey committed,Government
"because ofthe race, religion, color, disability, sexual orientation, national origin or ancestry of that person.","Because of di race, religion, color, disability, sexual orientation, national origin or ancestry of say person.",Government
the circuit court sentenced mitchell to four years' imprisonment for the aggravated battery.,Di circuit kot sentenced mitchell to four years' imprisonment for di aggravated battery.,Government
mitchell unsuccessfully sought postconviction relief in the circuit court.,Di mitchell unsuccessfully sought postconviction relief for di circuit court.,Government
"then he appealed his conviction and sentence, challenging the constitutionality of wisconsin's penalty-enhancement provision on first amendment grounds.","E appeal hin conviction and sentence, challenging di constitutionality of wisconsin penalty-enhancement provision on first amendment grounds.",Government
"the wisconsin court of appeals rejected mitchell's challenge, but the wisconsin supreme court reversed.","Di wisconsin court of appeal reject mitchell challenge, but di wisconsin supreme court reversed.",Government
"the supreme court held that the statute""violates the first amendment directly by punishing what the legislature has deemed to be offensive thought.""","Di supreme court tok say di statute""violates First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) directly by punishing what di legislature don dey offensive thought",Government
"it rejected the state's contention""that the statute punishes only the`conduct' of intentional selection of a victim.""",Di statute punishes only di`conduct' of intentional selection of a victim,Government
"according to the court,""[t]he statute punishes the""because of""aspect ofthe defendant's selection, the reason the defendant selected the victim, the motive behind the selection.""","Di statute punishes di""because of""aspect of di defendant selection, di reason di defendant selected di victim, di motive behind di selection",Government
and under r. a. v.,E. v.,Government
the supreme court also held that the penalty-enhancement statute was un constitutionally overbroad.,Di supreme court also tok say di penalty-enhancement statute dey un constitutionally overbroad.,Government
"it reasoned that, in order to prove that a defendant intentionally selected his victim because ofthe victim's protected status, the state would often have to introduce evidence ofthe defendant's prior speech, such as racial ep ithets he may have uttered before the commission ofthe offense.","Di state go often go introduce evidence of di defendant's prior speech, such as racial ep ithets wey dem don utter before di commission of di offense.",Government
"this evidentiary use of protected speech, the court thought, would have a""chilling effect""on those who feared the possibility of prosecution for offenses subject to penalty enhancement.","Di evidentiary use of protected speech, di court thought, go get""one kind situation wey dey make journalists fear to yarn wetin dem wan yarn, because dem dey fear say dem go suffer consequence, like say dem go censor dem, punish dem, or pipo go backlash dem""on those wey fear di possibility of prosecution for offenses subject to penalty enhancement.",Government
"finally, robson the first amendment 88 the court distinguished antidiscrimination laws, which have long been held constitutional, on the ground that the wisconsin statute punishes the""subjective mental process""of selecting a victim because of his protected status, whereas antidiscrimina tion laws prohibit""objective acts of discrimination.""","Di court distinguished antidiscrimination laws, wey dey hold constitutional, on di ground say di wisconsin statute punishes di""subjective mental process""of selecting victim because of hin protected status, whereas antidiscrimination laws prohibit""objective acts of discrimination.",Government
we granted certiorari because ofthe importance ofthe question presented and the existence of a conflict of authority among state high courts on the constitutionality of statutes similar to wisconsin 's penalty-enhancement provision.,We grant certiorari bikos of di importance of di question presented and di existence of conflict of authority among state high courts on di constitutionality of statutes similar to wisconsin 's penalty-enhancement provision.,Government
"mitchell argues that we are bound by the wisconsin supreme court's conclusion that the statute punishes bigoted thought, and not conduct.","Dem argu say we dey bound by di witconsin supreme court's conclusion say di statute punish bigoted thought, and no conduct.",Government
there is no doubt that we are bound by a state court's construction of a state statute.,Di without question say we dey bound by state court construction of state statute.,Government
"rather, it merely characterized the""practical effect""of the statute for first amendment purposes.","Dem characterize di""practical effect""of di statute for First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) purposes",Government
this assessment does not bind us.,Di assessment no fit bind us,Government
"once any ambiguities as to the meaning ofthe statute are resolved, we may form our own judgment as to its operative effect.","Na once any ambiguities as to di meaning of di statute dey resolve, we go form awa own judgment as to its operative effect.",Government
"the state argues that the statute does not punish bigoted thought, as the supreme court of wisconsin said, but instead punishes only conduct.","Di state argues say di statute no punish bigoted thought, as di supreme court of wisconsin tok say, but instead dey punish only conduct.",Government
"while this argument is literally correct, it does not dispose of mitchell's first amendment challenge.","Di argument dey literally correct, im no dispose of mitchell's First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) challenge.",Government
"to be sure, our cases reject the""view that an apparently limitless variety of conduct can be labeled""speech"" whenever the person engaging in the conduct intends thereby to express an idea.""","Di case reject di""view say apparently limitless variety of conduct go label""speech"" wenever di person engaging for di conduct intend to express idea.",Government
"united states v. o'brien(1968); accord, r. a. v, spence v. washington.","Di accord, r. a. v, spence v. washington.",Government
"thus, a physical assault is not, by any stretch ofthe imagination, expressive conduct protected by the first amendment.","Di physical assault no be, by any stretch of di imagination, expressive conduct protected by First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).",Government
"but the fact remains that, under the wisconsin statute, the same criminal conduct maybe more heavily punished if the victim is selected because of his race or other protected status than if no such motive obtained.","Di fact remain say, under di wisconsin statute, di same criminal conduct go dey more heavily punished if di victim dey selected because of hin race or oda protected status if no such motive obtained.",Government
"thus, although the statute punishes criminal conduct, it enhances the maximum penalty for conduct motivated by a discriminatory point of view more severely than the same conduct engaged in for some other reason or for no reason at all.","Di statute punishes criminal conduct, e enhance di maximum penalty for conduct motivated by discriminatory point of view more severely than di same conduct engage for some oda reason or for no reason for all.",Government
"because the only reason for the enhancement is the defendant's discriminatory motive for selecting his victim, mitchell argues(and the wisconsin supreme court held)that the statute violates the first amendment by punishing offenders' bigoted beliefs.","Di only reason for di enhancement dey di defendant's discriminatory motive for select hin victim, mitchell argues(and di wisconsin supreme court hold)say di statute violate First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) by punishing offenders' bigoted beliefs.",Government
"traditionally, sentencing judges have considered a wide variety of factors in addition to evidence bearing on guilt in determining what sentence to impose on a convicted defendant.",Di sentencing judges don consider wide variety of factors for addition to evidence bearing on guilt for determining wen sentence to impose on a convicted defendant.,Government
"thus, in many states, the commission of a murder or other capital offense fo r pecuniary gain is a separate aggravating circumstance under the capital sentencing statute.",Di commission of murder or oda capital offense fo r pecuniary gain dey separate aggravating circumstance under di capital sentencing statute.,Government
"but it is equally true that a defendant's abstract beliefs, however obnoxious to most people, may not be taken into consideration by a sentencing judge.","Di equally true say defendant's abstract beliefs, however obnoxious to most pipo, no go take into consideration by a sentencing judge.",Government
dawson v.,Di dawson v.,Government
"in dawson, the state introduced evidence at a capital sentencing hearing that the defendant was a member of a white supremacist prison gang.",Di state don introduc evidence for capital sentencing hearsay di defendant dey member of white supremacist prison gang.,Government
"because""the evidence proved nothing more than[the defendant's] abstract beliefs,""we held that its admission violated the defendant's first amendment rights.","Di evidence don prove nothing more than[ di defendant's] abstract beliefs, we hold say im admission violated di defendant's First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) rights.",Government
"in so holding, however, we emphasized that""the constitution does not erect a per se barrier to the admission of evidence concerning one's beliefs and associations at sentencing simply because those beliefs and associations are protected by the first amendment.""",We emphasize say di constitution no erect per se barrier to di admission of evidence concerning one's beliefs and associations for sentencing simply because dem dey protected by First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo),Government
"thus, in barclay v. florida(1983) (plurality opinion), we allowed the sentencing judge to take into account the defendant's racial animus towards his victim.","For barclay v. florida(1983) (plurality opinion), we allowed di sentencing judge to take into account di defendant's racial animus towards hin victim",Government
"the evidence in that case showed that the defendant's membership in the black liberation army and desire to provoke a""race war""were related to the murder of a white man for which he was convicted.","Di evidence for dat case show say di defendant's membership for di black liberation army and desire to provoke""race war""dey related to di murder of white man for which he dey convicted.",Government
"because""the elements of racial hatred in[the] murder""were relevant to several aggravating factors, we held that the trial judge permissibly took this evidence into account in sentencing the defendant to death.",We tok say di trial judge dey permissibly take dis evidence into account for sentencing di defendant to death.,Government
mitchell suggests that dawson and barclay are inapposite because they did not involve application of a penalty-enhancement provision.,Dem suggest say dawson and barclay dey inapposite because dem no involve application of penalty-enhancement provision.,Government
"but in barclay we held that it was permissible for the sentencing court to consider the defendant's racial animus in determining whether he should be sentenced to death, surely the most severe""enhancement"" of all.","We tok say e dey permissible for di sentencing court to consider di defendant's racial animus for determining whether he go sentenced to death, surely di most severe""enhancement"" of all.",Government
"and the fact that the wisconsin legislature has decided, as a general matter, that bias-motivated offenses warrant greater maximum penalties across robson the first amendment 89 the board does not alter the result here.","Di fact say di wisconsin legislature don decide, as general matter, say bias-motivated offenses don warrant greater maximum penalties across robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 89 di board no change di result here.",Government
for the primary responsibility for fixing criminal penalties lies with the legislature.,Di primary responsibility for fix criminal penalties lies wit di legislature.,Government
"mitchell argues that the wisconsin penalty-enhancement statute is invalid because it punishes the defendant's discriminatory motive, or reason, for acting.","Dem argu say di wisconsin penalty-enhancement statute dey invalid because dem punish di defendant's discriminatory motive, or reason, for acting.",Government
"but motive plays the same role under the wisconsin statute as it does under federal and state antidiscrimination laws, which we have previously upheld against constitutional challenge.","Dem play di same role under di wisconsin statute as dem go under federal and state antidiscrimination laws, wey we don upheld against constitutional challenge.",Government
"title vii, of the civil rights act of 1964, for example, makes it unlawful for an employer to discriminate against an employee""because of such individual's race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.""","Title vii, of di civil rights act of 1964, for example, makes e unlawful for an employer to discriminate against an employee""because of such individual's race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.""",Government
compels a different result here.,Di result dey compels different result here,Government
"that case involved a first amendment challenge to a municipal ordinance prohibiting the use of""`fighting words' that insult, or provoke violence,`on the basis of race, color, creed, religion or gender.'""","Di case involve First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) challenge to a municipal ordinance prohibiting di use of""fighting words' wey insult, or provoke violence, for di basis of race, color, creed, religion or gender.",Government
"because the ordinance only proscribed a class of""fighting words""deemed particularly offensive by the city- i. e, those""that contain.","Di ordinance only proscribed class of""fighting words"" wey dey particularly offensive by di city- i. e, those wey dey contain.",Government
"messages of`bias -motivated' hatred,""we held that it violated the rule against contentbased discrimination.",We tok say im violated di rule against contentbased discrimination.,Government
but whereas the ordinance struck down in r. a. v.,Di ordinance struck down for r. a. v.,Government
"was explicitly directed at expression, the statute in this case is aimed at conduct unprotected by the first amendment.",Di statute for dis case dey aimed at conduct unprotected by First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).,Government
"moreover, the wisconsin statute singles out for enhancement bias-inspired conduct because this conduct is thought to inflict greater individual and societal harm.",Di wisconsin statute singles out for enhancement bias-inspired conduct because dis conduct dey go inflict greater individual and societal harm.,Government
"for example, according to the state and its amici, bias-motivated crimes are more likely to provoke retaliatory crimes, inflict distinct emotional harms on their victims, and incite community unrest.","for example, according to di state and its amici, bias-motivated crimes dey more likely to provoke retaliatory crimes, make dem provoke retaliatory crimes, inflict distinct emotional harms on dia victims, and incite community unrest.",Government
"see, e. g, brief for petitioner 24-27; brief for united states as amicus curiae 13-15; brief for lawyers' committee for civil rights under law as amicus curiae 18-22; brief for the american civil liberties union as amicus curiae 17-19; brief for the antidefamation league et al.","E. g, brief for petitioner 24-27; brief for lawyers' committee for civil rights under law as amicus curiae 17-19; brief for di antidefamation league and al.",Government
as amici curiae 910; brief for congressman charles e. schumer et al.,brief for congressman charles e. schumer and al.,Government
as amici curiae 8-9.,As amici curiae 8-9.,Government
the state's desire to redress these perceived harms provides an adequate explanation for its penalty-enhancement provision over and above mere disagreement with offenders' beliefs or biases.,Di state's desire to redress these perceived harms provides an adequate explanation for im penalty-enhancement provision over and above mere disagreement wit offenders' beliefs or biases.,Government
"as blackstone said long ago,""it is but reasonable that, among crimes of different natures, those should be most severely punished which are the most destructive ofthe public safety and happiness.""","Di but reasonable say, among crimes of different natures, dem go dey most severely punished wey dey di most destructive of di public safety and happiness",Government
"finally, there remains to be considered mitchell's argument that the wisconsin statute is unconstitutionally overbroad because of its""chilling effect""on free speech.","Dem dey consider mitchell argument say di wisconsin statute dey unconstitutionally overbroad because of its""one kind situation wey dey make journalists fear to yarn wetin dem wan yarn, because dem dey fear say dem go suffer consequence, like say dem go censor dem, punish dem, or pipo go backlash dem""for free speech.",Government
"mitchell argues(and the wisconsin supreme court agreed)that the statute is ""overbroad"" because evidence ofthe defendant's prior speech or associations maybe used to prove that the defendant intentionally selected his victim on account ofthe victim's protected status.",Dem argues(and di witchell supreme court agree)say di statute dey overbroad because evidence of di defendant's prior speech or associations dey use to prove say di defendant dey selected hin victim on account of di victim protected status.,Government
"consequently, the argument goes, the statute impermissibly chills free expression with respect to such matters by those concerned about the possibility of enhanced sentences if they should, in the future, commit a criminal offense covered by the statute.","Di argument go, di statute impermissibly chill free expression wit respect to such matters by those concerned about di possibility of enhanced sentences if dem go, for di future, commit criminal offense covered by di statute.",Government
we find no merit in this contention.,We find no merit for dis contention.,Government
"the sort of chill envisioned here is far more attenuated and unlikely than that contemplated in traditional ""overbreadth"" cases.","Di sort of chill wey dey envision here dey far more attenuated and unlikely than we dey contemplate for traditional ""overbreadth"" case.",Government
"we must conjure up a vision of a wisconsin citizen suppressing his unpopular bigoted opinions for fear that, if he later commits an offense covered by the statute, these opinions will be offered at trial to establish that he selected his victim on account ofthe victim's protected status, thus qualifying him for penalty-enhancement.","We must conjure up vision of a witconsin citizen wey dey suppress hin unpopular bigoted opinions for fear say, if he later commit an offense wey dey covered by di statute, dem go offer am for trial to establish say hin choose hin victim on account of di victim's protected status, thus qualifying him for penalty-enhancement.",Government
"to stay within the realm of rationality, we must surely put to one side minor misdemeanor offenses covered by the statute, such as negligent operation of a motor vehicle for it is difficult, if not impossible, to conceive of a situation where such offenses would be racially motivated.","We must surely put one side minor misdemeanor offenses wey dey covered by di statute, such as negligent operation of motor vehicle for im difficult, if no impossible, to conceive of situation wey such offenses dey racially motivated.",Government
"we are left, then, with the prospect of a citizen suppressing his bigoted beliefs for fear that evidence of such beliefs will be introduced against him at trial if he commits a more serious offense against person or property.","We dey left, then, wit di prospect of citizen suppress hin bigoted beliefs for fear say evidence of such beliefs go be introduced against him for trial if he commit more serious offense against person or property.",Government
this is simply too speculative a hypothesis to support mitchell's overbreadth claim.,Dis na simply too speculative a hypothesis to support mitchell's overbreadth claim.,Government
"the first amendment, moreover, does not prohibit the evidentiary use of speech to establish the elements of a crime or to prove motive or intent.","Di first amendment, still-still, does no stop di evidentiary use of talk to setup di elements of a crime or to prove motive or intent.",Government
"evidence of a defendant's previous declarations or statements is commonly admitted in criminal trials subject to evidentiary rules dealing with relevancy, reliability, and the like.","Di evidence of defendant's previous declaration or statements dey commonly admitted for criminal trials subject to evidentiary rules dealing wit relevancy, reliability, and di like.",Government
"nearly half a century ago, in haupt v. united states(1947), we rejected a contention similar to that advanced by mitchell here.",We reject contention similar to dat advanced by mitchell here.,Government
"haupt was tried for the offense of treason, which, as defined by the constitution(art.",Di constitution(art.),Government
"iii,3), may depend very much on proof of motive.",Dem depend very much on proof of motive.,Government
"robson the first amendment 90 to prove that the acts in question were committed out of""adherence to the enemy""rather than""parental solicitude,"" the government introduced evidence of conversations that had taken place long prior to the indictment, some of which consisted of statements showing haupt's sympathy with germany and hitler and hostility towards the united states.","For First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 90 to prove say di acts for question dey committe out of""adherence to di enemy""no be parental solicitude, di goment introduced evidence of conversation wey dey show haupt's sympathy wit germany and hitler and hostility towards di united states.",Government
we rejected haupt's argument that this evidence was improperly admitted.,We reject haupt's argument say dis evidence dey improperly admitted.,Government
"while ""[s]uch testimony is to be scrutinized with care to be certain the statements are not expressions of mere lawful and permissible difference of opinion with our own government or quite proper appreciation ofthe land of birth,""we held that""these statements.","Di testimony dey scrutinized wit care to be certain di statements no dey expression of mere lawful and permissible difference of opinion wit awa own goment or quite proper appreciation of di land of birth,""we tok say di statements no dey expression of mere lawful and permissible difference of opinion wit awa own goment or quite proper appreciation of di land of birth,""we tok say""",Government
"clearly were admissible on the question of intent and adherence to the enemy.""",Di question of intent and adherence to di enemy,Government
"for the foregoing reasons, we hold that mitchell's first amendment rights were not violated by the application ofthe wisconsin penalty-enhancement provision in sentencing him.",We hold say mitchell's First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) rights no violated by di application of di wisconsin penalty-enhancement provision for di sentencing him,Government
"the judgment ofthe supreme court of wisconsin is therefore reversed, and the case is remanded for further proceedings not inconsistent with this opinion.","Di judgment of di supreme court of witconsin dey reversed, and di case dey remanded for further proceedings no inconsistent wit dis opinion.",Government
"virginia v. black 538 u. s. 343(2003) justice o'connor announced the judgment ofthe court and delivered t he opinion ofthe court with respect to parts i, ii, and iii, and an opinion with respect to parts iv and v, in which the chief justice, justice stevens, and justice breyer join.","Di justice o'connor announce di judgment of di court and deliver t he opinion of di court wit respect to parts i, ii, and iii, and opinion wit respect to parts iv and v, wey di chief justice, justice breyer join.",Government
"stevens, j, filed a concurring opinion.","Stevens, j, filed a concurring opinion.",Government
"scalia, j, filed an opinion concurring in part, concurring in the judgment in part, and dissenting in part, in which thomas, j, joined as to parts i and ii.","Di scalia, j, filed opinion wey dey concurrin for part, and dissenting for part, wey thomas, j, join as to parts i and ii.",Government
"souter, j, filed an opinion con curring in the judgment in part and dissenting in part, in which kennedy and ginsburg, jj,","Dem filed opinion concurring for di judgment for part and dis enting for part, wey kennedy and ginsburg, jj, filed opinion concurring for di judgment for part and dis enting for part, wey kennedy and ginsburg, jj, filed opinion concurring for part and dis enting for part, wey kennedy and ginsburg, jj, filed opinion concurring for part, wey kennedy and ginsburg, jj, filed",Government
"thomas, j, filed a dissenting opinion.","Di thomas, j, filed dissenting opinion",Government
"justice o'connor announced the judgment ofthe court and delivered t he opinion ofthe court with respect to parts i, ii, and iii, and an opinion with respect to parts iv and v, in which the chief justice, justice stevens, and justice breyer join.","Di justice o'connor announce di judgment of di court and deliver t he opinion of di court wit respect to parts i, ii, and iii, and opinion wit respect to parts iv and v, wey di chief justice, justice stevens, and justice breyer join.",Government
"in this case we consider whether the commonwealth of virginia's statute banning cross burning with""an intent to intimidate a person or group of persons""violates the first amendment.","For dis case we consider whether di commonwealth of virginia's statute banning cross burning wit""an intent to intimidate a person or group of persons""violates First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).",Government
va. code ann.,Di code ann.,Government
"we conclude that while a state, consistent with the first amendment, may ban cross burning carried out with the intent to intimidate, the provision in the virginia statute treating any cross burning as prima facie evidence of intent to intimidate renders the statute unconstitutional in its current form.","We conclude say while state, consistent wit di firstamendment, may ban cross burning carried out wit di intent to intimidate, di provision for di virginia statute treat any cross burning as prima facie evidence of intent to intimidate, di provision for di virginia statute treat any cross burning as prima facie evidence of intent to intimidate, di provision for di virginia statute treat any cross burning as prima facie evidence of intent to intimidate, di provision for di virginia statute treat any cross burning as prima facie evidence of intent",Government
"that statute provides:""it shall be unlawful for any person or persons, with the intent of intimidating any person or group of persons, to burn, or cause to be burned, a cross on the property of another, a highway or other public place.","I go dey unlawful for any person or person, wit di intent of intimidating any person or group of persons, to burn, or cause to be burn, a cross on di property of another, highway or oda public place.",Government
"""any such burning of across shall be prima facie evidence of an intent to intimidate a person or group of persons.""",any such burning of across shall be prima facie evidence of an intent to intimidate a person or group of persons.,Government
"on august 22, 1998, barry black led a ku klux klan rally in carroll county, virginia.","Di barry black led ku klux klan rally for carroll county, virginia.",Government
"twenty-five to thirty people attended this gathering, which occurred on private property with the permission ofthe owner, who was in attendance.","Di gathering wey dey occur on private property wit di permission of di owner, wey dey inattendance.",Government
"the property was located on an open field just off brushy fork road(state highway 690)in cana, virginia.","Di property dey located on open field just off brushy fork road(state highway 690)for cana, virginia.",Government
"when the sheriff of carroll county learned that a klan rally was occurring in his county, he went to observe it from the side ofthe road.","Di sheriff of carroll county learn say klan rally dey occur for hin county, hin go observe am from di side of di road.",Government
"during the approximately one hour that the sheriff was present, about 40 to 50 cars passed the site, a ""few""of which stopped to ask the sheriff what was happening robson the first amendment 91 on the property.","Di sheriff dey present, about 40 to 50 cars pass di site, a ""few""of which stop to ask di sheriff what dey happen robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 91 on di property.",Government
eight to ten houses were located in the vicinity ofthe rally.,As eight to ten house dey located for di vicinity of di rally,Government
"rebecca sechrist, who was related to the owner ofthe property where the rally took place,""sat and watched to see wha[t][was] going on""from the lawn of her in-laws' house.","Di rebecca sechrist, wey dey related to di owner of di property wey di rally take place,""sat and watch to see wha[t][was] goon"" from di lawn of her for-laws house.",Government
she looked on as the klan prepared for the gathering and subsequently conducted the rally itself.,Im looked on as di klan prepared for di gathering and subsequently conducted di rally itself.,Government
"during the rally, sechrist heard klan members speak about""what they were""and ""what they believed in.""","Di rally, sechrist hear klan members speak about""what dem dey""and ""what dem believe for",Government
"the speakers""talked real bad about the blacks and the mexicans.","Di speakers""talk real bad about di blacks and di mexicans",Government
"one speaker told the assembled gathering that""he would love to take a.30/. 30 and just random[ly]shoot the blacks.""","One speaker tok say""he go love take. 30. 30 and just random[ly]shoot di blacks",Government
"the speakers also talked about""president clinton and hillary clinton,""and about how their tax money ""goes to. the black people.""","Di speakers also talk about""president clinton and hillary clinton,""and about how dia tax moni ey goto. di black pipo",Government
"sechrist testified that this language made her""very.","Di sechrist test say dis language make her""very",Government
"at the conclusion ofthe rally, the crowd circled around a 25 - to 30-foot cross.",Di crowd circle around 25 - to 30-foot cross.,Government
the cross was between 300 and 350 yards away from the road.,Di cross dey between 300 and 350 yards away from di road,Government
"according to the sheriff, the cross""then all of a sudden. went up in a flame.""","Di sheriff, di cross""then all of a sudden. go up for flame",Government
"as the cross burned, the klan played amazing grace over the loudspeakers.",Di klan play amazing grace over di loudspeakers.,Government
"sechrist stated that the cross burning made her feel""awful"" and""terrible.""","Di cross burning make her feel""awful"" and""terrible""",Government
"when the sheriff observed the cross burning, he informed his deputy that they needed to""find out who's responsible and explain to them that they cannot do this in the state of virginia.""","Di sheriff observe di cross burning, hin inform hin deputy say dem need to know who's responsible and explain to dem say dem no do dis for di state of virginia.",Government
"the sheriff then went down the driveway, entered the rally, and asked""who was responsible for burning the cross.""","Di sheriff tok down di driveway, and asked""who dey responsible for burn di cross",Government
"black responded,""i guess i am because i'm the head ofthe rally.""",I guess i am because i dey head of di rally,Government
"the sheriff then told black,""[t]here's a law in the state of virginia that you cannot burn across and i'll have to place you under arrest for this.""","Di sheriff tok say,""[t]here's law for di state of virginia say you no burn cross andi go place you under arrest for dis",Government
"black was charged with burning across with the intent of intimidating a person or group of persons, in violation of 18.2 -423.","Di black dey charge wit burning cross wit di intent of intimidating a person or group of persons, for violation of 18.2 -423",Government
"at his trial, the jury was instructed that""intent to intimidate means the motivation to intentionally put a person or a group of persons in fear of bodily harm.","Di jury dey instruct say""intent to intimidate means di motivation to intentionally put person or group of persons for fear of bodily harm.",Government
"such fear must arise from the willful conduct ofthe accused rather than from some mere temperamental timidity ofthe victim.""","Such fear must arise from di willful conduct of di accused no be from some mere temperamental timidity of di victim.""",Government
"the trial court also instructed the jury that""the burning of across by itself is sufficient evidence from which you m ay infer the required intent.""",Di trial court also instruct di jury say di burning of cross by itself dey sufficient evidence from which you dey infer di required intent,Government
"when black objected to this last instruction on first amendment grounds, the prosecutor responded that the instruction was""taken straight out ofthe [virginia]model instructions.""",Di prosecutor responde say di instruction dey take straight out of di[virginia] model instructions.,Government
"the jury found black guilty, and fined him$2, 500.","Di jury find black guilty, and fine him$2, 500",Government
the court of appeals of virginia affirmed black's conviction.,Di court of appeal of virginia affirm black's conviction.,Government
"on may 2, 1998, respondents richard elliott and jonathan o'mara, aswell as a third individual, attempted to burn across on the yard of james jubilee.","Di respondents richard elliott and jonathan o'mara, aswell as third individual, dey try burn cross on di yard of james jubilee.",Government
"jubilee, an african-american, wa s elliott's next-door neighbor in virginia beach, virginia.","Di african-american, wa s elliott next-door neighbor for virginia beach, virginia.",Government
"four months prior to the incident, jubilee and his family had moved from california to virginia beach.",Dem move from california to virginia beach.,Government
"before the cross burning, jubilee spoke to elliott's mother to inquire about shots being fired from behind the elliott home.",E spoke to elliott's mother to inquire about shots wey dey fired from behind di elliott home.,Government
"elliott's mother explained to jubilee that her son shot firearms as a hobby, and that he used the backyard as a firing range.","Di elliott's mother explain to jubilee say her son shot firearms as hobby, and say hin use di backyard as firing range.",Government
"on the night of may 2, respondents drove a truck onto jubilee's property, planted across, and set it on fire.","Di night of May 2, respondents drove truck onto jubilee property, plante cross, and set am on fire.",Government
"their apparent motive was to""get back""at jubilee for complaining about the shooting in the backyard.","Di apparent motive nato ""get back""for jubilee for complain about di shooting for backyard for complain about di shooting for backyard.",Government
respondents were not affiliated with the klan.,Di respondents no affiliate wit di klan,Government
"the next morning, as jubilee was pulling his car out ofthe driveway, he noticed the partially burned cross approximately 20 feet from his house.","As jubilee dey pull hin car out of di driveway, he notice di partially burn cross approximately 20 feet from hin house.",Government
"after seeing the cross, jubilee was""very nervous""because he""didn't know what would be the next phase,""and because""a cross burned in your yard. tells you that it's just the first round.""","Di cross, jubilee dey nervous because he no know what go be di next phase, and because""a cross burn for your yard, tell you say na just di first round",Government
elliott and o'mara were charged with attempted cross burning and conspiracy to commit cross burning.,Di elliott and o'mara charge wit attempt cross burning and conspiracy to commit cross burning,Government
"o'mara pleaded guilty to both counts, reserving the right to challenge the constitutionality ofthe cross-burning statute.","O'mara pleaded guilty to both counts, reserving di right to challenge di constitutionality of di cross-burning statute.",Government
"the judge sentenced o'mara to 90 days in jail and fined him$2, 500.","Di judge sentenced o'mara to 90 days for jail and fine him$2, 500",Government
"the judge also suspended 45 days ofthe sentence and$1, 000 ofthe fine.","Di judge also suspend 45 days of di sentence and$1, 000 of di fine.",Government
"at elliott's trial, the judge originally ruled that the jury would be instructed""that the burning of across by itself is sufficient evidence from which y ou may infer the required intent.""",Di judge originally rule say di jury go dey instruct say di burning of cross by imself dey sufficient evidence from which y dey infer di required intent,Government
"at trial, however, the court instructed the jury that the commonwealth must prove that""the defendant intended to commit cross burning,""that ""the defendant did a direct act toward the commission ofthe cross burning,""and that""the defendant had the intent of intimidating any person or group of persons.""","Di court instruct di jury say di commonwealth must prove say di defendant go commit cross burning, say ""the defendant don dey direct act toward di commission of di cross burning,""and say""the defendant don dey intimidating any person or group of persons",Government
"the court did not instruct the jury on the meaning ofthe word""intimidate,"" nor on the prima facie robson the first amendment 92 evidence provision of 18.2 -423.","Di kot did no instruct di jury on di meaning of di word""intimidate,"" nor on di prima facie robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 92 evidence provision of 18.2 -423.",Government
the jury found elliott guilty of attempted cross burning and acquitted him of conspiracy to commit cross burning.,Di jury found elliott guilty of attempted cross burning and acquitted him of conspiracy to commit cross burning.,Government
"it sentenced elliott to 90 days in jail and a$2, 500 fine.","Dem sentenced elliott to 90 days for jail and a$2, 500 fine",Government
the court of appeals of virginia affirmed the convictions of both elliott and o'mara.,Di court of appeal of virginia don affirm di convictions of both elliott and o'mara.,Government
"each respondent appealed to the supreme court of virginia, arguing that 18.2 -423 is facially unconstitutional.","Di respondent dey appeal to di upreme court of virginia, arguing say 18.2 -423 dey facially unconstitutional.",Government
"the supreme court of virginia consolidated all three cases, and held that the statute is unconstitutional on its face.","Di supreme court of virginia don consolida all three case, and tok say di statute dey unconstitutional on its face.",Government
"it held that the virginia cross-burning statute""is analytically indistinguishable from the ordinance found unconstitutional in r. a. v. the virginia statute, the court held, discriminates on the basis of content since it""selectively chooses only cross burning because of its distinctive message.""","Di court dey tok say di virginia cross burning statute dey analytically indistinguishable from di ordinance wey dey found unconstitutional for r. a. v. di virginia statute, di court hold, discriminate on di basis of content since e""selectively choose only cross burning because of its distinctive message",Government
"the court also held that the prima facie evidence provision renders the statute overbroad because""[t]he enhanced probability of prosecution under the statute chills the expression of protected speech.""","Di court also tok say di prima facie evidence provision don render di statute overbroad because""[t]he enhanced probability of prosecution under di statute chill di expression of protected speech",Government
"three justices dissented, concluding that the virginia cross -burning statute passes constitutional muster because it proscribes only conduct that constitutes a true threat.",Di virginia cross -burning statute pass constitutional muster because e proscribe only conduct wey constitute true threat.,Government
"the justices noted that unlike the ordinance found unconstitutional in r. a. v, the virginia statute does not just target cross burning""on the basis of race, color, creed, religion or gender.""","Di justices note say unlike di ordinance found unconstitutional for r. a. v, di virginia statute no fit target cross burning""on di basis of race, color, creed, religion or gender",Government
"rather,""the virginia statute applies to any individual who burns across for any reason provided the cross is burned with the intent to intimidate.""",Di virginia statute applies to any individual wey burn cross for any reason provided di cross dey burn wit di intent to intimidate,Government
"the dissenters also disagreed with the majority's analysis ofthe prima facie provision because the inference alone""is clearly insufficient to establish beyond a reasonable doubt that a defendant burned across with the intent to intimidate.""","Di dissenters also disagree wit di majority's analysis of di prima facie provision because di inference alone""is clearly insufficient to establish beyond reasonable doubt say defendant burn cross wit di intent to intimidate",Government
the dissent noted that the burden of proof still remains on the commonwealth to prove intent to intimidate.,Di dissent tok say di responsibility wey person get to provide enough evidence to prove their case still remain on di commonwealth to prove intent to intimidate.,Government
"seem. newton& j. newton, the ku klux klan: an encyclopedia 145(1991).","Dem seem. newton& j. newton, di ku klux klan: an encyclopedia 145(1991).",Government
"sir walter scott used cross burnings for dramatic effect in the lady ofthe lake, where the burning cross signified both a summons and a call to arms.","Dem use cross burnings for dramatic effect for di lady of di lake, wey di burning cross signifie both summons and call to arms.",Government
"see w. scott, the lady ofthe lake, canto third.","Di lady of di lake, canto third.",Government
"cross burning in this country, however, long ago became unmoored from its scottish ancestry.","Di kontri, however, long ago dey unmoor from its scottish ancestry.",Government
burning across in the united states is inextricably intertwined with the history ofthe ku klux klan.,Di history of di ku klux klan dey inextricably intertwin wit di history of di ku klux klan,Government
"the first ku klux klan began in pulaski, tennessee, in the spring of 1866.","Di first ku klux klan began for pulaski, tennessee, for di spring of 1866.",Government
"although the ku klux klan started as a social club, it soon changed into something far different.","Di ku klux klan start as social club, e soon changed into something far different.",Government
the klan fought reconstruction and the corresponding drive to allow freed blacks to participate in the political process.,Di klan fought reconstruction and di corresponding drive to allow free blacks to participate for di political process.,Government
"soon the klan imposed""a veritable reign of terror""throughout the south.",Di klan don impose veritable reign of terror throughout di south.,Government
"s. kennedy, southern exposure 31(1991) (hereinafter kennedy).","S. kennedy, southern exposure 31(1991) (hereinafter kennedy).",Government
"the klan employed tactics such as whipping, threatening to burn people at the stake, and murder.","Di klan employ tactics such as whipping, threatening to burn pipo for di stake, and murder.",Government
"w. wade, t he fiery cross: the ku klux klan in america 48-49(1987) (hereinafter wade).",Di ku klux klan for America 48-49(1987) (hereinafter wade).,Government
"the klan's victims included blacks, s outhern whites who disagreed with the klan, and ""carpetbagger"" northern whites.","Di klan victims include blacks, s outhern whites wey disagree wit di klan, and ""carpetbagger"" northern whites.",Government
the activities ofthe ku klux klan prompted legislative action at the national level.,"Di activities of di ku klux klan prompt legislative action for di naija wey dey concern everybody for inside kontri, wey dey involve naija mata, naija policy, or naija trend, wey sabi pipo dey tok am for everywhere.",Government
"in 1871,""president grant sent a message to congress indicating that the klan's reign of terror in the southern states had rendered life and property insecure.""",Governor grant message to congress say di klan's reign of terror for di southern state don render life and property insecure,Government
"in response, congress passed what is now known as the ku klux klan act.",Di congress pass what dey known as di ku klux klan act.,Government
"see""an act to enforce the provisions ofthe fourteenth amendment to the constitution ofthe united states, and f or other purposes,""17 stat.","Di act to enforce di provision of di fourteenth amendment to di constitution of di united state, and f or oda purposes,17 stat.",Government
"president grant used these new powers to suppress the klan in south carolina, the effect of which severely curtailed the klan in other states aswell.","Di president grant use dis new power to suppress di klan for south carolina, di effect of which severely curtailed di klan for oda state aswell.",Government
"by the end of reconstruction in 1877, the first klan no longer existed.",Di first klan no dey exist.,Government
"the genesis ofthe second klan began in 1905, with the publication of thomas dixon's t he clansmen: an historical romance ofthe ku klux klan.","Di genesis of di second klan began for 1905, wit di publication of thomas dixon's t he clansmen: historical romance of di ku klux klan.",Government
"dixon's book was a sympathetic portrait ofthe first klan, depicting the klan as a group of heroes""saving"" the south from blacks and the""horrors"" of reconstruction.","Di book dey sympathetic portrait of di first klan, depict di klan as group of heroes wey dey save di south from blacks and di""horrors"" of reconstruction.",Government
"although the first klan never actually practiced cross burning, dixon's book depicted the klan burning crosses to celebrate the execution of former slaves.","Di first klan never practice cross burning, di book depict di klan burning crosses to celebrate di execution of former slaves.",Government
cross burning thereby became associated with the first ku klux klan.,Di first ku klux klan be associated wit di first ku klux klan,Government
"when d. w. griffith turned dixon's book into the movie the birth of a nation in 1915, the association between cross burning and the klan became indelible.",Di association between cross burning and di klan dey indelible.,Government
"in addition to the cross b urnings in the movie, a poster advertising the film displayed a hooded robson the first amendment 93 klansman riding a hooded horse, with his left hand holding the reins ofthe horse and his right hand holding a burning cross above his head.","Di poster advertising di film show hooded robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 93 klansman riding hooded horse, wit hin left hand holding di reins of di horse and hin right hand holding burning cross above hin head.",Government
"soon thereafter, in november 1915, the second klan began.","For november 1915, di second klan began.",Government
"from the inception ofthe second klan, cross burnings have been used to communicate both threats of violence and messages of shared ideology.","Di second klan, cross burnings don use to communicate both threat of violence and message of shared ideology.",Government
"the first initiation ceremony occurred on stone mountain near atlanta, georgia.","Di first initiation ceremony occurred on stone mountain near atlanta, georgia.",Government
"while a 40-foot cross burned on the mountain, the klan members took their oaths of loyalty.",Di klan members don take dia oath of loyalty.,Government
this cross burning was the second recorded instance in the united states.,Di cross burning na di second record instance for di united states.,Government
"the first known cross burning in the country had occurred a little over one month before the klan initiation, when a georgia mob celebrated the lynching of leo frank by burning a""gigantic cross""on stone mountain that was""visible throughout""atlanta.","Di first known cross burning for di kontri don occur a little over one month before di klan initiation, wen georgia mob celebrated di lynching of leo frank by burning a""gigantic cross""on stone mountain wey dey visible throughout""atlanta.",Government
the new klan's ideology did not differ much from that ofthe first klan.,Di new klan ideology no differ much from dat of di first klan.,Government
"as one klan publication emphasized,""we avow the distinction between[the] races. and we shall ever be true to the faithful maintenance of white supremacy and will strenuously oppose any compromise thereof in any and all things.""","Di klan publication emphasize,""we dey avow di distinction between[the] races, and we go ever be true to di faithful maintenance of white supremacy and go strenuously oppose any compromise thereof for any and all things",Government
violence was also an elemental part of this new klan.,Di new klan dey also elemental part of dis new klan.,Government
"by september 1921, the new york world newspaper documented 152 acts of klan violence, including 4 murders,41 floggings, and 27 tar-and-featherings.","By september 1921, di new york world newspaper documented 152 acts of klan violence, including 4 murders,41 floggings, and 27 tar-and-featherings.",Government
"often, the klan used cross burnings as a tool of intimidation and a threat of impending violence.","Often, di klan used cross burnings as a tool of intimidation and a threat of impending violence.",Government
"for example, in 1939 and 1940, the klan burned crosses in front of synagogues and churches.",Di klan burn crosses for front of synagogues and churches.,Government
"after one cross burning at a synagogue, a klan member noted that if the cross burning did not""shut the jews up, we'll cut a few throats and see what happens.""","Di klan member tok say if di cross burning no""shut di jews up, we go cut few throats and see what happen",Government
"in miami in 1941, t he klan burned four crosses in front of a proposed housing project, declaring, ""we are here to keep niggers out of your town.","Di klan burn four crosses for front of housing project, declare, ""we dey here to keep niggers out of your town",Government
"when the law fails you, call on us.""","For awa, call on us",Government
"and in alabama in 1942, in ""a whirlwind climax to weeks of flogging and terror,""the klan burned crosses in front of a union hall and in front of a union leader's home on the eve of a labor election.",Di klan burn crosses for front of union hall and for front of union leader home for di eve of labor election.,Government
these cross burnings embodied threats to people whom the klan deemed antithetical to its goals.,Di cross burnings wey dey embodi threat to pipo wey di klan dey antithetical to dia goal.,Government
and these threats had special force given the long history of klan violence.,Di threats don special force give di long history of klan violence.,Government
the klan continued to use cross burnings to intimidate after world war ii.,"Di klan continued to use cross burnings to intimidate after Wahala wey happen for 1939 reach 1945, wey all kontri for world join bodi, dem form two group, one dey call dem Allies, anoda one dey call dem Axis, na im be di big fight wey everybody sabi.",Government
"in one incident, an african-american ""school teacher who recently moved his family into a block formerly occupied only by whites asked the protection of city police. after the burning of across in his front yard.""",Di african-american school teacher wey recently move hin family into block formerly occupied only by whites asked di protection of city police. afta di burning of cross for hin front yard,Government
"and after across burning in suffolk, virginia during the late 1940's, the virginia governor stated that he would""not allow any of our people of any race to be subjected to terrorism or intimidation in any form by the klan or any other organization.""",Di virginia governor tok say hin no allow any of our pipo of any race to be subject to terrorism or intimidation for any form by di klan or any oda organization.,Government
"these incidents of cross burning, among others, helped prompt virginia to enact its first version ofthe cross-burning statute in 1950.","Di incidents of cross burning, among odas, help prompt virginia to enact its first version of di cross burning statute for 1950.",Government
"the decision of this court in brown v. board of education(1954), along with the civil rights movement ofthe 1950'sand 1960's, sparked another outbreak of klan violence.","Di decision of dis court for brown v. board of education(1954), along wit di civil rights movement of di 1950'sand 1960's, spark one outbreak of klan violence.",Government
"these acts of violence included bombings, beatings, shootings, stabbings, and mutilations.","These acts of violence included bombings, beatings, shootings, stabbings, and mutilations.",Government
"members ofthe klan burned crosses on the lawns of those associated with the civil rights movement, assaulted the freedom riders, bombed churches, and murdered blacks aswell as whites whom the klan viewed as sympathetic toward the civil rights movement.","Di klan burn crosses on di lawns of di civil rights movement, assault di freedom riders, bomb churches, and murder blacks aswell as whites wey dey wit di civil rights movement.",Government
"throughout the history ofthe klan, cross burnings have also remained potent symbols of shared group identity and ideology.","Di history of di klan, cross burnings don also remain potent symbol of shared group identity and ideology.",Government
the burning cross became a symbol ofthe klan itself and a central feature of klan gatherings.,Di burning cross be symbol of di klan itself and central feature of klan gatherings.,Government
"according to the klan constitution(called the kloran), the""fiery cross""was the""emblem of that sincere, unselfish devotedness of all klansmen to the sacred purpose and principles we have espoused.""","Di klan constitution(called di kloran), di""fiery cross""na di""emblem of say sincere, unselfish devotedness of all klansmen to di sacred purpose and principle wey we dey espoused",Government
and the klan has often published its newsletters and magazines under the name the fiery cross.,Di klan don often publish its newsletter and magazine under di name di fiery cross,Government
"at klan gatherings across the country, cross burning became the climax ofthe rally or the initiation.","For klan gatherings across di kontri, cross burning be di climax of di rally or di initiation.",Government
posters advertising an upcoming klan rally often featured a klan member holding across.,Di posters wey dey advertising upcoming klan rally often featured a klan member wey dey holding cross.,Government
"typically, a cross burning would start with a prayer by the ""klavern"" minister, followed by the singing of onward christian soldiers.","Di cross burning go start wit prayer by di ""klavern"" minister, follow di singing of onward christian soldiers.",Government
"the klan would then light the cross on fire, as the members raised their left arm toward the burning cross and sang the old rugged cross.","Di klan go light di cross on fire, as di members rais dia left arm toward di burning cross and sang di old rugged cross",Government
"throughout the klan's history, the klan continued to use the burning cross in their ritual ceremonies.",Di klan continue to use di burning cross for dia ritual ceremonies.,Government
"robson the first amendment 94 for its own members, the cross was a sign of celebration and ceremony.","Dem robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 94 for its own members, di cross na sign of celebration and ceremony",Government
"during a joint naziklan rally in 1940, the proceeding concluded with the wedding of two klan members who""were married in full klan regalia beneath a blazing cross.""",Di proceeding concluded wit di wedding of two klan members wey dey married for full klan regalia beneath blazing cross,Government
"in response to antimasking bills introduced in state legislatures after world war ii, the klan burned crosses in protest.",Di klan burn crosses for protest.,Government
"on march 26, 1960, the klan engaged in rallies and cross burnings throughout the south in an attempt to recruit 10 million members.",Di klan engage for rallies and cross burnings throughout di south for an attempt to recruit 10 million members.,Government
"later in 1960, the klan became an issue in the third debate between richard nixon and john kennedy, with both candidates renouncing the klan.","Di klan be issue for di third debate between richard nixon and john kennedy, wit both candidates renouncing di klan.",Government
"after this debate, the klan reiterated its support for nixon by burning crosses.",Di klan reiterated im support for nixon by burn crosses,Government
and cross burnings featured prominently in klan rallies when the klan attempted to move toward more nonviolent tactics to stop integration.,Di klan dey tempt to move toward more nonviolent tactics to stop integration.,Government
"in short, a burning cross has remained a symbol of klan ideology and of klan unity.",Di burning cross don remain symbol of klan ideology and of klan unity.,Government
"to this day, regardless of whether the message is a political one or whether the message is also meant to intimidate, the burning of across is a""symbol of hate.""","Di message dey political one or whether di message dey political one or whether di message dey political one or whether di message dey meant to intimidate, di burning of cross dey symbol of hate",Government
"and while cross burning sometimes carries no intimidating message, at other times the intimidating message is the only message conveyed.","Di intimidating message dey di only message wey dey convey, for oda times di intimidating message na di only message wey dey convey.",Government
"for example, when a cross burning is directed at a particular person not affiliated with the klan, the burning cross often serves as a message of intimidation, designed to inspire in the victim a fear of bodily harm.","Di burning cross often serve as message of intimidation, wey dey designed to inspire for di victim fear of bodily harm.",Government
"moreover, the history of violence associated with the klan shows that the possibility of injury or death is not just hypothetical.",Di history of violence wey dey associated wit di klan shows say di possibility of injury or death no just hypothetical.,Government
"the person who burns across directed at a particular person often is making a serious threat, meant to coerce the victim to comply with the klan's wishes unless the victim is willing to risk the wrath ofthe klan.","Di person wey burn cross directed at a particular person often dey make serious threat, meant to coerce di victim to comply wit di klan's wishes unless di victim dey willing to risk di wrath of di klan.",Government
"indeed, as the cases of respondents elliott and o'mara indicate, individuals without klan affiliation who wish to threaten or menace another person sometimes use cross burning because of this association between a burning cross and violence.","As di case of respondents elliott and o'mara indicate, individuals without klan affiliation wey wish to threaten or menace one person sometimes use cross burning because of dis association wey dey between a burning cross and violence.",Government
"in sum, while a burning cross does not inevitably convey a message of intimidation, often the cross burner intends that the recipients ofthe message fear for their lives.",Di cross burner intend say di recipient of di message fear for dia lives.,Government
"and when across burning is used to intimidate, few if any messages a re more powerful.","Di cross burning dey use to intimidate, few if any dey message a re more powerful.",Government
"the hallmark ofthe protection of free speech is to allow""free trade in ideas""--even ideas that the overwhelming majority of people might find distasteful or discomforting.","Di hallmark of di protection of free speech dey allow""Trade between countries without taxes or restrictions on goods for ideas""--even ideas wey di overwhelming majority of pipo find distasteful or discomforting",Government
"abrams v. united states(1919) (holmes, j, dissenting); see also texas v. johnson,(1989).","Dem see also texas v. johnson,(1989).",Government
"thus, the first amendment""ordinarily"" denies a state""the power to prohibit dissemination of social, economic and political doctrine which a vast majority of its citizens believes to be false and fraught with evil consequence.""","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) ""ordinarily""denies state""the power to prohibit dismination of social, economic and political doctrine wey a di most part of its citizens believe to be false and fraught wit evil consequence",Government
"whitney v. california (brandeis, j, concurring).","Whitney v. california (brandeis, j, concurring).",Government
the first amendment affords protection to symbolic or expressive conduct aswell as to actual speech.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) affords protection to symbolic or expressive conduct aswell as to actual talk.,Government
"see, e. g, r. a. v. v. city of st. paul, texas v. johnson, united states v. o'brien, tinker v. des moines independent community school dist.","See, e. g, r. a. v. v. city of st. paul, texas v. johnson, united states v. o'brien, tinker v. des moines independent community school dist.",Government
"the protections afforded by the first amendment, however, are not absolute, and we have long recognized that the government may regulate certain categories of expression consistent with the constitution.",We don recogniz say di goment go regulate certain categories of expression wey dey consistent wit di constitution.,Government
"see, e. g, chaplinsky v. new hampshire(1942) (""there are certain welldefined and narrowly limited classes of speech, the prevention and punishment of which has never been thought to raise any constitutional problem"").","Di certain welldefined and narrowly limited class of speech, di prevention and punishment of which no dey thought to raise any constitutional problem",Government
"the first amendment permits""restrictions upon the content of speech in a few limited areas, which are 'of such slight social value as a step to truth that any benefit that maybe derived from them is clearly outweighed by the social interest in order and morality.'","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) allow""restrictions upon di content of speech for few limited area, wey dey 'of such slight social value as step to truth say any benefit wey dey derived from dem dey clearly outweighed by di social interest for order and morality.",Government
""" * * *""true threats""encompass those statements where the speaker means to communicate a serious expression of an intent to commit an act of unlawful violence to a particular individual or group of individuals.",Di true threats wey di speaker means to communicate serious expression of an intent to commit unlawful violence to a particular individual or group of individuals,Government
"see watts v. united states(1969) (""political hyberbole"" is not a true threat); r. a. v.","Dem see watts v. united states(1969) (""political hyberbole"" no be true threat); r. a.",Government
the speaker need not actually intend to carry out t he threat.,Di speaker no suppose carry out thin threat.,Government
"rather, a prohibition on true threats""protect[s] individuals from the fear of violence""and ""from the disruption that fear engenders,"" in addition to protecting people""from the possibility that the threatened violence will occur.""","Di prohibition on true threats""protect individuals from di fear of violence""and ""from di disruption wey fear engender, for addition to protect pipo ""from di possibility say di threatened violence go occur",Government
"intimidation in the constitutionally proscribable sense ofthe word is a type of true threat, robson the first amendment 95 where a speaker directs a threat to a person or group of persons with the intent of placing the victim in fear of bodily harm or death.",First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 95 wey a speaker direct threat to a person or group of person wit di intent of placing di victim for fear of bodily harm or death.,Government
"respondents do not contest that some cross burnings fit within this meaning of intimidating speech, and rightly so.","Dem no contest say some cross burnings fit within dis meaning of intimidating speech, and rightly so.",Government
"as noted in part ii, supra, the history of cross burning in this country shows that cross burning is often intimidating, intended to create a pervasive fear in victims that they area target of violence.","Di history of cross burning for dis kontri show say cross burning dey intimidating, intended to create pervasive fear for victims wey dem dey target of violence.",Government
b the supreme court of virginia ruled that in light of r. a. v.,Di supreme court of virginia rule say for light of r. a. v.,Government
"it is true, as the supreme court of virginia held, that the burning of across is symbolic expression.","Di supreme court of virginia hold, say di burning of cross dey symbolic expression.",Government
"the reason why the klan burns across at its rallies, or individuals place a burning cross on someone else's lawn, is that the burning cross represents the message that the speaker wishes to communicate.","Di reason why di klan burn cross for its rallies, or individuals place burning cross on someone else's lawn, na say di burning cross represent di message wey di speaker wish to communicate.",Government
individuals burn crosses as opposed to other means of communication because cross burning carries a message in an effective and dramatic manner.,Di individuals burn cross as oppose to oda means of communication wey dey effective and dramatic manner.,Government
"the fact that cross burning is symbolic expression, however, does not resolve the constitutional question.","Di fact say cross burning dey symbolic expression, however, no resolve di constitutional question.",Government
the supreme court of virginia relied upon r. a. v.,Di big-oga kot of virginia relied upon r. a. v.,Government
that the first amendment prohibits all forms of contentbased discrimination within a proscribable area of speech.,Say First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) prohibits all forms of contentbased discrimination within a proscribable area of talk.,Government
"rather, we specifically stated that some types of content discrimination did not violate the first amendment:""when the basis for the content discrimination consists entirely ofthe very reason the entire class of speech at issue is proscribable, no significant danger of idea or viewpoint discrimination exists.","We specifically state say some type of content discrimination no violate First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo): ""when di basis for di content discrimination wey dey entirely of di very reason di entire class of speech for issue dey proscribable, no significant danger of idea or viewpoint discrimination exist.",Government
"such a reason, having been adjudged neutral enough to support exclusion ofthe entire class of speech from first amendment protection, is also neutral enough to form the basis of distinction within the class.""","Dem adjudged neutral enough to support exclusion of di entire class of speech from First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) protection, dey neutral enough to form di basis of distinction within di class.",Government
"unlike the statute at issue in r. a. v, the virginia statute does not single out for opprobrium only that speech directed toward""one ofthe specified disfavored topics.""","Di virginia statute no single out for opprobrium only say speech direct toward""one of di disfavored topics""",Government
"it does not matter whether an individual burns across with intent to intimidate because ofthe victim's race, gender, or religion, or because ofthe victim's""political affiliation, union membership, or homosexuality.""","E no matter whether individual burn cross wit intent to intimidate because of di victim's race, gender, or religion, or because of di victim's""political affiliation, union membership, or homosexuality.",Government
"moreover, as a factual matter it is not true that cross burners direct their intimidating conduct solely to racial or religious minorities.",E no true say cross burners direct dia intimidating conduct solely to racial or religious minorities.,Government
"indeed, in the case of elliott and o'mara, it is atleast unclear whether the respondents burned across due to racial animus.","Di case of elliott and o'mara, na least unclear whether di respondent burn cross due to racial animus.",Government
the first amendment permits virginia to outlaw cross burnings done with the intent to intimidate because burning across is a particularly virulent form of intimidation.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) allow virginia to outlaw cross burnings done wit di intent to intimidate because burn cross dey a particularly virulent form of intimidation.,Government
"instead of prohibiting all intimidating messages, virginia may choose to regulate this subset of intimidating messages in light of cross burning's long and pernicious history as a signal of impending violence.",Di subset of intimidating messages for light of cross burning long and pernicious history as signal of impending violence.,Government
"thus, just as a state may regulate only that obscenity which is the most obscene due to its prurient content, so too maya state choose to prohibit only those forms of intimidation that are most likely to inspire fear of bodily harm.","As a state go regulate only say obscenity wey dey di most obscene due to its prurient content, so too a state go prohibit only dis form of intimidation wey dey most likely to inspire fear of bodily harm.",Government
a ban on cross burning carried out with the intent to intimidate is fully consistent with our holding in r. a. v. and is proscribable under the first amendment.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) dey consistent wit awa holding for r. a. v. and dey proscribable under First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).,Government
the commonwealth added the prima facie provision to the statute in 1968.,Di commonwealth add di prima facie provision to di statute for 1968,Government
the court below did not reach whether this provision is severable from the rest ofthe cross-burning statute under virginia law.,Di court below no reach whether dis provision dey severable from di rest of di cross-burning statute under virginia law.,Government
the supreme court of virginia has not ruled on the meaning ofthe prima facie evidence provision.,Di supreme court of virginia no rule on di meaning of di prima facie evidence provision.,Government
"it has, however, stated that""the act of burning across alone, with no evidence of intent to intimidate, robson the first amendment 96 will nonetheless suffice for arrest and prosecution and will insulate the commonwealth from a motion to strike the evidence at the end of its case-in-chief.""","Di act of burning cross alone, wit no evidence of intent to intimidate, robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 96 go nonetheless suffice for arrest and prosecution and will insulate di commonwealth from motion to strike di evidence for di end of its case-in-chief",Government
"the jury in the case of richard elliott did not receive any instruction on the prima facie evidence provision, and the provision was not an issue in the case of jonathan o'mara because he pleaded guilty.","Di jury for di case of richard elliott no receive any instruction on di prima facie evidence provision, and di provision no be issue for di case of jonathan o'mara because he pleaded guilty.",Government
"the court in barry black's case, however, instructed the jury that the provision means:""the burning of across, by itself, is sufficient evidence from which you may infer the required intent.""","Di court for barry black case, however, instruct di jury say di provision means:"" di burning of cross, by itself, na sufficient evidence from which you fit infer di required intent",Government
this jury instruction is the same as the model jury instruction in the commonwealth of virginia.,Di jury instruction dey di same as di model jury instruction for di commonwealth of virginia.,Government
"see virginia model jury instructions, criminal, instruction no.","See virginia model jury instructions, criminal, instruction no.",Government
"the prima facie evidence provision, as interpreted by the jury instruction, renders the statute unconstitutional.","Di prima facie evidence provision, as interpreted by di jury instruction, renders di statute against di law of di land.",Government
"because this jury instruction is the model jury instruction, and because the supreme court of virginia had the opportunity to expressly disavow the jury instruction, the jury instruction's construction ofthe prima facie provision ""isa ruling on a question of state law that is as binding on us as though the precise words had been written into""the statute.","Di jury instruction dey di model jury instruction, and because di supreme court of virginia don get di opportunity to expressly disavow di jury instruction, di jury instruction construction of di prima facie provision ""is ruling on a question of state law wey dey binding on us as though di precise words dey written into""di statute.",Government
"as construed by the jury instruction, the prima facie provision strips away the very reason why a state may ban cross burning with the intent to intimidate.",Di prima facie provision strip away di very reason why state go ban cross burn wit di intent to intimidate.,Government
the prima facie evidence provision permits a jury to convict in every cross-burning case in which defendants exercise their constitutional right not to put on a defense.,Di prima facie evidence provision allow a jury to convict for every cross-burning case wey defendants exercise dia constitutional right no put on defense.,Government
"and even where a defendant like black presents a defense, the prima facie evidence provision makes it more likely that the jury will find an intent to intimidate regardless ofthe particular facts ofthe case.",Di prima facie evidence provision make say di jury go find intent to intimidate regardless of di particular facts of di case.,Government
"the provision permits the commonwealth to arrest, prosecute, and convict a person based solely on the fact of cross burning itself.","Di provision don allow di commonwealth to arrest, prosecute, and convict a person wey dey based solely on di fact of cross burning amself",Government
"it is apparent that th e provision as so interpreted"" 'would create an unacceptable risk ofthe suppression of ideas.'","Di provision as so interpreted"" ' go create unacceptable risk of di suppression of ideas.",Government
"""the act of burning across may mean that a person is engaging in constitutionally proscribable intimidation.",Di act of burning cross don mean say a person dey engage for constitutionally proscribable intimidation.,Government
but that same act may mean only that the person is engaged in core political speech.,Di same act don mean only say di person dey engage for core political speech but say same act don mean only say di person dey engage for core political speech.,Government
the prima facie evidence provision in this statute blurs the line between these two meanings of a burning cross.,Di prima facie evidence provision for dis statute blur di line between dis two meanings of burning cross,Government
"as interpreted by the jury instruction, the provision chills constitutionally protected political speech because ofthe possibility that a state will prosecute- -and potentially convict--somebody engaging only in lawful political speech at the core of what the first amendment is designed to protect.",Di provision chill constitutionally protected political speech bikos of di possibility say a state go prosecute- -and potentially convict--somebody engaging only for lawful political speech for di core of what First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) dey designed to protect.,Government
"as the history of cross burning indicates, a burning cross is not always intended to intimidate.","As di history of cross burning indicates, a burning cross no always dey intimidate.",Government
"rather, sometimes the cross burning is a statement of ideology, a symbol of group solidarity.","Di cross burning dey statement of ideology, symbol of group solidarity",Government
"it is a ritual used at klan gatherings, and it is used to represent the klan itself.","Di ritual wey dey use for klan gatherings, and e dey use to represent di klan itself",Government
"thus, ""[b]urning across at a political rally would almost certainly be protected expression.""","As, ""[b]urning cross for political rally go almost certainly protect expression",Government
"indeed, occasionally a person who burns across does not intend to express either a statement of ideology or intimidation.",Di person wey burn cross no intend to express either statement of ideology or intimidation.,Government
"cross burnings have appeared in movies such as mississippi burning, and in plays such as the stage adaptation of sir walter scott's the lady ofthe lake.","Di cross burnings don ppear for movies such as mississippi burning, and for plays such as di stage adaptation of sir walter scott's di lady of di lake.",Government
the prima facie provision makes no effort to distinguish among these different types of cross burnings.,Di prima facie provision makes no effort to distinguish among these different types of cross burnings.,Government
it does not distinguish between across burning done with the purpose of creating anger or resentment and across burning done with the purpose of threatening or intimidating a victim.,E no distingu uish between cross burning done wit di purpose of create anger or resentment and cross burning done wit di purpose of threatening or intimidating a victim.,Government
it does not distinguish between across burning at a public rally or across burning on a neighbor's lawn.,E no distinguish between cross burning for public rally or cross burning on neighbor's lawn.,Government
it does not treat the cross burning directed at an individual differently from the cross burning directed at a group of like-minded believers.,E no treat di cross burning directed for individual differently from di cross burning directed for group of like-minded believers.,Government
it allows a jury to treat across burning on the property of another with the owner's acquiescen ce in the same manner as across burning on the property of another without the owner's permission.,Dem allow jury to treat cross burning on di property of another wit di owner's permission.,Government
"to this extent i agree with justice souter that the prima facie evidence provision can""skew jury deliberations toward conviction in cases where the evidence of intent to intimidate is relatively weak and arguably consistent with a solely ideological reason for burning.""","I agree wit justice souter say di prima facie evidence provision fit ""skew jury deliberations toward conviction for case wey di evidence of intent to intimidate dey weak and arguably consistent wit solely ideological reason for burning",Government
post(opinion concurring in judgment and dissenting in part).,Di opinion dey concurrin for judgment and dissenting for part).,Government
"it maybe true that across burning, even at a political rally, arouses a sense of anger or hatred among the vast majority of citizens who see a burning cross.","E dey true say cross burning, even for political rally, arouses sense of anger or hatred among di most part of citizens wey see a burning cross.",Government
but this sense of anger or hatred is not sufficient to ban all cross burnings.,But dis sense of anger or hatred nano sufficient to ban all cross burnings.,Government
the first amendment does not permit such a shortcut.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) no allow such shortcut.,Government
"robson the first amendment 97 for these reasons, the prima facie evidence provision, as interpreted through the jury instruction and as applied in barry black's case, is unconstitutional on its face.","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 97 for dis reasons, di prima facie evidence provision, as interpreted through di jury instruction and as applied for barry black case, dey unconstitutional on its face.",Government
we recognize that the supreme court of virginia has not authoritatively interpreted the meaning ofthe prima facie evidence provision.,We recognize say di supreme court of virginia no authoritatively interpret di meaning of di prima facie evidence provision,Government
"unlike justice scalia, we refuse to speculate on whether any interpretation ofthe prima facie evidence provision would satisfy the first amendment.","Unlike justice scalia, we refuse to speculate on whether any interpretation of di prima facie evidence provision would satisfy First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).",Government
"rather, all we hold is that because ofthe interpretation ofthe prima facie evidence provision given by the jury instruction, the provision makes the statute facially invalid at this point.","All we hold na say because of di interpretation of di prima facie evidence provision wey di jury instruction, di provision make di statute facially valid for dis point.",Government
"we also recognize the theoretical possibility that the court, on remand, could interpret the provision in a manner different from that so far set forth in order to avoid the constitutional objections we have described.","We also recognize di theoretical possibility say di court, on remand, go interpret di provision for manner different from dat so far set forth for order to avoid di constitutional objections wey we dey described.",Government
we leave open that possibility.,We leave open th for possibility.,Government
"we also leave open the possibility that the provision is severable, and if so, whether elliott and o'mara could be retried under 18.2 -423.","We also leave open di possibility say di provision dey severable, and if so, whether elliott and o'mara go dey retried under 18.2 -423.",Government
"with respect to elliott and o'mara, we vacate the judgment ofthe supreme court of virginia, and remand the case for further proceedings.","We vacate di judgment of di supreme court of virginia, and remand di case for further proceedings.",Government
"justice scalia, with whom justice thomas joins as to parts i and ii, concurring in part, concurring in the judgment in part, and dissenting in part.","Di justice thomas join as to parts i and ii, wey justice thomas join as to parts i and ii, concurring for part, and dissenting for part.",Government
"[omitted]j ustice souter, with whom justice kennedy and justice ginsburg join, concurring in the judgment in part and dissenting in part.","Di ustice souter, wit wey justice kennedy and justice ginsburg join, concurrin for di judgment for part and dissenting for part.",Government
"""although the virginia statute in issue here contains no such express""basis of""limitation on prohibited subject matter, the specific prohibition of cross burning with intent to intimidate selects a symbol with particular content from the field of all p roscribable expression meant to intimidate.","Di virginia statute for issue here contains no such express""basis of""limitation on prohibited subject matter, di specific prohibition of cross burning wit intent to intimidate select symbol wit particular content from di field of all p roscribable expression meant to intimidate.",Government
"to be sure, that content often includes an essentially intimidating message, that the cross burner will harm the victim, most probably in a physical way, given the historical identification of burning crosses with arson, beating, and lynching.","Di content often include essentially intimidating message, say di cross burner go harm di victim, most probably for physical way, given di historical identification of burning crosses wit arson, beating, and lynching.",Government
"but even when the symbolic act is meant to terrify, a burning cross may carry a further, ideological message of white protestant supremacy.","Di symbolic act dey meant to terrify, a burning cross carry further, ideological message of white protestant supremacy.",Government
"the ideological message not only accompanies many threatening uses ofthe symbol, bu t is also expressed when a burning cross is not used to threaten but merely to symbolize the supremacist ideology and the solidarity of those who espouse it.",Di ideological message no only accompanies many threatening use of di symbol but merely to symbolize di supremacist ideology and di solidarity of those wey dey espouse am.,Government
"as the majority points out, the burning cross can broadcast threat and ideology together, ideology alone, or threat alone, as was apparently the choice of respondents elliott and o'mara.","Di majority points out, di burning crossfit broadcast threat and ideology together, ideology alone, or threat alone, as di majority points out, di burning crossfit broadcast threat and ideology together, ideology alone, or threat alone, as di choice of respondents elliott and o'mara.",Government
"to understand how the robson the first amendment 98 provision may work, recall that the symbolic act of burning across, without more, is consistent with both intent to intimidate and intent to make an ideological statement free of any aim to threaten.","Di robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 98 provision don work, recall say di symbolic act of burning cross, without more, dey consist of both intent to intimidate and intent to make ideological statement free of any aim to threaten.",Government
one can tell the intimidating instance from the wholly ideological one only by reference to some further circumstance.,One fit tell di intimidating instance from di wholly ideological one only by reference to some further circumstance.,Government
"in the real world, of course, a nd in realworld prosecutions, there will always be further circumstances, and the factfinder will always learn something more than the isolated fact of cross burning.","Di factfinder go learn something more than di isolated fact of cross burning, and di factfinder go learn something more than di isolated fact of cross burning.",Government
"sometimes those circumstances will show an intent to intimidate, but sometimes they will beat least equivocal, as in cases where a white supremacist group burns across at an initiation ceremony or political rally visible to the public.",For case wey white supremacist group burn cross for initiation ceremony or political rally visible to di public.,Government
"in such a case, if the factfinder is aware ofthe prima facie evidence provision, as the jury was in respondent black's case, the provision will have the practical effect of tilting the jury's thinking in favor ofthe prosecution.","If di factfinder dey to know di prima facie evidence provision, as di jury dey in respondent black case, di provision go get di practical effect of tilting di jury's thinking for favor of di prosecution.",Government
"what is significant is not that the provision permits a factfinder's conclusion that the defendant acted with proscribable and punishable intent without any further indication, because some such indication will almost always be presented.","Di provision don allow factfinder's conclusion say di defendant acting wit proscribable and punishable intent without any further indication, because some such indication go almost always be presented.",Government
what is significant is that the provision will encourage a factfinder to err on the side of a finding of intent to intimidate when the evidence of circumstances fails to point with any clarity either to the criminal intent or to the permissible one.,Di provision go encourage factfinder to err on di side of finding of intent to intimidate wen di evidence of circumstance fail to point wit any clarity either to di criminal intent or to di permissible one.,Government
"the effect of such a distortion is difficult to remedy, since any guilty verdict will survive sufficiency review unless the defendant can show that,""view ing the evidence in the light most favorable to the prosecution,[no] rational trier of fact could have found the essential elements ofthe crime beyond a reasonable doubt.""","Di evidence for di light most favorable to di prosecution, no rational trier of fact go find di essential elements of di crime beyond reasonable doubt.",Government
"the provision will thus tend to draw nonthreatening ideological expression within the ambit ofthe prohibition of intimidating expression, as justice o'connor notes(plurality opinion).","Di provision go fit draw nonthreatening ideological expression within di ambit of di prohibition of intimidating expression, as justice o'connor notes(plurality opinion).",Government
"to the extent the prima facie evidence provision skews prosecutions, then, it skews the statute toward suppressing ideas.","To di extent di prima facie evidence provision skews prosecutions, then, e skews di statute toward suppressing ideas.",Government
"thus, the appropriate way to consider the statute's prima facie evidence term, in my view, is not as if it were an overbroad statutory definition amenable to severance or a narrowing construction.","Di appropriate way to consider di statute's prima facie evidence term, for my view, no be as if e dey overbroad statutory definition amenable to severance or narrowing construction.",Government
"the question here is not the permissible scope of an arguably overbroad statute, but the claim of a clearly content-based statute to an exception from the general prohibition of contentbased proscriptions, an exception that is not warranted if the statute's terms show that suppression of ideas maybe afoot.","Di question here no dey di permissible scope of an arguably overbroad statute, but di claim of clearly content based statute to an exception from di general prohibition of contentbased proscriptions, an exception wey dey warrant if di statute's terms show say suppression of ideas dey afoot.",Government
"accordingly, the way to look at the prima facie evidence provision is to consider it for any indication of what is afoot.",Di way to make we look di prima facie evidence provision dey to consider am for any indication of what dey afoot,Government
"and if we look at the provision for this purpose, it has avery obvious significance as a mechanism for bringing within the statute's prohibition some expression that is doubtfully threatening though certainly distasteful.","If we make we look di provision for dis purpose, na very obvious significance as a mechanism wey dey bring within di statute's prohibition some expression wey dey doubtfully threatening though certainly distasteful.",Government
"it is difficult to conceive of an intimidation case that could be easier to prove than one with cross burning, assuming any circumstances suggesting intimidation are present.","E dey difficult to conceive of intimidation case wey dey easier to prove than one wit cross burning, assuming any circumstances wey dey suggest intimidation dey present",Government
"the provision, apparently so unnecessary to legitimate prosecution of intimidation, is therefore quite enough to raise the question whether virginia's contentbased statute seeks more than mere protection against a virulent form of intimidation.","Di provision, apparently so unnecessary to legitimate prosecution of intimidation, na so sake of dat quite enough to raise di question whether virginia's contentbased statute seeks more than mere protection against a virulent form of intimidation.",Government
"it consequently bars any conclusion that an exception to the general rule of r. a. v. is warranted on the ground""that there is no realistic[or little realistic]possibility that official suppression of ideas is afoot,"" since nor. a. v. exception can save the statute as content based, it can only survive if narrowly tailored to serve a compelling state interest, a stringent test the statute cannot pass; a content-neutral statute banning intimidation would achieve the same object without singling out particular content.","Di as general rule of r. a. v. dey warrant on di ground""that no realistic[or little realistic]possibility say official suppression of ideas dey afoot, since nor. a. v. no fit survive if narrowly tailored to serve compelling state interest, a stringent test di statute no pass; a stringent test di statute no pass; a stringent test di statute no pass; a content-neutral statute no pass; a content-neutral statute",Government
"in my view, severance ofthe prima facie evidence provision now could not eliminate the unconstitutionality ofthe whole statute at the time ofthe respondents' conduct.","Di view, severance of di prima facie evidence provision now no eliminate di unconstitutionality of di whole statute for di time of di respondents conduct.",Government
"accordingly, i concur in the court's judgment as to respondent black and dissent as to respondents elliott and o'mara.","Accordingly, i concur for di kot' judgment as to di person wey dey answer di case black and dissent as to respondents elliott and o'mara.",Government
"robson the first amendment 99 justice thomas, dissenting.","Robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 99 justice thomas, dissenting.",Government
"in every culture, certain things acquire meaning well beyond what outsiders can comprehend.","For every culture, certain things get meaning well beyond what outsiders dey comprehend.",Government
"that goes for both the sacred, see texas v. johnson, and the profane.","Di sacred, see texas v. johnson, and di profane.",Government
"in my view, whatever expressive value cross burning has, the legislature simply wrote it out by banning only intimidating conduct undertaken by a particular means.",Di legislature simply write am out by banning only intimidating conduct undertaken by particular means.,Government
a conclusion that the statute prohibiting cross burning with intent to intimidate sweeps beyond a prohibition once rtain conduct into the zone of expression overlooks not only the words ofthe statute but also reality.,Di statute prohibiting cross burning wit intent to intimidate sweeps beyond a prohibition once rtain conduct into di zone of expression na only di words of di statute but also reality.,Government
"a""in holding[the ban on cross burning with intent to intimidate]unconstitutional, the court ignores justice holmes' familiar aphorism that 'a page of history is worth a volume of logic.'",Di court ignor justice holmes' familiar aphorism say 'a page of history dey worth volume of logic.,Government
""" * * * tome, the majority's brief history ofthe ku klux klan only reinforces this common understanding ofthe klan as a terrorist organization, which, in its endeavor to intimidate, or even eliminate those its dislikes, uses the most brutal of methods.","Di majority's brief history of di ku klux klan only reinforce dis common understanding of di klan as terrorist organization, wey, for its endeavor to intimidate, or even eliminate dis dislikes, use di most brutal of methods.",Government
"such methods typically include cross burning--""a tool for the intimidation and harassment of racial minorities, catholics, jews, communists, and any other groups hated by the klan.""","Di such methods typically include cross burning,""tool for di intimidation and harassment of racial minorities, catholics, Jews, communists, and any oda groups wey dey hated by di klan",Government
"for those not easily frightened, cross burning has been followed by more extreme measures, such as beatings and murder.","Di cross burning don follow more extreme measures, such as beatings and murder.",Government
"juan williams, eyes on the prize: america's civil rights years 1954-1965, at 39(1965).","Di prize: america civil rights years 1954-1965, at 39(1965).",Government
"as the solicitor general points out, the association between acts of intimidating cross burning and violence is well documented in recent american history.","As di solicitor general points out, di association wey dey intimidating cross burning and violence dey well documented for recent american history.",Government
brief for the united states at 3 -4 & n.2.,Di united states for 3 -4 & n.,Government
"indeed, the connection between cross burning and violence is well ingrained, and lower courts have so recognized.","Di connection between cross burning and violence dey well ingrained, and lower courts don so recognize.",Government
"in virginia, though facing widespread opposition in 1920s, the kkk developed localized strength in the southeastern part ofthe state, where there were reports of scattered raids and floggings.","Di kkk don develop localized strength for southeastern part of di state, wey dey report of scattered raids and floggings.",Government
"although the kkk was disbanded at the national level in 1944, a series of cross burnings in virginia took place between 1949 and 1952.","Di kkk dey disband for di naija wey dey concern everybody for inside kontri, wey dey involve naija mata, naija policy, or naija trend, wey sabi pipo dey tok am for everywhere for 1944, series of cross burnings for virginia take place between 1949 and 1952.",Government
"most ofthe crosses were burned on the lawns of black families, who either were business owners or lived in predominantly white neighborhoods.","Di crosses dey burn on di lawns of black families, wey either dey business owner or lived for predominantly white neighborhoods.",Government
atleast one ofthe cross burnings was accompanied by a shooting.,Di cross burnings dey accompanied by shooting.,Government
"the crosses burned near residences were about five to six feet tall; while a""huge cross reminiscent ofthe ku klux klan days""burned ""atop a hill""as part ofthe initiation ceremony ofthe secret organization ofthe knights of kavaliers, was twelve feet tall.","As huge cross reminiscent of di ku klux klan days""burn ""atop a hill""as part of di initiation ceremony of di secret organization of di knights of kavaliers, na about five to six feet tall; while a""huge cross reminiscent of di ku klux klan days""burn ""atop a hill""as part of di initiation ceremony of di secret organization of di knights of kavaliers, na about five to six feet tall; while a""huge cross reminiscent of di ku klux",Government
"these incidents were, in the words ofthe time,"" terroristic [sic].","Di incident dey, for di words of di time,"" terroristic [sic]",Government
"un-american act[s], designed to intimidate negroes from seeking their rights as citizens.""","Un-american act[s], designed to intimidate negroes from seeking dia rights as citizens.""",Government
"in february 1952, in light of this series of cross burnings and attendant reports that the klan,""long considered dead in virginia, is being revitalized in richmond,""governor battle announced that""virginia 'might well consider passing legislation' to restrict the activities ofthe ku klux klan.""","For light of dis series of cross burnings and attendant reports say di klan, long consider dead for virginia, dey revitalized for richmond, governor battle announce say""virginia go well consider passing legislation to restrict di activities of di ku klux klan",Government
"as newspapers reported at the time, the bill was""to ban the burning of crosses and other similar evidences of terrorism.""",Di bill dey ban di burning of crosses and oda similar evidence of terrorism,Government
"the bill was presented to the house of delegates by a former fbi agent and future twoterm governor, delegate mills e. godwin, jr.""godwin said law and order in the state were impossible if organized groups could create fear by intimidation.""",Godwin tok say law and order for di state dey impossible if organized groups go create fear by intimidation,Government
"that in the early 1950s the people of virginia viewed cross burning as creating an intolerable atmosphere of terror is not surprising: although the cross took on some religious significance in the 1920's when the klan became connected with certain southern white clergy, by the postwar period it had reverted to its original function""as an instrument of intimidation.""","Di cross don take on some religious significance for di 1920's wen di klan dey connect wit certain southern white clergy, by di postwar period e don reverted to its original function""as an instrument of intimidation""",Government
"robson the first amendment 100 strengthening delegate godwin's explanation, as well as my conclusion, that the legislature sought to criminalize terrorizing conduct is the fact that at the time the statute was enacted, racial segregation was not only the prevailing practice, but also the law in virginia.","Di legislature sought to criminalize terrorizing conduct na di fact say for di time di statute dey enacted, racial segregation no only di prevailing practice, but also di law for virginia.",Government
"and, just two years after the enactment of this statute, virginia's general assembly embarked on a campaign of""massive resistance""in response to brown v. board of education(1954).","Di general assembly embarked on campaign of""massive resistance""for response to brown v. board of education(1954).",Government
it strains credulity to suggest that a state legislature that adopted a litany of segregationist laws self- contradictorily intended to squelch the segregationist message.,E strain credulity to suggest say state legislature wey adopt litany of segregationist laws self- contradictorily intended to squelch di segregationist message.,Government
"even for segregationists, violent and terroristic conduct, the siamese twin of cross burning, was intolerable.","For segregationists, violent and terroristic conduct, di siamese twin of cross burning, na intolerable.",Government
the ban on cross burning with intent to intimidate demonstrates that even segregationists understood the difference between intimidating and terroristic conduct and racist expression.,Di ban on cross burning wit intent to intimidate demonstrates say even segregationists understood di difference between intimidating and terroristic conduct and racist how person talk im mind.,Government
"it is simply beyond belief that, in passing the statute now under review, the virginia legislature was concerned with anything but penalizing conduct it must have viewed as particularly vicious.","For passing di statute now under review, di virginia legislature dey concerned wit anything but penalizing conduct wey dey particularly vicious.",Government
"accordingly, this statute prohibits only conduct, not expression.","Di statute prohibit only conduct, no expression",Government
"and, just as one cannot burn down someone's house to make a political point and then seek refuge in the first amendment, those who hate cannot terrorize and intimidate to make their point.","As one no burn down someone house to make political point and then seek refuge for First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo), those wey hate no terrorize and intimidate to make dia point.",Government
"in light of my conclusion that the statute here addresses only conduct, there is no need to analyze it under any of our first amendment tests.","Di statute here addresses only conduct, no need to analyze am under any of our First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) tests.",Government
therein lies my primary disagreement with the plurality.,Di plurality lies my primary disagreement wit di plurality,Government
"a but even with respect to statutes containing a mandatory irrebuttable presumption as to intent, the court has not shown much concern.",Di court no show much concern.,Government
"for instance, there is no scienter requirement for statutory rape.",Nano scienter requirement for statutory rape,Government
"that is, a person can be arrested, prosecuted, and convicted for having sex with a minor, without the government ever producing any evidence, let alone proving beyond a reasonable doubt, that a minor did not consent.","Di goment no produce any evidence, let alone proving beyond reasonable doubt, say a minor no consent.",Government
"in fact,""[f]or purposes ofthe child molesting statute.","For fact,""[f]or purpose of di child molesting statute.",Government
consent is irrelevant.,Di consent dey irrelevant,Government
"the legislature has determined in such cases that children under the age of sixteen(16) cannot, as a matter of law, consent to have sexual acts performed upon them, or consent to engage in a sexual act with someone over the age of sixteen(16).""","Di legislature don determin for such cases say children under di age of sixteen(16) no fit, as matter of law, consent to get sexual act wit someone over di age of sixteen(16), or consent to engage for sexual act wit someone over di age of sixteen(16)",Government
the legislature finds the behavior so reprehensible that the intent is satisfied by the mere act committed by a perpetrator.,Di legislature find di behavior so reprehensible say di intent dey satisfied by di mere act committed by perpetrator.,Government
"considering the horrific effect cross burning has on its victims, it is also reasonable to presume intent to intimidate from the act itself.",E dey reasonable to presume intent to intimidate from di act itself.,Government
statutes prohibiting possession of drugs with intent to distribute operate much the same way as statutory rape laws.,Dem prohibite possession of drug wit intent to distribute operate much di same way as statutory rape laws.,Government
"under these statutes, the intent to distribute is effectively satisfied by possession of some threshold amount of drugs.",Di intent to distribute dey effectively satisfied by possession of some threshold amount of drugs,Government
"as with statutory rape, th e presumption of intent in such statutes is irrebuttable --not only can a person be arrested for the crime of possession with intent to distribute(or ""trafficking"")without any evidence of intent beyond quantity of drugs, but such person cannot even mount a defense to the element of intent.","Di presumption of intent for such statutes dey irrebuttable, no only fit a person be arrest for di crime of possession wit intent to distribute(or ""trafficking"")without any evidence of intent beyond quantity of drugs, but such person no fit mount defense to di element of intent.",Government
"however, as with statutory rape statutes, our cases do not reveal any controversy with respect to the presumption of intent in these drug statutes.","As wit statutory rape statutes, we no reveal any controversy wit respect to di presumption of intent for dis drug statutes.",Government
"because the prima facie clause here is an inference, not an irrebuttable presumption, there is all the more basis under our due process precedents to sustain this statute.","Di prima facie clause here dey inference, no dey irrebuttable presumption, na all di more basis under awa Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system precedents to sustain dis statute.",Government
"b the plurality, however, is troubled by the presumption because this is a first amendment case.","Di plurality, however, dey trouble by di presumption bikos dis na First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) case.",Government
"the plurality laments the fate of an innocent cross-burner who burns across, but does so without an intent to intimidate.","Di plurality laments di fate of innocent cross burner wey burn cross, but does so without an intent to intimidate",Government
"the plurality fears the chill on expression because, according to the plurality, the inference permits""the commonwealth to arrest, prosecute and convict a person based solely on the fact of cross burning itself.""","Di plurality fear di chill on expression because, according to di plurality, di inference allow""the commonwealth to arrest, prosecute and convict a person wey dey based solely on di fact of cross burning imself",Government
"first, it is, at the very least, unclear that the inference comes into play during arrest and initiation of a prosecution, that is, prior to the instructions stage of an actual trial.","Di very least, unclear say di inference kom into play during arrest and initiation of prosecution, wey dey, prior to di instructions stage of di actual trial.",Government
"second, as i explained above, the inference is rebuttable and, as the jury instructions given in this case demonstrate, virginia law still requires the jury to find the existence of each element, including intent to intimidate, beyond a reasonable doubt.","Di inference dey rebuttable and, as di jury instructions wey dey give for dis case demonstrate, virginia law still require di jury to find di existence of each element, including intent to intimidate, beyond reasonable doubt.",Government
"robson the first amendment 101 moreover, even in the first amendment context, the court has upheld such regulations where conduct that initially appears culpable, ultimately results in dismissed charges.","Di court don upheld such regulations wey conduct wey initially appear culpable, ultimately result for dismiss charges.",Government
a regulation of pornography is one such example.,Di regulation of pornography na one example.,Government
"while possession of child pornography is illegal, ferber v. new york(1982), possession of adult pornography, as long as it is not obscene, is allowed, miller v. california(1973).","Di possession of adult pornography dey illegal, ferber v. new york(1982), possession of adult pornography no dey illegal, miller v. california(1973), possession of adult pornography no dey illegal, miller v. california(1973). possession of adult pornography no dey illegal, miller v. california(1973).",Government
"as a result, those pornographers trafficking in images of adults who look like minors, may be not only deterred but also arrested and prosecuted for possessing what a jury might find to be legal materials.","Di pornographers wey dey trafficking for images of adults wey look like minors, no be only deterred but also prosecuted for possessing what a jury go find legal materials.",Government
"this""chilling"" effect has not, however, been a cause for grave concern with respect to overbreadth of such statutes among the members of this court.","Di""chilling"" effect no dey cause for grave concern wit respect to overbreadth of such statutes among di members of dis court.",Government
that the first amendment gives way to other interests is not a remarkable proposition.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) give way to oda interest no remarkable proposition.,Government
"what is remarkable is that, under the plurality's analysis, the determination of whether an interest is sufficiently compelling depends not on the harm a regulation in question seeks to prevent, but on the area of society at which it aims.","Di plurality analysis, di determination of whether interest dey sufficiently compelling depend not on di harm wey dey regulation for question seeks to prevent, but on di area of society wey dey suppose prevent, but on di area of society wey dey which dey aims.",Government
"for instance, in hill v. colorado(2000), the court upheld a restriction on protests near abortion clinics, explaining that the state had a legitimate interest, which was sufficiently narrowly tailored, in protecting those seeking services of such establishments""from unwanted advice""and ""unwanted communication.""","for example, for hill v. colorado(2000), di court upheld restriction on protests near abortion clinics, explain say di state don get legitimate interest, wey dey sufficiently tailored, for protect those seeking services of such establishments""from unwanted advice""and ""unwanted communication""",Government
"in so concluding, the court placed heavy reliance on the""vulnerable physical and emotional conditions""of patients.","For so concluding, di kot placed heavy reliance on di""vulnerable physical and emotional conditions""of patients.",Government
"thus, when it came to the rights of those seeking abortions, the court deemed restrictions on""unwanted advice,""which, notably, can be given only from a distance of atleast 8 feet from a prospective patient, justified by the countervailing interest in obtaining abortion.","Di court dey restriction on""unwanted advice"" wey, notably, fit give only from distance of atleast 8 feet from a prospective patient, justified by di countervailing interest for obtaining abortion.",Government
"yet, here, the plurality strikes down the statute because one day an individual might wish to burn across, but might do so without an intent to intimidate anyone.","Yet, here, di plurality strikes down di statute because one day an individual might wish to burn across, but might do so without an intent to intimidate anyone.",Government
"that cross burning subjects its targets, and, sometimes, an unintended audience to extreme emotional distress, and is virtually never viewed merely as""unwanted communication,""but rather, as a physical threat, is of no concern to the plurality.","As a physical threat, dey no concern to di plurality.",Government
"henceforth, under the plurality's view, physical safety will be valued less than the right to be free from unwanted communications.","Di plurality view, physical safety go value less than di right to be free from unwanted communications.",Government
"be prepared to discuss the ""categorical approach.""","Di ""categorical approach""",Government
what is the logic ofthe categorical approach?,Di logic of di categorical approach?,Government
what are the differing views of how that logic should be understood when a subcateg ory is involved?,Di differing views of how logic go understand when a subcateg ory dey involved?,Government
should the content(or viewpoint)of that subcategory be considered?,Di content(or viewpoint)of dat subcategory be consider?,Government
the combination of symbolic speech and hate speech/conduct as in virginia v. black occurs in some first amendment challenges to the antimasking statutes justice thomas mentions in his dissent.,Di combination of symbolic speech and hate speech conduct as for virginia v. black occur for some First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) challenge to di antimasking statutes justice thomas mention for hin dissent.,Government
"the second circuit, in church of am.","Di second circuit, for church of am",Government
"knights ofthe ku klux klan v. kerik,356 f.3d 197(2d cir.","Knights of di ku klux klan v. kerik,356 f.3d 197(2d cir.",Government
the kkk group had sought an injunction against the statute to allow a demonstration while wearing masks.,Di kkk group don sought injunction against di statute to allow demonstration while wear masks.,Government
"rejecting the first amendment claim, the court agreed that the kkk regalia - - -the robe, hood, and mask- - -met the threshold requirement for expressive speech, but nevertheless separated the mask in its analysis.","Di court agree say di kkk regalia - - di robe, hood, and mask- - -meet di threshold requirement for expressive speech, but nevertheless separat di mask for its analysis.",Government
"in the court's view, the mask was""redundant"" and did""not convey a message independently ofthe robe and hood.""","Di mask dey redundant""and dem no convey message independently of di robe and hood",Government
"thus, the mask did not rise to the level of symbolic speech.",Di mask no rise to di level of symbolic speech,Government
does this seem correct?,Di suppose correct?,Government
in contexts other than the kkk?,Di kkk?,Government
"robson the first amendment 102 note:""true threats""in watts v. united states, 394 u. s. 705 (1969), the court upheld the constitutionality ofthe ""threats against the president""statute, 18 u. s. c.","Di court upheld di constitutionality of di""threats against di president""statute, 18 u. s. c.",Government
"s 871(a), in a brief per curiam opinion.",Di brief per curiam opinion.,Government
"however, the court concluded that a""threat"" under the statute""must be distinguished from what is constitutionally protected speech.""","Di court conclude say threat""under di statute""must distinguished from what dey constitutionally protected speech",Government
"as the court described it: according to an investigator for the army counter intelligence corps who was present, petitioner [watts]responded: 'they always holler at us to get an education.","Di investigator for di army counter intelligence corps wey dey present, petitioner [watts]respond: 'they always holler at us to get education",Government
and now i have already received my draft classification as 1 -a andi have got to report for my physical this monday coming.,I don receive my draft classification as 1 -a andi don get report for my physical dis monday coming.,Government
if they ever make me carry a rifle the first mani want to get in my sights is l. b. j.''they ar e not going to make me kill my black brothers.',Dem no go make me kill my black brother.,Government
the jury found that petitioner had committed a felony by knowingly and willfully threatening the president; a divided court of appeals for the d. c.,Di jury found say petitioner don committe felony by knowingly and willfully threatening di president; a divide court of appeals for did. c.,Government
"the court concluded: whatever the ""willfullness"" requirement implies, the statute initially requires the government to prove a true""threat.""","Di court conclude: whatever di ""willfullness"" requirement implies, di statute initially require di goment to prove true""threat""",Government
we do not believe that the kind of political hyperbole indulged in by petitioner fits within that statutory term.,We no believe say di kind of political hyperbole wey petitioner fit within dat statutory term.,Government
"in the years since watts, whether statements are hyperbole or true threats has become an issue in electronic and social media communications.","Di years since watts, whether statements dey hyperbole or true threats don become issue for electronic and Platfom wey pipo dey share tori, ideaz, and yan, like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram, wey reporter fit use take report and yarn with dem audience and source communications.",Government
"in elonis v. united states,575 u. s. (2015), the court considered statements and""lyrics"" in facebook postings in the context of a domestic violence situation.","Di court consider statement and""lyrics"" for facebook posting for di context of Violence and abuse wey happen between pipo wey live together or are intimate partners situation.",Government
"elonis was convicted and the court granted certiorari petition focused on the first amendment and pointed to a split in the circuits regarding an application of virginia v. black (2003)to a conviction of threatening another person: did it require proof ofthe defendant's subjective intent to threaten or whether it is enough to show that a""reasonable person""would regard the statement as threatening.",Di court grant certiorari petition wey dey focus on First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) and pointed to a split for di circuits regarding di statement as threatening.,Government
"however, the court's order granting certiorari instructed: in addition to the question presented by the petition, the parties are directed to brief and argue the following question:""whether, as a matter of statutory interpretation, conviction of threatening another person under 18 u. s. c. 875(c) requires proof ofthe defendant's subjective intent to threaten.""","Di parties dey direct to brief and argue di following question:""whether, as a matter of statutory interpretation, conviction of threatening one person under 18 u. s. c. 875(c) require proof of di defendant's subjective intent to threaten",Government
"given the court's instruction, not surprisingly the court's opinion, authored by chief justice roberts,""side -stepped"" the first amendment issue.","Di court's instruction, no surprisingly di court's opinion, chief justice roberts,""side stepped"" First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) issue.",Government
"it held that as a matter of statutory interpretation, the instructions to the jury at trial that guilt could be predicated on a""reasonable person""standard merited reversal.","As a matter of statutory interpretation, di instructions to di jury for trial say guilt go predicated on a""person wey get sense, wey fit reason like person wey sabi, wey go tok say wetin normal person go think or do for dat kind situation""standard merit reversal.",Government
"the court added:"" given our disposition, it is not necessary to consider any first amendment issues.",Di court tok say we no need to consider any First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) issues.,Government
"""however, many commentators believe that the constitutional contours of true threats first amendment doctrine will be returning to the court in the near future.",Di commentators believe say di constitutional contour of true threats First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) doctrine go return to di court for di near future.,Government
"consider how the opinions valo rize - - - or not- - -the military, as well as whether how the opinions construe ""content""and ""categories""in this context.","Dem consider how di opinions valo rize - - or no - - di military, as well as how di opinions construct""content"" and""categories"" for dis context.",Government
"robson the first amendment 103 schacht v. united states 398 u. s. 58(1970) black, j.","Robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 103 schacht v. united states 398 u. s. 58(1970) black, j.",Government
delivered the opinion ofthe court.,Di opiniono n of di court.,Government
"harlan, j, filed a concurring opinion in which the chief justice and stewart, j.","Di chief justice and stewart, j, filed a concurring opinion wey di chief justice and stewart, j.",Government
"the petitioner, daniel jay schacht, was indicted in a united states district court for violating 18 u. s. c.","Di petitioner, daniel jay schacht, dey arrest for united states district court for violating 18 u. s. c.",Government
of any ofthe armed forces ofthe united states.,Di armed forces of di united state.,Government
"he was tried and convicted by a jury, and on february 29, 1968, he was sentenced to pay a fine of$250 and to serve a six-month prison term, the maximum sentence allowable under 18 u. s. c.",Di maximum sentence wey dey allow under 18 u. s. c.,Government
there is no doubt that schacht did wear distinctive parts ofthe uniform ofthe united states army and that he was not a member ofthe armed forces.,Di without question say schacht don wear distinctive parts of di uniform of di united states army and say he no dey member of di armed forces.,Government
"he has defended his conduct since the beginning, however, on the ground that he was authorized to wear the uniform by an act of congress,10 u. s. c.","Di ground wey hin dey authorized to wear di uniform by act of congress,10 u. s. c.",Government
"""(f)while portraying a member ofthe army, navy, air force, or marine corps, an actor in a theatrical or motion-picture production may wear the uniform of that armed force if the portrayal does not tend to discredit that armed force.""","Di member of di army, navy, air force, or marine corps, an actor for di diatrical or motion-picture production go wear uniform of dat armed force if di portrayal no fit discredit say armed force.",Government
"schacht argued in the trial court and in this court that he wore the army uniform as an""actor"" in a""theatrical production""performed several times between 6:30 and 8:30 a. m. on december 4, 1967, in front ofthe armed forces induction center at houston, texas.","Di trial court and for dis court say hin wore di army uniform as an""actor"" for di""theatrical production""perform several times between 6:30 and 8:30 a. m. for december 4, 1967, for front of di armed forces induction center for houston, texas.",Government
"the street skit in which sc hacht wore the army uniform as a costume was designed, in his view, to expose the evil ofthe american presence in vietnam and was part of a larger, peaceful antiwar demonstration at the induction center that morning.","Di street skit wey sc hacht wore di army uniform as costume dey design, for hin view, to expose di evil of di american presence for vietnam and na part of larger, peaceful antiwar demonstration for di induction center dat morning.",Government
"the court of appeals' opinion affirming the conviction summarized the facts surrounding the skit as follows:""the evidence indicates that the demonstration in houston was part of a nationally coordinated movement which was to take place contemporaneously at several places throughout the country.",Di evidence affirm say di demonstration for houston na part of nationally coordinated movement wey dey take place for several place throughout di country.,Government
the appellants and their colleagues prepared a script to be followed at the induction center and they actually rehearsed their roles atleast once prior to the appointed day before a student organization called the `humanists.',Di appellants and dia colleagues prepared script to follow di induction center and dem actually rehears dia role atleast once prior to di appointed day before student organization call di `humanists.',Government
"""the skit was composed of three people.",Di skit dey composed of three pipo,Government
there was schacht who was dressed in a uniform and cap.,Di schacht wey dey dress for uniform and cap,Government
a second person was wearing`military colored' coveralls.,Di second person dey wear`military colored' coveralls,Government
the third person was outfitted in typical viet cong apparel.,Di third person dey outfit for typical viet cong apparel.,Government
the first two men carried water pistols.,Di first two men carried water pistols.,Government
"one of them would yell,`be an able american,'and then they would shoot the viet cong with their pistols.","One of dem go yell,`be able american,'and then dem go shoot di viet cong wit dia pistols.",Government
"the pistols expelled a red liquid which, when it struck the victim, created the impression that he was bleeding.","Di pistols expelle red liquid wey, wen dem struck di victim, create di impression say he dey bleeding.",Government
"once the victim fell down the other two would walk upto him and exclaim, `my god, this is a pregnant woman.'","Di victim fall down di oda two go walk upto him and exclaim, `my god, dis na pregnant woman.",Government
"without noticeable variation this skit was reenacted several times during the morning ofthe demonstration.""",Di skit don reenacted several times for di morning of di demonstration,Government
our previous cases would seem to make it clear that 18 u. s. c.,Di previous cases go seem to make am clear say 18 u. s. c.,Government
"see, e. g, united states v. o'brien(1968).","See, e. g, united states v. o'brien(1968).",Government
but the general prohibition of 18 u. s. c.,But di general prohibition of 18 u. s. c.,Government
"the government's argument in this case seems to imply that somehow what these amateur actors did in houston should not be treated as a""theatrical production""within the meaning of 772(f).","Di goment argument for dis case seem to imply say somehow wey these amateur actors don dey for houston no be dem take am as di""theatrical production"" wey dey within di meaning of 772(f).",Government
we are unable to follow such a suggestion.,We dey unable to follow such suggestion.,Government
certainly theatrical productions need not always be performed in buildings or even on a defined area such as a conventional stage.,Diatrical production need no always perform for buildings or even on defined area such as conventional stage.,Government
nor need they be performed by professional actors or be heavily financed or robson the first amendment 104 elaborately produced.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 104 elaborately produced.,Government
"since time immemorial, outdoor theatrical performances, often performed by amateurs, have played an important part in the entertainment and the education ofthe people ofthe world.","Di time immemorial, outdoor diatrical performances, often perform by amateurs, don play important part for di entertainment and di education of di pipo of di world.",Government
"here, the record shows without dispute the preparation and repeated presentation by amateur actors of a short play designed to create in the audience an understanding of and opposition to our participation in the vietnam war.",Di record show without dispute di preparation and repeat presentation by amateur actors of short play wey dey create for di audience an understanding of and opposition to awa participation for di vietnam war.,Government
"it maybe that the performances were crude and amateurish and perhaps unappealing, but the same thing can be said about many theatrical performances.","Di same thing go be say di performances dey crude and amateurish and perhaps unappealing, but di same thing go tok about many diatrical performances.",Government
we cannot believe that when congress wrote out a special exception for theatrical productions it intended to protect only a narrow and limited category of professionally produced plays.,We no believe say when Congress write out special exception for diatrical production wey dey suppose protect only a narrow and limited category of professionally produce plays.,Government
"ofcourse, we need not decide here all the questions concerning what is and what is not within the scope of 772(f).",We need no decide here all di questions wey dey concerning what dey and what dey no within di scope of 772(f).,Government
this brings us to petitioner's complaint that giving force and effect to the last clause of 772(f)would impose an unconstitutional restraint on his right of free speech.,Di bring us to petitioner's complaint say give force and effect to di last clause of 772(f)go impose unconstitutional restraint on hin right of free speech.,Government
"this clause on its face simply restricts 772(f)'s authorization to those dramatic portrayals that do not""tend to discredit""the military, but, when this restriction is read together with 18 u. s. c.","Di clause on its face simply restrict 772(f) authorization to dis dramatic portrayals wey no dey discredit di military, but, wen dis restriction dey read together wit 18 u. s. c.",Government
"an actor, like everyone else in our country, enjoys a constitutional right to freedom of speech, including the right openly to criticize the government during a dramatic performance.","Di actor, like all else for our kontri, enjoy constitutional right to freedom of speech, including di right openly to criticize di goment for dramatic performance.",Government
the last clause of 772(f) denies this constitutional right to an actor who is wearing a military uniform by making it a crime for him to say things that tend to bring the military into discredit and disrepute.,Di last clause of 772(f) denies dis constitutional right to an actor wey dey wear military uniform by make am crime for him to say things wey dey bring di military into discredit and disrepute.,Government
"in the present case schacht was free to participate in any skit at the demonstration that praised the army, but under the final clause of 772(f) he could be convicted of a federal offense if his portrayal attacked the army instead of praising it.","Di present case schacht dey free to participate for any skit for di demonstration wey dey praised di army, but under di final clause of 772(f) hin go be convicted of federal offense if hin portrayal attack di army forstead of praising am.",Government
"in light of our earlier finding that the skit in which schacht participated was a""theatrical production""within the meaning of 772(f), it follows that his conviction can be sustained only if he can be punished for speaking out against the role of our army and our country in vietnam.","Di earlier finding say di skit wey schacht participate na di""theatrical production"" wey dey within di meaning of 772(f), e follow say hin conviction go dey sustained only if hin go punished for speaking out against di role of awa army and our kontri for vietnam.",Government
clearly punishment for this reason would bean unconstitutional abridgment of freedom of speech.,Di reason go be unconstitutional abridgment of freedom of speech.,Government
"the final clause of 772(f), which leaves americans free to praise the war in vietnam but can send persons like schacht to prison for opposing it, cannot survive in a country which has the first amendment.","Di final clause of 772(f), wey dey leave americans free to praise di war for vietnam but dem send person like schacht to prison for opposing am, no survive for a kontri wey don get First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).",Government
c oncurring opinions[omitted ].,Di opinions[omitted ].,Government
"united states v. alvarez 567 u. s. 709 (2012)kennedy, j, announced the judgment ofthe court and delivered an opinion, in which roberts, c. j, and ginsburg and sotomayor, jj,","Dem announce di judgment of di court and deliver opinion, wey roberts, c. j, and ginsburg and sotomayor, jj.",Government
"breyer, j, filed an opinion con curring in the judgment, in which kagan, j, joined.","Di breyer, j, filed opinion concurring for di judgment, wey kagan, j. join.",Government
"alito, j, filed a dissenting opinion, in which scalia and thomas, jj,","Di alito, j, filed dissenting opinion, wey scalia and thomas, jj, filed dissenting opinion, wey scalia and thomas, jj, filed dissenting opinion, wey scalia and thomas, jj, filed dissenting opinion, wey scalia and thomas, jj, filed dissenting opinion, wey scalia and thomas, jj.",Government
"justice kennedy announced the judgment ofthe court and delivered an opinion, in which the chief justice, justice ginsburg, and justice sotomayor join.","Di chief justice, justice Ginsburg, and justice sotomayor join.",Government
lying was his habit.,Dem lying na hin habit,Government
"xavier alvarez, the respondent here, lied when he said that he played hockey for the detroit red wings and that he once married a starlet from mexico.","Shevier alvarez, di respondent here, tok say hin play hockey for di detroit red wings and say hin once married starlet from mexico",Government
"but when he lied in announcing he held the congressional medal of honor, respondent ventured onto new ground; for that lie violates a federal criminal statute, the stolen valor act of 2005.","But wen he lied for announcing hin hold di congressional medal of honor, respondent venture onto new ground; for dat lie violate federal criminal statute, di stolen valor act of 2005.",Government
"in 2007, respondent attended his first public meeting as a board member ofthe three valley water district board.",Di respondent attend hin first public meeting as a board member of di three valley water district board.,Government
"the board is a governmental entity with headquarters in claremont, california.","Di board dey governmental entity wit headquarters for claremont, california.",Government
"he introduced himself as follows:""i'm a retired marine of 25 years.",I dey retired marine of 25 years,Government
"back in robson the first amendment, i was awarded the congressional medal of honor.",I don award di congressional medal of honor.,Government
none of this was true.,Na none of dis na true,Government
"for all the record shows, respondent's statements were but a pathetic attempt to gain respect that eluded him.","For all di record show, respondent's statements dey but a pathetic attempt to gain respect wey dey eluded him",Government
the statements do not seem to have been made to secure employment or financial benefits or admission to privileges reserved for those who had earned the medal.,Di statement no dey make to secure employment or financial benefits or admission to privileges wey dem don earned di medal.,Government
respondent was indicted under the stolen valor act for lying about the congressional medal of honor at the meeting.,Di respondent dey indicted under di stolen valor act for lying about di congressional medal of honor for di meeting.,Government
the united states district court for the central district of california rejected his claim that the statute is invalid under the first amendment.,Di United states district court for di central district of california reject hin claim say di statute dey invalid under di firstamendment.,Government
"respondent pleaded guilty to one count, reserving the right to appeal on his first amendment claim.","Di respondent pleaded guilty to one count, reserving di right to appeal on hin First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) claim.",Government
"the united states court of appeals for the ninth circuit, in a decision by a divided panel, found the act invalid under the first amendment and reversed the conviction.","Di united states kot of appeals for di ninth circuit, for a decision by a divided panel, found di act invalid under First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) and reversed di conviction.",Government
"with further opinions on the issue, and over a dissent by seven judges, rehearing en banc was denied.","Di issue, and over a dissent by seven judges, rehearing en banc denied.",Government
this court granted c ertiorari.,Di court grant c ertiorari,Government
"after certiorari was granted, and in an unrelated case, the united states court of appeals for the tenth circuit, also in a decision by a divided panel, found the act constitutional.","Di united states court of appeal for di tenth circuit, also for decision by divided panel, found di act constitutional.",Government
"united states v. strandlof,667 f.3d 1146 (2012).","Di united state v. strandlof,667 f.3d 1146 (2012)",Government
so there is now a conflict in the courts of appeals on the question ofthe act's validity.,E now conflict for di court of appeal on di question of di act validity.,Government
"this is the second case in two terms requiring the court to consider speech that can disparage, or attempt to steal, honor that belongs to those who fought for this nation in battle.","Di second case for two terms wey dey require di court to consider speech wey dey disparage, or attempt to tiff, honor wey belongs to those wey fought for dis nation for battle.",Government
see snyder v. phelps(2011) (hateful protests directed at the funeral of a serviceman who died in iraq).,Dem see snyder v. phelps(2011) (hateful protests wey dey direct for di funeral of serviceman wey die for iraq).,Government
"here the statement that the speaker held the medal was an intended, undoubted lie.","Di statement say di speaker hold di medal na intended, undoubted lie.",Government
"it is right and proper that congress, over a century ago, e stablished an award so the nation can hold in its highest respect and esteem those who, in the course of carrying out the""supreme and noble duty of contributing to the defense ofthe rights and honor ofthe nation,""have acted with extraordinary honor.","Di congress, over a century ago, e stablished an award so di nation fit hold in its highest respect and esteem those wey, for di course of carry out di""supreme and noble duty of contributing to di defense of di rights and honor of di nation, don carry out di""supreme and noble duty of contributing to di defense of di rights and honor of di nation, don act wit extraordinary honor.",Government
"and it should be uncontested that this is a legitimate government objective, indeed a most valued national aspiration and purpose.","Di go be legitimate goment objective, indeed a most valued national aspiration and purpose.",Government
"this does not end the inquiry, however.","Dem no end di inquiry, however.",Government
fundamental constitutional principles require that laws enacted to honor the brave must be consistent with the precepts ofthe constitution for which they fought.,Di fundamental constitutional principles require say laws enacted to honor di brave must be consistent wit di precepts of di constitution for which dem fought.,Government
the government contends the criminal prohibition is a proper means to further its purpose in creating and awarding the medal.,Di goment contend di criminal prohibition na proper means to further its purpose for creating and award di medal.,Government
"when content-based speech regulation is in question, h owever, exacting scrutiny is required.","Na when content-based speech regulation dey for question, h owever, exacting scrutiny dey required.",Government
statutes suppressing or restricting speech must be judged by the sometimes inconvenient principles ofthe first amendment.,Di sometimes inconvenient principles of di firstamendment must be di sometimes inconvenient principles of di firstamendment.,Government
"by this measure, the statutory provisions under which respondent was convicted must be held invalid, and his conviction must beset aside.","Di statutory provision under which respondent dey convicted must be valid, and hin conviction must set aside.",Government
there is no room to argue about interpretation or shades of meaning.,There nano room to argue about interpretation or shades of meaning.,Government
"those statutory provisions areas follows:""(b) false claims about receipt of military decorations or medals.--whoever falsely represents himself or herself, verbally or in writing, to have been awarded any decoration or medal authorized by congress for the armed forces ofthe united states.","Di statutory provisions dey as follow:""(b) false claim about receipt of military decoration or medals.--whoever falsely represent himself or herself, verbally or in writing, to get any decoration or medal wey dem dey authorized by congress for di armed forces of di united state.",Government
"shall be fined under this title, imprisoned not more than six months, or both.","For dis title, imprison no more than six months, or both.",Government
"""(c)enhanced penalty for offenses involving congressional medal of honor.",(c)enhanced penalty for offenses involving congressional medal of honor.,Government
"respondent challenges the statute as a content-based suppression of pure speech, speech not falling within any ofthe few categories of expression where contentbased regulation is permissible.","Di respondent challenges di statute as content based suppression of pure speech, speech no fall within any of di few categories of expression wey contentbased regulation dey permissible.",Government
"t he government defends the statute as necessary to preserve the integrity and purpose ofthe medal, an integrity and purpose it contends are compromised and frustrated by the false statements the statute prohibits.","Di goment defend di statute as necessary to preserve di integrity and purpose of di medal, an integrity and purpose wey dey compromise and frustrated by di false statements di statute prohibit.",Government
"it argues that false statements""have no first amendment value in themselves,""and thus robson the first amendment 106""are protected only to the extent needed to avoid chilling fully protected speech.""",E argues say false statements no dey protected only to di extent wey dey need to avoid chilling fully protected speech,Government
"although the statute covers respondent's speech, the government argues that it leaves breathing room for protected speech, for example speech which might criticize the idea ofthe medal or the importance ofthe military.","Di statute covers respondent's speech, di goment argues say e dey breath room for protected speech, for example speech wey dey criticize di idea of di medal or di importance of di military.",Government
the government's arguments cannot suffice to save the statute.,Di goment's argument no fit suffice to save di statute,Government
ashcroft v. american civil liberties union(2002).,Ashcroft v. american Di basic freedoms and rights wey law protect every person from government interference union(2002).,Government
"as a result, the constitution"" demands that content-based restrictions on speech be presumed invalid.","Di constitution"" demand say content-based restrictions on speech be invalid",Government
"and that the government bear the burden of showing their constitutionality.""",Di goment bear di burden of show dia constitutionity and say di government bear di burden of show dia constitutionity,Government
ashcroft v. american civil liberties union(2004).,Ashcroft v. american Di basic freedoms and rights wey law protect every person from government interference union(2004).,Government
"in light ofthe substantial and expansive threats to free expression posed by content-based restrictions, this court has rejected as""startling and dangerous""a ""free-floating test for first amendment coverage.","Di court don reject as""startling and dangerous""a ""free floating test for First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) coverage.",Government
"[based on]an ad hoc balancing of relative social costs and benefits.""","[based on]an ad hoc balancing of relative social costs and benefits.""",Government
united states v. stevens (2010).,Di united state v. stevens (2010),Government
"instead, content -based restrictions on speech have been permitted, as a general matter, only when confined to the few"" 'historic and traditional categories[of expression]long familiar to the bar.'","Di content-based restrictions on speech don dey permitted, as general matter, only when confined to di few"" 'historic and traditional categories[of expression]long familiar to di bar.",Government
"of pharmacy v. virginia citizens consumer council, inc, (1976); true threats, see watts v. united states(1969) (per curiam); and speech presenting some grave andi mminent threat the government has the power to prevent, see near v. minnesota ex rel.","Di true threat, see watts v. virginia citizens consumer council, inc, (1976); true threat, see watts v. united states(1969) (per curiam); and speech present some grave andi mminent threat wey dem don prevent, see near v. minnesota ex rel.",Government
"olson(1931), although a restriction under the last category is most difficult to sustain, see new york times co. v. united states(1971) (per curiam).","Di restriction under di last category dey difficult to sustain, see new york times co. v. united states(1971) (per curiam).",Government
these categories have a historical foundation in the court's free speech tradition.,Di category have historical foundation for di court's free speech tradition.,Government
"the vast realm of free speech and thought always protected in our tradition can still thrive, and even be furthered, by adherence to those categories and rules.","Di vast realm of free speech and thought always protected for awa tradition fit still thrive, and even be further, by adherence to di categories and rules.",Government
absent from those few categories where the law allows content-based regulation of speech is any general exception to the first amendment for false statements.,Di law don allow content-based regulation of speech na general exception to First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) for false statements.,Government
"this comports with the common understanding that some false statements are inevitable if there is to bean open and vigorous expression of views in public and private conversation, expression the first amendment seeks to guarantee.","Dis behavior wit di common understanding say some false statements dey inevitable if e dey open and vigorous expression of views for public and private conversation, expression First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) seeks to guarantee.",Government
"see sullivan v. new york times(""th[e] erroneous statement is inevitable in free debate"").",Di erroneous statement dey inevitable for free debate,Government
the government disagrees with this proposition.,Di goment disagree wit dis proposition.,Government
it cites language from some of this court's precedents to support its contention that false statements have no value and hence no first amendment protection.,E cite language from some of dis court's precedents to support im contention say false statement no value and hence no First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) protection.,Government
"these isolated statements in some earlier decisions do not support the government's submission that false statements, as a general rule, are beyond constitutional protection.","Di isolated statements for some earlier decision no support di goment's submission say false statements, as general rule, dey beyond constitutional protection.",Government
that conclusion would take the quoted language far from its proper context.,Di conclusion go take di quoted language far from its proper context.,Government
"see also, e. g,",E. g.,Government
"these quotations all derive from cases discussing defamation, fraud, or some other legally cognizable harm associated with a false statement, such as an invasion of privacy or the costs of vexatious litigation.","Di quotations all derive from case wey defamation, fraud, or some oda legally cognizable harm wey dey associated wit false statement, such as invasion of privacy or di cost of vexatious litigation.",Government
"in those decisions the falsity ofthe speech at issue was not irrelevant to ou r analysis, but neither was it determinative.","Di falsity of di speech for issue no dey irrelevant to ou r analysis, but e no dey determinative.",Government
the court has never endorsed the categorical rule the government robson the first amendment 107 advances: that false statements receive no first amendment protection.,Di court no endorse di categorical rule di goment robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 107 advances: say false statements receive no First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) protection.,Government
"our prior decisions have not confronted a measure, like the stolen valor act, that targets falsity and nothing more.","Di prior decision no confront measure, like di stolen valor act, wey targets falsity and nothing more.",Government
"even when considering some instances of defamation and fraud, moreover, the court has been careful to instruct that falsity alone may not suffice to bring the speech outside the first amendment.",Di court don careful to instruct say fakeity no fit suffice to bring di speech outside di firstamendment.,Government
the statement must be a knowing or reckless falsehood.,Di statement must know or reckless falsehood.,Government
the government thus seeks to use this principle for anew purpose.,Di goment don seeks to use dis principle for new purpose,Government
"it seeks to convert a rule that limits liability even in defamation cases where the law permits recovery for tortious wrongs into a rule that expands liability in a different, far greater realm of discourse and expression.",E seeks to convert rule wey limit liability even for defamation cases wey di law allow recovery for tortious wrongs into rule wey expand liability for different realm of discourse and expression.,Government
that inverts the rationale for the exception.,Dem invert di rationale for di exception,Government
"the requirements of a knowing falsehood or reckless disregard for the truth as the condition for recovery in certain defamation cases exists to allow more speech, not less.","Di requirements of a knowing falsehood or reckless disregard for di truth as di condition for recovery for certain defamation cases exists to allow more talk, no less.",Government
a rule designed to tolerate certain speech ought not blossom to become a rationale for a rule restricting it.,Di rule wey dey designed to tolerate certain speech no dey blossom to become rationale for rule restricting am.,Government
"the government then gives three examples of regulations on false speech that courts generally have found permissible: first, the criminal prohibition of a false statement made to a government official,18 u. s. c. 1001; second, laws punishing perjury; and third, prohibitions on the false representation that one is speaking as a government official or on behalf ofthe government, see, e. g, 912; 709.","Di goment don give three examples of regulations on false statement wey one dey speaking as a government official or on behalf of di government, see, e. g, 912; 709.",Government
"these restrictions, however, do not establish a principle that all proscriptions of false statements are exempt from exacting first amendment scrutiny.",Di restrictions no establish principle say all proscriptions of false statements dey exempt from exacting First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) scrutiny.,Government
"the federal statute prohibiting false statements to government officials punishes ""whoever, in any matter within the jurisdiction ofthe executive, legislative, or judicial branch ofthe government.","Di federal statute prohibiting false statements to goment officials punishes ""whoever, for any matter wey dey inside di jurisdiction of di executive, legislative, or judicial branch of di goment.",Government
"makes any materially false, fictitious, or fraudulent statement or representation.""","Makes any materially false, fictitious, or fraudulent statement or representation.""",Government
"the same point can be made about what the court has confirmed is the ""unquestioned constitutionality of perjury statutes,""both the federal statute, 1623, and its state-law equivalents.","Di same point go made about what di court don confirm na di ""unquestioned constitutionality of perjury statutes,""both di federal statute, 1623, and its state-law equivalents.",Government
it is not simply because perjured statements are false that they lack first amendment protection.,E no be simply because perjured statements dey true say dem lack First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) protection.,Government
"perjured testimony""is at war with justice""because it can cause a court to render a""judgment not resting on truth.",Dem don cause court to render judgment no rest on truth,Government
perjury undermines the function and province ofthe law and threatens the integrity of judgments that are the basis ofthe legal system.,Di perjury undermine di function and province of di law and threaten di integrity of judgments wey dey di basis of di legal system.,Government
"unlike speech in other contexts, testimony under oath has the formality and gravity necessary to remind the witness that his or her statements will be the basis for official governmental action, action that often affects the rights and liberties of others. sworn testimony is quite distinct from lies not spoken under oath and simply intended to puff up oneself.","Di testimony under oath don get formality and gravity necessary to remind di witness say hin or her statements go be di basis for official governmental action, action wey dey affect di rights and liberties of oda s.",Government
"statutes that prohibit falsely representing that one is speaking on behalf ofthe government, or that prohibit impersonating a government officer, also protect the integrity of government processes, quite apart from merely restricting false speech.","Di statutes wey prohibit falsely represent say one dey speak on behalf of di government, or say prohibit impersonating a government officer, also protect di integrity of government process, quite apart from merely restrict false speech.",Government
"title 18 u. s. c. 912, for example, prohibits impersonating an officer or employee ofthe united states.","Title 18 u. s. c. 912, for example, prohibits impersonating an officer or employee of di united states.",Government
"even if that statute may not require proving an""actual financial or property loss""resulting from the deception, the statute is itself confined to""maintain[ing] the general good repute and dignity of.","Di statute no require proving financial or property loss result from di deception, di statute no dey confined to""maintain[ing] di general good repute and dignity of.",Government
"the same can be said for prohibitions on the unauthorized use ofthe names of federal agencies such as the federal bureau of investigation in a manner calculated to convey that the communication is approved, see 709, or using words such as""federal"" or""united states""in the collection of private debts in order to convey that the communication has official authorization.","Di same can be say for prohibitions on di unauthorized use of di name of federal agencies such as di federal bureau of investigation, see 709, or using words such as""federal"" or""united states""for di collection of private debts for order to convey say di communication don official authorization",Government
"these examples, to the extent that they implicate fraud or speech integral to criminal conduct, are inapplicable here.","Di examples, to di extent wey dem implica fraud or speech integral to criminal conduct, dey inapplicable here.",Government
"as our law and tradition show, then, there are instances in which the falsity of speech bears upon whether it is protected.",Di instance wey di falsity of speech bear upon whether e dey protected,Government
some false speech maybe prohibited even if analogous true speech could not be.,Dem prohibite some false speech even if analogous true speech no be.,Government
this opinion does not imply that any of these targeted prohibitions are somehow vulnerable.,Di opinion no suppose imply say any of dis target prohibitions dey vulnerable.,Government
but it also rejects the notion that false speech should bein a general category that is presumptively unprotected.,Di notion say false speech go be general category wey dey presumptively unprotected.,Government
"robson the first amendment 108 although the first amendment stands against any ""freewheeling authority to declare new categories of speech outside the scope ofthe first amendment,""stevens, the court has acknowledged that perhaps there exist""some categories of speech that have been historically unprotected.","Di court don acknow say First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) stands against any ""freewheeling authority to declare new categories of speech outside di scope of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo)"" stevens, di court don acknow say perhaps there exist""some categories of speech wey dey historically unprotected.",Government
but have not yet been specifically identified or discussed.,Dem no dey specifically identified or discussed.,Government
"in our case law.""",Di case law.,Government
"before exempting a category of speech from the normal prohibition on content-based restrictions, however, the court must be presented with""persuasive evidence that a novel restriction on content is part of along (if heretofore unrecognized) tradition of proscription,"" brown v. entertainment merchants assn.","Di court must present wit""persuasive evidence say a novel restriction on content dey part of long(if heretofore unrecognized) tradition of proscription,"" brown v. entertainment merchants assn.",Government
the government has not demonstrated that false statements generally should constitute anew category of unprotected speech on this basis.,Di goment no demonstrate say false statements generally go constitute new category of unprotected speech on dis basis.,Government
"the act by its plain terms applies to a false statement made at anytime, in any place, to any person.","Di act by its plain terms applies to false statement wey dey made for anytime, for any place, to any person.",Government
"it can be assumed that it would not apply to, say, a theatrical performance.","Di Atrical performance no dey apply to, say, atrical performance.",Government
"still, the sweeping, quite unprecedented reach ofthe statute puts it in conflict with the first amendment.","Di sweeping, quite unprecedented reach of di statute put amin conflict wit First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).",Government
"here the lie was made in a public meeting, but the statute would apply with equal force to personal, whispered conversations within a home.","Di lie dey made for public meeting, but di statute go apply wit equal force to personal, whisper conversations wey dey inside house.",Government
the statute seeks to control and suppress all false statements on this one subject in almost limitless times and settings.,Di statute seeks to control and suppress all false statements on dis one subject for almost limitless times and settings.,Government
and it does so entirely without regard to whether the lie was made for the purpose of material gain.,Di lie dey made for di purpose of material gain.,Government
"permitting the government to decree this speech to be a criminal offense, whether shouted from the rooftops or made in a barely audible whisper, would endorse government authority to compile a list of subjects about which false statements are punishable.","Dem endorse di goment to decree dis speech to be criminal offense, whether shout from di rooftops or make in barely audible whisper, go endorse goment authority to compile list of subject wey false statements dey punishable.",Government
that governmental power has no clear limiting principle.,Di governmental power no clear limit principle.,Government
our constitutional tradition stands against the idea that we need oceania's ministry of truth.,Di constitutional tradition stands against di idea say we need oceania ministry of truth.,Government
"see g. orwell, nineteen eighty-four (1949)(centennial ed.","Dem see g. orwell, nineteen eighty-four (1949)(centennial ed.",Government
"were this law to be sustained, there could bean endless list of subjects the national government or the states could single out.","Di law go dey sustained, na endless list of subjects di national government or di states go single out.",Government
"where false claims are made to effect a fraud or secure moneys or other valuable considerations, say offers of employment, it is well established that the government may restrict speech without affronting the first amendment.",E dey well establish say di goment go restrict speech without affronting di first amendment.,Government
"see, e. g, virginia bd.","See, e. g, virginia bd.",Government
of pharmacy(noting that fraudulent speech generally falls outside the protections ofthe first amendment).,But fraudulent speech generally fall outside di protection of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo)).,Government
but the stolen valor act is not so limited in its reach.,Di stolen valor act no dey limited for its reach but di stolen valor act no dey limited for its reach,Government
"were the court to hold that the interest in truthful discourse alone is sufficient to sustain a ban on speech, absent any evidence that the speech was used to gain a material advantage, it would give government abroad censorial power unprecedented in this court's cases or in our constitutional tradition.","Di court to hold say di interest for truthful discourse alone dey sufficient to sustain ban on speech, absent any evidence say di speech dey use to gain material advantage, e go give goment abroad censorial power unprecedented for dis court's cases or for awa constitutional tradition.",Government
"the mere potential for the exercise of that power casts a chill, a chill the first amendment cannot permit if free speech, thought, and discourse are to remain a foundation of our freedom.","Di mere potential for di exercise of dat power cast a chill, a chill di firstamendment no allow if free speech, thought, and discourse dey remain foundation of awa freedom.",Government
"but even when examined within its own narrow sphere of operation, the act cannot survive.","Di act no survive but even when examined inside its own narrow sphere of operation, di act no survive.",Government
"in assessing content-based restrictions on protected speech, the court has not adopted a free-wheeling approach, but rather has applied the""most exacting scrutiny.""","Di court no adopt free-wheeling approach, but rather don apply di""most exacting scrutiny""",Government
"although the objectives the government seeks to further by the statute are not without significance, the court must, and now does, find the act does not satisfy exacting scrutiny.","Di objectives di goment seeks to further by di statute no be without significance, di court must, and now does, find di act no satisfy exacting scrutiny.",Government
"the government is correct when it states military medals""serve the important public function of recognizing and expressing gratitude for acts of heroism and sacrifice in military service,""and also"" 'foste[r] morale, mission accomplishment and esprit de corps' among service members.""","Di goment dey correct wen dem state military medals""serve di important public function of recognizing and expressing gratitude for acts of heroism and sacrifice for military service,""and also"" 'foste[r] morale, mission accomplishment and esprit decorps' among service members",Government
"general george washington observed that an award for valor would""cherish a virtuous ambition in.","Di general george washington observe say award for valor go""cherish a virtuous ambition for.",Government
"soldiers, as well as foster and encourage every species of military merit.""","Soldiers, as well as foster and encourage every species of military merit.""",Government
time has not diminished this idea.,Di idea no dey diminished dis idea.,Government
in periods of war and peace alike public recognition of valor and noble sacrifice by men and women in uniform reinforces the pride and national resolve that the military relies upon to fulfill its mission.,For periods of war and peace alike everybody recognition of valor and noble sacrifice by men and women for uniform reinforces di pride and national resolve say di military relies upon to fulfill im mission.,Government
"robson the first amendment 109 these interests are related to the integrity ofthe military honors system in general, and the congressional medal of honor in particular.","Dem dey related to di integrity of di military honor system for general, and di congressional medal of honor for particular.",Government
"although millions have served with brave resolve, the medal, which is the highest military award for valor against an enemy force, has been given just 3, 476 times.","Di medal, wey dey di highest military award for valor against enemy force, don give just 3, 476 times.",Government
"established in 1861, the medal is reserved for those who have distinguished themselves ""conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty.""","Di medal dey reserved for those wey dey distinguished themselves ""conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity for di risk of hin life above and beyond di call of duty""",Government
but to recite the government's compelling interests is not to end the matter.,But to recite di goment's compelling interest no end di matter.,Government
"the first amendment requires that the government's chosen restriction on the speech at issue be""actually necessary""to achieve its interest.","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) require say di goment's chosen restriction on di speech for issue be""actually necessary""to achieve its interest.",Government
there must be a direct causal link between the restriction imposed an d the injury to be prevented.,E must be direct causal link between di restriction wey dey impose an d di injury to prevent.,Government
the link between the government's interest in protecting the integrity ofthe military honors system and the act's restriction on the false claims of liars like respondent has not been shown.,Di link between di goment interest for protect di integrity of di military honors system and di act's restriction on di false claims of liars like respondent no show.,Government
"although appearing to concede that""an isolated misrepresentation by itself would not tarnish the meaning of military honors,""the government asserts it is""common sense that false representations have the tendency to dilute the value and meaning of military awards.""","Di goment assert say""an isolated misrepresentation by imself no dey tarnish di meaning of military honors,""di goment assert say false representation no dey tarnish di value and meaning of military honors.",Government
"it must be acknowledged that when a pretender claims the medal to be his own, the lie might harm the government by demeaning the high purpose ofthe award, diminishing the honor it confirms, and creating the appearance that the medal is awarded more often than is true.","Di lie go harm di goment by demeaning di high purpose of di award, di lie go harm di goment by demeaning di high purpose of di award, di lie go harm di goment by demeaning di high purpose of di award, di lie go harm di goment by demeaning di high purpose of di award, di lie go harm di goment by demeaning di high purpose of di award, di lie go harm di goment by demeaning di high purpose of di award, di lie go harm di goment by demeaning di",Government
"furthermore, the lie may offend the true holders ofthe medal.",Di lie go offend di true holders of di medal.,Government
from one perspective it insults their bravery and high principles when falsehood puts them in the unworthy company of a pretender.,Dem insult dia bravery and high principles wen falsehood put dem for di unworthy company of a pretender.,Government
yet these interests do not satisfy the government's heavy burden when it seeks to regulate protected speech.,Dem no satisfy di goment's heavy burden wen dem seeks to regulate protected speech.,Government
the government points to no evidence to support its claim that the public's general perception of military awards is diluted by false claims such as those made by alvarez.,Di goment point to no evidence to support im claim say di public general perception of military awards dey diluted by false claims such as those make alvarez.,Government
"as one ofthe government's amici notes""there is nothing that charlatans such as xavier alvarez can do to stain[the medal winners']honor.""",As one of di goment's amici notes say nothing wey charlatans such as xavier alvarez don do to stain[the medal winners']honor,Government
brief for veterans of foreign wars ofthe united states et al.,Di brief for veterans of foreign wars of di united state and al.,Government
as amici curiae 1.,As amici curiae 1.,Government
"this general proposition is sound, even if true holders ofthe medal might experience anger and frustration.","Di general proposition dey sound, even if true holders of di medal go experience anger and frustration.",Government
the lack of a causal link between the government's stated interest and the act is not the only way in which the act is not actually necessary to achieve the government's stated interest.,Di lack of causal link between di goment state interest and di act no be di only way wey di act no fit achieve di government state interest.,Government
"the government has not shown, and cannot show, why counterspeech would not suffice to achieve its interest.","Di goment no show, and no show, why counterspeech no fit suffice to achieve its interest",Government
"the facts of this case indicate that the dynamics of free speech, of counterspeech, of refutation, can overcome the lie.","Di facts of dis case indicate say di dynamics of free speech, of counterspeech, of refutation, can overcome di lie.",Government
respondent lied at a public meeting.,Di respondent lied for public meeting.,Government
"even before the fbi began investigating him for his false statements""alvarez was perceived as a phony.""","Di fbi began investigating him for hin false statement""alvarez dey perceived as phony",Government
"once the lie was made public, he was ridiculed online, his actions were reported in the press, and a fellow board member called for his resignation.","E dey ridicul online, hin actions dey report for press, and fellow board member call for hin resignation.",Government
there is good reason to believe that a similar fate would befall other false claimants.,Di good reason to believ say a similar fate go fall oda false claimants.,Government
see brief for reporters committee for freedom ofthe press et al.,Dem see brief for reporters committee for freedom of di press and al.,Government
as amici curiae 30-33 (listing numerous examples of public exposure of false claimants).,As amici curiae 30-33 (listing numerous examples of everybody exposure of false claimants).,Government
"indeed, the outrage and contempt expressed for respondent's lies can serve to reawaken and reinforce the public's respect for the medal, its recipients, and its high purpose.","Indeed, di outrage and contempt expressed for di person wey dey answer di case' lies fit serve to reawaken and reinforce di everybody' respect for di medal, im recipients, and im high purpose.",Government
the acclaim that recipients ofthe congressional medal of honor receive also casts doubt on the proposition that the public will be misled by the claims of charlatans or become cynical of those whose heroic deeds earned them the medal by right.,Di acclaim say recipients of di congressional medal of honor receive also cast doubt on di proposition say di public go misled by di claim of charlatans or become cynical of those whose heroic deeds earned dem di medal by right.,Government
the remedy for speech that is false is speech that is true.,Di remedy for speech wey dey true na speech wey dey true na speech wey dey true,Government
this is the ordinary course in a free society.,Di ordinary course for free society.,Government
"the response to the unreaso ned is the rational; to the uninformed, the enlightened; to the straightout lie, the simple truth.","Di response to di unreaso ned na di rational; to di uninformed, di enlightened; to di straightout lie, di simple truth.",Government
"see whitney v. california(1927) (brandeis, j, concurring) (""if there be time to expose through discussion the falsehood and fallacies, to avert the evil by the processes of education, the remedy to be applied is more speech, not enforced silence"").","Di time to expose through discussion di falsehood and fallacies, to avert di evil by di process of education, di remedy to dey enforce silence"").",Government
"the theory of our constitution is""that the best test of truth is the power ofthe thought to get itself accepted in the competition ofthe market,""abrams v. united states(1919) (holmes, j, dissenting).","Di theory of awa constitution dey"" say di best test of truth na di power of di thought to get imself accepted for di competition of di market,""abrams v. united states(1919) (holmes, j, dissenting).",Government
"the first amendment itself ensures the right to respond to speech we do not like, and for good reason.","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) deyself ensure di right to respond to speech we no like, and for good reason.",Government
freedom of speech and thought flows not from the beneficence ofthe state but from the inalienable rights ofthe person.,Di freedom of speech and thought flow no from di beneficence of di state but from di Rights wey nobody fit take from you— dem belong to you by nature of being human of di person.,Government
"and suppression of speech by the government can make exposure of falsity more difficult, not less so.","Di goment don make exposure of falsity more difficult, no less so.",Government
"society has the right and civic duty to engage in open, dynamic, rational discourse.","Di society don dey right and civic duty to engage for open, dynamic, rational discourse.",Government
these ends are not well served when the government seeks to orchestrate public discussion through contentbased mandates.,Di ends no well serve when di goment seeks orchestrate public discussion through contentbased mandates.,Government
"robson the first amendment 110 expressing its concern that counterspeech is insufficient, the government responds that because""some military records have been lost.","Di goment respond say counterspeech dey insufficient, di goment respond say because some military record don lost.",Government
"some claims[are] un -verifiable.""",Di claim na un -verifiable,Government
"this proves little, however; for without verifiable records, successful criminal prosecution under the act would be more difficult in any event.","For without verifiable records, successful criminal prosecution under di act go be more difficult for any event.",Government
"so, in cases where public refutation will not serve the government's interest, the act will not either.","For case wey public refutation no serve di government interest, di act no either.",Government
"in addition, the government claims that""many [false claims]will remain unchallenged.""","Di government claim say""many [false claims]go remain unchallenged",Government
the government provides no support for the contention.,Di goment provide no support for di contention,Government
"and in any event, in order to show that public refutation is not an adequate alternative, the government must demonstrate that unchallen ged claims undermine the public's perception ofthe military and the integrity of its awards system.","Di goment must demonstrate say public refutation no dey adequate alternative, di goment must demonstrate say public refutation no dey adequate alternative, di goment must demonstrate say public refutation no dey adequate alternative, di goment must demonstrate say public refutation no dey adequate alternative, di goment must demonstrate say public refutation no dey adequate alternative.",Government
this showing has not been made.,Di showing no dey make,Government
"it is a fair assumption that any true holders ofthe medal who had heard of alvarez's false claims would have been fully vi ndicated by the community's expression of outrage, showing as it did the nation's high regard for the medal.","Di fair assumption say any true holders of di medal wey dey hear of alvarez's false claims go dey fully vi ndicated by di community's expression of outrage, show say im don do di nation's high regard for di medal.",Government
the same can be said for the government's interest.,Di same go tok for di goment interest.,Government
the american people do not need the assistance of a government prosecution to express their high regard for the special place that military heroes hold in our tradition.,Di american pipo no need di assistance of goment prosecution to express dia high regard for di special place wey military heroes hold for awa tradition.,Government
only a weak society needs government protection or intervention before it pursues its resolve to preserve the truth.,Di weak society need government protection or intervention before e pursues im resolve to preserve di truth.,Government
truth needs neither handcuffs nora badge for its vindication.,Di truth need neither handcuffs nor badge for dia vindication.,Government
"in addition, when the government seeks to regulate protected speech, the restriction must be the""least restrictive means among available, effective alternatives.""","Di goment seeks to regulate protected speech, di restriction must be di""least restrictive means wey dey available, effective alternatives.",Government
"there is, however, atleast one less speech-restrictive means by which the government could likely protect the integrity ofthe military awards system.",Di goment dey suppose protect di integrity of di military awards system.,Government
a government-created database could list congressional medal of honor winners.,Di goment -created database go list congressional medal of honor winners.,Government
"were a database accessible through the internet, it would be easy to verify and expose false claims.",E go easy to verify and expose false claims.,Government
"the solicitor general responds that although congress and the department of defense investigated the feasibility of establishing a database in 2008, the government""concluded that such a database would be impracticable and insufficiently comprehensive.""","Di solicitor general respond say although congress and di department of defense investigate di feasibility of establishing a database for 2008, di goment ""concluded say although congress and di department of defense investigate di feasibility of establishing a database for 2008, di goment ""concluded say such a database go be impracticable and insufficiently comprehensive.",Government
"without more explanation, it is difficult to assess the government's claim, especially when atleast one database of congressional medal of honor winners already exists.","E dey difficult to assess di goment's claim, especially wen one database of congressional medal of honor winners exist, e dey difficult to assess di government's claim, especially wen one database of congressional medal of honor winners exist",Government
"the government may have responses to some of these criticisms, but there has been no clear showing ofthe necessity ofthe statute, the necessity required by exacting scrutiny.","Di goment don get response to some of dis criticisms, but nano clear showing of di necessity of di statute, di necessity wey dey required by exacting scrutiny.",Government
the nation well knows that one ofthe costs ofthe first amendment is that it protects the speech we detest aswell as the speech we embrace.,Di nation well know say one of di cost of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) na say e protect di speech wey detest aswell as di speech we embrace.,Government
"though few might find respondent's statements anything but contemptible, his right to make those statements is protected by the constitution's guarantee of freedom of speech and expression.","Dem find respondent's statements anything but contemptible, hin right to make statements dey protected by di constitution's guarantee of freedom of speech and expression.",Government
the stolen valor act infringes upon speech protected by the first amendment.,Di stolen valor act infringe upon speech protected by First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).,Government
the judgment ofthe court of appeals is affirmed.,Di judgment of di court of appeals dey affirmed,Government
"justice breyer, with whom justice kagan joins, concurring in the judgment.","Di justice kagan join, join di judgment.",Government
but i do not rest my conclusion upon a strict categorical analysis.,But i do no rest my conclusion upon a strict categorical analysis.,Government
"rather, i base that conclusion upon the fact that the statute works first amendment harm, while the government can achieve its legitimate objectives in less restrictive ways.","I base say conclusion upon di fact say di statute work First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) harm, while di goment go achieve its legitimate objectives for less restrictive way.",Government
"only the bravest ofthe brave are awarded the congressional medal of honor, but the court today holds that every american has a constitutional right to claim to have received this singular award.","Di court today hold say evri american get constitutional right to claim to receive dis singular award, but di court today hold say evri american get constitutional right to claim to receive dis singular award.",Government
"the court strikes down the stolen valor act of 2005, which was enacted to stem an epidemic of false claims about military decorations.","Di court strike down di stolen valor act of 2005, wey dey enacted to stem epidemic of false claims about military decorations.",Government
"these lies, congress reasonably concluded, were undermining our country's system of military honors and inflicting real harmon actual medal recipients and their families.","Di lies, congress reasonably concluded, dey undermining our kontri system of military honors and dey inflict real harmon actual medal recipients and dia families.",Government
"robson the first amendment 111 building on earlier efforts to protect the military awards system, congress responded to this problem by crafting a narrow statute that presents no threat to the freedom of speech.","Na robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 111 building on earlier efforts to protect di military awards system, congress responde to dis problem by crafting narrow statute wey present no threat to di freedom of speech.",Government
the statute reaches only knowingly false statements about hard facts directly within a speaker's personal knowledge.,Di statute reaches only knowingly false statements about hard facts directly within a speaker's personal knowledge.,Government
"these lies have no value in and of themselves, and proscribing them does not chill any valuable speech.","Di lies don no value for and of themselves, and proscribing dem no dey chill any valuable speech.",Government
"by holding that the first amendment nevertheless shields these lies, the court breaks sharply from along line of cases recognizing that the right to free speech does not protect false factual statements that inflict real harm and serve no legitimate interest.",Di court break sharply from long line of case wey recognize say di right to free speech no protect false factual statements wey dey inflict real harm and serve no legitimate interest.,Government
"see act of feb.24, 1923, ch.","See act of feb.24, 1923, ch.",Government
"although this court has never opined on the constitutionality of that particular provision, we have said that 702, which makes it a crime to wear a united states military uniform without authorization, is ""a valid statute on its face.""","Dem don tok say 702, wey make dem wear united states military uniform without authorization, na valid statute on dia face.",Government
schacht v. united states(1970).,Di schacht v. United state(1970).,Government
congress passed the stolen valor actin response to a proliferation of false claims concerning the receipt of military awards.,Di congress pass di stolen valor act for response to proliferation of false claims concerning di receipt of military awards.,Government
"for example, in a single year, more than 600 virginia residents falsely claimed to have won the medal of honor.","for example, for single year, more than 600 virginia residents falsely claim to get medal of honor.",Government
an investigation ofthe 333 people listed in the online edition of who's who as having received atop military award revealed that fully a third ofthe claims could not be substantiated.,Di online edition of who's wey receive top military award reveal say fully a third of di claim no be substantiated.,Government
"when the library of congress compiled oral histories for its veterans history project,24 ofthe 49 individuals who identified themselves as medal of honor recipients had not actually received that award.","Di library of congress compiled oral histories for its veteran history project,24 of di 49 individuals wey identified themselves as medal of honor recipients no receive dat award.",Government
the same was true of 32 individuals who claimed to have been awarded the distinguished service cross and 14 who claimed to have won the navy cross.,Di same na true of 32 individuals wey dey award di distinguished service cross and 14 wey dey claim to win di navy cross.,Government
notorious cases brought to congress' attention included the case of a judge who falsely claimed to have been awarded two medals of honor and displayed counterfeit medals in his courtroom; a television network's military consultant who falsely claimed that he had received the silver star; and a former judge advocate in the marine corps who lied about receiving the bronze star and a purple heart.,Di case of judge wey falsely claim say he don receive di silver star; and former judge advocate for di marine corps wey lied about receiving di bronze star and purple heart.,Government
"as congress recognized, the lies proscribed by the stolen valor act inflict substantial harm.","Di lies wey congress recognize, di lies wey dem dey proscribed by di stolen valor act inflict substantial harm.",Government
"in many instances, the harm is tangible in nature: individuals often falsely represent themselves as award recipients in order to obtain financial or other material rewards, such as lucrative contracts and government benefits.","Di harm dey tangible for nature: individuals often falsely represent themselves as award recipients for order to obtain financial or oda material rewards, such as lucrative contracts and government benefits.",Government
"an investigation of false claims in a single region ofthe united states, for example, revealed that 12 men had defrauded the department of veterans affairs out of more than$1. 4 million in veteran's benefits.","Di investigation of false claims for single region of di united state, for example, reveal say 12 men don defraud di department of veteran affairs out of more than$1. 4 million for veteran's benefit.",Government
"in other cases, the harm is less tangible, but nonetheless significant.","Di harm dey less tangible, but nonetheless significant",Government
the lies proscribed by the stolen valor act tend to debase the distinctive honor of military awards.,Di lies proscribed by di stolen valor act tend to debase di distinctive honor of military awards.,Government
"and legitimate award recipients and their families have expressed the harm they endure when an imposter takes credit for heroic actions that he never performed. one medal of honor recipient described the feeling asa"" 'slap in the face of veterans who have paid the price and earned their medals.'","Na one medal of honor recipient described di feeling asa"" slap for di face of veterans wey don pay di price and earned dia medals.",Government
""" it is well recognized in trademark law that the proliferation of cheap imitations of luxury goods blurs the"" 'signal' given out by the purchasers ofthe originals.""","E dey well recognise for trademark law say di proliferation of cheap imitations of luxury goods blur di ""signal' wey di purchasers of di originals",Government
"in much the same way, the proliferation of false claims about military awards blurs the signal given out by the actual awards by making them seem more common than they really are, and this diluting effect harms the military by hampering its efforts to foster morale and esprit de corps.","Di proliferation of false claims about military awards blur di signal wey dem give out by di actual awards by making dem seem more common than dem really dey, and dis diluting effect harm di military by hampering im efforts to foster morale and esprit decorps.",Government
surely it was reasonable for congress to conclude that the goal of preserving the integrity of our country's top military honors is atleast as worthy as that of protecting the prestige associated with fancy watches and designer handbags.,For congress to conclude say di goal of preserving di integrity of our kontri top military honors dey worthy assay of protect di prestige wey dey associated wit fancy watches and designer handbags.,Government
"san francisco arts& athletics, inc. v. united states olympic comm,","San francisco arts& athletics, inc. v. united states olympic comm,",Government
"both the plurality and justice breyer argue that congress could have preserved the integrity of military honors by means other than a criminal prohibition, but congress had ample reason to believe that alternative approaches would not be adequate.","Di plurality and justice breyer argue say congress go dey preserved di integrity of military honors by means oda than criminal prohibition, but congress don argue say alternative approaches no be adequate.",Government
the chief alternative that is robson the first amendment 112 recommended is the compilation and release of a comprehensive list or database of actual medal recipients.,Di chief alternative wey dey robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 112 recommended na di compilation and release of comprehensive list or database of actual medal recipients.,Government
"if the public could readily access such a resource, it is argued, imposters would be quickly and easily exposed, and the proliferation of lies about military honors would come to an end.","E dey argued, imposters go quickly and easily exposed, and di prolifer eration of lies about military honors go kom to end.",Government
"this remedy, unfortunately, will not work.","Di remedy, unfortunately, no work",Government
the department of defense has explained that the most that it can do is to create a database of recipients of certain top military honors awarded since 2001.,Di department of defense don explain say di most wey e fit do dey create database of recipients of certain top military honors award since 2001.,Government
"because a sufficiently comprehensive database is not practicable, lies about military awards cannot be remedied by what the plurality calls ""counterspeech.""","Di plurality call ""counterspeech""",Government
"without the requisite database, many efforts to refute false claims maybe thwarted, and some legitimate award recipients maybe erroneously attacked.","Di requisite database, many efforts to refute false claims don dey thwarted, and some legitimate award recipients dey erroneously attack, and some legitimate award recipients dey erroneously attack.",Government
"in addition, a steady stream of stories in the media about the exposure of imposters would tend to increase skepticism among members ofthe public about the entire awards system.",Di steady stream of stories for media about di exposure of imposters go increase skepticism among members of di public about di entire awards system.,Government
this would only exa cerbate the harm that the stolen valor act is meant to prevent.,Dis go only exa cerbate di harm wey di stolen valor act dey meant to prevent.,Government
the plurality and the concurrence also suggest that congress could protect the system of military honors by enacting a narrower statute.,Di plurality and di concurrence also suggest say congress go protect di system of military honors by enacting narrower statute.,Government
"the plurality recommends a law that would apply only to lies that are intended to""secure moneys or other valuable considerations.""",Di plurality recommend law wey go apply only to lies wey dey intended to secure money or oda valuable considerations,Government
"in a similar vein, the concurrence comments that""a more finely tailored statute might.","Di concurrence comment say""a more finely tailored statute might.",Government
"insist upon a showing that the false statement caused specific harm.""",Di false statement don caus specific harm,Government
"(opinion of brey er, j.).","Di opinion of brey er, j.",Government
"but much damage is caused, both to real award recipients and to the system of military honors, by false statements that are not linked to any financial or other tangible reward.","But much damage dey caused, both to real award recipients and to di system of military honors, by false statement wey dey linked to any financial or oda tangible reward.",Government
"unless even a small financial loss--say, a dollar given to a homeless man falsely claiming to be a decorated veteran--is more important in the eyes ofthe first amendment than the damage caused to the very integrity ofthe military awards system, there is no basis for distinguishing between the stolen valor act and the alternative statutes that the plurality and concurrence appear willing to sustain.","Di dollar wey dey given to homeless man falsely claiming to be decorated veteran, na more important for di eyes of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) than di damage wey di very integrity of di military awards system, na no basis for distinguishing between di stolen valor act and di alternative statutes wey di plurality and concurrence dey willing to sustain.",Government
respondent's brief features a veritable paean to lying.,Di person wey dey answer di case' brief features a veritable paean to lying.,Government
"according to respondent, his lie about the medal of honor was nothing out ofthe ordinary for 21stcentury americans.",Di lie about di medal of honor na nothing out of di ordinary for 21stcentury americans.,Government
"""everyone lies,""he says.","Everyone lies, hin tok say.",Government
"""we lie all the time.""",We lie all di time,Government
"""[h]uman beings are constantly forced to choose the persona we present to the world, and our choices nearly always involve intentional omissions and misrepresentations, if not outright deception.""","Di beings dey constantly force to choose di persona wey we present to di world, and awa choices nearly involve intentional omissions and misrepresentations, if no outright deception",Government
"an academic amicus tells us that the first amendment protects the right to construct""self -aggrandizing fabrications such as having been awarded a military decoration.""","An academic amicus tells us that First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) protects di right to construct""self -aggrandizing fabrications such as having been awarded a military decoration.""",Government
this radical interpretation ofthe first amendment is not supported by any precedent of this court.,Di radical interpretation of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) no support any precedent of dis court.,Government
the lies covered by the stolen valor act have no intrinsic value and thus merit no first amendment protection unless their prohibition would chill other expression that falls within the amendment's scope.,Di lies covered by di stolen valor act no dey intrinsic value and thus merit no First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) protection unless dia prohibition go chill oda expression wey dey fall inside di amendment's scope.,Government
"b while we have repeatedly endorsed th e principle that false statements of fact do not merit first amendment protection for their own sake, we have recognized that it is sometimes necessary to ""exten[d] a measure of strategic protection""to these statements in order to ensure sufficient"" 'breathing space'"" for protected speech.","We don endorse th e principle say false statements of fact no merit First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) protection for dia own sake, we don recogniz say e no need to ensure sufficient"" 'breathing space' for protected speech.",Government
"thus, in order to prevent the chilling of truthful speech on matters of public concern, we have held that liability for the defamation of a public official or figure requires proof that defamatory statements were made with knowledge or reckless disregard of their falsity.",We don hold say liability for di defamation of public official or figure dey require proof say defamatory statements were make wit knowledge or reckless disregard of dia falsity.,Government
this same requirement applies when public officials and figures seek to recover for the tort of intentional infliction of emotional distress.,Dis same wetin dem must do applies when everybody officials and figures seek to recover for di tort of intentional infliction of emotional distress.,Government
see falwell.,Dem see falwell.,Government
"laws restricting false statements about philosophy, religion, history, the social sciences, the arts, and other matters of public concern would present such a threat.","Dem restrict false statements about philosophy, religion, history, di social sciences, di arts, and oda matters of public concern go present such threat.",Government
"the point is not that there is no such thing as truth or robson the first amendment 113 falsity in these areas or that the truth is always impossible to ascertain, but rather that it is perilous to permit the state to be the arbiter of truth.","Di point dey no say truth or robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 113 falsity for dis areas or say di truth dey always impossible to ascertain, but rather say e dey perilous to permit di state to be di arbiter of truth.",Government
"even where there is a wide scholarly consensus concerning a particular matter, the truth is served by allowing that consensus to be challenged without fear of reprisal.",Di truth dey serve by allow say consensus to challenge without fear of reprisal.,Government
today's accepted wisdom sometimes turns out to be mistaken.,Di today's accept wisdom sometimes turnout to be mistaken,Government
"and in these contexts, ""[e]ven a false statement maybe deemed to make a valuable contribution to public debate, since it brings about 'the clearer perception and livelier impression of truth, produced by its collision with error.'","Di statement dey deemed to make valuable contribution to public debate, since e bring about 'the clearer perception and livelier impression of truth, produced by dia collision wit error.",Government
"""sullivan (quoting j.",Di quoting j,Government
"mill, on liberty 15(r. mccallum ed.",For liberty 15(r. mccallum ed,Government
allowing the state to proscribe false statements in these areas also opens the door for the state to use its power for political ends.,Di state don open di door for di state to use dia power for political ends.,Government
statements about history illustrate this point.,Di point wey dey illustrate dis point.,Government
"if some false statements about historical events maybe banned, how certain must it be that a statement is false before the ban maybe upheld?","How certain must be say some false statement wey dey about historical events dey banned, how certain must be say some false statement wey dey false before di ban dey upheld?",Government
and who should make that calculation?,We go make dat calculation?,Government
"while our cases prohibiting viewpoint discrimination would fetter the state's power to some degree, see r. a. v. v. st. paul(1992) (explaining that the first amendment does not permit the government to engage in viewpoint discrimination under the guise of regulating unprotected speech), the potential for abuse of power in these areas is simply too great.","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) no allow di goment to engage for viewpoint discrimination under di guise of regulating unprotected speech), di potential for abuse of power for dis areas dey too great.",Government
"in stark contrast to hypothetical laws prohibiting false statements about history, science, and similar matters, the stolen valor act presents no risk at all that valuable speech will be suppressed.","For klear difference wey dey shock person, like when you see two tins wey no be alike at all, e go shock you well to hypothetical laws prohibiting false statement about history, science, and similar matters, di stolen valor act present no risk for all dat valuable speech go suppress.",Government
"the speech punished by the act is not only verifiably false and entirely lacking in intrinsic value, bu t it also fails to serve any instrumental purpose that the first amendment might protect.","Di speech punished by di act no only verifiably false and entirely lacking for intrinsic value, bu te fail to serve any instrumental purpose wey First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) go protect.",Government
"tellingly, when asked at oral argument what truthful speech the stolen valor act might chill, even respondent's counsel conceded that the answer is none.","For oral argument say truthful speech di stolen valor act go chill, even respondent's counsel concede say di answer na none.",Government
c***neither ofthe two opinions endorsed by justices in the majority claims that the false statements covered by the stolen valor act possess either intrinsic or instrumental value.,Di two opinions wey dey endorse by justices for di majority claim say di false statements wey dey covered by di stolen valor act possess either intrinsic or instrumental value.,Government
"instead, those opinions appear to be based on the distinct concern that the ac t suffers from overbreadth.",Di opinion dey based on di distinct concern wey di ac t suffers from overbreadth.,Government
"the stolen valor act is a narrow law enacted to address an important problem, and it presents no threat to freedom of expression.","Di stolen valor act na narrow law enacted to address important problem, and e present no threat to freedom of expression.",Government
schacht v. united states is a rare explicit viewpoint discrimination case.,Dem dey rare explicit viewpoint discrimination case.,Government
the statute clearly allowed wearing the uniform in a theatrical production if it flattered the military and not if the portray was unflattering.,Di statute clearly allow wear di uniform for di Atrical production if im flattered di military and no if di portray dey unflattering.,Government
is there away in which the stolen valor act at issue in united states v. alvarez might be analyzed as viewpoint discrimination?,Di way wey di stolen valor act for issue for united states v. alvarez go analyze as viewpoint discrimination?,Government
"in june 2013, president obama signed the stolen valor act of 2013 into law.",Dem don sign di stolen valor act of 2013 into law.,Government
"congress amended the law to include the type of""fraud"" provision suggested in the plurality and concurring opinions.",Dem amend di law to include di type of fraud provision wey dey suggest for di plurality and concurring opinions.,Government
"the law now subjects to criminal penalties whoever"" with intent to obtain money, property, or other tangible benefit, fraudulently holds oneself out to be a recipient of a decoration or medal.""","Di law now subject to criminal penalties wey dey subject to criminal penalties wey dey wey dem subject to criminal penalties wey dey suppose to obtain money, property, or oda tangible benefit, fraudulently hold oneself out to be recipient of decoration or medal.",Government
(there are also a number of nongovernmental websites).,Di number of nongovernmental websites wey dey also a number of nongovernmental websites).,Government
do these developments undermine the arguments advanced in the dissenting opinion in alvarez?,Di developments undermine di arguments advanced for di dissenting opinion for alvarez?,Government
"you might envision this as a flow chart, but it might be easier at first to simply posit a series of issues.",Di flow chart dey easier for first to simply posit a series of issues,Government
"assuming there is state action, what would the first question be?",Di first question be?,Government
what would the next questions be?,Di next question be?,Government
"abridging the freedom of speech, or ofthe press;.","Di freedom of speech, or of di press;.",Government
"an essential query is whether infringements on""the press""are analyzed in a different manner than infringements on""freedom of speech.""","Di essential query na whether infringements on di press dey analyse for different manner than infringements on""freedom of speech""dey analyze for different manner than infringements on""freedom of speech",Government
"or, as some argue, has ""press""been subsumed into""speech"" for purposes of first amendment doctrine?","As some argue, don ""press""dey subsum into""speech"" for purpose of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) doctrine?",Government
"consider whether or not the court's rhetoric, reasoning, and conclusions are consistent with the textual inclusion of""press"" in the first amendment.","Di court's rhetoric, reasoning, and conclusions dey consistent wit di textual inclusion of""press"" for di firstamendment.",Government
"prior restraint the notion of""censorship"" is most akin to the doctrine of prior restraint, which as the term implies, is when the government acts to prevent speech before it can occur.","Di notion of""censorship"" dey most akin to di doctrine of Wetin dem dey call prior restraint be say government no go gree make person talk or write wetin dem wan write before dem publish am, na like say government dey hold person mouth before dem talk, wey as di term implies, na when di goment act to prevent speech before dey occur.",Government
"in the context ofthe press, this is a pre-publication injunction or criminalization rather than postpublication damages.",Dis dey pre-publication injunction or criminalization no be postpublication damages.,Government
"the preeminent case involving prior restraint is new york times v. united states(1971), often known as the pentagon papers case.","Di preeminent case wey dey involvin Wetin dem dey call prior restraint be say government no go gree make person talk or write wetin dem wan write before dem publish am, na like say government dey hold person mouth before dem talk dey new york times v. united states(1971), often known as di pentagon paper case.",Government
the earlier case of near v. minnesota(1931) is a landmark case setting out the principles.,Di earlier case of near v. minnesota(1931) be landmark case wey dey set out di principles.,Government
near v. minnesota 283 u. s.,E. s.,Government
"any person who, as an individual, or as a member or employee of a firm, or association or organization, or as an officer, director, member or employee of a corporation, shall be engaged in the business of regularly or customarily producing, publishing or circulating, having in possession, selling or giving away.","Di person wey, as individual, or as member or employee of firm, or association or organization, or as officer, director, member or employee of corporation, shall be engage for di business of regularly or customarily produce, publishing or circulating, having in possession, selling or giving away.",Government
"'(a)an obscene, lewd and lascivious newspaper, magazine, or other periodical, or '(b)a malicious, scandalous and defamatory newspaper, magazine or other periodical,-is guilty of a nuisance, and all persons guilty of such nuisance maybe enjoined, as hereinafter provided.","Di'(a) obscene, lewd and lascivious newspaper, magazine, or oda periodical,-is guilty of a nuisance, and all persons guilty of such nuisance, and all persons guilty of such nuisance dey enjoined, as hereinafter provided.",Government
"most ofthe charges were directed against the chief of police; he was charged with gross neglect of duty, illicit relations with gangsters, and with participation in graft.","Dem charge wit gross neglect of duty, illicit relations wit gangsters, and wit participation for graft.",Government
the county attorney was charged with knowing the existing conditions and with failure to take adequate measures to remedy them.,Di county attorney dey charge wit know di existing conditions and wit failure to take adequate measures to remedy dem,Government
the mayor wa s accused of inefficiency and dereliction.,Di mayor wa s accused of inefficiency and dereliction.,Government
on e member ofthe grand jury was stated to bein sympathy with the gangsters.,E member of di grand jury dey state say to bein sympathy wit di gangsters.,Government
"a special grand jury and a special prosecutor were demanded to deal with the situation in general, and, in particular, to investigate an attempt to assassinate one guilford, one ofthe original defendants, who, it appears from the articles, was shot by gangsters after the first issue ofthe periodical had been published.","Di first issue of di periodical don dey publish, and, especially, to investigate an attempt to assassinate one guilford, one of di original defendants, wey dey shot by gangsters afta di first issue of di periodical don published.",Government
there is no question but that the articles made serious accusations against the public officers named and others in connection with the prevalence of crimes and the failure to expose and punish them.,Di article make serious accusations against di public officers named and odas for connection wit di prevalence of crime and di failure to expose and punish dem,Government
"[a state district court found against the defendant, jay near, the publisher of""the saturday press""]and found that the defendants through these publications""did engage in the business of regularly and customarily producing, publishing and circulating a malicious, scandalous and defamatory newspaper,"" and that""the said publication"" ""under said name ofthe saturday press, or any other name, constitutes a public nuisance under the laws ofthe state.","Di state district court found against di defendant, jay near, di publisher of di saturday press, and found say di defendants through dis publications"" dey engage for di business of regularly and customarily producing, publishing and circulating a malicious, scandalous and defamatory newspaper,"" and say di publisher of di saturday press, or any oda name, constitute public nuisance under di laws of di state.",Government
"""judgment was thereupon entered adjudging that"" the newspaper, magazine and periodical known as the saturday press,"" as a public nuisance,""be and is hereby abated.","Di judgment dey entered adjudging say"" di newspaper, magazine and periodical wey dey known as di saturday press,"" as public nuisance, be and dey hereby abated.",Government
"""the judgment perpetually enjoined the defendants"" from producing, editing, publishing, circulating, having in their possession, selling or giving away any publication whatsoever which is a malicious, scandalous or defamatory newspaper, as defined by law,"" and also"" from further conducting said nuisance under the name and title of said the saturday press or any other name or title.","Di judgment perpetually enjoin di defendants"" from producing, editing, publishing, circulating, having india possession, selling or giving away any publication wey dey a malicious, scandalous or defamatory newspaper, as defined by law, and also"" from further conducting say nuisance under di name and title of say di saturday press or any oda name or title.",Government
""" * * *[near appealed to the minnesota supreme court which affirmed].",Dem appeal to di minnesota supreme court wey affirmed,Government
"this statute, for the suppression as a public nuisance of a newspaper or periodical, is unusual, if not unique, and raises questions of grave importance transcending the local interests involved in the particular action.","Di statute, for di suppression as public nuisance of newspaper or periodical, dey unusual, if no unique, and raise questions of grave importance transcending di local interests wey dey involved for di particular action.",Government
it is no longer open to doubt that the liberty ofthe press and of speech is within the liberty safeguarded by the due process clause ofthe fourteenth amendment from invasion by state action.,Di liberty of di press and of speech dey inside di liberty safeguarded by di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system clause of di fourteenth amendment from invasion by state action.,Government
the statute is not aimed at the redress of individual or private wrongs.,Di statute no dey aimed at di redress of individual or private wrongs,Government
remedies for libel remain available and unaffected.,Di remedies for libel dey available and unaffected.,Government
"the statute is directed not simply at the circulation of scandalous and defamatory statements with regard to private citizens, but at the continued publication by newspapers and periodical of charges against public officers of corruption, malfeasance in office, or serious neglect of duty.","Di statute dey direct no simply for di circulation of scandalous and defamatory statements wit regard to private citizens, but for di continued publication by newspapers and periodical of charges wey dey against public officers of corruption, malfeasance for office, or serious neglect of duty.",Government
"the object ofthe statute is not punishment, in the ordinary sense, but suppression ofthe offending newspaper or periodical.","Di object of di statute no punishment, for di ordinary sense, but suppression of di offending newspaper or periodical.",Government
"the statute not only operates to suppress the offending newspaper or periodical, but to put the publisher under an effective censorship.","Di statute no only operates to suppress di offending newspaper or periodical, but to put di publisher under an effective censorship.",Government
"when a newspaper or periodical is found to be""malicious, scandalous and defamatory,"" and is suppressed as such, resumption of publication is punishable as a contempt of court by fine or imprisonment.","Di newspaper or periodical dey found to be""malicious, scandalous and defamatory,"" and dey suppress because of dat, resumption of publication dey punishable as contempt of court by fine or imprisonment.",Government
this is ofthe essence of censorship.,Di essence of censorship,Government
robson the first amendment 116 the question is whether a statute authorizing such proceedings in restraint of publication is consistent with the conception ofthe liberty ofthe press as historically conceived and guaranteed.,Di question na whether a statute authorizing such proceedings for restraint of publication dey consistent wit di conception of di liberty of di press as historically conceived and guaranteed.,Government
"in determining the extent ofthe constitutional protection, it has been generally, if not universally, considered that it is the chief purpose ofthe guaranty to prevent previous restraints upon publication.","Di chief purpose of di constitutional protection, na generally, if no universally, consider say e dey di chief purpose of di guaranty to prevent previous restraints upon public ion.",Government
"the liberty deemed to be established was thus described by blackstone:'the liberty ofthe press is indeed essential to the nature of a free state; but this consists in laying no previous restraints upon publications, and not in freedom from censure for criminal matter when published.","Di liberty of di press dey essential to di nature of a free state; but dis dey essential to di nature of a free state; but dis dey essential to di nature of a free state, but dis dey essential to di nature of a free state, but dis dey essential to di nature of a free state, but dis dey no dey freedom from censure for criminal matter wey dey publish.",Government
"every freeman hasan undoubted right to lay what sentiments he pleases before the public; to forbid this, is to destroy the freedom ofthe press; but if he publishes what is improper, mischievous or illegal, he must take the consequence of his own temerity.'","Forbid dis, na to destroy di freedom of di press; but if he publish what dey improper, mischievous or illegal, he must take di consequence of hin own temerity.",Government
"see story on the constitution,1884, 1889.","Di constitution,1884, 1889.",Government
the distinction was early pointed out between the extent ofthe freedom with respect to censorship under our constitutional system and that enjoyed in england.,Di distinction dey early pointed out between di extent of di freedom wit respect to censorship under our constitution system and wey dey enjoy for england.,Government
"here, as madison said,'the great and essential rights ofthe people are secured against legislative aswell as against executive ambition.",Di great and essential rights of di pipo dey secure against legislative aswell as against executive ambition.,Government
"they are secured, not bylaws paramount to prerogative, but by constitutions paramount to laws.","Dem dey secure, no by law paramount to prerogative, but by constitutions paramount to laws.",Government
"this security ofthe freedom ofthe press requires that it should be exempt not only from previous restraint by the executive, as in great britain, but from legislative restraint also.'","Di security of di freedom of di press require say e go exempt no only from previous restraint by di executive, as for great Britain, but from legislative restraint also.",Government
"report on the virginia resolutions, madison 's works, vol.","Report on di virginia resolutions, madison 's works, vol.",Government
"iv, p. 543.","Iv, p. 543.",Government
"this court said, in patterson v. colorado(1907):'in the first place, the main purpose of such constitutional provisions is 'to prevent all such previous restraints upon publications as had been practiced by other governments,'and they do not prevent the subsequent punishment of such as maybe deemed contrary to the public welfare.","Dis court tok say, for patterson v. colorado(1907):'in di first place, di main purpose of such constitutional provisions dey 'to prevent all such previous restraints upon publications as dem dey practice by oda goment, and dem no prevent di subsequent punishment of such as dem dey contrary to di public welfare.",Government
the preliminary freedom extends aswell to the false as to the true; the subsequent punishment may extend aswell to the true as to the false.,Di subsequentpunishment go extend aswell to di true as to di true; di subsequentpunishment go extend aswell to di true as to di true; di subsequentpunishment go extend aswell to di true as to di true; di subsequentpunishment go extend aswell to di true as to di true; di subsequentpunishment go extend aswell to di true as to di true; di subsequentpunishment go extend aswell to di true as to di true; di subsequentpunishment go extend aswell to di true as to di true; di subsequentpunishment go extend as,Government
"this was the law of criminal libel apart from statute in most cases, if not in all.","Di law of criminal libel apart from statute for most case, if no for all.",Government
that is undoubtedly true; the protection even as to previous restraint is not absolutely unlimited.,Di protection even as to previous restraint no dey unlimited; di protection even as to previous restraint no absolutely unlimited; di protection even as to previous restraint no absolutely unlimited,Government
"but the limitation has been recognized only in exceptional cases. ""when a nation is at war many things that might be said in time of peace a re such a hindrance to its effort that their utterance will not be endured solo ng as men fight and that no court could regard them as protected by any constitutional right.""",Di nation dey war many things wey dey tok for time of peace a re such hindrance to dia effort say dia utterance no be endured solo ng as men fight and say no court could regard dem as protect dem by any constitutional right,Government
schenck v. united states(1919).,Di schenck v. united state(1919).,Government
noone would question but that a government might prevent actual obstruction to its recruiting service or the publication ofthe sailing dates of transports or the number and location of troops.,Di goment go prevent actual obstruction to its recruiting service or di publication of di sailing dates of transports or di number and location of troops.,Government
"on similar grounds, the primary requirements of decency maybe enforced against obscene publications.",Di primary requirements of decency go enforce against obscene publications.,Government
the security ofthe community life maybe protected against incitements to acts of violence and the overthrow by force of orderly government.,Di security of di community life go protect against incitements to acts of violence and di overthrow by force of orderly goment.,Government
"the constitutional gu aranty of free speech does not"" protect a man from an injunction against uttering words that may have all the effect of force.""","Di constitutional gu aranty of free speech does no ""protect a man from injunction against uttering words wey no get all di effect of force",Government
these limitations are not applicable here.,Di limitations no dey applicable here,Government
the conception ofthe liberty ofthe press in this country had broadened with the exigencies ofthe colonial period and with the efforts to secure freedom from oppressive administration.,Di conception of di liberty of di press for dis kontri don broadened wit di exigencies of di colonial period and wit di efforts to secure freedom from oppressive administration.,Government
that liberty was especially cherished for the immunity it afforded from previous restraint ofthe publication of censure of public officers and charges of official misconduct.,Di liberty dey especially cherish for di immunity wey dey afford from previous restraint of di publication of censure of public officers and charges of official misconduct.,Government
on this footing the freedom ofthe press has stood; on this footing it yet stands.,Di freedom of di press don stood; on dis footing di freedom of di press don stood; on dis footing di freedom of di press don stood; on dis footing e yet stands,Government
"some degree of abuse is inseparable from the proper use of everything, and in no instance is this more true than in that ofthe press.","For no instance na some degree of abuse dey inseparable from di proper use of all, and for no instance na dis more true than for di press.",Government
"it has accordingly been decided by the practice ofthe states, that it is better to leave a few of its noxious branches to their luxuriant growth, than, by pruning them away, to injure the vigour of those yielding the proper fruits.","Di practice of di states, say i dey better to leave few of its noxious branch to dia luxuriant growth, than, by pruning dem away, to injure di vigour of those wey dey yielding di proper fruits.",Government
"and can the wisdom of this policy be doubted by any who reflect that to the press alone, che quered as it is with abuses, the world is indebted for all the triumphs robson the first amendment 117 which have been gained by reason and humanity over error and oppression; who reflect that to the same beneficent source the united states owe much ofthe lights which conducted them to the ranks of a free and independent nation, and which have improved their political system into a shape so auspicious to their happiness?","Di same beneficent source di united states don owe much of di lights wey dem conduct dem to di ranks of free and independent nation, and wey dey improve dia political system into shape so e dey shape so e dey so e dey shape so e dey so e dey so e dey so e dey so e dey so e dey so e dey a shape so e dey a shape so e dey",Government
"had 'sedition acts,'forbidding every publication that might bring the constituted agents into contempt or disrepute, or that might excite the hatred ofthe people against the authors of unjust or pernicious measures, been uniformly enforced against the press, might not the united states have been languishing at this day under the infirmities of a sickly confederation?","Di united state don dey languishing for dis day under di infirmities of di pipo against di authors of unjust or pernicious measures, wey dey uniformly enforce against di press, might no di united state don dey languishing for dis day under di infirmities of sickly confederation?",Government
"might they not, possibly, be miserable colonies, groaning under a foreign yoke?""","Dem no, possibly, be miserable colonies, groaning under foreign yoke?",Government
the fact that for approximately one hundred and fifty years there has been almost an entire absence of attempts to impose previous restraints upon publications relating to the malfeasance of public officers is significant ofthe deep-seated conviction that such restraints would violate constitutional right.,Di fact say for approximately one hundred and fifty years wey dey absence of attempts to impose previous restraints upon publications wey dey relating to di malfeasance of public officers dey significant of di deep-seated conviction say such restraints go violate constitutional right.,Government
"the statute in question cannot be justified by reason ofthe fact that the publisher is permitted to show, before injunction issues, that the matter published is true and is published with good motives and for justifiable ends.","Di statute for question no be justified by reason of di fact say di publisher dey permitted to show, before injunction issues, say di matter dey true and dey published wit good motive and for justifiable ends.",Government
"if such a statute, authorizing suppression and injunction on such a basis, is constitutionally valid, it would be equally permissible for the legislature to provide that at anytime the publisher of any newspaper could be brought before a court, or even an administrative officer(as the constitutional protection may not be regarded as resting on mere procedural details), and required to produce proof ofthe truth of his publication, or of what he intended to publish and of his motives, or stand enjoined.","Di legislature go provide say at anytime di publisher of any newspaper could be brought before court, or even administrative officer(as di constitutional protection no dey valid, and make dem produce proof of di truth of hin publication, or of wen he dey publish and of hin motives, or stand enjoined.",Government
"if this can be done, the legislature may provide machinery for determining in the complete exercise of its discretion what are justifiable ends and restrain publication accordingly.",Di legislature go provide machinery for determining for di complete exercise of its discretion wey dey justifiable ends and restrain publication accordingly.,Government
and it would be but a step to a complete system of censorship.,E go be but step to complete system of censorship,Government
"we should add that this decision rests upon the operation and effect ofthe statute, without regard to the question ofthe truth ofthe charges contained in the particular periodical.","We go add say dis decision rest upon di operation and effect of di statute, without regard to di question of di truth of di charges wey dey contain for di particular periodical.",Government
"the fact that the public officers named in this case, and those associated with the charges of official dereliction, maybe deemed to be impeccable, cannot affect the conclusion that the statute imposes an unconstitutional restraint upon publication.","Di fact say di public officers wey dey named for dis case, and those wey dey associated wit di charge of official dereliction, no affect di conclusion say di statute impose unconstitutional restraint upon publication.",Government
"dissenting opinion by butler, j.","Butler, j.",Government
"joined by van devanter, mcreynolds, and sutherland, j. j, [omitted].","Na devanter, mcreynolds, and sutherland, j. j, [omitted].",Government
"""the district court for the southern district of new york in the new york times case and the district court for the district of columbia and the court of appeals for the district of columbia circuit in the washington post case held that the government had not met that burden.",Di district court for di southern district of new york for di new york times case and di district court for di district of columbia and di court of appeal for di district of columbia and di court of appeal for di district of columbia and di court of appeal for di district of columbia circuit for di washington post case hold say di goment no meet dat burden.,Government
the judgments shall issue forthwith.,Di judgments go issue forthwith.,Government
robson the first amendment 118 mr.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 118 mr.,Government
"justice black, with whom mr.","Di justice black, wit whom mr",Government
"justice douglas joins, concurring.","Di justice douglas join, join justice douglas join, concurring.",Government
such a holding would make a shambles ofthe first amendment.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) go make a shambles of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo),Government
our government was launched in 1789 with the adoption ofthe constitution.,We dey launch for 1789 wit di adoption of di constitution,Government
"the bill of rights, including the first amendment, followed in 1791.","Di bill of rights, including First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo), follow for 1791.",Government
"now, for the first time in the 182 years since the founding ofthe republic, the federal courts are asked to hold that the first amendment does not mean what it says, but rather means that the government can halt the publication of current news of vital importance to the people of this country.","For di first time for di 182 years since di founding of di republic, di federal courts dey ask say di first amendment no mean say di goment go halt di publication of current news of vital importance to di pipo of dis kontri.",Government
"in seeking injunctions against these newspapers and in its presentation to the court, the executive branch seems to have forgotten the essential purpose and history ofthe first amendment.",Di part of government wey dey carry out and enforce laws— led by President or Prime Minister seem to get forgotten di essential purpose and history of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).,Government
"""the government does not even attempt to rely on any act of congress.",Di goment no even attempt to rely on any act of congress,Government
"instead it makes the bold and dangerously far- reaching contention that the courts should take it upon themselves to ""make"" a law abridging freedom ofthe press in the name of equity, presidential power and national security, even when the representatives ofthe people in congress have adhered to the command ofthe first amendment and refused to make such a law.","Di courts go take am upon themselves to make law wey dey open freedom of di press for di name of equity, presidential power and Di way wey dem take dey protect di kontri, di pipo wey dey di kontri, and di tins wey important for di kontri from bad tins wey fit happen from outside or inside, including make sure say terrorist no go cause trouble, or say anoder kontri no go spy on dem, even when di representatives of di pipo for congress don adhere to di command of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) and refused to make such law.",Government
the guarding of military and diplomatic secrets at the expense of informed representative government provides no real security for our republic.,Di guarding of military and diplomatic secrets at di expense of informed representative goment provides no real security for our republic.,Government
"the framers ofthe first amendment, fully aware of both the need to defend anew nation and the abuses ofthe english and colonial governments, sought to give this new society strength and security by providing that freedom of speech, press, religion, and assembly should not be abridged.","Di framers of di firstamendment, fullyaware of both di need to defend new nation and di abuses of di english and colonial goment, sought to give dis new society strength and security by providing say freedom of speech, press, religion, and assembly no be abridge.",Government
"m r. justice douglas, with whom mr.","Di justice douglas, wit whom mr. justice douglas, wit whom mr",Government
"justice black joins, concurring.","Di justice black join, concurring.",Government
it is common knowledge that the first amendment was adopted against the widespread use ofthe common law of seditious libel to punish the dissemination of material that is embarrassing to the powers -thatbe.,Di common knowledge say First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) don adopt against di widespread use of di common law of seditious libel to punish di dissemination of material wey dey embarrassing to di powers -thatbe.,Government
"the present cases will, i think, go down in history as the most dramatic illustration of that principle.","I think, di present case go down for history as di most dramatic illustration of dat principle.",Government
a debate of large proportions goes on in the nation over our posture in vietnam.,Di debate of large proportions goon for di nation over our posture for vietnam.,Government
the latter are highly relevant to the debate in progress.,Di former dey highly relevant to di debate for progress,Government
"secrecy in government is fundamentally anti-democratic, perpetuating bureaucratic errors.","E dey fundamentally anti democratic, perpetuating bureaucratic errors.",Government
open debate and discussion of public issues are vital to our national health.,Di open debate and discussion of public issues dey vital to our national health.,Government
"on public questions there should be ""uninhibited, robust, and wide-open"" debate.","Uninhibited, robust, and wide-open"" debate.",Government
new york times co. v. sullivan(1964).,New york times co. v. sullivan(1964).,Government
the stays in these cases that have been in effect for more than a week constitute a flouting ofthe principles ofthe first amendment as interpreted in near v. minnesota(1931).,Di stay for dis case wey dey in effect for more than a week constitute flouting of di principles of di first amendment as interpreted for near v. minnesota(1931).,Government
"m r. justice brennan, concurring.","M r. justice brennan, concurring.",Government
"the entire thrust ofthe government's claim throughout these cases has been that publication ofthe material sought to been joined""could,"" or""might,"" or""may"" prejudice the national interest in various ways.","Di entire thrust of di goment's claim throughout dis case don been say publication of di material wey dey join""could,"" or""might"" or""may"" prejudice di national interest for different way.",Government
but the first amendment tolerates absolutely no robson the first amendment 119 prior judicial restraints ofthe press predicated upon surmise or conjecture that untoward consequences may result.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) tolerate absolutely no robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 119 prior judicial restraints of di press predicated upon surmise or conjecture say untoward consequences go result.,Government
"our cases, it is true, have indicated that there is a single, extremely narrow class of cases in which the first amendment's ban on prior judicial restraint maybe overridden.","We dey true, don tok say e dey single, extremely narrow class of case wey First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) ban on prior judicial restraint dey overridden.",Government
"our cases have thus far indicated that such cases may arise only when the nation""is at war,"" schenck v. united states(1919), during which times""[n]o one would question but that a government might prevent actual obstruction to its recruiting service or the publication ofthe sailing dates of transports or the number and location of troops.""",Di cases don tok say a goment go prevent actual obstruction to its recruiting service or di publication of di sailing dates of transports or di number and location of troops,Government
near v. minnesota(1931).,Near v. minnesota(1931).,Government
"even if the present world situation were assumed to be tantamount to a time of war, or if the power of presently available armaments would justify even in peacetime the suppression of information that would set in motion a nuclear holocaust, in neither of these actions has the government presented or even alleged that publication of items from or based upon the material at issue would cause the happening of an event of that nature.",Di goment presented or even allege say publication of items from or based upon di material wey dey issue go cause di event of dat nature.,Government
"""[t]he chief purpose of[the first amendment's] guaranty [is]to prevent previous restraints upon publication.""",[t]he chief purpose of[First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo)' guaranty [na]to prevent previous restraints upon publication.,Government
near v. minnesota.,Dem dey near v. minnesota,Government
"thus, only governmental allegation and proof that publication must inevitably, directly, and immediately cause the occurrence of an event kindred to imperiling the safety ofa transport already at sea can support even the issuance of an interim restraining order.","Di only governmental allegation and proof say publiction must inevitably, directly, and immediately cause di occurrence of event kindred to imperiling di safety ofa transport already at sea fit support even di issuance of interim restraining order.",Government
"in no event may mere conclusions be sufficient: for if the executive branch seeks judicial aid in preventing publication, it must inevitably submit the basis upon which that aid is sought to scrutiny by the judiciary.","For if di part of government wey dey carry out and enforce laws— led by President or Prime Minister seeks judicial aid for prevent publication, e must submit di basis wey dem dey scrutiny by di judiciary.",Government
"and therefore, every restraint issued in this case, whatever its form, has violated the first amendment- and not less so because that restraint was justified as necessary to afford the courts an opportunity to examine the claim more thoroughly.","Di restraint wey dey issue for dis case, whatever its form, don violated First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) -and no less so because say restraint no dey justified as necessary to afford di courts opportunity to examine di claim more thoroughly.",Government
"unless and until the government has clearly made out its case, the first amendment commands that no injunction may issue.",First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) command say no injunction go issue.,Government
"m r. justice white, with whom mr.","Di justice white, wit whom mr.",Government
"justice stewart joins, concurring.","Di justice stewart join, concurring.",Government
"nor, after examining the materials the government characterizes as the most sensitive and destructive, can i deny that revelation of these documents will do substantial damage to public interests.","Di material di goment characterize as di most sensitive and destructive, can i deny say revelation of dis document go do substantial damage to public interests.",Government
"indeed, i am confident that their disclosure will have that result.",I dey confident say dia disclosure go get dat result,Government
"but i nevertheless agree that the united states has not satisfied the very heavy burden that it must meet to warrant an injunction against publication in these cases, at least in the absence of express and appropriately limited congressional authorization for prior restraints in circumstances such as these.","Di united states no satisfied di very heavy burden wey dem fit meet to warrant injunction against publication for dis case, at least for di absence of express sand appropriately limited congressional authorization for Dem dey call am 'prior restraint', be say na when court or government no gree make person talk or publish something before dem even do am, and e dey like say dem dey limit person freedom to yan or talk wetin dem like for circumstances such as dis.",Government
"the government's position is simply stated: the responsibility ofthe executive for the conduct ofthe foreign affairs and for the security ofthe nation is so basic that the president is entitled to an injunction against publication of a newspaper story whenever he can convince a court that the information to be revealed threatens""grave and irreparable"" injury to the public interest; and the injunction should issue whether or not the material to be published is classified, whether or not publication would be lawful under relevant criminal statutes enacted by congress, and regardless ofthe circumstances by which the newspaper came into possession ofthe information.","Di responsibility of di executive for di conduct of di foreign affairs and for di security of di nation dey so basic say di president dey entitled to injunction against publication of newspaper story wenever he fit convince court say di information to be reveal threaten""grave and irreparable"" injury to di tin wey concern everybody for society, wey be say e important for all of us; and di injunction go issue whether or no publication go dey lawful under relevant criminal statute.",Government
"[the remainder of justice white's concurring opinion, like the concurring opinion of justice stewart, joined by justice white, and the concurring opinion of justice marshall discuss the separation of powers issues rather than the first amendment issues.]","Di remainder of justice white's concurring opinion, like di concurring opinion of justice stewart, joined by justice white, and di concurring opinion of justice marshall discuss di separation of power issues no be First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) issues.",Government
"m r. chief justice burger, dissenting.","Di chief justice burger, dissenting.",Government
"so clear are the constitutional limitations on prior restraint against expression, that from the time of near v. minnesota(1931 ) * * * we have had little occasion to be concerned with cases involving prior restraints against news reporting on matters of public interest.","Di constitutional limitations on Wetin dem dey call prior restraint be say government no go gree make person talk or write wetin dem wan write before dem publish am, na like say government dey hold person mouth before dem talk against expression, dat from di time of near v. minnesota(1931)",Government
"there is, therefore, little variation among the members ofthe court in terms of resistance to prior restraints against publication.","Di variation wey dey among di members of di court for terms of resistance to Dem dey call am 'prior restraint', be say na when court or government no gree make person talk or publish something before dem even do am, and e dey like say dem dey limit person freedom to yan or talk wetin dem like against publication.",Government
"adherence to this basic constitutional principle, however, does not make these cases simple.",Di basic constitutional principle no dey make dis case simple.,Government
"in these cases, the imperative of a free and unfettered press comes into collision with another imperative, the robson the first amendment 120 effective functioning of a complex modern government and specifically the effective exercise of certain constitutional powers ofthe executive.","Di imperative of free and unfettered press kom into collision wit one imperative, di robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 120 effective functioning of complex modern government and specifically di effective exercise of certa for constitutional powers of di executive.",Government
"only those who view the first amendment as an absolute in all circumstances-a view i respect, but reject- can find such cases as these to be simple or easy.","Na only those wey view First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) as absolute for all circumstances-a view i respect, but reject- fit find such cases as dis to be simple or easy.",Government
these cases are not simple for another and more immediate reason.,Di case no simple for one and more immediate reason.,Government
we do not know the facts ofthe cases.,We no know di facts of di case,Government
no district judge knew all the facts.,Di district judge don know all di facts,Government
no court of appeals judge knew all the facts.,Nano court of appeals judge know all di facts,Government
no member of this court knows all the facts.,Nano member of dis court know all di facts,Government
"during all of this time, the times, presumably in its capacity as trustee ofthe public's ""right to know,""has held up publication for purposes it considered proper and thus public knowledge was delayed.","Di time, presumably for its capacity as trustee of di public's ""right to know""don hold up publication for purposes wey dem consider proper and thus public knowledge dey delayed.",Government
"no doubt this was for a good reason; the analysis of 7, 000 pages of complex material drawn from a vastly greater volume of material would inevitably take time and the writing of good news stories takes time.","Di analysis of 7, 000 pages of complex material draw from a vastly great volume of material go take time and di writing of good tori wey dem dey prepare give pipo hear or see for tv, radio, or internet, wey concern wetin dey happen now-now or wetin pipo dey talk about take time.",Government
"but why should the united states government, from whom this information was illegally acquired by someone, along with all the counsel, trial judges, and appellate judges be placed under needless pressure?","Di united states goment, from whom dis information dey illegally acquired by someone, along wit all di counsel, trial judges, and appellate judges dey place under needless pressure?",Government
"after these months of deferral, the alleged""right to know""has somehow and suddenly become a right that must be vindicated instanter.","Di alleged""right to know""don somehow and suddenly become a right wey must be vindicated instanter.",Government
[the dissenting opinions of justice harlan and of justice blackmun are omitted.],Di dissenting opinions of justice harlan and of justice blackmun dey omitted.,Government
"in their respective dissenting opinions in new york times v. united states, both justice harlan(joined by chief justice burger and justice blackmun) and justice blackmun quote a passage from justice oliver wendell holmes: great cases like hard cases make bad law.",Di justice harlan(joined by chief justice burger and justice blackmun) quote passage from justice oliver wendell holmes: great case like hard case make bad law,Government
"for great cases are called great, not by reason of their real importance in shaping the law ofthe future, but because of some accident of immediate overwhelming interest which appeals to the feelings and distorts the judgment.","Dem call great, no by reason of dia real importance for shaping di law of di future, but because of some accident of immediate overwhelming interest wey dey appeal to di feelings and distort di judgment.",Government
"these immediate interests exercise a kind of hydraulic pressure which makes what previously was clear seem doubtful, and before which even well settled principles of law will bend.","Di immediate interests dey exercise kind of hydraulic pressure wey make dem clear seem doubtful, and before which even well settled principles of law go bend.",Government
"northern securities co. v. united states, 193 u. s. 197, 400 -401(1904).","Northern securities co. v. united states, 193 u. s. 197, 400 -401(1904).",Government
holmes was dissenting in a closely divided case that did not involve the first amendment but a monopoly.,Di holmes dey dissenting for closely divided case wey no involve First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) but monopoly.,Government
"is new york times v. united states still a""great"" case, as even the dissenters seemed to think?","Na new york times v. united states still a great case, as even di dissenters dey think?",Government
"has the""immediate interest""of the case faded?","Na di""immediate interest""of di case fad?",Government
"is its status as a high-water mark of first amendment recognition for the press an""accident""?","Na im status as a high-water mark of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) recognition for di news pipo an""accident""?",Government
"reconsider the role of justice holmes, previously discussed in a note in light ofthe fact that justice holmes proved popular with the dissenting justices in new york times v. united states.",Di role of justice holmes wey dey popular wit di dissenting justices for new york times v. united state.,Government
"in addition to the""great cases""make ""bad law""quote above, two dissenting opinions specifically invoked justice holmes' writing in schenck v. united states(1919).","For addition to di""great cases""make ""bad law""quote above, two dissenting opinions specifically invoked justice holmes' writing for schenck v. united states(1919).",Government
"(while justice brennan also quotes schenck, he does not use holmes' name).","Di justice brennan also quote schenck, hin no use holmes name",Government
"justice blackmu n's individual dissenting opinion states that""mr.","Di justice blackmu n's individual dissenting opinion state say""mr.",Government
"justice holmes gave us a suggestion""of ""situations where restraint is in order and is constitutional"" by writing in sc henck: when a nation is at war many things that might be said in time of peace are such a hindrance to its effort that their utterance will not be endured so long as men fight and that no court could regard them as protected by any constitutional right.",Di nation dey war many things wey dey tok for time of peace dey such hindrance to dia effort say dia utterance no fit endure so long as men fight and say no court could regard dem as protected by any constitutional right.,Government
"chief justice burger's dissenting opinion invoked holmes and alluded to schen ck without specific citation: ofcourse, the first amendment right itself is not an absolute, as justice holmes so long ago pointed out in his aphorism concerning the right to shout""fire"" in a crowded theater if there was no fire.","For course, First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) right wey dey absolute, as justice holmes so long ago pointed out for hin aphorism concerning di right to shout""fire"" for crowded theater if no fire",Government
would the holmes of abrams v. united states(1919) have agreed with the dissenters?,Di holmes of abrams v. united state(1919) don agree wit di dissenters?,Government
robson the first amendment 121 3.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 121 3.,Government
"the doctrine of""prior restraint""is not limited to the press, but appears in speech cases aswell.","Di doctrine of ""Wetin dem dey call prior restraint be say government no go gree make person talk or write wetin dem wan write before dem publish am, na like say government dey hold person mouth before dem talk""no dey limited to di press, but appear for speech case aswell.",Government
consider whether prior restraint is always more of an infringement than punishment.,"E consider whether Wetin dem dey call prior restraint be say government no go gree make person talk or write wetin dem wan write before dem publish am, na like say government dey hold person mouth before dem talk dey always more of infringement than punishment",Government
the press as guardian ofthe public's right to know?,Di press as guardian of di public right to know?,Government
"the court has struggled to balance the freedom ofthe press against rights of criminal defendants and civil litigants, aswell as considering whether the press should have a right of access to information or should be protected in its news-gathering activities.","Di court don struggled to balance di freedom of di press against rights of criminal defendants and civil litigants, aswell as consider say di press go get right of access to information or go protect dia news gathering activities.",Government
the press v. criminal defendants consider how the balance between press access and the rights of criminal defendants is crafted and what tools trial judges have at their disposal to balance the rights.,Di press v. criminal defendants consider how di balance between press access and di rights of criminal defendants dey craft and how tools trial judges don use for dia disposal to balance di rights.,Government
sheppard v. maxwell 384 u. s. 333(1966) justice clark delivered theo pinion ofthe court[justice black dissen ted without opinion].,Sheppard v. maxwell 384 u. s. 333(1966) justice clark delivered di opinion of di kot [justice black dissen ted without wetin dem talk].,Government
"this federal habeas corpus application involves the question whether sheppard was deprived of a fair trial in his state conviction for the second-degree murder of his wife because ofthe trial judge's failure to protect sheppard sufficiently from the massive, pervasive and prejudicial publicity that attended his prosecution.","Di federal Legal order wey say government must bring person in custody to court to justify holding dem application involves di question wey sheppard deprive of fair trial for hin state conviction for di second degree murder of hin wife because of di trial judge's failure to protect sheppard sufficiently from di massive, pervasive and prejudicial publicity wey dey attend hin prosecution.",Government
the united states district court held that he was not afforded a fair trial* * *the court of appeals for the sixth circuit reversed by a divided vote.,Di united states district court tok say dem no afford fair trial,Government
"we have concluded that sheppard did not receive a fair trial consistent with the due process clause ofthe fourteenth amendment and, therefore, reverse the judgment.","We don concluded say sheppard no receive fair trial consistent wit di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system clause of di fourteenth amendment and, therefore, reverse di judgment.",Government
from the outset officials focused suspicion on[dr. sam]sheppard.,Di outset officials dey focus suspicion on[dr. Sam]sheppard,Government
"after a search ofthe house and premises on the morning ofthe tragedy, dr. gerber, the coroner, is reported- and it is undenied - to have told his men,""well, it is evident the doctor did this, so let's go get the confession out of him.""","E dey evident di doctor don do dis, so let go get di confession out of hin",Government
"on july 7, the day of marilyn sheppard's funeral, a newspaper story appeared in which assistant county attorney mahon -later the chief prosecutor of sheppard- sharply criticized the refusal ofthe sheppard family to permit his immediate questioning.",Di newspaper story wey assistant county attorney mahon -later di chief prosecutor of sheppard- criticize di refusal of di sheppard family to allow hin immediate questioning.,Government
from there on headline stories repeatedly stressed sheppard's lack of cooperation with the police and other officials.,Sheppard's lack of cooperation wit di police and oda officials.,Government
"under the headline""testify now in death, bay doctor is ordered,""one story described a visit by coroner gerber and four police officers to the hospital on july 8.","Di headline""testify now for death, bay doctor dey order,""one story described a visit by coroner gerber and four police officers to di hospital on july 8.",Government
"when sheppard insisted that his lawyer be present, the coroner wrote out a subpoena and served it on him.","Sheppard insist say hin lawyer be present, di coroner write out subpoena and served am on him",Government
sheppard then agreed to submit to questioning without counsel and the subpoena was torn up.,Sheppard then agree to submit to questioning without counsel and di subpoena dey torn up.,Government
the officers questioned him for several hours.,Di officer question him for several hours,Government
"on july 9, sheppard, at the request ofthe coroner, re -enacted the tragedy at his home before the robson the first amendment 122 coroner, police officers, and a group of newsmen, who apparently were invited by the coroner.","For july 9, sheppard, at di request of di coroner, re -enacted di tragedy for hin home before di robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 122 coroner, police officers, and a group of newsmen wey dey invited by di coroner.",Government
the home was locked so that sheppard was obliged to wait outside until the coroner arrived.,Sheppard dey oblige to wait outside until di coroner arrive.,Government
sheppard's performance was reported in detail by the news media along with photographs.,Sheppard's performance don report for detail by di news media along wit photographs.,Government
"the newspapers also played up sheppard's refusal to take a lie detector test and""the protective ring""thrown up by his family.","Di newspaper also play up sheppard's refusal to take lie detector test and""the protective ring"" wey dem throw up by hin family.",Government
"frontpage newspaper headlines announced on the same day that""doctor balks at lie test; retells story.""",Di frontpage newspaper headlines announce on di same day say doctor balk for lie test; retells story,Government
"a column opposite that story contained an""exclusive"" interview with sheppard headlined:""`loved my wife, she loved me,'sheppard tells news reporter.""","Sheppard tell news reporter:""`loved my wife, she loved me, she tells news reporter.",Government
"the next day, another headline story disclosed that sheppard had""again late yesterday refused to take a lie detector test""and quoted an assistant county attorney as saying that""at the end of a nine-hour questioning of dr. sheppard, i felt he was now ruling[a test]out completely.""","Sheppard don dey late yesterday refused to take lie detector test and quote an assistant county attorney assay ""at di end of nine-hour questioning of dr. sheppard, i felt hin no ruling[a test]out completely",Government
but subsequent newspaper articles reported that the coroner was still pushing sheppard for a lie detector test.,Dem report say di coroner still push sheppard for lie detector test.,Government
"more stories appeared when sheppard would not allow authorities to inject him with""truth serum.""","Sheppard no allow authorities to inject am wit""truth serum""",Government
"on the 20th, the ""editorial artillery"" opened fire with a frontpage charge that somebody is""getting away with murder.""","Di""editorial artillery"" open fire wit frontpage charge say somebody dey getaway wit murder",Government
"the editorial attributed the ineptness ofthe investigation to""friendships, relationships, hired lawyers, a husband who ought to have been subjected instantly to the same thirddegree to which any other person under similar circumstances is subjected.","Di editorial attributed di ineptness of di investigation to""friendships, relationships, hired lawyers, husband wey dey subject instantly to di same thirddegree to which any oda person under similar circumstances dey subject.",Government
"the following day, july 21, another page-one editorial was headed:""why no inquest?","Di following day, july 21, one page-one editorial don head:""why no inquest?",Government
"do it now, dr.",Dr.,Government
the coroner called an inquest the same day and subpoena ed sheppard.,Di coroner call inquest di same day and subpoena ed sheppard,Government
it was staged the next day in a school gymnasium; the coroner presided with the county prosecutor as his advisor and two detectives as bailiffs.,Di coroner preside wit di county prosecutor as hin advisor and two detectives as bailiffs,Government
"in the front ofthe room was along table occupied by reporters, television and radio personnel, a nd broadcasting equipment.","Di front of di room na long table occupied by reporters, television and radio personnel, a nd broadcast equipment.",Government
the hearing was broadcast with live microphones placed at the coroner's seat and the witness stand.,Di hearing dey broadcast wit live microphones place for di coroner seat and di witness stand.,Government
a swarm of reporters and photographers attended.,A swarm of reporters and photographers attended.,Government
sheppard was brought into the room by police who searched him in full view of several hundred spectators.,Sheppard dey bring into di room by police wey search am for full view of several hundred spectators.,Government
sheppard's counsel were present during the threeday inquest but were not permitted to participate.,Sheppard's counsel dey present during di threeday inquest but no dey permitted to participate,Government
"when sheppard's chief counsel attempted to place some documents in the record, he was forcibly ejected from the room by the coroner, who received cheers, hugs, and kisses from ladies in the audience.","Sheppard's chief counsel dey try place some document for di record, hin dey forcibly ejected from di room by di coroner, wey receive cheers, hugs, and kisses from ladies for di audience.",Government
"sheppard was questioned for five and one-half hours about his actions on the night ofthe murder, his married life, and a love affair with susan hayes.","Sheppard dey question for five and one half hours about hin actions on di night of di murder, hin married life, and love affair wit susan hayes.",Government
"at the end ofthe hearing the coroner announced that he""could"" order sheppard held for the grand jury, but did not do so.","For di end of di hearing di coroner tok say he go order sheppard for di grand jury, but no do so.",Government
throughout this period the newspapers emphasized evidence that tended to incriminate sheppard and pointed out discrepancies in his statements to authorities.,Di newspapers emphasize evidence wey dey suppose incriminate sheppard and pointed out discrepancies for hin statement to authorities.,Government
"at the same time, sheppard made many public statements to the press and wrote feature articles asserting his innocence.",Sheppard make many public statements to di press and write feature article wey dey assert hin innocence,Government
"during the inquest on july 26, a headline in large type stated:""kerr [captain ofthe cleveland police]urges sheppard's arrest.""","Di headline for large type state say""kerr [captain of di cleveland police]urge sheppard arrest",Government
no such evidence was produced at trial.,Nano such evidence wey dey produce for trial,Government
the newspapers also delved into sheppard's personal life.,Di newspaper also dey delved into sheppard's personal life,Government
articles stressed his extramarital love affairs as a motive for the crime.,Di article stressed hin extramarital love affair as a motive for di crime.,Government
"the newspapers portrayed sheppard as a lothario, fully explored his relationship with susan hayes, and named a number of other women who were allegedly involved with him.","Sheppard as lothario, fully explore hin relationship wit susan hayes, and named number of oda women wey dey allegedly involved within",Government
the testimony at trial never showed that sheppard had any illicit relationships besides the one with susan hayes.,Di testimony for trial never show say sheppard no get any illicit relationship besides di one wit susan hayes.,Government
"on july 28, an editorial entitled""why don't police quiz top suspect""demanded that sheppard be taken to police headquarters.","Di editorial wey dey titled""why don police quiz top suspect""demand say sheppard go take to police headquarters",Government
"it described him in the following language:""now proved under oath to be a liar, still free to go about his business, shielded by his family, protected by a smart lawyer who has made monkeys ofthe police and authorities, carrying a gun part ofthe time, left free to do whatever he pleases.","Na now proved under oath to be liar, still free to go about hin business, shielded by hin family, protected by smart lawyer wey don make monkeys of di police and authorities, carry gun part of di time, left free to do whatever he dey please.",Government
"a frontpage editorial on july 30 asked:""why isn't sam sheppard in jail?""","Di frontpage editorial on july 30 asked:""why no be Sam sheppard for jail?",Government
"it was later titled""quit stalling- bring him in.""","Dem later titled""quit stalling- bring him for",Government
"after calling sheppard""the most unusual murder suspect ever seen around these parts""the article said that ""[e]xcept for some superficial questioning during coroner sam gerber's inquest he has been scot-free of any official grilling.","Di article tok say ""[e]xcept for some superficial questioning during coroner Sam Gerber's inquest hin don scot-free of any official grilling.",Government
"it asserted that he was""surrounded by an iron curtain of protection[and] concealment.""",Di assert say hin dey surround by iron curtain of protection[and] concealment,Government
robson the first amendment 123 that night at 10 o'clock sheppard was arrested at his father's home on a charge of murder.,Dem robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 123 dat night for 10 o'clock sheppard dey arrest for hin father's home on charge of murder.,Government
"he was taken to the bay village city hall where hundreds of people, newscasters, photographers and reporters were awaiting his arrival.","Di bay village city hall wey hundred pipo, newscasters, photographers and reporters dey wait hin arrival.",Government
he was immediately arraigned -having been denied a temporary delay to secure the presence of counsel- and bound over to the grand jury.,Di grand jury don deny temporary delay to secure di presence of counsel- and bound over to di grand jury.,Government
the publicity then grew in intensity until his indictment on august 17.,Di publicity don grew in intensity until hin indictment on august 17.,Government
"typical ofthe coverage during this period is a frontpage interview entitled:""dr.","Di frontpage interview entitled:""dr.",Government
"sam:`i wish there was something i could get off my chest- but there isn't.'""",I wish na something wey i fit get off my chest- but nano dey.,Government
"unfavorable publicity included items such as a cartoon ofthe body of a sphinx with sheppard's head and the legend below:"" 'i will do everything in my power to help solve this terrible murder.","Di legend below:""i go do all for my power to help solve dis terrible murder.",Government
"' -dr. sam sheppard.""",Di'- dr. Sam sheppard,Government
"on august 18, an article appeared under the headline""dr. sam writes his own story.""","Di article appear under di headline""dr. sam write hin own story",Government
"and reproduced across thee ntire front page was a portion ofthe typed statement signed by sheppard:""i am not guilty ofthe murder of my wife, marilyn.","I no guilty of di murder of my wife, marilyn.",Government
"how could i, who have been trained to help people and devoted my life to saving life, commit such a terrible and revolting crime?""","I, wey dey train to help pipo and devoted my life to saving life, commit such terrible and revolting crime?""",Government
we do not detail the coverage further.,We no detail di coverage further,Government
there are five volumes filled with similar clippings from each ofthe three cleveland newspapers covering the period from the murder until sheppard's conviction in december 1954.,Di five volumes wey dey filled wit similar clippings from each of di three cleveland newspapers wey dey cover di period from di murder until sheppard conviction for december 1954.,Government
the record includes no excerpts from newscasts on radio and television but since space was reserved in the courtroom for these media we assume that their coverage was equally large.,Di record includes no excerpt from newscasts on radio and television but since space dey reserved for courtroom for dis media we assume say dia coverage dey equally large.,Government
"with this background the case came on for trial two weeks before the november general election at which the chief prosecutor was a candidate for common pleas judge and the trial judge, judge blythin, was a candidate to succeed himself.","Di case kom on for trial two weeks before di november general election wey di chief prosecutor dey candidate for common pleas judge and di trial judge, judge blythin, na candidate to succeed himself.",Government
"twenty-five days before the case was set,75 veniremen were called as prospective jurors.",Dem call 75 veniremen as prospective jurors.,Government
all three cleveland newspapers published the names and addresses ofthe veniremen.,Di three cleveland newspapers dey published di name and address of di veniremen.,Government
"as a consequence, anonymous letters and telephone calls, as well as calls from friends, regarding the impending prosecution were received by all ofthe prospective jurors.","as result, anonymous letters and phone call, as well as call from friends, regarding di impending prosecution dey receive by all of di prospective jurors.",Government
"the selection ofthe jury began on october 18, 1954.","Di selection of di jury began on october 18, 1954.",Government
the courtroom in which the trial was held measured 26 by 48 feet.,Di courtroom wey di trial dey measure 26 by 48 feet.,Government
"along temporary table was setup inside the bar, in back ofthe single counsel table.","Di single counsel table dey setup inside di bar, for back of di single counsel table.",Government
"it ran the width ofthe courtroom, parallel to the bar railing, with one endless than three feet from the jury box.","Di width of di courtroom, parallel to di bar railing, wit one endless than three feet from di jury box.",Government
approximately 20 representatives of newspapers and wire services were assigned seats at this table by the court.,Na approximately 20 representatives of newspapers and wire services dey assigned seats for dis table by di court.,Government
behind the bar railing there were four rows of benches.,Di bar railing na four rows of benches.,Government
these seats were likewise assigned by the court for the entire trial.,Di seats dey likewise assigned by di court for di entire trial.,Government
"the first row was occupied by representatives of television and radio stations, and the second and third rows by reporters from outof-town newspapers and magazines.","Di first row dey occupied by representatives of television and radio stations, and di second and di second line by reporters from outof-town newspapers and magazines.",Government
"one side ofthe last row, which accommodated 14 people, was assigned to sheppa rd's family and the other to marilyn's.",Sheppa rd's family and di oda to marilyn's,Government
the public was permitted to fill vacancies in this row on special passes only.,Di public dey permitted to fill vacancies for dis row on special pass only.,Government
"representatives ofthe news media also used all the rooms on the courtroom floor, including the room where cases were ordinarily called and assigned for trial.","Di representatives of di news media also use all di rooms wey dey courtroom floor, including di room wey case dey ordinarily call and assigned for trial.",Government
private telephone lines and telegraphic equipment were installed in these rooms so that reports from the trial could be speeded to the papers.,Di private telephone line and telegraphic equipment dey install for dis rooms so say report from di trial go speed to di paper.,Government
"station wsrs was permitted to setup broadcasting facilities on the third floor ofthe courthouse next door to the jury room, where the jury rested during recesses in the trial and deliberated.","Di station wsrs dey permitted to setup broadcast facilities for di third floor of di courthouse next door to di jury room, wey di jury rest during recesses for di trial and deliberate.",Government
"newscasts were made from this room throughout the trial, and while the jury reached its verdict.","Di jury reach dia verdict, and while di jury reach dia verdict.",Government
"on the sidewalk and steps in front ofthe courthouse, t elevision and newsreel cameras were occasionally used to take motion pictures ofthe participants in the trial, including the jury and the judge.","Di jury and di judge dey use to take motion pictures of di participants for di trial, including di jury and di judge.",Government
"indeed, one television broadcast carried a staged interview ofthe judge ashe entered the courthouse.",One television broadcast carried stage interview of di judge as hin enter di courthouse.,Government
"in the corridors outside the courtroom there was a host of photographers and television personnel with flash cameras, portable lights and motion picture cameras.","Na host of photographers and television personnel wit flash cameras, portable lights and motion picture cameras.",Government
this group photographed the prospective jurors during selection ofthe jury.,Di group photograph di prospective jurors during selection of di jury.,Government
"after the trial opened, the witnesses, counsel, and jurors were photographed and televised whenever they entered or left the courtroom.","Di witnesses, counsel, and jurors dey photograph and televised wen dem enter or left di courtroom.",Government
sheppard was brought to the courtroom about 10 minutes before each session began; he was surrounded by reporters and extensively photographed fo r the newspapers and television.,Sheppard dey bring to courtroom about 10 minutes before each session began; he dey surround reporters and extensively photograph fo r di newspapers and television.,Government
"a rule of court prohibited picture-taking in the courtroom during the actual sessions ofthe court, but no restraints were put on robson the first amendment 124 photographers during recesses, which were taken once each morning and afternoon, with a longer period for lunch.","Di rule of court prohibited picture-taking for di courtroom for di actual session of di court, but no restraints dey put on robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 124 photographers during recesses, wey dey take once each morning and afternoon, wit long r period for lunch.",Government
all of these arrangements with the news media and their massive coverage ofthe trial continued during the entire nine weeks ofthe trial.,Di arrangement wit di news media and dia massive coverage of di trial continue during di entire nine weeks of di trial.,Government
the courtroom remained crowded to capacity with representatives of news media.,Di courtroom dey crowded to capacity wit representatives of news media.,Government
"their movement in and out ofthe courtroom often caused so much confusion that, despite the loudspeaker system installed in the courtroom, it was difficult for the witnesses and counsel to be heard.","Di loudspeaker system wey dey install for di courtroom, e dey difficult for witnesses and counsel to hear.",Government
"furthermore, the reporters clustered within the bar ofthe small courtroom made confidential talk among sheppard and his counsel almost impossible during the proceedings.",Di reporters cluster inside di bar of di small courtroom make confidential talk among sheppard and hin counsel almost impossible during di proceedings.,Government
they frequently had to leave the courtroom to obtain privacy.,Di courtroom go obtain privacy,Government
and many times when counsel wished to raise a point with the judge out ofthe hearing ofthe jury it was necessary to move to the judge's chambers.,Di counsel wish to raise point wit di judge out of di hearing of di jury na necessary to move to di judge's chambers.,Government
"even then, news media representatives so packed the judge's anteroom that counsel could hardly return from the chambers to the courtroom.",Di news media representatives so pack di judge's anteroom say counsel go return from di chambers to di courtroom.,Government
"the reporters vied with eachother to find out what counsel and the judge had discussed, and often these matters later appeared in newspapers accessible to the jury.","Di reporters wey dey vied wit each oda to know what counsel and di judge don discuss, and often dis matters later appear for newspapers available to di jury.",Government
"the daily record ofthe proceedings was made available to the newspapers and the testimony of each witness was printed verbatim in the local editions, along with objections of counsel, and rulings by the judge.","Di daily record of di proceedings dey available to di newspapers and di testimony of each witness dey printed verbatim for di local edition, along wit objections of counsel, and rulings by di judge.",Government
"pictures of sheppard, the judge, counsel, pertinent witnesses, and the jury often accompanied the daily newspaper and television accounts.","Di judge, counsel, pertinent witnesses, and di jury dey accompanied di akwukwo tori wey dem dey publish everyday and television account.",Government
"at times the newspapers published photographs of exhibits introduced at the trial, and the rooms of sheppard's house were featured along with relevant testimony.","Di newspapers publish photograph of exhibits wey dey introduced for di trial, and di rooms of sheppard house dey featured along wit relevant testimony.",Government
the jurors themselves were constantly exposed to the news media.,Di jurors themselves dey constantly exposed to di news media,Government
"every juror, except one, testified at voir dire to reading about the case in the cleveland papers or to having heard broadcasts about it.","Di Juror, except one, testify at voir dire to reading about di case for di cleveland papers or to hear broadcast about am",Government
seven ofthe 12 jurors who rendered the verdict had one or more cleveland papers delivered in their home; the remaining jurors were not interrogated on the point.,Di seven of di 12 jurors wey render di verdict don one or more cleveland papers deliver for dia home; di remaining jurors no interrogate on di point.,Government
"nor were there questions as to radios or television sets in the jurors' homes, but we must assume that most of them owned such conveniences.",We must assume say most of dem owned such conveniences.,Government
"as the selection ofthe jury progressed, individual pictures of prospective members appeared daily.","Di selection of di jury progress, individual pictures of prospective members appear daily.",Government
"during the trial, pictures ofthe jury appeared over 40 times in the cleveland papers alone.",Di jury appear over 40 times for di cleveland paper alone.,Government
"the court permitted photographers to take pictures ofthe jury in the box, and individual pictures ofthe members in the jury room.","Di court permitted photographers to take pictures of di jury for di box, and individual pictures of di members for di jury room.",Government
one newspaper ran pictures ofthe jurors at the sheppard home when they went there to view th e scene ofthe murder.,Di one newspaper ran pictures of di jurors for di sheppard home wen dem go see th e scene of di murder.,Government
another paper featured the home life of an alternate juror.,Di paper wey dey featured di home life of alternate juror,Government
the day before the verdict was rendered- while the jurors were at lunch and sequestered by two bailiffs -the jury was separated into two groups to pose for photographs which appeared in the newspapers.,Di Jurors dey lunch and sequestered by two bailiffs - di jury dey separated into two groups to pose for photographs wey dey appear for di newspapers.,Government
we now reach the conduct ofthe trial.,We now reach di conduct of di trial,Government
"while the intense publicity continued unabated, it is sufficient to relate only the more flagrant episodes:1.","Di intense publicity continue unabated, e dey sufficient to relate only di more flagrant episodes:",Government
"on october 9, 1954, nine days before the case went to trial, an editorial in one ofthe newspapers criticized defense counsel's random poll of people on the streets as to their opinion of sheppard's guilt or innocence in an effort to use the resulting statistics to show the necessity for change of venue.","Di case go trial, editor ial for one of di newspapers criticize defense counsel's random poll of pipo on di streets as to dia opinion of sheppard guilt or innocence for an effort to use di resulting statistics to show di necessity for change of venue.",Government
"the article said the survey""smacks of mass jury tampering,""called on defense counsel to drop it, and stated that the bar association should do something about it.","Di article tok say di survey""smack of mass jury tampering, call on defense counsel to drop am, and tok say di bar association go do something about am",Government
"it characterized the poll as""non -judicial, nonlegal, and nonsense.""","E characterize di poll as""non judicial, nonlegal, and nonsense",Government
the article was called to the attention ofthe court but no action was taken.,Di article dey call to di attention of di court but no action dey take,Government
on the second day of voir dire examination a debate was staged and broadcast live over whk radio.,Di second day of voir dire examination debate dey stage and broadcast live over whk radio.,Government
"the participants, newspaper reporters, accused sheppard's counsel of throwing roadblocks in the way ofthe prosecution and asserted that sheppard conceded his guilt by hiring a prominent criminal lawyer.","Di participants, newspaper reporters, accuse sheppard counsel of throwing roadblocks for di way of di prosecution and assert say sheppard conced hin guilt by hiring prominent criminal lawyer",Government
"sheppard's counsel objected to this broadcast and requested a continuance, but the judge denied the motion.","Sheppard's counsel dey object to dis broadcast and request continuance, but di judge denied di motion.",Government
"when counsel asked the court to give some protection from such events, the judge replied that ""whk doesn't have much coverage,""and that ""[a]fter all, we are not trying this case by radio or in newspapers or any other means.","Di judge tok say ""whk no get much coverage,""and say ""[a]fter all, we no go try dis case by radio or for newspapers or any oda means.",Government
"we confine ourselves seriously to it in this courtroom and do the very best we can.""",We confine awaselves seriously to di courtroom and do di very best we fit,Government
robson the first amendment 125 3.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 125 3.,Government
"while the jury was being selected, a two-inch headline asked:""but who will speak for marilyn?""","Di jury dey selected, two -inch headline asked:""but we go speak for marilyn?",Government
"the front-page story spoke ofthe ""perfect face""of the accused.","Di front-page story tok of di""perfect face""of di accused",Government
"""study that face as long as you want.",Di study wey face as long as you want.,Government
never will you get from it a hint of what might be the answer.,Di answer suppose be di answer.,Government
"the two brothers ofthe accused were described as""prosperous, poised.","Di two brothers of di accused dey described as""prosperous, poised.",Government
his two sisters-in law.,His two sisters-for law.,Government
"smart, chic, wellgroomed.","E dey smart, chic, wellgroomed",Government
his elderly father.,Di elderly father dey elderly,Government
"a perfect type for the patriarch of a staunch clan.""",Di perfect type for di patriarch of staunch clan,Government
"the author then noted marilyn sheppard was""still off stage,""and that she was an only child whose mother died when she was very young and whose father had no interest in the case.","Di author tok say marilyn sheppard dey still off stage, and say she dey only child wey she dey young and whose father no interest for di case.",Government
but the author- through quotes from detective chief james mcarthur -assured readers that the prosecution's exhibits would speak for marilyn.,Di author- through quote from detective chief james mcarthur -assured readers say di prosecution exhibits go speak for marilyn,Government
"""her story,"" mcarthur stated,""will come into this courtroom through our witnesses.""","Di story, mcarthur tok say,""will kom into dis courtroom through awa witnesses",Government
"the article ends:""then you realize how what and who is missing from the perfect setting will be supplied.","Di article end:""then you realize how wey and who dey missing from di perfect setting go dey supplied.",Government
"""how in the big case justice will be done.",Di big case justice go dey done.,Government
"""justice to sam sheppard.",Di justice to Sam sheppard,Government
"""and to marilyn sheppard.""",For marilyn sheppard,Government
"as has been mentioned, the jury viewed the scene ofthe murder on the first day ofthe trial.",Di jury see di scene of di murder on di first day of di trial.,Government
"hundreds of reporters, cameramen and onlookers were there, and one representative ofthe news media was permitted to accompany the jury while it inspected the sheppard home.","For hundreds of reporters, cameramen and onlookers dey there, and one representative of di news media dey permitted to accompany di jury while di sheppard home.",Government
the time ofthe jury's visit was revealed so far in advance that one ofthe newspapers was able to rent a helicopter and fly over the house taking pictures ofthe jurors on their tour.,Di time of di jury visit dey reveal so far for advance say one of di newspapers dey able to rent helicopter and fly over di house take pictures of di jurors for dia tour.,Government
"on november 19, a cleveland police officer gave testimony that tended to contradict details in the written statement sheppard made to the cleveland police.",Di cleveland police officer don give testimony say suppose contradict details for di written statement sheppard make to di cleveland police.,Government
"two days later, in a broadcast heard over station whk in cleveland, robert considine likened sheppard to a perjurer and compared the episode to alger hiss' confrontation with whittaker chambers.","Di broadcast hear over station whk for cleveland, robert considine like sheppard to a perjurer and compare di episode to alger hiss' confrontation wit whittaker chambers.",Government
"though defense counsel asked the judge to question the jury to ascertain how many heard the broadcast, the court refused to do so.","Di defense counsel ask di judge say how many hear di broadcast, di court refused to do so.",Government
"the judge also overruled the motion for continuance based on the same ground, saying: ""well, i don't know, we can't stop people, in any event, listening to it.","Di judge also overruled di motion for continuance based on di same ground, say: ""well, i no know, we no stop pipo, for any event, listen to am",Government
"it is a matter of free speech, and the court can't control everybody.","For free speech, and di court no control everybody",Government
we are not going to harass the jury every morning.,We no go haras di jury every morning.,Government
"it is getting to the point where if we do it every morning, we are suspecting the jury.",We dey suspect di jury.,Government
"on november 24, a story appeared under an eight-column headline:""sam called a `jekyllhyde' by marilyn, cousin to testify.""","Dem call a `jekyllhyde' by marilyn, cousin to testify",Government
"it related that marilyn had recently told friends that sheppard was a""dr. jekyll and mr. hyde""character.","Di related say marilyn don tell friends say sheppard na""dr. jekyll and mr. hyde""character.",Government
no such testimony was ever produced at the trial.,Nano such testimony dey produce for di trial.,Government
"the story went onto announce:""the prosecution has a`bombshell witness' on tap who will testify to dr. sam's display of fiery temper- countering the defense claim that the defendant is a gentle physician with an even disposition.""",Di prosecution don get`bombshell witness' on tap wey go testify to dr. Sam's display of fiery temper- countering di defense claim say di defendant dey gentle physician wit even disposition,Government
"defense counsel made motions for change of venue, continuance and mistrial, but they were denied.","Di defense counsel make motions for change of venue, continuance and mistrial, but dem denied.",Government
no action was taken by the court.,Di court dey take action for di court.,Government
"when the trial was in its seventh week, walter winchell broadcast over wxel television and wjw radio that carole beasley, who was under arrest in new york city for robbery, had stated that, as sheppard's mistress, she h ad borne him a child.","Di trial dey for seventh week, walter winchell broadcast over wxel television and wjw radio wey carole beasley, wey dey under arrest for new york city for robbery, don state say, as sheppard's mistress, she h ad borne am child.",Government
the defense asked that the jury be queried on the broadcast.,Di defense ask say di jury be queried on di broadcast.,Government
two jurors admitted in open court that they had heard it.,Di two jurors dey admitted for open court say dem hear am,Government
"the judge asked each:""would that have any effect upon your judgment?""","Di judge ask each:""nah say e don get any effect upon your judgment?",Government
"both replied,""no.""",Dem tok say no.,Government
"this was accepted by the judge as sufficient; he merely asked the jury to""pay no attention whatever to that type of scavenging.",Di judge as sufficient; hin merely ask di jury to pay no attention whatever to dat type of scavenging.,Government
"let's confine ourselves to this courtroom, if you please.""","Di courtroom, if you dey please",Government
"in answer to the motion for mistrial, the judge said:""well, even, so, mr. corrigan, how are you ever going to prevent those things, in any event?","Di judge tok say, well, even, so, mr. corrigan, how dem go prevent dis things, for any event?",Government
"the trial has nothing to do with it in the court's mind, as far as its outrage is concerned, but -""mr. corrigan: i don't know what effect it had on the mind of any of these jurors, and i can't find out unless inquiry is made.","I no know what effect wey dem get on di mind of any of dis jurors, and i no to know unless inquiry dey made.",Government
"""the court: how would you ever, in any jury, avoid that kind of a thing?""","Di court: how would you ever, for any jury, avoid dat kind of thing?",Government
"on december 9, while sheppard was on the witness stand he testified that he had been mistreated by cleveland detectives after his arrest.",As sheppard dey on di witness stand hin testify say hin dey mistreated by cleveland detectives before hin arrest.,Government
"although he was not at the trial, captain kerr ofthe homicide robson the first amendment 126 bureau issued a press statement denying sheppard's allegations which appeared under the headline:"" 'bare-faced liar' kerr says of sam.""","Di captain kerr of di homicide robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 126 bureau issue press statement denying sheppard's allegations wey dem dey denying sheppard's allegations wey dem dey for di trial, captain kerr of di homicide robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 126 bureau issue press statement denying sheppard's allegations wey dem dey denying sheppard's allegations wey dem dey for di trial, captain kerr of di homicide robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 126 bureau issue press statement denying sheppard",Government
captain kerr never appeared as a witness at the trial.,Di captain kerr never appear as witness for di trial.,Government
"after the case was submitted to the jury, it was sequestered for its deliberations, which took five days and four nights.","Di case dey submit to di jury, e dey sequestered for its deliberations, wey take five days and four nights.",Government
"after the verdict, defense counsel ascertained that the jurors had been allowed to make telephone calls to their homes everyday while they were sequestered at the hotel.","Di verdict, defense counsel tok say di jurors don allow make telephone call to dia house everyday while dem sequestered for di hotel.",Government
"although the telephones had been removed from the jurors' rooms, the jurors were permitted to use the phones in the bailiffs' rooms.","Di telephones don remove from di jurors' rooms, di jurors dey permitted to use di phone for di bailiffs' rooms.",Government
"the calls were placed by the jurors themselves; no record was kept ofthe jurors who made calls, the telephone numbers or the parties called.","Di calls dey place by di jurors themselves; no record dey kept of di jurors wey make call, di phone number or di parties wey call.",Government
the bailiffs satin the room where they could hear only the jurors' end ofthe conversation.,Di bailiffs sat for di room wen dem hear only di jurors' end of di conversation.,Government
the court had not instructed the bailiffs to prevent such calls.,Di court no instruct di bailiffs to prevent such call.,Government
"by a subsequent motion, defense counsel urged that this ground alone warranted anew trial, but the motion was overruled and no evidence was taken on the question.","Di ground alone don warrant new trial, but di motion don overruled and no evidence dey take on di question.",Government
"the principle that justice cannot survive behind walls of silence has long been reflected in the ""angloamerican distrust for secret trials.""","Di principle say justice no survive behind walls of silence don reflect di ""angloamerican distrust for secret trials.",Government
"a responsible press has always been regarded as the handmaiden of effective judicial administration, especially in the criminal field.","Di handmaiden of effective judicial administration, especially for di criminal field.",Government
its function in this regard is documented by an impressive record of service over several centuries.,Di regard dey documented by impressive record of service over several centuries.,Government
"the press does not simply publish information about trials but guards against the miscarriage of justice by subjecting the police, prosecutors, and judicial processes to extensive public scrutiny and criticism.","Di news pipo does no simply publish information about trials but guards against di miscarriage of justice by subjecting di police, prosecutors, and judicial processes to extensive everybody scrutiny and criticism.",Government
"this court has, therefore, been unwilling to place any direct limitations on the freedom traditionally exercised by the news media for""[w]hat transpires in the courtroom is public property.""","Di court don, therefore, unwilling to place any direct limitations on di freedom traditionally exercise di news media for""[w]hat transpire for di courtroom na public property",Government
"the""unqualified prohibitions laid down by the framers were intended to give to liberty ofthe press.","Di""unqualified prohibitions wey di framers dey intended to give to liberty of di press.",Government
"the broadest scope that could be countenanced in an orderly society.""",Di broadest scope wey dey countenance for orderly society,Government
bridges v. california(1941).,Bridges v. california(1941).,Government
"and where there was""no threat or menace to the integrity ofthe trial,""we have consistently required that the press have a free hand, even though we sometimes deplored its sensationalism.","We don consistently required say di press don get free hand, even though we dey always dey sensationalism.",Government
"but the court has also pointed out that ""[l]egal trials are not like elections, to be won through the use ofthe meeting-hall, the radio, and the newspaper.""","Di court don also point say ""[l]egal trials no like election, to be won through di use of di meeting-hall, di radio, and di newspaper",Government
"and the court has insisted that noone be punished for a crime without""a charge fairly made and fairly tried in a public tribunal free of prejudice, passion, excitement, and tyrannical power.""","Di court don insist say noone be punished for crime wit""a charge fairly made and fairly tried for public tribunal free of prejudice, passion, excitement, and tyrannical power",Government
"""freedom of discussion should be given the widest range compatible with the essential requirement ofthe fair and orderly administration of justice.""",Di freedom of discussion go give di wide range compatible wit di essential requirement of di fair and orderly administration of justice,Government
"but it must not be allowed to divert the trial from the""very purpose of a court system.","Di court system no be allowed to divert di trial from di""very purpose of court system.",Government
"to adju dicate controversies, both criminal and civil, in the calmness and solemnity ofthe courtroom according to legal procedures.""",Di courtroom according to legal procedures.,Government
"among these""legal procedures""is the requirement that the jury's verdict be based on evidence received in open court, not from outside sources.","Di requirement say di jury's verdict be based on evidence wey dem receive for open court, no from oda source.",Government
"as a demonstrable reality,""need not be undertaken when television has exposed the community""repeatedly and in depth to the spectacle of[the accused]personally confessing in detail to the crimes with which he was later to be charged.""","Di community don exposed di community""repeatedly and in detail to di spectacle of[the accused]personally confess in detail to di crime wey he dey charged",Government
"in turner v. louisiana(1965), two key witnesses were deputy sheriffs who doubled as jury shepherds during the trial.",Di key witnesses dey deputy sheriffs wey double as jury shepherds during di trial.,Government
"the deputies swore that they had not talked to the jurors about the case, but the court nonetheless held that,""even if it could be assumed that the deputies never did discuss the case directly with any members ofthe jury, it would be blinking reality not to recognize the extreme prejudice inherent in this continual association.","Di court no dey tok say, even if di deputies no go discuss di case directly wit any members of di jury, e go blink reality no to recognize di extreme prejudice wey dey inherent for dis continuel association.",Government
"only last term in estes v. texas(1965), we set aside a conviction despite the absence of any showing of prejudice.",We set aside conviction despite di absence of any showing of prejudice,Government
"we said there:""it is true that in most cases involving claims of due process deprivations we require a showing of identifiable prejudice to the accused.",Na true say for most cases wey dey involvin claim of Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system deprivations we require showing of identifiable prejudice to di accused.,Government
"nevertheless, at times a procedure employed by the state involves such a probability that prejudice will result that it is deemed inherently lacking in due process.""",Di procedure wey di state dey employ for di state dey involve such a probability say prejudice go result say prejudice dey lacking for Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system.,Government
"unlike estes, sheppard was not granted a change of venue to a locale away from where the publicity originated; robson the first amendment 127 nor was his jury sequestered.",Sheppard no grant change of venue to a local away from where di publicity originated; robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 127 nor dey hin jury sequestered.,Government
the estes jury saw none ofthe television broadcasts from the courtroom.,Di estes jury saw none of di television broadcast from di courtroom.,Government
"on th e contrary, the sheppard jurors were subjected to newspaper, radio and television coverage ofthe trial while not taking part in the proceedings.","Di sheppard jurors dey subject to newspaper, radio and television coverage of di trial while no take part for di proceedings.",Government
"they were allowed to go their separate ways outside ofthe courtroom, without adequate directions not to read or listen to anything concerning the case.","Di courtroom dey allowed to go dia separate way outside of di courtroom, without adequate directions no to read or listen to any concerning di case.",Government
"the judge's ""admonitions"" at the beginning ofthe trial are representative:""i would suggest to you and caution you that you do not read any newspapers during the progress of this trial, that you do not listen to radio comments nor watch or listen to television comments, insofar as this case is concerned.","I go suggest to you and caution you say you no read any newspapers during di progress of dis trial, say you no listen to radio comments nor watch or listen to television comments, insofar as dis case dey concerned.",Government
you will feel very much better as the trial proceeds.,E go feel very much better as di trial proceeds,Government
"after it is all over, you can read it all to your heart's content.",I go read am all to your heart's content.,Government
"at intervals during the trial, the judge simply repeated his""suggestions"" and""requests"" that the jurors not expose themselves to comment upon the case.","Di judge no repeat hin ""suggestions""and ""requests""say di jurors no expose themselves to comment upon di case.",Government
"moreover, the jurors were thrust into the role of celebrities by the judge's failure to insulate them from reporters and photographers.",Di jurors dey thrust into di role of celebrities by di judge's failure to insulate dem from reporters and photographers.,Government
"the numerous pictures ofthe jurors, with their addresses, which appeared in the newspapers before and during the trial itself exposed them to expressions of opinion from both cranks and friends.","Di numerous pictures of di jurors, wit dia address, wey dem ppear for di newspaper before and during di trial dem expos dem to expression of opinion from both cranks and friends.",Government
the fact that anonymous letters had been received by prospective jurors should have made the judge aware that this publicity seriously threatened the jurors' privacy.,Di fact say anonymous letters don receive by prospective jurors go make di judge aware say dis publicity seriously threatened di jurors' privacy.,Government
the press coverage ofthe estes trial was not nearly as massive and pervasive as the attention given by the cleveland newspapers and broadcasting stations to sheppard's prosecution.,Di press coverage of di estes trial no nearly as massive and pervasive as di attention wey di cleveland newspapers and broadcast stations to sheppard prosecution.,Government
sheppard stood indicted for the murder of his wife; the state was demanding the death penalty.,Sheppard stood indicted for di murder of hin wife; di state don demand di death penalty.,Government
for months the virulent publicity about sheppard and the murder had made the case notorious.,Di virulent publicity about sheppard and di murder don make di case notorious.,Government
charges and countercharges were aired in the news media besides those for which sheppard was called to trial.,Sheppard dey call trial.,Government
"in addition, only three months before trial, sheppard was examined for more than five hours without counsel during a three-day inquest which ended in a public brawl.","For addition, only three months before trial, sheppard dey examined for more than five hours without counsel during three-day inquest wey ended for public brawl.",Government
the inquest was televised live from a highschool gymnasium seating hundreds of people.,Di inquest dey televised live from highschool gymnasium seating hundreds of pipo.,Government
"furthermore, the trial began two weeks before a hotly contested election at which both chief prosecutor mahon and judge blythin were candidates for judgeships.",Di trial be two weeks before hotly contest election wey both chief prosecutor mahon and judge blythin dey candidates for judgeships.,Government
"while we cannot say that sheppard was denied due process by the judge's refusal to take precautions against the influence of pretrial publicity alone, the court's later rulings must be considered against the setting in which the trial was held.","Sheppard denied Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system by di judge's refusal to take precautions against di influence of pretrial publicity alone, di court later rulings must consider against di setting wey di trial dey hold.",Government
"in light of this background, we believe that the arrangements made by the judge with the news media caused sheppard to be deprived of that"" judicial serenity and calm to which[he] was entitled.","We believe say di arrangement wey di judge wit di news media don deprive of say"" judicial serenity and calm to which[he] dey entitled.",Government
"""the fact is that bedlam reigned at the courthouse during the trial and newsmen took over practically the entire courtroom, hounding most ofthe participants in the trial, especially sheppard.","Di fact na say bedlam reign for di courthouse during di trial and newsmen takeover practically di entire courtroom, hounding most of di participants for di trial, especially sheppard.",Government
at a temporary table within a few feet ofthe jury box and counsel table sat some 20 reporters staring at sheppard and taking notes.,Di temporary table wey dey inside few feet of di jury box and counsel table dey sat some 20 reporters staring at sheppard and take notes.,Government
the erection of a press table for reporters inside the bar is unprecedented.,Di erection of press table for reporter inside di bar dey unprecedented.,Government
"the bar of th e court is reserved for counsel, providing them a safe place in which to keep papers and exhibits, and to confer privately with client and cocounsel.","Di bar of th e court dey reserved for counsel, providing dem safe place for which to keep paper and exhibits, and to confer privately wit client and cocounsel.",Government
"it is designed to protect the witness and the jury from any distractions, intrusions or influences, and to permit bench discussions ofthe judge's rulings away from the hearing ofthe public and the jury.","E dey design to protect di witness and di jury from any distractions, intrusions or influences, and to allow bench discussion of di judge's rulings away from di hearing of di public and di jury.",Government
having assigned almost all ofthe available seats in the courtroom to the news media the judge lost his ability to supervise that environment.,Di judge lost hin ability to supervise dat environment.,Government
the movement ofthe reporters in and out ofthe courtroom caused frequent confusion and disruption ofthe trial.,Di movement of di reporters for and out of di courtroom caus frequent confusion and disruption of di trial.,Government
and the record reveals constant commotion within the bar.,Di record reveal constant commotion within di bar.,Government
"moreover, the judge gave the throng of newsmen gathered in the corridors ofthe courthouse absolute free rein.",Di judge give di throng of newsmen wey dey collect for di corridors of di courthouse absolute free rein.,Government
"participants in the trial, including the jury, were forced to run a gantlet of reporters and photographers each time they entered or left the courtroom.",Di jury force to run gantlet of reporters and photographers each time dem enter or left di courtroom.,Government
"the total lack of consideration for the privacy ofthe jury was demonstrated by the assignment to a broadcasting station of space next to the jury room on the floor above the courtroom, as well as the fact that jurors were allowed to make telephone calls during their five-day deliberation.","Di total lack of consideration for di privacy of di jury don demonstrate by di assignment to broadcast station of space next to di jury room on di floor above di courtroom, as well as di fact say jurors go make telephone call during dia five-day deliberation.",Government
there can be no question about the nature ofthe publicity which surrounded sheppard's trial.,Nano question about di nature of di publicity wey dey surround sheppard trial.,Government
"we agree, as did the court of appeals, with the findings in judge bell's opinion for the ohio supreme court: robson the first amendment 128""murder and mystery, society, sex and suspense were combined in this case in such a manner as to intrigue and captivate the public fancy to a degree perhaps unparalleled in recent annals.","Di court of appeal, wit di findings for judge bell's opinion for di ohio supreme court: robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 128""murder and mystery, society, sex and suspense dey combined for dis case for such manner as to intrigue and captivate di public fancy to degree perhaps unparalleled for recent annals.",Government
"throughout the preindictment investigation, the subsequent legal skirmishes and the nine-week trial, circulation -conscious editors catered to the insatiable interest ofthe american public in the bizarre.","Di preindictment investigation, di subsequent legal skirmishes and di nine-week trial, circulation conscious editors cater to di insatiable interest of di american public for di bizarre.",Government
"in this atmosphere of a' roman holiday' for the news media, sam sheppard stood trial for his life.""","Di atmosphere of 'Roman holiday' for di news media, Sam sheppard stood trial for hin life",Government
"indeed, every court that has considered this case, save the court that tried it, has deplored the manner in which the news media inflamed and prejudiced the public.","Di court wey don consider dis case, save di court wey tried am, save di court wey tried am, don deplored di manner wey di news media inflamed and prejudice di public.",Government
"much ofthe material printed or broadcast during the trial was never heard from the witness stand, such as the charges that sheppard had purposely impeded the murder investigation and must be guilty since he had hired a prominent criminal lawyer; that sheppard was a perjurer; that he had sexual relations with numerous women; that his slain wife had characterized him as a ""jekyllhyde""; that he was""a bare-faced liar""because of his testimony as to police treatment; and, finally, that a woman convict claimed sheppard to be the father of her illegitimate child.",Di charges wey sheppard get purposely impeded di murder investigation and must be guilty since sheppard get sexual relations wit numerous women,Government
"as the trial progressed, the newspapers summarized and interpreted the evidence, devoting particular attention to the material that incriminated sheppard, and often drew unwarranted inferences from testimony.","Di newspapers summarize and interpret di evidence, dey devoting particular attention to di material wey incriminated sheppard, and often drew unwarranted inference from testimony.",Government
"at one point, a frontpage picture of mrs. sheppard's bloodstained pillow was published after being ""doctored"" to show more clearly an alleged imprint of a surgical instrument.","Sheppard's bloodstained pillow dey published for one point, a frontpage picture of mrs. sheppard's bloodstained pillow wey dey published for one point, a frontpage picture of mrs",Government
nor is there doubt that this deluge of publicity reached atleast some ofthe jury.,Di deluge of publicity reach atleast some of di jury.,Government
"on the only occasion that the jury was queried, two jurors admitted in open court to hearing the highly inflammatory charge that a prison inmate claimed sheppard as the father of her illegitimate child.","Di jury dey queried, two jurors admitted for open court to hear di highly inflammatory charge wey prison inmate claim sheppard as di father of her illegitimate child.",Government
"despite the extent and nature ofthe publicity to which the jury was exposed during trial, the judge refused defense counsel's other requests that the jurors be asked whether they had read or heard specific prejudicial comment about the case, including the incidents we have previously summarized.","Di judge refused defense counsel's oda request say di Jurors go read or hear specific prejudicial comment about di case, including di incident wey we dey report.",Government
"in these circumstances, we can assume that some of this material reached members ofthe jury.",We fit assume say some of dis material reach members of di jury.,Government
the court's fundamental error is compounded by the holding that it lacked power to control the publicity about the trial.,Di court's fundamental error dey compound by di holding say im lacked power to control di publicity about di trial.,Government
from the very inception ofthe proceedings the judge announced that neither he nor anyone else could restrict prejudicial news accounts.,For di very inception of di proceedings di judge tok say neither hin nor anyone else go restrict prejudicial news account.,Government
and he reiterated this view on numerous occasions.,He reiterated dis view on numerous occasions and hin reiterated dis view on numerous occasions,Government
"since he viewed the news media as his target, th e judge never considered other means that are often utilized to reduce the appearance of prejudicial material and to protect the jury from outside influence.",Di judge never consider oda means wey dey use to reduce di appearance of prejudicial material and to protect di jury from outside influence.,Government
we conclude that these procedures would have been sufficient to guarantee sheppard a fair trial an d so do not consider what sanctions might be available against a recalcitrant press nor the charges of bias now made against the state trial judge.,We conclude say dis procedure go dey sufficient to guarantee sheppard fair trial an d so no consider what sanctions wey dey available against recalcitrant press nor di charge of bias wey dey against di state trial judge.,Government
the carnival atmosphere at trial could easily have been avoided since the courtroom and courthouse premises are subject to the control ofthe court.,Di carnival atmosphere for trial could easily avoid since courtroom and courthouse premises dey subject to di control of di court.,Government
"as we stressed in estes, the presence ofthe press at judicial proceedings must be limited when it is apparent that the accused might otherwise be prejudiced or disadvantaged.",Di presence of di press for judicial proceedings must be limited wen dem dey apparent say di accused go dey prejudiced or disadvantaged.,Government
"bearing in mind the massive pretrial publicity, the judge should have adopted stricter rules governing the use ofthe courtroom by newsmen, as sheppard's counsel requested.","Di judge go adopt stricter rules governing di use of di courtroom by newsmen, as sheppard's counsel request.",Government
the number of reporters in the courtroom itself could have been limited at the first sign that their presence would disrupt the trial.,Di number of reporters for di courtroom wey dey limited for di first sign say dia presence go disrupt di trial.,Government
they certainly should not have been placed inside the bar.,Di bar certainly no dey place inside di bar.,Government
"furthermore, the judge should have more closely regulated the conduct of newsmen in the courtroom.",Di judge go get more closely regulat di conduct of newsmen for di courtroom.,Government
"for instance, the judge belatedly asked them not to handle and photograph trial exhibits lying on the counsel table during recesses.",Di judge belatedly ask dem no handle and photograph trial exhibits wey dem dey lying on di counsel table for recesses.,Government
"secondly, the court should have insulated the witnesses.",Di court go insulate witnesses,Government
"all ofthe newspapers and radio stations apparently interviewed prospective witnesses at will, and in many instances disclosed their testimony.","Di newspaper and radio stations apparently interview prospective witnesses for will, and for many instances disclosed dia testimony.",Government
"a typical example was the publication of numerous statements by susan hayes, before her appearance in court, regarding her love affair with sheppard.","A typical example be di publication of numerous statements by susan hayes, before her appearance for kot, regarding her love affair wit sheppard.",Government
although the witnesses were barred from the courtroom during the trial the full verbatim testimony was available to them in the press.,Di witnesses dey barre from di courtroom for di trial di full verbatim testimony dey available to dem for di press.,Government
this completely nullified the judge's imposition ofthe rule.,Di completely nullified di judge's imposition of di rule.,Government
"thirdly, the court should have made some effort to control the release of leads, information, and gossip to the press by police officers, witnesses, and the counsel for both sides.","Di court go make some effort to control di release of leads, information, and gossip to di press by police officers, witnesses, and di counsel for both sides.",Government
"much ofthe information thus disclosed was inaccurate, leading to groundless rumors and confusion.","Di information wey dey disclosed na inaccurate, leading to groundless rumors and confusion.",Government
"that the robson the first amendment 129 judge was aware of his responsibility in this respect maybe seen from his warning to steve sheppard, the accused's brother, who had apparently made public statements in an attempt to discredit testimony for the prosecution.","Di robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 129 judge dey to know hin responsibility for disrespect go see from hin warning to steve sheppard, di accused's brother, wey dey to know hin responsibility for di prosecution.",Government
"under such circumstances, the judge should have atleast warned the newspapers to check the accuracy of their accounts.",Di judge go warn di newspapers to check di accuracy of dia account,Government
"and it is obvious that the judge should have further sought to alleviate this problem by imposing control over the statements made to the news media by counsel, witnesses, and especially the coroner and police officers.","Di judge go get further sought to alleviate dis problem by imposing control over di statements wey di news media by counsel, witnesses, and especially di coroner and police officers.",Government
the prosecution repeatedly made evidence available to the news media which was never offered in the trial.,Di prosecution repeatedly make evidence available to di news media wey dey offer for di trial.,Government
"much ofthe ""evidence"" disseminated in this fashion was clearly inadmissible.","Di""evidence"" wey dem dey evidence for dis fashion dey clearly inadmisible.",Government
the exclusion of such evidence in court is rendered meaningless when news media make it available to the public.,Di exclusion of such evidence for court dey render meaningless wen news media make dem available to di public.,Government
"for example, the publicity about sheppard's refusal to take a lie detector test came directly from police officers and the coroner.","for example, di publicity about sheppard's refusal to take a lie detector test came directly from police officers and di coroner.",Government
"the story that sheppard had been called a ""jekyllhyde"" personality by his wife was attributed to a prosecution witness.","Sheppard don call a ""jekyllhyde"" personality by hin wife don attribut to prosecution witness.",Government
no such testimony was given.,Nano such testimony dey give.,Government
"the further report that there was""a `bombshell witness' on tap""who would testify as to sheppard's ""fiery temper""could only have emanated from the prosecution.","Di further report say na`bombshell witness' on tap wey go testify as sheppard's ""fiery temper""go only emanate from di prosecution.",Government
"moreover, the newspapers described in detail clues that had been found by the police, but not put into the record.","Di newspapers described detail clues wey dey found by di police, but no put into di record",Government
"the fact that many ofthe prejudicial news items can be traced to the prosecution, as well as the defense, aggravates the judge's failure to take any action.","Di fact say many of di prejudicial news items dey traced to di prosecution, as well as di defense, aggravate di judge's failure to take any action.",Government
"effective control of these sources- concededly within the court's power- might well have prevented the divulgence of inaccurate information, rumors, and accusations that made up much ofthe inflammatory publicity, at least after sheppard's indictment.","Di court's power might well prevent di divulgence of inaccurate information, rumors, and accusations wey dey makeup much of di inflammatory publicity, at least afta sheppard's indictment.",Government
"more specifically, the trial court might well have proscribed extrajudicial statements by any lawyer, party, witness, or court official which divulged prejudicial matters, such as the refusal of sheppard to submit to interrogation or take any lie detector tests; any statement made by sheppard to officials; the identity of prospective witnesses or their probable testimony; any belief in guilt or innocence; or like statements concerning the merits ofthe case.","Di trial court go well dey proscribed extrajudicial statements by any lawyer, party, witness, or court official wey dey publish prejudicial matters, such as di refusal of sheppard to submit to interrogation or take any lie detector tests; any statement wey sheppard to officials; di identity of prospective witnesses or dia probable testimony; any belief for guilt or innocence; or like statements wey dey concern di merit of di case.",Government
"being advised ofthe great public interest in the case, the mass coverage ofthe press, and the potential prejudicial impact of publicity, the court could also have requested the appropriate city and county officials to promulgate a regulation with respect to dissemination of information about the case by their employees.","Di court go request di appropriate city and county officials to promulgate regulation wit respect to dem dey advise di great tin wey concern everybody for society, wey be say e important for all of us for di case, di mass coverage of di press, and di potential prejudicial impact of publicity, di court go request di appropriate city and county officials to promote regulation wit respect to dem dey tin wey concern everybody for society, wey be say e important for all of us for di case by dia employees.",Government
"in addition, reporters who wrote or broadcast prejudicial stories, could have been warned as to the impropriety of publishing material not introduced in the proceedings.","For addition, reporters wey dey write or broadcast prejudicial stories, go warn as to di impropriety of publishing material wey no dey introduced for di proceedings.",Government
the judge was put on notice of such events by defense counsel's complaint about the whk broadcast on the second day of trial.,Di judge be put on notice of such events by defense counsel's complaint about di whk broadcast on di second day of trial.,Government
"in this manner, sheppard's right to a trial free from outside interference would have been given added protection without corresponding curtailment ofthe news media.","For dis manner, sheppard's right to a trial free from outside interference would get been given added protection without corresponding curtailment of di news media.",Government
"had the judge, the other officers ofthe court, and the police placed the interest of justice first, the news media would have soon learned to be content with the task of reporting the case as it unfolded in the courtroom- not pieced together from extrajudicial statements.","Di news media go get soon learn to be content wit di task of reporting di case as dem unfold for di courtroom, and di police place di interest of justice first, di news media go learn to be content wit di task of reporting di case as dem unfold for di courtroom- no piece together from extrajudicial statements.",Government
from the cases coming here we note that unfair and prejudicial news comment on pending trials has become increasingly prevalent.,We note say unfair and prejudicial news comment on pending trials don become increasingly prevalent.,Government
due process requires that the accused receive a trial by an impartial jury free from outside influences.,Di accused receive trial by impartial jury free from outside influences.,Government
"given the pervasiveness of modern communications and the difficulty of effacing prejudicial publicity from the minds ofthe jurors, the trial courts must take strong measures to ensure that the balance is never weighed against the accused.",Di trial court must take strong measures to ensure say di balance no weigh against di accused.,Government
and appellate tribunals have the duty to make an independent evaluation ofthe circumstances.,Di tribunal don get di duty to make independent evaluation of di circumstances.,Government
"ofcourse, there is nothing that proscribes the press from reporting events that transpire in the courtroom.",Di press dey proscribe di press from reporting events wey dey transpire for courtroom.,Government
"but where there is a reasonable likelihood that prejudicial news prior to trial will prevent a fair trial, the judge should continue the case until the threat abates, or transfer it to another county not so permeated with publicity.","Di judge go continue di case until di threat abates, or transfer am to another county no so permeated wit publicity.",Government
"in addition, sequestration ofthe jury was something the judge should have raised sua sponte with counsel.","For addition, sequestration of di jury na something di judge go raise sua sponte wit counsel.",Government
"if publicity during the proceedings threatens the fairness ofthe trial, a new trial should be ordered.","As publicity during di proceedings threaten di fairness of di trial, new trial go order.",Government
but we must remember that reversals are but palliatives; the cure lies in those remedial measures that will prevent the prejudice at its inception.,We must remember say reversals dey but palliatives; di cure lies for those remedial measures wey go prevent di prejudice for its inception.,Government
the courts must take such steps by rule and regulation that will protect their processes from prejudicial outside interferences.,Di court must take such steps by rule and regulation wey go protect dia process from prejudicial outside interferences.,Government
"neither prosecutors, counsel for defense, the accused, witnesses, court staff nor enforcement officers robson the first amendment 130 coming under the jurisdiction ofthe court should be permitted to frustrate its function.","Di prosecutors, counsel for defense, di accused, witnesses, court staff nor enforcement officer robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 130 coming under di jurisdiction of di court.",Government
"collaboration between counsel and the press as to information affecting the fairness of a criminal trial is not only subject to regulation, but is highly censurable and worthy of disciplinary measures.","Di collaboration between counsel and di press as to information affect di fairness of criminal trial no only subject to regulation, but dey highly censurable and worthy of disciplinary measures.",Government
"since the state trial judge did not fulfill his duty to protect sheppard from the inherently prejudicial publicity which saturated the community and to control disruptive influences in the courtroom, we must reverse the denial ofthe habeas petition.","Di state trial judge no fulfill hin duty to protect sheppard from di inherently prejudicial publicity wey dey saturated di community and to control disruptive influences for di courtroom, we must reverse di denial of di habeas petition.",Government
the case is remanded to the district court with instructions to issue the writ and order that sheppard be released from custody unless the state puts him to its charges again within a reasonable time.,Di case dey remanded to di district court wit instructions to issue di writ and order wey sheppard be released from custody unless di state put him to dia charge again within reasonable time.,Government
nebraska press assn.,Di nebraska press assn,Government
"white, j, filed a concurring opinion.","White, j, filed a concurring opinion.",Government
"powell, j, filed a concurring opinion.","Powell, j, filed a concurring opinion.",Government
"brennan, j, filed a concur ring opinion, in which stewart and marshall, j. j, joined.","Di stewart and marshall, j. j, filed a concur ring opinion, wey stewart and marshall, j. j, join.",Government
stevens filed a concu rring opinion.,Stevens filed a concu rring wetin dem talk.,Government
chief justice burger delivered the opinion ofthe court.,Di chief justice burger deliver di opinion of di court,Government
"the respondent state district judge entered an order restraining the petitioners from publishing or broadcasting accounts of confessions or admissions made by the accused or facts""strongly implicative"" ofthe accused in a widely reported murder of six persons.",Di respondent state district judge enter order restraining di petitioners from publishing or broadcast account of confessions or admissions wey dem dey make di accused for a widely reported murder of six persons.,Government
we granted certiorari to decide whether the entry of such an order on the showing made before the state court violated the constitutional guarantee of freedom ofthe press.,We granted certiorari to decide whether di entry of such an order on di showing made before di state kot violated di constitutional promise of freedom for news pipo to do dia work.,Government
"police released the description of a suspect, erwin charles simants, to the reporters who had hastened to the scene ofthe crime.","Di police don release di description of suspect, erwin charles simants, to di reporters wey don get to di scene of di crime.",Government
"simants was arrested and arrai gned in lincoln county court the following morning, ending a tense night for this small rural community.","Dem arrest and arrai gned for lincoln county court di following morning, ending tense night for dis small rural community.",Government
"the crime immediately attracted widespread news coverage, by local, regional, and national newspapers, radio and television stations.","Di crime immediately attracted widespread news coverage, by local, regional, and national newspapers, radio and television stations.",Government
the nebraska supreme court did not rely on the nebraska bar-press guidelines.,Di nebraska supreme court no rely on di nebraska bar-press guidelines.,Government
"after construing nebraska law to permit closure in certain circumstances, the court remanded the case to the district judge for reconsideration ofthe issue whether pretrial hearings should be closed to the press and public.",Di court remanded di case to di district judge for reconsideration of di issue whether pretrial hearings go open to di press and public.,Government
"we granted certiorari to address the important issues raised by the district court order as modified by the nebraska supreme court, but we denied the motion to expedite review or to stay entirely the order ofthe state district court pending simants' trial.","We grant certiorari to address di important issues wey di district court order as modified by di nebraska supreme court, but we denied di motion to expedite review or to stay entirely di order of di state district court pending simants trial.",Government
"we are informed by the parties that since we granted certiorari, sima nts has been convicted of murder and sentenced to death.","Dem inform di parties say since we grant certiorari, sima nts don dey convicted of murder and sentenced to death",Government
his appeal is pending in the nebraska supreme court.,Di supreme court dey pending for di nebraska supreme court,Government
"there were no restraints on publication once the jury was selected, and there are now no robson the first amendment 131 restrictions on what maybe spoken or written about the simants case.","Di jury dey selected, and no robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 131 restrictions wey dem dey write about di simants case.",Government
intervenor simants argues that for this reason the case is moot.,For dis reason di case dey moot,Government
"neither in the constitution nor in contemporaneous writings do we find that the conflict between these two important rights was anticipated, yet it is inconceivable that the authors ofthe constitution were unaware ofthe potential conflicts between the right to an unbiased jury and the guarantee of freedom ofthe press.","We find say di conflict wey between di two important rights dey anticipated, yet e dey inconceivable say di authors of di constitution dey unaware of di potential conflict between di right to unbiased jury and di guarantee of freedom of di press.",Government
the unusually able lawyers who helped write the constitution and later drafted the bill of rights were familiar with the historic episode in which john adams defended british soldiers charged with homicide for firing into a crowd of boston demonstrators; they were intimately familiar with the clash ofthe adversary system and the part that passions ofthe populace sometimes playin influencing potential jurors.,Di unasually able lawyers wey dey help write di constitution and later draft di bill of rights na familiar wit di clash of di adversary system and di part wey passion of di populace sometimes play for influencing potential jurors.,Government
they did not address themselves directly to the situation presented by this case; their chief concern was the need for freedom of expression in the political arena and the dialogue in ideas.,Di chief concern na di need for freedom of expression for di political arena and di dialogue for ideas.,Government
but they recognized that there were risks to private rights from an unfettered press.,Dem recognise say e dey risk to private rights from unfettered press.,Government
"the trial of bruno hauptmann in a small new jersey community for the abduction and murder ofthe charles lindberghs' infant child probably was the most widely covered trial upto that time, and the nature ofthe coverage produced widespread public reaction.","Di trial of bruno hauptmann for small new jersey community for di abduction and murder of di charles lindberghs' infant child probably be di most widely covered trial upto dat time, and di nature of di coverage produce widespread public reaction.",Government
"criticism was directed at the"" carnival""atmosphere that pervaded the community and the courtroom itself.","Di criticism dey direct for di ""carnival"" atmosphere wey dey pervad di community and di courtroom itself.",Government
responsible leaders of press and the legal profession- including other judges- pointed out that much of this sorry performance could have been controlled by a vigilant trial judge and by other public officers subject to the control ofthe court.,Di responsible leaders of press and di legal profession- including oda public officers wey dey subject to di control of di court.,Government
"the excesses of press and radio and lack of responsibility of those in authority in the hauptmann case and others of that era led to efforts to develop voluntary guidelines for courts, lawyers, press, and broadcasters.","Di excesses of press and radio and lack of responsibility of those for authority for di hauptmann case and odas of dat era led to efforts to develop voluntary guidelines for courts, lawyers, press, and broadcasters.",Government
"the effort was renewed in 1965 when the american bar association embarked on a project to develop standards for all aspects of criminal justice, including guidelines to accommodate the right to a fair trial and the rights of a free press.","Di effort don renew for 1965 wen di american bar association embarked on project to develop standards for all aspects of criminal justice, including guidelines to accommodate di right to fair trial and di rights of free press.",Government
"see powell, the right to a fair trial, 51 a.","Di right to fair trial, 51 a.",Government
"the resulting standards, approved by the association in 1968, received support from most ofthe legal profession.","Di resulting standards, approved by di association for 1968, receive support from most of di legal profession",Government
"american bar association project on standards for criminal justice, fair trial and free press(approved draft 1968).","American bar association project on standards for criminal justice, fair trial and free news pipo (approved draft 1968).",Government
other groups have undertaken similar studies.,Di group don undertaken similar studies,Government
reporters from distant places are unlikely to consider themselves bound by local standards.,Di reporters from distance places dey unlike to consider themselves bound by local standards.,Government
"they report to editors outside the area covered by the guidelines, and their editors are likely to be guided only by their own standards.","Di editors dey likely to report to editors outside di area wey deycovered by di guidelines, and dia editors dey likely to guided only by dia own standards.",Government
"to contemplate how a state court can control acts of a newspaper or broadcaster outside its jurisdiction, even though the newspapers and broadcasts reach the very community from which jurors are to be selected, suggests something ofthe practical difficulties of managing such guidelines.","Di state court don control acts of newspaper or broadcaster outside di jurisdiction, even though di newspapers and broadcasts dey reach di very community from which jurors dey selected, suggest something of di practical difficulties of managing such guidelines.",Government
"the problems presented in this case have a substantial history outside the reported decisions of courts, in the efforts of many responsible people to accommodate the competing interests.","Di problem wey dey present for dis case don dey substantial history outside di reported decision of courts, for di efforts of many responsible pipo to accommodate di competing interests.",Government
"we cannot resolve all of them, for it is not the function of this court to write a code.","We cannot resolve all of dem, for e no dey di function of dis court to write code.",Government
we look instead to this particular case and the legal context in which it arises.,We look instead to dis particular case and di legal context wey dey arise.,Government
in federal criminal prosecutions.,Na federal criminal prosecutions for federal criminal prosecutions,Government
"because""trial by jury in criminal cases is fundamental to the american scheme of robson the first amendment 132 justice,""the due process clause ofthe fourteenth amendment guarantees the same right in state criminal prosecutions.",Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system clause of di fourteenth amendment guarantee di same right for state criminal prosecutions.,Government
duncan v. louisiana(1968).,Di duncan v. louisiana(1968).,Government
"but when the case is a""sensational"" one tensions develop between the right ofthe accused to trial by an impartial jury and the rights guaranteed others by the first amendment.",Di case dey sensational one tension wey dey develop between di right of di accused to trial by impartial jury and di rights wey dem guarantee oda by di firstamendment.,Government
"the capacity ofthe jury eventually impaneled to decide the case fairly is influenced by the tone and extent ofthe publicity, which is in part, and often in large part, shaped by what attorneys, police, and other officials do to precipitate news coverage.","Di capacity of di jury eventually impaneled to decide di case fairly influence di tone and extent of di publicity, wey dey for part, and often for large part, wey attorneys, police, and oda officials do to precipitate news coverage.",Government
the trial judge has a major responsibility.,Di trial judge don take major responsibility,Government
"what the judge says about a case, in or out ofthe courtroom, is likely to appear in newspapers and broadcasts.","Di judge tok about case, for or out of di courtroom, dey likely to appear for newspapers and broadcasts.",Government
"more important, the measures a judge takes or fails to take to mitigate the effects of pretrial publicity- the measures described in sheppard- may well determine whether the defendant receives a trial consistent with the requirements of due process.",Di measures wey judge take or fail to take to mitigate di effects of pretrial publicity- di measures wey judge take or fail to take to mitigate di effects of pretrial publicity- di measures wey judge take or fail to take to mitigate di effects of pretrial publicity- di measures wey described for sheppard- go well determine whether di defendant receive trial consistent wit di requirements of Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system.,Government
that this responsibility has not always been properly discharged is apparent from the decisions just reviewed.,Dis responsibility no always dey properly discharge,Government
"what we must decided is not simply whether the nebraska courts erred in seeing the possibility of real danger to the defendant's rights, but whether in the circumstances of this case the means employed were foreclosed by another provision ofthe constitution.","Nano simply wia di nebraska courts dey erre for seeing di possibility of real danger to di defendant's rights, but whether for di circumstances of dis case di means employed dey foreclosed by another provision of di constitution.",Government
abridging the freedom.,Di freedom.,Government
"ofthe press,""and it is""no longer open to doubt that the liberty ofthe press, and of speech, is within the liberty safeguarded by the due process clause ofthe fourteenth amendment from invasion by state action.""","Di liberty of di press, and of speech, dey inside di liberty safeguarded by di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system clause of di fourteenth amendment from invasion by state action.",Government
near v. minnesota ex rel.,Di nnesota ex rel.,Government
"the court has interpreted these guarantees to afford special protection against orders that prohibit the publication or broadcast of particular information or commentary- orders that impose a""previous"" or""prior"" restraint on speech.","Di court don interpret dis guarantees to afford special protection against orders wey prohibit di publication or broadcast of particular information or commentary- orders wey impose a""previous"" or""prior"" restraint on speech.",Government
"none of our decided cases on prior restraint involved restrictive orders entered to protect a defendant's right to a fair and impartial jury, but the opinions on prior restraint have a common thread relevant to this case.","Na none of awa decided cases on Wetin dem dey call prior restraint be say government no go gree make person talk or write wetin dem wan write before dem publish am, na like say government dey hold person mouth before dem talk involve restrictive orders wey dey enter to protect defendant right to fair and impartial jury, but di opinions on Wetin dem dey call prior restraint be say government no go gree make person talk or write wetin dem wan write before dem publish am, na like say government dey hold person mouth before dem talk don involve restrictive orders wey dey enter to protect defendant right to fair and impartial jury, but di opinions on Wetin dem dey call prior restraint be say government no go gree make person talk or write wetin dem wan write before dem publish am, na like say government dey hold person mouth before dem talk don common thread relevant to dis case.",Government
a criminal penalty or a judgment in a defamation case is subject to the whole panoply of protections afforded by deferring the impact ofthe judgment until all avenues of appellate review have been exhausted.,Di criminal penalty or judgment for di defamation case dey subject to di whole panoply of protections afforded by deferring di impact of di judgment until all avenues of appellate review dey exhausted.,Government
"only after judgment has become final, correct or otherwise, does the law's sanction become fully operative.",Di law's sanction become fully operative.,Government
"a prior restraint, by contrast and by definition, has an immediate and irreversible sanction.","Di Wetin dem dey call prior restraint be say government no go gree make person talk or write wetin dem wan write before dem publish am, na like say government dey hold person mouth before dem talk, by contrast and by definition, don immediate and irreversible sanction.",Government
"if it can be said that a threat of criminal or civil sanctions after publication""chills"" speech, prior restraint""freezes"" it atleast for the time.","If threat of criminal or civil sanctions before publication""chill"" speech, Wetin dem dey call prior restraint be say government no go gree make person talk or write wetin dem wan write before dem publish am, na like say government dey hold person mouth before dem talk""freeze"" am for di time.",Government
the damage can be particularly great when th e prior restraint falls upon the communication of news and commentary on current events.,"Di damage dey particularly great wen di Wetin dem dey call prior restraint be say government no go gree make person talk or write wetin dem wan write before dem publish am, na like say government dey hold person mouth before dem talk fall upon di communication of news and commentary on current events.",Government
truthful reports of public judicial proceedings have been afforded special protection against subsequent punishment.,Di truthful report of public judicial proceedings don afford special protection against subsequentpunishment.,Government
"for the same reasons the protection against prior restraint should have particular force as applied to reporting of criminal proceedings, whether the crime in question is a single isolated actor a pattern of criminal conduct.","For di same reasons di protection against Wetin dem dey call prior restraint be say government no go gree make person talk or write wetin dem wan write before dem publish am, na like say government dey hold person mouth before dem talk go have particular force as applied to reporting of criminal proceedings, whether di crime for question dey single isolated actor pattern of criminal conduct.",Government
it is not asking too much to suggest that those who exercise first amendment rights in newspapers or broadcasting enterprises direct some effort to protect the rights of an accused to a fair trial by unbiased jurors.,Dem no ask too much to suggest say those wey exercise First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) rights for newspapers or broadcast enterprises direct some effort to protect di rights of an accused to fair trial by unbiased jurors.,Government
"ofcourse, the order at issue- like the order requested in new york times- does not prohibit but only postpones publication.",Di order for issue- like di order request for new york times- no prohibit but only postpones publication.,Government
"some news can be delayed and most commentary can even more readily be delayed without serious injury, and there often is a self-imposed delay when responsible editors call robson the first amendment 133 for verification of information.",Dem call robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 133 for verification of information.,Government
but such delays are normally slight and they are self-imposed.,Di delays dey normally slight and dem dey self-imposed,Government
delays imposed by governmental authority area different matter.,"Di delays imposed by tori wey dey come from ogbonge pipul for govment, wey dem dey use am take kontrol or komand dey different matter.",Government
"in this case, the petitioners would have us declare the right of an accused subordinate to their right to publish in all circumstances.",Di petitioners go declare di right of accused subordinate to dia right to publish for all circumstances.,Government
"but if the authors of these guarantees, fully aware ofthe potential conflicts between them, were unwilling or unable to resolve the issue by assigning to one priority over the other, it is not for us to rewrite the constitution by undertaking what they declined to do.","If di authors of dis guarantees, fullyaware of di potential conflicts wey dem between dem, dey unwilling or unable to resolve di issue by assign to one priority over di oda, e no dey for us to rewrite di constitution by undertaking what dem decline to do.",Government
"it is unnecessary, after nearly two centuries, to establish a priority applicable in all circumstances.","E dey unnecessary, afta nearly two centuries, to establish priority wey dey applicable for all circumstances.",Government
y et it is nonetheless clear that the barriers to prior restraint remain high unless we are to abandon what the court has said for nearly a quarter of our national existence and implied throughout all of it.,"Dem no dey clear say di barriers to Wetin dem dey call prior restraint be say government no go gree make person talk or write wetin dem wan write before dem publish am, na like say government dey hold person mouth before dem talk remain high unless we dey abandon what di court don tok for nearly quarter of awa national existence and implied throughout all of am.",Government
"the history of even wartime suspension of categorical guarantees, such as habeas corpus or the right to trial by civilian courts, see ex parte milligan (1867), cautions against suspending explicit guarantees.","Di history of even wartime suspension of categorical guarantees, such as Legal order wey say government must bring person in custody to court to justify holding dem or di right to trial by civilian courts, see ex parte milligan (1867), cautions against suspending explicit guarantees.",Government
the precise terms ofthe restraining order are also important.,Di precise terms of di restraining order dey important.,Government
"we must then consider whether the record supports the entry of a prior restraint on publication, one ofthe most extraordinary remedies known to our jurisprudence.","We must consider whether di record support di entry of Wetin dem dey call prior restraint be say government no go gree make person talk or write wetin dem wan write before dem publish am, na like say government dey hold person mouth before dem talk on publication, one of di most extraordinary remedies wey we dey known to awa jurisprudence.",Government
"a in assessing the probable extent of publicity, the trial judge had before him newspapers demonstrating that the crime had already drawn intensive news coverage, and the testimony ofthe county judge, who had entered the initial restraining order based on the local and national attention the case had attracted.","Di trial judge don before him newspapers show say di crime don draw intensive news coverage, and di testimony of di county judge, wey don enter di initial restraining order based on di local and national attention di case don attract.",Government
the district judge was required to assess the probable publicity that would be given these shocking crimes prior to the time a jury was selected and sequestered.,Di district judge dey required to assess di probable publicity wey go give dis shocking crimes prior to di time a jury dey selected and sequestered.,Government
he then had to examine the probable nature ofthe publicity and determine how it would affect prospective jurors.,He tok say hin tok e di probable nature of di publicity and determine howe go affect prospective jurors.,Government
our review ofthe pretrial record persuades us that the trial judge was justified in concluding that there would be intense and pervasive pretrial publicity concerning this case.,Di review of di pretrial record persuade us say di trial judge dey justified for concluding say e go be intense and pervasive pretrial publicity concerning dis case.,Government
"he could also reasonably conclude, based on common human experience, that publicity might impair the defendant's right to a fair trial.","E go also conclude, based on common human experience, say publicity go impair di defendant's right to fair trial.",Government
"he did not purport to say more, for he found only""a clear and present danger that pre-trial publicity could impinge upon the defendant's right to a fair trial.""","Di defendant no purport to say more, for hin find only""a clear and present danger wey pre-trial publicity go impinge upon di defendant's right to fair trial",Government
"his conclusion as to the impact of such publicity on prospective jurors was of necessity speculative, dealing ashe was with factors unknown and unknowable.","Di impact of such publicity on prospective jurors dey of necessity speculative, dealing ashe dey wit factors unknown and unknowable.",Government
"b we find little in the record that goes to another aspect of our task, determining whether measures short of an order restraining all publication would have insured the defendant a fair trial.","We find little for di record wey dey goto one aspect of awa task, determining whether measure short of order restraining all publication go fit insured di defendant fair trial.",Government
"although the entry ofthe order might be read as a judicial determination that other measures would not suffice, the trial court made no express findings to that effect; the nebraska supreme court referred to the issue only by implication.",Di nebraska supreme court make no express findings to dat effect; di trial court make no express findings to dat effect; di trial court make no express findings to dat effect; di trial court make no express findings to dat effect; di trial court make no express findings to dat effect; di trial court make no express findings to dat effect; di trial court make no express findings to dat effect; di trial court make no express findings to dat effect; di trial court make no express findings to dat effect; di trial court make no express,Government
"there is no finding that alternative measures would not have protected simants' rights, and the nebraska supreme court did no more than imply that such measures might not be adequate.","Di nebraska supreme court don no find say alternative measures go no dey protected simants' rights, and di nebraska supreme court no more than imply say such measures no dey adequate.",Government
"moreover, the record is lacking in evidence to support such a finding.",Di record dey lacking for evidence to support such finding,Government
"c we must also assess the probable efficacy of prior restraint on publication as a workable method of protecting simants' right to a fair trial, and we cannot ignore the reality ofthe problems of managing and enforcing pretrial restraining orders.","Di probable efficacy of Wetin dem dey call prior restraint be say government no go gree make person talk or write wetin dem wan write before dem publish am, na like say government dey hold person mouth before dem talk on publication as workable method of protecting simants' right to fair trial, and we no ignore di reality of di problem of managing and enforcing pretrial restraining orders.",Government
"the territorial jurisdiction ofthe issuing court is limited by robson the first amendment 134 concepts of sovereignty, see, e. g, hanson v. denckla (1958); pennoyer v. neff (1878).","E. g, hanson v. denckla (1958); pennoyer v. neff (1878).",Government
the need for in personam jurisdiction also presents an obstacle to a restraining order that applies to publication at large as distinguished from restraining publication within a given jurisdiction.,Di need for in personam jurisdiction also present obstacle to restraining order wey dey appli to publication for large as distinguished from restraining publication within a given jurisdiction.,Government
"it is reasonable to assume that, without any news accounts being printed or broadcast, rumors would travel swiftly by word of mouth.","Di reasonable t assume say, without any news account wey dey printed or broadcast, rumors go travel swiftly by word of mouth.",Government
"one can only speculate on the accuracy of such reports, given the generative propensities of rumors; they could well be more damaging than reasonably accurate news accounts.","One go only speculate on di accuracy of such report, given digenerative propensities of rumors; dem go well be more damaging than reasonably accurate news account.",Government
but plainly a whole community cannot be restrained from discussing a subject intimately affecting life within it.,But plainly a whole community no dey restrained from discuss a subject wey dey affect life within am.,Government
"given these practical problems, it is far from clear that prior restraint on publication would have protected simants' rights.","E dey far from clear say Wetin dem dey call prior restraint be say government no go gree make person talk or write wetin dem wan write before dem publish am, na like say government dey hold person mouth before dem talk on publication go get protected simants' rights",Government
"d finally, another feature of this case leads us to conclude that the restrictive order entered here is not supportable.",Di feature of dis case lead us to conclude say di restrictive order entered here no supportable.,Government
"to the extent that this order prohibited the reporting of evidence adduced at the open preliminary hearing, it plainly violated settled principles:""[t]here is nothing that proscribes the press from reporting events that transpire in the courtroom.""","Di order prohibite di reporting of evidence wey dey collect for di open preliminary hearing, e plainly violated settled principles:""[t]here dey nothing wey dey proscribe di press from reporting events wey dey transpire for di courtroom",Government
"the county court could not know that closure ofthe preliminary hearing was an alternative open to it until the nebraska supreme court so construed state law; but once a public hearing had been held, what transpired there could not be subject to prior restraint.","Di county court no know say closure of di preliminary hearing na alternative open to am until di nebraska supreme court so dey construct state law; but once a preliminary hearing no dey open to am until di nebraska supreme court no know say closure of di preliminary hearing no be subject to Wetin dem dey call prior restraint be say government no go gree make person talk or write wetin dem wan write before dem publish am, na like say government dey hold person mouth before dem talk.",Government
the third prohibition ofthe order was defective in another respect aswell.,Di third prohibition of di order dey defective for one respect aswell.,Government
"as part of a final order, entered after plenary review, this prohibition regarding ""implic ative"" information is too vague and too broad to survive the scrutiny we have given to restraints on first amendment rights.",Di prohibition regarding implic ative information dey too vague and too broad to survive di scrutiny wey we don give to restraints on First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) rights.,Government
the third phase ofthe order entered falls outside permissible limits.,Di second phase of di order entered falls outside permissible limits.,Government
"e the record demonstrates, as the nebraska courts held, that there was indeed a risk that pretrial news accounts, true or false, would have some adverse impact on the attitudes of those who might be called as jurors.","Di record demonstrate, as di nebraska courts hold, say e dey risk say pretrial news account, true or true, go get some adverse impact on di attitude of those wey dey call as jurors.",Government
"but on the record now before us it is not clear that further publicity, unchecked, would so distort the views of potential jurors that 12 could not be found who would, under proper instructions, fulfill their sworn duty to render a just verdict exclusively on the evidence presented in open court.","Di record now before us no clear say further publicity, unchecked, go so distort di views of potential Jurors wey 12 no fit find wey go, under proper instructions, fulfill dia sworn duty to render just verdict exclusively on di evidence wey dey present for open court.",Government
we cannot say on this record that alternatives to a prior restraint on petitioners would not have sufficiently mitigated the adverse effects of pretrial publicity so as to make prior restraint unnecessary.,"We no say on dis record say alternative to Wetin dem dey call prior restraint be say government no go gree make person talk or write wetin dem wan write before dem publish am, na like say government dey hold person mouth before dem talk on petitioners no get sufficiently mitigated di adverse effects of pretrial publicity so as to make Wetin dem dey call prior restraint be say government no go gree make person talk or write wetin dem wan write before dem publish am, na like say government dey hold person mouth before dem talk unnecessary.",Government
nor can we conclude that the restraining order actually entered would serve its intended purpose.,We conclude say di restraining order actually entered go serve its intended purpose.,Government
"reasonable minds can have few doubts about the gravity ofthe evil pretrial publicity can work, but the probability that it would do so here was not demonstrated with the degree of certainty our cases on prior restraint require.","Di reasonable minds don get doubt about di gravity of di evil pretrial publicity don work, but di probability say e go do so here no demonstrate wit di degree of certainty wey awa case on Wetin dem dey call prior restraint be say government no go gree make person talk or write wetin dem wan write before dem publish am, na like say government dey hold person mouth before dem talk require.",Government
of necessity our holding is confined to the record before us.,Di holding dey confined to di record before us.,Government
"but our conclusion is not simply a result of assessing the adequacy ofthe showing made in this case; it results in part from the problems inherent in meeting the heavy burden of demonstrating, in advance of trial, that without prior restraint a fair trial will be denied.","Di conclusion no simply result of assess di adequacy of di showing make for dis case; e result for part from di problem wey dey meeting di heavy burden of demonstrating, for advance of trial, say without prior restraint a fair trial go denied.",Government
the practical problems of managing and enforcing restrictive orders will always be present.,Di practical problems of managing and enforcing restrictive orders will always be present.,Government
"in this sense, the record now before us is illustrative rather than exceptional.",Di record now before us dey illustrative no be exceptional,Government
"it is significant that when this court h as reversed a state conviction because of prejudicial publicity, it has carefully noted that some course of action short of prior restraint would have made a critical difference.","Di court h as reversed state conviction because of prejudicial publicity, e don carefully note say some course of action short of Wetin dem dey call prior restraint be say government no go gree make person talk or write wetin dem wan write before dem publish am, na like say government dey hold person mouth before dem talk go make critical difference.",Government
"however difficult it maybe, we need not rule out the possibility of showing the kind of threat to fair trial rights that would possess the requisite degree of certainty to justify restraint.",We need rule out di possibility of show di kind of threat to fair trial rights wey go possess di requisite degree of certainty to justify restraint.,Government
this court has frequently denied that first amendment rights are absolute and has consistently rejected the proposition that a prior restraint can never be employed.,Di court don frequently denied say First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) rights dey absolute and don consistently reject di proposition say a prior restraint no be employed,Government
"robson the first amendment 135 our analysis ends as it began, with a confrontation between prior restraint imposed to protect one vital constitutional guarantee and the explicit command of another that the freedom to speak and publish shall not be abridged.","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 135 wey dey end as e began, wit confrontation between Wetin dem dey call prior restraint be say government no go gree make person talk or write wetin dem wan write before dem publish am, na like say government dey hold person mouth before dem talk imposed to protect one vital constitutional guarantee and di explicit command of another say di freedom to speak and publish no be abridged.",Government
"we reaffirm that the guarantees of freedom of expression are not an absolute prohibition under all circumstances, but the barriers to prior restraint remain high and the presumption against its use continues intact.","We reaffirm say di guarantee of freedom of expression no dey absolute prohibition under all circumstances, but di barriers to Wetin dem dey call prior restraint be say government no go gree make person talk or write wetin dem wan write before dem publish am, na like say government dey hold person mouth before dem talk remain high and di presumption against its use continue intact.",Government
"we hold that, with respect to the order entered in this case prohibiting reporting or commentary on judicial proceedings held in public, the barriers have not been overcome; to the extent that this order restrained publication of such material, it is clearly invalid.","We hold say, wit respect to di order entered for dis case prohibiting reporting or commentary on judicial proceedings wey dey public, di barriers no dey overcome; to di extent say disorder restrained publication of such material, na clearly invalid.",Government
"to the extent that it prohibited publication based on information gained from other sources, we conclude that the heavy burden imposed as a condition to securing a prior restraint was not met and the judgment ofthe nebraska supreme court is therefore reversed.","We conclude say di heavy burden impose as condition to securing a Wetin dem dey call prior restraint be say government no go gree make person talk or write wetin dem wan write before dem publish am, na like say government dey hold person mouth before dem talk no dey met and di judgment of di nebraska supreme court dey reversed.",Government
[concurring opinions omitted].,Di opinions omitted [concurring opinion omitted].,Government
why did the framers not assess the relative values ofthe first and sixth(or fifth)amendments?,Di framers no assess di relative value of di first and sixth(or fifth)amendments?,Government
"in general, do you think the first amendment should""trump"" defendants' rights?","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) go""trump"" defendants' rights?",Government
both sheppard and stuart raise issues about the ethics ofthe press.,Di sheppard and stuart raise issues about di ethics of di press.,Government
"how does a hierarchy of""press"" entities play into the opinions?","How does a hierarchy of""news pipo"" entities play into di opinions?",Government
"what contemporary definitions of""press"" are implicated by the opinions?","Di contemporary definition of""press"" dey implicate by di opinion?",Government
"in addition to""prior restraint""of publication, a state could regulate attorney speech to the press through its professional responsibility rules as imposed upon lawyers.",Di state go regulate attorney speech to di press through dia professional responsibility rules as dem impose upon lawyers.,Government
"in gentile v. state bar of nevada,501 u. s. 1030 (1991), a very fractured court considered a disciplinary rule which prohibited lawyers from making extrajudicial statements to the press that they know or reasonably should know will have a""substantial likelihood of materially prejudicing"" an adjudicative proceeding, although it also provided that""notwithstanding"" this provision lawyers""may state without elaboration.","Na very fractured court cons wey dey idered a disciplinary rule wey prohibit lawyers from make extrajudicial statements to di press wey dem know or reasonably go know go get a""substantial likelihood of materially prejudicing"" di adjudicative proceeding, although e also provided say""notwithstanding"" dis provision lawyers wey dem know or reasonably go know say dem no know or reasonably go know say dem no fit know say dem dey suppose make extrajudicial statements to",Government
the general nature ofthe.,Di general nature of di.,Government
"the court found that the rule and its exception were void for vagueness, concluding that it creates a trap for the wary aswell as the unwary.","Di court find say di rule and its exception dey void for vagueness, concluding say e create trap for di wary aswell as di unwary",Government
"however, the court found that the rule's language prohibiting""substantial likelihood of materially prejudicing"" statements by attorneys was a constitutionally permissible balance between the first amendment rights of attorneys in pending cases and the state's interest in fair trials.","Di court find say di rule's language prohibiting""substantial likelihood of materially prejudicing"" statements by attorneys for pending case and di state interest for fair trials.",Government
do you know the professional responsibility rules in the state where you intend to practice regarding interactions with the press?,Di professional responsibility rules for di state wey you intend to practice regarding interaction wit di press?,Government
do you feel confident you could abide by them?,I feel confident you go abide by dem?,Government
do you have personal values regarding dealing with the press as an attorney?,Dem have personal values regarding dealing wit di press as attorney?,Government
"how would you define""press"" in these instances?","If you define""press"" for dis instances?",Government
robson the first amendment 136 b.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 136 b.,Government
"the press as a party in civil litigation seattle times co. v. rhinehart 467 u. s. 20(1984) powell, j, delivered the opinion for a unanimous court.","Di news pipo as a party for civil litigation seattle times co. v. rhinehart 467 u. s. 20(1984) powell, j, delivered di opinion for a unanimous kot.",Government
"brennan, j, filed a concurring opinion, in which marshall, j, joined.","Di brennan, j, filed a concurring pinion, wey marshall, j, join.",Government
justice powell delivered the opinion ofthe court.,Dem deliver di opinion of di court.,Government
"this case presents the issue whether parties to civil litigation have a first amendment right to disseminate, in advance of trial, information gained through the pretrial discovery process.","Di case present di issue wey parties to civil litigation get First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) right to dey amend, for di dvance of trial, information gain through di pretrial discovery process.",Government
"the foundation has fewer than 1, 000 members, most of whom live in the state of washington.","Di foundation don fewer than 1, 000 members, most of whom live for di state of washington.",Government
aquarian beliefs include life after death and the ability to communicate with the dead through a medium.,Aquarian beliefs include life after death and di ability to communicate wit di dead through a medium.,Government
rhinehart is the primary aquarian medium.,Di primary aquarian medium.,Government
"in recent years, the seattle times and the walla walla union-bulletin have published stories about rhine hart and the foundation.",Di seattle times and di walla union bulletin don publish stories about rhine hart and di foundation.,Government
"altogether 11 articles appeared in the newspapers during the years 1973, 1978, and 1979.","For di years 1973, 1978, and 1979.",Government
the five articles that appeared in 1973 focused on rhinehart and the manner in which he operated the foundation.,Di five articles wey dey appear for 1973 focus on rhinehart and di manner wey hin operat di foundation.,Government
they described seances conducted by rhinehart in which people paid him to put them in touch with deceased relatives and friends.,Dem described seances conducted by rhinehart for which pipo pay am to put dem in touch wit deceased relatives and friends.,Government
"the articles also stated that rhinehart had sold magical""stones"" that had been""expelled"" from his body.","Di article also state say rhinehart don sold magical""stones"" wey dey expelled from hin bodi.",Government
"one article referred to rhinehart's conviction, la ter vacated, for sodomy.","Di one article wey rhinehart's conviction, la dey vacated, for sodomy",Government
"the four articles that appeared in 1978 concentrated on an ""extravaganza"" sponsored by rhinehart at the walla walla state penitentiary.","Di four articles wey appear for 1978 concentrate on ""extravaganza"" wey rhinehart for di walla state penitentiary.",Government
"the articles stated that he had treated 1, 100 inmates to a6-hour -long show, during which he gave away between$35, 000 and$50, 000 in cash and prizes.","Di article state say hin don treated 1, 100 inmates to 6-hour -long show, during which hin gave away between$35, 000 and$50, 000 for cash and prizes.",Government
"one article described a""chorus line of girls[who] shed their gowns and bikinis and sang.",Di article described achorus line of girls wey dey shed dia gowns and bikinis and sang.,Government
"the two articles that appeared in 1979 referred to a purported connection between rhinehart and lou f errigno, star ofthe popular television program,""the incredible hulk.""","Di two articles wey dey appear for 1979 relate to purported connection between rhinehart and lou f errigno, star of di popular television program,""the incredible hulk""",Government
five female members ofthe foundation who had participated in the presentation at the penitentiary joined the suit as plaintiffs.,Di five female members of di foundation wey dey participate for di presentation for di penitentiary join di suit as plaintiffs.,Government
"the complaint alleges that the articles contained statements that were""fictional an d untrue,""and that the defendants- petitioners here- knew, or should have known, they were false.","Di complaint allege say di article contain statements wey dey fictional an d untrue, and say di defendants- petitioners here- know, or go know, dem dey true.",Government
"according to the complaint, the articles""did and were calculated to hold [rhinehart] upto public scorn, hatred and ridicule, and to impeach his honesty, integrity, virtue, religious philosophy, reputation as a person and in his profession as a spiritual leader.""","Di article""did and dey calculated to hold [rhinehart] upto public scorn, hatred and ridicule, and to impeach hin honesty, integrity, virtue, religious philosophy, reputation as a person and for hin profession as spiritual leader",Government
"with respect to the foundation, the complaint also states:""[t]he articles have, or may have had, the effect of discouraging contributions by the membership and public and thereby diminished the financial ability ofthe foundation to pursue its corporate purposes.""","Di complaint also states:""[t]he articles don, or may have, di effect of discouraging contributions by di membership and public and thereby di financial ability of di foundation to pursue its corporate purposes.",Government
"the complaint alleges that the articles misrepresented the role ofthe foundation's""choir"" and falsely implied that female members ofthe foundation had""stripped off all their clothes and wantonly danced naked.","Di complaint allege say di article misrepresented di role of di foundation's""choir"" and falsely implied say female members of di foundation don""stripped off all dia clothes and wantonly dance naked",Government
"the complaint requests$14, 100, 000 in damages for the alleged defamation and invasions of privacy.","Di complaint request$14, 100, 000 for damages for di alleged defamation and invasion of privacy",Government
"petitioners filed an answer, denying many ofthe allegations ofthe complaint and asserting affirmative defenses.","Di petitioners don filed answer, denying many of di allegations of di complaint and assert affirmative defenses.",Government
petitioners promptly initiated extensive discovery.,Di petitioners promptly initiat extensive discovery,Government
"they deposed rhinehart, requested production of documents pertaining to the financial affairs of rhinehart and the robson the first amendment 137 foundation, and served extensive interrogatori es on rhinehart and the other respondents.","Di financial affairs of rhinehart and di robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 137 foundation, and served extensive interrogatories on rhinehart and di oda respondents.",Government
"respondents turned over a number of financial documents, including several of rhinehart's income tax returns.","Di respondents don turnover number of financial documents, including several of rhinehart's income tax returns.",Government
"respondents refused, however, to disclose certain financial information,4 the identity ofthe foundation's donors during the preceding 10 years, and a list of its members during that period.","Respondents refused, but, to disclose certain financial information,4 di identity of di foundation's donors during di preceding 10 years, and a list of im members during say period.",Government
petitioners filed a motion under the state's civil rule 37 requesting an order compelling discovery.,Di petitioners filed motion under di state civil rule 37 request order compelling discovery.,Government
"in their supporting memorandum, petitioners recognized that the principal issue as to discovery was respondents'""refusa[l] to permit any effective inquiry into their financial affairs, such as the source of their donations, their financial transactions, uses of their wealth and assets, and their financial condition in general.""","Di principal issue as to discovery na respondents'""refusa[l] to permit any effective inquiry into dia financial affairs, such as di source of dia donations, dia financial transaction, uses of dia wealth and assets, and dia financial condition forge neral",Government
"respondents opposed the motion, arguing in particular that compelled production ofthe identities ofthe foundation's donors and members would violate the first amendment rights of members and donors to privacy, freedom of religion, and freedom of association.","Di respondents oppose di motion, arguin especially say di foundation's donors and members go violate First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) rights of members and donors to privacy, freedom of religion, and freedom of association.",Government
respondents also moved for a protective order preventing petitioners from disseminating any information gained through discovery.,Di respondents also move for protective order prevent petitioners from dey,Government
"respondents noted that petitioners had stated their intention to continue publishing articles about respondents a nd this litigation, and their intent to use information gained through discovery in future articles.","Dem tok say petitioners don state dia intention to continue publish articles about respondents a nd dis litigation, and dia intent to use information gain through discovery for future articles.",Government
"in a lengthy ruling, the trial court initially granted the motion to compel and ordered respondents to identify all donors who made contributions during th e five years preceding the date ofthe complaint, along with the amounts donated.","Di trial court don grant di motion to compel and ordered respondents to identify all donors wey make contributions during th e five years preceding di date of di complaint, along wit di amount wey dey donated.",Government
they submitted affidavits of several foundation members to support their request.,Dem submit affidavit of several foundation members to support dia request.,Government
"persuaded by these affidavits, the trial court issued a protective order covering all information obtained through the discovery process that pertained to""the financial affairs ofthe various plaintiffs, the names and addresses of aquarian foundation members, contributors, or clients, and the names and addresses of those who have been contributors, clients, or donors to any ofthe various plaintiffs.""","Di trial court issue protective order wey dey covering all information wey dey collect through di discovery process wey dey pertained to "" di financial affairs of di various plaintiffs, di names and addresses of aquarian foundation members, contributors, clients, or donors to any of di various plaintiffs.",Government
"the order prohibited petitioners from publishing, disseminating, or using the information in anyway except where necessary to prepare f or and try the case.","Di order prohibited petitioners from publishing, disseminating, or using di information for anyway except where necessary to prepare f or and try di case.",Government
"by its terms, the order did not apply to information gained by means other than the discovery process.",Di order no apply to information gained by means oda than di discovery process.,Government
"in an accompanying opinion, the trial court recognized that the protective order would restrict petitioners' right to publish information obtained by discovery, but the court reasoned that the restriction was necessary to avoid the""chilling effect""that dissemination would have on""a party's willingness to bring his case to court.""","Di trial court tok say di protective order go restrict petitioners' right to publish information wey dem dey publish, but di court tok say di restriction dey necessary to avoid di""one kind situation wey dey make journalists fear to yarn wetin dem wan yarn, because dem dey fear say dem go suffer consequence, like say dem go censor dem, punish dem, or pipo go backlash dem"" wey dem don get on""a party's willingness to bring hin case to court.",Government
"respondents appealed from the trial court's production order, and petitioners appealed from the protective order.","Respondents appealed from di trial kot' production order, and petitioners appealed from di protective order.",Government
the supreme court of washington affirmed both.,Di supreme court of washington don affirm both,Government
we granted certiorari to resolve the conflict.,We grant certiorari to resolve di conflict.,Government
"rule 26(b)(1)provides that a party""may obtain discovery regarding any matter, not privileged, which is relevant to the subject matter involved in the pending action.""","Di rule 26(b)(1)provide say parti ""may obtain discovery regarding any matter, no privileged, wey dey relevant to di subject matter wey dey involved for di pending action",Government
"it further provides that discovery is not limited to matters that will be admissible at trial so long as the information sought""appears reasonably calculated to lead to the discovery of admissible evidence.""","Di information sought say discovery no dey limited to matters wey dey admissible for trial so long as di information sought""appear reasonably calculated to lead to di discovery of admissible evidence.",Government
the rules do not differentiate between information that is private or intimate and that to which no privacy interests attach.,Di rules no differentiate between information wey dey private or intimate and say to which no privacy interest attach.,Government
"under the rules, the only express limitations are that the information sought is not privileged, and is relevant to the subject matter ofthe pending action.","Di only express limitations dey say di information sought no privileged, and dey relevant to di subject matter of di action.",Government
"thus, the rules often allow extensive intrusion into the affairs of both litigants and third parties.","Di rules dey allow extensive intrusion into di affairs of both litigants and pipo wey no be you, wey go help you or give you tori, like family, friends, or odas outside.",Government
"if a litigant fails to comply with a request for discovery, the court may issue an order directing compliance that is enforceable by the court's contempt powers.",Di court go issue order directing compliance wey dey enforce ble by di court's contempt powers.,Government
robson the first amendment 138 petitioners argue that the first amendment imposes strict limits on the availability of any judicial order that has the effect of restricting expression.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 138 petitioners argue say First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) impose strict limits on di availability of any judicial order wey don get di effect of restrict expression.,Government
"they contend that civil discovery is not different from other sources of information, and that therefore the information is""protected speech""for first amendment purposes.","Dem contend say civil discovery no different from oda sources of information, and say therefore di information dey""protected speech""for First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) purposes.",Government
petitioners assert the right in this case to disseminate any information gained through discovery.,Di petitioners dey assert di right for dis case to dey make any information gain through discovery.,Government
"they do recognize that in limited circumstances, not thought to be present here, some information maybe restrained.","Dem don recognize say for limited circumstances, no thought to be present here, some information dey restrained.",Government
"they submit, however: ""when a protective order seeks to limit expression, it may do so only if the proponent shows a compelling governmental interest.","Di protective order seeks to limit expression, e go do so only if di proponent show compelling governmental interest.",Government
mere speculation and conjecture are insufficient.,E dey sufficient.,Government
"any restraining order, moreover, must be narrowly drawn and precise.","Any restraining order, still-still, must be narrowly drawn and precise.",Government
"finally, before issuing such an order a court must determine that there are no alternatives which intrude less directly on expression.""",For issuing such order a court must determine say no alternatives wey dey intrude less directly on expression,Government
we think the rule urged by petitioner s would impose an unwarranted restriction on the duty and discretion of a trial court to oversee the discovery process.,We think di rule wey petitioner s go impose unwarranted restriction on di duty and discretion of trial court to oversee di discovery process.,Government
"in this case, as petitioners argue, there certainly is a public interest in knowing more about respondents.","As petitioners argue, na tin wey concern everybody for society, wey be say e important for all of us for know more about respondents.",Government
this interest may well include most- and possibly all- of what has been discovered as a result ofthe court's order under rule 26(b)(1).,Di interest dey well include most- and possibly all- of what dey discover as result of di court order under rule 26(b)(1).,Government
"it does not necessarily follow, however, that a litigant hasan unrestrained right to disseminate information that has been obtained through pretrial discovery.","Di litigant no dey necessarily follow, however, say a litigant no fit follow, however, say a litigant no fit follow, however, say a litigant no fit follow, however, say a litigant no fit follow, however, say a litigant no fit follow, however, say a litigant no get unrestrained right to disseminate information wey dey obtained through pretrial discovery.",Government
"for even though the broad sweep ofthe first amendment seems to prohibit all restraints on free expression, this court has observed that ""[f]reedom of speech.","Di court don observe say di broad sweep of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) dey prohibit all restraints for free expression, dis court don observe say ""[f]reedom of speech",Government
"does not comprehend the right to speak on any subject at anytime.""",Di right to speak on any subject for anytime,Government
the critical question that this case presents is whether a litigant's freedom comprehends the right to disseminate information that he has obtained pursuant to a court order that both granted him access to that information and placed restraints on the way in which the information might be used.,Di critical question wey dis case present na whether litigant's freedom comprehend di right to disseminate information wey he get pursuant to court order wey both grant him access to dat information and place restraints on di way wey di information go use.,Government
"in addressing that question it is necessary to consider whether the""practice in question [furthers] an important or substantial governmental interest unrelated to the suppression of expression""and whether""the limitation of first amendment freedoms[is] no greater than is necessary or essential to the protection ofthe particular governmental interest involved.""","Di practice for question [furthers] important or substantial governmental interest wey dey related to di suppression of expression""and whether""the limitation of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) freedoms no pass, as in one thing pass anoda, for example, if u get 10 naira and v get 5 naira, u pass v dey necessary or essential to di protection of di particular governmental interest wey dey involved",Government
"a at the outset, it is important to recognize the extent ofthe impairment of first amendment rights that a protective order, such as th e one at issue here, may cause.","E dey important to recognize di extent of di impairment of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) rights wey a protective order, such as th e one for issue here, e dey important to recognize di extent of di impairment of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) rights wey a protective order, such as th e one for issue here, cause.",Government
"as in all civil litigation, petitioners gained the information they wish to disseminate only by virtue ofthe trial court's discovery processes.","For all civil litigation, petitioners gain di information wey dem wish to disseminate only by virtue of di trial court's discovery process",Government
"as the rules authorizing discovery were adopted by the state legislature, the processes thereunder area matter of legislative grace.","Di processes wey dey adopt for di state legislature, di processes wey dey a matter of legislative grace.",Government
a litigant has no first amendment right of access to information made available only for purposes of trying his suit.,Di litigant no First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) right of access to information wey dey available only for purpose of try hin suit.,Government
"thus, continued court control over the discovered information does not raise the same specter of government censorship that such control might suggest in other situations.",Di continued court control over di discovered information no raise di same specter of government censorship say such control might suggest for oda situation.,Government
"moreover, pretrial depositions and interrogatories are not public components of a civil trial.",Di pretrial depositions and interrogatories no public component of civil trial.,Government
"such proceedings were not open to the public at common law and, in general, they are conducted in private as a matter of modern practice.","Di such proceedings no open to di public for common law and, for general, dem dey conduct for private as a matter of modern practice.",Government
"much ofthe information that surfaces during pretrial discovery maybe unrelated, or only tangentially related, to the underlying cause of action.","Di information wey surface during pretrial discovery dey unrelated, or only tangentially related, to di underlying cause of action.",Government
"therefore, restraints placed on discovered, but not yet admitted, information are not a restriction on a traditionally public source of information.","Di therefore, restraint wey dey place on discover, but no dey admitted, information no dey restriction on traditionally public source of information.",Government
"finally, it is significant to note that an order prohibiting dissemination of discovered information before trial is not the kind of classic prior restraint that requires exacting first amendment scrutiny.","E dey significant to note say order prohibiting dimination of discovered information before trial no be di kind of classic Wetin dem dey call prior restraint be say government no go gree make person talk or write wetin dem wan write before dem publish am, na like say government dey hold person mouth before dem talk wey require exacting First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) scrutiny.",Government
"as in this case, such a protective order prevents a party from disseminating only that information obtained through use ofthe discovery process.","For dis case, such protective order prevent a party from dey",Government
"thus, the party may disseminate the identical information covered by the protective order as long as the information is gained through means independent ofthe court's processes.",Di party suppose dey add di identical information wey di protective order as long as di information dey gain through means independent of di court process.,Government
"in sum, judicial limitations on a party's ability to disseminate information discovered in advance of trial implicates the first amendment rights ofthe restricted robson the first amendment 139 party to afar lesser extent than would restraints on dissemination of information in a different context.","For sum, judicial limitations on a party's ability to dey di restricted robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 139 party to far lesser extent than e dey restraint on dem to dey",Government
"therefore, our consideration ofthe provision for protective orders contained in the washington civil rules takes into account the unique position that such orders occupy in relation to the first amendment.",Di consideration of di provision for protective orders contain for di washington civil rules take into account di unique position wey such order occupy for relation to First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).,Government
b rule 26(c) furthers a substantial governmental interest unrelated to the suppression of expression.,B rule 26(c) furthers a substantial governmental interest unrelated to di suppression of how person talk im mind.,Government
"the washington civil rules enable parties to litigation to obtain information""relevant to the subject matter involved""that they believe will be helpful in the preparation and trial ofthe case.","Di washington civil rules don allow parties to litigation to obtain information""relevant to di subject matter involved"" wey dem believe go help for di preparation and trial of di case.",Government
"rule 26, however, must be viewed in its entirety.","Di rule 26, however, must be viewed for its entirety.",Government
"liberal discovery is provided for the sole purpose of assisting in the preparation and trial, or the settlement, of litigated disputes.","Di liberal discovery dey provide for di sole purpose of assistin in di preparation and trial, or di settlement, of litigated disputes.",Government
"because ofthe liberality of pretrial discovery permitted by rule 26(b)(1), it is necessary for the trial court to have the authority to issue protective orders conferred by rule 26(c).","Di liberality of pretrial discovery wey dey permitted by rule 26(b)(1), e dey necessary for di trial court to get di authority to issue protective orders wey dey conferred by rule 26(c).",Government
it is clear from experience that pretrial discovery by depositions and interrogatories has a significant potential for abuse.,E dey clear from experience say pretrial discovery by depositions and interrogatories don significant potential for abuse.,Government
this abuse is not limited to matters of delay and expense; discovery also may seriously implicate privacy interests of litigants and third parties.,Di abuse no dey limited to matters of delay and expense; discovery also dey implicate privacy interest of litigants and third parties.,Government
the rules do not distinguish between public and private information.,Di rules do no distinguish between everybody and personal information.,Government
"nor do they apply only to parties to the litigation, as relevant information in the hands of third parties maybe subject to discovery.","As relevant information for di hands of pipo wey no be you, wey go help you or give you tori, like family, friends, or odas outside dey subject to discovery.",Government
"there is an opportunity, therefore, for litigants to obtain- incidentally or purposefully- information that not only is irrelevant but if publicly released could be damaging to reputation and privacy.","There na one opportunity, so sake of dat, for litigants to obtain- incidentally or purposefully- information say no only na irrelevant but if publicly released could be damaging to reputation and privacy.",Government
the government clearly has a substantial interest in preventing this sort of abuse of its processes.,Di goment clearly don get substantial interest for prevent dis sort of abuse of its process.,Government
"c we also find that the provision for protective orders in the washington rules requires, in itself, no heightened first amendment scrutiny.","C we also find that di provision for protective orders for di washington rules need, for itself, no heightened First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) scrutiny.",Government
"to be sure, rule 26(c) confers broad discretion on the trial court to decide when a protective order is appropriate and what degree of protection is required.",Di rule 26(c)confer broad discretion on di trial court to decide wen protective order dey appropriate and what degree of protection dey required.,Government
"the legislature ofthe state of washington, following the example ofthe congress in its approval ofthe federal rules of civil procedure, has determined that such discretion is necessary, and we find no' reason to disagree.","Di legislature of di state of washington, following di example of di congress for its approval of di federal rules of civil procedure, don determin say such discretion dey necessary, and we find no reason to disagree.",Government
the trial court is in the best position to weigh fairly the competing needs and interests of parties affected by discovery.,Di trial court dey in di best position to weigh fairly di competing needs and interest of parties affected by discovery.,Government
the unique character ofthe discovery process requires that the trial court have substantial latitude to fashion protective orders.,Di unique character of di discovery process require say di trial court get substantial latitude to fashion protective orders.,Government
"as we have noted, the trial court's order allowing discovery was extremely broad.",Di trial court order allow discovery dey extremely broad.,Government
"it compelled respondents- among other things- to identify all persons who had made donations over a5-year period to rhinehart and the aquarian foundation, together with the amounts donated.","Dem compelle respondents- among oda things- to identify all person wey don make donation over 5 year period to rhinehart and di aquarian foundation, together wit di amount wey dem don donat.",Government
in effect the order would compel disclosure of membership aswell as sources of financial support.,For effect di order would compel disclosure of membership aswell as sources of financial support.,Government
"the supreme court of washington found that dissemination of this information would""result in annoyance, embarrassment and even oppression.""","Di supreme court of washington found say dis information go result for annoyance, embarrassment and even oppression",Government
it is sufficient for purposes of our decision that the highest court in the state found no abuse of discretion in the trial court's decision to issue a protective order pursuant to a constitutional state law.,E na sufficient for purposes of our decision say di highest kot for di state found no abuse of discretion for di trial kot' decision to issue a protective order pursuant to a constitutional state law.,Government
"we therefore hold that where, as in this case, a protective order is entered on a showing of good cause as required by rule 26(c), is limited to the context of pretrial civil discovery, and does not restrict the dissemination ofthe information if gained from other sources, it does not offend the first amendment.","We hold say where, as for dis case, protective order dey enter on a showing of good cause as required by rule 26(c), dey limited to di context of pretrial civil discovery, and no dey restrict di dissemination of di information if gain from oda source, e no dey open First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).",Government
the judgment accordingly is affirmed.,Di judgment accordingly dey affirmed,Government
"justice brennan, with whom justice marshall joins, concurring [omitted].","Di justice marshall join, concurring [omitted].",Government
"robson the first amendment 140 c. access by t he press note:""public proceedings""in fractured opinions in richmond newspapers, inc. v. virginia, 448 u. s. 555(1980), the court was nevertheless clear that there is a right ofthe public and press to attend criminal trials.","Di court dey clear say public proceedings for fractured opinions for richmond newspapers, inc. v. virginia,448 u. s. 555(1980), di court dey clear say e dey clear say e dey right of di public and press to attend criminal trials",Government
"in press-enterprise co. v. superior court of california for riverside county, 464 u. s. 501(1984) (""press enterprise i""), the court held voir dire examinations in criminal jury trial should generally be public).","For news pipo -enterprise co. v. superior kot of california for riverside county, 464 u. s. 501(1984) (""news pipo enterprise i""), di kot held voir dire examinations for criminal jury trial should generally be everybody).",Government
"in press enterprise co. v. superior court of california for riverside county,478 u. s. 1(1986) (""press enterprise ii""), the court held that preliminary hearings in criminal trial should generally be public).","For press enterprise co. v. superior court of california for riverside county,478 u. s. 1(1986), di court hold say preliminary hearings for criminal trial go public",Government
"are executions""public"" proceedings?","Na executions""everybody"" proceedings?",Government
"considering this issue, a district judge in oklahoma applied the press-enterprise cases and found that while there were many public executions and hangings, the trend since 1915 has been to have such events occur within the prison.","Di district judge for oklahoma apply di press-enterprise case and found say while di public executions and hangings, di trend since 1915 don dey within di prison.",Government
"see oklahoma observer v. patton, no.","See oklahoma observer v. patton, no.",Government
"civ -14-0905 -he,2014 wl (w. d.","Di civ -14-0905-he, 2014 wl (w. d",Government
"okla. dec.19, 2014).","Di dec.19, 2014).",Government
the next case considers press access to prisons and imprisoned persons.,Di next case consider press access to prison and imprisoned persons.,Government
"houchins v. kqed, inc.438 u. s. 1(1978) chief justice burger announced the judgment ofthe court and delivered an opinion, in which white and rehnquist, jj,","Di chief justice burger announce di judgment of di court and deliver opinion, wey white and rehnquist, jj.",Government
"stewart, j, filed an opinion con curring in the judgment.","Di stewart, j, filed opinion concurring for di judgment.",Government
"stevens, j, filed a dissenting opinion, in which brennan and powell, jj,","Di stevens, j, filed dissenting opinion, wey brennan and powell, jj, filed dissenting opinion, wey brennan and powell, jj, filed dissenting opinion, wey brennan and powell, jj.",Government
"marshall and blackmun, jj,","For jj,",Government
took no part in the consideration or decision ofthe case.,Nano part for di consideration or decision of di case.,Government
"chief justice burger announced the judgment ofthe court and delivered an opinion, in which white and rehnquist, jj,","Di chief justice burger announce di judgment of di court and deliver opinion, wey white and rehnquist, jj.",Government
"the question presented is whether t he news media have a constitutional right of access to a county jail, over and above that of other persons, to interview inmates and make sound recordings, films, and photographs for publication and broadcasting by newspapers, radio, and television.","Di question presented na whether t he news media don constitutional right of access to county jail, over and above dat of oda persons, to interview inmates and make sound recordings, films, and photographs for publication and broadcast by newspapers, radio, television.",Government
controls all access to the alameda county jail at santa rita.,Di alameda county jail for santa rita.,Government
"on march 31, 1975, kqed reported the suicide of a prisoner in the greystone portion ofthe santa rita jail.",Di suicide of prisoner for di greystone portion of di santa rita jail.,Government
"the report included a statement by a psychiatrist that the conditions at the greystone robson the first amendment 141 facility were responsible for the illnesses of his patientprisoners there, and a statement from petitioner denying that prison conditions were responsible for the prisoners' illnesses.","Di report include statement by a psychiatrist say di condition for di greystone robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 141 facility dey responsible for di prisoners' illnesses, and statement from petitioner denying say prison conditions dey responsible for di prisoners' illnesses.",Government
kqed requested permission to inspect and take pictures within the greystone facility.,Di kqed request permission to inspect and take pictures inside di greystone facility.,Government
"after permission was refused, kqed and the alameda and oakland branches ofthe national association for the advancement of colored people(naacp) filed suit under 42 u. s. c.",Di alameda and oakland branch of di national association for di advancement of colored pipo (naacp)filed suit under 42 u. s. c.,Government
they alleged that petitioner had violated the first amendment by refusing to permit media access and failing to provide any effective means by which the public could be informed of conditions prevailing in the greystone facility or learn ofthe prisoners' grievances.,Di petitioner don viol First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) by refusing to permit media access and fail to provide any effective means wey di public go inform di prisoners' grievances.,Government
"public access to such information was essential, they asserted, in order for naacp members to participate in the public debate on jail conditions in alameda county.",Naacp members dey participate for di public debate on jail conditions for alameda county.,Government
they further asserted that television coverage ofthe conditions in the cells and facilities was the most effective way of informing the public of prison conditions.,Diy further assert say television coverage of di conditions for di cells and facilities dey di most effective way of inform di public of prison condition.,Government
"the complaint requested a preliminary and permanent injunction to prevent petitioner from""excluding kqed news personnel from the greystone cells and santa rita facilities and generally preventing full and accurate news coverage ofthe conditions prevailing therein.""","Di complaint requested a preliminary and permanent injunction to prevent di person wey start di case for big-oga kot from""excluding kqed news personnel from di greystone cells and santa rita facilities and generally preventing full and accurate news coverage of di conditions prevailing therein.""",Government
"on june 17, 1975, when the complaint was filed, there appears to have been no formal policy regarding public access to the santa rita jail.","Di complaint dey filed, na no formal policy regarding public access to di santa rita jail.",Government
"however, according to petitioner, he had been in the process of planning a program of regular monthly tours since he took office six months earlier.",Di petitioner don dey for di process of planning program of regular monthly tour since he take office six months earlier.,Government
"on july 8, 1975, he announced the program and invited all interested persons to make arrangements for the regular public tours.",Dem announce di program and invit all interested persons make arrangements for di regular public tours.,Government
news media were given notice in advance ofthe public and presumably could have made early reservations.,Di news media don give notice for advance of di public and presumably could make early reservations.,Government
"six monthly tours were planned and funded by the county at an estimated cost of$1, 800.","Di six monthly tour dey plan and funded by di county for an estimated cost of$1, 800.",Government
the first six scheduled tours were filled within a week after the july 8 announcement.,Di first six scheduled tour dey filled within week afta di july 8 announcement.,Government
"a kqed reporter and several other reporters were on the first tour on july 14, 1975.","Di first tour for july 14, 1975.",Government
each tour was limited to 25 persons and permitted only limited access to the jail.,Di tour dey limited to 25 persons and permitted only limited access to di jail,Government
"the tours did not include the disciplinary cells or the portions ofthe jail known as""little greystone,"" the scene of alleged rapes, beatings, and adverse physical conditions.","Di tours no include di disciplinary cells or di portion of di jail wey dey known as""little greystone,"" di scene of alleged rapes, beatings, and adverse physical condition.",Government
"photographs of some parts ofthe jail were made available, but no cameras or tape recorders were allowed on the tours.","Di jail dey available, but no camera or tape recorders dey allow on di tour.",Government
"those on the tours were not permitted to interview inmates, and inmates were generally removed from view.","Di tours no dey permitted to interview inmates, and inmates no dey remove from view.",Government
"in support ofthe request for a preliminary injunction, respondents presented testimony and affidavits stating that other penal complexes had permitted media interviews of inmates and substantial media access without experiencing significant security or administrative problems.","For support of di request for preliminary injunction, respondents presented testimony and affidavits say oda penal complexes don permitted media interview of inmates and substantial media access without experience nt security or administrative problems.",Government
"they contended that the monthly public tours at santa rita failed to provide adequate access to the jail for two reasons:(a) once the scheduled tours had been filled, media representatives who had not signed up for them had no access and were unable to cover newsworthy events at the jail;(b) the prohibition on photography and tape recordings, the exclusion of portions ofthe jail from the tours, and the practice of keeping inmates generally removed from view substantially reduced the usefulness ofthe tours to the media.","Di prohibition on photography and tape recordings, di exclusion of portions of di jail from di tours, and di practice of keeping inmates generally remove from view substanc tially reduce di use to di jail;(b) di practice of keeping inmates for di jail;(b) media representatives wey no signup for dem no get access to di jail for two reasons:(b) di prohibition on photography and tape recordings, di exclusion of portions of di jail from di tours, and di practice of",Government
"in response, petitioner admitted that santa rita had never experimented with permitting media access beyond that already allowed; he did not claim that disruption had been caused by media access to other institutions.",Di petitioner tok say santa rita no experiment wit permitting media access beyond dat already allowed; hin no claim say disruption don dey caused by media access to oda institutions.,Government
"he asserted, however, that unregulated access by the media would infringe inmate privacy,2 and tend to create""jail celebrities,""who in turn tend to generate internal problems and undermine jail security.","E assert, however, say unregulated access by media go infringe inmate privacy,2 and tend to create""jail celebrities,"" wey dey generate internal problems and undermine jail security.",Government
he also contended that unsche duled media tours would disrupt jail operations.,Di also contended say unsche duled media tour go disrupt jail operations.,Government
petitioner filed an affidavit noting the various means by which information concerning the jail could reach the public.,Di petitioner filed affidavit wey dey note di various means wey information concern di jail go reach di public.,Government
"attached to the affidavit were the current prison mail, visitation, and phone call regulations.","Di affidavit na di current prison mail, visitation, and phone call regulations.",Government
"the regulations allowed inmates to send an unlimited number of letters to judges, attorneys, elected officials, the attorney general, petitioner, jail officials, or probation officers, all of which could be sealed prior to mailing.","Di regulations allow inmates to send unlimited number of letters to judges, attorney general, petitioner, jail officials, or probation officers, all of which go dey seal before mailing.",Government
other letters were subject to inspection for contraband but the regulations provided that no inmate mail would be read.,Di regulations provide say no inmate mail go read.,Government
"with few exceptions, all persons, including representatives ofthe media, who knew a prisoner could visit him.","For few exceptions, all persons, including representatives of di media, wey know prisoner go visit am",Government
"media reporters could interview inmates awaiting trial with the consent ofthe inmate, his robson the first amendment 142 attorney, the district attorney, and the court.","Di media reporters go interview inmate awaiting trial wit di consent of di inmate, hin robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 142 attorney, di district attorney, and di court.",Government
"social services officers were permitted to contact""relatives, community agencies, employers, etc,""","Di social services officers dey permitted to contact""relatives, community agencies, employers, etc.",Government
"by phone to assist in counseling inmates with vocational, educational, or personal problems.","Di phone go assist for counseling inmates wit vocational, educational, or personal problems",Government
maximum-security inmates were free to make unmonitored collect telephone calls from designated areas ofthe jail without limit.,Di maximum-security inmates dey free to make unmonitor collect telephone call from designated areas of di jail without limit.,Government
"after considering the testimony, affidavits, and documentary evidence presented by th e parties, the district court preliminarily enjoined petitioner from denying kqed news personnel and""responsible representatives""of the news media access to the santa rita facilities, including greystone, ""at reasonable times and hours""and ""from preventing kqed news personnel and responsible representatives ofthe news media from utilizing photographic and sound equipment or from utilizing inmate interviews in providing full and accurate coverage ofthe santa rita facilities.""","Di district court preliminarily enjoin petitioner from denying kqed news personnel and responsible representatives of di news media access to di santa rita facilities, including greystone, ""at reasonable times and hours""and ""for preventing kqed news personnel and responsible representatives of di news media from utilizing photographic and sound equipment or from utilizing inmate interview for providing full and accurate coverage of di santa rita facilities, including greystone, ""at reasonable times and hours""and ""for preventing kqed news personnel and responsible representative",Government
the district court rejected petitioner's contention that the media policy then in effect was necessary to protect inmate privacy or minimize security and administrative problems.,"Di district court reject d petitioner's contention say Media palisi na set of rules wey dey control wetin media fit talk or show, including wetin dem fit discuss for press and talk shows, and who fit get media kompani then in effect dey necessary to protect inmate privacy or minimize security and administrative problems.",Government
"it found that the testimony of officials involved with other jails indicated that a""more flexible press policy at santa rita[was] both desirable and attainable.""",Di testimony of officials wey dey involved wit oda jails tok say a more flexible press policy for santa rita na both desirable and attainable,Government
"the district court concluded that the respondents had""demonstrated irreparable injury, absence of an adequate remedy at law, probability of success on the merits, a favorable public interest, an da balance of hardships""in their favor.","Di district court tok say di respondents don demonstrated irreparable injury, absence of adequate remedy for law, probability of success on di merits, a favorable tin wey concern everybody for society, wey be say e important for all of us, an d balance of hardships for dia favor.",Government
"on interlocutory appeal from the district court's order, petitioner invoked pell v. procunier (1974), where this court held that ""newsmen have no constitutional right of access to prisons or their inmates beyond that afforded to the general public.""",Di court tok say newsmen no constitutional right of access to prisons or dia inmates beyond that afford to di general public.,Government
he contended that the district court had departed from pell and abused its discretion because it had ordered that he give the media greater access to the jail than he gave to the general public.,Di district court don depart from pell and abus im discretion bikos e don order say dem give media great access to di jail wey dem give to di general public.,Government
"the court of appeals rejected petitioner's argument that pell and saxbe v. washington post co.(1974), were controlling.","Di court of appeals rejected petitioner argument say pell and saxbe v. washington post co.(1974), dey kontrol.",Government
"it concluded, albeit in three separate opinions, that the public and the media had a first and fourteenth amendment right of access to prisons and jails, and sustained the district court's order.","Di public and di media don get first and fourteenth amendment right of access to prisons and jails, and sustained di district court order.",Government
they argue that there is a constitutionally guaranteed right to gather news under pell v. procunier and branzburg v. hayes(1972).,Dem argue say di constitutionally guarantee right to gather news under pell v. procunier and branzburg v. hayes(1972).,Government
"from the right to gather news and the right to receive information, they argue for an implied special right of access to governmentcontrolled sources of information.","For di right to gather news and di right to receive information, dem argu for special right of access to governmentcontrolled sources of information.",Government
"this right, they contend, compels access as a constitutional matter.","Di right, dem contend, compels access as constitutional matter.",Government
"respondents suggest further support for this implicit first amendment right in the language of grosjean v. american press co.(1936), and mills v. alabama(1966), which notes the importance of an informed public as a safeguard against ""misgovernment"" and the crucial role ofthe media in providing information.","Di respondents suggest support for dis First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) right for di language of grosjean v. american press co.(1936), and mills v. alabama(1966), wey note di importance of informed public as safeguard against ""misgovernment"" and di crucial role of di media for providing information.",Government
respondents contend that public access to penal institutions is necessary to prevent officials from concealing prison conditions from the voters and impairing the public's right to discuss and criticize the prison system and its administration.,Di respondents contend say public access to penal institutions dey necessary to prevent officials from concealing prison conditions from di voters and impairing di public right to discuss and criticize di prison system and its administration.,Government
"penal facilities are public institutions which require large amounts of public funds, and their mission is crucial in our criminal justice system.","Na public institutions wey require large amount of public funds, and dia mission dey crucial for our criminal justice system.",Government
"each person placed in prison becomes, in effect, a ward ofthe state for whom society assumes broad responsibility.","Di person wey dey place for prison become, in effect, ward of di state wey society assum broad responsibility.",Government
"it is equally true that with greater information, the public can more intelligently form opinions about prison conditions.","E dey true say wit greater information, di public fit more intelligently form opinions about prison conditions",Government
"beyond question, the role ofthe media is important; acting as the""eyes and ears""of the public, they can be a powerful and constructive force, contributing to remedial action in the conduct of public business.","Di role of di media dey important; acting as di""eyes and ears""of di public, dem fit be powerful and constructive force, contributing to remedial action for di conduct of public business.",Government
"they have served that function since the beginning ofthe republic, but like all other components of our society media representatives are subject to limits.","Di beginning of di republic, but like all oda component of our society media representatives dey subject to limits.",Government
"the media are not a substitute for or an adjunct of government and, like the courts, they are""ill equipped""to deal with problems of prison administration.","Di media no dey substitute for or adjunct of government and, like di courts, dem no fit deal wit problems of prison administration.",Government
"we must not confuse the role ofthe media with that of government; each has special, cr ucial functions, each complementing -and sometimes conflicting with- the other.","We must no confuse di role of di media wit dat of government; each don special, cr ucial functions, each complement- and sometimes conflict wit- di oda.",Government
"robson the first amendment 143 the public importance of conditions in penal facilities and the media's role of providing information afford no basis for reading into the constitution a right ofthe public or the media to enter these institutions, with camera equipment, and take moving and still pictures of inmates for broadcast purposes.","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 143 di public importance of conditions for penal facilities and di media role of providing information afford no basis for reading into di constitution a right of di public or di media to enter these institutions, wit camera equipment, and take moving and still pictures of inmates for broadcast purposes.",Government
this court has never intimated a first amendment guarantee of a right of access to all sources of information within government control.,Di court don never intimated First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) guarantee of right of access to all sources of information wey dey inside government control.,Government
nor does the rationale ofthe decisions upon which respondents rely lead to the implication of such a right.,Di rationale of di decision wey respondents rely lead to di implication of such right.,Government
"grosjean v. american press co, and mills v. alabama emphasized the importance of informed public opinion and the traditional role of a free press as a source of public information.",Di importance of informed public opinion and di traditional role of free press as source of public information.,Government
but an analysis of those cases reveals that the court was concerned with the freedom ofthe media to communicate information once it is obtained; neither case intimated that the constitution compels the government to provide the media with information or access to it on demand.,Di constitution don reveal say di court dey concerned wit di freedom of di media to communicate information once im dey obtained; neither case reveal say di constitution don compels di goment to provide di media wit information or access to am on demand.,Government
"grosjean involved a challenge to a state tax on advertising revenues of newspapers, the ""plain purpose""of which was to penalize the publishers and curtail the publication of a selected group of newspapers.","Di challenge to state tax on advertising revenues of newspapers, di ""plain purpose"" wey dey to penalize di publishers and curtail di publication of selected group of newspapers, di ""plain purpose"" wey dey to penalize di publishers and curtail di publication of selected group of newspapers.",Government
"the court summarized the familiar but important history ofthe attempts to prevent criticism ofthe crown in england by the infamous licensing requirements and special taxes on the press, and concluded that the first amendment ha d been designed to prevent similar restrictions or any other""form of previous restraint upon printed publications, or their circulation.""","Di court summarize di familiar but important history of di attempt to prevent criticism of di crown for england by di infamous licensing requirements and special taxes on di press, and conclude say First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) don dey designed to prevent similar restrictions or any oda form of previous restraint upon printed publications, or dia circulation.",Government
"in discussing the importance of an ""untrammeled press,""the court in grosjean readily acknowledged the need for""inf ormed public opinion""as a restraint upon misgovernment.","Di court for grosjean readily acknowledg di need for""inf ormed public opinion""as a restraint upon misgovernment.",Government
"it also criticized the tax at issue because it limited"" the circulation of information to which the public[was] entitled.""","E also criticize di tax for issue because e limited"" di circulation of information wey di public dey entitled",Government
but nothing in the court's holding implied a special privilege of access to information as distinguished from a right to publish information which has been obtained; grosjean dealt only with government attempts to burden and restrain a newspaper's communication with the public.,But nothing for di court's holding implied special privilege of access to information as distinguished from a right to publish information wey dey distinguished from a right to publish information wey dem dey collect; grosjean dealt only wit government attempt to burden and restrain newspaper communication wit di public,Government
the reference to a public entitlement to information meant no more than that the government cannot restrain communication of whatever information the media acquire- and which they elect to reveal.,Di reference to public entitlement to information meant no more than say di goment no restrain communication of whatever information di media acquire- and wey dem elect to reveal.,Government
"the issue is a claimed special privilege of access which the court rejected in pell and saxbe, a right which is not essential to guarantee the freedom to communicate or publish.","Di issue dey claim special privilege of access wey di court reject for pell and saxbe, a right wey dey essential to guarantee di freedom to communicate or publish.",Government
whether the government should open penal institutions in the manner sought by respondents is a question of policy which a legislative body might appropriately resolve one way or the other.,Di goment go open penal institutions for di manner sought by respondents na question of policy wey a legislative body go appropriately resolve one way or di oda.,Government
a number of alternatives are available to prevent problems in penal facilities from escaping public attention.,Di number of alternatives dey available to prevent problem for penal facilities from escaping public attention.,Government
the early penal reform movements in this country and england gained impetus as a result of reports from citizens and visiting committees who volunteered or received commissions to visit penal institutions and make reports.,Di early penal reform movement for dis kontri and england gain impetus as result of report from citizens and visiting committees wey volunteer or receive commission to visit penal institutions and make reports.,Government
"see t. eriksson, the reformers 32-42, 69 (djurklou translation 1976); w. crawford, report on the penitentiaries ofthe united states vii-viii, xiiixv, 10-11, app.","See t. eriksson, di reformers 32-42, 69 (djurklou translation 1976); w. crawford, report on di penitentiaries of di united states vii-viii, xiiixv, 10-11, app.",Government
citizen task forces and prison visitation committees continue to play an important role in keeping the public informed on deficiencies of prison systems and need for reforms.,Pipo task forces and prison visitation committees continue to play an important role for keeping di everybody informed on deficiencies of prison systems and need for reforms.,Government
"grand juries, with the potent subpoena power- not available to the media- traditionally concern themselves with conditions in public institutions; a prosecutor or judge may initiate similar inquiries, and the legislative power embraces an arsenal of weapons for inquiry relating to taxsupported institutions.","A prosecutor or judge go initiate similar inquiries, and di authority wey parliament or congress get to make laws embraces arsenal of weapons for inquiry relating to taxsupported institutions.",Government
"in each case, these public bodies are generally compelled to publish their findings and, if they default, t he power ofthe media is always available to generate public pressure for disclosure.","Di public bodi dey generally compelle to publish dia findings and if dem default, t he power of di media dey available to generate public pressure for disclosure.",Government
but the choice as to the most effective and appropriate method is a policy decision to be resolved by legislative decision.,Di choice as to di most effective and appropriate method dey policy decision to resolve by legislative decision.,Government
"we must not confuse what is""good,"" ""desirable,"" or ""expedient"" with what is constitutionally commanded by the first amendment.","We must no confuse what dey good,""desirable,""or ""expedient"" wit what dey constitutionally commanded by First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).",Government
to do so is to trivialize constitutional adjudication.,E dey trivialize constitutional adjudication.,Government
unarticulated but implicit in the assertion that media access to the jail is essential for informed public debate on jail conditions is the assumption that media personnel are the best qualified robson the first amendment 144 persons for the task of discovering malfeasance in public institutions.,Di assumption say media personnel dey di best qualified robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 144 persons for di task of discover malfeasance for public institutions.,Government
but that assumption finds no support in the decisions of this court or the first amendment.,Di assumption find no support for di decision of dis court or First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).,Government
editors and new smen who inspect a jail may decide to publish or not to publish what information they acquire.,Di editors and new smen wey inspect jail go decide to publish or no to publish what information dem acquire.,Government
"public bodies and public officers, on the other hand, may be coerced by public opinion to disclose what they might prefer to conceal.","Na public bodies and public officers, on di oda hand, dey coerced by public opinion to disclose what dem prefer to conceal.",Government
no comparable pressures are available to anyone to compel publication by the media of what they might prefer not to make known.,Nano comparable pressures dey available to anyone to compel publication by media of what dem prefer no make known.,Government
"there is no discernible basis for a constitutional duty to disclose, or for standards governing disclosure of or access to information.","Dem no discernible basis for constitutional duty to disclose, or for standards governing disclosure of or access to information",Government
"because the constitution affords no guidelines, absent statutory standards, hundreds of judges would, under the court of appeals' approach, be at large to fashion ad hoc standards, in individual cases, according to their own ideas of what seems""desirable"" or ""expedient.""","Di constitution don afford no guidelines, absent statutory standards, hundreds of judges go, under di court of appeal approach, be at large to fashion ad hoc standards, for individual case, according to dia own ideas of what dey ""desirable""or ""expedient.",Government
"w e, therefore, reject the court of appeals' conclusory assertion that the public and the media have a first amendment right to government information regarding the conditions of jails and their inmates and presumably all other public facilities such as hospitals and mental institutions.",Di court of appeals' concluory assertion say di public and di media don get First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) right to goment information regarding di condition of jails and dia inmates and presumably all oda public facilities such as hospitals and mental institutions.,Government
respondents have a first amendment right to receive letters from inmates criticizing jail officials and reporting on conditions.,Di respondents don get First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) right to receive letter from inmates criticizing jail officials and reporting on condition.,Government
respondents are free to interview those who render the legal assistance to which inmates are entitled.,Di respondents dey free to interview those wey dey render di legal assistance to which inmates dey entitled,Government
"they are also free to seek out former inmates, visitors to the prison, public officials, and institutional personnel, as they sought out the complaining psychiatrist here.","Dem also free to seek out former inmates, visitors to di prison, public officials, and institutional personnel, as dem sought out di complaining psychiatrist here.",Government
"moreover, california statutes currently provide for a prison board of corrections that has the authority to inspect jails and prisons and must provide a public report at regular intervals.",california statutes don provide for prison board of corrections wey don get di authority to inspect jails and prisons and must provide public report for regular for tervals.,Government
"health inspectors are required to inspect prisons and provide reports to a number of officials, including the state attorney general and the board of corrections.","Di state attorney general and di board of corrections dey required to inspect prisons and provide report to a number of officials, including di state attorney general and di board of corrections.",Government
fire officials are also required to inspect prisons.,Di fire officials dey also required to inspect prisons.,Government
"following the reports ofthe suicide at the jail involved here, the county board of supervisors called for a report from the county administrator; held a public hearing on the report, which was open to the media; and called for further reports when the initial report failed to describe the conditions in the cells in the greystone portion ofthe jail.","Di county board of supervisors call for public hearing on di report, wey dey open to media; and call for further reports wen di initial report failed to describe di condition for di cells for di greystone portion of di jail.",Government
neither the first amendment nor the fourteenth amendment mandates a right of access to government information or sources of information within the government's control.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) nor di fourteenth amendment mandate right of access to government information or sources of information wey dey inside di government control.,Government
"under our holdings* * *until the political branches decree otherwise, as they are free to do, the media have no special right of access to the alameda county jail different from or greater than that accorded the public generally.","Di political branch decree odawise, as dem no dey free to do, di media don no special right of access to di alameda county jail different from or pass, as in one thing pass anoda, for example, if u get 10 naira and v get 5 naira, u pass v dem accord di public generally.",Government
"the judgment ofthe court of appeals is reversed, and the case is remanded for further proceedings.","Di judgment of di court of appeals dey reversed, and di case dey remanded for further proceedings",Government
reversed and remanded.,E dey reversed and remanded,Government
"justice stewart, concurring in the judgment.",Di ustice stewart wey dey concurrin for di judgment.,Government
"in my view, however, kqed was entitled to injunctive relief of more limited scope.","Di view, however, kqed dey entitled to injunctive relief of more limited scope.",Government
"the first and fourteenth amendments do not guarantee the public a right of access to information generated or controlled by government, nor do they guarantee the press any basic right of access superior to that ofthe public generally.","Di first and fourteenthamendments no guarantee di public a right of access to information wey dey generate or controlled by government, nor do dem guarantee di press anyba sic right of access superior to dat of di public generally.",Government
the constitution does no more than assure the public and the press equal access once government has opened its doors.,Di constitution no go no more than assure di public and di press equal access once government don open dia doors.,Government
"accordingly, i agree substantially with what the opinion ofthe chief justice has to say on that score.",I agree substantially wit what di opinion of di chief justice don say on dat score.,Government
"we part company, however, in applying these abstractions to the facts of this case.","We part company, however, for apply dis abstractions to di facts of dis case.",Government
"whereas he appears to view""equal access""as meaning access that is identical in all respects, i believe that the concept of equal access must be accorded more flexibility in order to accommodate the practical distinctions between the press and the general public.",I believe say di concept of equal access must accord more flexibility for order to accommodate di practical distinctions between di press and di general public.,Government
"robson the first amendment 145 when on assignment, a journalist does not tour a jail simply for his own edification.","For assignment, a journalist no tour a jail simply for hin own edification.",Government
"he is there to gather information to be passed onto others, and his mission is protected by the constitution for very specific reasons.",Di constitution dey protected by di constitution for very specific reasons,Government
"the constitution requires sensitivity to that role, and to the special needs ofthe press in performing it effectively.","Di constitution require sensitivity to dat role, and to di special needs of di press for perform am effectively.",Government
a person touring santa rita jail can grasp its reality with his own eyes and ears.,Di person touring santa rita jail fit grasp im reality within own eyes and ears.,Government
"but if a television reporter is to convey the jail's sights and sounds to those who cannot personally visit the place, he must use cameras and sound equipment.","If television reporter dey convey di jail's sights and sounds to those wey no personally visit di place, he must use camera and sound equipment.",Government
"in short, terms of access that are reasonably imposed on individual members ofthe public may, if they impede effective reporting without sufficient justification, be unreasonable as applied to journalists who are there to convey to the general public what the visitors see.","For short, terms of access wey dey reasonably imposed on individual members of di public may, if dem impede effective reporting without sufficient justification, be unreasonable as dem apply to journalists wey dey suppose convey to di general public what di visitors see.",Government
"under these principles, kqed was clearly entitled to some form of preliminary injunc tive relief.",E dey clearly entitled to some form of preliminary injunc tive relief.,Government
"at the time ofthe district court's decision, members ofthe public were permitted to visit most parts ofthe santa rita jail, and the first and fourteenth amendments required the sheriff to give members ofthe press effective access to the same areas.","Di district court decision, members of di public dey permitted to visit most parts of di santa rita jail, and di first and fourteenth amendments required di sheriff to give members of di press effective access to di same areas.",Government
the sheriff evidently assumed that he could fulfill this obligation simply by allowing reporters to signup for tours on the same terms as the public.,Di sheriff evidently assum say he go fulfill dis obligation simply by allow reporters to signup for tour on di same terms as di public.,Government
"in my view, the availability and scope of future permanent injunctive relief must depend upon the extent of access then permitted the public, and the decree must be framed to accommodate eq uitably the constitutional role ofthe press and the institutional requirements ofthe jail.","Di availability and scope of future permanent injunctive relief must depend upon di extent of access wey dey permitted di public, and di decree must be framed to accommodate eq for di constitutional role of di press and di institutional requirements of di jail.",Government
"justice stevens, with whom brennan and powell, jj,","Di ustice stevens, wit wey brennan and powell, jj",Government
"join, dissenting.","Dem join, dissenting.",Government
"the court holds that the scope of press access to the santa rita jail required by the preliminary injunction issued against petitioner is inconsistent with the holding in pell v. procunier that ""newsmen have no constitutional right of access to prisons or their inmates beyond that afforded the general public""and therefore the injunction was an abuse ofthe district court's discretion.","Di court hold say di scope of press access to di santa rita jail wey dey required by di preliminary injunction issue against petitioner dey inconsistent wit di holding for pell v. procunier say ""newsmen don no constitutional right of access to prisons or dia inmates beyond dat afford di general public""and therefore di injunction dey abuse of di district court's discretion.",Government
"first, the unconstitutionality of petitioner's policies which gave rise to this litigation does not rest on the premise that the press has a greater right of access to information regarding prison conditions than do other members ofthe public.",Di unconstitutionality of petitioner's policy wey dey give rise to dis litigation no rest on di premise say di press don get great right of access to information regarding prison conditions than oda members of di public.,Government
"second, relief tailored to the needs ofthe press may properly be awarded to a representative ofthe press which is successful in proving that it has been harmed by a constitutional violation and need not await the grant of relief to members ofthe general public who may also have been injured by petitioner's unconstitutional access policy but have not yet sought to vindicate their rights.","Di second, relief wey dey ready to di needs of di press dey successful for proving say e don harmed by constitutional violation and need no await di grant of relief to members of di general public wey dey injured by petitioner's unconstitutional access policy but need no await di grant of relief to members of di general public wey dey injured by petitioner's unconstitutional access policy but no dey sought to vindicate dia rights.",Government
"following those refusals and the institution of this suit, certain remedial action was taken by petitioner.","Di refusals and di institution of dis suit, certain remedial action dey take petitioner.",Government
the mail censorship was relaxed and an experimental tour program was initiated.,Di mail censorship dey relaxed and experimental tour program dey initiated.,Government
the public and the press had consistently been denied an y access to those portions ofthe santa rita facility where inmates were confined and there had been excessive censorship of inmate correspondence.,Di public and di press don consistently denied access to those portions of di santa rita facility wey inmates dey confined and na excessive censorship of inmate correspondence.,Government
"petitioner's noaccess policy, modified only in the wake of respondents' resort to the courts, could survive constitutional scrutiny only if the constitution affords no protection to the public's right to be informed about conditions within those public institutions where some of its members are confined because they have been charged with or found guilty of criminal offenses.","Di constitution no access policy, modified only for di wake of respondents' resort to di courts, could survive constitutional scrutiny only if di constitution don afford no protection to di public's right to dey inform about conditions wey dem dey within those public institutions wey dem dey confined because dem dey charge wit or find guilty of criminal offenses.",Government
robson the first amendment 146 ii the preservation of a full and free flow of information to the general public has long been recognized as a core objective ofthe first amendment to the constitution.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 146 ii di preservation of full and free flow of information to di general public don dey recognise as core objective of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) to di constitution.,Government
it is for this reason that the first amendment protects not only the dissemination but also the receipt of information and ideas.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) protect no only di dissemination but also di receipt of information and ideas,Government
"thus, in procunier v. martinez, the court invalidated prison regulations authorizing excessive censorship of outgoing inmate correspondence because such censorship abridged the rights ofthe intended recipients.","For procunier v. martinez, di court invalidated prison regulations authorizing excessive censorship of outgoing inmate correspondence bikos censorship abridge di rights of di intended recipients.",Government
"so here, petitioner's prelitigation prohibition on mentioning the conduct of jail officers in outgoing correspondence must be considered an impingement on the noninmate correspondent's interest in receiving the intended communication.",Di petitioner's prelitigation prohibition on mention di conduct of jail officers for outgoing correspondence must consider impingement on di noninmate correspondent interest for receiving di intended communication.,Government
"in addition to safeguarding the right of one individual to receive what another elects to communicate, the first amendment serves an essential societal function.",First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) serve essential societal function.,Government
our system of self-government assumes the existence of an informed citizenry.,We system of self-government assum di existence of informed citizenry.,Government
"as madison wrote:""a popular government, without popular information, or the means of acquiring it, is but a prologue to a farce or a tragedy; or, perhaps both.","Di popular government, without popular information, or di means of acquiring am, na but a prologue to farce or tragedy; or, perhaps both.",Government
"knowledge will forever govern ignorance: and a people who mean to be their own governors, must arm themselves with the power which knowledge gives.""","Di pipo wey mean to be dia own governors, must arm themselves wit di power wey knowledge give",Government
"it is not sufficient, therefore, that the channels of communication be free of governmental restraints.","Di channels of communication no be sufficient, therefore, say di channels of communication be free of governmental restraints",Government
"without some protection for the acquisition of information about the operation of public institutions such as prisons by the public at large, the process of self-governance contemplated by the framers would be stripped of its substance.","Di process of self-governance wey di framers don strip of its substance, without some protection for di acquisition of information about di operation of public institutions such as prisons by di public at large, di process of self-governance wey di framers go strip of its substance",Government
for that reason information gathering is entitled to some measure of constitutional protection.,For dat reason de process of collect and put together tori or news for research or to take report dey entitled to some measure of constitutional protection.,Government
"as this court's decisions clearly indicate, however, this protection is not for the private benefit of those who might qualify as representatives ofthe ""press""but to insure that the citizens are fully informed regarding matters of public interest and importance.","Di court decision clearly indicate, dis protection no dey for di private benefit of those wey dey qualify as representatives of di""press"" but to insure say di citizens dey informed regarding matters of tin wey concern everybody for society, wey be say e important for all of us and importance.",Government
in grosjean v. american press co.,For grosjean v. american press co.,Government
"representatives ofthe ""press""challenged a state tax on the advertising revenues of newspapers.","Di representatives of di""press"" challenge state tax on di advertising revenues of newspapers.",Government
"in the court's words, the issue raised by the tax went""to the heart ofthe natural right ofthe members of an organized society, united for their common good, to impart and acquire information about their common interests.""","Di issue wey di tax went""to di heart of di natural right of dime mbers of an organized society, united for dia common good, to impart and acquire information about dia common interests.",Government
"the opinion described the long struggle in england against the stamp tax and tax on advertisements- the socalled ""taxes on knowledge"": ""[i]n the adoption ofthe [taxes]the dominant and controlling aim was to prevent, or curtail the opportunity for, the acquisition of knowledge by the people in respect of their governmental affairs.","Di opinion described di long struggle for england against di stamp tax and tax on advertisements- di socalled ""taxes on knowledge"" ""[i]n di adoption of di[taxes] di dominant and controlling aim nato prevent, or curtail di opportunity for, di acquisition of knowledge by di pipo for respect of dia governmental affairs.",Government
the aim ofthe struggle[against those taxes] was.,Di aim of di struggle[against those taxes]na.,Government
to establish and preserve the right ofthe english people to full information in respect ofthe doings or misdoings of their government.,E go establish and preserve di right of di english pipo to full information for respect of di doings or misdoings of dia government.,Government
upon the correctness of this conclusion the very characterization ofthe exactions as 'taxes on knowledge' sheds a flood of corroborative light.,Di very characterization of di exactions as 'taxes on knowledge' shed flood of corroborative light.,Government
"in the ultimate, an informed and enlightened public opinion was the thing at stake.""","Di ultimate, informed and enlightened public opinion dey di thing for stake",Government
"noting the familiarity ofthe framers with this struggle, the court held: ""[s]ince informed public opinion is the most potent of all restraints upon misgovernment, the suppression or abridgement ofthe publicity afforded by a free press cannot be regarded otherwise than with grave concern.","Di court tok: ""[s]ince informed public opinion dey di most potent of all restraints upon misgovernment, di suppression or abridgement of di publicity wey dey afforded by free press no dey regard odawise than wit grave concern.",Government
the tax here involved is bad.,Di tax here involved na bad.,Government
"because, in light of its history and of its present setting, it is seen to be a deliberate and calculated device.","For light of its history and of its present setting, e dey seen to be deliberate and calculated device.",Government
"to limit the circulation of information to which the public is entitled in virtue ofthe constitutional guaranties.""",Dem limit di circulation of information wey di public dey entitled for virtue of di constitutional guaranties,Government
"a recognition that the""underlying right is the right ofthe public generally""is also implicit in the doctrine that ""newsmen have no constitutional right of access to prisons or their inmates beyond that afforded the general public.""","Di doctrine say di""underlying right dey di right of di public generally""dey implicit for di doctrine say ""newsmen don no constitutional right of access to prisons or dia inmates beyond dat afford di general public.",Government
pell v. procunier.,Di pell v. procunier,Government
"in pell it was unnecessary to consider the extent ofthe public's right of access to information regarding the prison and its inmates in order to adjudicate the press claim to a particular form of access, since the record demonstrated that the flow of information to the public, both directly and through the press, was adequate to survive constitutional challenge; institutional considerations justified denying the single, additional mode of access sought by the press in that case.","Di record demonstrate say di flow of information to di public, both directly and through di press, dey adequate to survive constitutional challenge; institutional considerations justified say di flow of information to di public, both directly and through di press, dey adequate to survive constitutional challenge; institutional considerations justified denying di single, additional mode of access, since di record demonstrate say di flow of information to di public, both directly and through di press, dey adequate to survive constitutional challenge; institutional",Government
"robson the first amendment 147 here, in contrast, the restrictions on access to the inner portions ofthe santa rita jail that existed on the date this litigation commenced concealed from the general public the conditions of confinement within the facility.","For contrast, di restrictions on access to di inner portion of di santa rita jail wey dey exist on di date dis litigation commence concealed from di general public di condition of confinement within di facility.",Government
"the question is whether petitioner's policies, which cutoff the flow of information at its source, abridged the public's right to be informed about those conditions.","Di question na whether petitioner's policy, wey cutoff di flow of information for its source, abridge di public's right to inform about dis conditions.",Government
the answer to that question does not depend upon the degree of public disclosure which should attend the operation of most governmental activity.,Di answer to say question no depend upon di degree of public disclosure wey go attend di operation of most governmental activity.,Government
such matters involve questions of policy which generally must be resolved by the political branches of government.,Na such matters involve question of policy wey generally must resolve by di political branch of government.,Government
"moreover, there are unquestionably occasions when governmental activity may properly be carried on incomplete secrecy.",E dey unquestionably occasions wen governmental activity go properly carried on for complete secrecy.,Government
"for example, the public and the press are commonly excluded from""grand jury proceedings, our own conferences,[and] the meetings of other official bodies gathered in executive session.","Di public and di press dey commonly exclude from""grand jury proceedings, our own conference,[and] di meeting of oda official bodies wey dey gather for executive session.",Government
branzburg v. hayes.,Di branzburg v. hayes,Government
"in addition, some functions of government- essential to the protection ofthe public and indeed our country's vital interests- necessarily require a large measure of secrecy, subject to appropriate legislative oversight.","Di function of goment -essential to di protection of di public and indeed awa kontri vital interests- necessarily require large measure of secrecy, subject to appropriate legislative oversight.",Government
in such situations the reasons for withholding information from the public are both apparent and legitimate.,Di reasons for witholding information from di public dey both apparent and legitimate.,Government
"in this case, however, ""[r]espondents do not assert a right to force disclosure of confidential information or to invade in anyway the decisionmaking processes of governmental officials.""","For dis case, but, ""[r]espondents do no assert a right to force disclosure of confidential information or to invade for anyway di decisionmaking processes of governmental officials.""",Government
they simply seek an end to petitioner's policy of concealing prison conditions from the public.,Di petitioner simply seek end to petitioner policy of concealing prison conditions from di public.,Government
those conditions are wholly without claim to confidentiality.,Di conditions dey witou t claim to confidentiality,Government
"while prison officials have an interest in the time and manner of public acquisition of information about the institutions they administer, there is no legitimate penological justification for concealing from citizens the conditions in which their fellow citizens are being confined.","As prison officials don interest for di time and manner of public acquisition of information about di institutions wey dem administer, no legitimate penological justification for concealing from citizens di condition wey dia fellow citizens dey confined.",Government
"not only are they public institutions, financed with public funds and administered by public servants, they are an integral component ofthe criminal justice system.","Di public institutions, finance wit public funds and administered by public servants, dem dey integral component of di criminal justice system.",Government
"the citizens confined therein are temporarily, and sometimes permanently, deprived of their liberty as a result of a trial which must conform to the dictates ofthe constitution.","Di citizens confined therein dey temporarily, and sometimes permanently, deprived of dia liberty as result of trial wey must conform to di dictates of di constitution.",Government
"by express command ofthe sixth amendment the proceeding must be a""public trial.""",Di proceeding must be public trial.,Government
"it is important not only that the trial itself be fair, but also that the community at large have confidence in the integrity ofthe proceeding.","E dey important not only say di trial wey dey fair, but also say di community at large don confidence for di integrity of di proceeding.",Government
that public interest survives the judgment of conviction and appropriately carries over to an interest in how the convicted person is treated during his period of punishment and hopedfor rehabilitation.,"Di tin wey concern everybody for society, wey be say e important for all of us survive di judgment of conviction and appropriately carry over to an interest for how di convicted person dey treated during hin period of punishment and hope for rehabilitation.",Government
"while award ofthe state and subject to its stern discipline, he retains constitutional protections against cruel and unusual punishment, a protection which may derive more practical support from access to information about prisons by the public than by occasional litigation in a busy court.","Di ward of di state and subject to its stern discipline, hin retain constitutional protections against cruel and unusual punishment, a protection wey dey which dey carry more practical support from access to information about prisons by di public than by occasional litigation for busy court.",Government
"some inmates- in santa rita, a substantial number- are pretrial detainees.","As some inmates- for santa rita, substantial number- dey pretrial detainees.",Government
"though confined pending trial, they have not been convicted of an offense against society and are entitled to the presumption of innocence.",Dem no dey convicted of offense against society and dem dey entitled to di presumption of innocence.,Government
"certain penological objectives, i. e, punishment, deterrence, and rehabilitation, which are legitimate in regard to convicted prisoners, are inapplicable to pretrial detainees.","I. e, punishment, deterrence, and rehabilitation, wey dey legitimate for regard to convicted prisoners, dey legitimate to pretrial detainees.",Government
society has a special interest in ensuring that unconvicted citizens are treated in accord with their status.,Di society don special interest for ensuring say unconvicted citizens dey treated for accord wit dia status,Government
"in this case, the record demonstrates that both the public and the press had been consistently denied any access to the inner portions ofthe santa rita jail, that there had been excessive censorship of inmate correspondence, and that there was no valid justification for these broad restraints on the flow of information.","Di record demonstrate say both di public and di press don denied any access to di inner portion of di santa rita jail, say na excessive censorship of inmate correspondence, and say nano valid justification for dis broad restraints for di flow of information.",Government
"moreover, it imposed duties on petitioner that may not be required by the constitution itself.",E impose duties on petitioner wey no dey required by di constitution itself.,Government
the injunction was not an abuse of discretion for either of these reasons.,Di injunction no be abuse of discretion for either of dis reasons.,Government
robson the first amendment 148 notes 1.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 148 notes 1.,Government
how effective do you think the court's suggested alternatives to press access to the prison would be?,How effective do you think di court suggest alternatives to press access to di prison go be?,Government
do you think that the current prison conditions would be improved- - - or atleast different- - -had the court reached a different conclusion in kq ed?,Di current prison conditions go improve- - or atleast different- - -had di court reach different conclusion for kq ed?,Government
press access to military operations is similarly contested.,Di military operations dey similarly contested,Government
"in nation magazine v. u. s. dep't of def,","For nation magazine v. u. s. dep't of def,",Government
"the plaintiffs had urged that the department of defense(dod) ""pooling"" regulations, which limit access to the battlefield to a specified number of press representatives and subject them to certain restrictions, infringe on news gathering privileges accorded by the first amendment.","Di plaintiffs don urge say di department of defense(dod) ""pooling"" regulations, wey limit access to di battlefield to a specified number of press representatives and subject dem to certain restrictions, wey dey infringe on news gathering privileges wey dey accorded by di firstamendment.",Government
"the plaintiffs- --including the nation, mother jones, the progressive magazine, the village voice, and pacifica radio news- - -also contended that the dod preferences for certain news organizations and reporters discriminated in favor of particular viewpoints, but the court found that this claim was not adequately supported.","Di plaintiffs- -including di nation, mother jones, di progressive magazine, di village voice, and pacifica radio news- - -also contended for di dod preferences for certain news organizations and reporters discriminate for favor of particular viewpoints, but di court find say dis claim no adequately supported.",Government
"the subsequent process of ""embedding"" reporters is also subject to first amendment concerns, including discrimination and distortion ofthe news.","Di subsequent process of ""embedding"" reporters dey subject to First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) concerns, including discrimination and distortion of di news",Government
"for an excellent discussion see student note, elana j. zeide, in bed with the military: first amendment implications of embedded journalism, 80 n. y. u.","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) implications of embedded journalism,80 n. y. u.",Government
"d.(un)lawful information members ofthe press routinely use statutory or regulatory provisions such as the federal freedom of information act,5 u. s. c.","D.(un)lawful information members of di news pipo routinely use statutory or regulatory provisions such as di federal freedom of information act,5 u. s. c.",Government
"they also use other means, including there ceipt of anonymous information which may have been gathered through unlawful means.","Dem also use oda means, including dire ceipt of anonymous information wey dem collect through unlawful means.",Government
"note: bartnicki v. vopper in bartnicki v. vopper,532 u. s. 514(2001), the court held that a statutory wiretapping prohibition could not be constitutionally applied to a radio host who played a tape of an intercepted conversation on his radio show.","bartnicki v. vopper for bartnicki v. vopper, 532 u. s. 514(2001), di court tok say statutory wiretapping prohibition no be constitutionally applied to radio host wey play tape of intercepted conversation on hin radio show.",Government
the host received the tape anonymously but had reason to know that the conversation had been illegally intercepted.,Di host receive di tape anonymously but had reason to know say di conversation don illegally intercepted.,Government
"title iii ofthe omnibus crime control and safe streets act of 1968, as amended, generally prohibited the interception of wire, electronic, and oral communications.","Title iii of di omnibus crime control and safe streets act of 1968, as amended, generally prohibited di interception of wire, electronic, and oral communications.",Government
title 18 u. s. c.,E. s. c.,Government
"the court's opinion, authored by justice stevens, stated: the government identifies two interests served by the statute first, the interest in removing an incentive for parties to intercept private conversations, and second, the interest in minimizing the harm to persons whose conversations have been illegally intercepted.","Di goment don identify two interests wey dey served by di statute first, di interest for removing incentive for parties to intercept private conversations, and second, di interest for minimizing di harm to person wey dey intercept private conversations, and second, di interest for minimizing di harm to person wey dey intercept private conversations.",Government
"we assume that those interests adequately justify the prohibition in 2511(1)(d) against the interceptor's own use of information that he or she acquired by violating 2511(1)(a), but it by no means follows that punishing disclosures of lawfully obtained information of public interest by one not involved in the initial illegality is an acceptable means of serving those ends.","We assume say those interests adequately justify di prohibition in 2511(1)(d) against di interceptor's own use of information wey he or she acquired by violating 2511(1)(a), but nano means follow say punishing disclosures of lawfully obtained information wey he or she acquired by violating 2511(1)(a) against di interceptor's own use of information wey he or she acquired by violating 2511(1)(a) against di interceptor's own use of information wey",Government
the court considered the first interest not served by prohibiting third parties from disclosing the information but took the second interest more seriously.,"Di court tok say di first interest no served by prohibiting pipo wey no be you, wey go help you or give you tori, like family, friends, or odas outside from disclosing di information but tok di second interest more seriously.",Government
"the court concluded, however, that in this case- - -involving a conversation between members of a teachers' union in negotiations and a possible strike- - - an application ofthe antiwiretap statute ""implicates the core purposes ofthe first amendment because it imposes sanctions on the publication of truthful information of public concern.""","Dis case- -involving conversation between members of teachers union for negotiations and possible strike- - - an application of di antiwiretap statute ""implicate di core purpose of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) because e impose sanctions on di publication of truthful information of public concern.",Government
"stevens continued: robson the first amendment 149 the months of negotiations over the proper level of compensation for teachers at the wyoming valley west highschool were unquestionably a matter of public concern, and respondents were clearly engaged in debate about that concern.","Na robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 149 di months of negotiations over di proper level of compensation for teachers for di wyoming valley west highschool dey unquestionably a matter of public concern, and respondents dey clearly engage for debate about say concern.",Government
"that debate maybe more mundane than the communist rhetoric that inspired justice brandeis' classic opinion in whitney v. california(1919), but it is no less worthy of constitutional protection.","Di communist rhetoric wey inspired justice brandeis' classic opinion for whitney v. california(1919), but e no dey worthy of constitutional protection.",Government
"thus, privacy concerns gave way when balanced against the interest in publishing matters of public importance.","Dis, privacy concerns gave way wen balance against di interest for publishing matters of public importance.",Government
"e. reporters'""privilege"" branzburg v. hayes 480 u. s. 665(1972) white, j, wrote the opinion ofthe court, in which burger, c. j, and blackmun, powell, and rehnquist, jj,","E. reporters'""privilege"" branzburg v. hayes 480 u. s. 665(1972) white, j, write di opinion of di court, wey burger, c. j, and blackmun, powell, and rehnquist, jj.",Government
"douglas, j, filed a dissenting opinion.",Dem filed dissenting opinion.,Government
"stewart, j, filed a dissenting opinion, in which brennan and marshall, jj,","Di stewart, j, filed dissenting opinion, wey brennan and marshall, jj, filed dissenting opinion, wey brennan and marshall, jj.",Government
"opinion ofthe court by justice white, announced by the chief justice the issue in these cases is whether requiring newsmen to appear and testify before state or federal grand juries abridges the freedom of speech and press guaranteed by the first amendment.",Di chief justice di issue for dis case na whether require newsmen to appear and testify before state or federal grand juries abridge di freedom of speech and press guaranteed by di firstamendment.,Government
we hold that it does not.,We hold say e no.,Government
all three were subpoenaed by grand juries].,Dem subpoenaed by grand juries].,Government
"petitioners branzburg and pappas and respondent caldwell press first amendment claims that maybe simply put: that to gather news it is often necessary to agree either not to identify the source of information published or to publish only part ofthe facts revealed, or both; that if the reporter is nevertheless forced to reveal these confidences to a grand jury, the source so identified and other confidential sources of other reporters will be measurably deterred from furnishing publishable information, all to the detriment ofthe free flow of information protected by the first amendment.","Di petitioners branzburg and pappas and respondent caldwell press First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) claim say if di reporter no dey force to identify di source of information wey dey publish or to publish only part of di facts wey dey revealed, or both; say if di reporter no dey suppose reveal di facts wey dem reveal, and oda confidential sources of other reporters go dey reveal, or both; say if di reporter no dey suppose deterred from furnishing publishable information,",Government
"although the newsmen in these cases do not claim an absolute privilege against official interrogation in all circumstances, they assert that the reporter should not be forced either to appear or to testify before a grand jury or at trial until and unless sufficient grounds are shown for believing that the reporter possesses information relevant to a crime the grand jury is investigating, that the information the reporter has is unavailable from other sources, and that the need for the information is sufficiently compelling to override the claimed invasion of first amendment interests occasione d by the disclosure.","Di newsmen for dis case no claim absolute privilege against official interrogation for all circumstances, dem assert say di reporter no dey force either to appear or testify before a grand jury or trial until and unless sufficient grounds dey show say di information wey dem dey suppose compelling to a crime di grand jury or trial until and unless sufficient grounds dey show say di information wey dem dey suppose compelling to di information wey dem dey suppose",Government
"principally relied upon are prior cases emphasizing the importance ofthe first amendment guarantees to individual development and to our system of representative government, decisions requiring that official action with adverse impact on first amendment rights be justified by a public interest that is""compelling"" or""paramount,"" and those precedents establishing the principle that justifiable governmental goals may not be achieved by unduly broad means having an unnecessary impact on protected rights of speech, press, or association.","Na prior cases wey dey emphasizing di importance of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) guarantee to individual development and to awa system of representative goment, decisions wey dey establish say official action wit adverse impact on First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) rights dey justified by tin wey concern everybody for society, wey be say e important for all of us wey dey compelling or""paramount,"" and those precedents wey dey establish di principle say justifiable governmental goals no go achieve by unnecessary impact on protected rights of speech, press, or association.",Government
the heart ofthe claim is that the burden on news gathering resulting from compelling reporters to disclose confidential information outweighs any public interest in obtaining the information.,"Di heart of di claim na say di burden on news gathering result from compelling reporters to disclose confidential information outweigh any tin wey concern everybody for society, wey be say e important for all of us for obtaining di information.",Government
"we do not question the significance of free speech, press, or assembly to the country's welfare.","We no ignore di significance of free speech, press, or assembly to di kontri welfare.",Government
"nor is it suggested that news gathering does not qualify for first amendment protection; without some protection for seeking out the news, freedom ofthe press could be e viscerated.","Dem suggest say news gathering no qualify for First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) protection; without some protection for seeking out di news, freedom of di press go dey viscerated.",Government
"but these cases robson the first amendment 150 involve no intrusions upon speech or assembly, no prior restraint or restriction on what the press may publish, and no express or implied command that the press publish what it prefers to withhold.","Di cases robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 150 involve no intrusions upon speech or assembly, no Wetin dem dey call prior restraint be say government no go gree make person talk or write wetin dem wan write before dem publish am, na like say government dey hold person mouth before dem talk or restriction on what di press publish, and no express or implied command wey di press publish, and no express or implied command wey di press publish, and no express or implied command wey di press publish, and no express or implied command wey di press publish, and no express or implied command wey di press publish, and no express or implied command wey di press publish, and no express or implied command wey di press",Government
"no exaction or tax for the privilege of publishing, and no penalty, civil or criminal, related to the content of published material is at issue here.","Nano exaction or tax for di privilege of publish, and no penalty, civil or criminal, wey dey related to di content of published material dey issue here.",Government
the use of confidential sources by the press is not forbidden or restricted; reporters remain free to seek news from any source by means within the law.,Di use of confidential source by di press no dey restricted or restricted; reporters no dey free to seek news from any source by means within di law.,Government
no attempt is made to require the press to publish its sources of information or indiscriminately to disclose them on request.,Nano attempt make dem require di press to publish im source of information or indiscriminately to disclose demon request.,Government
the sole issue before us is the obligation of reporters to respond to grand jury subpoenas as other citizens do and to answer questions relevant to an investigation into the commission of crime.,Di sole issue before us dey di obligation of reporters to respond to grand jury subpoenas as oda citizens do and to answer questions relevant to di commission of crime.,Government
citizens generally are not constitutionally immune from grand jury subpoenas; and neither the first amendment nor any other constitutional provision protects the average citizen from disclosing to a grand jury information that he has received in confidence.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) nor any oda constitutional provision protect di average citizen from disclosing to grand jury information wey he don receive for confidence.,Government
"the claim is, however, that reporters are exempt from these obligations because if forced to respond to subpoenas and identify their sources or disclose other confidences, their informants will refuse or be reluctant to furnish newsworthy information in the future.","Di claim dey, however, say reporters dey exempt from dis obligations because if force to respond to subpoenas and identify dia source or disclose oda confidence, dia informants go refuse or refuse to furnish newsworthy information for di future.",Government
this asserted burden on news gathering is said to make compelled testimony from newsmen constitutionally suspect and to require a privileged position for them.,Di assert burden on news gathering dey tok say make dem make compelled testimony from newsmen constitutionally suspect and to require a privileged position for dem,Government
"although it may deter or regulate what is said or published, the press may not circulate knowing or reckless falsehoods damaging to private reputation without subjecting itself to liability for damages, including punitive damages, or even criminal prosecution.","Di press no dey circulate know or reckless falsehoods wey dey damage to private reputation without subject imself to liability for damages, including punitive damages, or even criminal prosecution.",Government
"newsmen have no constitutional right of access to the scenes of crime or disaster when the general public is excluded, and they maybe prohibited from attending or publishing information about trials if such restrictions are necessary to assure a defendant a fair trial before an impartial tribunal.","Di newsmen don no constitutional right of access to di scenes of crime or disaster wen di general public dey exclude, and they go prohibited from attending or publish information about trial if such restrictions dey necessary to assure a defendant fair trial before impartial tribunal.",Government
"at common law, courts consistently refused to recognize the existence of any privilege authorizing a newsman to refuse to reveal confidential information to a grand jury.","For common law, courts consistently refused to recognize di existence of any privilege wey dey authorizing newsman to refuse to reveal confidential information to grand jury.",Government
until now the only testimonial privilege for unofficial witnesses that is rooted in the federal constitution is the fifth amendment privilege against compelled self -incrimination.,Di only testimonial privilege for unofficial witnesses wey dey root for di federal constitution dey di fifth amendment privilege against compelled self -incrimination.,Government
we are asked to create another by interpreting the first amendment to grant newsmen a testimonial privilege that other citizens do not enjoy.,We dey ask to create one by interpreting First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) to grant newsmen testimonial privilege wey oda citizens no enjoy,Government
"the court does not hold that newsmen, subpoenaed to testify before a grand jury, are without constitutional rights with respect to the gathering of news or in safeguarding their sources.","Di court no hold say newsmen, subpoenaed to testify before grand jury, dey without constitutional rights wit respect to di gathering of news or in safeguarding dia sources.",Government
"certainly, we do not hold, as suggested in mr. justice stewart's dissenting opinion, that state and federal authorities are free to""annex"" the news media as""an investigative arm of government.""","For mr. justice stewart's dissenting opinion, say state and federal authorities dey free to""annex"" di news media as investigative arm of government",Government
"the solicitude repeatedly shown by this court for first amendment freedoms should be sufficient assurance against any such effort, even if one seriously believed that the media- properly free and untrammeled in the fullest sense of these terms- were notable to protect themselves.",One seriously believe say di media- properly free and untrammeled for di fullest sense of dis terms- no fit protect themselves.,Government
"as indicated in the concluding portion ofthe opinion, the court states that no harassment of newsmen will be tolerated.",Di court state say no harassment of newsmen go tolerate.,Government
if a newsman believes that the grand jury investigation is not being conducted in good faith he is not without remedy.,If a newsman believe say di grand jury investigation no dey conduct for good faith hin no get remedy.,Government
"indeed, if the newsman is called upon to give information bearing only a remote and tenuous relationship to the subject ofthe investigation, or if he has some other reason to believe that his testimony implicates confidential source relationships without a legitimate need of law enforcement, he will have access to the court on a motion to quash robson the first amendment 151 and an appropriate protective order maybe entered.","If di newsman dey call upon to give information bearing only remote and tenuous relationship to di subject of di investigation, or if hin don believe say hin testimony implicate confidential source relationships without legitimate need of law enforcement, hin go get access to di court on motion to quash robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 151 and an appropriate protective order go enter.",Government
the asserted claim to privilege should be judged on its facts by the striking of a proper balance between freedom ofthe press and the obligation of all citizens to give relevant testimony with respect to criminal conduct.,Di asserted claim to privilege should be judged on im facts by di striking of a proper balance between freedom for news pipo to do dia work and di obligation of all citizens to give relevant testimony wit respect to criminal conduct.,Government
the balance of these vital constitutional and societal interests on a case-by-case basis accords with the tried and traditional way of adjudicating such questions.,Di balance of dis vital constitutional and societal interests on case-by case basis accord wit di tried and traditional way of adjudicating such questions.,Government
"[footnote*]in short, the courts will be available to newsmen under circumstances where legitimate first amendment interests require protection.",Di courts go dey available to newsmen under circumstances wey legitimate First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) interest require protection,Government
[footnote * ] it is to be remembered that caldwell asserts a constitutional privilege not even to appear before the grand jury unless a court decides that the government has made a showing that meets the three preconditions specified in the dissenting opinion of mr.,E dey remember say caldwell assert constitutional privilege no even to appear before di grand jury unless court decide say di goment don make a show say meet di three preconditions wey dey suppose meet for di dissenting opinion of mr.,Government
"to be sure, this would require a""balancing"" of interests by the court, but under circumstances and constraints significantly different from the balancing that will be appropriate under the court's decision.","Di suppose require a""balancing"" of interest by di court, but under circumstances and constraints wey dey different from di balancing wey dey appropriate under di court decision.",Government
"the newsman witness, like all other witnesses, will have to appear; he will not bein a position to litigate at the threshold the state's very authority to subpoena him.","Di newsman witness, like all oda witnesses, go appear; hin no be for position to litigate for di threshold di state's very authority to subpoena hin",Government
"moreover, absent the constitutional preconditions that caldwell and that dissenting opinion would impose as heavy burdens of proof to be carried by the state, the court- when called upon to protect a newsman from improper or prejudicial questioning- would be free to balance the competing interests on their merits in the particular case.",Di court- wen call upon to protect newsman from improper or prejudicial questioning- go dey free to balance di competing interest on dia merits for di particular case.,Government
"the new constitutional rule endorsed by that dissenting opinion would, as a practical matter, defeat such a fair balancing and the essential societal interest in the detection and prosecution of crime would be heavily subordinated.","Di new constitutional rule endorsed by say dissenting opinion go, as practical matter, defeat such fair balancing and di essential societal interest for di detection and prosecution of crime go heavily subordinate.",Government
"justice douglas, dissenting.","Justice douglas, dissenting.",Government
"the new york times, whose reporting functions are at issue here, takes the amazing position that first amendment rights are to be balanced against other needs or conveniences of government.","Di new york times, wey dey report functions dey issue here, take di amazing position say First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) rights dey balance against oda needs or conveniences of government.",Government
"my belief is that all ofthe ""balancing""was done by those who wrote the bill of rights.","My belief na say all of di""balancing"" dey done by those wey write di bill of rights.",Government
"by casting the first amendment in absolute terms, they repudiated the timid, watereddown, emasculated versions ofthe first amendment which both the government and the new york times advance in the case.","Dem repudiated di timid, watereddown, emasculated version of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) wey both di government and di new york times advance for di case.",Government
"the right to know is crucial to the governing powers of th e people, to paraphrase alexander meiklejohn.","Di right to know dey crucial to di governing power of th e pipo, to paraphrase alexander meiklejohn.",Government
knowledge is essential to informed decisions.,Di knowledge dey important to informed decisions,Government
"unless he has a privilege to withhold the identity of his source, he will be the victim of governmental intrigue or aggression.",Di victim of governmental intrigue or aggression.,Government
"if he can be summoned to testify in secret before a grand jury, his sources will dry up and the attempted exposure, the effort to enlighten the public, will be ended.","Di effort to enlighten di public, go end.",Government
"if what the court sanctions today becomes settled law, t hen the reporter's main function in american society will be to pass onto the public the press releases which the various departments of government issue.",Di reporter's main function for american society go pass onto di public di press release wey di various departments of government issue.,Government
"justice stewart, with whom mr.","Di justice stewart, wit whom mr",Government
justice brennan and mr.,Di justice brennan and mr,Government
"justice marshall join, dissenting.","Justice marshall join, dissenting.",Government
the court's crabbed view ofthe first amendment reflects a disturbing insensitivity to the critical role of an independent press in our society.,Di court's crabbed view of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) reflect disturbing insensitivity to di critical role of independent press for awa society.,Government
"the question whether a reporter has a constitutional right to a confidential relationship with his source is of first impression here, but the principles that should guide our decision areas basic as any to be found in the constitution.","Di question wey a reporter get constitutional right to a confidential relationship within source dey of first impression here, but di principles wey go guide awa decision dey as basic as any to be found for di constitution.",Government
"while mr. justice powell's enigmatic concurring opinion gives some hope of a more flexible view in the future, the court in these cases holds that a newsman has no first amendment right to protect his sources when called before a grand jury.",Di court for di se cases hold say newsman no First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) right to protect hin source wen dem call before grand jury.,Government
the court thus invites state and federal authorities to undermine the historic independence ofthe press by attempting to annex the journalistic profession as an investigative arm of government.,Di court don invit state and federal authorities to undermine di historic independence of di press by attempting to annex di journalistic profession as investigative arm of government.,Government
"not only will this decision impair performance ofthe press' constitutionally protected functions, but it will, i am convinced, in the long run harm rather than help the administration of justice.","I dey convinced, for di long run harm no be help di administration of justice.",Government
"cohen v. cowles media co.501 u. s. 663(1991) white, j, delivered the opinion ofthe court, in which rehnquist, c. j, and stevens, scalia, and kennedy, jj,","Dem deliver di opinion of di court, wey rehnquist, c. j, and stevens, scalia, and kennedy, jj.",Government
"blackmun, j, filed a dissenting opinion, in which marshall and souter, jj,","Di blackmun, j, filed dissenting opinion, wey marshall and souter, jj, filed dissenting opinion, wey marshall and souter, jj.",Government
"joined, souter, j, filed a dissenting opinion, in which marshall, blackmun, and o'connor, jj,","Dem join, souter, j, filed dissenting opinion, wey marshall, blackmun, and o'connor, jj.",Government
justice white delivered theo pinion ofthe court.,Di justice white deliver di opinion of di court,Government
"the question before us is whether the first amendment prohibits a plaintiff from recovering damages, under state promissory estoppel law, for a news paper's breach of a promise of confidentiality given to the plaintiff in exchange for information.","Di question before us dey whether di firstamendment prohibit plaintiff from recover damages, under state promissory estoppel law, for news paper's breach of promise of confidentiality wey dem give to di plaintiff for exchange for information.",Government
"during the closing days ofthe 1982 minnesota gubernatorial race, dan cohen, an active republican associated with wheelock whitney 's independent-republican gubernatorial campaign, approached reporters from the st. paul pioneer press dispatch(pioneer press)and the minneapolis star and tribune(star tribune)and offered to provide documents relating to a candidate in the upcoming election.","Di closing days of di 1982 minnesota gubernatorial race, dan cohen, active republican associated wit wheelock whitney 's independent republican gubernatorial campaign, approach reporters from di st. paul pioneer press dispatch(pioneer press)and di minneapolis star and tribune(star tribune)and offer document wey dey relating to candidate for di upcoming election.",Government
cohen made clear to the reporters that he would provide the information only if he was given a promise of confidentiality.,Di cohen make clear to di reporters say he go provide di information only if he get promise of confidentiality.,Government
"reporters from both papers promised to keep cohen's identity anonymous, and cohen turned over copies of two public court records concerning marlene johnson, the democratic-farmer -labor candidate for lieutenant governor.","Reporters from both papers promised to keep cohen's identity anonymous, and cohen turned over copies of two everybody kot records concerning marlene johnson, di democratic-farmer -labor candidate for lieutenant governor.",Government
"the first record indicated that johnson had been charged in 1969 with three counts of unlawful assembly, and the second that she had been convicted in 1970 of petit theft.","Di first record fordicated say johnson don charge for 1969 wit three counts of unlawful assembly, and di second say she don convicted for 1970 of petit dift.",Government
"both newspapers interviewed johnson for her explanation, and one reporter tracked down the person who had found the records for cohen.","Di newspaper interview johnson for her explanation, and one reporter track down di person wey don find di record for cohen.",Government
"as it turned out, the unlawful assembly charges arose out of johnson's participation in a protest of an alleged failure to hire minority workers on municipal construction projects, and the charges were eventually dismissed.","Di unlawful assembly charges arose out of johnson's participation for protest of alleged failure to hire minority workers for municipal construction projects, and di charges dey eventually dismiss.",Government
the petit theft conviction was for leaving a store without paying for$6. 00 worth of sewing materials.,Di petit dift conviction dey for leaving store without pay for$6. 00 worth of sewing materials,Government
"the incident apparently occurred at a time during which johnson was emotionally distraught, and the conviction was later vacated.","Di incident apparently occur for time during which johnson dey emotionally distraught, and di conviction dey later vacated.",Government
"after consultation and debate, the editorial staffs ofthe two newspapers independently decided to publish cohen's name as part of their stories concerning johnson.",Di editorial staff of di two newspapers independently decide to publish cohen name as part of dia story concerning johnson,Government
"in their stories, both papers identified cohen as the source ofthe court records, indicated his connection to the whitney campaign, and included denials by whitney campaign officials of any role in the matter.","Di paper identified cohen as di source of di court records, indicated hin connection to di whitney campaign, and include denials by whitney campaign officials of any role for di matter.",Government
"the same day the stories appeared, cohen was fired by his employer.","Di same day di stories appear, cohen dey fire by hin employer.",Government
"cohen sued respondents, the publishers ofthe pioneer press and star tribune, in minnesota state court, alleging fraudulent misrepresentation and breach of contract.","Cohen sued respondents, di publishers of di pioneer news pipo and star tribune, for minnesota state kot, alleging fraudulent misrepresentation and When person no follow or break the terms of a legal agreement dem made.",Government
the trial court rejected respondents' argument that the first amendment barred cohen's lawsuit.,Di trial court reject respondents' argument say First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) barre cohen lawsuit.,Government
"a jury returned a verdict in cohen's favor, awarding him$200, 000 in compensatory damages and$500, 000 in punitive damages.","Di jury return verdict for cohen's favor, award him$200, 000 for compensatory damages and$500, 000 for punitive damages.",Government
"the minnesota court of appeals, in a split decision, reversed the award of punitive damages after concluding that cohen had failed to establish a fraud claim, the only claim which would support such an award.","Di minnesota court of appeal, for split decision, reversed di award of punitive damages afta concluding say cohen don fail to establish fraud claim, di only claim wey go support such award.",Government
"however, the court upheld the finding of liability for breach of contract and the$200, 000 compensatory damage award.","But, di kot upheld di finding of liability for When person no follow or break the terms of a legal agreement dem made and di$200, 000 compensatory damage award.",Government
a divided minnesota supreme court reversed the compensatory damages award.,A divide minnesota supreme court reversed di compensatory damage award,Government
"after affirming the court of appeals' determination that cohen had not established a claim for fraudulent misrepresentation, the court considered his breach of contract claim and concluded that""a contract robson the first amendment 153 cause of action is inappropriate for these particular circumstances.""","Di court tok say cohen no establish contract claim for fraudulent misrepresentation, di court tok say""a contract robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 153 cause of action dey inappropriate for dis particular circumstances.",Government
the court then went onto address the question whether cohen could establish a cause of action under minnesota law on a promissory estoppel theory.,Di court tok say cohen go establish cause of action under minnesota law on promissory estoppel theory.,Government
"the court stated""under a promissory estoppel analysis, there can be no neutrality towards the first amendment.","Di court state""under promissory estoppel analysis, no neutrality towards First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).",Government
"in deciding whether it would be unjust not to enforce the promise, the court must necessarily weigh the same considerations that are weighed for whether the first amendment has been violated.","Di court must weigh di same considerations wey dem weigh for whether di first amendment don violated, di court must weigh di same considerations wey dem weigh for whether di first amendment don violated.",Government
"the court must balance the constitutional rights of a free press against the common law interest in protecting a promise of anonymity.""",Di court must balance di constitutional rights of free press against di common law interest for protecting promise of anonymity,Government
"after a brief discussion, the court concluded that""in this case, enforcement ofthe promise of confidentiality under a promissory estoppel theory would violate defendants' first amendment rights.""","For dis case, enforcement of di promise of confidentiality under promissory estoppel theory go violate defendants' First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) rights.",Government
we granted certiorari to consider the first amendment implications of this case.,We grant certiorari to consider First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) implications of dis case.,Government
there can be little doubt that the minnesota doctrine of promis sory estoppel is a law of general applicability.,Di minnesota doctrine of promis sory estoppel na law of general applicability.,Government
it does not target or single out the press.,E no target or single out di press,Government
"rather, insofar as we are advised, the doctrine is generally applicable to the daily transactions of all the citizens of minnesota.",Di doctrine dey generally applicable to di daily transactions of all di citizens of minnesota.,Government
the first amendment does not forbid its application to the press.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) no forbid im application to di press.,Government
respondents and amici argue that permitting cohen to maintain a cause of action for promissory estoppel will inhibit truthful reporting because news organizations will have legal incentives not to disclose a confidential source's identity even when that person's identity is itself newsworthy.,Di respondents and amici argue say allow cohen to maintain cause of action for promissory estoppel go inhibit truthful reporting because news organizations go get legal incentives no to disclose confidential source's identity even if dat person's identity dey newsworthy.,Government
justice souter [in dissent]makes a similar argument.,Justice souter [for dissent]makes a similar argument.,Government
"but if this is the case, it is no more than the incidental, and constitutionally insignificant, consequence of applying to the press a generally applicable law that requires those who make certain kinds of promises to keep them.","If dis dey di case, na no more than di incidental, and constitutionally insignificant, consequence of applying to di press a generally applicable law wey require those wey make certain kinds of promises to keep dem",Government
"although we conclude that the first amendment does not confer on the press a constitutional right to disregard promises that would otherwise be enforced under state law, we reject cohen's request that, in reversing the minnesota supreme court's judgment, we reinstate the jury verdict awarding him$200, 000 in compensatory damages.","We conclude say First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) no confer on di press constitutional right to disregard promises wey go enforce under state law, we reject cohen's request say, for reversing di minnesota supreme court's judgment, we reinstate di jury verdict award him$200, 000 for compensatory damages.",Government
"the minnesota supreme court's incorrect conclusion that the first amendment barred cohen's claim may well have truncated its consideration of whether a promissory estoppel claim had otherwise been established under minnesota law, and whether cohen's jury verdict could be upheld on a promissory estoppel basis.","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) barred cohen's claim go dey establish under minnesota law, and whether cohen's jury verdict go dey upheld on promissory estoppel basis.",Government
or perhaps the state constitution maybe construed to shield the press from a promissory estoppel cause of action such as this one.,Di state constitution go construct to shield di press from promissory estoppel cause of action such as dis one.,Government
these are matters for the minnesota supreme court to address and resolve in the first instance on remand.,Dem dey matters for di minnesota supreme court to address and resolve for di first instance on remand,Government
"accordingly, the judgment ofthe minnesota supreme court is reversed, and the case is remanded for further proceedings not inconsistent with this opinion.","Di judgment of di minnesota supreme court dey reversed, and di case dey remanded for further proceedings no inconsistent wit dis opinion.",Government
"justice souter, with whom justice marshall, justice blackmun and justice o'connor join, dissenting.","Justice souter, wit whom justice marshall, justice blackmun and justice o'connor join, dissenting.",Government
"nor can i accept the majority's position that we may dispense with balancing because the burden on publication is in a sense""self -imposed""by the newspaper's voluntary promise of confidentiality.","I accept di majority's position wey we go dispense wit balancing because di burden on publication dey in sense""self -imposed""by di newspaper's voluntary promise of confidentiality.",Government
"this suggests both the possibility of waiver, the requirements for which have not been met here aswell as a conception of first amendment rights as those ofthe speaker alone, with a value that maybe measured without reference to the importance ofthe information to public discourse. but freedom ofthe press is ultimately founded on the value of enhancing such discourse for the sake of a citizenry better informed, and thus more prudently self-governed.","Dis suggest both di possibility of waiver, di requirements wey no dey meet here aswell as conception of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) rights as those of di speaker alone, wit value wey dey measure wit di value of enhancing such discourse for di sake of citizenry better informed, and thus more prudently self-governed.",Government
"there can be no doubt that the fact of cohen's identity expanded the universe of information relevant to the choice faced by minnesota voters in that state's 1982 gubernatorial election, the publication of which was thus ofthe sort quintessentially subject to strict first amendment protection.","Di fact of cohen's identity expand di universe of information relevant to di choice wey dem face by minnesota voters for dat state's 1982 gubernatorial election, di publication of which na thus of di sort quintessentially subject to strict First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) protection",Government
"the robson the first amendment 154 propriety of his leak to respondents could be taken to reflect on his character, which in turn could be taken to reflect on the character ofthe candidate who had retained him as an adviser.","Di robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 154 propriety of hin leak to respondents go take reflect on hin character, wey in turn go take reflect on di character of di candidate wey dey retained him as adviser.",Government
"an election could turn on just such a factor; if it should, i am ready to assume that it would be to the greater public good, at least over the long run.","I dey ready to assume say im go be to di greater public good, at least over di long run.",Government
this is not to say that the breach of such a promise of confidentiality could never give rise to liability.,Dem no say di breach of such promise of confidentiality no give rise to liability.,Government
one can conceive of situations in which the injured party is a private individual whose identity is of less public concern than that ofthe petitioner; liability there might not be constitutionally prohibited.,One fit conceive of situations wey di injured party dey private individual wey dey of less public concern than say of di petitioner; liability no be constitutionally prohibited.,Government
"nor do i mean to imply that the circumstances of acquisition are irrelevant to the balance although they may go only to what balances against, and not to diminish, the first amendment value of any particular piece of information.","Di circumstances of acquisition dey irrelevant to di balance although dem go only to what balance wey dey against, and no to diminish, First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) value of any particular one piece of information.",Government
"because i believe the state's interest in enforcing anew spaper's promise of confidentiality insufficient to outweigh the interest in unfettered publication ofthe information revealed in this case, i respectfully dissent.","I believe di state interest for enforcing new spaper's promise of confidentiality insufficient to outweigh di interest for unfettered publication of di information wey dey reveal for dis case, i respectfully dissent.",Government
"on remand in cohen v. cowles, the minnesota supreme court declined to provide broader protection under its state constitutional provision than the united states supreme court recognized under the first amendment, although recognizing it was free to do so.","Di minnesota supreme court decline to provide broader protection under di state constitutional provision than di united states supreme court recognize under First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo), although recognize am free to do so.",Government
"its reasoning in part was based on the novelty ofthe issue:""the enforceability of promises of confidentiality given a news source is an issue of first impression, and this case presents only one variation of such promises.","Di enforceability of promises of confidentiality given news source na issue of first impression, and dis case present only one variation of such promises.",Government
"the full first amendment implications of this new issue may not yet have surfaced.""",Di full First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) implications of dis new issue no dey surface,Government
"the court upheld the award of$200, 000 on the theory of promissory estoppel.","Di court upheld di award of$200, 000 on di theory of promissory estoppel.",Government
"cohen v. cowles media co,","Cohen v. cowles media co,",Government
the meaning of branzburg is hotly debated.,Di meaning of branzburg dey hotly debated,Government
"in its sharply divided opinion in united states v. sterling, 724 f.3d 482(4th cir.","Di sharply divided opinion for united state v. sterling, 724 f.3d 482(4th cir.",Government
denied sub nom.,Dem denied sub nom.,Government
"risen v. united states, 572 u. s. 1149 (2014), the fourth circuit majority held: there is no first amendment testimonial privilege, absolute or qualified, that protects a reporter from being compelled to testify by the prosecution or the defense in criminal proceedings about criminal conduct that the reporter personally witnessed or participated in, absent a showing of bad faith, harassment, or other such non-legitimate motive, even though the reporter promised confidentiality to his source.","Di fourth circuit majority hold: no First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) testimonial privilege, absolute or qualified, wey protect reporter from being compelled to testify by prosecution or di defence for criminal proceedings about criminal conduct wey di reporter personally witness or participate for, absent a show of bad faith, harassment, or oda such non-legitimate motive, even though di reporter promis confidentiality to hin.",Government
"in branzburg v. hayes(1972), the supreme court""in no uncertain terms rejected the existence of such a privilege.""","Di supreme court""in no uncertain terms reject di existence of such privilege.",Government
"in re grand jury subpoena, judith miller, 438 f.3d 1141, 1146 (d. c. cir.2006).","For re grand jury subpoena, judith miller, 438 f.3d 1141, 1146 (d. c. cir.2006).",Government
"however, the dissenting judge argued: the full import of justice powell's concurrence continues to be debated.",Di dissenting judge tok say di full import of justice powell's concurrence continue to debated.,Government
"some analogize the branzburg majority opinion to a plurality opinion, and therefore assert justice powell's concurrence as the narrowest opinion is controlling.","Some analogize di branzburg majority wetin dem talk to a plurality wetin dem talk, and so sake of dat assert justice powell's concurrence as di narrowest wetin dem talk na controlling.",Government
"see in re grand jury subpoena, judith miller,438 f.3d 1141, 1148 (d. c. cir.2006) (describing appellants' argument that in a five-to-four decision,""the opinion ofthe least encompassing justice[ ]determines the precedent set by the decision"").","For re grand jury subpoena, judith miller,438 f.3d 1141, 1148 (d. c. cir.2006) (describing appellants' argument say for five-to-four decision,""the opinion of di least encompassing justice[ ]determines di precedent set by di decision"").",Government
"others, like my good friends in the majority, treat justice powell's concurrence as ancillary, and simply rejoin that""the meaning of a majority opinion is to be found within the opinion itself.""","Dem dey like my good friends for di majority, treat justice powell's concurrence as ancillary, and simply rejoin say""the meaning of majority opinion dey find within di opinion wey dey within di opinion wey deyself",Government
"given this confusion, appellate courts have subsequently hewed closer to justice powell's concurrence and justice stewart's dissent than to the majority opinion, and a number of courts have since recognized a qualified reporter's privilege, often utilizing a three-part balancing test.","Di confusion, appellate courts don recognize justice powell's concurrence and justice stewart's dissent than to di majority opinion, and a number of courts don recognize qualified reporter privilege, often utilize three-part balancing test.",Government
"indeed, a mere five years after branzburg, a federal court of appeals confidently asserted that the existence of a qualified reporter's privilege was""no longer in doubt.""",Di federal court of appeal confidently assert say di existence of qualified reporter's privilege no longer for doubt,Government
"silkwood v. kerr mcgee corp, 563 f.2d 433, 437(10th cir.1977).",Di cir.1977).,Government
"in short, justice powell's concurrence and the subsequent appellate history have made the lessons of branzburg about as clear as mud.",Di justice powell's concurrence and di subsequent appellate history don make di lessons of branzburg about as clear as mud.,Government
robson the first amendment 155 3.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 155 3.,Government
the cases involving a first amendment reporter's privilege also discuss whether there is a common law right.,Di case wey dey involvin First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) reporter's privilege also discuss whether there dey common law right.,Government
"additionally, many states have reporter's shield laws.","For additionally, many states don laws wey dey shield journalists, make dem no go talk say who give dem tori, or make dem no go for court go testify",Government
do you think a statutory remedy is a good idea?,Di statutory remedy dey good idea?,Government
why or why not?,Na why or why no?,Government
f. right of reply?,Di right of reply,Government
miami herald publishing co. v.,Miami herald publishing co. v.,Government
tornillo 418 u. s. 241(1974) chief justice burger delivered the opinion ofthe [unanimous] court.,Di chief justice burger deliver di opinion of di[unanimous ]court,Government
"brennan, j, filed a concurring opinion in which rehnquist, j, joined.","Dem filed a concurring opinion wey rehnquist, j, join.",Government
"burger, c. j, for the court.",Di court.,Government
the issue in this case is whether a state statute granting a political candidate a right to equal space to reply to criticism and attacks on his record by a newspaper violates the guarantees of a free press.,Di issue for dis case na whether state statute grant political candidate right to equal space to reply to criticism and attack on hin record by newspaper violate di guarantee of free press.,Government
"on september 20, 1972, and again on september 29, 1972, appellant printed editorials critical of appel lee's candidacy.","For september 20, 1972, appellant printed editorials critical of appel lee's candidacy.",Government
"in response to these editorials appellee demanded that appellant print verbatim his replies, defending the role ofthe classroom teachers association and the organization's accomplishments for the citizens of dade county.","Di editorial appellee demand say appellant print verbatim hin replies, defend di role of di classroom teacher association and di organization's accomplishments for di citizens of dade county.",Government
"appellant declined to print the appellee's replies, and appellee brought suit in circuit court, dade county, seeking declaratory and injunctive relief and actual and punitive damages in excess of$5, 000.","Di appellant declined to print di appellee's replies, and appellee brought suit for circuit court, dade county, seeking declaratory and injunctive relief and actual and punitive damages for excess of$5, 000.",Government
"the action was premised on florida statute 104. 38(1973), a""right of reply""statute which provides that if a candidate for nomination or election is assailed regarding his personal character or official record by any newspaper, the candidate has the right to demand that the newspaper print, free of cost to the candidate, any reply the candidate may make to the newspaper's charges.","As candidate for nomination or election dey assailed regarding hin personal character or official record by any newspaper, di candidate don demand say di newspaper print, free of cost to di candidate, any reply di candidate make to di newspaper charges.",Government
"the reply must appear in as conspicuous a place and in the same kind of type as the charges which prompted the reply, provided it does not take up more space than the charges.","Di reply must appear for as conspicuous place and for di same kind of type as di charges wey prompt di reply, provided im no take up more space than di charges.",Government
failure to comply with the statute constitutes a firstdegree misdemeanor.,Di statute constitute firstdegree misdemeanor.,Government
appellant sought a declaration that 104. 38 was unconstitutional.,Di appellant don sought declaration say 104. 38 dey unconstitutional,Government
"after an emergency hearing requested by appellee, the circuit court denied injunctive relief because, absent special circumstances, no injunction could properly issue against the commission of a crime, and held that 104. 38 was unconstitutional as an infringement on the freedom ofthe press under the first and fourteenth amendments to the constitution.","Di circuit court denied injunctive relief bikos, absent special circumstances, no injunction go issue against di commission of a crime, and tok say 104. 38 dey unconstitutional as di injunction wey dey issue against di commission of crime, and tok say 104. 38 dey unconstitutional as di injunction wey dey issue against di commission of a crime, and tok say 104. 38 dey unconstitutional as di freedom of di press under di first and fourteenth amendments to di constitution",Government
the circuit court concluded that dictating what a newspaper must print was no different from dictating what it must not print.,Di circuit court conclude say dictating what newspaper must print no different from dictating what newspaper must print.,Government
"the circuit judge viewed the statute's vagueness as serving""to restrict and stifle protected expression.""","Di circuit judge viewed di statute's vagueness as serving""to restrict and stifle protected how person talk im mind.""",Government
appellee' s cause was dismissed with prejudice.,Di appellee' s cause dey dismiss wit prejudice,Government
"on direct appeal, the florida supreme court reversed, holding that 104. 38 did not violate constitutional guarantees.","Di florida supreme court reversed, holding say 104. 38 no violate constitutional guarantees.",Government
"it held that free speech was enhanced and not abridged by the florida right-of-reply statute, which in that court's view, furthered the""broad societal interest in the free flow of information to the public.""","Di court tok say free speech dey enhanced and no abridged by di florida right-of-reply statute, wey for dat court view, further di""broad societal interest for di free flow of information to di public.",Government
"it also held that the statute is not impermissibly vague; the statute informs""those who are subject to it as to what conduct on their part will render them liable to its penalties.""",Di statute tok say di statute no dey impermissibly vague; di statute inform say dem dey subject to am as to what conduct on dia part go render dem liable to im penalties,Government
"civil remedies, including damages, were held to be available under this statute; the case robson the first amendment 156 was remanded to the trial court for further proceedings not inconsistent with the florida supreme court's opinion.",Di case robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 156 don remanded to di trial court for further proceedings no dey inconsistent wit di florida supreme court opinion.,Government
we postponed consideration ofthe question of jurisdiction to the hearing ofthe case on the merits.,We postpone consideration of di question of jurisdiction to di hearing of di case on merits.,Government
"the statute was enacted in 1913, and this is only the second recorded case decided under its provisions.","Di statute dey enacted for 1913, and dis only di second record case wey dey decide under im provisions.",Government
appellant contends the statute is void on its face because it purports to regulate the content of a newspaper in violation ofthe first amendment.,Di appellant contend say di statute dey void on its face because e purport to regulate di content of newspaper for violation of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).,Government
alternatively it is urged that the statute is void for vagueness since no editor could know exactly what words would call the statute into operation.,Dem urge say di statute dey void for vagueness since no editor go know exactly what words go call di statute into operation.,Government
it is also contended that the statute fails to distinguish between critical comment which is and which is not defamatory.,Di statute fail to distinguish between critical comment wey dey and wey no defamatory,Government
b the appellee and supporting advocates of an enforceable right of access to the press vigorously argue that government hasan obligation to ensure that a wide variety of views reach the public.,Di appellee and support advocates of di enforceable right of access to di press vigorously argue say goment don ensure say a wide variety of views reach di public.,Government
the contentions of access proponents will beset out in some detail.,Di contentions of access proponents go set out for some detail.,Government
it is urged that at the time the first amendment to the constitution was ratified in 1791 as part of our bill of rights the press was broadly representative ofthe people it was serving.,E dey urge say for di time First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) to di constitution don ratified for 1791 as part of our bill of rights wey dey representative of di pipo wey dey serving,Government
"while many ofthe newspapers were intensely partisan and narrow in their views, the press collectively presented abroad range of opinions to readers.","As many of di newspapers dey partisan and narrow for dia views, di press collectively present wide range of opinions to readers.",Government
entry into publishing was inexpensive; pamphlets and books provided meaningful alternatives to the organized press for the expression of unpopular ideas and often treated events and expressed views not covered by conventional newspapers.,E dey expensive; pamphlets and books dey provide meaningful alternatives to di organized press for di expression of unpopular ideas and often treat events and express views not covered by conventional newspapers.,Government
a true marketplace of ideas existed in which there was relatively easy access to the channels of communication.,"Di true Wetin be say make idear dem dey compete wit one anoda for pipo to sabi wetin be truth, like one big market wey idear dem dey trade, na im make dem call am 'marketplace of idear', wey mean say every bodi get chance to yan, to share tori, to argue, to disagree, to agree, and to choose wetin dem believe exist for which relatively easy access to di channels of communication.",Government
access advocates submit that although newspapers ofthe present are superf icially similar to those of 1791 the press of today is in reality very different from that known in the early years of our national existence.,Di access advocates submit say although newspapers of di present dey superf icially similar to those of 1791 di press of today dey superf icially similar to those of 1791 di press of today dey different from dat wey dey known for di early years of our national existence.,Government
"in the past half century a communications revolution has seen the introduction of radio and television into our lives, the promise of a global community through the use of communications satellites, and the specter of a""wired"" nation by means of an expanding cable television network with twoway capabilities.","Di communications revolution don see di introduction of radio and television into awa lives, di promise of global community through di use of communications satellites, and di specter of a""wired"" nation by means of expand cable television network wit twoway capabilities.",Government
"the printed press, it is said, has not escaped the effects of this revolution.","E tok say, no dey escaped di effects of dis revolution.",Government
newspapers have become big business and there are far fewer of them to serve a larger literate population.,Di newspapers don become big business and dey far fewer of dem to serve larger literate population.,Government
"chains of newspapers, national newspapers, national wire and news services, and one- newspaper towns, are the dominant features of a press that has become noncompetitive and enormously powerful and influential in its capacity to manipulate popular opinion and change the course of events.","Di dominant feature of press, national newspapers, national newspapers, national wire and news services, and one newspaper towns, dey di dominant feature of press wey dey become noncompetitive and enormously powerful and influential for its capacity to manipulate popular opinion and change di course of events.",Government
major metropolitan newspapers have collaborated to establish news services national in scope.,Di major metropolitan newspapers don collaborate to establish news services national for scope.,Government
"such national news organizations provide syndicated ""interpretive reporting""as well as syndicated features and commentary, all of which can serve as part ofthe new school of""advocacy journalism.""","Such national news organizations provide syndicated ""interpretive reporting""as well as syndicated features and commentary, all of which fit serve as part of di new school of""advocacy journalism.""",Government
"the elimination of competing newspapers in most of our large cities, and the concentration of control of media that results from the only newspaper's being owned by the same interests which own a television station and a radio station, are important components of this trend toward concentration of control of outlets to inform the public.","Di concentration of control of media wey result from di only newspaper wey dey owned by di same interest wey own television station and radio station, dey important component of dis trend toward concentration of control of outlets to inform di public.",Government
the result of these vast changes has been to place in a few hands the power to inform the american people and shape public opinion.,Di result of dis vast changes don place for few hands di power to inform di american people and shape public opinion.,Government
"much ofthe editorial opinion and commentary that is printed is that of syndicated columnists distributed nationwide and, as a result, we are told, on national and world issues there tends to be a homogeneity of editorial opinion, commentary, and interpretive analysis.","Di editorial opinion and commentary wey dey printed na say of syndicated columnists wey dey distribut nationwide and, as result, we dey tell, on national and world issues wey dey homogeneity of editorial opinion, commentary, and interpretive analysis.",Government
"the abuses of bias and manipulative reportage are, likewise, said to be the result ofthe vast accumulations of unreviewable power in the modern media empires.","Di abuses of bias and manipulative reportage dey, likewise, tok say be di result of di vast accumulations of unreviewable power for di modern media empires.",Government
"in effect, it is claimed, the robson the first amendment 157 public has lost any ability to respond or to contribute in a meaningful way to the debate on issues.",Di robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 157 public don lost any ability to respond or to contribute for meaningful way to di debate on issues.,Government
the monopoly ofthe means of communication allows for little or no critical analysis ofthe media except in professional journals of very limited readership.,Di monopoly of di means of communication allows for little or no critical analysis of di media except for professional journals of very limited readership.,Government
"but the same economic factors which have caused the disappearance of vast numbers of metropolitan newspapers, have made entry into the marketplace of ideas served by the print media almost impossible.","Di same economic factors wey dey caus di disappearance of vast numbers of metropolitan newspapers, don make entry into di Wetin be say make idear dem dey compete wit one anoda for pipo to sabi wetin be truth, like one big market wey idear dem dey trade, na im make dem call am 'marketplace of idear', wey mean say every bodi get chance to yan, to share tori, to argue, to disagree, to agree, and to choose wetin dem believe wey dey serve by di print media impossible.",Government
"it is urged that th e claim of newspapers to be ""surrogates for the public""carries with it a concomitant fiduciary obligation to account for that stewardship.","E dey urge say di claim of newspapers to be ""surrogates for di public""carry wit di concomitant fiduciary obligation to account for dat stewardship.",Government
from this premise it is reasoned that the only effective way to insure fairness and accuracy and to provide for some accountability is for government to take affirmative action.,Di premise dey reason say di only effective way to insure fairness and accuracy dey for government to take affirmative action.,Government
"the first amendment interest ofthe public in being informed is said to bein peril because the""marketplace of ideas""is today a monopoly controlled by the owners ofthe market.","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) interest of di public for being informed na tok say di ""Wetin be say make idear dem dey compete wit one anoda for pipo to sabi wetin be truth, like one big market wey idear dem dey trade, na im make dem call am 'marketplace of idear', wey mean say every bodi get chance to yan, to share tori, to argue, to disagree, to agree, and to choose wetin dem believe""dey today a monopoly controlled by di owners of di market.",Government
"proponents of enforced access to the press take comfort from language in several of this court's decisions which suggests that the first amendment acts as a sword aswell as a shield, that it imposes obligations on the owners ofthe press in addition to protecting the press from government regulation.","Enforce access to di press take comfort from language for several of dis court decision wey suggest say First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) act as sword aswell as shield, wey dey impose obligations on di owners of di press for addition to protect di press from government regulation.",Government
"if it is governmental coercion, this at once brings about a confrontation with the express provisions ofthe first amendment and the judicial gloss on that amendment developed over the years.",Di at once bring about confrontation wit di express provision of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) and di judicial gloss on dat amendment develop over di years.,Government
"the clear implication has been that any such a compulsion to publish that which""`reason' tells them should not be published""is unconstitutional.","Di clear implication don been say any such compulsion to publish say which""reason' tell dem should no publish""na unconstitutional.",Government
"a responsible press is an undoubtedly desirable goal, but press responsibility is not mandated by the constitution and like many other virtues it cannot be legislated.","Di constitution and like many oda virtues dem no go legislate, but press responsibility no mandated by di constitution and like many oda virtues dem no go legislate.",Government
"appellee's argument that the florida statute does not amount to a restriction of appellant's right to speak because""the statute in question here has not prevented the miami herald from saying anything it wished""begs the core question.","Di appellee argument say di florida statute no amount to restriction of appellant's right to speak because"" di statute for question here no dey prevent di miami herald from say anything wey dey wish",Government
"compelling editors or publishers to publish that which""`reason' tells them should not be published""is what is at issue in this case.","Di reason wey dey compelling editors or publishers make dem publish say dem no be published""na what dey issue for dis case.",Government
the florida statute operates as a command in the same sense as a statute or regulation forbidding appellant to publish specified matter.,Di florida statute operat as command for di same sense as a statute or regulation forbidding appellant to publish specific matter.,Government
governmental restraint on publishing need not fall into familiar or traditional patterns to be subject to constitutional limitations on governmental powers.,Governmental restraint on publishing need no fall into familiar or traditional patterns to be subject to constitutional limitations on governmental powers.,Government
the florida statute exacts a penalty on the basis ofthe content of a newspaper.,Di florida statute exact penalty on di basis of di content of newspaper.,Government
the first phase ofthe penalty resulting from the compelled printing of a reply is exacted in terms ofthe cost in printing and composing time and materials and in taking up space that could be devoted to other material the newspaper may have preferred to print.,Di first phase of di penalty resulting from di compelled printing of reply dey exacted for terms of di cost for printing and composing time and materials and for taking up space wey dey devoted to oda material wey dey devoted to oda material wey dey devoted to oda material.,Government
"it is correct, as appellee contends, that a newspaper is no t subject to the finite technological limitations of time that confront a broadcaster but it is not correct to say that, as an economic reality, a newspaper can proceed to infinite expansion of its column space to accommodate the replies that a government agency determines or a statute commands the readers should have available.","As appellee contend, say newspaper no dey subject to di finite technological limitations of time wey dey confront broadcaster but no dey correct to say, as economic reality, newspaper no dey subject to di finite technological limitations of time wey dey confront broadcaster but no dey correct to say, as economic reality, newspaper no dey subject to di finite technological limitations of time wey dey confront broadcaster but no dey correct to say, as economic reality, newspaper no dey subject to di finite",Government
"faced with the penalties that would accrue to any newspaper that published news or commentary arguably within the reach ofthe rightof-access statute, editors might well conclude that the safe course is to avoid controversy.",Di safe course dey to avoid controversy.,Government
"therefore, under the operation ofthe florida statute, political and electoral coverage would be blunted or reduced.","Di operation of di florida statute, political and electoral coverage go dey reduced.",Government
"government-enforced right of access inescapably ""dampens the vigor and limits the variety of public debate,""new york times co. v. sullivan(1964).",Di york times co. v. sullivan(1964).,Government
"a newspaper is more than a passive receptacle or conduit for news, comment, and advertising.","Di newspaper dey more than a passive receptacle or conduit for news, comment, and advertising",Government
"the choice of material to go into a newspaper, an d the decisions made as to limitations on the size and content ofthe paper, and treatment of public issues and public officials- whether fair or unfair- constitute the exercise of editorial control and judgment.","Di decision make as to limitations on di size and content of di paper, and treatment of public issues and public officials- whether fair or unfair- constitute di exercise of editorial control and judgment.",Government
it has yet to be demonstrated how governmental regulation of this crucial process can be exercised consistent with first amendment guarantees of a free press as they have evolved to this time.,E don demonstrate how governmental regulation of dis crucial process go exercise consistent wit First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) guarantees of free press as dem don evolved to dis time.,Government
"accordingly, the judgment ofthe supreme court of florida is reversed.",Di judgment of di supreme court of florida dey reversed.,Government
"brennan, j, with whom rehnquist, j, joins, concurring.","Di rehnquist, j, join, concurring.",Government
"see generally note, vindication ofthe reputation of a public official,80 harv.","See generally note, vindication of di reputation of a everybody official,80 harv.",Government
"white, j, concurring [omitted].","White, j, concurring [omitted].",Government
"how have the concerns raised in tornillo been altered by the change in media landscape in the""information age""of the internet?","Di concerns wey dey raised for tornillo don change by di change for media landscape for di""information age""of di internet?",Government
"consider the first amendment arguments against so-called ""paparazzi""laws meant to limit members ofthe press from invading the privacy of celebrities.","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) argument wey dey against so-called ""paparazzi""laws meant to limit members of di press from invading di privacy of celebrities.",Government
"in 2014, california civil code 1708. 8 was amended to provide:(a) a person is liable for physical invasion of privacy when the defendant knowingly enters onto the land of another person without permission or otherwise committed a trespass in order to capture any type of visual image, sound recording, or other physical impression ofthe plaintiff engaging in a private, personal, or familial activity and the invasion occurs in a manner that is offensive to area sonable person.","Di person dey liable for physical invasion of privacy wen di defendant knowingly enter onto di land of another person without permission or odawise committe a trespass for order to capture any type of visual image, sound recording, or oda physical impression of di plaintiff engaging for private, personal, or familial activity and di invasion occur for manner wey dey offensive to reasonable person.",Government
"(b)a person is liable for constructive invasion of privacy when the defendant attempts to capture, in a manner that is offensive to a reasonable person, any type of visual image, sound recording, or other physical impression ofthe plaintiff engaging in a private, personal, or familial activity, through the use of a visual or auditory enhancing device, regardless of whether there is a physical trespass, if this image, sound recording, or other physical impression could not have been achieved without a trespass unless the visual or auditory enhancing device was used.","Di person dey liable for constructive invasion of privacy wen di defendant dey capture, for a manner wey dey offensive to a person wey get sense, wey fit reason like person wey sabi, wey go tok say wetin normal person go think or do for dat kind situation, any type of visual image, sound recording, or oda physical impression of di plaintiff engagin for private, personal, or familial activity, through di use of a visual or auditory enhancein device, regardless of whether di image, sound recording, or oda physical impression wey dey offensive to a person wey get sense, wey fit reason like person wey sabi, wey go tok say wetin normal person go think or do for dat kind situation, any type of visual image",Government
do you think such laws should be upheld as constitutional?,Di laws don dey upheld as constitutional?,Government
"robson the first amendment 159 note: taxation ofthe press taxing the press, especially as a means of regulation, restraint, and control of speech rather than the raising of revenue, has roots in english acts, and was arguably disfavored by the framers ofthe first amendment.","Di taxation of di press, especially as means of regulation, restraint, and control of speech no be di raise of revenue, na arguably disfavour by di framers of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).",Government
"the general key in these cases is not that the press or media is subject to tax, but that this taxis somehow discriminatory or aimed at their speech.","Di general key for dis case nano say di press or media dey subject to tax, but say dis tax dey somehow discriminatory or aimed at dia speech.",Government
"the united states supreme court's most famous press-taxing case is grosjean v. american press co,",Di United states supreme court's most famous press-taxing case na grosjean v. american press co.,Government
"in minneapolis star& tribune co. v. minnesota com'r of revenue, 460 u. s. 575(1983), the court held unconstitutional a""use tax""on the cost of paper and ink products consumed in the production of such a publication, exempting the first$100, 000 worth of paper and ink consumed in any calendar year.","Di court hold unconstitutional a""use tax""on di cost of paper and ink produce ts consumed for di production of such publication, exempting di first$100, 000 worth of paper and ink consumed for any calendar year.",Government
"although there was no indication of a bad motive as in grosjean, minnesota's singling out the press for special treatment, with a tax that was not structured similar to any other state tax, suggested that the goal ofthe taxis not unrelated to suppression of expression, and such goal is presumptively unconstitutional.","Di goal of di tax no dey structured similar to any oda state tax, suggest say di goal of di tax no dey structured similar to any oda state tax, suggest say di goal of di tax no dey unrelated to suppression of expression, and such goal no dey unconstitutional.",Government
"in arkansas writers' project, inc. v. ragland,481 u. s. 22(1987), the court held unconstitutional a tax scheme that taxed general interest magazines, but exempted newspapers and religious, profession al, trade, and sports journals.","For arkansas writers project, inc. v. ragland,481 u. s. 22(1987), di court hold unconstitutional tax scheme wey tax general interest magazines, but dem exempte newspapers and religious, profession al, trade, and sports journals.",Government
"again, there was no grosjean bad motive, but the court applied strict scrutiny finding there was content discrimination.",Di court apply strict scrutiny wey dey find content discrimination.,Government
"however, in leathers v. medlock,499 u. s. 439(1991), the court upheld the arkansas taxing scheme that exempted print media from sales tax but did not exempt cable television.","For leathers v. medlock,499 u. s. 439(1991) di court upheld di arkansas taxing scheme wey dey tax print media from sales tax but no dey exempt cable television.",Government
"the court held that although cable television, which provides news, information, and entertainment to its subscribers, is engaged in""speech"" and is part ofthe ""press""in much of its operation, the fact that it is taxed differently from other media does not by itself raise first amendment concerns.","Di court tok say although cable television, wey provide news, information, and entertainment to dia subscribers, dey engage for""speech"" and dey part of di""press"" for much of its operation, di fact say dem no dey raise First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) concerns.",Government
"here, the court found it important that there was no evidence of censorious intent and there was no discrimination based on content; discrimination based on speakers, without more, did not merit strict scrutiny.","Di court find say no evidence of censorious intent and no discrimination wey dey based on content; discrimination wey dey based on speakers, without more, no merit strict scrutiny.",Government
robson the first amendment 160 iv.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 160 iv.,Government
"freedom ofthe press and tort actions the ""constitutionalization"" of defamation and other torts is often viewed as integral to not abridging freedom ofthe press.","Di freedom of di press and tort actions di ""constitutionalization"" of defamation and oda tort actions di ""constitutionalization"" of defamation and oda tort actions di ""constitutionalization"" of defamation and oda tort actions di ""constitutionalization"" of defamation and oda tort actions di ""constitutionalization"" of defamation and oda tort actions di ""constitutionalization"" of defamation and oda tort actions di ""constitutionalization"" of defamation and oda tort actions di ""constitutionalization"" of defamation and oda",Government
consider how first amendment doctrine and tort doctrine become intertwined.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) doctrine and tort doctrine dey intertwined.,Government
"a. defamation new york times co. v. sullivan 376 u. s. 254(1964 )brennan j, for the unanimous court.","A. defamation new york times co. v. sullivan 376 u. s. 254(1964 )brennan j, for di unanimous kot.",Government
"black, j, issued a concurring opinion joined by douglas, j. goldberg, j, issued a concurring opinion joined by douglas, j.","Di concurring opinion joined by douglas, j. goldberg, j, issue a concurring opinion joined by douglas, j. goldberg, j, issue a concurring opinion joined by douglas, j.",Government
we are required in this case to determine for the first time the extent to which the constitutional protections for speech and press limit a state's power to award damages in a libel action brought by a public official against critics of his official conduct.,We dey required for dis case to determine for di first time di extent to which di constitutional protections for speech and press limit a state's power to award damages for libel action wey public official against critics of hin official conduct.,Government
"respondent l. b. sullivan is one ofthe three elected commissioners ofthe city of montgomery, alabama.","Di respondent l. b. sullivan be one of di three elected commissioners of di city of montgomery, alabama.",Government
"he testified that he was""commissioner of public affairs and the duties are supervision ofthe police department, fire department, department of cemetery a nd department of scales.""","Di testified say he dey commissioner of public affairs and di duties dey supervision of di police department, fire department, department of cemetery a nd department of scales.",Government
"he brought this civil libel action against the four individual petitioners, who are negroes and alabama clergymen, and against petitioner the new york times company, a new york corporation which publishes the new york times, a daily newspaper.","Di civil libel action against di four individual petitioners, wey dey negroes and alabama clergymen, and against petitioner di new york times company, new york corporation wey publish di new york times, a daily newspaper.",Government
"a jury in the circuit court of montgomery county awarded him damages of$500, 000, the full amount claimed, against all the petitioners, and the supreme court of alabama affirmed.","Di jury for di circuit court of montgomery county award him damages of$500, 000, di full amount wey dem claim, against all di petitioners, and di supreme court of alabama affirmed.",Government
"respondent's complaint alleged that he had been libeled by statements in a full-page advertisement that was carried in the new york times on march 29, 1960.","Di respondent's complaint allege say hin don libeled by statements for full-page advertisement wey dey carried for di new york times on march 29, 1960.",Government
"entitled""heed their rising voices,""the advertisement began by stating that""as the whole world knows by now, thousands of southern negro students are engaged in widespread non-violent demonstrations in positive affirmation ofthe right to live inhuman dignity as guaranteed by the u. s. constitution and the bill of rights.""","As di whole world know by now, thousands of southern negro students dey engage i widespread non-violent demonstrations for positive affirmation of di right to live for Di special worth and value wey every human being get just by being human as guaranteed by di u. s. constitution and di bill of rights",Government
"it went onto charge that""in their efforts to uphold these guarantees, they are being met by an unprecedented wave of terror by those who would deny and negate that document which the whole world looks upon as setting the pattern for modern freedom.","Di effort to uphold dis guarantees, dem deny and negate dat document wey di whole world look upon as setting di pattern for modern freedom.",Government
"succeeding paragraphs purported to illustrate the""wave of terror""by describing certain alleged events.","Di paragraph wey dey purport to illustrate di""wave of terror""by describing certain alleged events.",Government
"the text concluded with an appeal for funds for three purposes: support ofthe student movement,""the struggle for the rightto-vote,"" and the legal defense of dr. martin luther king, jr, leader ofthe movement, against a perjury indictment then pending in montgomery.","Di text concluded wit an appeal for funds for three purposes: support of di student movement,""di struggle for di rightto-vote,"" and di legal defense of dr. martin luther king, jr, leader of di movement, against a perjury indictment then pending for montgomery.",Government
"the text appeared over the names of 64 persons, many widely known for their activities in public affairs, religion, trade unions, and the performing arts.","Di text appear over di names of 64 persons, many widely known for dia activities for public affairs, religion, trade unions, and di performing arts.",Government
"below these names, and under a line reading""we in the south who ares truggling daily for dignity and freedom warmly endorse this appeal,""appeared the names ofthe four individual petitioners and of 16 other persons, all but two of whom were identified as clergymen in various southern cities.",Di name of di four individual petitioners and of 16 oda persons wey dey identified as clergymen for different southern cities.,Government
"the advertisement was signed at the bottom ofthe page by the""committee to defend martin luther king and the struggle for freedom in the south,""and the officers ofthe committee were listed.","Di advertisement don signed for di top of di page by di""committee to defend martin luther king and di struggle for freedom for di south,""and di officers of di committee dey list.",Government
"ofthe 10 paragraphs of text in the advertisement, the third and a portion ofthe sixth were the basis of respondent's claim of libel.","Di 10 paragraph of text for di advertisement, di third and a portion of di sixth na di basis of respondent's claim of libel.",Government
"they read as follows: robson the first amendment 161 third paragraph:""in montgomery, alabama, after students sang`my country,'tis of thee' on the state capitol steps, their leaders were expelled from school, and truckloads of police armed with shotguns and tear-gas ringed the alabama state college campus.","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 161 third paragraph:""in montgomery, alabama, after students dey sing my kontri, 'tis of die' for di state capitol step, dia leaders dey expelle from school, and truckloads of police armed wit shotguns and tear-gas ring di alabama state college campus.",Government
"when the entire student body protested to state authorities by refusing tore -register, their dining hall was padlocked in an attempt to starve them into submission.""","Di entire student body protest to state authorities by refusing to reregister, dia dining hall dey padlocked for an attempt to starve dem into submission",Government
"sixth paragraph: ""again and again the southern violators have answered dr. king's peaceful protests with intimidation and violence.",Di southern violators don answer dr. king's peaceful protest wit intimidation and violence.,Government
they have bombed his home almost killing his wife and child.,Dem don bomb hin house almost killing hin wife and child,Government
they have assaulted his person.,Dem don assault hin person,Government
"they have arrested him seven times- for`speeding,' `loitering' and similar`offenses.'","Di police don arrest him seven times- for speeding,'loitering' and similar`offenses.",Government
and now they have charged him with' perjury'-a felony under which they could imprison him for ten years.,Dem charge am wit' perjury'-a felony under which dem go imprison am for ten years.,Government
"although neither of these statements mentions respondent by name, he contended that the word""police"" in the third paragraph referred to him as the montgomery commissioner who supervised the police department, so that he was being accused of""ringing"" the campus with police.","Dem tok say di word""police"" for di second paragraph wey dey mention respondent by name, hin contended say di word""police"" for di third paragraph referred to him as di montgomery commissioner wey supervise di police department, so say dem dey accused of""ringing"" di campus wit police.",Government
"he further claimed that the paragraph would be read as imputing to the police, and hence to him, the padlocking ofthe dining hall in order to starve the students into submission.","Di paragraph go read as imputing to di police, and hin nce to him, di padlocking of di dining hall for order to starve di students into submission.",Government
"thus, he argued, the paragraph would be read as accusing the montgomery police, and hence him, of answering dr. king's protests with""intimidation and violence,""bombing his home, assaulting his person, and charging him with perjury.","Di paragraph go read as accuse di montgomery police, and hence him, of answer dr. king protest wit""intimidation and violence"", bombing hin home, assault hin person, and charging hin wit perjury.",Government
respondent and six other montgomery residents testified that they read some or all ofthe statements as referring to him in his capacity as commissioner.,Di respondent and six oda montgomery residents testify say dem read some or all of di statement as dem to talk about him for hin capacity as commissioner.,Government
it is uncontroverted that some ofthe statements contained in the paragraphs were not accurate descriptions of events which occurred in montgomery.,E dey uncontroverted say some of di statements wey dey contain for di paragraph no dey accurate description of events wey occur for montgomery.,Government
"although negro students staged a demonstration on the state capitol steps, they sang the national anthem and not""my country,'tis of thee.""","Dem stage demonstration on di state capitol step, dem sing di national anthem and no""my kontri, 'tis of die",Government
"although nine students were expelled by the state board of education, this was not for leading the demonstration at the capitol, but for demanding service at a lunch counter in the montgomery county courthouse on another day.","As nine students dey expelled by di state board of education, dis no be for leading di demonstration for di capitol, but for demanding service for lunch counter for montgomery county courthouse on another day.",Government
"not the entire student body, but most of it, had protested the expulsion, not by refusing to register, but by boycotting classes on a single day; virtually all the students did register for the ensuing semester.","Di student body, but most of dem, don protest di expulsion, no by refusing to register, but by boycotting classes on single day; virtually all di students don refuse to register, but by boycotting classes on single day; virtually all di students don refuse to register, but by boycotting classes on single day; virtually all di students don refuse to register, but by boycotting classes on single day; virtually all di students don refuse to register, but by boycotting classes on single day; virtual",Government
"the campus dining hall was not padlocked on any occasion, and the only students who may have been barred from eating there were the few who had neither signed a preregistration application nor requested temporary meal tickets.",Di only students wey dey barre from eating no dey signed preregistration application nor request temporary meal ticket,Government
"although the police were deployed near the campus in large numbers on three occasions, they did not at anytime ""ring""the campus, and they were not called to the campus in connection with the demonstration on the state capitol steps, as the third paragraph implied.","Di police dey deploy near di campus for large numbers on three occasions, dem no call to di campus for connection wit di demonstration on di state capitol step, as di third paragraph implied.",Government
"dr. king had not been arrested seven times, but only four; and although he claimed to have been assaulted some years earlier in connection with his arrest for loitering outside a courtroom, one ofthe officers who made the arrest denied that there was such an assault.","Di dr. king no dey arrest seven times, but only four; and although hin claim say dire na such assault.",Government
"on the premise that the charges in the sixth paragraph could be read as referring to him, respondent was allowed to prove that he had not participated in the events described.",For di premise say di charges for sixth paragraph go read as respondent dey allowed to prove say hin no participate for di events wey dem described.,Government
"although dr. king's home had in fact been bombed twice when his wife and child were there, both of these occasions antedated respondent's tenure as commissioner, and the police were not only not implicated in the bombings, but had made every effort to apprehend those who were.","Dr. king's home don dey bomb twice within wife and child wey dey there, both of dis occasions antedated respondent's tenure as commissioner, and di police no dey implicate for di bombings, but di police no dey no implicate for di bombings.",Government
three of dr. king's four arrests took place before respondent became commissioner.,Three of dr. king's four arrests took place before di person wey dey answer di case became commissioner.,Government
"although dr. king had in fact been indicted(he was subsequently acquitted)on two counts of perjury, each of which carried a possible five-year sentence, respondent had nothing to do with procuring the indictment.","Dr. king don dey indicted(he dey subsequently acquitted)on two counts of perjury, each of which carried a possible five-year sentence, respondent don no do wit procuring di indictment.",Government
respondent made no effort to prove that he suffered actual pecuniary loss as a result ofthe alleged libel.,Di respondent make no effort to prove say hin suffered actual pecuniary loss as result of di alleged libel.,Government
"the jury was instructed that, because the statements were libelous per robson the first amendment 162 se,""the law.","Di jury dey instruct say, because di statements dey libelous per robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 162 se,"" di law.",Government
"implies legal injury from the bare fact of publication itself,"" ""falsity and malice are presumed,""""general damages need not be alleged or proved but are presumed,""and ""punitive damages maybe awarded by the jury even though the amount of actual damages is neither found nor shown.""",Di amount of actual damages no be alleged or proved but no dey show.,Government
"an award of punitive damages- as distinguished from""general"" damages, which are compensatory in nature- apparently requires proof of actual malice under alabama law, and the judge charged that""mere negligence or carelessness is not evidence of actual malice or malice in fact, and does not justify an award of exemplary or punitive damages.""","Di judge charge say""mere negligence or carelessness no dey evidence of actual malice or malice for fact, and dem no justify an award of exemplary or punitive damages.",Government
"he refused to charge, however, that the jury must be""convinced"" of malice, in the sense of""actual intent""to harm or""gross negligence and recklessness,"" to make such an award, and he also refused to require that a verdict for respondent differentiate between compensatory and punitive damages.","Di jury must be convinced of malice, for di sense of""actual intent""to harm or""gross negligence and recklessness"" to make such award, and hin refused to require say a verdict for respondent differentiate between compensatory and punitive damages.",Government
the judge rejected petitioners' contention that his rulings abridged the freedoms of speech and ofthe press that are guaranteed by the first and fourteenth amendments.,Di judge reject petitioners' contention say hin rulings abridge di freedoms of speech and of di press wey dey guarantee di first and fourteenth amendments.,Government
[the jury found for the plaintiff and the supreme court of alabama affirmed].,Di jury found for di plaintiff and di supreme court of alabama affirmed,Government
"because ofthe importance ofthe constitutional issues involved, we granted the separate petitions for certiorari ofthe individual petitioners and ofthe times.",We grant di separate petition for certiorari of di individual petitioners and of di times.,Government
we reverse the judgment.,We reverse di judgment.,Government
we hold that the rule of law applied by the alabama courts is constitutionally deficient for failure to provide the safeguards for freedom of speech and ofthe press that are required by the first and fourteenth amendments in a libel action brought by a public official against critics of his official conduct.,We hold say di rule of law wey di alabama courts dey constitutionally deficient for failure to provide di safeguards for freedom of speech and of di press wey dey required by di first and fourteenth amendments for libel action wey a public official against critics of hin official conduct.,Government
we further hold that under the proper safeguards the evidence presented in this case is constitutionally insufficient to support the judgment for respondent.,We hold say under di proper safeguards di evidence wey dey present for dis case dey constitutionally insufficient to support di judgment for respondent.,Government
"[the court first held that there was state action and that the publication was not a""commercial"" advertisement unprotected by the first amendment because it""communicated information, expressed opinion, recited grievances, protested claimed abuses, and sought financial support on behalf of a movement whose existence and objectives are matters ofthe highest public interest and concern.""]","Di court first tok say di state action and say di publication no be""commercial"" advertisement unprotected by First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) because e""communicated information, express opinion, recited grievances, protest claim abuses, and sought financial support on behalf of a movement wey dey matters of di highest tin wey concern everybody for society, wey be say e important for all of us and concern.",Government
"under alabama law as applied in this case, a publication is ""libelous per se""if the words""tend to injure a person.","Di publication dey libelous per se""if di words""tend to injure a person",Government
"once""libel per se""has been established, the defendant has no defense as to stated facts unless he can persuade the jury that they were true in all their particulars.",Di defendant no defense as to state facts unless hin fit persuade di jury say dem dey true for all dia particulars.,Government
"like insurrection, con tempt, advocacy of unlawful acts, breach ofthe peace, obscenity, solicitation of legal business, and the various other formulae for the repression of expression that have been challenged in this court, libel can claim no talismanic immunity from constitutional limitations.",Di court don claim no talismanic immunity from constitutional limitations.,Government
it must be measured by standards that satisfy the first amendment.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) must be measure by standards wey satisfy First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo),Government
the general proposition that freedom of expression upon public questions is secured by the first amendment has long been settled by our decisions.,Di general proposition say freedom of expression upon public questions dey secure by First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) don long been settled by awa decision.,Government
"the present advertisement, as an expression of grievance and protest on one ofthe major public issues of our time, would seem clearly to qualify for the constitutional protection.","Di present advertisement, as an how person talk im mind of grievance and protest on one of di major everybody issues of our time, would seem clearly to qualify for di constitutional protection.",Government
the question is whether it forfeits that protection by the falsity of some of its factual statements and by its alleged defamation of respondent.,Di question na whether e forfeit say protection by di falsity of some of its factual statements and by dia alleged defamation of respondent.,Government
"authoritative interpretations ofthe first amendment guarantees have consistently refused to recognize an exception for any test of truth- whether administered by judges, juries, or administrative officials- and especially one that puts the burden of proving truth on the speaker.","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) guarantees don consistently refused to recognize any exception for any test of truth- whether administered by judges, juries, or administrative officials- and especially one wey put di burden of proving truth on di speaker.",Government
"the constitutional protection does not turn upon""the truth, popularity, or social utility ofthe ideas and robson the first amendment 163 beliefs which are offered.""","Di constitutional protection no turn upon""the truth, popularity, or social utility of di ideas and robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 163 beliefs wey dey offered",Government
"as madison said,""some degree of abuse is inseparable from the proper use of everything; and in no instance is this more true than in that ofthe press.""","As madison tok say,""some degree of abuse dey inseparable from di proper use of all; and in no instance dey dis more true than for di press",Government
injury to official reputation affords no more warrant for repressing speech that would otherwise be free than does factual error.,Di official reputation afford no more warrant for repressing speech wey dey free than does factual error.,Government
"where judicial officers are involved, this court has held that concern for the dignity and reputation ofthe courts does not justify the punishment as criminal contempt of criticism ofthe judge or his decision.",Di court don hold say concern for di dignity and reputation of di court no justify di punishment as criminal contempt of criticism of di judge or hin decision.,Government
"this is true even though the utterance contains""half -truths""and ""misinformation.""","Dis dey true even though di utterance contains""half truth""and ""misinformation""",Government
"such repression can be justified, if at all, only by a clear and present danger ofthe obstruction of justice.","Dem justifie such repression, if for all, only by clear and present danger of di obstruction of justice.",Government
"if judges are to be treated as""men of fortitude, able to thrive in a hardy climate,""surely the same must be true of other government officials, such as elected city commissioners.","Di same must be true of oda government officials, such as elected city commissioners.",Government
criticism of their official conduct does not lose its constitutional protection merely because it is effective criticism and hence diminishes their official reputations.,Di criticism of dia official conduct no lose dia constitutional protection merely because e dey effective criticism and hence dey diminishes dia official reputations,Government
"if neither factual error nor defamatory content suffices to remove the constitutional shield from criticism of official conduct, the combination ofthe two elements is no less inadequate.",Di combination of di two elements no dey inadequate.,Government
this is the lesson to be drawn from the great controversy over the sedition act of 1798 which first crystallize da national awareness ofthe central meaning ofthe first amendment.,"Di lesson wey be draw from di great controversy over di Law wey no allow person talk or do sometin wey go against goment, wey dem go fit call am treason or rebel of 1798 wey first crystallize d national awareness of di central meaning of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).",Government
"that statute made it a crime, punishable by a$5, 000 fine and five years in prison,""if any person shall write, print, utter or publish.","if any dey person go write, print, utter or publish, ""if any dey person go write, print, utter or publish.",Government
"any false, scandalous and malicious writing or writings against the government ofthe united states, or either house ofthe congress.","Di government of di united state, or either house of di congress.",Government
or the president.,Di president.,Government
with intent to defame.,Dem defame wit intent to defame,Government
"or to bring them, or either of them, into contempt or disrepute; or to excite against them, or either or any of them, the hatred ofthe good people ofthe united states.""","Di hatred of di good pipo of di united state, or to bring dem, or either of dem, into contempt or disrepute; or to excite against dem, or either of dem, di hatred of di good pipo of di united state, or to excite against dem, or either of dem, di hatred of di good pipo of di united state, or to excite against dem, or either or any of dem, di hatred of di good pipo of di united state, or to excite against dem,",Government
"the act allowed the defendant the defense of truth, and provided that the jury were to be judges both ofthe law and the facts.","Di act allowed di defendant di defense of truth, and provided say di jury dey judge both of di law and di facts.",Government
"despite these qualifications, the act was vigorously condemned as unconstitutional in an attack joined in by jefferson and madison.",Di act dey vigorously condemned as unconstitutional for attack joinin by jefferson and madison.,Government
what a state may not constitutionally bring about by means of a criminal statute is likewise beyond the reach of its civil law of libel.,Di state no constitutionally bring about by means of criminal statute dey likewise beyond di reach of dia civil law of libel.,Government
the fear of damage awards under a rule such as that invoked by the alabama courts here maybe markedly more inhibiting than the fear of prosecution under a criminal statute.,Di fear of damage awards under a rule such assay wey dey invoked by di alabama courts wey dey suppose make dem dey inhibit di fear of prosecution under criminal statute.,Government
"and since there is no double-jeopardy limitation applicable to civil lawsuits, this is not the only judgment that maybe awarded against petitioners for the same publication.",Di only judgment wey dey award against petitioners for di same publication.,Government
"whether or not a newspaper can survive a succession of such judgments, the pall of fear and timidity imposed upon those who would give voice to public criticism is an atmosphere in which the first amendment freedoms cannot survive.",Di pall of fear and timidity imposed upon those wey go give voice to public criticism na atmosphere wey First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) freedom no survive.,Government
"plainly the alabama law of civil libel is""a form of regulation that creates hazards to protected freedoms markedly greater than those that attend reliance upon the criminal law.""","Di alabama law of civil libel be form of regulation wey create hazards to protected freedoms wey dey pass, as in one thing pass anoda, for example, if u get 10 naira and v get 5 naira, u pass v those wey attend reliance upon di criminal law.",Government
the state rule of law is not saved by its allowance ofthe defense of truth.,Di state rule of law no save di allowance of di defense of truth,Government
"allowance ofthe defense of truth, with the burden of proving it on the defendant, does not mean that only false speech will be deterred.","Di burden of di defense of truth, wit di burden of proving am on di defendant, no mean say only false speech go deterred.",Government
even courts accepting this defense as an adequate safeguard have recognized the difficulties of adducing legal proofs that the alleged libel was true in all its factual particulars.,Di courts wey accept dis defense as adequate safeguard don recognise di difficulties of adducing legal proofs say di alleged libel no true for all its factual particulars.,Government
"under such a rule, would -be critics of official conduct maybe deterred from voicing their criticism, even though it is believed to be true and even though it is in fact true, because robson the first amendment 164 of doubt whether it can be proved in court or fear ofthe expense of having to do so.",First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 164 of doubt wey dem dey doubt whether dem fit prove for court or fear of di expense of having to do so.,Government
"they tend to make only statements which""s teer far wider ofthe unlawful zone.""",Dem tend to make only statements wey dey teer far wider of di unlawful zone,Government
the rule thus dampens the vigor and limits the variety of public debate.,Di rule don dampen di vigor and limit di variety of public debate.,Government
it is inconsistent with the first and fourteenth amendments.,Di first and fourteenthamendments dey inconsistent wit di first and fourteenthamendments,Government
"the constitutional guarantees require, we think, a federal rule that prohibits a public official from recovering damages for a defamatory falsehood relating to his official conduct unless he proves that the statement was made with""actual malice""- that is, with knowledge that it was false or with reckless disregard of whether it was false or not.","We think, federal rule wey prohibit a public official from recover damages for a defamatory falsehood wey dey relating to hin official conduct unless hin prove say di statement dey false or no.",Government
it is as much his duty to criticize as it is the official's duty to administer.,Di official's duty to criticize as e dey di official's duty to administer,Government
we hold today that the constitution delimits a state's power to award damages for libel in actions brought by public officials against critics of their official conduct.,We hold today say di constitution delimit state power to award damages for libel for actions wey public officials against critics of dia official conduct.,Government
"since this is such an action, the rule requiring proof of actual malice is applicable.",Di rule wey dey require proof of actual malice dey applicable.,Government
"while alabama law apparently requires proof of actual malice for an award of punitive damages, where general damages are concerned malice is""presumed.""","For alabama law apparently require proof of actual malice for award of punitive damages, wey general damage dey concerned malice dey ""presumed""",Government
such a presumption is inconsistent with the federal rule.,Di federal rule dey inconsistent wit di federal rule.,Government
"but it is impossible to know, in view ofthe general verdict returned.","E dey impossible to know, for view of di general verdict return.",Government
"because of this uncertainty, the judgment must be reversed and the case remanded.",Di judgment must reversed and di case remanded.,Government
"since respondent may seek anew trial, we deem that considerations of effective judicial administration require us to review the evidence in the present record to determine whether it could constitutionally support a judgment for respondent.",Di considerations of effective judicial administration require us review di evidence for di present record to determine whether e go constitutionally support judgment for respondent.,Government
this court's duty is not limited to the elaboration of constitutional principles; we must also in proper cases review the evidence to make certain that those principles have been constitutionally applied.,Di court's duty no dey limited to di elaboration of constitutional principles; we must also review di evidence to make sure say those principles dey constitutionally applied.,Government
"this is such a case, particularly since the question is one of alleged trespass across""th e line between speech unconditionally guaranteed and speech which may legitimately be regulated.""","Di question dey one of alleged trespass across""th e line between speech unconditionally guaranteed and speech wey dey legitimately regulated and speech wey dey legitimately regulated",Government
"in cases where that line must be drawn, the rule is that we""examine for ourselves the statements in issue and the circumstances under which they were made to see.","Di rule na say we""examine for awaselves di statements for issue and di circumstances wey dem make dem see.",Government
"whether they are of a character which the principles ofthe first amendment, as adopted by the due process clause ofthe fourteenth amendment, protect.""","Di principles of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo), as adopt di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system clause of di fourteenth amendment, protect",Government
"we must""make an independent examination ofthe whole record,""so as to assure ourselves that the judgment does not constitute a forbidden intrusion on the field of free expression.","We must make independent examination of di whole record, so as to assure awaselves th t di judgment no constitute forbidden intrusion on di field of free expression",Government
"applying these standards, we consider that the proof presented to show actual malice lacks the convincing clarity which the constitutional standard demands, and hence that it would not constitutionally sustain the judgment for respondent under the proper rule of law.","We consider say di proof wey dey present to show actual malice lack di convincing clarity wey di constitutional standard demand, and hinc e say e no fit constitutionally sustain di judgment for respondent under di proper rule of law.",Government
"the mere presence ofthe stories in the files does not, of course, establish that the times""knew"" the advertisement was false, since the state of mind required for actual malice would have to be brought home to the persons in the times' organization having responsibility for the publication ofthe advertisement.","For course, establish say di time""knew"" di advertisement no dey true, since di state of mind wey dey required for actual malice go get home to di persons for di times' organization having responsibility for di publication of di advertisement.",Government
"with respect to the failure of those persons to make the check, the record shows that they relied upon their knowledge ofthe good reputation of many of those whose names were listed as sponsors ofthe advertisement, and upon the letter from a. philip randolph, known to them as a responsible individual, certifying that the use ofthe names was authorized.","Di record show say dem relied upon dia knowledge of di good reputation of many of those wey dem dey listed as sponsors of di advertisement, and upon di letter from a. philip randolph, wey dey known to dem as responsible individual, wey dey certifying say di use of di name dey authorized.",Government
"there was testimony that the persons handling the advertisement saw nothing in it that would render it unacceptable under the times' policy of rejecting advertisements containing""attacks of a personal character""; their failure to reject it on this ground was not unreasonable.","Di persons handling di advertisement saw nothing for di advertisement wey dey containing""attacks of personal character""; dia failure to reject am on dis ground no dey unreasonable.",Government
"we think the evidence against the times supports at most a finding of negligence in failing to discover the misstatements, and is constitutionally insufficient to show the recklessness that is required for a finding of actual malice.","We think di evidence against di times support for most a finding of negligence for failing to discover di misstatements, and constitutionally insufficient to show di recklessness wey dey required for finding of actual malice.",Government
"we also think the evidence was constitutionally defective in another respect: it was incapable of supporting the jury's finding that the allegedly libelous statements were made""of and concerning""respondent.","We also think say di evidence dey constitutionally defective for one respect: e dey incapable of support di jury's finding say di allegedly libelous statements dey make""of and concerning""respondent.",Government
"a number ofthe allegedly libelous statements -the charges that the dining hall was padlocked and that dr. king's home was bombed, his person assaulted, and a perjury prosecution instituted against him- did not even concern the police; despite the ingenuity ofthe arguments which would attach this significance to the word""they,"" it is plain that these statements could not reasonably be read as accusing respondent of personal involvement in the acts in question.","Despite di ingenuity of di arguments wey dey attach di significance to di word""they"" e dey plain say di arguments wey dem dey attach di significance to di word""they,"" na plain say di arguments wey dey suppose attach dis significance to di word""they,"" na plain say dem no dey concern di police; despite di ingenuity of di arguments wey dey suppose attach dis significance to di word""they,"" na plain say di arguments wey dem dey suppose",Government
"the statements upon which respondent principally relies as referring to him are the tw o allegations that did concern the police or police functions: that ""truckloads of police.","Di statement wey respondent principally relies as referring to him na di tw o allegations wey dey concern di police or police functions: say ""truckloads of police",Government
"ringed the alabama state college campus""after the demonstration on the state capitol steps, and that dr. king had been""arrested.","Dem ring di alabama state college campus"" afta di demonstration on di state capitol step, and say dr. king don arrest dr. king",Government
"these statements were false only in that the police had been""deployed near""the campus but had not actually ""ringed"" it and had not gone therein connection with the state capitol demonstration, and in that dr. king had been arrested only four times.","Di statements dey true only for say di police don deploy near di campus but no actually""ring"" am and no go there for connection wit di state capitol demonstration, and for dat dr. king don arrest only four times.",Government
"the ruling that these discrepancies between what was true and what was asserted were sufficient to injure respondent's reputation may itself raise constitutional problems, but we need not consider them here.","We need no consider dis discrepancies wey dey true and what dey asserted na sufficient to injure respondent's reputation, but we need no consider dem here",Government
"although the statements maybe taken as referring to the police, they did not on their face make even an oblique reference to respondent as an individual.","Di statements go take as referring to di police e, dem no make even oblique reference to respondent as individual.",Government
"support for the asserted reference must, therefore, be sought in the testimony of respondent's witnesses.","Support for di asserted reference must, so sake of dat, be sought for di testimony of di person wey dey answer di case' witnesses.",Government
"but none of them suggested any basis for the belief that respondent himself was attacked in the advertisement beyond the bare fact that he was in overall charge ofthe police department and thus bore official responsibility for police conduct; to the extent that some ofthe witnesses thought respondent to have been charged with ordering or approving the conductor otherwise being personally involved in it, they based this notion not on any statements in the advertisement, and not on any evidence that he had in fact been so involved, but solely on the unsupported assumption that, because of his official position, he must have been.","For di extent say some of di witnesses think respondent to be charge wit ordering or approving di conductor odawise being personally involved for di advertisement, dem based dis notion noon any statements for di advertisement, and noon any evidence wey dem dey involved for di conductor odawise being personally involved, but none of dem suggest any basis for di belief say respondent wey dey involved for di conduct, but none of dem suggest any basis for di belief say respondent wey dey",Government
we hold that such a proposition may not constitutionally be utilized to establish that an otherwise impersonal attack on governmental operations was a libel of an official responsible for those operations.,We hold say such proposition no constitutionally be utilize to establish say impersonal attack on governmental operations na libel of official responsible for those operations.,Government
"since it was relied on exclusively here, and there was no other evidence to connect the statements with respondent, the evidence was constitutionally insufficient to support a finding that the statements referred to respondent.","Di evidence dey constitutionally insufficient to support di statements wit respondent, di evidence dey constitutionally insufficient to support finding say di statement wey dey referred to respondent.",Government
the judgment ofthe supreme court of alabama is reversed and the case is remanded to that court for further proceedings not inconsistent with this opinion.,Di judgment of di supreme court of alabama dey reversed and di case dey remanded to dat court for further proceedings no inconsistent wit dis opinion.,Government
"m r. justice black, with whom mr.","Di justice black, wit whom mr.",Government
"in reversing the court holds that""the constitution delimits a state's power to award damages for libel in actions brought by public officials against critics of their official conduct.""",Di constitution delimit state's power to award damages for libel for actions wey public officials against critics of dia official conduct,Government
"the court goes onto hold that a state can subject such critics to damages if""actual malice""can be proved against them.","Di court go hold say a state go subject such critics to damage if""actual malice""go prove against dem.",Government
"""malice,""even as defined by the court, is an elusive, abstract concept, hard to prove and hard to disprove.","Di court, na elusive, abstract concept, hard to prove and hard to disprove.",Government
there quirement that malice be proved provides at best an evanescent protection for the right critically to discuss public affairs and certainly does not measure upto the sturdy safeguard embodied in the first amendment.,Dire qurement wey malice be proved provide at best an evanescent protection for di right critically to discuss public affairs and certainly no measure upto di sturdy safeguard wey dem dey suppose to discuss public affairs and certainly no measure upto di sturdy safeguard wey dey suppose wey dey for First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).,Government
"unlike the court, therefore, i vote to reverse exclusively on the ground that the times and the individual defendants had an absolute, unconditional constitutional right to publish in the times advertisement their criticisms ofthe montgomery agencies and officials.","I vote to reverse exclusively on di ground say di times and di individual defendants don absolute, unconditional constitutional right to publish for di times advertisement dia criticisms of di montgomery agencies and officials.",Government
"this nation of ours elects many of its important officials; so do the states, the municipalities, the counties, and even many precincts.","Di nation of ours elect many of its important officials; so do di stat, di municipalities, di counties, and even many precincts.",Government
these officials are responsible to the people for the way they perform their duties.,Di officials dey responsible to di pipo for di way dem perform dia duties,Government
"while our court has held that some kinds of speech and writings, such as ""obscenity,"" roth v. united states(1957) and""fighting words,"" chaplinsky v. new hampshire(1942) are not expression robson the first amendment 166 within the protection ofthe first amendment, freedom to discuss public affairs and public officials is unquestionably, as the court today holds, the kind of speech the first amendment was primarily designed to keep within the area of free discussion.","Di court don hold say some kind of speech and writings, such as ""obscenity,"" roth v. united states(1957) and""fighting words,"" chaplinsky v. new hampshire(1942) no be expression robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo), freedom to discuss public affairs and public officials dey unquestionably, as di court don hold, di kind of speech di first amendment, freedom to discuss public affairs and public officials dey unquestionably, as di court don hold, di kind of speech wey",Government
to punish the exercise of this right to discuss public affairs or to penalize it through libel judgments is to abridge or shut off discussion ofthe very kind most needed.,Di exercise of dis right to discuss public affairs or to penalize am through libel judgments dey to abridge or shut off discussion of di very kind wey dey need.,Government
"this nation, i suspect, can live in peace without libel suits based on public discussions of public affairs and public officials.","Di nation, i suspect, fit live for peace without libel suits based on public discussions of public affairs and public officials.",Government
"but i doubt that a country can live in freedom where its people can be made to suffer physically or financially for criticizing their government, its actions, or its officials.","I doubt say a kontri fit live for freedom wen im pipo fit suffer physically or financially for criticizing di ir government, its actions, or im officials.",Government
"""for a representative democracy ceases to exist the moment that the public functionaries are by any means absolved from their responsibility to their constituents; and this happens whenever the constituent can be restrained in any manner from speaking, writing, or publishing his opinions upon any public measure, or upon the conduct of those who may advise or execute it.""","For representative democracy ceases to exist di moment wey di public functionaries dey absolve from dia responsibility to dia constituents; and dis happen whenever di constituent dey restrained for any manner from speaking, writing, or publishing hin opinions upon any public measure, or upon di conduct of those wey dey advise or execute am",Government
an unconditional right to say what one pleases about public affairs is what i consider to be the minimum guarantee ofthe first amendment.,Di minimum guarantee of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) wey i consider to be di minimum guarantee of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).,Government
"m r. justice goldberg, with whom mr.",Di justice goldberg wey dey wit whom mr.,Government
"the court today announces a constitutional standard which prohibits""a public official from recovering damages for a defamatory falsehood relating to his official conduct unless he proves that the statement was made with`actual malice'- that is, with knowledge that it was false or with reckless disregard of whether it was false or not.""","Di court today don announce constitutional standard wey prohibit""a public official from recover damages for a defamatory falsehood wey defamatory falsehood wey dey relating to hin official conduct unless hin prove say dem dey false or no.",Government
"the court thus rules that the constitution gives citizens and newspapers a""conditional privilege"" immunizing nonmalicious misstatements of fact regarding the official conduct of a government officer.",Di court rules say di constitution give citizens and newspapers a conditional privilege wey dey immunizing nonmalicious misstatements of fact regarding di official conduct of a government officer.,Government
"the impressive array of history and precedent marshaled by the court, however, confirms my belief that the constitution affords greater protection than that provided by the court's standard to citizen and press in exercising the right of public criticism.","Di impressive array of history and precedent wey dey marshaled by di court, however, confirm my belief say di constitution afford greater protection than di court standard to citizen and press for exercising di right of public criticism.",Government
"in my view, the first and fourteenth amendments to the constitution afford to the citizen and to the press an absolute, unconditional privilege to criticize official conduct despite the harm which may flow from excesses and abuses.","Di first and fourteenthamendments to di constitution don afford to di citizen and to di press absolute, unconditional privilege to criticize official conduct despite di harm wey dey flow from excesses and abuses.",Government
"blackmun, j, filed a concurring opinion.","Blackmun, j, filed a concurring opinion.",Government
"burger, c. j, douglas, j, brennan, j, and white, j, filed dissenting opinions.","Na j, douglas, j, brennan, j, and white, j, filed dissenting opinions",Government
this court has struggled for nearly a decade to define the proper accommodation between the law of defamation and the freedoms of speech and press protected by the first amendment. with this decision we return to that effort.,Di court don struggled for nearly decade to define di proper accommodation between di law of defamation and di freedom of speech and press protected by di first amendment. wit dis decision we return to dat effort.,Government
we granted certiorari to reconsider the extent of a publisher's constitutional privilege against liability for defamation of a private citizen.,We granted certiorari to reconsider di extent of a publisher's constitutional privilege against liability for defamation of a personal pipo.,Government
the state authorities prosecuted nuccio for the homicide and ultimately obtained a conviction for murder in the second degree.,Di state authorities prosecuted nuccio for di homicide and ultimately obtained a conviction for murder for di second degree.,Government
"the nelson family retained petitioner elmer gertz, a reputable attorney, to represent them in civil litigation against nuccio.","Di nelson family retained petitioner elmer Gertz, a reputable attorney, to represent dem for civil litigation against nuccio.",Government
"respondent publishes american opinion, a monthly outlet for the views ofthe john birch society.","Di respondent publish american opinion, a monthly outlet for di views of di john birch society.",Government
early in the 1960's the magazine began to warn of a nationwide conspiracy to discredit local law robson the first amendment 167 enforcement agencies and create in their stead a national police force capable of supporting a communist dictatorship.,Di magazine began warn of nationwide conspiracy to discredit local law robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 167 enforcement agencies and create for dia stead national police force capable of support communist dictatorship.,Government
"as part ofthe continuing effort to alert the public to this assumed danger, the managing editor of american opinion commissioned an article on the murder trial of officer nuccio.",Di managing editor of american opinion commission article on di murder trial of officer nuccio.,Government
for this purpose he engaged a regular contributor to the magazine.,E engage regular contributor to di magazine.,Government
"in march 1969 respondent published the resulting article under the title""frame -up: richard nuccio and the war on police.""","Di resulting article under di title""frame -up: richard nuccio and di war on police",Government
the article purports to demonstrate that the testimony against nuccio at his criminal trial was false and that his prosecution was part ofthe communist campaign against the police.,Di article purport say di testimony against nuccio for hin criminal trial na false and say hin prosecution dey part of di communist campaign against di police.,Government
"in his capacity as counsel for the nelson family in the civil litigation, petitioner attended the coroner's inquest into the boy's death and initiated actions for damages, but he neither discussed officer nuccio with the press nor played any part in the criminal proceeding.","Di petitioner attend di coroner's inquest into di boy death and initiated actions for damages, but he no discuss officer nuccio wit di press nor play any part for di criminal proceeding.",Government
"notwithstanding petitioner's remote connection with the prosecution of nuccio, respondent's magazine portrayed him as an architect ofthe ""frame-up.""","Di respondent's magazine dey portray him as architect of di""frame -up""",Government
"according to the article, the police file on petitioner took""a big, irish cop to lift.""","Di police file on petitioner tok ""a big, irish cop to lift",Government
"the article stated that petitioner had been an official ofthe ""marxist league for industrial democracy, originally known as the intercollegi ate socialist society, which has advocated the violent seizure of our government.""","Di article tok say petitioner don be official of di""marxist league for industrial democracy, originally known as di intercollegiate socialist society, wey don advocate di violent seizure of awa government",Government
"it labeled gertz a ""leninist"" and a ""communistfronter.""","Dem label gertz a ""leninist"" and a ""communistfronter""",Government
"it also stated that gertz had been an officer ofthe national lawyers guild, described as a communist organization that""probably did more than any other outfit to plan the communist attack on the chicago police during the 1968 democratic convention.""","Dem also tok say gertz don be officer of di national lawyer guild, described as communist organization wey ""probably go plan di communist attack on di chicago police during di 1968 democratic convention.",Government
these statements contained serious inaccuracies.,Di statements contain serious inaccuracies.,Government
the implication that petitioner had a criminal record was false.,Di implication wey petitioner get criminal record na false.,Government
"petiti oner had been a member and officer ofthe national lawyers guild some 15 years earlier, but there was no evidence that he or that organization had taken any part in planning the 1968 demonstrations in chicago.",Di evidence say he or say organization don take any part for planning di 1968 demonstrations for chicago.,Government
"there was also no basis for the charge that pe titioner was a ""leninist"" or a""communist -fronter.""","Di charge wey petitioner be ""leninist"" or a""communist -fronter""",Government
"and he had never been a member ofthe ""marxist league for industrial democracy""or the ""intercollegiate socialist society.""","E no be member of di""marxist league for industrial democracy""or di ""intercollegiate socialist society""or di ""intercollegiate socialist society",Government
the managing editor of american opinion made no effort to verify or substantiate the charges against petitioner.,Di managing editor of american wetin dem talk made no effort to verify or substantiate di charges against di person wey start di case for big-oga kot.,Government
"instead, he appended an editorial introduction stating that the author had""conducted extensive research into the richard nuccio case.""",Di author don append an editorial introduction say di author don conduct extensive research into di richard nuccio case,Government
"and he included in the article a photograph of petitioner and wrote the caption that appeared under it:""elmer gertz of red guild harrasses nuccio.""",E include for di article a photograph of petitioner and write di caption say appear for red guild harrasses nuccio,Government
respondent placed the issue of american opinion containing the article on sale at newsstands throughout the country and distributed reprints ofthe article on the streets of chicago.,Di respondent place di issue of american opinion containing di article on sale for newsstands throughout di kontri and distributed reprints of di article on di streets of chicago.,Government
petitioner filed a diversity action for libel in the united states district court for the northern district of illinois.,Di person wey start di case for big-oga kot filed a diversity action for libel for di united states district kot for di northern district of illinois.,Government
he claimed that the falsehoods published by respondent injured his reputation as a lawyer and a citizen.,Dem claim say di falsehoods wey dem publish by respondent injure hin reputation as lawyer and citizen.,Government
it asserted that petitioner was a public official or a public figure and that the article concerned an issue of public interest and concern.,"Di article assert say petitioner dey public official or public figure and say di article dey concern tin wey concern everybody for society, wey be say e important for all of us and concern.",Government
"for these reasons, respondent argued, it was entitled to invoke the privilege enunciated in new york times co. v. sullivan(1964).","Di respondent argued, e dey entitled to invoke di privilege wey dey enunciate for new york times co. v. sullivan(1964).",Government
"under this rule respondent would escape liability unless petitioner could prove publication of defamatory falsehood ""with`actual malice'- that is, with knowledge that it was false or with reckless disregard of whether it was false or not.""","Di rule respondent go escape liability unless petitioner go prove publication of defamatory falsehood ""with knowledge wey dem dey false or wit reckless disregard of whether dem dey false or no.",Government
respondent claimed that petitioner could not make such a showing and submitted a supporting affidavit by the magazine's managing editor.,Di respondent claim say petitioner no make such showing and submitted supporting affidavit by di magazine's managing editor.,Government
the editor denied any knowledge ofthe falsity ofthe statements concerning petitioner and stated that he had relied on the author's reputation and on his prior experience with the accuracy and authenticity ofthe author's contributions to american opinion.,Di editor denied any knowledge of di falsity of di statement concerning petitioner and state say hin don relied on di author's reputation and on hin prior experience wit di accuracy and authenticity of di author's contributions to american opinion.,Government
the district court denied respondent's motion for summary judgment* * *.,Di district kot denied di person wey dey answer di case' motion for summary judgment* * *.,Government
the court did not dispute respondent's claim to the protection ofthe new york times standard.,Di court no dispute respondent's claim to di protection of di new york times standard.,Government
"after all the evidence had been presented but before submission ofthe case to the jury, the court ruled in effect that petitioner was neither a public official nora public figure.",Di court rule for effect say petitioner no be public official nor public figure.,Government
"robson the first amendment 168 following the jury verdict and on further reflection, the district court concluded that the new york times standard should govern this case even though petitioner was not a public official or public figure.",Di district court tok say di new york times standard go govern dis case even though petitioner no dey public official or public figure.,Government
it accepted respondent's contention that that privilege protected discussion of any public issue without regard to the status of a person defamed therein.,Di respondent accept respondent's contention say privilege protected discussion of any public issue without regard to di status of a person wey dem dey dem.,Government
"accordingly, the court entered judgment for respondent notwithstanding the jury's verdict.",Di court don enter judgment for respondent wey dey notwithstanding di jury's verdict.,Government
"although the court of appeals for the seventh circuit doubted the correctness ofthe district court's determination that petitioner was not a public figure, it did not overturn that finding.","Di court of appeal for di seventh circuit doubt di correctness of di district court's determination say petitioner no be public figure, e no dey overturn dat finding.",Government
"it agreed with the district court that respondent could assert the constitutional privilege because the article concerned a matter of public interest* * *after reviewing the record, the court of appeals endorsed the district court's conclusion that petitioner had failed to show by clear and convincing evidence that respondent had acted with""actual malice""as defined by new york times.","Di court of appeal don endorse di district court say petitioner don assert di constitutional privilege bikos di article concerned a matter of tin wey concern everybody for society, wey be say e important for all of us",Government
there was no evidence that the managing editor of american opinion knew ofthe falsity ofthe accusations made in the article.,Di managing editor of american opinion know of di falsity of di accusations wey dem make for di article.,Government
"in fact, he knew nothing about petitioner except what he learned from th e article.","For fact, im knew nothing about di person wey start di case for big-oga kot except what im learned from th e article.",Government
"the court correctly noted that mere proof of failure to investigate, without more, cannot establish reckless disregard for the truth.","Di court correctly tok say mere proof of failure to investigate, without more, no establish reckless disregard for di truth.",Government
"for the reasons stated below, we reverse.",We reverse.,Government
under the first amendment there is no such thing as a false idea.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) no be such thing as false idea,Government
"however pernicious an opinion may seem, we depend for its correction not on the conscience of judges and juries but on the competition of other ideas.",We depend for its correction noon di conscience of judges and juries but on di competition of oda ideas.,Government
but there is no constitutional value in false statements of fact.,Di constitutional value for false statements of fact.,Government
"neither the intentional lie nor the careless error materially advances society's interest in ""uninhibited, robust, and wide-open"" debate on public issues.","Neither di intentional lie nor di careless error materially advances society's interest for ""uninhibited, robust, and wide-open"" debate on everybody issues.",Government
new york times co. v. sullivan.,New york times co. v. sullivan.,Government
"they belong to that category of utterances which""are no essential part of any exposition of ideas, and are of such slight social value as a step to truth that any benefit that maybe derived from them is clearly outweighed by the social interest in order and morality.""","Di category of utterances wey dey no essential part of any exposition of ideas, and dey of such slight social value as step to truth say any benefit wey dey derived from dem dey clearly outweighed by di social interest for order and morality.",Government
"although the erroneous statement of fact is not worthy of constitutional protection, it is nevertheless inevitable in free debate.","Di erroneous statement of fact no worthy of constitutional protection, e no dey inevitable for free debate.",Government
"as james madison pointed out in the report on the virginia resolutions of 1798: ""some degree of abuse is inseparable from the proper use of everything; and in no instance is this more true than in that ofthe press.""","As james madison to show for di report on di virginia resolution of 1798: ""some degree of abuse dey inseparable from di proper use of everything; and in no instance dey dis more true than for di press",Government
and punishment of error runs the risk of inducing a cautious and restrictive exercise ofthe constitutionally guaranteed freedoms of speech and press.,Di risk of inducing cautious and restrictive exercise of di constitutionally guarantee freedom of speech and press.,Government
our decisions recognize that a rule of strict liability that compels a publisher or broadcaster to guarantee the accuracy of his factual assertions may lead to intolerable self-censorship.,We recognize say rule of strict liability wey dey compels publisher or broadcaster to guarantee di accuracy of hin factual assertions go lead to intolerable self censorship.,Government
allowing the media to avoid liability only by proving the truth of all injurious statements does not accord adequate protection to first amendment liberties.,Allowing di media to avoid liability only by proving di truth of all injurious statements does no accord adequate protection to First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) liberties.,Government
"as the court stated in ne w york times co. v. sullivan:""allowance ofthe defense of truth, with the burden of proving it on the defendant, does not mean that only false speech will be deterred.""","Di court state for ne w york times co. v. sullivan:""allowance of di defense of truth, wit di burden of proving am on di defendant, no mean say only false speech go deterred",Government
the first amendment requires that we protect some falsehood in order to protect speech that matters.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) require say we protect some falsehood for order to protect speech wey matters.,Government
"the need to avoid self-censorship by the news media is, however, not the only societal value at issue.",Di need to avoid self censorship by di news media no dey only di only societal value for issue.,Government
"if it were, this court would have embraced long ago the view that publishers and broadcasters enjoy an unconditional and indefeasible immunity from liability for defamation.",Di court go embrace long ago di view say publishers and broadcasters enjoy unconditional and indefeasible immunity from liability for defamation.,Government
"such a rule would, indeed, obviate the fear that the prospect of civil liability for injurious falsehood might dissuade a timorous press from the effective exercise of first amendment freedoms.","Di rule go, indeed, obviate di fear say di prospect of civil liability for injurious falsehood might disuade timorous press from di effective exercise of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) freedoms.",Government
yet absolute protection for the communications media requires a total sacrifice ofthe competing value served by the law of defamation.,Di law of defamation require total sacrifice of di competing value wey dey served by di law of defamation.,Government
robson the first amendment 169 the legitimate state interest underlying the law of libel is the compensation of individuals for the harm inflicted on them by defamatory falsehoo d. * * *some tension necessarily exists between the need for a vigorous and uninhibited press and the legitimate interest in redressing wrongful injury.,Di tension dey between di need for vigorous and uninhibited press and di legitimate interest for redressing wrongful injury.,Government
"as mr. justice harlan stated,""some antithesis between freedom of speech and press and libel actions persists, for libel remains premised on the content of speech and limits the freedom ofthe publisher to express certain sentiments, at least without guaranteeing legal proof of their substantial accuracy.""","Di antithesis wey between freedom of speech and press and libel actions persist, for libel remain premised on di content of speech and limit di freedom of di publisher to express certain sentiments, at least without guarantee legal proof of dia substantial accuracy",Government
curtis publishing co. v. butts.,Dem publishing co. v. butts,Government
"in our continuing effort to define the proper accommodation between these competing concerns, we have been especially anxious to assure to the freedoms of speech and press that""breathing space""essential to their fruitful exercise.","Di continuing effort to define di proper accommodation between dis competing concerns, we don especially anxious to assure to di freedom of speech and press say""breathing space""essential to dia fruitful exercise.",Government
naacp v. button(1963).,Naacp v. button(1963).,Government
to that end this court has extended a measure of strategic protection to defamatory falsehood.,Di court don extend measure of strategic protection to defamatory falsehood.,Government
the new york times standard defines the level of constitutional protection appropriate to the context of defamation of a public person.,Di new york times standard defines di level of constitutional protection appropriate to di how levels be of defamation of a everybody person.,Government
"those who, by reason ofthe notoriety of their achievements or the vigor and success with which they seek the public's attention, are properly classed as public figures and those who hold governmental office may recover for injury to reputation only on clear and convincing proof that the defamato ry falsehood was made with knowledge of its falsity or with reckless disregard for the truth.",Di public figures and those wey hold governmental office go recover for injury to reputation only on clear and convincing proof say di defamato ry falsehood dey made wit knowledge of dia falsity or wit reckless disregard for di truth.,Government
this standard administers an extremely powerful antidote to the inducement to media self-censorship ofthe common-law rule of strict liability for libel and slander.,Dis standard administers an extremely powerful antidote to di inducement to media self-censorship of di common-law rule of strict liability for libel and slander.,Government
and it exacts a correspondingly high price from the victims of defamatory falsehood.,Di victims of defamatory falsehood dey exact a correspondingly high price from di victims of defamatory falsehood.,Government
"plainly many deserving plaintiffs, including some intentionally subjected to injury, will be unable to surmount the barrier ofthe new york times test.","Di plainly many deserving plaintiffs, including some intentionally subject to injury, go dey unable to surmount di barrier of di new york times test.",Government
"despite this substantial abridgment ofthe state law right to compensation for wrongful hurt to one's reputation, the court has concluded that the protection ofthe new york times privilege should be available to publishers and broadcasters of defamatory falsehood concerning public officials and public figures.",Di court don concluded say di protection of di new york times privilege go be available to publishers and broadcasters of defamatory falsehood concerning public figures.,Government
"we think that these decisions are correct, but we do not find their holdings justified solely by reference to the interest ofthe press and broadcast media in immunity from liability.","We think say dis decision dey correct, but we no find dia holdings justified solely by reference to di interest of di press and tori wey dey komot for tv, radio, or oda machine wey plenti pipo dey hear for immunity from liability.",Government
"rather, we believe that the ne w york times rule states an accommodation between this concern and the limited state interest present in the context of libel actions brought by public persons.",We believe say dine w york times rule state accommodation between dis concern and di limited state interest present for di context of libel actions wey public persons.,Government
"for the reasons stated below, we conclude that the state interest in compensating injury to the reputation of private individuals requires that a different rule should obtain with respect to them.",We conclude say di state interest for compensating injury to di reputation of private individuals require say different rule go obtain wit respect to dem.,Government
"theoretically, of course, the balance between the needs ofthe press and the individual's claim to compensation for wrongful injury might be struck on ac ase-by-case basis.",Di balance between di needs of di press and di individual's claim to compensation for wrongful injury go dey struck on ac ase-by-case basis.,Government
"because an ad hoc resolution ofthe competing interests at stake in each particular case is not feasible, we must lay down broad rules of general application.","Di ad hoc resolution of di competing interests for stake for each particular case no feasible, we must lay down broad rules of general application.",Government
such rules necessarily treat alike various cases involving differences aswell as similarities.,Di rules need treat various cases wey dey involving differences aswell as similarities.,Government
thus it is often true that not all ofthe considerations which justify adoption of a given rule will obtain in each particular case decided under its authority.,Di often true say no all of di considerations wey justify adoption of a given rule go obtain for each particular case wey dey decide under im authority.,Government
with that caveat we have no difficulty in distinguishing among defamation plaintiffs.,Di caveat we no dey difficult to distinguishing among defamation plaintiffs.,Government
the first remedy of any victim of defamation is self-help -using available opportunities to contradict the lie or correct the error and thereby to minimize its adverse impact on reputation.,Di first remedy of any victim of defamation na self-help -using available opportunities to contradict di lie or correct di error and thereby to minimize im adverse impact on reputation.,Government
public officials and public figures usually enjoy significantly greater access to the channels of effective communication and hence have a more realistic opportunity to counteract false statements than private individuals normally enjoy.,Di public officials and public figures dey enjoy significantly great access to di channel of effective communication and hence get more realistic opportunity to counteract false statements than private individuals normally enjoy.,Government
"private individuals are therefore more vulnerable to injury, and the state interest in protecting them is correspondingly greater.",Di state interest for protecting dem dey correspondingly greater.,Government
"more important than the likelihood that private individuals will lack effective opportunities for rebuttal, there is a compelling normative consideration underlying the distinction between public and private defamation plaintiffs.","Di likelihood wey private individuals golack effective opportunities for rebuttal, na compelling normative consideration underlying di distinction between public and private defamation plaintiffs.",Government
an individual who decides to seek governmental office must accept certain necessary consequences of that involvement in public affairs.,Di individual wey decide to seek governmental office must accept certain necessary consequences of dat involvement for public affairs.,Government
he runs the risk of closer public scrutiny than might otherwise be the case.,He run di risk of closer public scrutiny than might odawise be di case.,Government
and society's interest in the officers of government is not strictly limited to the formal discharge of official duties.,Di interest for di officers of goment no strictly limited to di formal discharge official duties.,Government
"as the court pointed out in garrison v. louisiana, the public's interest extends to""anything which might touch on an official's fitness for office.","Di tin wey concern everybody for society, wey be say e important for all of us extend to""anything wey fit touch on official fitness for office.",Government
"few personal attributes are more germane to fitness for office than dishonesty, robson the first amendment 170 malfe asance, or improper motivation, even though these characteristics may also affect the official's private character.""","Di few personal attributes dey more germane to fitness for office than wuruwuru, robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 170 malfe asance, or improper motivation, even though dis characteristics dey affect di official's private character",Government
those classed as public figures stand in a similar position.,Dem class as public figures stand for similar position.,Government
"hypothetically, it maybe possible for someone to become a public figure through no purposeful action of his own, but the instances of truly involuntary public figures must be exceedingly rare.","E dey possible for someone to become public figure through no purposeful action of hin own, but di instances of truly involuntary public figure must dey rare.",Government
for the most part those who attain this status have assumed roles of especial prominence in the affairs of society.,Di most part wey dey attain dis status don assum roles of special prominence for di affairs of society.,Government
some occupy positions of such persuasive power and influence that they are deemed public figures for all purposes.,Dem occupy positions of such persuasive power and influence wey dem dey deemed public figures for all purposes.,Government
"more commonly, those classed as public figures have thrust themselves to the forefront of particular public controversies in order to influence the resolution ofthe issues involved.",Di classed as public figures don thrust themselves to di forefront of particular public controversies for order to influence di resolution of di issues involved.,Government
"in either event, they invite attention and comment.",Dem invite attention and comment.,Government
"even if the foregoing generalities do not obtain in every instance, the communications media are entitled to act on the assumption that public officials and public figures have voluntarily exposed themselves to increased risk of injury from defamatory falsehood concerning them.",Di communications media dey entitled to act on di assumption say public officials and public figures don expose themselves to increased risk of injury from defamatory falsehood concerning dem.,Government
no such assumption is justified with respect to a private individual.,Nano such assumption dey justified wit respect to private individual,Government
"he has not accepted public office or assumed an""influential role in ordering society.""","He no accept public office or assumed an""influential role for ordering society""",Government
"he has relinquished no part of his interest in the protection of his own good name, and consequently he has a more compelling call on the courts for redress of injury inflicted by defamatory falsehood.","E don relinquished no part of hin interest for di protection of hin own good name, and consequently hin get more compelling call on di courts for redress of injury wey defamatory falsehood.",Government
"thus, private individuals are not only more vulnerable to injury than public officials and public figures; they are also more deserving of recovery.",Dem no only dey vulnerable to injury than public officials and public figures; dem dey also dey deserving of recovery.,Government
for these reasons we conclude that the states should retain substantial latitude in their efforts to enforce a legal remedy for defamatory falsehood injuriou s to the reputation of a private individual.,We conclude say di state go retain substantial latitude for dia efforts to enforce legal remedy for defamatory falsehood injuriou s to di reputation of private individual.,Government
"the""public or general interest""test for determining the applicability ofthe new york times standard to private defamation actions inadequately serves both ofthe competing values at stake.","Di""everybody or general interest""test for determining di applicability of di new york times standard to personal defamation actions inadequately serves both of di competing values at stake.",Government
"on the one hand, a private individual whose reputation is injured by defamatory fal sehood that does concern an issue of public or general interest has no recourse unless he can meet the rigorous requirements of new york times.","Di one hand, private individual wey defamatory fal sehood don dey injured by defamatory fal sehood say e no fit meet di rigorous requirements of new york times.",Government
this is true despite the factors that distinguish the state interest in compensating private individuals from th e analogous interest involved in the context of public persons.,Di true despite di factors wey distinguish di state interest for compensating private individuals from th e analogous interest wey dey involved for di context of public persons.,Government
"on the other hand, a publisher or broadcaster of a defamatory error which a court deems unrelated to an issue of public or general interest maybe held liable in damages even if it took every reasonable precaution to ensure the accuracy of its assertions.",Di publisher or broadcaster of di defamatory error wey a court dey unrelated to issue of public or general interest dey hold liable for damages even if e tok every reasonable precaution to ensure di accuracy of dia assertions.,Government
"and liability may far exceed compensation for any actual injury to the plaintiff, for the jury maybe permitted to presume damages without proof of loss and even to award punitive damages.",For di jury dey permitted to presume damages without proof of loss and even to award punitive damages.,Government
"we hold that, so long as they do not impose liability without fault, the states may define for themselves the appropriate standard of liability for a publisher or broadcaster of defamatory falsehood injurious to a private individual.","We hold say, so long as dem no impose liability without fault, di state go define for themselves di standard of liability for publisher or broadcaster of defamatory falsehood injurious to a private individual.",Government
"it recognizes the strength ofthe legitimate state interest in compensating private individuals for wrongful injury to reputation, yet shields the press and broadcast media from ther igors of strict liability for defamation.","Di recognize di strength of di legitimate state interest for compensating private individuals for wrongful injury to reputation, yet shield di press and tori wey dey komot for tv, radio, or oda machine wey plenti pipo dey hear from di r igors of strict liability for defamation.",Government
"atleast this conclusion obtains where, as here, the substance ofthe defamatory statement""makes substantial danger to reputation apparent.""",Di substance of di defamatory statement make substantial danger to reputation apparent,Government
this phrase places in perspective the conclusion we announce today.,Di phrase place for perspective di conclusion wey we announce today.,Government
our inquiry would involve considerations somewhat different from those discussed above if a state purported to condition civil liability on a factual misstatement whose content did not warn a reasonably prudent editor or broadcaster of its defamatory potential.,Di inquiry go involve considerations somewhat different from those discuss above if state purport to condition civil liability on a factual misstatement wey dem no warn a reasonably prudent editor or broadcaster of its defamatory potential.,Government
"such a case is not now before us, and we intimate no view as to its proper resolution.","Di case no now before us, and we dey intimate no view as to its proper resolution",Government
there is little basis for the former assertion.,Di former assertion na little basis for di former assertion,Government
"robson the first amendment 171 several years prior to the present incident, petitioner had served briefly on housing committees appointed by the mayor of chicago, but at the time of publication he had never held any remunerative governmental position.","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 171 several years prior to di present incident, petitioner don serve briefly on housing committees wey di mayor of chicago, but at di time of publication he no get any remunerative governmental position.",Government
"respondent admits this but argues that petitioner's appearance at the coroner's inquest rendered him a""de facto public official.""","Di respondent admit say petitioner's appearance for di coroner's inquest render him""de facto public official""",Government
our cases recognize no such concept.,Di case recognize no such concept.,Government
"respondent's suggestion would sweep all lawyers under the new york times rule as officers ofthe court and distort the plain meaning ofthe ""public official""category beyond all recognition.","Di person wey dey answer di case' suggestion would sweep all lawyers under di new york times rule as officers of di kot and distort di plain meaning of di""everybody official""category beyond all recognition.",Government
we decline to follow it.,We decline to follow e.,Government
respondent's characterization of petitioner as a public figure raises a different question.,Di person wey dey answer di case' characterization of di person wey start di case for big-oga kot as a everybody figure raises a different question.,Government
that designation may rest on either of two alternative bases.,Di designation go rest on either of two alternative bases,Government
in some instances an individual may achieve such pervasive fame or notoriety that he becomes a public figure for all purposes and in all contexts.,Di individual go achieve such pervasive fame or notoriety wey he dey public figure for all purposes and for all contexts.,Government
"more commonly, an individual voluntarily injects himself or is drawn into a particular public controversy and thereby becomes a public figure for a limited range of issues.",Di individual voluntarily inject himself or dey draw into particular public controversy and e dey draw public figure for limited range of issues.,Government
in either case such persons assume special prominence in the resolution of public questions.,For either case such persons assume special prominence for di resolution of public questions.,Government
petitioner has long been active in community and professional affairs.,E dey active for community and professional affairs.,Government
"he has served as an officer of local civic groups and of various professional organizations, and he has published several books and articles on legal subjects.","Di officer of local civic groups and of various groups of professionals, and hin don publish several books and articles on legal subjects.",Government
"although petitioner was consequently well known in some circles, he had achieved no general fame or notoriety in the community.","As petitioner dey well known for some circles, he get no general fame or notoriety for di community.",Government
"none ofthe prospective jurors called at the trial had ever heard of petitioner prior to this litigation, and respondent offered no proof that this response was atypical ofthe local population.","Na none of di prospective jurors call for di trial don hear petitioner prior to dis litigation, and respondent offer no proof say dis response na atypical of di local population.",Government
we would not lightly assume that a citizen's participation in community and professional affairs rendered him a public figure for all purposes.,We no assume say citizen's participation for community and professional affairs render him public figure for all purposes.,Government
"absent clear evidence of general fame or notoriety in the community, and pervasive involvement in the affairs of society, an individual should not be deemed a public personality for all aspects of his life.","Di individual no dey absent clear evidence of general fame or notoriety for di community, and pervasive involvement for di affairs of society, an individual no be public personality for all aspects of hin life.",Government
it is preferable to reduce the public-figure question to a more meaningful context by looking to the nature and extent of an individual's participation in the particular controversy giving rise to the defamation.,Di preferable to reduce di public-figure question to more meaningful context by lauching to di nature and extent of an individual participation for di particular controversy wey dey give rise to di defamation.,Government
in this context it is plain that petitioner was not a public figure.,Di context dey plain say petitioner no dey public figure,Government
"he played a minimal role at the coroner's inquest, and his participation related solely to his representation of a private client.","E play minimal role for di coroner's inquest, and hin participation related solely to hin representation of private client",Government
he took no part in the criminal prosecution of officer nuccio.,Di criminal prosecution of officer nuccio,Government
"moreover, he never discussed either the criminal or civil litigation with the press and was never quoted as having done so.",Dem no discuss either di criminal or civil litigation wit di press and dem no quote as dem do so.,Government
"he plainly did not thrust himself into the vortex of this public issue, nor did he engage the public's attention in an attempt to influence its outcome.","He plainly no thrust himself into di vortex of dis public issue, nor do he engage di public attention for attempt to influence im outcome.",Government
we are persuaded that the trial court did not err in refusing to characterize petitioner as a public figure for the purpose of this litigation.,We dey persuad say di trial court no err for refusing characterize petitioner as public figure for di purpose of dis litigation.,Government
we therefore conclude that the new york times standard is inapplicable to this case and that the trial court erred in entering judgment for respondent.,We conclude say di new york times standard dey inapplicable to dis case and say di trial court dey erre for entering judgment for respondent,Government
"because the jury was allowed to impose liability without fault and was permitted to presume damages without proof of injury, a new trial is necessary.","Di jury dey allowed to impose liability without fault and dey permitted to presume damages without proof of injury, new trial dey necessary.",Government
we reverse and remand for further proceedings in accord with this opinion.,We reverse and remand for further proceedings for accord wit dis wetin dem talk.,Government
"douglas, j, dissenting.",E dey dissenting.,Government
"the court describes this case as a return to th e struggle of ""defin[ing] the proper accommodation between the law of defamation and the freedoms of speech and press protected by the first amendment.""","Di kot describes dis case as a return to th e struggle of ""defin[ing] di proper accommodation between di law of defamation and di freedoms of talk and news pipo protected by First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).""",Government
"it is indeed a struggle, once described by mr. justice black as""the same quagmire"" in which the court""is now helplessly struggling in the field of obscenity.""",Dem described by mr. justice black as di same quagmire wey di court dey helplessly struggling for di field of obscenity.,Government
"unlike the right of privacy which, by the terms ofthe fourth amendment, must be accommodated with reasonable searches and seizures and warrants issued by magistrates, the rights of free speech and of a free press were protected by the framers in verbiage whose proscription seems clear.","Di right of privacy wey, by di terms of di fourthamendment, must accommodate wit reasonable searches and seizures and warrants issued by magistrates, di rights of free speech and of free press wey dem dey protected by di framers for verbiage wey dey clear.",Government
this was the view held by thomas jefferson and it is one congress has never challenged through enactment of a civil libel statute.,Di view wey thomas jefferson wey be one congress don challenge through enactment of civil libel statute.,Government
the sole congressional attempt at this variety of first amendment robson the first amendment 172 muzzle was in the sedition act of 1798 -a criminal libel act never tested in this court and one which expired by its terms three years after enactment.,"Di sole congressional attempt for dis variety of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 172 muzzle na for di Law wey no allow person talk or do sometin wey go against goment, wey dem go fit call am treason or rebel of 1798 -criminal libel act never tested for dis court and one wey expired by its terms three years after enactment.",Government
"as president, thomas jefferson pardoned those who were convicted under the act, and fines levied in its prosecution were repaid by act of congress.","As president, thomas jefferson don pardon those wey dey convicted under di act, and fines levied for dia prosecution dey repaid by act of congress.",Government
the general consensus was that the act constituted a regrettable legislative exercise plainly in violation ofthe first amendment.,Di general consensus na say di act constitute regrettable legislative exercise plainly for violation of di first amendment.,Government
"discussion of public affairs is often marked by highly charged emotions, and jurymen, not unlike us all, are subject to those emotions.","Di discussion of public affairs dey often marked by highly charged emotions, and jurymen, not unlike us all, dey subject to dis emotions.",Government
it is indeed this very type of speech which is the reason for the first amendment since speech which arouses little emotion is little in need of protection.,E dey indeed dis type of speech wey dey di reason for First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) since speech wey arouses little emotion dey little for need of protection,Government
"the vehicle for publication in this case was the american opinion, a most controversial periodical which disseminates the views ofthe john birch society, an organization which many deem to be quite offensive.","Di vehicle for publication for dis case dey di american opinion, a most controversial periodical wey dey which dey controversial periodical wey dey which dey controversial, wey dey which dey controversial periodical wey dey",Government
"the subject matter involved""communist plots,"" ""conspiracies against law enforcement agencies,"" and the killing of a private citizen by the police.","Di subject matter involved""communist plots,"" ""conspiracies against law enforcement agencies,"" and di killing of a personal pipo by di police.",Government
"with any such amalgam of controversial elements pressing upon the jury, a jury determination, unpredictable in the most neutral circumstances, becomes for those who venture to discuss heated issues, a virtual roll ofthe dice separating them from liability for often massive claims of damage.","Di jury determination, unpredictable for di most neutral circumstances, become for those wey venture to discuss heated issues, virtual roll of di dice separating dem from liability for often massive claims of damage.",Government
"it is only the hardy publisher who will engage in discussion in the face of such risk, and the court's preoccupation with proliferating standards in the area of libel increases the risks.","Di hardy publisher wey go engage for discussion for di face of such risk, and di court's preoccupation wit proliferating standards for di area of libel increase di risks.",Government
"it matters little whether the standard be articulated as""malice"" or""reckless disregard ofthe truth""or ""negligence,""for jury determinations by any of those criteria are virtually unreviewable.","Di standard dey articulate as""malice"" or""reckless disregard of di truth""or ""negligence""for jury determinations by any of di criteria dey virtually unreviewable.",Government
"this court, in its continuing delineation of variegated mantles of first amendment protection, is, like the potential publisher, left with only speculation on how jury findings were influenced by the effect the subject matter ofthe publication had upon the minds and viscera ofthe jury.","Di court, for di continuing delineation of variegated mantles of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) protection, na, like di potential publisher, left wit only speculation on how jury findings dey influence di subject matter of di publication wey dey upon di mind and viscera of di jury.",Government
"the standard announced today leaves the states free to""define for themselves the appropriate standard of liability for a publisher or broadcaster""in the circumstances of this case.","Di standard announced today leaves di states free to""define for themselves di appropriate standard of liability for a publisher or broadcaster""for di circumstances of dis case.",Government
"this ofcourse leaves the simple negligence standard as an option, w ith the jury free to impose damages upon a finding that the publisher failed to act as""a reasonable man.""","Di ofcourse leave di simple negligence standard as option, w ith di jury free to impose damages upon finding say di publisher fail to act as reasonable man",Government
"with such continued erosion of first amendment protection, i fear that it may well be the reasonable man who refrains from speaking.",I fear say e go well be di reasonable man wey dey refrain from speaking.,Government
"since in my view the first and fourteenth amendments prohibit the imposition of damages upon respondent for this discussion of public affairs, i would affirm the judgment below.","Di first and fourteenthamendments prohibit di imposition of damages upon respondent for dis discussion of public affairs, i go affirm di judgment below.",Government
"[the concurring opinion of blackmun, j, and the separate dissenting opinions of burger, c. j, brennan, and white are omitted].","E dey concurrin opinion of blackmun, j, and di separate dissent opinions of burger, c. j, brennan, and white dey omitted",Government
notes 1.,Di notes 1.,Government
"in dun& bradstreet, inc. v. greenmoss builders, inc, 472 u. s. 749 (1985), the court refused to extend gertz to a nonmedia defendant in a matter not of""public concern.""",Di court refused to extend gertz to nonmedia defendant for a matter no of public concern.,Government
"the facts, as explained in the court's plurality opinion, authored by justice powell, and joined by justices rehnquist and o'connor were these: petitioner dun& bradstreet, a credit reporting agency, provides subscribers with financial and related information about businesses.","Di facts wey dey explain for di court's plurality opinion, authored by justice powell, and joined by justices rehnquist and o'connor dey these: petitioner dun& bradstreet, a credit reporting agency, provide subscribers wit financial and related information about business",Government
all the information is confidential; under the terms ofthe subscription agreement the subscribers may not reveal it to anyone else.,For di terms of di subscription agreement di subscribers no reveal am to anyone else.,Government
"on july 26, 1976, petitioner sent a report to five subscribers indicating that respondent, a construction contractor, had filed a voluntary petition for bankruptcy.","Di petitioner send report to five subscribers say respondent, a construction contractor, don file voluntary petition for bankruptcy.",Government
this report was false and grossly misrepresented respondent's assets and liabilities.,Di report dey false and grossly misrepresented respondent's assets and liabilities,Government
"that same day, while discussing the possibility of future financing with its bank, respondent's president was told that the bank had received the defamatory report.",Dem tok say di bank don receive di defamatory report.,Government
"he immediately called petitioner's regional office, explained the error, and asked for a correction.","Di petitioner's regional office, explain di error, and ask for correction.",Government
"in addition, he requested the names ofthe firms that had received the false report in order to assure them that the company was solvent.",E request di names of di firms wey don receive di false report for order to assure dem say di company dey solvent,Government
petitioner promised to look into the matter but refused to divulge the names of those who had received the report.,Di petitioner promis to look into di matter but refused to divulge di names of those wey dey receive di report.,Government
"robson the first amendment 173 after determining that its report was indeed false, petitioner issued a corrective notice on or about august 3, 1976, to the five subscribers who had received the initial report.","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 173 afta determining say im report dey false, petitioner issue corrective notice on or about august 3, 1976, to di five subscribers wey don receive di initial report.",Government
"the notice stated that one of respondent's former employees, not respondent itself, had filed for bankruptcy and that respondent""continued in business as usual.""","Di notice state say one of respondent's former employee, no respondent itself, don filed for bankruptcy and say respondent""continued for business as normal.",Government
"respondent told petitioner that it was dissatisfied with the notice, and it again asked for a list of subscribers who had seen the initial report.","Di respondent told petitioner say e dey disatisfied wit di notice, and e asked for list of subscribers wey dey see di initial report.",Government
again petitioner refused to divulge their names.,Di petitioner dey refuse to divulge dia name,Government
respondent then brought this defamation action in vermont state court.,Di defamation action for vermont state court.,Government
it alleged that the false report had injured its reputation and sought both compensatory and punitive damages.,Di false report don injure im reputation and sought both compensatory and punitive damages.,Government
"the trial established that the error in petitioner's report had been caused when one of its employees, a 17-year -old highschool student paid to review vermont bankruptcy pleadings, had inadvertently attributed to respondent a bankruptcy petition filed by one of respondent's former employees.","Di trial establish say di error for petitioner report don dey caused wen one of its employees,17 -year-old highschool student paid to review vermont bankruptcy pleadings, don inadvertently attribut to respondent a bankruptcy petition wey dem filed by one of respondent's former employees.",Government
"although petitioner's representative testified that it was routine practice to check the accuracy of such reports with the businesses themselves, it did not try to verify the information about respondent before reporting it.","Di petitioner testified say e dey routine practice to check di accuracy of such report wit di business themselves, e no try verify di information about respondent before reporting am.",Government
"the court held that""actual malice,""the standard derived from new york times v. sullivan, was not applicable and concluded that damages- - -even presumed damages or punitive damages- - -were permissible.","Di court tok say""actual malice, di standard wey dey from new york times v. sullivan, no dey applicable and concluded say damages- - -even presumed damages or punitive damages- - -dey permissible.",Government
"it declined to ""constitutionalize the entire common law of libel.""(","E declined to ""constitutionalize di entire common law of libel.""(",Government
at 761 n.7).,For 761 n.,Government
"thus, one might say that dun& bradstreet marks the limit to the court's first amendment shaping of defamation.","Thus, one might say dun& bradstreet marks di limit to di kot' First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) shaping of defamation.",Government
"moreover, dun & bradstreet might be most important for what it did not decide.","Dem no decide, dun & bradstreet might be important for what dem no decide.",Government
"argued twice, it provided an opportunity for the court to revisit both new york times and gertz, as some justices reportedly were wont to do.","Di court don provide opportunity for di court to revisit both new york times and gertz, as some justices reportedly don do.",Government
"see lee levine& stephen wermiel, the landmark that wasn't: a first amendment playin five acts, 88 wash.","Dem see lee levine& stephen wermiel, di landmark wey no dey play for five act,88 wash",Government
"as levine and wermeil noted as the fiftieth anniversary of new york times v. sullivan was approaching, and as remains true, the court has not decided another defamation case since dun& bradstreet.",Di court no decide another defamation case since dun& bradstreet.,Government
"however, the court certainly has considered similar issues, such as false statements in united states v. alvarez(2012), we which we previously covered, and intentional infliction of emotional distress in snyder v.","Di court don consider similar issues, such as false statements for united states v. alvarez(2012), wey we previously covered, and intentional infliction of emotional distress for snyder v.",Government
"neither of these cases involved the press, but both rely heavily on defamation precedent.","Di cases wey dey involved di press, but both dey rely heavily on defamation precedent.",Government
"but in 2019, justice thomas in a concurring opinion from a denial of certiorari (a rather rare occurrence), argued that new york times v. sullivan and its progeny are""policy driven decisions masquerading as constitutional law,""and the notion of""public figure""did not exist in the common law understandings of libel.","Di justice thomas for a concurring opinion from di denial of certiorari (a rather rare occurrence), argued say new york times v. sullivan and its progeny dey""policy driven decisions masquerading as constitutional law,""and di notion of""public figure""no exist for di common law understandings of libel.",Government
"see mckee v. cosby, 586 u. s. (2019) (thomas, j, concurring in denial of certiorari).","Demckee v. cosby, 586 u. s.",Government
what about bloggers who are sued for defamation?,Dem dey sued for defamation?,Government
in obsidian fin.,Na obsidian fin for obsidian fin,Government
"llc v. cox, 740 f.3d 1284 (9th cir.)","Llc v. cox, 740 f.3d 1284 (9th cir.)",Government
"denied, 134 s. ct.",For 134 s. ct.,Government
"as the supreme court has accurately warned, a first amendment distinction between the institutional press and other speakers is unworkable: ""with the advent ofthe internet and the decline of print and broadcast media. the line between the media and others who wish to comment on political and social issues becomes far more blurred.""","Di advent of di internet and di decline of print and tori wey dey komot for tv, radio, or oda machine wey plenti pipo dey hear, di line between di media and oda speakers wey wish to comment on political and social issues become more blurred",Government
"in defamation cases, the public-figure status of a plaintiff and the public importance ofthe statement at issue to the identity ofthe speaker provide the first amendment touchstones.",Di public-figure status of plaintiff and di public importance of di statement for issue to di identity of di speaker provide First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) touchstones.,Government
"yet the facts of obsidian might be troubling to some: kevin padrick is a principal of obsidian finance group, llc (obsidian), a firm that provides advice to financially distressed businesses.","kevin padrick dey principal of obsidian finance group, llc (obsidian), firm wey provide advice to financially distressed business.",Government
"in december 2008, summit accommodators, inc.(summit), retained obsidian in connection with a contemplated bankruptcy.","For december 2008, summit accommodators, inc.(summit), retained obsidian for connection wit a contemplated bankruptcy.",Government
"because summit had misappropriated funds from clients, padrick's principal task was to marshal the firm's assets for the benefit of those clients.",Di principal task nato marshal di firm's assets for di benefit of those clients.,Government
"after padrick's appointment, crystal cox published blog posts on several websites that she created, accusing padrick and obsidian of fraud, corruption, money-laundering, and other illegal activities in connection with the summit bankruptcy.","Di crystal cox publish blog post on several websites wey she create, accuse padrick and obsidian of fraud, corruption, money-laundering, and oda illegal activities for connection wit di summit bankruptcy.",Government
cox apparently has a history of making similar allegations robson the first amendment 174 and seeking payoffs in exchange for retraction.,Di cox apparently don make similar allegations robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 174 and seeking payoffs for exchange for retraction,Government
"see david carr, w hen truth survives free speech, n. y. times, dec. 11, 2011, at b1.","Di see David carr, w hin truth survive free speech, n. y. times, dec. 11, 2011, at b1.",Government
"padrick and obsidian sent cox a cease-and-desist letter, but she continued posting allegations.","Padrick and obsidian sent cox a cease-and- letter, but im continued posting allegations.",Government
this defamation suit ensued.,Di defamation suit dey ensued.,Government
do you agree that the gertz standard should apply?,Di gertz standard go apply?,Government
"b. other torts time, inc. v. hill 385 u. s. 374(1967) brennan delivered the opinion ofthe court.","Di r tort time, inc. v. hill 385 u. s. 374(1967) brennan deliver di opinion of di court.",Government
"black, j, filed a concurring opinion in which douglas, j, joined.","Di black, j, filed a concurring opinion wey douglas, j, join.",Government
"douglas, j, filed a concurring opinion.","Douglas, j, filed a another judge wey gree but get im own talk.",Government
"harlan, j, filed an opinion con curring in part and dissenting in part.","Di harlan, j, filed opinion concurring for part and dissenting for part",Government
"fortas, j, filed a dissenting opinion in which the chief justice[warren ]and clark joined.",Di chief justice[warren ]and clark join.,Government
"the question in this case is whether appellant, publisher of life magazine, was denied constitutional protections of speech and press by the application by the new york courts of 50-51 ofthe new york civil rights law [fn1] to award appellee damages on allegations that life falsely reported that anew play portrayed an experience suffered by ap pellee and his family.","Di question for dis case na whether appellant, publisher of life magazine, dey denied constitutional protection of speech and press by di application by di new york courts of 50-51 of di new york civil rights law [fn1] to award appellee damages on allegations say life falsely report say life falsely report say life falsely report say life falsely reported say life falsely reported say life falsely reported say life falsely reported say life falsely reported say life falsely",Government
"[fn 1: the complete text ofthe new york civil rights law 50-51 is as follows:"" 50.","Di complete text of di new york civil rights law 50-51 dey follow:"" 50.",Government
"right of privacy""a person, firm or corporation that uses for advertising purposes, or for the purposes of trade, the name, portrait or picture of any living person without having first obtained the written consent of such person, or if a minor of his or her parent or guardian, is guilty of a misdemeanor.""","Di person, firm or corporation wey use for advertising purposes, or for di purpose of trade, di name, portrait or picture of any living person without having first obtained di written consent of such person, or if a minor of hin or her parent or guardian, dey guilty of misdemeanor",Government
"but nothing contained in this act shall be so construed as to prevent any person, fi rm or corporation, practicing the profession of photography, from exhibiting in or about his or its establishment specimens ofthe work of such establishment, unless the same is continued by such person, firm or corporation after written notice objecting thereto has been given by the person portrayed; and nothing contained in this act shall be so construed as to prevent any person, firm or corporation from using the name, portrait or picture of any manufacturer or dealer in connection with the goods, wares and merchandise manufactured, produced or dealt in by him which he has sold or disposed of with such name, portrait or picture used in connection therewith; or from using the name, portrait or picture of any author, composer or artist in connection with hi s literary, musical or artistic productions which he has sold or disposed of with such name, portrait or picture used in connection therewith.""","Di act shall be so construed as to prevent any person, fi rm or corporation, wey dey practicin di profession of photography, from exhibiting for or about hin or im establishment specimens of di work of such establishment, unless di same dey continued by such person, firm or corporation, wey dey practicin di profession of photography, from exhibiting for or about hin or im establishment specimens of di work of such establishment, unless di same dey continued by such person, firm or corporation before written notice we",Government
"it was entitled""true crime inspires tense play,""with the subtitle, ""the ordeal of a family trapped by convicts gives broadway anew thriller,'the desperate hours.'""","E be entitled""true crime inspires tense play,""wit di subtitle, ""di ordeal of a family trapped by convicts gives broadway anew thriller,'di desperate hours.'""",Government
"the text ofthe article reads as follows:""three years ago americans all over the country read about the desperate ordeal ofthe james hill family, w ho were held prisoners in their home outside philadelphia by three escaped convicts.","One years ago americans all over di kontri read about di desperate ordeal of di james hill family, w ho dey hold prisoners for dia home outside philadelphia by three escaped convicts.",Government
"later they read about it in joseph hayes's novel, the desperate hours, inspired by the family's experience.","Dem read about am for joseph hayes' novel, di desperate hours, inspired by di family experience.",Government
"robson the first amendment 175 now they can see the story re-enacted in hayes's broadway play based on the book, and next year will see it in his movie, which has been filmed but is being held up until the play has a chance to payoff.","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 175 now dem fit see di story re-enacted for hayes's broadway play based on di book, and next year go see am for hin movie, wey dey film but dey hold up until di play go payoff.",Government
"""the play, directed by robert montgomery and expertly acted, is a heartstopping account of how a family rose to heroism in a crisis.","Di play, directed by robert montgomery and expertly acted, na heartstopping account of how a family rose to heroism for crisis.",Government
"life photographed the play during its philadelphia tryout, transported some ofthe actors to the actual house where the hills were besieged.","Di life photograph di play during its philadelphia tryout, transport some of di actors to di actual house wey di hills dey besieged.",Government
"on the next page scenes from the play are re-enacted on the site ofthe crime.""",Di next page scenes from di play dey re-enacted on di site of di crime.,Government
"the pictures on the ensuing two pages included an enactment ofthe son being ""roughed up""by one ofthe convicts, entitled ""brutish convict,""a picture ofthe daughter biting the hand of a convict to make him drop a gun, entitled ""daring daughter,""and one ofthe father throwing his gun through the door after a""brave try""to save his family is foiled.","Di pictures on di ensuing two pages include di enactment of di son wey dey rough up by one of di convicts, entitled ""brutish convict,""a picture of di daughter wey dey bit di hand of a convict to make hin drop gun through di door afta a""brave try""to save hin family.",Government
the james hill referred to in the article is the appellee.,Di james hill wey dey referred to for di article na di appellee,Government
"he and his wife and five children involuntarily became the subjects of a front-page news story after being held hostage by three escaped convicts in their suburban, whitemarsh, pennsylvania, home for 19 hours on september 11-12, 1952.","Di subject of front-page news story after being held hostage by three escaped convicts for dia suburban, whitemarsh, pennsylvania, home for 19 hours on september 11-12, 1952.",Government
the family was released unharmed.,Di family don release unharmed.,Government
"in an interview with newsmen after the convicts departed, appellee stressed that the convicts had treated the family courteously, had not molested them, and had not been at all violent.","Di convicts dey depart, appellee stressed say di convicts don treated di family courteously, don no dey molest dem, and no dey for all violent.",Government
the convicts were thereafter apprehended in a widely publicized encounter with the police which resulted in the killing of two ofthe convicts.,Di convicts dey suspect for widely publicized encounter wit di police wey result for di killing of two of di convicts.,Government
shortly thereafter the family moved to connecticut.,Di family move to connecticut,Government
the appellee discouraged all efforts to keep them in the public spotlight through magazine articles or appearances on television.,Di appellee discourage all effort to keep dem for public spotlight through magazine articles or appearances on television.,Government
"in the spring of 1953, joseph hayes' novel, the desperate hours, was published.","joseph hayes' novel, di desperate hours, dey publish.",Government
the story depicted the experience of a family of four held hostage by three escaped convicts in the family's suburban home.,Di story depict di experience of family of four hold hostage by three escaped convicts for di family's suburban home.,Government
"but, unlike hill's experience, the family ofthe story suffer violence at the hands ofthe convicts; the father and son are beaten and the daughters ubjected to a verbal sexual insult.",Di family of di story suffer violence for di hands of di convicts; di father and son dey beat and di daughters ubject to verbal sexual insult.,Government
"the book was made into a play, also entitled the desperate hours, and it is life's article about the play which is the subject of appellee's action.","Di book dey made into play, also entitled di desperate hours, and e dey life's article about di play wey dey subject of appellee's action",Government
"the complaint sought damages under[the new york statute]on allegations that the life article was intended to, and did, give the impression that the play mirrored the hill family's experience, which, to the knowledge of defendant"".","Di complaint sought damage under[the new york statute]on allegations say di life article dey intended to, and don give di impression say di play mirror di hill family experience, wey, to di knowledge of defendant""",Government
"was false and untrue.""",Di false and untrue,Government
"appellant's defense was that the article was""a subject of legitimate news interest,""""a subject of general interest and of value and concern to the public""at the time of publication, and that it was""published in good faith without any malice whatsoever.","Di appellant's defense na say di article dey subject of legitimate news interest,""a subject of general interest and of value and concern to di public""for di time of publication, and say e dey publish for good faith without any malice wey dey neva.",Government
a motion to dismiss the complaint for substantially these reasons was made at the close ofthe case and was denied by the trial judge on the ground that the proofs presented a jury question as to the truth ofthe article.,Di trial judge on di ground say di proof dey present a jury question as to di truth of di article.,Government
"the jury awarded appellee $50, 000 compensatory and$25, 000 punitive damages.","Di jury awarded di person wey dem carry case go up against$50, 000 compensatory and$25, 000 punitive damages.",Government
on appeal the appellate division ofthe supreme court ordered anew trial as to damages but sustained the jury verdict of liability.,Di appellate division of di supreme court order new trial as to damage but dey sustained di jury verdict of liability.,Government
"the ne w york court of appeals affirmed the appellate division""on the majority and concurring opinions at the appellate division,""two judges dissenting.","Dine w york court of appeal affirm di appellate division""on di majority and concurring opinions for di appellate division,""two judges dissenting.",Government
we noted probable jurisdiction ofthe appeal to consider the important constitutional questions of freedom of speech and press involved.,We noted probable area where dem get power of di appeal to consider di important constitutional questions of freedom of talk and news pipo involved.,Government
"after argument last term, the case was restored to the docket for reargument.",Di case dey restored to di docket for reargument,Government
we reverse and remand the case to the court of appeals for further proceedings not inconsistent with this opinion.,We reverse and remand di case to di court of appeals for further proceedings no dey inconsistent wit dis opinion.,Government
"one need only pickup any newspaper or magazine to comprehend the vast range of published matter which exposes persons to public view, both private citizens and public officials.","One need only pickup any newspaper or magazine to comprehend di vast range of published matter wey dey expose persons to public view, both private citizens and public officials.",Government
exposure ofthe self to others in varying degrees is a concomitant of life in a civilized community.,Di exposure of di self to odas for varying degrees dey concomitant of life for civilized community.,Government
the risk of this exposure is an essential incident of life in a society which places a primary value on freedom of speech and of press.,Di risk of dis exposure na essential incident of life for a society wey dey place primary value on freedom of speech and of press.,Government
"""freedom of discussion, if it would fulfill its historic function in this nation, must embrace all issues about which information is needed or appropriate to enable the members of society to cope with the exigencies of robson the first amendment 176 their period.""","Di freedom of discussion, if e go fulfill its historic function for dis nation, must embrace all issues about which information dey need or appropriate to enable di members of society to cope wit di exigencies of robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 176 dia period",Government
"""no suggestion can be found in the constitution that the freedom there guaranteed for speech and the press bears an inverse ratio to the timeliness and importance ofthe ideas seeking expression.""",Di suggestion don find for di constitution say di freedom wey dey guarantee for speech and di press bear inverse ratio to di timeliness and importance of di ideas wey dey seeking expression,Government
"we have no doubt that the subject ofthe life article, the opening of anew play linked to an actual incident, is a matter of public interest.","We without question say di subject of di life article, di opening of new play wey dey linked to actual incident, na matter of tin wey concern everybody for society, wey be say e important for all of us.",Government
it must be protected if the freedoms of expression are to have the`breathing space' that they`need.,E must be protected if di freedom of expression dey get di`breathing space' wey dem dey neva.,Government
"as james madison said,""some degree of abuse is inseparable from the proper use of everything; and in no instance is this more true than in that ofthe press.""","As james madison tok say,""some degree of abuse dey inseparable from di proper use of everything; and in no instance dey dis more true than for di press",Government
elliot's debates on the federal constitution 571 (1876 ed.).,Di elliot's debates on di federal constitution 571 (1876 ed.,Government
"we create a grave risk of serious impairment ofthe indispensable service of a free press in a free society if we saddle the press with the impossible burden of verifying to a certainty the facts associated in news articles with a person's name, picture or portrait, particularly as related to nondefamatory matter.","We create grave risk of serious impairment of di indispensable service of a free press for free society if we saddle di press wit di impossible burden of verifying to certainty di facts wey dey associated for news articles wit person name, picture or portrait, particularly as related to nondefamatory matter.",Government
"even negligence would be a most elusive standard, especially when the content ofthe speech itself affords no warning of prospective harm to another through falsity.",Di content of di speech wey dey afford no warning of prospective harm to another through falsity.,Government
"a negligence test would place on the press the intolerable burden of guessing how a jury might assess the reasonab leness of steps taken by it to verify the accuracy of every reference to a name, picture or portrait.","Di negligence test go place on di press di intolerable burden of guessing how a jury go assess di reasonab leness of steps wey dey take by e to verify di accuracy of every reference to name, picture or portrait.",Government
"in this context, sanctions against either innocent or negligent misstatement would present a grave hazard of discouraging the press from exercising the constitutional guarantees.","For dis how levels be, sanctions against either innocent or negligent misstatement would present a grave hazard of discouraging di news pipo from exercising di constitutional guarantees.",Government
those guarantees are not for the benefit ofthe press so much as for the benefit of all of us.,Di guarantees no dey for di benefit of di press so much as for di benefit of all of us,Government
a broadly defined freedom ofthe press assures the maintenance of our political system and an open society.,Di freedom of di press assure di maintenance of awa political system and open society.,Government
"fear of large verdicts in damage suits for innocent or merely negligent misstatement, even fear ofthe expense involved in their defense, must inevitably cause publishers to""steer.","Di fear of large verdicts for damage suits for innocent or merely negligent misstatement, even fear of di expense wey dem dey involved for dia defense, must cause publishers to""steer.",Government
"wider ofthe unlawful zone,""new york times co. v. sullivan and thus""create the danger that the legitimate utterance will be penalized.""","Di new york times co. v. sullivan and thus""create di danger say di legitimate utterance go dey penalized",Government
but the constitutional guarantees can tolerate sanctions against calculated falsehood without significant impairment of their essential function.,Di constitutional guarantees fit tolerate sanctions against calculated falsehood without significant impairment of dia essential function,Government
we held in new york times that calculated falsehood enjoyed no immunity in the case of alleged defamation of a public official concerning his official conduct.,We hold for new york times wey calculat falsehood enjoy no immunity for di case of alleged defamation of public official concerning hin official conduct.,Government
"similarly, calculated falsehood should enjoy no immunity in the situation here presented us.","Di situation wey be similarly, calculated falsehood go enjoy no immunity for di situation wey presented us.",Government
this is neither a libel action by a private individual nora statutory action by a public official.,Dem no be libel action by private individual nor statutory action by public official.,Government
"therefore, although the first amendment principles pronounced in new york times guide our conclusion, we reach that conclusion only by applying these principles in this discrete context.","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) principles wey dey pronounced for new york times guide awa conclusion, we reach say conclusion only by apply dis principles for dis discrete context.",Government
it therefore serves no purpose to distinguish the facts here from those in new york times.,E so sake of dat serves no purpose to distinguish di facts here from those for new york times.,Government
"were this a libel action, the distinction which has been suggested between the relative opportunities ofthe public official and the private individual to rebut defamatory charges might be germane.","Di libel action, di distinction wey dey suggest between di relative opportunitie of di public official and di private individual to rebut defamatory charges might be germane.",Government
and the additional state interest in the protection ofthe individual against damage to his reputation would be involved.,Di additional state interest for di protection of di individual against damage to hin reputation go be involved.,Government
"moreover, a different test might be required in a statutory action by a public official, as opposed to a libel action by a public official or a statutory action by a private individual.","Still-still, a different test might be required for a statutory action by a everybody official, as opposed to a libel action by a everybody official or a statutory action by a personal individual.",Government
"different considerations might arise concerning the degree of""waiver"" ofthe protection the state might afford.","Di different considerations might arise concerning di degree of""waiver"" of di protection di state might afford.",Government
but the question whether the same standard should be applicable both to persons voluntarily and involuntarily thrust into the public limelight is not here before us.,Di question whether di same standard go be applicable both to persons voluntarily and involuntarily thrust into di public limelight no dey here before us.,Government
"turning to the facts ofthe present case, the proofs reasonably would support either a jury finding of innocent or merely negligent misstatement by life, or a finding that life portrayed the play as a re -enactment ofthe hill family's experience reckless ofthe truth or with actual knowledge that the portrayal was false.","Di proofs reasonably go support either a jury finding of innocent or merely neggent misstatement by life, or finding say di play as a re -enactment of di hill family experience reckless of di truth or wit actual knowledge say di portrayal dey true.",Government
robson the first amendment 177 it is so ordered.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 177 na so ordered.,Government
[concurring and dissenting opinions omitted].,[concurring and dissenting opinions omitted].,Government
"hustler magazine v. falwell 485 u. s. 46(1988) rehnquist, c. j, delivered the opinion ofthe court, in which brennan, marshall, blackmun, stevens, o'connor, and scalia, jj,","Dem deliver di opinion of di court, wey brennan, marshall, blackmun, stevens, o'connor, and scalia, jj.",Government
"white, j, filed an opinion con curring in the judgment.",Di judgment.,Government
"kennedy, j, took no part in the consideration or decision ofthe case.",Dem tok no part for di consideration or decision of di case.,Government
chief justice rehnquist delivered t he opinion ofthe court.,Di chief justice rehnquist deliver di opinion of di court.,Government
"petitioner hustler magazine, inc, is a magazine of nationwide circulation.",Di magazine of nationwide circulation.,Government
"respondent jerry falwell, a nationally known minister who has been active as a commentator on politics and public affairs, sued petitioner and its publisher, petitioner larry flynt, to recover damages for invasion of privacy, libel, and intentional infliction of emotional distress.","Di respondent jerry falwell, nationally known minister wey dey active as commentator on politics and public affairs, sued petitioner and its publisher, petitioner larry flynt, to recover damages for invasion of privacy, libel, and intentional infliction of emotional distress",Government
"the district court directed a verdict against respondent on the privacy claim, and submitted the other two claims to a jury.","Di district court direct a verdict against respondent on di privacy claim, and submit di oda two claim to jury.",Government
"the jury found for petitioners on the defamation claim, but found for respondent on the claim for intentional infliction of emotional distress and awarded damages.","Di jury found for petitioners on di defamation claim, but found for di person wey dey answer di case on di claim for intentional infliction of emotional distress and awarded damages.",Government
we now consider whether this award is consistent with the first and fourteenth amendments ofthe united states constitution.,We now think of whether dis award dey consistent wit di first and fourteenth amendments of di united states constitution.,Government
"the inside front cover ofthe november 1983 issue of hustler magazine featured a""parody"" of an advertisement for campari liqueur that contained the name and picture of respondent and was entitled""jerry falwell talks about his first time.""","Di inside front cover of di november 1983 issue of hustler magazine featured""parody"" of di advertisement for campari liqueur wey contain di name and picture of respondent and dey entitled""jerry falwell talks about hin first time",Government
"this parody was modeled after actual campari ads that included interviews with various celebrities about their""first times.""",Di parody dey model for actual campari ads wey include interview wit various celebrities about dia first time,Government
"although it was apparent by the end of each interview that this meant the first time they sampled campari, the ads clearly played on the sexual double entendre ofthe general subject of""first times.""","E dey apparent by di end of each interview say dis meant di first time dem sample campari, di ads clearly play on di sexual double entendre of di general subject of""first times""",Government
"copying the form and layout of these campari ads, hustler's editors chose respondent as the featured celebrity and drafted an alleged""interview"" with him in which he states that his""first time""was during a drunken incestuous rendezvous with his mother in an outhouse.","For hustler's editor chose respondent as di featured celebrity and draft an alleged""interview"" within mother for outhouse.",Government
"the hustler parody portrays respondent and his mother as drunk and immoral, and suggests that respondent is a hypocrite who preaches only when he is drunk.","Di hustler parody portrays respondent and hin mother as drunk and immoral, and suggest say respondent dey hypocrite wey dey hypocrite wey dey preaches only when hin dey drunk and immoral, and suggest say respondent dey hypocrite wey dey hypocrite wey preaches only when hin dey drunk and immoral, and suggest say respondent dey hypocrite wey dey hypocrite wey preaches only when hin dey drunk and immoral, and suggest say respondent dey",Government
"in small print at the bottom ofthe page, the ad contains the disclaimer,""ad parody- not to be taken seriously.""","Di ad contains di disclaimer,""ad parody- no dey take seriously",Government
"soon after the november issue of hustler became available to the public, respondent brought this diversity action in the united states district court for the western district of virginia against hustler magazine, inc, larry c. flynt, and flynt distributing co, inc.","Di diversity action for di united states district court for di western district of virginia against hustler magazine, inc, larry c. flynt, and flynt distributing co, inc.",Government
"respondent stated in his complaint that publication ofthe ad parody in hustler entitled him to recover damages for libel, invasion of privacy, and intentional infliction of emotional distress.","Di respondent state say publication of di ad parody for hustler don dey recover damages for libel, invasion of privacy, and intentional infliction of emotional distress.",Government
the case proceeded to trial.,Di case dey trial.,Government
"at the close ofthe evidence, t he district court granted a directed verdict for petitioners on the invasion of privacy claim.",Di district court grant direct verdict for petitioners on di invasion of privacy claim.,Government
"the jury then found against respondent on the libel claim, specifically finding that the ad parody could not""reasonably be understood as describing actual facts about[respondent] or actual events in which[he] participated.""","Di jury don find against respondent on di libel claim, specifically finding say di ad parody no dey understand as describing actual facts about[respondent] or actual events wey dey participated.",Government
"the jury ruled for respondent on the intentional infliction of emotional distress claim, however, and stated that he should be awarded$100, 000 in compensatory damages, as well as$50, 000 each in punitive damages from petitioners.","Di jury rule for respondent on di intentional infliction of emotional distress claim, however, and state say he go award$100, 000 for compensatory damages, as well as$50, 000 each for punitive damages from petitioners.",Government
petitioners' motion for judgment notwithstanding the verdict was denied.,Di petitioners' motion for judgment notwithstanding di verdict dey denied.,Government
"on appeal, the united states court of appeals for the fourth circuit affirmed the judgment against petitioners.",Di united states court of appeal for di fourth circuit affirm di judgment against petitioners.,Government
"the court rejected petitioner s'argument that the""actual malice""standard of new york times co. v. sullivan(1964), must be met before respondent can recover for emotional distress.","Di court reject petitioner s argument say di""actual malice standard of new york times co. v. sullivan(1964), must be met before respondent go recover for emotional distress.",Government
"the robson the first amendment 178 court agreed that because respondent is concededly a public figure, petitioners are""entitled to the same level of first amendment protection in the claim for intentional infliction of emotional distress that they received in [respondent's] claim for libel.""","Di robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 178 court agree say because respondent dey concededly public figure, petitioners dey entitled to di same level of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) protection for di claim for intentional infliction of emotional distress wey dem receive for [respondent's] claim for libel",Government
but this does not mean that a literal application ofthe actual malice rule is appropriate in the context of an emotional distress claim.,Dino mean say a literal application of di actual malice rule dey appropriate for di context of emotional distress claim.,Government
"as the court put it, this was""irrelevant,"" as the issue is""whether [the ad's] publication was sufficiently outrageous to constitute intentional infliction of emotional distress.""","Di issue dey""whether di ad's publication dey sufficiently outrageous to constitute intentional infliction of emotional distress""as di issue dey""whether di ad's publication dey sufficiently outrageous to constitute intentional infliction of emotional distress",Government
"petitioners then filed a petition for rehearing en banc, but this was denied by a divided court.","Di petitioners don file petition for rehearing en banc, but dis no dey denied by a divide court.",Government
"given the importance ofthe constitutional issues involved, we granted certiorari.",We grant certiorari.,Government
this case presents us with a novel question involving first amendment limitations upon a state's authority to protect its citizens from the intentional infliction of emotional distress.,Di case present us wit novel question wey dey involving First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) limitations upon state's authority to protect its citizens from di intentional infliction of emotional distress.,Government
"we must decide whether a public figure may recover damages for emotional harm caused by the publication of an ad parody offensive to him, and doubtless gross and repugnant in the eyes of most.","We must decide whether a everybody figure may recover damages for emotional harm caused by di publication of an ad parody offensive to him, and doubtless gross and repugnant for di eyes of most.",Government
"respondent would have us find that a state's interest in protecting public figures from emotional distress is sufficient to deny first amendment protection to speech that is patently offensive and is intended to inflict emotional injury, even when that speech could notre asonably have been interpreted as stating actual facts about the public figure involved.","Di respondent go find say state interest for protect public figures from emotional distress dey sufficient to deny First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) protection to speech wey dey patently offensive and dey intended to deny First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) protection to speech wey dey patently offensive and dey intended to inflict emotional injury, even if dat speech no reasonably don interpret facts about di public figure involved.",Government
at the heart ofthe first amendment is the recognition ofthe fundamental importance ofthe free flow of ideas and opinions on matters of public interest and concern.,"First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) na di recognition of di fundamental importance of di free flow of ideas and opinions on matters of tin wey concern everybody for society, wey be say e important for all of us and concern.",Government
"""[t]he freedom to speak one's mind is not only an aspect of individual liberty- and thus a good unto itself- but also is essential to the common quest for truth and the vitality of society as a whole.""",Di freedom to speak one mind no only one aspect of individual liberty- but also dey essential to di common quest for truth and di vitality of society as whole,Government
we have therefore been particularly vigilant to ensure that individual expressions of ideas remain free from governmentally imposed sanctions.,We dey particularly vigilant to ensure say individual expressions of ideas remain free from governmentally imposed sanctions.,Government
"the first amendment recognizes no such thing as a""false"" idea.",First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) recognize no such thing as false idea.,Government
"gertz v. robert welch, inc. (1974).","robert wench, inc.(1974).",Government
"as justice holmes wrote,""when men have realized that time has upset many fighting faiths, they may come to believe even more than they believe the very foundations of their own conduct that the ultimate good desired is better reached by free trade in ideas- that the best test of truth is the power ofthe thought to get itself accepted in the competition ofthe market.","As justice holmes tok say time don upset many fighting faiths, dem go believe even more than dem believe di very foundation of dia own conduct say di ultimate good desired dey better reach di competition of di market.",Government
abrams v. united states(1919) (dissenting opinion).,Di dissenting opinion).,Government
"the sort of robust political debate encouraged by the first amendment is bound to produce speech that is critical of those who hold public office or those public figures who are""intimately involved in the resolution of important public questions or, by reason of their fame, shape events in areas of concern to society at large.""","Di sort of robust political debate wey di firstamendment dey bound to produce speech wey dey critical of those wey hold public office or those public figures wey dey involved for di resolution of important public question or, by reason of dia fame, shape events for areas of concern to society at large.",Government
"since new york times co. v. sullivan(1964), we have consistently ruled that a public figure may hold a speaker liable for the damage to reputation caused by publication of a defamatory falsehood, but only if the statement was made""with knowledge that it was false or with reckless disregard of whether it was false or not.""","We don consistently rule say public figure go hold a speaker liable for di damage to reputation wey defamatory falsehood, but only if di statement dey make""with knowledge say e defamatory falsehood, but only if di statement dey make""with knowledge say e defamatory falsehood, but only if di statement dey make""with knowledge say e defamatory falsehood, but only if di statement dey make""with knowledge say e defamatory falsehood, but only if di statement defamatory falsehood",Government
"false statements of fact are particularly valueless; they interfere with the truth-seeking function ofthe marketplace of ideas, and they cause damage to an individual's reputation that cannot easily be repaired by counterspeech, however persuasive or effective.","Di false statements of fact dey valueless; dem dey interfere wit di truth-seeking function of di Wetin be say make idear dem dey compete wit one anoda for pipo to sabi wetin be truth, like one big market wey idear dem dey trade, na im make dem call am 'marketplace of idear', wey mean say every bodi get chance to yan, to share tori, to argue, to disagree, to agree, and to choose wetin dem believe, and dem cause damage to individual's reputation wey no dey repaired by counterspeech, however persuasive or effective.",Government
"but even though falsehoods have little value in and of themselves, they are""nevertheless inevitable in free debate,""and a rule that would impose strict liability on a publisher for false factual assertions would have an undoubted ""chilling""effect on speech relating to public figures that does have constitutional value.",Di rule wey go impose strict liability on a publisher for false factual assertions go get strict value for speech wey dey public figures wey dey don get constitutional value.,Government
"""freedoms of expression require""`breathing space.'""","Di freedom of expression require""breathing space.",Government
this breathing space is provided by a constitutional rule that allows public figures to recover for libel or defamation only when they can prove both that the statement was false and that the statement was made with the requisite level of culpability.,Di breathing space dey provided by constitutional rule wey dey allow public figures recover for libel or defamation only wen dem prove both say di statement dey true and say di statement dey make wit di requisite level of culpability.,Government
"respondent argues, however, that a different standard should apply in this case because here the state seeks to prevent not reputational damage, but the severe emotional distress suffered by the person who is the subject of an offensive publication.","Di respondent argues, however, say different standard go apply for dis case because here di state seeks to prevent reputational damage, but di severe emotional distress wey di person wey dey di subject of offensive publication.",Government
"in respondent's view, and in the view ofthe court of appeals, so long as the utterance was intended to inflict emotional distress, was outrageous, and did in fact inflict serious emotional distress, it is of no constitutional import whether the statement was a factor an opinion, or whether it was true or false.","For di view of di court of appeals, so long as di utterance dey intended to inflict emotional distress, dey outrageous, and don for true inflict serious emotional distress, e no dey constitutional import whether di statement dey factor opinion, or whether dem dey true or true.",Government
"it is the intent to cause injury that robson the first amendment 179 is the gravamen ofthe tort, and the state's interest in preventing emotional harm simply outweighs whatever interest a speaker may have in speech of this type.","E dey di intent to cause injury wey robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 179 na di gravamen of di tort, and di state interest for prevent emotional harm simply outweigh whatever interest a speaker may have for speech of dis type.",Government
"generally speaking the law does not regard the intent to inflict emotional distress as one which should receive much solicitude, and it is quite understandable that most if not all jurisdictions have chosen to make it civilly culpable where the conduct in question is sufficiently""outrageous.""","Di law no dey regard di intent to inflict emotional distress as one wey dey receive much solicitude, and e dey understandable say most if no all jurisdictions don choose make dem civilly culpable wen di conduct for question dey sufficiently""outrageous""",Government
"but in the world of debate about public affairs, many things done with motives that are less than admirable are protected by the first amendment.","Di world of debate about public affairs, many things done wit motives wey dey less than admirable dey protected by di firstamendment.",Government
"were we to hold otherwise, there can be little doubt that political cartoonists and satirists would be subjected to damages awards without any showing that their work falsely defamed its subject.",Na little doubt say political cartoonists and satirists go dey subject to damages awards without any show say dia work falsely defamed dia subject.,Government
"webster's defines a caricature as""the deliberately distorted picturing or imitating of a person, literary style, etc.","Webster's defines a caricature as""di deliberately distorted picturing or imitating of a person, literary style, etc.",Government
"by exaggerating features or mannerisms for satirical effect.""",Dem exaggerate features or mannerisms for satirical effect,Government
webster 's new unabridged twentieth century dictionary ofthe english language 275(2d ed.,Webster 's new unabridged twentieth century dictionary of di english language 275(2d ed.,Government
the appeal ofthe political cartoon or caricature is often based on exploitation of unfortunate physical traits or politically embarrassing events- an exploitation often calculated to injure the feelings ofthe subject ofthe portrayal.,Di appeal of di political cartoon or caricature dey often based on exploitation of unfortunate physical traits or politically embarrassing events- an exploitation wey dey often calculated to injure di feeling of di subject of di portrayal.,Government
"the art ofthe cartoonist is often not reasoned or evenhanded, but slashing and one- sided.","Di art of di cartoonist no dey reason or evenhand, but slashing and one sided.",Government
"one cartoonist expressed the nature ofthe art in these words:""the political cartoon is a weapon of attack, of scorn and ridicule and satire; it is least effective when it tries to pat some politician on the back.","Di political cartoon dey weapon of attack, of scorn and ridicule and satire; e dey least effective wen e tries to pat some politician on di back.",Government
"it is usually as welcome as a bee sting and is always controversial in some quarters.""",E dey usually welcome as bee sting and dey always controversial for some quarters,Government
"long, the political cartoon: journalism's strongest weapon, the quill 56, 57(nov. 1962).","Long, di political cartoon: journalism's strongest weapon, di quill 56, 57(nov. 1962).",Government
"several famous examples of this type of intentionally injurious speech were drawn by thomas nast, probably the greatest american cartoonist to date, who was associated f or many years during the post-civil war era with harper's weekly.","Thomas nast, probably di greatest american cartoonist to date, wey dey associated f or many years during di post-Armed fighting wey happen inside one country between different groups of its own pipo era wit harper weekly.",Government
"in the pages of that publication nast conducted a graphic vendetta against william m.""boss"" tweed and his corrupt associates in new york city's""tweed ring.""","Di publication nast conduct graphic vendetta against william m.""boss"" two and hin corrupt associates for new york city's""tweed ring""",Government
"it has been described by one historian ofthe subject as""a sustained attack which in its passion and effectiveness stands alone in the history of american graphic art.""","Di subject don described by one historian of di subject as""a sustained attack wey for its passion and effectiveness stands alone for di history of american graphic art.",Government
"m. keller, the art and politics of thomas nast 177(1968).",Di art and politics of thomas nast 177(1968).,Government
"another writer explains that the success ofthe nast cartoon was achieved""because ofthe emotional impact of its presentation.","Di success of di nast cartoon don achieve""because of di emotional impact of dia presentation",Government
"it continuously goes beyond the bounds of good taste and conventional manners.""",Di bounds of good taste and conventional manners,Government
"c. press, the political cartoon 251(1981).",Di political cartoon 251(1981).,Government
"despite their sometimes caustic nature, from the early cartoon portraying george washington as an ass down to the present day, graphic depictions and satirical cartoons have played a prominent role in public and political debate.","Di early cartoon wey george washington as ass down to di present day, graphic depictions and satirical cartoons don play prominent role for public and political debate.",Government
"nast's castigation ofthe tweed ring, walt mcdougall's characterization of presidential candidate james g. blaine's banquet with the millionaires at delmonico's as""the royal feast of belshazzar,"" and numerous other efforts have undoubtedly had an effect on the course and outcome of contemporaneous debate.","Di royal feast of belshazzar, and numerous oda efforts don dey effect on di course and outcome of contemporaneous debate.",Government
"lincoln's tall, gangling posture, teddy roosevelt's glasses and teeth, and franklin d. roosevelt's jutting jaw and cigarette holder have been memorialized by political cartoons with an effect that could not have been obtained by the photographer or the portrait artist.",Di photographer or di portrait artist don dey memorialized by political cartoons wit effect wey no dey obtained by di photographer or di portrait artist.,Government
from the viewpoint of history it is clear that our political discourse would have been considerably poorer without them.,Di viewpoint of history dey clear say awa political discourse go dey considerably poorer without dem,Government
"respondent contends, however, that the caricature in question here was so""outrageous"" as to distinguish it from more traditional political cartoons.","Di respondent contend, however, say di caricature for question na so""outrageous"" as to distinguish am from more traditional political cartoons.",Government
"there is no doubt that the caricature of respondent and his mother published in hustler is at best a distant cousin ofthe political cartoons described above, and a rather poor relation at that.","Na without question say di caricature of respondent and hin mother wey dey publish for hustler dey for best a distant cousin of di political cartoons wey described above, and a rather poor relation for dat.",Government
"if it were possible by laying down a principled standard to separate the one from the other, public discourse would probably suffer little or no harm.",Di public discourse go suffer little or no harm.,Government
"but we doubt that there is any such standard, and we are quite sure that the pejorative description""outrageous"" does not supply one.","We doubt say di pejorative description""outrageous"" no supply one",Government
"""outrageousness"" in the area of political and social discourse hasan inherent subjectiveness about it which would allow a jury to impose liability on the basis ofthe jurors' tastes or views, or perhaps on the basis of their dislike of a particular expression.","Di area of political and social discourse don dey inherent subjectiveness about it wey go allow a jury to impose liability on di basis of di jurors' taste or views, or perhaps on di basis of dia di pipo' taste or views, or perhaps on di basis of dia di subjectiveness of dia di particular expression.",Government
"an ""outrageousness"" standard thus runs afoul of our longstanding refusal to allow damages to be awarded because the speech in question may have an adverse emotional impact on the audience.","Di ""outrageousness"" standard thus run foul of awa longstanding refusal to allow damages to dey award because di speech for question don get adverse impact on di audience.",Government
"we conclude that public figures and public officials may not recover for the tort of intentional infliction of emotional distress by reason of publications such as the one here at issue without showing in addition that the publication contains a false statement of fact which was made with""actual malice,""i. e, with knowledge that the statement was false or with reckless disregard as to whether or not it was true.",We conclude say public figures and public officials no recover for di tort of intentional infliction of emotional distress by reason of publications such as di one here for issue wit knowledge say di statement dey true or wit reckless disregard as to whether or no dey true.,Government
"this is not merely a""blind application""of the new york times standard, it reflects our considered judgment that such a standard is necessary to give adequate""breathing space""to the freedoms protected by the first amendment.","Di standard no dey necessary to give adequate""breathing space""to di freedoms protected by First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).",Government
"here it is clear that respondent falwell is a""public figure""for purposes of first amendment law.",Dem clear say respondent falwell dey public figure for purpose of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) law.,Government
"the jury found against respondent on his libel claim when it decided that the hustler ad parody could not""reasonably be understood as describing actual facts about[respondent] or actual events in which[he] participated.""",Di jury find against respondent on hin libel claim wen dem decide say di hustler ad parody no be reasonably be understand as describing actual facts about[respondent] or actual events wey dem participate,Government
"the court of appeals interpreted the jury's finding to be that the ad parody""was not reasonably believable,""and in accordance with our custom we accept this finding.","Di court of appeal interpret di jury's finding say di ad parody no reasonably believable, and in accordance wit awa custom we accept dis finding.",Government
"respondent is thus relegated to his claim for damages awarded by the jury for the intentional infliction of emotional distress by""outrageous"" conduct.","Di respondent dey relegated to hin claim for damages awarded by di jury for di intentional infliction of emotional distress by""outrageous"" conduct.",Government
"but for reasons heretofore stated this claim cannot, consistently with the first amendment, form a basis for the award of damages when the conduct in question is the publication of a caricature such as the ad parody involved here.","For reasons heretofore state dis claim no fit, consistently wit First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo), form basis for di award of damages wen di conduct for question dey di publication of caricature such as di ad parody involved here.",Government
the judgment ofthe court of appeals is accordingly reversed.,Di judgment of di court of appeals dey reversed.,Government
justice kennedy took no part in the consideration or decision of this case.,Di ustice kennedy tok no part for di consideration or decision of dis case.,Government
"justice white, concurring in the judgment.","For di judgment, justice white, dey concurrin for di judgment",Government
"as i see it, the decision in new york times co. v. sullivan(1964), has little to do with this case, for here the jury found that the ad contained no assertion of fact.","Di decision for new york times co. v. sullivan(1964), don get little to do wit dis case, for here di jury find say di ad contain no assertion of fact.",Government
"but i agree with the court that the judgment below, which penalized the publication ofthe parody, cannot be squared with the first amendment.","I agree wit di court say di judgment below, wey dey penal di publication of di parody, no be squared wit First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).",Government
"the lines between""truth"" and""opinion"" and""parody"" are often unclear.","Di line wey dey between""truth"" and""opinion"" and""parody"" dey unclear.",Government
how important should it be that the target of a publication is a public official or public figure under gertz and falwell?,Di target of publication na public official or public figure under gertz and falwell?,Government
"consider this action for compensatory and punitive damages alleging defamation, false light, interference with business relations, and invasion of privacy based upon the publication of an article by journalist mark warren on esquire magazine's politics blog.","Dem consider dis action for compensatory and punitive damages wey defamation, false light, interference wit business relations, and invasion of privacy based on di publication of an article by journalist mark warren on esquire magazine's politics blog.",Government
"the article was posted one day after the release of a book entitled"" where's the birth certificate?","Di article dey publish one day afta di release of book entitled"" where's di birth certificate?",Government
"the case that barack obama is not eligible to be president,"" written by jerome corsi and published by joseph farah's wnd books.",Dem write by jerome corsi and published by joseph farah's wnd books.,Government
"farah's website, worldnetdaily, announced the book launch with the headline,""it's out!","Di website, worldnetdaily, announce di book launch wit di headline,""it's out!",Government
"the book that proves obama's ineligible: today's the day cors i is unleashed to tell all about that 'birth certificate'""(emphasis in original).","Di day cors i dey unleashed to tell all about say 'birth certificate'""(emphasis for original).",Government
"approximately three weeks earlier, president obama had released his long-form birth certificate showing that he was born in hawaii.",Di president obama don release hin long form birth certificate show say he dey born for hawaii.,Government
"warren's article was entitled""breaking: jerome corsi's birther book pulled from shelves!","Di article dey entitled""breaking: jerome corsi's birther book pull from shelves",Government
"""(emphasis in original).",Emphasis for original,Government
"farah observed the same day that he thought the blog post was a""poorly executed parody.""","Na farh observe di same day say hin tok say di blog post na a""poorly executed parody.",Government
"also that day, warren told the daily caller that he had no regrets about publishing the fictitious article and expressed his negative view ofthe book's author; his statements were published on the daily caller website that day and the following day.",Di daily caller tell di daily caller say hin no regret about publishing di fictitious article and express hin negative view of di book's author; hin statements dey publish on di daily caller website dat day and di following day.,Government
"robson the first amendment 181 in farah v. esquire magazine, 736 f.3d 528(d. c. cir.","Robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 181 for farah v. esquire magazine, 736 f.3d 528(d. c. cir.",Government
"interestingly, the court concluded that [b]ecause farah's and corsi's defamation claim fails, so do their other tort claims based upon the same allegedly defamatory speech.","Di court don conclude say [b]ecause farah and corsi's defamation claim fail, so do dia oda tort claim wey dem defamation claim fail, so do dia oda tort claim wey dem defamation claim wey dem defamation claim based upon di same allegedly defamatory speech.",Government
"""[a]plaintiff may not use related causes of action to avoid the constitutional requisites of a defamation claim.""",Di plaintiff no use related cause of action to avoid di constitutional requisites of di defamation claim,Government
"the first amendment considerations that apply to defamation therefore apply also to farah's and cors i's counts for false light, and tortious interference.","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) considerations say apply to defamation so sake of dat apply also to farah's and cors i's counts for false light, and tortious interference.",Government
"this seems to ""constitutionalize"" a wide range of tort actions aimed at speech.","Di seem to ""constitutionalize"" wide range of tort actions wey dey aimed at speech.",Government
is it relevant at all that the original blog post was not understood as parody?,E dey relevant for all dat di original blog post no dey understand as parody?,Government
the basic question in such instances is the extent to which the first amendment doctrine that generally applies should also apply to the employment and educational contexts.,Di basic question for such instances na di extent to which di first amendment doctrine wey generally applies should also apply to di employment and educational contexts.,Government
the doctrine plows a middle ground.,"Di doctrine plows wetin dey between two side wey dey argue, wey person fit take am make everybody sabi say dem try balance tori",Government
"the courts have rejected the antiquated notion that public employment or education is a""privilege"" that requires the abandonment of constitutional rights.",Di court don reject di antiquated notion say public employment or education dey privilege wey require di abandonment of constitutional rights.,Government
the courts have also rejected the notion that employees and students retain the same first amendment rights at work and school as they do outside these contexts.,Di court don also reject di notion say employees and students retain di same First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) rights for work and school as dem do outside dis contexts.,Government
the politics of public employment the first amendment rights of public employees to engage in political speech and campaigning is in tension with the interest in a government that is not exclusively partisan and in which public employment positions are attributable to political patronage.,Di politics of public employment First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) rights of public employees to engage for political speech and campaigning dey in tension wit di interest for a government wey no exclusively partisan and for which public employment position dey attributable to political patronage.,Government
"civil service commission v. national association of letter carriers 413 u. s. 548(1973) white, j, delivered the opinion ofthe court, in which burger, c. j, and stewart, blackmun, powell, and rehnquist, jj,","Di opiniono n of di court, wey burger, c. j, and stewart, blackmun, powell, and rehnquist, jj, deliver di opinion of di court, wey burger, c. j, and stewart, blackmun, powell, and rehnquist, jj.",Government
"douglas, j, filed a dissenting opinion, in which brennan and marshall, jj,","Dem filed dissenting opinion, wey brennan and marshall, jj, filed dissenting opinion, wey brennan and marshall, jj, filed dissenting opinion, wey brennan and marshall, jj, filed dissenting opinion, wey brennan and marshall, jj, filed dissenting opinion, wey brennan and marshall, jj.",Government
"on december 11, 1972, we noted probable jurisdiction of this appeal based on a jurisdictional statement presenting the single question whether the prohibition in 9(a)of the hatch act, now codified in 5 u. s. c.","We note probable jurisdiction of dis appeal based on jurisdictional statement present di single question wey di prohibition for 9(a)of di hatch act, now codified for 5 u. s. c.",Government
we reverse the judgment ofthe district court.,We reverse di judgment of di district court.,Government
"robson the first amendment 183 i the case began when the national association of letter carriers, six individual federal employees and certain local democratic and republican political committees filed a complaint, asserting on behalf of themselves and all federal employees that 5 u. s. c.","Robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 183 i di case began when di national association of letter carriers, six individual federal employees and certain local democratic and republican political committees filed a complaint, asserting on behalf of themselves and all federal employees say 5 u. s. c.",Government
"each ofthe plaintiffs alleged that the civil service commission was enforcing, or threatening to enforce, the hatch act's prohibition against active participation in political management or political campaigns with respect to certain defined activity in which that plaintiff desired to engage.","Di civil service commission don enforce, or threatening to enforce, di hatch act's prohibition against active participation for political management or political campaign wit respect to certain defined activity wey plaintiff go engage.",Government
"the union, for example, stated among other things that its members desired to campaign for candidates for public office.","Di union, for example, state among oda things say im members go campaign for candidates for public office.",Government
the democratic and republican committees complained of not being able to get federal employees to run for state and local offices.,Di democratic and republican committees complained of no being able to get federal employees to run for state and local offices.,Government
"plaintiff hummel stated that he was aware ofthe provision ofthe hatch act and that the activities he desired to engage in would violate that act as, for example, his participating as a delegate in a party convention or holding office in a political club.","Di plaintiff hummel state say hin dey to know di provision of di hatch act and say di activities wey dem dey engage for would violate dat act as, for example, hin participate as delegate for party convention or holding office for political club.",Government
"a three-judge court was convened, and the case was tried on both stipulated evidence and oral testimony.",Di case dey tried on both stipulated evidence and oral testimony.,Government
the district court then ruled that 7324(a)(2) was unconstitutional on its face and enjoined its enforcement.,Di district court tok say 7324(a)(2) dey unconstitutional on dia face and enjoin dia enforcement.,Government
"the court recognized the""well -established governmental interest in restricting political activities by federal employees which[had been]asserted long before enactment ofthe hatch act,""as well as the fact that the ""appropriateness of this governmental objective was recognized by th e supreme court ofthe united states when it endorsed the objectives ofthe hatch act.","Di court recognize di""well -establish governmental interest for restricting political activities by federal employees wey dey endorse long before enactment of di hatch act.",Government
"a such decision on our part would no more than confirm the judgment of history, a judgment made by this country over the last century that it is in the best interest ofthe country, indeed essential, that federal service should depend upon meritorious performance rather than political service, and that the political influence of federal employees on others and on the electoral process should be limited.","Dem no confirm di judgment of history, a judgment wey di kontri for di last century say e dey in di best interest of di kontri, indeed essential, say federal service go depend upon meritorious performance no be political service, and say di political influence of federal employees on oda and on di electoral process go limited.",Government
"that this judgment eventuated is indisputable, and the major steps in reaching it maybe simply and briefly set down.","Di major step wey dey reach di judgment eventuated dey indisputable, and di major step wey dey reach am simply and briefly set down.",Government
"early in our history, thomas jefferson was disturbed by the political activities of some of those in the executive branch ofthe government.",Thomas jefferson dey disturbed by di political activities of some of those for di part of government wey dey carry out and enforce laws— led by President or Prime Minister of di goment.,Government
"see 10 j. richardson, messages and papers ofthe presidents 98(1899).","Di 10 j. richardson, message and paper of di president 98(1899).",Government
"t he heads ofthe executive departments, in response to his directive, issued an order stating in part that""[t]he right of any officer to give his vote at elections as a qualified citizen is not meant to be restrained, nor, however given, shall it have any effect to his prejudice; but it is expected that he will not attempt to influence the votes of others nor take any part in the business of electioneering, that being deemed inconsistent with the spirit ofthe constitution and his duties to it.""","Di executive department, for response to hin directive, issue order say""[t]he right of any officer to give hin vote for election as a qualified citizen no fit take any part for di business of electioneering, wey dey consistent wit di spirit of di constitution and hin duties.",Government
there were other voices raised in the 19th century against the mixing of partisan politics and routine federal service.,Di 19th century dey against partisan politics and routine federal service.,Government
"but until after the civil war, the spoils system under which federal employees came and went, depending upon party service and changing administrations, rather than meritorious performance, was much the vogue and the prevalent basis for governmental employment and advancement.","Di spoil system under which federal employees kom and go, depending upon party service and changing administrations, no be meritorious performance, na much di vogue and di prevalent basis for governmental employment and advancement.",Government
that system did not survive.,Di system no survive.,Government
"congress authorized the president to prescribe regulations for the creation of a civil service of federal employees in 1871, known as the pendleton act, that declared that""no person in the public service is for that reason under any obligations to contribute to any political fund, or to render any political service""and that""no person in said service has any right to use his official authority or influence to coerce the political action of any person or body.""","Di president don prescribe regulations for di creation of civil service of federal employees for 1871, wey dey known as di pendleton act, wey declare say""no person for di public service dey for dat reason under any obligation to use hin official authority or influence to coerce di political action of any person or bodi"" and say""no person for di public service no fit use hin official authority or influence to coerce di political action of any person or bodi.",Government
that act authorized the president to promulgate rules to carry the act into effect and created the civil service commission as the agency or administrator ofthe act under the rules ofthe president.,Di president go promulgate rules to carry di act into effect and create di civil service commission as di agency or administrator of di act under di rules of di president.,Government
"the original civil service rules were promulgated on may 7, 1883, by president arthur.","Di original civil service rules dey promulgated on May 7, 1883, by president arthur.",Government
"civil service rule i repeated the language ofthe act that noone in the executive service should use his official robson the first amendment 184 authority or influence to coerce any other person or to interfere with an election, but went no further in restricting the political activities of federal employees.","Di civil service rule i repeat di language of di act say noone for di executive service go use hin official robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 184 authority or influence to coerce any oda person or to interfere wit election, but no further for restrict di political activities of federal employees.",Government
problems with political activity continued to arise* * *[historical discussion omitted].,Di historical discussion wey dey tok,Government
this account ofthe efforts by the federal government to limit partisan political activities by those covered by the hatch act should not obscure the equally relevant fact that all 50 states have restricted the political activities of their own employees.,Di account of di efforts by di federal goment to limit partisan political activities by dia own employees.,Government
"b until now, the judgment of congress, the executive, and the country appears to have been that partisan political activities by federal employees must be limited if the government is to operate effectively and fairly, elections are to play their proper part in representative government, and employees themselves are to be sufficiently free from improper influences.","Di judgment of congress, di executive, and di kontri appear say partisan political activities by federal employees must be limited if di goment dey operate effectively and fairly, election dey play dia proper part for representative goment, and employees dem dey free from improper influences.",Government
"the restrictions so far imposed on federal employees are not aimed at particular parties, groups, or points of view, but apply equally to all partisan activities ofthe type described.","Di restrictions so far imposed on federal employees no dey aimed at particular parties, groups, or points of view, but apply equally to all partisan activities of di type described.",Government
"they discriminate against no racial, ethnic, or religious minorities.","Dem discriminate against no racial, ethnic, or religious minorities.",Government
"nor do they seek to control political opinions or beliefs, or to interfere with or influence anyone's vote at the polls.","Dem seek to control political opinions or beliefs, or to interfere wit or influence anyone's vote for di polls.",Government
they are expected to enforce the law and execute the programs ofthe government without bias or favoritism for or against any political party or group or the members thereof.,Di goment dey expect to enforce di law and execute di programs of di goment without bias or favoritism for or against any political party or group or di members thereof.,Government
"a major thesis ofthe hatch act is that to serve this great en d of government- the impartial execution ofthe laws- it is essential that federal employees, for example, not take formal positions in political parties, not undertake to play substantial roles in partisan political campaigns, and not run for office on partisan political tickets.","Di major thesis of di hatch act na say to serve dis great en d of goment - di impartial execution of di laws-e dey essential say federal employees, for example, no take formal positions for partisan political campaigns, no take formal positions for partisan political campaigns, and no run for office on partisan political ticket.",Government
forbidding activities like these will reduce the hazards to fair and effective government.,Forbidding activities like dis go reduce di hazards to fair and effective government.,Government
"there is another consideration in this judgment: it is not only important that the government and its employees in fact avoid practicing political justice, but it is also critical that they appear to the public to be avoiding it, if confidence in the system of representative government is not to be eroded to a disastrous extent.","Di judgment no dey important say di goment and its employees for fact avoid practicing political justice, but e dey critical say dem appear to di public to dey avoid am, if confidence for di system of representative goment no be disastrous extent.",Government
another major concern ofthe restriction against partisan activities by federal employees was perhaps the immediate occasion for enactment ofthe hatch actin 1939.,Di major concern of di restriction against partisan activities by federal employees na perhaps di immediate occasion for enactment of di hatch act for 1939.,Government
"that was the conviction that the rapidly expanding government workforce should not be employed to build a powerful, invincible, and perhaps corrupt political machine.","Say be di conviction say di rapidly expanding goment workforce should no be employed to build a powerful, invincible, and perhaps corrupt political machine.",Government
"the experience ofthe 1936 and 1938 campaigns convinced congress that these dangers were sufficiently real that substantial barriers should be raised against the party in power- or the party out of power, for that matter- using the thousands or hundreds of thousands of federal employees, paid for at public expense, to man its political structure and political campaigns.","Di experience of di 1936 and 1938 campaigns convinced congress say e dey sufficiently real say substantial barriers go dey raised against di party for power- or di party out of power, for dat matter- using di thousands or hundreds of federal employees, pay for public expense, to man im political structure and political campaigns.",Government
"a related concern, and this remains as important as any other, was to further serve the goal that employment and advancement in the government service not depend on political performance, and at the same time to make sure that government employees would be free from pressure and from express or tacit invitation to vote in a certain way or perform political chores in order to curry favor with their superiors rather than to act out their own beliefs.","Di goal wey employment and advancement for di government service no depend on political performance, and at di same time make sure say goment employees go free from pressure and from express or tacit invitation to vote for certain way or perform political chores for order to curry favor wit dia superiors no be to act out dia own beliefs.",Government
it maybe urged that prohibitions against coercion are sufficient protection; but for many years the joint judgment ofthe executive and congress has been that to protect the rights of federal employees with respect to their jobs and their political acts and beliefs it is not enough merely to forbid one employee to attempt to influence or coerce another.,For many years di joint judgment of di executive and congress don be say to protect di rights of federal employees wit respect to dia jobs and dia political acts and beliefs nano enough merely to forbid one employee to influence or coerce another.,Government
"for example, at the hearings in 1972 on proposed legislation for liberalizing the prohibition against political activity, the chairman ofthe civil service commission stated that""the prohibitions against active participation in partisan political management and partisan political campaigns constitute the most significant safeguards against coercion.",Di chairman of di civil service commission tok say di prohibitions against active participation for partisan political management and partisan political campaigns constitute di most significant safeguard against coercion.,Government
"hearings ons. 3374 and s. 3417, supra, at 52.","Hearings ons. 3374 and s. 3417, supra, at 52.",Government
"perhaps congress at sometime will come to a different view ofthe realities of political life and government service; but that is its current view ofthe matter, and we are not now in any position to dispute it.","Di congress for sometime go kom to different view of di realities of political life and government service; but say na di current view of di matter, and we no dey now for any position to dispute am.",Government
"nor, in our view, does the constitution forbid it.","For awa view, go di constitution forbid am",Government
robson the first amendment 185 neither the right to associate nor the right to participate in political activities is absolute in any event.,Di right to associate nor di right to participate for political activities na absolute for any event.,Government
"the act exempts research and educational activities supported by the district of columbia or by religious, philanthropic, or cultural organizations,5 u. s. c.","Di act exempt research and educational activities wey di district of columbia or by religious, philanthropic, or cultural organizations,5 u. s. c.",Government
"moreover, the plain import ofthe 1940 amendment to the hatch act is that the proscription against taking an active part in the proscribed activities is not open-ended but is limited to those rules and proscriptions that had been developed under civil service rule i upto the date ofthe passage ofthe 1940 act.",Di plain import of di 1940 amendment to di hatch act na say di proscription against taking active part for di proscribed activities no open-ended but dey limited to those rules and proscriptions wey dey developed under civil service rule i upto di date of di passage of di 1940 act.,Government
we have set out these regulations in the margin.,We don set out dis regulations for di margin.,Government
"we see nothing impermissibly vague in 5 cfr 733. 122, which specifies in separate paragraphs the various activities deemed to be prohibited by 7324 (a)(2).","We see nothing impermissibly vague for 5 cfr 733. 122, wey dey specifi for separate paragraphs di various activities wey dey suppose dey prohibit by 7324 (a)(2).",Government
"there might be quibbles about the meaning of taking an""active part in managing""or about""actively participating in.","Di suppose dey believe about di meaning of taking a""active part for managing""or about""actively participating for.",Government
"fundraising""or about the meaning of becoming a""partisan"" candidate for office; but there are limitations in the english language with respect to being both specific and manageably brief, and it seems to us that although the prohibitions may not satisfy those intent on finding fault at any cost, they are set out in terms that the ordinary person exercising ordinary common sense can sufficiently understand and comply with, without sacrifice to the public interest.","Di limitations for di English language wit respect to being both specific and manageably brief, and e seem to us say although di prohibitions no satisfy those intent on finding fault for any cost, dem dey set out for terms say di ordinary person dey exercising ordinary common sense no fit understand and comply wit, without sacrifice to di tin wey concern everybody for society, wey be say e important for all of us.",Government
"""[t]he general class of offenses to which.",Di general class of offenses wey dey which.,Government
[the provisions are]directed is plainly within[their] terms.,Di provisions dey directed na plainly within[their] terms.,Government
"[and they]will not be struck down as vague, even though marginal cases could be put where doubts might arise.""","Dem no dey struck down as vague, even though marginal case could dey put where doubt might arise, even though marginal case could dey put where doubt might arise, even though marginal case could dey put where doubt might arise, even though marginal case could dey put where doubt might arise.",Government
"surely, there seemed to be little question in the minds ofthe plaintiffs who brought this lawsuit as to the meaning ofthe law, or as to whether or not the conduct in which they desire to engage was or was not prohibited by the act.","E seem to be little question for di mind of di plaintiffs wey brought dis lawsuit as to di meaning of di law, or as to whether or no di conduct wey dem desire to engage na or no prohibited by di act.",Government
"the act permits the individual employee to""express his opinion on political subjects and candidates,""5 u. s. c.","Di act allow di individual employee to express hin opinion on political subjects and candidates,5 u. s. c.",Government
"it is also important in this respect that the commission has established a procedure by which an employee in doubt about the validity of a proposed course of conduct may seek and obtain advice from the commission and thereby remove any doubt there maybe as to the meaning ofthe law, at least insofar as the commission itself is concerned.",Di commission don establish procedure by which employee for doubt about di validity of a proposed course of conduct go seek and obtain advice from di commission and thereby remove any doubt wey dem dey concerned.,Government
"robson the first amendment 186 justice douglas, with whom justice brennan and justice marshall concur, dissenting.","Dem robson First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) 186 justice douglas, wit wey justice brennan and justice marshall concur, dissenting.",Government
"the hatch act by 9(a) prohibits federal employees from taking""an active part in political management or in political campaigns.""","Di hatch act by 9(a) prohibit federal employees from take""an active part for political management or for political campaigns.",Government
"there is no definition of what""an active part.","There nano definition of what""an active part.",Government
"in political campaigns""means.","For political campaigns""means.",Government
what is the law?,wetin be di law?,Business study
where does our law come from?,where di law com from?,Business study
what is a rule of law?,wetin be di rule of law?,Business study
how is the law relevant to business?,how di law take dey relevant to business?,Business study
how does the study ofthe legal environment of business create a foundation for future business courses?,How di study of law mata for business water ground for business courses wey go happen for future?,Business study
you might be wondering what the law has to do with you.,you fit dey wonder say wetin consign you with the di,Business study
you try to follow the rules.,you gatz follow di rules,Business study
you don't get into any trouble.,make you no enter wahala,Business study
you want to engage in honest dealings in business.,make you dey do only honest tin for business,Business study
"besides, you can always hire an attorney if you need legal help.",you fit get lawyer if you enter law wahala,Business study
this may all be true.,na true everytin bi,Business study
"however, it is imperative for those in the business world to understand the legal environment in which they are operating.",E dey imperative for those for di business world to understand di legal environment wey dem dey operate,Business study
"while you may have the best intentions and be truly diligent in your efforts to do business fairly, inevitably conflicts will arise in everyday business dealings.",you fit no get any bad tin for mind and make you no cheat person for business but wahala fit still sup,Business study
"for example, what does it mean to do business""fairly""?",wetin e mean to do business fairly sef,Business study
fair to whom?,who you wan dey fair to,Business study
fair to your shareholders?,na shareholder you wan dey fair to?,Business study
fair to your employees?,or na your employees?,Business study
fair to the consumers who will purchase your products?,or di consumers wey dey buy your products?,Business study
through which ethical lens will you contemplate these issues?,how you wan take reason the mata,Business study
trade-offs area part of business.,loss dey part of business,Business study
"if you want to increase shareholder profits, you may need to reduce labor costs.",if you wan increase shareholder profit you gatz reduce money you go pay staff,Business study
one way to reduce labor costs is to use cheaper labor.,if you wan reduce labor money nato find cheap labour use,Business study
"if you pay your employees less, your employees will be less well off, but your shareholders maybe happier.",if you reduce your worker salary dem no go dey happy but shareholder go dey happy,Business study
consider the credit crisis that came to the world's attention in october 2008 and nearly toppled the u. s. economy into depression.,Di credit crisis wey kom to di world attention for october 2008 and nearly carry di u. s. economy enter depression.,Business study
"hundreds of thousands of homes were foreclosed by banks( figure 1. 1""the credit crisis""), leading to a vicious cycle of depressed housing prices, shattered consumer confidence, and business retrenchment.","Hundreds of thousands of homes bin be collect back because of debt by banks( figure 1. 1""di credit crisis""), leading to a wahala wey no dey end of how house money take fall for ground, shattered how pipo take trust to buy things, plus business to sack workers or reduce business.",Business study
the credit crisis affected everyone.,Di credit crisis affect everybodi,Business study
and the nature ofthe crisis implicated several legal environment issues.,Plus di nature of di crisis get hand inside several how law things be issues.,Business study
"in a nutshell, the u. s. financial system nearly collapsed under the weight of high default rates among mortgagees, the issuance of excessive subprime mortgages to unqualified debtors, collateralized debt obligations (cdos) that were not being serviced and could not be sold, and a mortgage banking system with flawed incentive structures from the bottom to the top.","Di u. s. financial system wan scatter becos of pipo wey no pay their house loan moni, dem go give house loan to debtors, collateralized debt obligations (cdos) wey no dey service, and a mortgage banking system wit flawed incentive structure from di top to di top.",Business study
"the mortgage industry created incentives for those who worked in that industry to actin their own self-interest to make a profit, even at the expense ofthe long-term health ofthe institutions for which they were working.","Di mortgage industry create incentives for those wey work for dat industry to act for dia own self-interest to make profit, even at di expense of di long-term health of di institutions wey dem work.",Business study
"considering this flawed incentive system, the results were not surprising to many economists, who know that people tend to actin their own self-interest, even at the expense of their institutions' goals.","Di results dey surprising to many economists, wey know say pipo go act for dia own self-interest, even at di expense of dia institutions' goals.",Business study
"this was because the lenders were pressuring them for more mortgages, so that the lenders themselves could sell those mortgages for a profit.","Di lenders dey pressuring dem for more mortgages, so say di lenders themselves go sell dia mortgage for profit.",Business study
"and this pressure for""more"" was endemic at every level ofthe mortgage industry, from the would-be homeowner who wanted more house than he or she could afford to the investment bankers who wanted more cdos on which they could profit.","Di pressure for""more"" dey endemic for every level of di mortgage industry, from di would-be homeowner wey dey want more house than hin or she go afford to di investment bankers wey dey want more cdos on which dem go profit.",Business study
"however, excessive risk was undertaken, and when mortgagees began defaulting on their mortgages, the market became flooded with houses that had been foreclosed.","Di market dey flood wit house wey dey foreclosed, and wen mortgagees dey default on dia mortgage, di market dey flood wit house wey dey foreclosed, di market dey flood wit house wey dey foreclosed.",Business study
"as supply of houses increased and demand for them fell, housing prices plummeted, which meant that not only were the investors not receiving income on their investments, but also homeowners were losing the value of their investments, since their house prices were plummeting.","Di investors no receive income on dia investment, but also homeowners dey losing di value of dia investment, since dia house prices dey plummeted, housing prices plummeted, wey me mean say no only dey investors no receive income on dia investment, since dia house prices dey plummeted, housing prices plummeted, which meant say no only dey increase and demand for dem fall, since dia house prices dey plummeted, since dia house prices dey plummeted, housing prices plummeted, housing prices plummet",Business study
"the end result was that many homeowners were""upside down""on their obligations, meaning that they owed more on their houses than what the houses were worth.","Di end result na say many homeowners dey""upside down""on dia obligations, meaning say dem owed more on dia house than what di house dey worth.",Business study
this created an incentive for mortgagees to abandon their debt obligations.,This allow something wey go ginger person for pipo wey borrow money for house to abandon dia di money wey dem owe.,Business study
"when the investors did not receive income on their investments, they also were not receiving the cash flow to cover their debts, and they could not service their obligations under their cdos.","Di investors no receive income on dia investments, dem no receive di cash flow to cover dia debts, and dem no service dia obligation under dia cdos.",Business study
parties at every level began clamoring for protection from their creditors from the u. s. bankruptcy courts by filing petitions for bankruptcy.,Di parties for every level dey ask for protection from dia creditors from di u. s. bankruptcy courts by filing petitions for bankruptcy.,Business study
"former federal reserve chairman alan greenspan had consistently maintained that private regulation(that is, self -regulation by private industry)was better at containing risk than government regulation.","Di federal reserve chairman Alan greenspan don consistently maintain dia private regulation(that na, self regulation by private industry)dey better at containing risk than government regulation.",Business study
"but when the 2008 credit crisis manifested, greenspan retracted this belief, at least in part.","Di 2008 credit crisis manifest, greenspan retracted disbelief, atleast for part.",Business study
"he expressed that he was in""a state of shocked disbelief""concerning the financial institutions' inabilities to self-regulate.","hin shock when he hear wetin do di A business or organisation wey manage money— like bank, insurance, or investment companies wey no fit regulate dia self",Business study
"however, this ""shocked disbelief"" underscored a fissure within the discipline of economics namely, whether the same economic principles that apply to individuals also apply to organizations.","Di""shock disbelief"" underscore di fissure wey dey within di discipline of economics namely, whether di same economic principles wey dey apply to individuals also apply to organizations.",Business study
"the firm itself is only a collection of individual people, and so the firm itself does not actin any type of organizational self-interest.","Di firm wey dey only collection of individual pipo, and so di firm dey no act for any type of organizational self-interest.",Business study
you might be wondering why we are discussing economics.,We dey wonder say we dey discuss economics,Business study
"this is because economic principles are intertwined with economic prosperity, and economic prosperity is intertwined with business, as the preceding example illustrates.","Dem dey because economic principles dey intertwin wit economic prosperity, and economic prosperity dey intertwin wit business, as di preceding example dey illustrate.",Business study
"to understand what happened in the credit crisis and, more importantly, how to prevent something like this from happening in the future, we have to understand economic principles that impel behavior.","We go understand how we dey happen for di credit crisis and, more importantly, how we go prevent something like dis from happenin for di future, we go understand economic principles wey impel behavior.",Business study
"additionally, we have to understand how our laws can embody the knowledge that we have from economics to prevent situations like this from happening in the future.",We go understand how awa laws fit embodi di knowledge wey we get from economics to prevent situations like dis from happenin for di future.,Business study
"specifically, while a basic principle of economics is that individuals actin their own self-interest, they do so within the rules ofthe game.","Di basic principle of economics na say individuals act for dia own self-interest, dem do so within di rules of di game.",Business study
"that is, they do so within the parameters ofthe law.",Dem do so within di parameters of di law.,Business study
"additionally, sometimes individuals weigh the penalties of violating the law against the chances of getting caught to determine how they should behave.",Di individuals weigh di penalties of violating di law against di chances of getting caught to determine how dem go behave,Business study
"in both instances, the law is a restraint on behavior.",Di law dey restraint on behavior,Business study
reflect on the credit crisis and h ow our laws could have entirely averted or seriously mitigated the fallout that resulted from it.,Di credit crisis and h ow awa laws go get entirely averted or seriously mitigated di fallout wey result from am.,Business study
"for example, if the laws regulated the incentive structures that exist within private industry, the individual incentive to make a profit would not have been allowed to overtake the financial institutions' need to self-preserve by limiting risk.","for example, if di laws regulat di incentive structure wey exist for private industry, di individual incentive to make profit no go allow to overtake di financial institutions' need to self preserve by limit risk.",Business study
"likewise, if our banking regulations limited the types of services that banks could offer, perhaps the exotic financial instruments that were created as a precursor to the credit crisis would not have been permitted in the first place.","If awa banking regulations limited di type of services wey banks go offer, perhaps di exotic financial instrument wey banks go offer, perhaps di exotic financial instrument wey dey create as precursor to di credit crisis no dey permitted for di first place.",Business study
"if the size of our financial institutions had been limited by law, the dangerous fallacy that the financial institutions were too large to fail could not have been perpetuated.","Di dangerous fallacy wey di financial institutions don dey limited by law, di dangerous fallacy wey di financial institutions dey too large to fail could no be perpetuated.",Business study
"if compensation packages were legally restricted by limitations on size or severed from linkages to performance, then individual incentives to maximize profit could have been restrained.",Di individual incentives to maximize profit go restrained.,Business study
"additionally, this situation raises several ethics questions.",Di situation raise several ethic question.,Business study
"for example, was it ethical to loan money to people who were notable to service those debts?",Na it ethical to loan money to pipo wey no dey able to service dis debts?,Business study
"as you think about these questions and the many other questions that will arise during your study ofthe legal environment of business, try to set aside any fixed ideas that you have already formulated about law and the legal system.","As you think about dis questions and di many oda question wey dey arise during your study of di legal environment of business, try to set aside any fixed ideas wey you go get about law and di legal system.",Business study
"specifically, many students find that they harbor as ense of repugnance to law, because they have heard that it is filled with frivolous lawsuits brought by a litigious public waiting to pounce at the smallest slight, along with money -grubbing attorneys waiting to cash in.","Di student find say dem harbor ense of repugnance to law, bikos dem hearsay e dey filled wit kase wey no get basis or wey dem dey take harass or intimidate person, wey no dey based on truth or fact, na im dem dey call frivolous lawsuits, but for pidgin, we fit call am'yarn wey no dey make sense' or 'kase wey no get head' wey dey bring by litigious public waiting to pounce for di smallest slight, along wit money -grubbing attorneys waiting to cash for.",Business study
we ask that you set aside those and any other preconceived notions that you may harbor about the law and the legal system.,We ask say you set aside those and any oda preconceived notions wey you go harbor about di law and di legal system.,Business study
"the law is a dynamic, sophisticated field.","Di law dey dynamic, sophisticated field",Business study
"frivolous lawsuits are not permitted to advance in our legal system, and most attorneys are committed to justice and fairness.",Di lawyers no dey committe to justice and fairness.,Business study
they work hard to protect their clients' legal interests and simply do not have the desire or the time to pursue frivolous claims.,Diy work hard to protect dia clients legal interest and simply no get di time to pursue frivolous claims.,Business study
"indeed, there is no incentive for them to pursue such claims, because our legal system does not reward such behavior.","Nano incentive for dem to pursue such claims, because awa legal system no reward such behavior",Business study
most people want to conduct themselves and their business dealings within the parameters ofthe law.,Dem want to conduct themselves and dia business dealings within di parameters of di law.,Business study
"even if we are very cynical, barring any other compunction to behave well, we can see that it makes the most economic sense to do so.","As we dey cynical, barring any oda compunction to behave well, we fit see say make di most economic sense to do so.",Business study
"following the rules ofthe game saves us money, time, and aggravation, and it preserves our individual and professional reputations.","Di rule of di game save us money, time, and aggravation, and e preserve awa individual and professional reputations.",Business study
"so if most people recognize that they have an incentive not to run afoul ofthe law, why are there so many legal disputes?","If most pipo recognize say dem no get incentive no run foul of di law, why dey there so many legal disputes?",Business study
"there are many reasons for this, such as the fact that many of our laws are ambiguous, and reasonable people may disagree about what is""right.""","Di fact say many of awa laws dey ambiguous, and reasonable pipo dey disagree about what dey right",Business study
"additionally, legal injuries happen even under the best of conditions, and the aggrieved parties need a method to press their claims to be compensated for their damages.",Di aggrieved parties need a method to press dia claim to be compensate for dia damages,Business study
a common theme in the study ofthe legal environment is responsibility.,Di study of di legal environment dey responsibility.,Business study
"much of our legal wrangling seeks to answer the questions,""who is responsible, and what should be done about this injury?""","Di legal wrangling seeks to answer di questions,""who dey responsible, and what should be done about dis injury?",Business study
"additionally, and perhaps more importantly for business, is the concern of how to limit liability exposure in the first place.","Di concern of how to limit liability exposure for di first place, na di concern of how to limit liability exposure for di first place",Business study
a solid understanding ofthe legal environment of business should help limit the risk of liability and thus avoid legal disputes.,A solid understanding of di how law things be of business suppose help limit di risk of liability plus thus avoid legal disputes.,Business study
"moreover, it should help y ou recognize when you need to contact your attorney for assistance in defining the contours ofthe law, which are the rules ofthe game.","E go help y recognize wen you need contact your attorney for assistance for defining di contours of di law, wey dey di rules of di game.",Business study
"the law provides continuity and a reasonable expectation of how things will be, based on how they have been in the past.","Di law provide continuity and reasonable expectation of how things go be, based on how dem dey been for di past.",Business study
it provides predictability and stability.,Am provides how person take know wetin go happen plus how things take relax well.,Business study
this book does not teach you how to practice law or to conduct legal research.,This book does no teach you how to practice law or to conduct to check wetin law talk.,Business study
that is the work of attorneys.,Di work of attorneys na di work of attorneys,Business study
legal research helps guide our behavior to help us comply with the rules ofthe game.,To check wetin law talk helps guide awa behavior to help us follow di rules with di rules of di game.,Business study
"when you need an answer regarding a specific legal issue, you will contact your attorney, who will research the issue, inform you ofthe results of that research, and advise you ofthe decisions you must make with respect to that issue.","Di lawyer, wey go research di issue, inform you of di results of dat research, and advise you of di decision wey you need make wit respect to dat issue.",Business study
the goals of this book are practical.,Di goal of dis book dey practical,Business study
try to conceptualize your study ofthe legal environment of business as a map by which you must navigate your business dealings.,Di try to conceptualize your study of di legal environment of business as map wey you must navigate awa business dealings.,Business study
we want to teach you how to read this map so that you are able to understand the law and how it affects your business and your life.,We want teach you how to read dis map so say you dey able to understand di law and how it affect your business and your life,Business study
"besides limiting legal liability proactively, an understanding ofthe law can also help you avoid serious missteps.",Di understanding of di law go help you avoid serious missteps.,Business study
"after all, ignorance ofthe law is no defense for violating the law.","After all, say you no know law nano excuse for kot for breaking di law.",Business study
"we begin with a discussion of what the law is, and then we turn our attention to the sources of law, the rule of law, the reasons why rule of law is important to business, and how law affects business disciplines such as management, marketing, finance, and accounting.","We begin wit discussion of how di law dey important to business, and how law affect business disciplines such as management, marketing, finance, and accounting.",Business study
"key ta keaways law is a dynamic and ever-changing field that affects everyone, both in their individual capacities as people and in their business interactions.","Di key ta keaways law dey dynamic and ever changing field wey affect all, both for dia individual capacities as pipo and for dia business interactions.",Business study
"studying the legal environment of business helps us understand how to reduce liability risks, identify legal problems that require an attorney's assistance, and identify the links between business and the law.","Studying di how law things be of business helps us understand how to reduce wahala of wey go pay for damage, identify legal problems wey require an help from lawyer, plus identify di links between business plus di law.",Business study
understand the meaning of jurisprudence and how its study can lead to greater understanding of our laws and legal system.,Understand di meaning of jurisprudence plus how its study fit lead to greater understanding of awa laws plus legal system.,Business study
"distinguish among law as power, legal positivism, legal realism, and natural law.","Distinguish among law as power, legal positivism, legal realism, plus natural law.",Business study
examine strengths and criticisms of several theories of jurisprudence.,Dem examine strength and criticisms of several diories of jurisprudence.,Business study
explore examples of several theories of jurisprudence.,Dem explore examples of several diories of jurisprudence.,Business study
"if you were asked to define""the law,""what would you say?","If you dey ask to define""the law,""what would you say?",Business study
"is""you should eat five fruits and vegetables a day""a law?","Di law na""you go eat five fruit and vegetables a day""law?",Business study
what distinguishes law from mere suggestions or good advice?,Dem distinguish law from mere suggestion or good advice?,Business study
the key difference is obviously enforcement and consequence.,Di key difference na obviously enforcement and consequence,Business study
"if you don't eat five fruits and vegetables a day, you are not going to be imprisoned or fined.","If you no eat five fruits and vegetables a day, you no go dey imprisoned or fined.",Business study
"if you steal or embezzle, however, you maybe prosecuted and face stiff financial penalties and imprisonment.",Dem dey prosecuted and face stiff financial penaltie and imprisonment.,Business study
"law, therefore, is a set of rules that are enforced by a government authority.",Na set of rules wey dey enforce by a government authority.,Business study
now consider the nature of law.,Na now think of di nature of law,Business study
"would you say that the law includes only the actual words that are written, or does it also include reading between the lines to discern the spirit ofthe law?","Di law includes only di actual words wey dey written, or e also include reading between di line wey dey discern di spirit of di law?",Business study
"would you follow a law that you disagreed with, or would you ignore such a law?","I go follow law wey you disagree wit, or would you ignore such law?",Business study
do you believe that what the law actually is matters as much as who enforces it?,Di law actually dey matter as much as who enforce am?,Business study
"do you think that morality is apart of legality, or do you think that morality is wholly separate from the law?","Dem think say morality dey part of legality, or do you think say morality dey part of legality, or do you think say morality dey separate from di law?",Business study
"based on the particular system of jurisprudence to which one ascribes, these questions will generate different answers.","Di question dey based on di particular system of jurisprudence wey one ascribe, dem go create different answers.",Business study
"not only will the answers to these questions differ, but the potential outcomes of legal disputes can also vary widely, depending on one's conception of what the law is.","Di potential outcomes of legal disputes go vary widely, but di potential outcomes of legal disputes go vary widely, based on one's conception of what di law dey.",Business study
these differences highlight fundamental disagreements over the nature of law.,These differences highlight fundamental disagreements over di nature of law.,Business study
jurisprudence is the philosophy of law.,Di philosophy of law.,Business study
"the nature of law has been debated for centuries, giving rise to a general coalescence of ideas to create particular schools of thought.","Di nature of law don get been debated for centuries, giving rise to a general coalescence of ideas to create particular schools of thought.",Business study
several different theories of jurisprudence are explored in the paragraphs that follow.,Dem explore several different diories of jurisprudence for di paragraph wey follow.,Business study
"at a most basic interpretation, some believe that law is simply power.","Di believe say law dey power, some believe say law dey power.",Business study
"that is, t he law is followed because the sovereign issues orders that are backed by threats.",Di law dey follow because di sovereign issues orders wey dey backed by threats.,Business study
the nazis executed six million jews pursuant to german law during world war ii.,"Di Nazis don execut six million Jews pursuant to german law during Wahala wey happen for 1939 reach 1945, wey all kontri for world join bodi, dem form two group, one dey call dem Allies, anoda one dey call dem Axis, na im be di big fight wey everybody sabi.",Business study
saddam hussein routinely tortured and executed political opponents and minority sunni muslims in iraq under iraqi law.,Saddam hussein dey always torture and kill political opponents plus minority sunni muslims inside iraq under iraqi law.,Business study
"the military in myanmar(known euphemistically as the state peace and development council)imprisoned the democratically elected and nobel peace prize winning prime minister ofthe country, aung san suu kyi (figure 1. 2 ""aung san suu kyi"" ), under color of authority.","Di military inside myanmar(known euphemistically as di state peace plus development council)imprisoned di democratically elected plus nobel peace prize winning prime minister of di country, aung san suu kyi (figure 1. 2 ""aung san suu kyi"" ), under color of authority.",Business study
(actions taken under the law are said to be under the color of authority.),Di action wey dey take under di law dey said to be under di color of authority.,Business study
those who ascribe to the idea that law is power often argue that coercion is an essential and necessary feature of law.,Di those wey ascribe to di idea say law dey power often argue say coercion dey essential and necessary feature of law.,Business study
let's explore whether the law is nothing more than power.,We go explore whether di law dey nothing more than power,Business study
"if an armed person robs your store, you will very likely hand over whatever it is that he or she wants.","if armed person com thief for your shop, you go surrender wetin dem say hin or she want.",Business study
the robber has exercised power over you but has not exercised the law.,Di thief don flex power over you but no exercise di law.,Business study
"this is because, as you might point out, an armed robber is not the sovereign power.","As you goto show, armed robber no dey di sovereign power.",Business study
but compare this to a sovereign who exercises power over you.,Compare di mata with sovereign wey dey exercise power over you,Business study
"for instance, imagine a government that institutes compulsory military service(the draft)under threat of imprisonment for failing to comply.",Imagine say government dey draft compulsory military service(di draft)on top say you go prison if you no join milatary by force by fire,Business study
the sovereign would have the power to deprive us of our liberty if we did not follow the rules; such a law certainly h as the force of power behind it.,Di sovereign go get di power to deprive us of awa liberty if we no follow di rules; such law certainly h as di force of power wey dey behind am.,Business study
many have criticized the understanding of law as nothing more than power backed by threats.,Boku get criticized di understanding of law as nothing more than power backed by threats.,Business study
"if we look at the u. s. system of government, however, citizens generally do not feel that they are""at the mercy""of the government.","If we make we look di u. s. system of government, citizens generally no feel say dem dey""at di mercy""of di government.",Business study
this is because people also have power.,Dis na because pipo also get power,Business study
"people can elect their government officials, and they can vote""out"" government officials who aren't doing a good job.","Di pipo go elect dia government officials, and dem go vote""out"" government officials wey dey do good job",Business study
"in this way, those in power are accountable to the people.",Di pipo dey accountable to di pipo.,Business study
other criticisms include the more piercing observation that not all law requires the exercise or threat of overt power.,Other criticisms include di more piercing observation wey no all law requires di exercise or threat of overt power.,Business study
"for instance, many of our laws rely on economic incentives, rather than force of power, to encourage compliance.","for example, boku of awa laws rely on economic something wey go ginger persons, no be force of power, to encourage compliance.",Business study
"though penalty provisions may exist for violating those laws, those penalties may not be driving compliance itself.","Di penalty provisions no exist for violating those laws, those penalties no dey drive compliance itself.",Business study
"a competing view is that of legal positivism, whose proponents disagree that law is simply power.",Di proponents disagree say law dey simply power.,Business study
legal positivists believe that the law is what the law says.,Di law dey what di law tok.,Business study
"the laws are written, human -made rules.","Di laws dey write, human -made rules",Business study
the law is not drawn from any source higher than man.,Di law nano drawn from any source higher than man.,Business study
legal positivists do not try to read between the lines.,Di legal positivists no try read between di line.,Business study
"they may disagree with the law as it is written, but they will acquiesce to the sovereign power and follow the law as it is written.","Dem go disagree wit di law as dem dey written, but dem go acquiesce to di sovereign power and follow di law as dem written, but dem go acquiesce to di sovereign power and follow di law as dem written.",Business study
"they reject any belief that they have an individual right to disobey a law that they happen to oppose, providing that the la w is from a legitimate source.","Dem reject any belief say dem get individual right to disobey law wey dem go oppose, providing say di la w dey from legitimate source.",Business study
positivists believe that law is wholly separate from any consideration of ethics.,Di positivists believe say law dey separate from any consideration of ethics.,Business study
"moreover, they do not believe that people have intrinsic human rights other than those created by the law.",Di law no dey believe say pipo get intrinsic human rights oda than those wey dem create by di law.,Business study
"this is very different from a natural rights perspective, which is discussed in the following paragraphs.","Dis dey different from natural rights perspective, wey dey discuss for di following paragraphs.",Business study
"positivists differ from the view that law is simply power, because they believe that valid law must be created pursuant to the existing rules that allow the sovereign to create law.","Di positivists differ from di view say law dey power, bikos dem believe say valid law must create pursuant to di existing rules wey allow di sovereign to create law.",Business study
"under this way of thinking, an arbitrary declaration of law by a sovereign who did not follow the rules for creating the law would not be viewed as valid law.","Di way of thinking, arbitrary declaration of law by sovereign wey no follow di rules for creating di law no be valid law.",Business study
"additionally, positivists would not consider any rule or""law"" created by an illegitimate ruler as valid law.","Di positivists no consider any rule or""law"" wey dey create by di illegitimate ruler as valid law.",Business study
"consequently, a legal positivist would feel no need to obey an illegitimately created""law.""","Di legal positivist go feel no need to obey di illegitimately created""law""",Business study
consider the example ofthe draft again.,Di example of di draft again,Business study
some people have a strong moral objection to engaging in armed conflict with other human beings.,Some pipo don get strong moral objection to engage for armed conflict wit oda human beings.,Business study
"however, a legal positivist would most certainly comply with a law that required compulsory conscription, though he or she might use other legal channels to try to change the law.","Di legal positivist go most certainly comply wit law wey require compulsory conscription, though hin or she go use oda legal channel to try to change di law.",Business study
"however, for a positivist, the desirability of enacting a law that might be viewed as""good"" or""bad"" is not relevant for determining what the law is.","For a positivist, di desirability of enacting law wey dey viewed as""good"" or""bad"" no relevant for determining what di law dey.",Business study
some critics point out that legal positivism is too limited in its conception of law.,Some critics don nt out say legal positivism dey too limited for its conception of law.,Business study
"for instance, at least some laws seem to reflect a moral stance.",Di laws dey reflect moral stance.,Business study
"the prohibition against insider trading(using nonpublic information to buy or sell a stock to make money)might be said to encompass the idea of fairness, which is a moral consideration.","Di prohibition wey dey against insider trading(using nonpublic information to buy or sell stock to make money)suppose tok to encompass di idea of fairness, wey dey moral consideration.",Business study
"likewise, due process(fundamental fairness and decency in government actions)might be said to encompass the ideas of both fairness and a moral position against cruelty.","Likewise, Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system(fundamental fairness plus decency inside government actions)might be said to encompass di ideas of both fairness plus a moral position against cruelty.",Business study
"moreover, not all law is the result of a sovereign-issued, written rule.","Di law dey di result of sovereign-issued, written rule.",Business study
"for example, international customary law has developed through customary practices.","for example, international customary law don get developed through customary practices.",Business study
"it is valid law, but it is not a set of rules handed down from a sovereign ruler.","Di law no dey valid law, but na set of rules wey dey hand down from sovereign ruler.",Business study
"a different viewpoint is legal realism, which is the belief that the law itself is far less important than the consideration of who is in the position to enforce the law.",Di belief say di law dey important than di consideration of who dey for di position to enforce di law.,Business study
"like positivists, legal realists believe that law is the product of human making.",Di legal realists believe say law dey di product of human make.,Business study
"however, unlike positivists, they believe that the outcome of any issue that arises under law is dependent on the person, such as a judge, who is in the position to exercise power under the mantle ofthe law.","Di positivists dey believe say di outcome of any issue wey arises under law dey depend on di person, such as judge, wey dey for di position to exercise power under di mantle of di law.",Business study
"additionally, realists believe that social and economic considerations should be brought to bear in legal disputes, which may very well be""extra"" considerations that are not captured by the written law itself.","Di realists believe say social and economic considerations dey brought to bear for legal disputes, wey dey very well be""extra"" considerations wey dey captured by di written law wey deyself.",Business study
"if a realist brought a dispute before a particular judge who was known to be unsympathetic to that particular type of dispute, the realist would believe that the judge's decision would reflect that leaning.",Di realist go believe say di judge decision go reflect say di judge decision go reflect say di leaning.,Business study
"for example, if a dispute arose under the clean water act, and the defendant was a legal realist who believed that the judge was unduly harsh with environmental offenders, the legal realist would not look to the actual words ofthe clean water act itself to determine a likely outcome.","for example, if dispute arose under di clean water act, and di defendant dey legal realist wey believe say di judge dey unduly harsh wit environmental offenders, di legal realist no look to di actual words of di clean water act wey dey determine likely outcome.",Business study
"instead, the defendant would view the judge's personal and professional beliefs about water pollution as determinative factors.","Instead, di person wey dem carry go kot go view di judge's personal plus professional beliefs about water pollution as determinative factors.",Business study
critics of legal realism point out that those who are in the position to exercise the power ofthe law over others should not circumscribe the checks and balances of our system of government by considering factors outside of legitimate sources of law when making decisions.,Di critics of legal realism to show say those wey dey in di position to exercise di power of di law over odas no dey circumscribe di checks and balance of awa system of goment by consider factors outside of legitimate sources of law wey dey make dem make decisions.,Business study
"for instance, they argue that judges should not use any factors other than the written law when rendering decisions.",Dem argue say judges no use any factors oda than di written law wen dem render decisions.,Business study
"legal realists, however, point out that judicial interpretation not only is necessary but also was contemplated by our founding fathers as a built-in check and balance to our other branches of government.",Di legal realists to show say judicial interpretation no only dey necessary but also dey contemplated by awa foundi di fathers as built-in check and balance to awa oda branch of government.,Business study
natural law is the idea that humans possess certain inalienable rights that are not the products of human-made law.,Di idea say humans possess certain Rights wey nobody fit take from you— dem belong to you by nature of being human wey no dey products of human-made law.,Business study
"therefore, we can say that natural law differs from both positivism and realism in this important respect.",We go say natural law differ from both positivism and realism for dis important respect.,Business study
"humans are able to reason, and therefore they are able to discover moral truths on their own.","Di humans dey able to reason, and therefore di y dey able to discover moral truths on dia own.",Business study
they are not automatons who require a sovereign power to tell them right from wrong.,Dem no dey automatons wey require sovereign power to tell dem right from wrong,Business study
natural law adherents do not reject human-made law.,Natural law adherents no dey reject human-bin made law.,Business study
"however, they recognize that human- made law is subordinate to natural law if the two types of law conflict.",Dem recognize say human- made law dey subordinate to natural law if di two types of law conflict.,Business study
civil rights activists often rely on natural law arguments to advance their platforms.,Civil rights activists often rely on natural law arguments to advance dia platforms.,Business study
this is true today aswell as historically.,Dis dey true today aswell as historically,Business study
"for example, a civil rights advocate might point out that regardless of what the law"" says,""discrimination based on race is simply wrong.","Di civil rights advocate goto show say regardless of what di law tok say, discrimination based on race dey wrong.",Business study
"if the written law allowed racial discrimination, natural law adherents would not recognize the law as valid.","If di written law allowed racial discrimination, natural law adherents go no recognize di law as valid.",Business study
each theory of jurisprudence can inform our understanding of legal issues by allowing us to s ee the same thing from many different perspectives.,Di theory of jurisprudence don inform awa understanding of legal issues by allow us to s ee di same thing from many different perspectives.,Business study
"moreover, depending on philosophical perspective, there maybe several possible outcomes to the same legal dispute that are equally supportable.","E based on philosophical perspective, na several di things wey fit happen to di same legal dispute wey dey supportable.",Business study
this understanding can help us identify common ground among disputants aswell as points of departure in their reasoning.,Di understanding don help us identify common ground among disputants aswell as points of departure for dia reasoning.,Business study
examining legal issues through the lenses of different theories of jurisprudence allows us to see how different outcomes can be defended.,Di lens of different diories of jurisprudence allow us see how different outcomes dey defended,Business study
identity the justice's opinion with which you most closely agree.,Identity di justice's opinion with wey you most closely agree.,Business study
name the different theories of jurisprudence used by each justice in reaching his or her opinion.,Di different diories of jurisprudence wey each justice dey reach hin or her opinion.,Business study
what are some examples of natural law in our legal system or system of governance?,Na some example of natural law for our legal system or system of governance?,Business study
is it more important for you to follow the letter ofthe law or to follow the spirit ofthe law?,Di important for you to follow di letter of di law or to follow di spirit of di law?,Business study
in what circumstance would you believe the opposite to be true?,Inside what circumstance go you believe di opposite to be true?,Business study
can you think of any examples of law in which the threat of force or power is not needed?,Di examples of law wey di threat of force or power no need?,Business study
"do you believe that morals area part of our law, or do you believe that morality and law are separate concepts?","Di believe say morals dey part of our law, or do you believe say morality and law dey separate concepts?",Business study
differentiate between social customs and law.,Differentiate between social customs plus law.,Business study
become familiar with primary sources of law in the united states.,Dem dey familiar wit primary source of law for di united state.,Business study
understand the difference between public law and private law.,Understand di difference between public law plus private law.,Business study
understand the relationship between state and federal systems of government.,Understand di how two things dey related state plus federal systems of government.,Business study
"among them are hammurabi, moses, solomon, draco, confucius, muhammad, napoleon, and one american.","Among dem be hammurabi, moses, solomon, draco, confucius, muhammad, napoleon, plus one american.",Business study
click the link to find out who he is.,press di link to know who he bi,Business study
how do you know right from wrong?,how you take sabi right from wrong,Business study
certainly your caretakers taught you right from wrong when you were a child.,Di caretakers dey taught you right from wrong wen you dey child,Business study
"your teachers, community elders, and other people who were in the position to help shape your ideas about appropriate manners of behavior also influenced your understanding of which behaviors are acceptable and which are not.","Di teachers, community elders, and oda pipo wey dey for di position to help shape your ideas about appropriate manners of behavior also influence your understanding of which behavior dey acceptable and which dey no.",Business study
"additionally, employers often have very firm ideas about ho w their employees should comport themselves.","Additionally, employers often get well-well firm ideas about ho w dia employees suppose comport themselves.",Business study
"those ideas maybe conveyed through employers' codes of ethics, employee handbooks, or organizational cultures.","Those ideas maybe conveyed through employers' kod wey dey guide profesisonal pipo for one particula work or indostri, wey dem suppose follow to do dia work wel, employee handbooks, or organizational cultures.",Business study
"ofcourse, actions that are considered""wrong"" and inappropriate behavior are not violations ofthe law.","For course, actions wey dey consider""wrong"" and inappropriate behavior no violate di law.",Business study
they simply may represent social norms.,For social norms wey dem suppose represent social norms.,Business study
"for example, it is generally not acceptable to ask strangers about their income.",E dey generally no acceptable to ask strangers about dia income,Business study
"it is not illegal to do such a thing, but it is considered impolite.","E no dey illegal to do such thing, but e dey consider impolite",Business study
imagine that you are interviewing for a position that youre ally want.,I imagine say you dey interview for position wey youre ally want.,Business study
can you imagine yourself asking your potential employer how much money he or she makes?,Fit you imagine yourself asking your potential employer how well-well money e or e dey make?,Business study
it would not be illegal for the employer to refuse to hire you based on your lack of social skills.,Di employer no go refuse to hire you based on your lack of social skills.,Business study
"however, it would be illegal for the employer not to hire you based solely on your race.",Di employer no go hire you based solely on your race.,Business study
"one type of""right from wrong""is based on societal norms and cultural expectations.","One type of""right from wrong""na based on societal norms plus cultural expectations.",Business study
"the other type of""right from wrong""is based on a source recognized as a holding legitimate authority to make, and enforce, law within our society.","Di oda type of""right from wrong""dey based on source wey dey recognize as holding legitimate authority to make, and enforce, law wey dey within awa society.",Business study
these are two types of rules in our society social norms and laws.,Dem dey two types of rules wey we dey society social norms and laws.,Business study
"a question of ethics in january 2010, haiti, the poorest country in the western hemisphere, was struck by a massive earthquake that killed tens of thousands maybe even hundreds of thousands of people.","For january 2010, haiti, di poorest kontri for di western hemisphere, dey struck by massive earthquake wey kill tens of thousands maybe even hundreds of pipo.",Business study
"rescue workers rushed to remove survivors from the rubble, but in the days following the earthquake thousands of people wandered the streets without food or shelter.",Di days following di earthquake thousands of pipo wander di streets without food or shelter.,Business study
some instances of looting and violence occurred as survivors grew desperate for sustenance.,Some instances of looting plus violence occurred as survivors grew desperate for sustenance.,Business study
"in the meantime, royal caribbean operated a cruise line that made a regular stop at haiti, at a private beach where it had previously spent millions of dollars in improvements to ensure that the vacationer s on its cruise ships would enjoy themselves during their overnight stops.","Di meantime, royal caribbean operat a cruise line wey make regular stop for haiti, for private beach wey dem don spend millions of dollars for improvement to ensure say di vacationer s on dia cruise ships go enjoy dia overnight stops.",Business study
"within a week ofthe disaster, royal caribbean was seeking to assure its customers that the stop in haiti was not unethical.","For a week of di disaster, royal caribbean dey seeking to assure its customers say di stop for haiti no dey unethical.",Business study
"it pointed out that bringing tourist dollars to haiti wa s actually an ethical thing to do, despite the thousands of dying and injured just a short distance away.","Am pointed comot wey bringing tourist dollars to haiti wa s actually an ethical thing to do, despite di thousands of dying plus injured just a short distance away.",Business study
"if you were scheduled to begin a vacation on a royal caribbean cruise ship that docked at its private beach during the week following the earthquake, would you go?","If you dey schedule a vacation on royal caribbean cruise ship wey dey docked for private beach during di week following di earthquake, go?",Business study
"if you decided to go, how would your friends and family react to your choice?","If you decided to go, how go your friends plus family react to your choice?",Business study
"if royal caribbean was not legally required to issue refunds for nonrefundable tickets, should it be willing to issue refunds anyhow?","If royal caribbean bin dey no legally required to issue refunds for nonrefundable tickets, suppose am be willing to issue refunds anyhow?",Business study
"checkout a video of royal car ibbean's ceo discussing his company's involvement in bringing emergency supplies to haiti, as well as the potential for using ships as hotels or hospitals in the interim.","Check comot a video of royal car ibbean's ceo discussing im company's involvement inside bringing emergency supplies to haiti, as well as di potential for using ships as hotels or hospitals inside di interim.",Business study
"someone ma y choose to ignore social customs, but there are usually negative social or professional consequences to doing so.","Someone ma y choose to ignore social customs, but there be usually negative social or professional consequences to doing so.",Business study
"however, no legal repercussions follow violating social customs.","However, no legal repercussions follow breaking social customs.",Business study
violations of law are different.,Di violations of law dey different,Business study
"violating the law carries penalties, such as liability or loss of liberty, depending on the type of violation.","Breaking di law carries penalties, such as liability or loss of liberty, based on di type of violation.",Business study
"while we may generally decide whether or not to conform to social customs, we are compelled to obey the law under threat of penalty.","We go generally decide whether or no to conform to social customs, we dey compelle to obey di law under threat of penalty.",Business study
law can generally be classified as public law or private law.,Di law go generally be public law or private law.,Business study
public law applies to everyone.,Di public law wey dey apply to all,Business study
"it is law that has been created by some legitimate authority with the power to create law, and it has been""handed down""to the people within its jurisdiction.","Di law wey dey create by some legitimate authority wit di power to create law, and e dey hand down to di pipo wey dey inside im jurisdiction.",Business study
"in the united states, the lawmaking authority itself is also subject to those laws, because noone is""above"" the law.","Di lawmaking authority wey dey subject to di law, bikos noone dey""above"" di law.",Business study
"if the law is violated, penalties can be levied against the violator.","Di law dey violated, penalties go levi against di violator.",Business study
"these penalties are also""handed down""from some recognized source of authority, like the judiciary.","Di penalties dey also hand down from some source of authority, like di judiciary.",Business study
"ofcourse, people in the united states may participate in many law-creating activities.",Di united state don participate for many law-creating activities.,Business study
"for instance, they may vote in elections for legislators, who, in turn, create legislation.","Di legislators go vote for election for legislators, wey, for turn, create legislation.",Business study
"likewise, if people have a legal claim, their case maybe heard by the judiciary.","If pipo don get legal claim, dia case go hear di judiciary.",Business study
"it's important to note, however, that not all law is public law.","Di important to note, however, say no all law dey public law",Business study
private law is typically understood to be law that is binding on specific parties.,Di private law dey typically understand to be law wey dey binding on specific parties,Business study
"for instance, parties to a contract are involved in a private law agreement.","for example, parties to a contract dey involved for private law agreement.",Business study
the terms ofthe contract apply to the parties ofthe contract but not to anyone else.,Di terms of di contract apply to di parties of di contract but no to anyone else.,Business study
"if the parties have a contract dispute, they will be able to use dispute-resolution methods to resolve it.","Di parties don get contract dispute, dem go use dispute-resolution methods to resolve am",Business study
this is because both parties ofthe contract recognize the judiciary as a legitimate authority that can resolve the contract dispute.,Dina because both parties of di contract recognize di judiciary as legitimate authority wey go resolve di contract dispute.,Business study
"however, regardless ofthe resolution, the terms ofthe contract a nd the remedy for breach will apply only to the parties ofthe contract and not to everyone else.","Di resolution, di terms of di contract a nd di remedy for breach go apply only to di parties of di contract and no to all else.",Business study
"additionally, some law is procedural and some law is substantive.",Di law dey procedural and some law dey substantive.,Business study
procedural law describes the legal rules that must be followed.,Di legal rules wey must follow.,Business study
"in other words, it details t he processor rules that are legally required.",E details t he processor rules wey dey legally required,Business study
"for instance, the u. s. government must generally obtain a warrant before searching someone's private home.",Di u. s. goment must generally obtain warrant before search someone private home,Business study
"if the process of obtaining the warrant is ignored or performed illegally, then procedural law has been violated.","Di process of obtaining di warrant dey ignored or perform illegally, then procedural law don be violated.",Business study
"substantive law refers to the actual substance ofthe law or the merits ofthe claim, case, or action.","Substantive law refers to di actual substance of di law or di merits of di claim, case, or action.",Business study
"substantive law embodies the ideas of legal rights and duties and is captured by our different sources of law, like statutes, the constitution, or common law.","Di substantive law dey embodies di ideas of legal rights and duties and dey captured by awa different source of law, like statutes, di constitution, or common law.",Business study
executive orders and treaties are also important sources of law.,Di executive order and treaties dey important source of law.,Business study
these are all primary sources of law.,Dem dey all primary source of law,Business study
"as is true in any democracy, u. s. law reflects the will ofthe people who vote for representatives to make the law.",Di law reflect di will of di pipo wey vote for representatives to make di law.,Business study
"in this way, u. s. law is also a reflection of public policy.","Di way, u. s. law dey also reflect public policy.",Business study
"secondary sources of law include restatements ofthe law, law review and journal articles, uniform codes, and treatises.","Secondary sources of law include restatements of di law, law review plus journal articles, uniform codes, plus treatises.",Business study
"these sources are created by legal scholars rather than by a recognized, legitimate law- creating authority.","Di source dey create by legal scholars no be by recognized, legitimate law- create authority.",Business study
"however, these sources are read by and often influence those who are in the position to create law.",Di source dey read by and often influence those wey dey for di position to create law.,Business study
"members ofthe judiciary, for example, may consult a restatement of law or law-review articles when making decisions.","Di judiciary, for example, go consult restatement of law or law-review articles wey dey make decisions.",Business study
"likewise, state legislatures often adopt whole or parts of uniform acts, such as the uniform commercial code (ucc).","Di state legislatures don adopt whole or parts of uniform act, such as di uniform commercial code (ucc).",Business study
"when a body of secondary law is formally adopted by a legitimate lawmaking authority, then it becomes primary law.","Di bodi of secondary law dey formally adopted by legitimate lawmaking authority, then e become primary law.",Business study
"in this example, adoption ofthe ucc by a state legislature transforms the ucc from a secondary source of law(a model code)to a primary source of law in that state namely, a statute.","Inside this example, adoption of di ucc by a state legislature transforms di ucc from a secondary source of law(a model code)to a primary source of law inside wey state namely, a statute.",Business study
the u. s. constitution created the structure of our federal government.,Di u. s. constitution created di structure of awa federal government.,Business study
"among other things, it sets forth the three branches the legislative, executive, and judicial branches.","E set forth di three branch di legislative, executive, and judicial branch.",Business study
"it provides organizational and procedural requirements, defines the boundaries of each branch's jurisdiction, and creates""checks"" on each branch by the other branches.","E provide organizational and procedural requirements, define di boundaries of each branch's jurisdiction, and create""checks"" on each branch by di oda branch.",Business study
"for example, look at note 1. 26 ""hyperlink: the u. s. constitution"".","for example, make we look note 1. 26 ""hyperlink: di u. s. constitution"".",Business study
that duty falls to congress.,Wey duty falls to congress.,Business study
some ofthe founding fathers did not believe that a bill of rights was necessary because the power granted to the federal government created by the u. s. constitution was expressly limited.,Dem no believe say bill of rights dey necessary because di power granted to di federal goment create by di u. s. constitution dey expressly limited.,Business study
any powers not expressly granted to the federal government by the u. s. constitution are reserved to the states.,Di federal goment by di u. s. constitution dey reserved to di state.,Business study
"this means that if the u. s. constitution does not state that one ofthe federal branches of government has jurisdiction over a particular area, then that area falls to the states to regulate.","Di u. s. constitution no state say one of di federal branch of goment don jurisdiction over a particular area, then say rea fall to di state to regulate.",Business study
"despite the limited power granted to the federal government by the u. s. constitution, as a condition of ratification, many states insisted on a written bill of rights that preserved certain individual civil rights and liberties.","Di limited power granted to di federal goment by di u. s. constitution, as condition of ratification, many states insist on written bill of rights wey dey preserved certain individual civil rights and liberties.",Business study
"today, business entities that are treated as legal persons under the law, such as corporations, enjoy many of these rights and liberties, just as if they were natural human beings.","Di business entities wey dey dem take am as legal person under di law, such as corporations, enjoy many of dis rights and liberties, just as if dem dey natural human beings.",Business study
"each state also has its own constitution, and those constitutions serve essentially the same function for each individual state government as the u. s. constitution serves for the federal government.","Each state sef don get its own constitution, plus those constitutions serve essentially di same function for each individual state government as di u. s. constitution serves for di federal government.",Business study
"specifically, they establish the limits of government power, create protections for fundamental rights, and establish the organization and duties ofthe different branches of government at the state level.","Dem establish di limits of government power, create protection for fundamental rights, and establish di organization and duties of di different branch of government for di level wey dey control for state, no be for federal or local government.",Business study
"this dual system of government present in the united states is called federalism, which is a governance structure whereby the federal government and the state governments coexist through a shared power scheme.","Di dual system of government present for di united states dey call federalism, wey be Di way dem dey manage and control one organization or institution, including di rules, practices, and processes wey dem dey use wey di federal government and di state goment coexist through shared power scheme.",Business study
"state laws may not conflict with federal laws, including the u. s. constitution.","Dem no conflict wit federal laws, including di u. s. constitution.",Business study
this is because the u. s. constitution is the supreme law ofthe land.,Di u. s. constitution dey di supreme law of di land,Business study
statutory law is law created by a legislative body.,Di statutory law dey create by legislative body.,Business study
congress is the legislative body at the federal level.,Di legislative body for di federal level.,Business study
"the states also have legislative bodies, most of which are bicameral, like our federal system.","Di states also get legislative bodies, most of which dey bicameral, like our federal system.",Business study
the state legislatures' names vary by state.,Di state legislatures name dey vary by state,Business study
"for instance, in indiana, the legislature is known as the general assembly.",Di legislature dey known as di general assembly.,Business study
"in north dakota, it is the legislative assembly.","Di legislative assembly for north dakota, na di legislative assembly.",Business study
"in new york, it is called the legislature.",Di legislature dey call di legislature,Business study
"nevertheless, their purposes are the same.",Di purpose dey di same.,Business study
they are the legislative branches of their respective state governments.,Di legislative branches of dia respective state goment.,Business study
"congress is composed of a senate, with 100 members, and a house of representatives, with 435 members.","Di congress dey composed of senate, wit 100 members, and house of representatives, wit 435 members",Business study
"since population numbers from the census taken every ten years determine how many house seats a state receives, smaller states are sometimes disproportionately represented in the senate.","Di population numbers from di census take every ten years determine how many house seats a state receive, smaller state dey sometimes disproportionately represented for senate.",Business study
"alaska and delaware, for example, have only one representative in the house, but each has two senators.","Di house don only one representative for di house, but each get two senators.",Business study
"senators serve six-year terms, and members ofthe house of representatives serve two-year terms.","Senators serve six-year terms, plus members of di house of representatives serve two-year terms.",Business study
there are no term limits for either senators or members ofthe house.,Nano term limits for either senators or members of di house.,Business study
one benefit of having no term limits is that institutional knowledge and wisdom can be carried forward in perpetuity.,One benefit of having no term limits na say institutional knowledge and wisdom go dey carried forward for perpetuity.,Business study
"one drawback is that elected officials may hedge their votes on important issues in a calculated way, to ensure reelection.","One drawback na say elected officials go hedge dia vote on important issues for a calculated way, to ensure reelection.",Business study
"if term limits were imposed, then vote pandering would not be a problem, but the congress would be forever laboring with many inexperienced lawmakers.","Di congress go be forever labor wit many inexperienced lawmakers, but di congress go be forever labor wit many inexperienced lawmakers.",Business study
"as you can see from note 1. 32 ""hyperlink: how a bill becomes a law"", a bill maybe introduced in congress through the senate or through the house of representatives.","As you see from note 1. 32 ""hyperlink: how bill dey become law"", bill dey introduced for Congress through di senate or through di house of representatives.",Business study
"both the house of representatives and the senate have many committees, and these are related to all areas under the purview of congress to legislate.","Di house of representatives and di senate don many committees, and dem dey related to all areas under di purview of congress to legislate.",Business study
"after a bill is introduced, it is sent to an appropriate committee in the chamber ofthe congress where the bill originated.","Di bill dey introduced, e dey send to appropriate committee for di chamber of di congress wey di bill dey present.",Business study
"if the committee moves forward with the bill, it modifies the bill as it sees fit to do, and then it sends the bill to the house of origin ation (either the senate or the house of representatives)for a vote.","Di committee move forward wit di bill, e modifies di bill as e fit do, and then e send di bill to di house of origination (either di senate or di house of representatives)for vote.",Business study
"if the bill passes, then it is sent to the other house(again, either the senate or the house of representatives), where it undergoes the same process.","Dem send to di oda house(either di senate or di house of representatives), wey dem undergo di same process.",Business study
"if the other house votes to approve the bill, then the bill goes to the joint committee, which is composed of members of both the house of representatives and the senate, where final work is completed.","Di bill goto di joint committee, wey dey composed of members of both di house of representatives and di senate, wia final work dey complete.",Business study
"after that, the bill is sent to congress for a full vote.",Di bill dey send to congress for full vote,Business study
"if the bill passes, it is sent to the president.","Di president tok say if di bill pass, dem send to di president.",Business study
"if the president signs the bill, then it becomes a statute.","Di president sign di bill, then e become statute.",Business study
the president may veto a bill.,Di president go veto bill.,Business study
"a presidential veto is an executive""check"" on the legislative body.","Di presidential veto dey executive""check"" on di legislative bodi.",Business study
"however, if the president vetoes a bill, the legislature can override the veto by a supermajority vote.","If di president veto bill, di legislature go override di veto by supermajority vote.",Business study
"a congressional override is a legislative""check"" on the executive branch.","Di congressional override na legislative""check"" on di part of government wey dey carry out and enforce laws— led by President or Prime Minister.",Business study
these checks are built into our u. s. constitution.,Di checks dey build into awa u. s. constitution,Business study
be sure to click on the different boxes for additional information about each step.,Be sure to press different boxes for additional information about each step.,Business study
"importantly, congress may not act outside of its enumerated powers.","Importantly, congress may no act outside of its enumerated powers.",Business study
many people wrongfully believe that congress can do anything.,Di many pipo wrongfully believe say congress fit do anything,Business study
that is simply not true.,E no dey true,Business study
remember that any power not granted to the federal government by the u. s. constitution is reserved to the states.,Di power wey dem grant to di federal goment by di u. s. constitution dey reserved to di states.,Business study
"this means that if congress passed a law in an area that was actually reserved to the states to regulate, congress would have acted outside the scope of its powers.","Di means say if congress pass law for area wey dey actually reserved to di state to regulate, congress go get acting outside di scope of its powers.",Business study
"if challenged, the law would be struck down as unconstitutional.",Di law go struck down as unconstitutional.,Business study
"as a practical matter, this means that many u. s. states have state laws that are very different from eachother.",Di means say many u. s. state don get state laws wey dey different from each oda.,Business study
"for instance, in oregon, certain terminally ill patients may legally commit suicide under the state's death with dignity act.","for example, inside oregon, certain terminally ill patients may legally commit suicide under di state's death with dignity act.",Business study
"however, in many other states, such an act would be illegal.","For many oda states, such act go be illegal.",Business study
common law is judge-made law.,Di common law na judge-made law,Business study
"common law is a feature of most countries previously colonized by great britain, where it originated.","Di common law dey feature of most countries wey dey colonized by great britain, wey dey originated.",Business study
"in continental europe, an alternative system called civil law developed, where judges do not have the power to create law through interpretation.","Di alternative system wey dey call civil law develop, wey judges no get power to create law through interpretation.",Business study
"in civil-law jurisdictions, only the legislature may create law.",Di legislatu dey create law.,Business study
a jurisdiction is an area where power maybe exercised.,Di jurisdiction dey area wey power dey exercise,Business study
"in a common-law system, when an appellate court hears cases and writes opinions, rules of law are created, formed, and shaped.","Di appellate court hear case and write opinions, rules of law dey create, formed, and shaped.",Business study
"after a particular legal issue has been decided in aj urisdiction, there is a high probability that subsequent cases that present the same legal issue will use the same rule of law generated from already-decided cases regarding the same legal issue.",Di high probability say subsequent cases wey present di same legal issue go use di same rule of law wey dey generate from already-decided cases regarding di same legal issue.,Business study
"this policy is known as stare decisis, or""let the decision stand.""","Di policy dey known as stare decisis, or""let di decision stand""",Business study
"this is how a precedent is formed, though precedents may shift or change overtime.","Dina how a precedent dey form, though precedents dey change overtime.",Business study
"precedents also maybe entirely overturned, though that is rare.","E dey rare, though dat dey rare.",Business study
precedents and stare decisis allow us to anticipate the behavior of others and to gauge the legality of our own actions.,Precedents plus stare decisis allow us to anticipate di behavior of others plus to gauge di legality of awa own actions.,Business study
legal reasoning is used by attorneys to argue for a particular outcome in a case and by judges when rendering decisions.,Legal reasoning na used by attorneys to argue for a particular outcome inside a case plus by judges when rendering decisions.,Business study
"at its most basic form, legal reasoning involves first identifying the legal question, which is the issue in dispute.","Di legal reasoning involves first identifying di legal question, wey dey di issue for dispute.",Business study
"then, the rule of law that applies to that issue is identified.",Di rule of law wey dey applies to dat issue dey identified.,Business study
"the rule of law maybe drawn from precedent, for example.","Di rule of law maybe drawn from precedent, for example.",Business study
"this method of legal reasoning is referred to as the irac method, which is an acronym for issue, rule, analysis, and conclusion.","Di method of legal reasoning dey dem dey call di irac method, wey dey acronym for issue, rule, analysis, and conclusion.",Business study
common law is an important source of law in those many areas that are reserved to the states to regulate.,Di common law dey important source of law for di many areas wey dey reserved to di states to regulate.,Business study
"a state may exercise its police powers to regulate the safety, health, and welfare of its citizens, for example.","A state may exercise its police powers to regulate di safety, health, plus welfare of its citizens, for example.",Business study
"the laws implemented in these areas may give rise to laws in divergent areas, such as property law(e. g, zoning regulations), so -called vice laws(e. g, restrictions on vice business activities in certain areas or during certain days), and domestic relations(e. g, laws relating to marriage and adoption).","E. g, restrictions on vice business activities for comprehensive areas or during certain days), and domestic relations(e. g, laws wey dey relating to marriage and adoption), and domestic relations(e. g, laws wey dey relating to marriage and adoption).",Business study
it's also important to note that precedents vary among different jurisdictions because precedents created by one jurisdiction are not binding in other jurisdictions.,E dey important to note say precedents dey among different jurisdictions bikos e no dey binding for her jurisdictions.,Business study
most administrative agencies are created by the legislature.,Di legislature don create most administrative agencies for di legislature.,Business study
"at the federal level they are created by congress, and at the state level they are created through the state legislative bodies.","Di federal level dem dey create by congress, and for di level wey dey control for state, no be for federal or local government dem dey create through di state legislative bodies.",Business study
"administrative agencies maybe thought of as a delegation of congressional authority to area experts in particular fields, so that those experts can engage in limited lawmaking, adjudicative procedures, and investigations within their particular purviews.","Di administrative agencies dey thought as a delegation of congressional authority to area experts for particular fields, so say those experts go engage for limited lawmaking, adjudicative procedures, and investigations wey dem dey within dia particular purviews.",Business study
laws made by administrative agencies are called rules or regulations.,Di laws wey administrative agencies dey call rules or regulations,Business study
"administrative agencies are created by enabling legislation, which sets forth the agencies' jurisdictional boundaries, rule -making procedures, and other information relating to agencies' scopes of power.","Di administrative agencies dey create by enabling legislation, wey set forth di agencies' jurisdictional boundaries, rule -making procedures, and oda information wey dey relating to agencies' scopes of power.",Business study
local and state laws may not conflict with federal laws.,Dem no conflict wit federal laws.,Business study
"primary sources of law in the united states include constitutional law, s tatutory law, common law, and administrative law.","Primary sources of law inside di united states include constitutional law, s tatutory law, common law, plus administrative law.",Business study
identify an action that would violate social norms but would not violate any laws.,Di action wey go violate social norms but no violate any laws.,Business study
can you identify any violations of law that would not violate any social norms?,Dem identify any violations of law wey no violate any social norms?,Business study
what are three specific powers of congress?,What be three specific powers of congress?,Business study
what are three specific powers ofthe executive branch?,Na three specific powers of di part of government wey dey carry out and enforce laws— led by President or Prime Minister?,Business study
do you think that the powers ofthe judicial branch are well defined?,Di power of di judicial branch dey welldefined?,Business study
what areas of law have been reserved to the states to regulate?,Di areas of law don dey reserved to di state to regulate?,Business study
how do you know?,How you take sabi?,Business study
identify a bill in either the house of representatives or the u. s. senate.,Di house of representatives or di u. s. senate.,Business study
what stage(s)of the bill process has it passed through?,For what stage(s)of di bill process don pass through?,Business study
"to be passed into law, what stages must it still pass through?","Di stage must dey pass through, what stage must dem pass through?",Business study
which three federal administrative agencies affect you or your family the most?,Wey three federal administrative agencies affect you or your family di most?,Business study
understand what a rule of law system is.,Di rule of law system dey.,Business study
explore the u. s. rule of law system.,Explore di u. s. rule of law system.,Business study
"when you hear the term""rule of law,""what comes to mind?","Di term""rule of law,"" wey kom to mind?",Business study
"it may seem like an ambiguous term, but it is used frequently in legal and governance circles.",Di term dey use frequently for legal and governance circles,Business study
"rule of law is a system of laws under which the people and the government are bound, which allows predictability and restraint of government action.","Di rule of law dey system of laws wey di pipo and di goment dey bound, wey allow predictability and restraint of government action.",Business study
a rule of law legitimizes the law.,Di law dey legitimize di law.,Business study
"it establishes clear rules of behavior, establishes (or captures)precedent, and seriously undermines any defense of ignorance ofthe law.","Di law establish clear rules of behavior, establish (or captures)precedent, and seriously undermines any defense of ignorance of di law.",Business study
"moreover, it holds people to the same standards, though in many ancient rules of law, the standards differed depending on the person's classification.","Dem hold pipo to di same standards, though for many ancient rules of law, di standards dey based on di person's classification.",Business study
"for instance, men often had different rights than women.","for example, men dey get different rights than women.",Business study
"slaves were a different legal class than those who were free, and indentured servants were often a different classification altogether.","Dem dey different legal class than those wey dey free, and indentured servants dey different classification altogether.",Business study
"when people are held to the same standards, we can see systems of fairness(that is, equal justice under the law)emerging, atleast for those within the same class.","We fit see systems of fairness(that dey, equal justice under di law) emergin, atleast for those wey dey inside di same class.",Business study
the founding fathers ofthe united states did not create our rule of law system out of thin air.,Di founding fathers of di united states did no create awa rule of law system comot of thin air.,Business study
many rule of law systems existed prior to the founding ofthe united states. the u. s. rule of law system has many similarities with prior rule of law systems from which our founding fathers drew their ideas.,Di united states. di u. s. rule of law system don many similarities wit prior rule of law system from wey awa founding fathers drew dia ideas.,Business study
we can trace elements of our legal genealogy back to ancient babylon.,We fit trace elements of awa legal genealogy back to ancient babylon.,Business study
"for example, who has the right to govern, the legitimate sources of law, the organization of government, substantive and procedural legal responsibilities, processes for dispute resolution, and consequences for legal transgressions are all common foci for rule of law systems.","for example, wey get di right to govern, di legitimate source of law, di organization of goment, substantive and procedural legal responsibilities, process for dispute resolution, and consequences for legal transgressions dey all common foci for rule of law systems.",Business study
can you imagine if we had no wa y to determine these things?,But you imagine if we no get wa y to determine dis things?,Business study
imagine that we did not know who had the legitimate right to governor that we did not know which sources of law were legitimate.,We no know say we no know say we get legitimate right to governor say we no know which sources of law dey legitimate.,Business study
"if we did not have a rule of law system that specified and legitimized these and other foundational issues, chaos would rule.","If we no get rule of law system wey dey specifi and legitimized dis and oda foundational issues, chaos go rule.",Business study
there would likely be competing claims of authority between different factions of power if our u. s. constitution and our state constitutions did not create our systems of government.,Di u. s. constitution and awa state constitution no create awa system of government.,Business study
"perhaps some people would favor a vigilante system, while others would prefer a procedural system.","Forhaps some pipo wey dey favor vigilante system, while odas go prefer a procedural system.",Business study
this type of unpredictability would result in avery unstable society.,This type of unhow person take know wetin go happen go result inside a well-well unstable society.,Business study
we should not take the american rule of law system for granted.,We suppose no take di american rule of law system for granted.,Business study
it provides predictability and stability to our lives.,E provide predictability and stability to awa lives,Business study
"rule of law systems establish authority, create expectations for behavior, and establish redress for grievances and penalties for deviance.","Rule of law systems establish authority, create expectations for behavior, plus establish redress for grievances plus penalties for deviance.",Business study
governance of conflict and the attainment of peace among the governed are primary goals of rule of law systems.,Di governance of conflict and di attainment of peace among di governed dey primary goals of rule of law systems.,Business study
"for example, securing peace is a goal within the u. s. rule of law system.","for example, security peace dey goal within di u. s. rule of law system.",Business study
"the u. s. constitution's preamble states,""we the people. in order to. insure domestic tranquility.""","Di u. s. constitution's preamble state,""we di pipo wey dey in order to insure domestic tranquility",Business study
"we see this same notion in the english bill of rights of 1689, though th e words used are somewhat different.","We see dis same notion for di english bill of rights of 1689, though th e words use dey somewhat different.",Business study
"according to many rule of law systems, the attainment of peace relies on the establishment of a hierarchical authority structure.","According to boku rule of law systems, di attainment of peace relies on di establishment of a hierarchical authority structure.",Business study
this recognition ofthe right to govern provides legitimacy.,This recognition of di right to govern provides legitimacy.,Business study
"for instance, in the code of hamm urabi and the magna carta, these rights are derived from religious authority.","for example, for di code of hamm urabi and di magna carta, dis rights dey derived from religious authority.",Business study
"in the u. s. constitution and the english bill of rights of 1689, the power is derived from the people.",Di power dey derived from di pipo.,Business study
note the difference between power and authority.,Di difference wey dey between power and authority,Business study
power is the ability to make someone behave in a predictable manner.,Di ability to make someone behave for predictable manner,Business study
authority draws its strength from legitimacy.,Di authority draw dia strength from legitimacy.,Business study
imagine that your friend told you that his mother granted him the right to govern others.,Di friend tell you say hin mother grant am di right to govern odas.,Business study
would you believe him?,I suppose believe him?,Business study
"because it is unlikely that you would recognize your friend's mother as having a legitimate authority to bestow the right to govern on anyone, including your friend.","E dey unlikely say you go recognize your friend's mother as having legitimate authority to bestow di right to govern on anyone, including your friend.",Business study
"imagine, instead, the governor of your state.","Di governor of your state, instead, di governor of your state",Business study
"you probably recognize the authority ofthe governor to govern, because you recognize that the people, through representative government, have the authority to elect the governor to do so.","Di pipo, through representative government, don get di authority to elect di governor to do so.",Business study
"additionally, within the united states, several state and local jurisdictions exist, each having its own rule of law systems.","Additionally, within di united states, several state plus local pawa of kot to judge cases exist, each having its own rule of law systems.",Business study
"moreover, the u. s. system of governance is one of federalism, which allows different rule of law systems to operate side by side.","Di u. s. system of governance dey one of federalism, wey allow different rule of law systems to operate side by side.",Business study
"in the united states, these systems are the federal government and the state governments.",Di system dey di federal goment and di state goment.,Business study
organizational structures for government including who has the right to govern are also set out in rule of law systems.,Di organizational structure for goment including wey get di right to govern dey set out for rule of law systems.,Business study
"for instance, the code of hammurabi identified a ruler: hammurabi himself.","for example, di code of hammurabi identified a ruler: hammurabi himself.",Business study
the english bill of rights of 1689 required representative bodies.,Di english bill of rights of 1689 required representative bodies.,Business study
"the u. s. constitution organized the u. s. government by creating the legislative, executive, and judicial branches.","Di u. s. constitution organize di u. s. goment by creating di legislative, executive, and judicial branch.",Business study
"these models minimally provide order and, in some cases, provide opportunities for the governed to participate in government, both of which create role expectations ofthe governed.","These models minimally provide order plus, inside some cases, provide opportunities for di governed to participate inside government, both of wey create role expectations of di governed.",Business study
"notably, even though our founding fathers relied on prior rule of law systems when creating our constitution, they were unable to resolve all challenges that exist when people live together.","Di founding fathers dey reli on prior rule of law systems wen we dey create awa constitution, dem no dey unable to resolve all challenges wey dey exist wen pipo live together.",Business study
"today, for instance, one unresolved challenge is reflected in the tension between personal liberty and responsibility to state.","for example, one unresolve challenge dey reflect in di tension wey dey between personal liberty and responsibility to state.",Business study
"we have many individual rights and personal liberties, but as some argue, we do not have many responsibilities to the state.","As some argue, we no get many individual rights and personal liberties, but as some argue, we no get many responsibilities to di state.",Business study
"we could have a system that requires greater duties such as the legal duty to vote, to serve in public office or in the military, or to maintain public lands.","We go get system wey require greater duties such as di legal duty to vote, to serve for public office or for di military, or to maintain public lands.",Business study
unresolved challenges highlight the fact that rule of law systems are not perfect systems of governance.,Di fact say rule of law systems no perfect systems of governance.,Business study
"nevertheless, these systems create expectations for conduct, without which governance of conflict could not reasonably exist and peace could not be attained.","Di systems create expectations for conduct, without which governance of conflict no exist and peace no dey attained.",Business study
the u. s. constitution is the foundation on which the u. s. federal rule of law system rests.,Di u. s. constitution dey di foundation on which di u. s. federal rule of law system rest,Business study
it asserts the supremacy of law.,Dem assert di supremacy of law.,Business study
"""we the people""is avery important part ofthe preamble, because it confers power on the people aswell as on the states.","We di pipo"" dey important part of di preamble, because e confer power on di pipo aswell as on di states.",Business study
"notably, unlike the magna car ta and the english bill of rights of 1689, it does not focus on individual rights.",Di magna car ta and di english bill of rights of 1689 no focus on individual rights.,Business study
"ofcourse, the bill of rights does focus on individual rights, but those amendments were passed after the constitution was written.","Di bill of rights don focus on individual rights, but di bill of rights don focus on individual rights, but those amendments don pass afta di constitution.",Business study
(that is why they are called amendments to the constitution.),Di constitution dey call amendments to di constitution,Business study
the u. s. constitution implemented the supremacy of law using structure and processes.,Di u. s. constitution implemented di supremacy of law using structure plus processes.,Business study
the founding fathers were particularly concerned about giving the government the power to do its job without encouraging tyranny.,Di founding fathers dey particularly concerned about giving di goment power to do im job without encouraging tyranny.,Business study
they built in processes to ensure the supremacy of law.,Di supremacy of law go ensure di supremacy of law.,Business study
"thomas paine noted the same sentiment in common sense, when he wrote,""the law is king.""",Thomas paine tok say di law dey king,Business study
a rule of law system allows people to understand what is expected of them.,Di rule of law system don allow pipo to understand what dey expected of dem,Business study
"it provides a system that allows many people with different beliefs and cultures to live together in peace, by providing methods by which conflicts can be resolved.","E provide system wey all pipo wit different beliefs and cultures to live together for peace, by providing methods wey conflict dey resolve.",Business study
the u. s. rule of law system contains many elements of prior rule of law systems.,Di u. s. rule of law system contains boku elements of prior rule of law systems.,Business study
"scroll down slightly until you see the subheading ""code of laws.""","Di subheading ""code of laws""",Business study
find three laws that you believe are similar to laws that we have in the united states.,Di three laws wey you believe dey similar to laws wey we get for di united state.,Business study
"given the long history of rule of law systems, why hasn't any rule of law system been developed that resolves all problems?","Di long history of rule of law system, why no any rule of law system don develop say resolve all problems?",Business study
"name three social problems that our rule of law system does not address, or does not address adequately.","Di rule of law system no address, or no address adequately.",Business study
are t he ten commandments a rule of law system?,Di commandments wey dey rule of law system?,Business study
how many ofthe ten commandments are illegal in your state today?,How many of di ten commandments dey illegal for your state today?,Business study
what problems would exist without a rule of law?,Di problem go exist without rule of law?,Business study
how does the rule of law affect business?,How does di rule of law affect business?,Business study
determine why the rule of law is important to business.,Di rule of law dey important to business,Business study
identify several areas of law that are especially relevant to business and the importance ofthe rule of law to those areas.,Dem identify several areas of law wey dey relevant to business and di importance of di rule of law to those areas,Business study
identify how the rule of law limits government.,Di rule of law limit government,Business study
identify how the rule of law protects people from harmful business practices.,Di rule of law protect pipo from harmful business practices.,Business study
"as you may have guessed by now, the rule of law is important to business.",Di rule of law dey important to business,Business study
can you imagine trying to do business without being able to have any reasonable expectations of other people's behavior?,Dem imagine try to do business without being able to get any reasonable expectations of oda pipo's behavior?,Business study
would you be willing to conduct business if you had no legal means by which to protect your property interests?,I go fit conduct business if you no legal means wey dey protect your property interest?,Business study
"and in the case of a dispute, without a rule of law system, there would be no established way of resolving it.","Di case of dispute, without rule of law system, na no establish way of resolvin am.",Business study
"without the rule of law, business would be chaotic.","Di rule of law, business go chaotic.",Business study
"before getting to those examples, imagine this: what if you did not know how to play chess, but you tried to play anyhow?","Before getting to those examples, imagine this: what if you did no know how to play chess, but you tried to play anyhow?",Business study
"you would probably become frustrated very quickly, because you would see no logic in the movement of your opponent's pieces, and you would not be permitted to move some pieces like you might wish to.","Dem no see no logic for di movement of your opponent's pieces, and you no fit move some pieces like you fit wish to.",Business study
sometimes you would see your opponent move his or her knight two spaces in one direction and then one space in another.,Di sometimes you go see your opponent move hin or her knight two space in one direction and then one space for another,Business study
"other times, you would see your opponent move his or her bishop diagonally.",I go see your opponent move hin or her bishop diagonally,Business study
"moreover, you would not understand what you were and were not permitted to do.",Di suppose understand what you dey and dey no permitted to do.,Business study
you would also not know how to penalize an opponent wh o moved his or her pieces incorrectly to gain advantage or to take something of yours.,You go sef no know how to penalize an opponent wh o moved im or im pieces incorrectly to gain advantage or to take something of yours.,Business study
this is analogous to what it's like to do business without understanding the rules ofthe game.,Dis dey analogous to what e like to do business without understanding di rules of di game.,Business study
the rule of law establishes rules that people and businesses must follow to avoid being penalized.,Di rule of law establish rules wey pipo and business must follow to avoid being penalized.,Business study
"should disputes arise, the rule of law provides a peaceful and predictable means by which those disputes can be resolved.",Di rule of law provide peaceful and predictable means wey those disputes go resolve.,Business study
the rule of law provides guidance and direction in every area of business.,Di rule of law provides guidance plus direction inside every area of business.,Business study
"for example, it provides a means to bring a complaint against another party to a neutral decision maker so that a decision can be made regarding the dispute.",E provide means to bring complaint against one party to neutral decisionmaker so say a decision fit make di decision wey dey make regarding di dispute.,Business study
"because of our rule of law system, we know that we are permitted to file a complaint in the proper court to commence litigation.",We know say we dey permitted to file complaint for di proper court to commence litigation.,Business study
or we can try an alternative method of dispute resolution if we do not wish to engage in litigation.,Or we fit try an alternative method of dispute resolution if we do no wish to engage inside to drag matter for kot.,Business study
we know that we are permitted to do these things because our rule of law system allows us to do them.,We know say we dey permitted to do dis things bikos our rule of law system don allow us to do dem,Business study
"moreover, we can expect some sort of resolution when we institute such a proceeding.",We fit expect some sort of resolution wen we institute such proceeding.,Business study
this expectation is reasonable only because we have a rule of law.,Di expectation dey reasonable only because we get rule of law,Business study
"additionally, in the united states, the rule of law provides a sophisticated system of federalism, where state and federal laws coexist.","Di rule of law provide sophisticated system of federalism, wey state and federal laws coexist.",Business study
this allows people and businesses to determine which system of government pertains to them and which jurisdiction they belong to.,Di allows pipo and businesses to determine which system of government dey pertain to demand which jurisdiction dem dey belong to.,Business study
imagine that you sell firearms in a retail capacity.,I imagine say you sell firearms for retail capacity.,Business study
you would be subject to both state and federal laws.,Dem go subject to both state and federal laws.,Business study
"you would be required to carry a federal permit from the federal administrative agency known as the bureau of alcohol, tobacco, firearms, and explosives.","Di federal administrative agency wey be di bureau of alcohol, tobacco, firearms, and explosives.",Business study
you would be forbidden from engaging in illegal arms trading.,You go be forbidden from engaging inside illegal arms trading.,Business study
"according to state laws, you would likely have to ensure that each purchaser of a firearm held a valid permit for a firearm.","Di state laws, you go like to ensure say each purchaser of firearm get valid permit for firearm.",Business study
"you would be required to check identification, enforce waiting periods, and refuse to sell guns to people who were not permitted to carry them according to your state's laws.","Di state go need check identification, enforce waiting periods, and refuse to sell guns to pipo wey no dey carry dem according to your state's laws.",Business study
"if we did not have a rule of law system, you might be uncertain how to conduct your business, and you would be subject to arbitrary enforcement of unstated or ex post facto (retroactive) laws that affected your business.","As we no get rule of law system, you go be uncertain how to conduct your business, and you go subject to arbitrary enforcement of unstated or ex post facto (retroactive) laws wey dey affect your business.",Business study
the rule of law also governs contracts between people and between merchants.,Di rule of law also govern contract between pipo and between merchants.,Business study
"under the common law system, certain elements of a contract must exist for the contract to be enforceable.","Under di common law system, certain elements of a contract must exist for di contract to be enforceable.",Business study
"under the uniform commercial code (ucc), merchants are governed by a separate set of rules that anticipate and allow for flexibility in contractual terms, to facilitate business needs.","Under di uniform commercial code (ucc), merchants be governed by a separate set of rules wey anticipate plus allow for flexibility inside contractual terms, to facilitate business needs.",Business study
"in the event that terms conflict in an offer and acceptance between merchants, the ucc allows""gap fillers""to complete the terms ofthe contract without need for the contract to be rewritten or for formal dispute resolution.","Di ucc allow""gap fillers""to complete di terms of di contract without need for di contract wey dey rewritten or for formal dispute resolution.",Business study
"additionally, because we have a rule of law system, employers know t he rules ofthe game regarding their relationship to employees, and employees know the rules with respect to their obligations to employers.","We don get rule of law system, employers know e rules of di game regarding dia relationship to employees, and employees know di rules wit respect to dia obligations to employers.",Business study
"likewise, business partners, members of boards of corporations, and members of limited liability companies all know what is expected of them in their roles vis-a-vis the business and other people within their organizations.","For likewise, business partners, members of board of corporations, and members of limited liability companies all know what dey expected of dem for dia role vis-a-vis di business and oda pipo wey dey inside dia organization.",Business study
"when someone does something that is not permitted, there is legal recourse.",Di legal recourse.,Business study
the rule of law also provides protection for property.,Di rule of law sef provides protection for property.,Business study
"imagine if we di d not have protection for nontangible property, such as intellectual property like trade secrets, trademarks, or copyrights.","Imagine if we di d no get protection for nontangible property, such as Ideas, books, music, inventions and creative works wey law dey protect as belonging to someone like trade secrets, trademarks, or copyrights.",Business study
it would be very difficult to protect this type of property if we did not know the rules ofthe game.,E go be difficult to protect dis type of property if we no know di rules of di game,Business study
people would not have the incentive to create or share new intellectual property if they had no reasonable expectation of being able to protect it or of being rewarded for their creations.,"Di pipo no get di incentive to create or share new Ideas, books, music, inventions and creative works wey law dey protect as belonging to someone if dem no get reasonable expectation of being able to protect amor of being reward am for dia creations.",Business study
"likewise, the rule of law allows us to protect tangible property without having to goto extraordinary measures.","Likewise, di rule of law allows us to protect tangible property without having to goto extraordinary measures.",Business study
"for instance, if we had no rule of law system to convey and maintain legal ownership to us for our real or personal property, we might be forced to hire expensive private security forces to guard our property when we could not be there to physically protect it ourselves.","If we no get rule of law system to convey and maintain legal ownership to us for our real or personal property, we go force to hire expensive private security forces to guard awa property wen we no be there to physically protect am.",Business study
businesses also rely on the rule of law to govern their debtor and creditor relationships.,Businesses sef rely on di rule of law to govern dia debtor plus creditor relationships.,Business study
"and, if financial matters do not go as anticipated, our legal system allows businesses to ask the court for protection from creditors under our bankruptcy law.","Plus, if financial matters do no go as anticipated, awa legal system allows businesses to ask di court for protection from creditors under awa bankruptcy law.",Business study
this allows businesses to protect their property from creditor repossessions or foreclosures while they get back on track financially.,Dem allow business to protect dia property from creditor repossessions or foreclosures while dem get back on track financially.,Business study
the rule of law also protects people from businesses.,Di rule of law also protect pipo from business,Business study
"for example, congress has enacted antitrust legislation that prevents certain anticompetitive practices, such as colluding and price fixing.","for example, congress don get enacted antitrust legislation wey prevents certain anticompetitive practices, such as colluding plus price fixing.",Business study
"additionally, businesses are prohibited from using deceptive advertising and are held responsible when they manufacture or sell defective products that cause injury.","additionally, business dey prohibited from using deceptive advertising and dey hold responsible wen dem manufacture or sell defective products wey dem use injury.",Business study
the rule of law also protects businesses from government.,Di rule of law sef protects businesses from government.,Business study
"government must play by the rules, too.","Government must play by di rules, too.",Business study
"for example, imagine that our government could do anything, without any limits or jurisdictional restraints.","for example, imagine wey awa government fit do anything, without any limits or pawa of kot to judge caseal restraints.",Business study
"a business operating in such a climate might find itself subject to government closure on a whim, or excessive taxes, or requirements to pa y bribes to gain permits to do business.","Di business wey dey operating for such climate go find imself subject to government closure on whim, or excessive taxes, or requirements to pa y bribes to gain permit to do business.",Business study
our rule of law system prevents such abuses.,Awa rule of law system prevents such abuses.,Business study
"without a rule of law system, people would have to exact satisfaction for the wrongs committed against them on their own.",Di pipo go get exact satisfaction for di wrongs wey dem committed against demon dia own.,Business study
they would have to physically protect their own property.,Dem go need to physically protect dia own property,Business study
"this would lead to a breakdown in social structure, and it would result in vigilante justice and physical strength playing primary roles in dispute resolution.","This go lead to a breakdown inside social structure, plus am go result inside vigilante justice plus physical strength playing primary roles inside dispute resolution.",Business study
"it creates a stable environment where plans can be made, property can be protected, expectations can exist, complaints can be made, and rights can be protected.","E create stable environment wey plan fit make, property fit be protected, expectations fit exist, complaints fit be made, and rights fit be protected",Business study
violation ofthe law can result in penalties.,Di law go result for penalties.,Business study
"the rule of law protects business, protects consumers from harmful business practices, and limits government from engaging in abusive practices against businesses.","Di rule of law protects business, protects consumers from harmful business practices, plus limits government from engaging inside abusive practices against businesses.",Business study
have you ever played a game in which you did not know all the rules?,I no know all di rules?,Business study
have you ever tried to speak a language in which you weren't fluent?,Na you ever try to speak a language wey you no dey fluent?,Business study
what was the outcome?,Di outcome na di outcome?,Business study
what incentive or motivation would exist to work for your employer if you were not certain that you would be paid for your efforts and your time?,What something wey go ginger person or motivation go exist to work for your employer if you bin be no certain wey you go be paid for your efforts plus your time?,Business study
"what incentive would you have to invent something new, create a work of art, or write a book if you had no legal expectation that you would be able to protect your creation?","What something wey go ginger person go you go get to invent something new, create a work of art, or write a book if you bin get no legal expectation wey you go be able to protect your creation?",Business study
imagine that you are an entrepreneur.,As you dey entrepreneur,Business study
what type of business would you open?,Di type of business go you open?,Business study
would you know what types of permits were required to conduct your business and which government entities had jurisdiction over your business?,I know how types of permits dey required to conduct your business and which government entities don jurisdiction over your business?,Business study
"if not, how could you find out?","If no, how fit you find comot?",Business study
what would business be like in a land without any rule of law system?,What go business be like inside a land without any rule of law system?,Business study
identify the relevance of law to business disciplines.,Identify di relevance of law to business disciplines.,Business study
understand the relevance of law to the study of business.,Di relevance of law to di study of business,Business study
"foundational courses taken by undergraduate business students usually include accounting, finance, management, and marketing.","Foundational courses taken by undergraduate business students usually include accounting, finance, management, plus marketing.",Business study
"an understanding ofthe legal environment of business is relevant indeed, essential to functioning well within each of those disciplines.","Di legal environment of business dey relevant indeed, essential to function well within each of di disciplines.",Business study
"additionally, a solid understanding ofthe legal environment can help avoid liability or atleast minimize risk.","Additionally, a solid understanding of di legal environment fit help avoid liability or atleast minimize risk.",Business study
"in business, it is not enough to comport yourself and your business ethically.",Di business no dey enough to comport yourself and your business ethically,Business study
you must also ensure that you understand the legal environment in which you are working.,E must also ensure say you understand di legal environment wey you dey work.,Business study
"therefore, it is important to you, to your employer, and to all the other people who maybe relying on your business expertise such as your employees and your family to understand the legal environment.","E dey important to you, to your employer, and to all di oda pipo wey dey relying on your business expertise such as your employees and your family to understand di legal environment",Business study
"such an understanding will help you avoid or lessen the likelihood of liability exposure, enabling you to manage your business affairs successfully, unhampered by unmanaged legal liability risks.","Such an understanding go help you avoid or lessen di likelihood of liability exposure, enabling you to manage your business affairs successfully, unhampered by unmanaged legal wahala of wey go pay for damage.",Business study
"during the last several years, accountants have been in the limelight due to culpable behavior of some members ofthe profession during well-known business scandals, such as enron.","During di last several years, accountants get been inside di limelight due to culpable behavior of some members of di profession during well-known business scandals, such as enron.",Business study
"largely as a result ofthe fallout from the enron case, congress passed the sarbanes -oxley act(sox) of 2002, which imposed stringent oversight requirements on accounting and auditing firms.","Dem pass di sarbanes -oxley act(sox) of 2002, wey impose stringent oversight requirements on accounting and audit firms.",Business study
"the requirements seek to ensure competence, compliance with security laws, and conduct consistent with generally accepted accounting principles.","Di requirements seek to ensure competence, compliance with security laws, plus conduct consistent with generally accepted accounting principles.",Business study
"ofcourse, the enron scandal and sox were both fairly dramatic examples of how law can affect accounting.",Di enron scandal and sox dey both fairly dramatic example of how law fit affect accounting.,Business study
other ways in which law affects this discipline are through regulation.,Di ways wey law affect dis discipline dey through regulation,Business study
"for example, the u. s. securities and exchange commission's(sec) mission is to protect investors and to maintain a fair market, among other things.","Di u. s. securities and exchange commission's(sec) mission dey protect investors and to maintain fair market, among oda things.",Business study
the sec pursues charges of accounting fraud and oversees private regulation ofthe accounting profession.,Di sec pursues charges of accounting fraud plus oversees private regulation of di accounting profession.,Business study
the law also affects finance.,Di law also affect finance,Business study
"like accounting professionals, many who workin finance are also regulated by the sec.","For accounting professionals, many wey work for finance dey also regulated by di sec.",Business study
the sec is concerned that investors receive accurate information to make investment decisions.,Di sec dey concerned say investors receive accurate information to make investment decisions,Business study
"moreover, the sec enforces prohibitions against insider trading and pursues claims of other types of securities fraud, such as ponzi schemes.","Moreover, di sec enforces prohibitions against insider trading plus pursues claims of other types of securities fraud, such as ponzi schemes.",Business study
"similarly, several statutes protect consumers in financial transactions.",Di statutes dey protect consumers for financial transaction,Business study
"for example, the truth in lending act (tila) requires lenders to accurately provide information concerning the costs involved in offers of credit.",Di truth for lending act (tila) require lenders to provide information concerning di cost wey dey involved for offers of credit.,Business study
tila and its corresponding regulation z are administered by federal banking agencies.,Dem dey administered by federal banking agencies.,Business study
law also affects those in management.,Di law also affect those for management.,Business study
"for instance, knowledge of employment law is essential to those inhuman resources.","for example, knowledge of employment law na essential to those inside dey refer to dem department wey dey handle recruitment, training, and management of staff for school or company, wey dem dey call human resources, but for pidgin, we fit call am 'staff management' or 'staff office', but make we use 'human resources' as dem take am, since no be everyday pidgin get direct translation for am.",Business study
title vii ofthe civil rights act prohibits discrimination related to protected characteristics in hiring and employment practices.,Title vii of di civil rights act prohibits discrimination related to protected characteristics inside hiring plus employment practices.,Business study
those in management also must be aware ofthe potential liability that demands on employees might create.,Di employees wey dey management dey to know di potential liability wey dey demand on employees might create,Business study
"for example, in oregon, mcdonald's was found to be liable for injuries resulting when an off-duty, off-premises worker fell asleep while driving.","For oregon, mcdonald's dey found to be liable for injuries resulting wen a off duty, off -premises worker fall asleep while driving.",Business study
the court held that employers have a duty to avoid conduct that creates a foreseeable risk of harm to others.,Di court tok say employers don take duty to avoid conduct wey create foreseeable risk of harm to odas.,Business study
"if your field is marketing, the law also relates to your work.","If your field na marketing, di law sef relates to your work.",Business study
"marketers must be particularly attuned to tort law, consumer protection law, and intellectual property law.","Marketers must be particularly attuned to tort law, consumer protection law, plus Ideas, books, music, inventions and creative works wey law dey protect as belonging to someone law.",Business study
"for example, to avoid charges of libel, those in advertising need to take care not to defame another person, business, or product.","for example, to avoid charges of libel, those inside advertising need to take care no to defame another person, business, or product.",Business study
"it might be tempting to do so, especially if you were engaged in serious competition with another company that sold a similar product.","If you dey engage for serious competition wit one company wey sell similar product, especially if you dey engage for serious competition wit one company wey sell similar product",Business study
"likewise, marketers must take great care not to engage in deceptive advertising practices, lest their employer run afoul ofthe federal trade commission's (ftc)policies or the ftc act.","Likewise, marketers must take great care no to engage inside deceptive advertising practices, lest dia employer run afoul of di federal trade commission's (ftc)policies or di ftc act.",Business study
"additionally, marketers must be aware of other people's intellectual property to avoid copyright or trademark infringement in their own work product.","Additionally, marketers must be to know other pipo's Ideas, books, music, inventions and creative works wey law dey protect as belonging to someone to avoid copyright or trademark infringement inside dia own work product.",Business study
"ofcourse, this is just an overview.",Dis dey just overview.,Business study
it is incumbent on each business professional to become familiar with the legal environment in his or her profession.,E dey incumbent on each business professional to become familiar wit di legal environment for hin or her profession.,Business study
"employers may provide training regarding legal environment issues, such as anti sexual harassment training or anti insider trading training, but ultimately, becoming familiar with the legal environment is each person's individual responsibility.","Di employers go provide training regarding legal environment issues, such as anti sexual harassment training or anti insider trading training, but ultimately, becoming familiar wit di legal environment dey individual responsibility.",Business study
"remember that a defense of""i didn't know the law!""","Di defense of""i no know di law!""",Business study
is no defense at all.,Nano defense for all.,Business study
"minimizing liability exposure is a primary concern of business, and an understanding ofthe legal environment relevant to each disciplinary perspective helps business practitioners minimize their risk of incurring liability to themselves or to their employers.","Minimizing liability exposure na a primary concern of business, plus an understanding of di how law things be relevant to each disciplinary perspective helps business practitioners minimize dia risk of incurring liability to themselves or to dia employers.",Business study
which business discipline is your favorite?,Di business discipline dey your favorite?,Business study
find a newspaper article that illustrates a legal problem pertaining to that discipline that could have been avoided with a better understanding ofthe legal environment of business.,Di newspaper article wey dey illustrate legal problem wey dey pertaining to di discipline wey dey avoid wit better understanding of di legal environment of business.,Business study
how can employers use knowledge ofthe legal environment of business to minimize liability exposure?,How fit employer use knowledge of di legal environment of business to minimize liability exposure?,Business study
identify three concrete ideas.,Dem identify three concrete ideas,Business study
how can employers stay current with the legal environment of business?,How fit employer stay current wit di legal environment of business?,Business study
"do you think that if employers train their employees how to behave on the job, those employers should be absolved from legal liability resulting from employees' actions?","Do you think wey if employers train dia employees how to behave on di job, those employers suppose be absolved from legal liability resulting from employees' actions?",Business study
"for example, imagine that an employer provides training to its employees regarding how to avoid sexual harassment in the workplace, but an employee ignores the training and sexually harasses a colleague.","for example, imagine wey an employer provides training to its employees regarding how to avoid sexual harassment inside di workplace, but an employee ignores di training plus sexually harasses a colleague.",Business study
should the employer bear liability in that situation?,Di employer bear liability for dat situation?,Business study
knowledge ofthe legal environment of business is essential to successful business practices.,Di legal environment of business dey essential to successful business practices.,Business study
"this involves understanding what the law is, where it comes from, and specifically how it relates to business.","Dis dey involve understanding how di law dey, wey dem kom from, and specifically how dem relates to business.",Business study
"moreover, different philosophies of law exist.","Moreover, different philosophies of law exist.",Business study
approaching a problem from different perspectives allows for multiple outcomes to be explored.,Approaching a problem from different perspectives allows for multiple outcomes to be explored.,Business study
"additionally, when people approach the same problem from different legal philosophies, reasonable minds can disagree on the outcome.","for example, wen pipo approach di same problem from different legal philosophies, reasonable minds go disagree on di outcome.",Business study
familiarity with government structure and an understanding of rule of law are essential to successful business operations.,Di familiarity wit government structure and understanding of rule of law dey essential to successful business operations.,Business study
"ultimately, businesspeople should be able to recognize legal situations, minimize liability exposure, and know when to consult an attorney.","Ultimately, businesspipo suppose be able to recognize legal situations, minimize liability exposure, plus know when to consult an attorney.",Business study
"as you embark on your study ofthe legal environment, try to remain oriented.","As you embark on your study of di how law things be, try to remain oriented.",Business study
"ask yourself questions like""where does this piece of law fit in the business world?""",Di piece of law fit for business world?,Business study
"and""why is it important for me to know this?""","Di important for me to know dis?""and ""why dey important for me to know dis?",Business study
"studying the law can, at times, seem like studying pieces of avery large jigsaw puzzle.","Studying di law fit, at times, seem like studying pieces of a well-well large jigsaw puzzle.",Business study
"you may not immediately see how individual pieces fit together, but with protracted study of law, it will become clear.","Dem no immediately see how individual pieces fit together, but wit protracted study of law, e go become clear.",Business study
"often, with that understanding, the depth of law becomes apparent.","Di depth of law dey apparent, di depth of law dey apparent",Business study
"additionally, it is very helpful if you try to find contemporary examples ofthe concepts that are discussed in this book.",E dey helpful if you try find contemporary examples of di concepts wey dey discuss for hin book,Business study
"when surfing the internet, watching movies, or reviewing current events, try to""issue spot.""","When surfing di internet, watching movies, or reviewing current events, try to""issue spot.""",Business study
"in other words, try to identify the legal issue raised by the particular problem presented.","For oda words, try to identify di legal issue wey dey raised by di particular problem presented.",Business study
try to figure out which jurisdiction would have authority over the issue.,Dem try to sabi wetin dey happen or find solution by dey think amor try different tin which jurisdiction go get authority over di issue.,Business study
try to determine which type of law would control or be determinative ofthe outcome.,Try to determine wey type of law go control or be determinative of di outcome.,Business study
is it a statutory issue?,Di statutory issue?,Business study
a constitutional issue?,A constitutional issue?,Business study
a regulatory issue?,Di regulatory issue?,Business study
"also, try to ask yourself why the dispute wa s raised.","Di dispute wa s raised, try to ask you why di dispute wa s raised",Business study
will the parties involved be able to work it out on their own?,Di parties involved be able to work am out on dia own?,Business study
"if not, why not?","If no, why no?",Business study
has the issue entered into litigation?,Don get di issue entered enter to drag matter for kot?,Business study
how could the issue have been avoided with better planning and greater familiarity with the legal environment?,How could di issue go avoid wit better planning and great familiarity wit di legal environment?,Business study
this little game can give you practice in orienting yourself as you gain footing in the study of law and the legal environment of business.,Di little game don give you practice for orienting yourself as you gain footing for di study of law and di legal environment of business.,Business study
we wish you every success in your course!,We wish you every success inside your course!,Business study
"specifically, you should be able to answer the following questions:1.","Di following questions, you go need answer di following questions:",Business study
what role does each ofthe three branches of government play?,Di role wey dey each of di three branch of goment play?,Business study
how doth e other two branches of government balance the judiciary?,How doth e other two branches of government balance di judiciary?,Business study
how are the state and federal courts structured?,How dey di state and federal court structured?,Business study
what are the primary differences between trial and appellate courts?,What be di primary differences between trial plus appellate courts?,Business study
how does the supreme court do its work?,How does di supreme court do its work?,Business study
"as you now know, laws are meaningless if they are not enforced.","As you know, laws dey meaningless if dem no dey enforce",Business study
"companies have to make a barrage of decisions daily, from product development to marketing to strategies to maintain growth, but most of these are based on sound business acumen rather than legal requirements.","Di companies don make barrage of decisions daily, from product development to marketing to strategies to maintain growth, but most of dis dey based on sound business acumen no be legal requirements.",Business study
"if a company does violate a law, however, it must be held accountable.","Di company don violate law, however, e must hold accountable.",Business study
"typically, that accountability comes in the form of a lawsuit heard in court.","For typically, say accountability kom for di form of lawsuit hear for court.",Business study
"whether a suit is brought by a supplier, customer, employee, shareholder, or other stakeholder, litigation is a fact of life for companies.","Di suit dey brought by supplier, customer, employee, shareholder, or oda stakeholder, litigation na fact of life for companies.",Business study
"as future business professionals, being familiar with our court system will lay the foundation for your understanding ofthe litigation process.","As future business professionals, being familiar with awa court system go lay di foundation for your understanding of di to drag matter for kot process.",Business study
understand the constitutional basis for the judicial branch.,Di constitutional basis for di judicial branch,Business study
explore the differences among the three branches of government.,Di differences wey dey among di three branch of government dey explore di differences among di three branch of government.,Business study
learn about the chief justice's role in judicial administration.,Di chief justice role for judicial administration,Business study
explore the concept of judicial review.,Explore di concept of judicial review.,Business study
become familiar with how the other two branches check and control the judiciary.,Di oda two branch check and control di judiciary.,Business study
"under the federal constitution, power is separated among three branches of government.","Di federal constitution, power dey separated among three branch of goment.",Business study
"article i ofthe constitution allocates the legislative power to congress, which is composed ofthe house of representatives and the senate.","Di constitution allocate di authority wey parliament or congress get to make laws to congress, wey dey composed of di house of representatives and di senate.",Business study
congress makes laws andre presents the will ofthe people in doing so.,Di congress make laws andre present di will of di pipo for do so.,Business study
article ii ofthe constitution creates the executive power in the president and makes the president responsible for enforcing the laws passed by congress.,Di constitution create di executive power for di president and make di president responsible for enforcing di laws pass by congress.,Business study
"article iii ofthe constitution establishes a separate a nd independent judiciary, which is in charge of applying and interpreting the meaning ofthe law.",Di constitution establish separate judiciary wey dey in charge of applying and interpreting di meaning of di law.,Business study
the u. s. supreme court sits at the top ofthe federal judiciary as the supreme court ofthe land.,Di u. s. supreme court sit for top of di federal judiciary as di supreme court of di land.,Business study
there are nine judges on the supreme court.,Na nine judges for di supreme court.,Business study
"(see figure 2. 1""the u. s. supreme court in 2009"".)",Di u. s. supreme court for 2009,Business study
the constitution is remarkably short in describing the judicial branch.,Di constitution dey remarkably short for describing di judicial branch,Business study
"the president, under article ii, has the power to nominate judges with the advice and consent ofthe senate.","Di president, under article ii, don get power to nominate judges wit di advice and consent of di senate.",Business study
"article iii also provides the following:""the judicial power ofthe united states, shall be vested in one supreme court, and in such inferior courts as the congress may from time to time ordain and establish.","Article iii sef provides di following:""di judicial power of di united states, shall be vested inside one supreme court, plus inside such inferior courts as di congress may from time to time ordain plus establish.",Business study
"the judges, both ofthe supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behaviour, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services, a compensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office.""","Di judges, both of di supreme and inferior courts, shall hold dia offices during good behaviour, and shall, at state time, receive for dia services, compensation, wey no dey diminished during dia continuance for office.",Business study
"under the constitution, therefore, there are only two requirements to becoming a federal judge: nomination by the president and confirmation by the senate.",Di constitution dey only two requirements to becoming federal judge: nomination by di president and confirmti on by di senate.,Business study
"there are no age, citizenship, or qualification requirements.","There be no age, citizenship, or qualification requirements.",Business study
"additionally, the constitution guarantees that judges are relatively free from political interference by providing them with lifetime tenure and a salary that cannot be reduced.",Di constitution guarantee say judges dey free from political interference by providing dem wit lifetime tenure and salary wey no dey reduce.,Business study
"it is commonly accepted that the three branches of government are coequal, but in reality they are very different.","Di commonly accept say di three branch of goment dey coequal, but in reality dem dey different.",Business study
the judiciary is the only unelected branch of government and is therefore the most mysterious.,Di judiciary na di only unelected branch of government plus na therefore di most mysterious.,Business study
"although many americans know who the president is, and many are familiar with their representatives in congress, very few know the names ofthe judges who sit on the supreme court or any lower court.","As many americans know say di president dey, and many dey familiar wit dia representatives for congress, very few know di names of di judges wey sit on di supreme court or any lower court.",Business study
"when politicians run for congress or president, they spend months campaigning, begging voters to look into their eyes and trust them enough to cast their votes.","When politicians run for congress or president, dem spend months campaigning, begging voters to look enter dia eyes plus trust dem enough to cast dia votes.",Business study
"since judges are not elected, the vast majority of americans cannot associate them with a face.","Di most part of americans no dey elected, di most part of americans no associate dem wit face",Business study
"indeed, m any visitors to the supreme court building in washington, dc, routinely come face-to-face with a justice and don't realize it.","Di indeed, m any visitor to di supreme court building for washington, dc, routinely kom face wit justice and don realize am",Business study
"the three branches also consume vastly different resources in serving the public, with the entire federal court system consuming less than two -tenths of 1 percent ofthe federal budget.","Di three branches sef consume vastly different resources inside serving di public, with di entire federal court system consuming less than two -tenths of 1 percent of di federal budget.",Business study
"the political branches capture the public imagination with monuments and landmarks(air force one, the whitehouse, the capitol), while the federal judiciary works in relative anonymity.","Di political branch dey capture di public imagination wit monument and landmarks(air force one, di whitehouse, di capitol), while di federal judiciary works for relative anonymity.",Business study
"(all federal judges, for example, travel commercially and do not have access to government-owned planes.)","(all federal judges, for example, travel commercially plus do no get access to government-owned planes.)",Business study
"finally, the judiciary is designed to be the most remote branch from the people.",Di judiciary dey design to be di most remote branch from di pipo,Business study
"in addition to being unelected, federal judges have life tenure and can be removed from office only through impeachment.",Di federal judges don get life tenure and go removed from office only through impeachment.,Business study
they also tend to bein public office far longer than politicians.,Dem also tend to be for public office far longer than politicians.,Business study
"while the united states has had forty-four presidents and more than two thousand members of congress, chief justice john roberts is only the seventeenth chief justice.","Di united state don get forty-four presidents and more than two thousand members of Congress, chief justice john roberts dey only di seventeenth chief justice.",Business study
"roberts was only fifty years old when he became chief justice and will likely be chief justice for many decades to come, certainly long after his nominating president, george w. bush, has faded from public life.","Di roberts dey only fifty years old wen hin nominate president, george w. bush, don fad from public life.",Business study
"when we speak ofthe ""federal judiciary,""we are referring to avery small entity compared to other federal bureaucracies.","Di federal judiciary, we dey to talk about very small entity compare to oda federal bureaucracies.",Business study
"the supreme court(the building, justices, and staff)is one part ofthe federal judiciary.","Di supreme court(the building, justices, and staff)dey one part of di federal judiciary.",Business study
"the administrative office ofthe united states courts runs the day-to-day issues for all the courts, such as payroll and rent.","Di administrative office of di united states courts runs di day-to-day issues for all di courts, such as payroll plus rent.",Business study
"a second component ofthe judiciary is the federal judicial center, an agency dedicated to conducting research on judicial administration and providing judicial education.","Di federal judicial center, agency wey dey dedicated to conduct research on judicial administration and provide judicial education.",Business study
"a third component is the united states sentencing commission (ussc), established by congress to make recommendations on how to establish uniformity in federal criminal sentencing.",Di third component dey di united states sentencing commission (ussc) establish by congress make recommendations on how to establish uniformity for federal criminal sentencing.,Business study
"in addition to his responsibilities in hearing cases and writing opinions, the chief justice oversees the overall operation ofthe federal courts and represents the courts to the other branches of government.",Di chief justice oversees di overall operation of di federal courts and represent di courts to di oda branch of goment.,Business study
"when it comes to hearing and deciding cases, however, the chief justice is""first among equals"": he has no more power than any ofthe other justices, known as associate justices.","Di chief justice dey first among equals, e no get power than any of di oda justices wey dey known as associate justices",Business study
"in that capacity, the chief justice traditionally releases an annual report on the judiciary.",Di chief justice traditionally release annual report on di judiciary.,Business study
"since becoming chief justice in 2005, chief justice roberts( figure 2. 2""chief justice john g. roberts"") has focused his annual reports on judicial pay.","Di chief justice roberts( figure 2. 2""chief justice john g. roberts"") don focus hin annual report on judicial pay.",Business study
"although judicial salaries cannot be reduced, years have passed since congress approved a cost-of-living increase for judges.",Di congress don approve cost-of-living increase for judges.,Business study
"district court judges are currently paid$169, 300(the same salary as members of congress), while circuit court judges are paid$179, 500.","Di same salary as members of congress), while circuit court judges dey pay$169, 300(the same salary as members of congress), while circuit court judges dey pay$179, 500.",Business study
"supreme court justices earn$208, 100, and the chief justice earns$217, 400.","Supreme court justices earn$208, 100, plus di chief justice earns$217, 400.",Business study
"while this may seem like alot of money, it's important to keep in mind that the integrity ofthe judicial system depends on attracting the very best lawyers to join the bench.",Di integrity of di judicial system depend on attract di very best lawyers to join di bench.,Business study
"lawyers of that caliber are also in high demand in private law firms, where they can earn many times more than what judges earn.","Di lawyers of dat caliber dey also in high demand for private law firms, wia dem go earn many times more than what judges earn.",Business study
"as a result, high -quality lawyers who otherwise may serve the country by becoming judges never even consider joining the bench.","E dey result, high -quality lawyers wey odawise dey serve di kontri by becoming judges never even consider join di bench.",Business study
"as you can see from note 2. 11 ""hyperlink: excerpt from 2008 year- end report to congress"", there is a risk, the chief justice believes, that the pool of judicial talent maybe limited to less-than -the-best lawyers or those who are independently wealthy.",Di chief justice believe say di pool of judicial talent dey limited to less-than -the best lawyers or those wey dey independently wealthy.,Business study
judges knew what the pay was when they answered the call of public service.,Di judges know say di pay na wen dem answer di call of public service.,Business study
but they did not know that congress would steadily erode that pay in real terms by repeatedly failing over the years to provide even cost-of-living increases.,Dem no know say congress go steadily erode say pay for real terms by repeatedly fail over di years to provide even cost-of-living increases.,Business study
"last year, congress fell just short of enacting legislation, reported out of both house and senate committees on the judiciary, that would have restored cost-of-living salary adjustments that judges have been denied in past years.","For last year, congress fall short of enacting legislation, wey dem report out of both house and senate committees on di judiciary, say go don restor cost-of-living salary adjustments wey judges don denied for past years.",Business study
"one year later, congress has still failed to complete action on that crucial remedial legislation, despite strong bipartisan support and an aggregate cost that is miniscule in relation to the national budget and the importance ofthe judiciary's role.","Di congress don fail to complete action on dat crucial remedial legislation, despite strong bipartisan support and aggregate cost wey dey miniscule for relation to di national budget and di importance of di judiciary role.",Business study
"to make a bad situation worse, congress failed, once again, to provide federal judges an annual cost-of-living increase this year, even though it provided one to every other federal employee, including every member of congress.","Dem fail, one more time, to provide federal judges annual cost-of-living increase dis year, even though dem provide one to every oda federal employee, including every member of congress.",Business study
congress's inaction this year vividly illustrates why judges' salaries have declined in real terms over the past twenty years.,Di congress's inaction dis year vividly illustrate how judges' salaries don decline for real terms over di past twenty years,Business study
the judiciary is resilient and can weather the occasional neglect that is often the fate of those who quietly do their work.,Di judiciary dey resilient and fit weather di occasional neglect wey dey often di fate of those wey quietly do dia work.,Business study
but the judiciary's needs cannot be postponed indefinitely without damaging its fabric.,Di judiciary need no dey postpone indefinitely without dey damaging im fabric,Business study
"given the judiciary's small cost, and its absolutely critical role in protecting the constitution and rights we enjoy, i must renew the judiciary's modest petition: simply provide cost-of-living increases that have been unfairly denied!","I must renew di judiciary's small cost, and its critical role for protect di constitution and rights wey we enjoy, i must renew di judiciary's modest petition: simply provide cost-of-living increases wey dey unfairly denied!",Business study
we have done our part it is long past time for congress to do its.,We don done awa part na long past time for congress to do am.,Business study
"the supreme court is a well-known institution today, but it wasn't always that way.","Di supreme court dey well known institution today, but e no dey always dat way.",Business study
"when the court first met, many ofthe justices(then appointed by george washington)couldn't travel in time for the court's opening day, so the session was dismissed.","Di court first meet, many of di justices(then appointed by george washington)go travel for time for di court opening day, so di session dey dismiss.",Business study
"for the first three years of its existence, the court heard no cases of any importance.",Di court hear no cases of any importance.,Business study
"john jay, the first chief justice, traveled to europe while he was chief justice to negotiate the jay treaty with great britain.","Di first chief justice, travel to Europe while hin dey chief justice to negotiate di jay treaty with great britain.",Business study
"while there, he won election as governor of new york.",Dem win election as governor of new york.,Business study
"he was reappointed as chief justice by president washington and confirmed by the senate but declined to return to the court, citing the court's lack of energy, weight, and dignity as part of his reasoning.","E bin dey reappointed as chief justice by president washington plus confirmed by di senate but declined to return to di court, citing di court's lack of energy, weight, plus dignity as part of im reasoning.",Business study
it wasn't until john marshall became the fourth chief justice(a position he held for a record thirty-four years)that the supreme court firmly established itself as a separate and coequal branch of government.,Di fourth chief justice(a position he hold for record thirty-four years)say di supreme court firmly establish amself as separate and coequal branch of government.,Business study
"the supreme court did no t even get its own building until 1932, years after the nation's capital was established in washington, dc.","Di supreme court no t even get its own building until 1932, years afta di nation's capital dey establish for washington, dc.",Business study
"before then, it met in the basement ofthe old senate building to hear cases.","Before then, am met inside di basement of di old senate building to hear cases.",Business study
"when william taft(the only president who also served as a supreme court justice)became chief justice, he persuaded congress to appropriate funds, and the court finally got its own building in washington, dc (see figure 2. 3""u. s. supreme court"").","Dem persuad congress to appropriate funds, and di court finally get its own building for washington, dc (check di picture 2. 3""u. s. supreme court"").",Business study
"hyperlink: supreme court virtual tour-. aspx the supreme court building, located at 1 first street, is an impressive marble building that sits at the northern border of washington, dc's, famous plaza.","Di supreme court virtual tour-. aspx di supreme court building, wey dey located for 1 first street, na impressive marble building wey sit for di northern border of washington, dc's, famous plaza.",Business study
it is open year-round and is free to visit.,E dey open year-round and dey free to visit,Business study
the supreme court's early malaise can partially be attributed to the problem that noone really had a good idea of what the supreme court was supposed to do.,Di supreme court's early malaise don partially be attributed to di problem wey noone really get good idea of what di supreme court don do.,Business study
"there were few cases of tremendous national importance in the new republic, and a quirky tradition known as""riding circuit""meant that the supreme court justices also acted as lower appellate court judges, thus making their work at the supreme court somewhat duplicitous.","Di supreme court justices also acting as lower appellate court judges, thus make dia work for di supreme court somewhat duplicitous.",Business study
"the constitution simply states that the judicial power ofthe united states is vested in the supreme court, without expounding what that means.","Di constitution simply states say di judicial power of di united state dey vested for di supreme court, without expounding what dat means.",Business study
it wasn't until 1803 that the modern role ofthe supreme court began to emerge.,Di modern role of di supreme court dey emerge,Business study
"in 1800, the presidential election between john adams and thomas jefferson nearly tore the country apart.","Inside 1800, di presidential election between john adams plus thomas jefferson nearly tore di country apart.",Business study
"the election was bitter, partisan, and divisive.","Di election dey bitter, partisan, and divisive",Business study
jefferson won but wasn't declared the winner until early in 1801.,Dem declare di winner until early for 1801,Business study
"in the meantime, adams and other federalists in congress attempted to leave their mark on government by creating a slate of new life -tenured judgeships and appointing federalists to those positions.",Demand oda federalists for congress dey tempt to leave dia mark on government by create slate of new life -tenured judgeships and appoint federalists to those position.,Business study
"for the judgeships to become effective, certain paperwork(known as commissions)had to be delivered in person to the new judges.","For di judgeships to become effective, certa inside paperwork(known as commissions)bin get to be delivered inside person to di new judges.",Business study
"at the time power transitioned from adams to jefferson, several commissions had not been delivered, and jefferson ordered his acting secretary of state to stop delivering them.","Di time power transition from adams to jefferson, several commissions no dey deliver, and jefferson order hin acting secretary of state to stop deliver dem",Business study
"when jefferson came to power, there was not a single judge from his democratic-republican party sitting on the bench, and he wasn't keen on expanding the federalist influence on the bench any further.","Di single judge from hin democratic-republican party sitting on di bench, and hin no dey keen on expand di federalist influence on di bench any further.",Business study
"one federalist judge, william marbury, sued the secretary of state, james madison, to deliver his commission.","One federalist judge, william marbury, sued di secretary of state, james madison, to deliver im commission.",Business study
"the case was filed in the supreme court, led by chief justice john marshall( figure 2. 4""chief justice john marshall"").","Di case dey filed for di supreme court, led by chief justice john marshall( figure 2. 4""chief justice john marshall""",Business study
"marshall himself was a federalist and had served as adams's secretary of state, so he understood how political the case was and how he stood to be accused of bias if he ruled the wrong way.","Marshall himself dey federalist and dey serve as adams secretary of state, so hin understand how political di case dey and how hin dey accused of bias if hin rule di wrong way.",Business study
"in a shrewd and calculated move, he ultimately ruled against marbury but at the same time declared that it was the supreme court's role to decide the meaning ofthe constitution.",Di supreme court's role to decide di meaning of di constitution.,Business study
"this is called judicial review, and it makes the u. s. supreme court the most powerful judicial body in the world.","Dis dey call judicial review, and e make di u. s. supreme court di most powerful judicial body for di world",Business study
"the following is from marbury v. madison: ""it is emphatically the province and duty ofthe judicial department to say what the law is.",E dey emphatically di province and duty of di judicial department to say what di law dey.,Business study
"if two laws conflict with eachother, the courts must decide on the operation of each.""[","Di court must decide on di operation of each, di court must decide on di operation of each",Business study
chief justice marshall did not invent judicial review; it is a feature of most common-law countries and as a concept goes back centuries.,Chief justice marshall did no invent judicial review; am na a feature of most common-law countries plus as a concept goes back centuries.,Business study
"he did, however, institutionalize judicial review at the u. s. supreme court at a time when there was great uncertainty about the court's future role in government.",Dem don institutionalize judicial review for di u. s. supreme court for time wen dem dey great uncertainty about di court's future role for government.,Business study
"while all three branches are bound to uphold the constitution, on all matters relating to the meaning ofthe constitution, the supreme court has the final say.",Di supreme court don tok say.,Business study
"after marbury v. madison, it took the supreme court nearly sixty years to again use the power of judicial review to strike down legislation.","After marbury v. madison, am took di supreme court nearly sixty years to again use di power of judicial review to strike down legislation.",Business study
"the case was dred scott v. sanford, [2]and it involved a slave who traveled with his owner, a doctor in the army, to many states including free states( figure 2. 5 ""dred scott"").","Di case dey dred scott v. sanford,[2] and e dey involved a slave wey travel within owner, doctor for di army, to many states including free states( figure 2. 5 ""dred scott"").",Business study
"dred scott filed suit for his freedom, and the case ended up before the supreme court.",Di case ended up before di supreme court.,Business study
"the decision hastened the country into civil war, and it took years for the supreme court to recover its standing with the public.","Di decision don take di kontri into Armed fighting wey happen inside one country between different groups of its own pipo, and e tok years for di supreme court to recover im standing wit di public.",Business study
judicial review means that any federal court can hold any act ofthe president or the congress to be unconstitutional.,Di federal court don hold any act of di president or di congress to be unconstitutional.,Business study
"it is a power that rests with each ofthe more than eight hundred federal judges, from the trial courts through the appellate courts.","Di power wey dey rest wit each of di more than eight hundred federal judges, from di trial court through di appellate courts.",Business study
"it is an extraordinary power in a democracy, as an unelected life -tenured person or group of persons overturns the acts of a popularly elected branch of government.","E dey extraordinary power for democracy, as di unelected life -tenured person or group of persons overturn di acts of popularly elected branch of government.",Business study
"rather than give rise to judicial tyranny, however, our system of checks and balances ensures that the other two branches also playa critical role in""checking"" the judiciary.","Di system of check and balances ensure say di oda two branch play critical role for""checking"" di judiciary.",Business study
"take, for example, the executive branch.","Dem take, for example, di part of government wey dey carry out and enforce laws— led by President or Prime Minister.",Business study
the president can control the judiciary by making careful judicial selections.,Di president fit control di judiciary by making careful judicial selections.,Business study
the power ofthe president to name federal judges is absolute he is not required to consult with any other individual in making his choice.,Di power of di president to name federal judges no dey required to consult wit any oda individual for make hin choice.,Business study
"for much ofthe nation's history, the senate routinely confirmed the president's choices.",Di senate routinely confirm di president choices.,Business study
president reagan's nomination of robert bork in 1987 changed that tradition forever.,President reagan's nomination of robert bork inside 1987 changed wey tradition forever.,Business study
"alarmed democrats grilled bork in confirmation hearings and ultimately declined to confirm him, setting the stage for anew breed of confirmation hearings where senators try to ascertain not just the nominee's character but also how he or she will judge certain issues.","Dem dey alarm democrats grill bork for confirmation hearings and ultimately decline to confirm am, setting di stage for new breed of confirmation hearings wey senators try to ascertain no just di nominee character but also how dem go judge certain issues.",Business study
"judicial nominees, especially to the supreme court, are under so much scrutiny now that sometimes even the president's own party will turn against a nominee.",Di supreme court dey under so much scrutiny now say sometimes even di president's own party go turn against nominee.,Business study
this happened to president george w. bush when he named his close friend harriet miers to fill a vacancy left by justice sandra day o'connor's retirement.,Na president george w. bush wen hin name hin close friend harriet miers to fill vacancy wey justice sandra day o'connor's retirement.,Business study
"alarmed at her lack of judicial experience and record on conservative judicial issues, republicans urged the president to reconsider his choice, and ms. miers eventually withdrew as a nominee.","Dem urge di president to reconsider hin choice, and ms. miers eventually witdrew as nominee.",Business study
"presidents hope, and believe, that their selections reflect their own ideologies and beliefs.","Di president hope, and believe, say dia selection reflect dia own ideologies and beliefs",Business study
"federal judges are notoriously independent, however, and many demonstrate little hesitance to overrule their nominating president if they believe it necessary to do so.","Di federal judges dey notoriously independent, and many demonstrate little hesitance to overrule dia nominating president if dem believe am necessary to do so.",Business study
several presidents have been disappointed in their nominee as they watched the judge move away from his or her earlier political roots.,Di several presidents don disappoint di nominee as dem watch di judge move away from hin or her earlier politicalroots.,Business study
"for example, president eisenhower, a republican, nominated earl warren as chief justice.","for example, president eisenhower, a republican, nominated earl warren as chief justice.",Business study
"warren would later transform the civil rights landscape with a series of decisions, leading eisenhower to describe nominating warren as""the biggest damned fool mistake i ever made.""[","Di warren go later transform di civil rights landscape wit series of decisions, leading eisenhower to describe nominating warren as di biggest damn fool mistake wey i ever make.",Business study
"more recently, president george h. w. bush nominated david souter to the court on the belief that souter would be a reliable conservative.","More recently, president george h. w. bush nominated david souter to di court on di belief wey souter go be a reliable conservative.",Business study
souter quickly aligned himself with the liberal wing ofthe court.,Souter quickly aligned himself with di liberal wing of di court.,Business study
"in addition to nominating judges, the president serves as a check on the judiciary by being the primary means of enforcing judicial decisions.",Di president serve as check on di judiciary by being di primary means of enforcing judicial decisions.,Business study
federal judges do not control any police force and as such are unable to ensure their decisions are carried out.,Di federal judges no control any police force and because of dat dey unable to ensure dia decisions dey carried out.,Business study
that responsibility falls on th e executive branch.,Di responsibility go fallon th e Di part of government wey dey carry out and enforce laws— led by President or Prime Minister.,Business study
"after the supreme court handed down its seminal decision in brown v. board of education, [5]many southern states continued to resist desegregation.","After di supreme court handed down its seminal decision inside brown v. board of education, [5] boku southern states continued to resist desegregation.",Business study
"several segregationist groups protested, and arkansas governor orval faubus deployed arkansas national guard troops to stop the students from entering the school.","Several segregationist groups protested, plus arkansas governor orval faubus deployed arkansas national guard troops to stop di students from entering di school.",Business study
president eisenhower reluctantly ordered the 101st airborne division ofthe u. s. army to little rock to ensure the students could enroll and attend class.,President eisenhower reluctantly ordered di 101st airborne division of di u. s. army to little rock to ensure di students fit enroll plus attend class.,Business study
"click the link to listen to a story about one ofthe students, elizabeth eckford (figure 2. 6""elizabeth eckford"" ), who tried to enroll in little rock highschool that day.","Di link to listen to one of di students, elizabeth eckford (figure 2. 6""elizabeth eckford"" ), wey tried to enroll for little rock highschool dat day.",Business study
the most obvious role is in confirming judicial selections.,Di most obvious role dey for confirming judicial selections,Business study
"in the last few years, judicial confirmations have become a political battlefield, as activists on both the left and right seek to block judicial nominees they view as being too radical.","Di last few years, judicial confirmations don become political battlefield, as activists on both di left and right seek to block judicial nominees wey dem view as too radical.",Business study
it's not unusual for some judicial candidates to wait years for their confirmation hearings.,Am's no unusual for some judicial candidates to wait years for dia confirmation hearings.,Business study
"president george w. bush, for example, initially appointed chief justice roberts to a court of appeals judgeship in 2001, but he wasn't confirmed until 2003, after republicans regained control of congress in midterm elections.","Di president george w. bush, for example, initially appointed chief justice roberts to court of appeal judgeship for 2001, but he no confirm until 2003, afta republi don dey regained control of congress for midterm election.",Business study
"similarly, the newest member ofthe supreme court, elena kagan, was nominated for a federal appellate judgeship in 1999 by president bill clinton but was never confirmed due to republican objections to her nomination.","Similarly, di newest member of di supreme court, elena kagan, bin dey nominated for a federal appellate judgeship inside 1999 by president bill clinton but bin dey never confirmed due to republican objections to im nomination.",Business study
"in addition to confirmation, congress also controls the judiciary through its annual budgetary process.",Di congress also controls di judiciary through dia budgetary process.,Business study
"although the constitution protects judicial salaries from any reductions, congress is not obligated to grant any raises.","Although di constitution protects judicial salaries from any reductions, congress nano obligated to grant any raises.",Business study
"for several years, judges have worked without cost-of-living raises.",Di judges don work without cost-of-living raises.,Business study
"although noone has seriously suggested that congress is withholding money from the courts in retaliation for judicial decisions, some have observed that congress would like to see the judicial branch yield on some high-profile issues such as televising supreme court proceedings in turn for pay raise consideration.","Di one don observe say congress dey get money from di courts for retaliation for judicial decisions, some don observe say congress go like to see di judicial branch yield on some high-profile issues such as televising supreme court proceedings for turn for pay raise consideration.",Business study
"finally, congress can control the judiciary by determining how the courts are organized and what kind of cases the courts can hear.",Dem kontrol di judiciary by determining how di courts dey organized and what kind of case di courts dey hear.,Business study
"after t he 1800 presidential election, for example, the newly elected congress canceled the supreme court's term for the entire year while they reorganized the judiciary.",Di newly elected congress cancel di supreme court term for di entire year while dem reorganize di judiciary,Business study
"more recently, several conservative members of congress have suggested splitting up the liber alleaning ninth circuit court of appeals on the west coast, to reduce its influence.","Di conservative members of congress don suggest split up di liber alleaning ninth circuit court of appeal on di west coast, to reduce its influence.",Business study
the constitution also gives congress the authority to determine the courts' jurisdiction.,Di constitution sef gives congress di authority to determine di courts' pawa of kot to judge case.,Business study
congress has used this authority in the past to takeaway controversial cases from judicial consideration.,Di congress don use dis authority for di past to takeaway controversial case from judicial consideration,Business study
"during civil war reconstruction, for example, congress passed a law taking away the supreme court's jurisdiction to hear an appeal from a newspaper publisher jailed for publishing articles opposing reconstruction.",Di congress pass law takeaway di supreme court jurisdiction to hear appeal from newspaper publisher wey dey jailed for publishing articles wey dey oppose reconstruction.,Business study
"as such, it can sometimes appear remote or detached from the american public.","because of dat, na sometimes appear remote or detached from di american public.",Business study
"the judiciary is composed of federal courts, the administrative office, the federal judicial center, and the u. s.","Dem composed of federal courts, di administrative office, di federal judicial center, and di u. s.",Business study
the chief justice has administrative responsibilities over these agencies in addition to his adjudicatory duties.,Di chief justice don get administrative responsibilities over these agencies inside addition to im adjudicatory duties.,Business study
the judiciary comprises less than two -tenths of 1 percent ofthe federal budget.,Di judiciary comprises less than two -tenths of 1 percent of di federal budget.,Business study
"in spite of this, judicial pay is very low compared to pay in the private sector and is a source of tension between the judiciary and the other branches of government.","For spite of dis, judicial pay dey low compare to pay for private sector and dey source of tension between di judiciary and di oda branch of government.",Business study
"marbury v. madison established the doctrine of judicial review, which allows courts to determine the final validity of laws aswell as the meaning ofthe constitution.","Di doctrine of judicial review, wey allow courts to determine di final validity of laws aswell as di meaning of di constitution.",Business study
"judicial review is an awesome power, and it is used sparingly.","Di judicial review dey amazing power, and e dey used sparingly.",Business study
the president can check the judiciary through appointments and the enforcement of judicial decisions.,Di president fit check di judiciary through appointments plus di enforcement of judicial decisions.,Business study
"the congress can check the judiciary through funding, administrative control of court calendars and funds, and jurisdiction-stripping legislation.","Di congress fit check di judiciary through funding, administrative control of court calendars plus funds, plus pawa of kot to judge case-stripping legislation.",Business study
do you believe that judicial review is a good thing for american democracy?,Dem believe say judicial review na good thing for american democracy?,Business study
how does the constitution guarantee judicial independence?,How does di constitution guarantee judicial independence?,Business study
do you think judges have enough independence?,Dem think judges don get enough independence?,Business study
how much money do you think federal judges should be paid?,How well-well money do you think federal judges suppose be paid?,Business study
do you believe that congress should have the ability to remove cases from federal courts?,Dem believe say congress go get di ability to remove case from federal courts?,Business study
"if so, what types of cases are appropriate for removal?",Di type of case dey appropriate for removal?,Business study
what options does a president have if he disagrees with a federal court's opinion?,Di option wey a president don get if he disagree wit federal court opinion?,Business study
shoulda federal court force desegregation on a community that is overwhelmingly against it?,Di federal court force degregation on community wey dey overwhelmingly against am?,Business study
"explore the strict constructionist, or originalist, judicial philosophy.","Explore district constructionist, or originalist, judicial philosophy.",Business study
explore the judicial activist philosophy.,Explore di judicial activist philosophy.,Business study
learn about the modern origin ofthe divide between these two philosophies.,Learn about di modern origin of divide between these two philosophies.,Business study
examine the evolution ofthe right to privacy and how it affects judicial philosophy.,Di evolution of di right to privacy and how dem affect judicial philosophy.,Business study
explore the biographies ofthe current supreme court justices.,Di current supreme court justices go explore di biographies of di current supreme court justices,Business study
"in the early years ofthe republic, judges tended to be much more political than they are today.","Di early years of di republic, judges suppose be much more political than dem dey today.",Business study
many were former statesmen or diplomats and considered being a judge to be a mere extension of their political activities.,Di many dey former statesmen or diplomats wey consider being judge to be mere extension of dia political activities.,Business study
"consider, for example, the presidential election of 1800 between john adams and thomas jefferson.","Consider, for example, di presidential election of 1800 between john adams plus thomas jefferson.",Business study
"even by today's heated standards of presidential politics, the 1800 election was bitter and partisan.",Di 1800 election dey bitter and partisan.,Business study
"when jefferson won, he was in a position of being president at a time when not a single federal judge in the country came from h is political party.",Di position of being president for time wen no single federal judge for di kontri kom from h dey political party.,Business study
"jefferson was extremely wary of judges, and when the supreme court handed down the marbury v. madison decision in 1803 declaring the supreme court the ultimate interpreter ofthe constitution's meaning, jefferson wrote that""to consider the judges as the ultimate arbiters of all constitutional questions is avery dangerous doctrine indeed, and one which would place us under the despotism of an oligarchy."" [","Di supreme court hand down di marbury v. madison decision for 1803 declare di supreme court di ultimate interpreter of di constitution's meaning, jefferson tok say""to consider di judges as di ultimate interpreter of all constitutional question na very dangerous doctrine indeed, and one wey go place us under di despotism of an oligarchy.",Business study
his impeachment(and subsequent acquittal)started a trend toward nonpartisanship and political impartiality among judges.,Dem start trend toward nonpartisanship and political impartiality among judges.,Business study
"today, judges continue this tradition by exercising impartiality in cases before them.",Di judge continue dis tradition by exercis impartiality for case before dem.,Business study
"nonetheless, charges of political bias continue to be levied against judges at all levels.",Di charges of political bias continue to levied against judges for all level.,Business study
"in truth, the majority of a judge's work has nothing to do with politics.",Di majority of judge's work don no do wit politics.,Business study
"even at the supreme court level, most ofthe cases heard involve conflicts among circuit courts of appeals or statutory interpretation.",Di case hear involve conflicts among circuit courts of appeal or statutory interpretation.,Business study
"in a small minority of cases, however, federal judges are called onto interpret a case involving religion, race, or civil rights.","Di federal judges dey call onto interpret case wey dey involving religion, race, or civil rights.",Business study
"in these cases, judges are guided sometimes by nothing more than their own interpretation of case law and their own conscience.",Di judges dey guided sometimes by nothing more than dia own interpretation of case law and dia own conscience.,Business study
this has led some activists to claim that judges are using their positions to advance their own political agendas.,Dis don led some activists to claim say judges dey use dia position to advance dia own political agenda.,Business study
"on the politically conservative right, judges are described as either strict constructionists or originalists.","On di politically conservative right, judges be described as either strict constructionists or originalists.",Business study
judges who adhere to this philosophy believe that social change is best left to the politically elected branches of government.,"Di judges wey dey adhere to dis philosophy believe say tori wey dey talk about how to make beta change for inside our community, wey everybody go dey equal, no be say some pipo go dey on top, some dey down dey best left to di politically elected branch of government.",Business study
"the role of judges is therefore to strictly interpret the constitution, and nothing more.","Di role of judges na therefore to strictly interpret di constitution, plus nothing more.",Business study
strict constructionists also believe that the constitution contains the complete list of rights that americans enjoy and that any right not listed in the constitution does not exist and must be earned legislatively or through constitutional amendment.,District constructionists also believe say di constitution no contain di complete list of rights wey americans enjoy and say any right no dey listed for di constitution no exist and must be earned legislatively or through constitutional amendment.,Business study
"judges do not have the power to""invent"" anew right that does not exist in the constitution.","Di judges no get power to""invent"" new right wey no exist for di constitution",Business study
"these judges believe in original meaning, which means interpreting the constitution as it was meant when it was written, as opposed to how society would interpret the constitution today.","Di judges believe in original meaning, wey means interpret di constitution as e dey meant wen e dey write, as oppose to how society go interpret di constitution today.",Business study
strict constructionists believe that interpreting new rights into the constitution is a dangerous exercise because there is nothing to guide the development of new rights other than a judge's individual conscience.,District constructionists believe say interpreting new rights into di constitution dey dangerous exercise because nothing to guide di development of new rights wey dey judge's individual conscience.,Business study
"justice antonin scalia, appointed by ronald reagan to the supreme court in 1984, embodies the modern strict constructionist.","Justice antonin scalia, appointed by ronald reagan to di supreme court inside 1984, embodies di modern strict constructionist.",Business study
click the link to watch a portion of this fascinating interview with one ofthe most powerful judges in the country.,Di link to watch dis fascinating interview wit one of di most powerful judges for di kontri.,Business study
on the politically liberal left are judges who are described as activist.,Di politically liberal left dey judges wey described a activist.,Business study
"judicial activists believe that judges have a role in shaping a""more perfect union""as described in the constitution and that therefore judges have the obligation to seek justice whenever possible.","Judicial activists believe wey judges get a role inside shaping a""more perfect union""as described inside di constitution plus wey therefore judges get di obligation to seek justice whenever possible.",Business study
"they believe that the constitution is a ""living document""and should be interpreted in light of society's needs, rather than its historical meaning.","Di constitution dey a ""living document""and dey interpreted for light of society's needs, no be its historical meaning.",Business study
judicial activists believe that sometimes the political process is flawed and that majority rule can lead to the baser instincts of humanity becoming th e rule of law.,Di judicial activists believe say sometimes di political process dey flawed and say majority rule go lead to di baser instincts of humanity becoming th e rule of law.,Business study
they believe their role is to safeguard the voice ofthe minority and the oppressed and to deliver the promise of liberty in the constitution to all americans.,Di role dey safeguard di voice of di minority and di oppressed and to deliver di promise of liberty for di constitution to all americans.,Business study
"judicial activists believe in abroad reading ofthe constitution, preferring to look at the motivation, intent, and implications ofthe constitution's safeguards rather than merely its words.","Judicial activists believe inside abroad reading of di constitution, preferring to make we look di motivation, intent, plus implications of di constitution's safeguards no be merely its words.",Business study
"judicial activism at the supreme court was at its peak in the 1960s, when chief justice earl warren led the court in breaking new ground on civil rights protections.","Di judicial activism for di supreme court dey peak for di 1960s, wen chief justice earl warren led di court for breaking new ground on civi rights protections.",Business study
"although a republican, and nominated by republican president eisenhower, earl warren became afar more activist judge than anyone anticipated once on the supreme court.","Although a republican, plus nominated by republican president eisenhower, earl warren became afar more activist judge than anyone anticipated once on di supreme court.",Business study
"chief justice warren led the court in the desegregation cases in the 1950s, including the one affecting the little rock nine.","Di chief justice warren led di court for di desegregation cases for di 1950s, including di one affect di little rock nine",Business study
"the""miranda"" [2]warnings familiar to nearly every american who has ever seen a police show or movie come from chief justice warren, as does the fact that anyone who cannot afford an attorney has the right to publicly funded counsel in most criminal cases.","Di""miranda"" [2]warnings familiar to nearly every american wey no see police show or movie kom from chief justice warren, as does di fact say anyone wey no fit afford attorney don get di right to publicly fund counsel for most criminal case.",Business study
the modern characterization of judges as politically motivated can be traced to the great depression.,Di modern characterization of judges as politically motivated go dey traced to di great depression.,Business study
"against cataclysmic economic upheaval, americans voted for franklin d. roosevelt( figure 2. 8""president franklin roosevelt"") in record numbers, and they delivered commanding majorities in both the senate and house of representatives to his democratic party.","Dem vote for franklin d. roosevelt( figure 2. 8""president franklin roosevelt""for record numbers, and dem deliver command majorities for both di senate and house of representatives to hin democratic party.",Business study
president roosevelt vowed to alter the relationship between the people and their government to prevent the sort of destruction and despair wreaked by the depression.,President roosevelt vowed to alter di how two things dey related di pipo plus dia government to prevent di sort of destruction plus despair wreaked by di depression.,Business study
"the centerpiece of his action plan was the new deal, a legislative package that rewrote the role of government, vastly increasing its size and its role in private commercial activity.","Di centerpiece of hin action plan na di new deal, legislative package wey rewrote di role of goment, vastly increasing its size and its role for private commercial activity.",Business study
"the new deal brought maximum working hours, the minimum wage, mortgage assistance, economic stimulus, and social safety nets such as social security and insured bank deposits.","Di new deal don bring maximum work hours, di lowest amount of money that law say employer must pay worker per hour, mortgage assistance, economic stimulus, and social safety nets such asUS government programme wey provide financial support to old, disabled and unemployed pipo and insured bank deposits.",Business study
"although the whitehouse and the congress were in near-complete agreement on the new deal, t he supreme court was controlled by a slim majority known as the""four horsemen ofthe apocalypse""because of their dire warnings ofthe consequences of economic regulation.","Di whitehouse and di congress dey in near-complete agreement on di new deal, t he supreme court dey control by slim majority wey dey known as di""four horsemen of di apocalypse"" bikos of dia dire warning of di consequences of economic regulation.",Business study
"three justices known as the""three musketeers"" justice brandeis, justice cardozo, a nd justice stone opposed the four horsemen.","Di three justice wey dey known as di""three musketeers"" justice brandeis, justice cardozo, nd justice stone wey dey oppose di four horsemen.",Business study
in the middle sat two swing votes.,Inside di middle sat two swing votes.,Business study
"the four horsemen initially prevailed, and one by one, pieces of president roosevelt's new deal were struck down as unconstitutional reaches of power by the federal government.","Di four horsemen initially prevailed, plus one by one, pieces of president roosevelt's new deal bin be struck down as unconstitutional reaches of power by di federal government.",Business study
"the""court -packing plan""was never implemented due to the public's reaction, but nonetheless, the swing votes on the supreme court switched their votes and began upholding new deal legislation, leading some historians to label their move the""switch in time that saved nine.""","Di""court -packing plan""no dey implement due to di public reaction, but nonetheless, di swing votes on di supreme court don switch dia votes and began upholding new deal legislation, leading some historians to label dia move di""switch for time wey saved nine",Business study
"during the public debate over the supreme court's decisions on the new deal, the justices came under constant attack for being politically motivated.","For di public debate over di supreme court decision on di new deal, di justices dey under constant attack for being politically motivated.",Business study
the loudest criticism came from the whitehouse.,Di loudest criticism kom from di whitehouse,Business study
"he regularly broadcast his ""fireside chats""to inform and lobby the public.","E regularly broadcast im ""fireside chats""to inform plus lobby di public.",Business study
"in this link, president roosevelt complains bitterly about the supreme court, claiming that""the court has been acting not as a judicial body, but as a policy-making body.""","President roosevelt complain bitterly about di supreme court, claiming say di court no dey acting as judicial bodi, but as policy-making bodi",Business study
do modern politicians make the same accusation?,Do modern politicians make di same accusation?,Business study
the abortion debate is a good example ofthe politically charged atmosphere surrounding modern judicial politics.,Di abortion debate na good example of di politically charged atmosphere wey dey surround modern judicial politics.,Business study
"strict constructionists decry roe v. wade as an extremely activist decision and bemoan the fact that in a democracy, no one has ever had the chance to vote on one ofthe most socially controversial and divisive issues of our time.","Dem dey strict constructionists decry roe v. wade as extremely activist decision and bemoan di fact say for democracy, no one get chance to vote on one of di most socially controversial and divisive issues of awa time.",Business study
roe held that a woman has a right to privacy and that her right to privacy must be balanced against the government's interest in preserving human life.,Di roe hold say woman get right to privacy and say her right to privacy must balance against di goment interest for preserving human life,Business study
"within the first trimester of her pregnancy, her right to privacy outweighs governmental intrusion.","Within di first trimester of im pregnancy, im right to privacy outweighs governmental intrusion.",Business study
"since there is no right to privacy mentioned in the constitution, strict constructionists believe that roe has no constitutional foundations to stand on.",District constructionists believe say roe no dey constitutional foundation to stand on.,Business study
"roe did not, however, declare that a right to privacy exists in the constitution.",Dem declare say a right to privacy exist for di constitution.,Business study
a string of cases before roe established that right.,Di string of case before roe establish say right,Business study
in 1965 the supreme court overturned a connecticut law prohibiting unmarried couples from purchasing any form of birth control or contraceptive.,Inside 1965 di supreme court overturned a connecticut law prohibiting unmarried couples from purchasing any form of birth control or contraceptive.,Business study
"video clip: a question of ethics: the right to privacy and confirmation hearings since federal judges are appointed for lifetime, the turnover rate for federal judgeships is low.","Di right to privacy and confirmation hearings since federal judges dey appointed for lifetime, di turnover rate for federal judgeships dey low.",Business study
"recently, the supreme court went through an eleven-year period without any changes in membership.",Di supreme court go through eleven-year period wit any change for membership,Business study
"in the last five years, however, four new justices have joined the court.","Di last five years, four new justices don join di court.",Business study
"first, john roberts was nominated by george w. bush in 2005 to replace retiring justice sandra day o'connor.","First, john roberts bin dey nominated by george w. bush inside 2005 to replace retiring justice sandra day o'connor.",Business study
"president bush did not have the opportunity to nominate anyone to the supreme court during his first term as president, and john roberts's nomination was viewed widely as a smart move to place on the court a young, smart, and popular judge with solid republican credentials.","Di president bush no get di opportunity to nominate anyone to di supreme court during hin first term as president, and john roberts nomination dey viewed widely as a smart move to place on di court a young, smart, and popular judge wit solid republican credentials.",Business study
(roberts began his legal career as an attorney with the reagan administration.),Dem began hin legal career as attorney wit di reagan administration.,Business study
"before the senate could confirm roberts, however, chief justice rehnquist died of thyroid cancer while still in office.","Before di senate fit confirm roberts, however, chief justice rehnquist died of thyroid cancer while still inside office.",Business study
"president bush withdrew his nomination and renominated john roberts as chief justice, which the senate confirmed.","Di senate don confirm hin nomination and renominated john roberts as chief justice, wey di senate confirm.",Business study
president bush then began looking for a nominee to replace justice o'connor.,Dem don look for nominee to replace justice o'connor.,Business study
"his first nominee was a close personal friend, harriet miers.","Di first nominee dey close personal friend, harriet miers.",Business study
"selecting miers allowed him to replace a woman with a woman, something important to first lady laura bush.","Dem select miers make dem replace woman wit woman, something important to first lady laura bush.",Business study
"more importantly, the president felt that miers, a born-again christian, would comfortably establish herself as a solid judicial conservative.","Di president tok say miers, born-again christian, go fit establish herself as solid judicial conservative.",Business study
"others in the republican party, however, were nervous about her nomination given her lack of judicial experience.","Others inside di republican party, however, bin be nervous about im nomination given im lack of judicial experience.",Business study
(miers had never been a judge.),Dimiers no dey judge,Business study
"keen to avoid another situation in which a conservative president nominated a judge who turned out liberal, as was the case with president george h. w. bush's nomination of david souter, key lawmakers put enough pressure on miers that she withdrew her nomination.","Di case wit president george h. w. bush's nomination of david souter, key lawmakers put pressure on miers say she get her nomination.",Business study
"for his second nominee, president george w. bush selected samuel alito, a safe decision given alito's prior judicial record.","Di second nominee, president george w. bush selected samuel alito, safe decision wey dem give alito's prior judicial record",Business study
"although he has been on the court for only a few years, most legal observers believe alito's nomination is critical in moving the court to the political right, as alito has demonstrated himself to be more ideological in his opinions than the pragmatic o'connor.","Di legal observers believe alito's nomination dey critical for moving di court to di political right, as alito don demonstrate himself to be more ideological for hin opinion than di pragmatic o'connor.",Business study
both nominations are widely regarded as not moving the court too much in either direction in terms of activism or originalism.,Di nominations dey widely regard as no move di court too much for either direction for terms of activism or originalism.,Business study
"there are now three women on the supreme court, a historical record.","Na now three women for di supreme court, historical record.",Business study
hyperlink: biographies ofthe current supreme court justices/ the supreme court today is more diverse than it ever has been throughout its history.,biographies of di current supreme court justices di supreme court today dey more diverse than im ever dey throughout its history,Business study
the hardworking men and women ofthe court command respect from the legal community both in the united states and abroad. click the link to explore their biographies.,Di hardworking men and women of di court command respect from di legal community both for di united state and abroad.,Business study
"they believe that societal change, especially the creation of new civil rights, should come from the political process rather than the judicial process.","Dem believe say societal change, especially di creation of new civil rights, go kom from di political process no be di judicial process.",Business study
"judicial liberals, also known as judicial activists, believe that judges have a role to playin shapin ga more perfect union.","Di judicial liberals, also known as judicial activists, believe say judges don play for shapin ga more perfect union.",Business study
"they believe that the outcome of a case is paramount over other considerations, including past precedent.","Di outcome of case dey paramount over oda considerations, including past precedent.",Business study
"judicial activists are more likely to find new civil rights in the constitution, which they believe should be broadly interpreted in light of modern society's needs.","Di judicial activists dey more likely to find new civil rights for di constitution, wey dem believe should be broadly interpreted for light of modern society's needs.",Business study
the modern fight over judicial conservatives and judicial liberals began with fdr's new deal and his court- packing plan and continues to this day.,Di modern fight over judicial conservatives and judicial liberals began wit fdr new deal and hin court packing plan and continue to dis day.,Business study
"the right to privacy is a good example ofthe difference between judicial conservatives and judicial liberals, and it is seen as a test to determine what philosophy a judge subscribes to.","Di right to privacy na a good example of di difference between judicial conservatives plus judicial liberals, plus am na seen as a test to determine what philosophy a judge subscribes to.",Business study
"after along period of stability, membership in the supreme court has changed substantially in the last three years with three new members. the court remains closely divided between judicial conservatives and judicial liberals, with conservatives poised to control the court's direction.","Di court dey closely divide between judicial conservatives and judicial liberals, wit conservatives wey dey kontrol di court direction.",Business study
"justice anthony kennedy, a moderate conservative, remains the key swing vote on the supreme court.","Justice anthony kennedy, a moderate conservative, remains di key swing vote on di supreme court.",Business study
"do you think that judges have an obligation to overturn ""uncommonly silly""laws?","Dem think say judges don get obligation to overturn ""uncommonly silly""laws?",Business study
"modern judicial confirmation hearings have been described as an intricate dance between nominees and senators, with the nominees giving broad scripted answers that reveal little about their actual judicial philosophy.","Di modern judicial confirmation hearings don dey describ as intricate dance between nominees and senators, wit di nominees give broad scripted answers wey dey reveal little about dia actual judicial philosophy.",Business study
do you agree with this characterization?,Dem agree wit dis characterization?,Business study
do you think any changes should be made to the confirmation process?,I think any change go make to di confirmation process?,Business study
"if you were president, what characteristics would you look for in nominating federal judges?",Di characteristics wey you look for nominating federal judges?,Business study
"if an elected legislature refuses to grant citizens a right to privacy, do you believe it is appropriate for the courts to do so?","Di courts dey refuse to grant citizens a right to privacy, do you believe am appropriate for di courts to do so?",Business study
"if a president believes that the court has reached the wrong result, should the president be able to change the court by increasing its numbers or forcing early retirement?","Di president believe say di court don reach di wrong result, should di president go change di court by increasing its numbers or forcing early retirement?",Business study
"andrew a. lipscomb and albert ellery bergh, memorial edition(washington, dc: thomas jefferson memorial association ofthe united states,1903 4),15: 277, quoted in eyler robert coates sr,""","Andrew a. lipscomb plus albert ellery bergh, memorial edition(washington, dc: thomas jefferson memorial association of di united states,1903 4),15: 277, quoted inside eyler robert coates sr,""",Business study
learn the differences between the state and federal constitutions.,Learn differences between di state plus federal constitutions.,Business study
understand subject matter jurisdiction.,E dey understand subject matter jurisdiction,Business study
explore the state and federal court systems.,Dem explore di state and federal court systems.,Business study
distinguish the work of trial and appellate courts.,Distinguish di work of trial plus appellate courts.,Business study
"in many american cities, you can find both a state and a federal courthouse.",Di state and federal courthouse go find both state and federal courthouse.,Business study
"these courts hear different types of cases, involving different laws, different law enforcement agencies, and different judicial systems.","These courts hear different types of cases, involving different laws, different law enforcement agencies, plus different judicial systems.",Business study
the rules governing the procedures used in these courts are known as civil procedure or criminal procedure and are sometimes so hard to understand they confound experienced attorneys and judges.,Di rules wey dey governing di procedures wey dey use for dis courts dey known as civil procedure or criminal procedure and dey sometimes so hard to understand di dem confound experience attorneys and judges.,Business study
"nonetheless, as future business professionals, it's important for you to understand the general boundaries between state and federal courts.","Nonetheless, as future business professionals, am's important for you to understand di general boundaries between state plus federal courts.",Business study
most people forget that there are actually fifty-one separate legal systems in the united states: one federal and fifty in the states.,Di most pipo forget say there dey fifty separate legal systems for di united state: one federal and fifty for di state.,Business study
"within each legal system is a complex interplay among executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government.","Within each legal system na a complex interplay among executive, legislative, plus judicial branches of government.",Business study
the foundation of each of these systems of government is a constitution.,Di foundation of each of dis systems of goment na constitution.,Business study
"some state constitutions are actually older than the federal constitution, while others are relatively new.","Some state constitutions dey older than di federal constitution, while odas dey relatively new.",Business study
"the massachusetts constitution, for example, was ratified in 1780, seven years before the federal constitution.","Di massachusett constitution, for example, don ratified for 1780, seven years before di federal constitution.",Business study
"the montana constitution, on the other hand, was adopted in 1972.","Di montana constitution, on di oda hand, don adopt for 1972",Business study
"in some states, state constitutions remain vibrant and provide civil protections beyond the federal constitution.",Di state constitution dey vibrant and provide civil protections beyond di federal constitution.,Business study
"several state supreme courts, for example, have interpreted their various state constitutions as prohibiting treating gays and lesbians differently when it comes to marriage under their""equal protection""provisions.","Di various state supreme courts, for example, don interpret dia various state constitution as prohibiting treating gays and lesbians differently wen dem kom to marriage under dia""equal protection""provisions.",Business study
other state supreme courts have interpreted their state constitutions to grant citizens the right to choose the time and manner of their own death.,Di state supreme court don interpret dia state constitution to grant citizens di right to choose di time and manner of dia own death,Business study
"since these decisions are by state supreme courts interpreting their own state constitutions, they are beyond the reach or review ofthe federal congress or federal courts.","Di decisions dey by state supreme court interpret dia own state constitution, dem dey beyond di reach or review of di federal congress or federal courts.",Business study
this dynamic power sharing between state and federal governments is known as federalism and is a key feature of our republican form of government.,This dynamic power sharing between state plus federal governments na known as federalism plus na a key feature of awa republican form of government.,Business study
the rules of subject matter jurisdiction dictate whether a case is heard in federal or state court.,Di rules of subject matter jurisdiction dictate whether case dey hear for federal or state court.,Business study
lawsuits involving state laws are generally heard in state courts.,Di lawsuits wey dey involvin state laws dey hear for state courts.,Business study
"most criminal laws, for example, are state laws.","Di criminal laws, for example, dey state laws.",Business study
there maybe wide differences among the states about what behavior constitutes criminal behavior.,Di state dey about what behavior constitute criminal behavior.,Business study
"speed limits, for example, are different from state to state.","for example, dey different from state to state.",Business study
"even serious crimes such as murder or manslaughter, and possible defenses to those crimes, are defined differently by the states.",Di states dey define differently by di state.,Business study
domestic issues such as divorce and family law are also handled at the state level.,"Dem handle domestic issues such as divorce and family law for di level wey dey control for state, no be for federal or local government.",Business study
"some states make it very easy to marry(nevada provides an obvious example), while others define marriage differently.","Some states make am well-well easy to marry(nevada provides an obvious example), while others define marriage differently.",Business study
"some states permit same-sex marriage, but most do not.","Some states don allow same-sex marriage, but most do no.",Business study
child custody and adoption laws are state based.,Dem dey state based.,Business study
property and probate laws are also based on state law.,Di law dey also based on state law.,Business study
"laws related to the transfer of property(including real estate), vehicle or watercraft ownership registration, and the disposition of property after death are different depending on what state you live in.","Di laws wey dey related to di transfer of property(including real estate), vehicle or watercraft ownership registration, and di disposition of property after death based on what state you live for.",Business study
the laws surrounding contracts are also passed at the state level(although most are based on a common law called the uniform commercial code [ucc] ).,"Di laws wey dey surround contracts dey also pass for di level wey dey control for state, no be for federal or local government(although most dey based on common law wey dey call di uniform commercial code [ucc]",Business study
"finally, the law of torts is state based.",Di law of torts dey state based.,Business study
torts are any civil wrong other than a breach of contract and can cover a vast array of situations in which people and businesses suffer legal injury.,Di torts dey any civil wrong oda than When person no follow or break the terms of a legal agreement dem made and fit cover a vast array of situations wey pipo and businesses suffer legal injury.,Business study
"some states are far friendlier toward torts than others, and the resulting patchwork of tort laws means that companies that do business across the country need to bear in mind the different standards they are held to, based on what state their customers live in.","Di resulting patchwork of tort laws means say companies wey dey do business across di kontri need bear in mind di different standards wey dem dey hold to, based on what state dem live for.",Business study
"given the wide array of subject areas regulated by state law, it's not surprising that for most individuals and businesses, their experience with courts is with state courts.","Di wide array of subject areas wey dey regulated by state law, e no surprise say for most individual and business, dia experience wit courts dey wit state courts.",Business study
"nonetheless, cases do sometimes end up in federal court aswell.",Di case dey end up for federal court aswell.,Business study
federal court subject matter jurisdiction is generally limited to cases involving a federal question either the federal constitution or a federal law.,Di federal court subject matter jurisdiction dey generally limited to case wey dey involvin federal question either di federal constitution or federal law.,Business study
cases involving the interpretation of treaties to which the united states is a party are also subject to federal court jurisdiction.,Di case wey di united states dey a party dey subject to federal court jurisdiction.,Business study
"in fact, any case involving the united states as a party is properly litigated in federal court.",Di case wey dey involvin di united states as parti dey properly litigated for federal court.,Business study
"finally, in original jurisdiction cases(so called because the constitution specifically grants this jurisdiction), lawsuits between states can be filed directly with the u. s. supreme court.","Di constitution specifically grants dis jurisdiction), lawsuits between state go filed directly wit di u. s. supreme court.",Business study
"ongoing disputes between wyoming and montana over the use ofthe tongue and powder rivers, for example, were litigated in the supreme court in 2005.","Di ongoing disputes between wyoming and montana over di use of di tongue and powder rivers, for example, dey litigated for di supreme court for 2005.",Business study
"these cases are called diversity jurisdiction cases, and they arise when all plaintiffs in a civil case are from different states than all defendants and the amount claimed by the plaintiffs exceeds seventy-five thousand dollars.","Di case dey call diversity jurisdiction cases, and dem dey arise wen all plaintiffs for civil case dey from different states than all defendants and di amount wey di plaintiff dey exceed seventy thousand dollars.",Business study
"diversity jurisdiction cases allow one party who feels it may not receive a fair trial where its opponent has a""home court""advantage to seek a more neutral forum to hear its case, a process called removal.","Di diversity jurisdiction case allow one party wey feel say im no receive fair trial wia im opponent no get a neutral forum to hear im case, process wey dem call removal.",Business study
"within both the federal court and the state court system, there is a hierarchy of higher and lower courts.","Di federal court and di state court system, na hierarchy of higher and lower courts.",Business study
"the diagram in figure 2. 9""state and federal court systems""demonstrates this hierarchy.","Diagram inside figure 2. 9""state plus federal court systems""demonstrates this hierarchy.",Business study
"the u. s. supreme court is the highest court in the country, and all courts are bound to follow precedent established by the u. s. supreme court through the doctrine of stare decisis.","Di u. s. supreme court dey di highest court for di kontri, and all courts dey bound to follow precedent wey di u. s. supreme court through di doctrine of stare decisis.",Business study
"keep in mind, though, that if an issue is exclusively a state matter(such as a state court interpreting its own state's constitution), then the u. s. supreme court has no jurisdiction on that matter, leaving the state supreme court as the highest court on that particular issue.","Di u. s. supreme court no get jurisdiction on dat issue, leaving di state supreme court as di highest court on dat particular issue.",Business study
"cases are filed in a u. s. district court, the trial court in the federal system.","Di case dey filed for u. s. district court, di trial court for di federal system.",Business study
"some states with low population have only one judicial district, while more populous states have multiple judicial districts.","Some states wey dey low population don only one judicial district, while more populous state don only one judicial district, while more populous state don only one judicial district, while more populous state don only one judicial district, while more populous state don only one judicial district.",Business study
"the districts are named for their geographical location the federal court in manhattan, for example, is the u. s. district court for the southern district of new york.","Di districts dey named for dia geographical location di federal court for manhattan, for example, na di u. s. district court for di southern district of new york.",Business study
"the u. s. department of justice, which acts as the prosecutor representing the federal government in both civil and criminal cases, divides its attorneys among the ninety-four judicial districts, with each district led by a u. s. attorney appointed by the president without any senate confirmation.","Di u. s. department of justice, wey act as di prosecutor represent di federal government for both civil and criminal case, divide dia attorneys among di ninety-four judicial districts, wit each district led byu. s. attorneys among di ninety-four judicial districts, wit each district led byu. s. attorney wey dey appointed by di president without any senate confirmation.",Business study
"as a trial court, the u. s. district courts hear civil and criminal trials.","As a di first kot wey check di case, di u. s. district courts hear civil plus criminal trials.",Business study
"the trials maybe bench trials(heard only by the judge), or they maybe jury trials.","Di trials dey bench trials(hear only by di judge), or dem dey jury trials.",Business study
"at the trial, witnesses are called and their testimonies are recorded, word for word, into a trial record(transcript of what was said in the courtroom along with supporting documentation).","At di trial, witnesses be called plus dia testimonies be recorded, word for word, enter a trial record(transcript of what bin dey said inside di courtroom along with supporting documentation).",Business study
"at the conclusion ofthe trial, if the losing side is unhappy with the outcome, it is entitled as a matter of right to appeal its case to the u. s.","Di losing side dey unhappy wit di outcome, e dey entitled as matter of right to appeal im case to di u. s.",Business study
circuit court of appeals.,Circuit court of appeals.,Business study
"there are thirteen circuit courts of appeals in the united states, also spread geographically through the states.","Di thirteen circu wey dey court of appeal for di united state, also spread geographically through di state.",Business study
"a party losing an appeal at the circuit court level can appeal one more time to the u. s. supreme court for review, but given the extremely small odds of that appeal being granted, most federal litigation ends at the u. s. circuit court level.","Di extremely small odds of say appeal wey dem grant, most federal litigation end for di u. s. circuit court level.",Business study
on the right side ofthe diagram is the state court system.,Di state court system dey di state court system.,Business study
"in all fifty states, a trial court of general jurisdiction accepts most types of civil and criminal cases.","Inside all fifty states, a di first kot wey check di case of general pawa of kot to judge case accepts most types of civil plus criminal cases.",Business study
"these courts are called various names such as superior court, circuit court, or district court.","Di courts dey call different names such as superior court, circuit court, or district court.",Business study
"confusingly, trial courts in new york state are called supreme courts.",Di trial court for new york state dey call supreme courts,Business study
"there maybe other courts of limited jurisdiction at the state level, such as traffic court, juvenile court, family court, or small claims court.","There maybe other courts of limited pawa of kot to judge case at di level wey dey control for state, no be for federal or local government, such as traffic court, juvenile court, family court, or small claims court.",Business study
"increasingly, states are also experimenting with specialized drug courts to treat drug abuse(not distribution or trafficking)as a health problem rather than a criminal problem.","Increasingly, states be sef experimenting with specialized drug courts to treat drug abuse(no distribution or trafficking)as a health problem no be a criminal problem.",Business study
state judges maybe either appointed by the governor or elected by the public.,State judges maybe either appointed by di governor or elected by di public.,Business study
"like their federal counterparts, state trial courts hold trials, and most preserve a trial record for review by an appellate court.","Like dia federal counterparts, state di first kot wey check di cases hold trials, plus most preserve a trial record for review by an appellate court.",Business study
"in thirty-nine states, a party that loses at trial can file an appeal with an intermediate court of appeals.",Di party wey lose for trial go file appeal wit intermediate court of appeals.,Business study
"the remaining states are smaller and therefore don't maintain this level of appeal, in which case appeals are filed directly with the state supreme court.","Di remaining states be smaller plus therefore don't maintain this level of appeal, inside wey case appeals be filed directly with di state supreme court.",Business study
"finally, in certain cases that involve a federal constitutional right, a party that loses at the state supreme court level can appeal to the u. s. supreme court for review.","For certain cases wey involve federal constitutional right, parti wey lose for di state supreme court level go appeal to di u. s. supreme court for review.",Business study
"these cases are typically criminal and involve the application ofthe constitution to criminal procedure, evidence collection, or punishment.","These cases be typically criminal plus involve di application of di constitution to criminal procedure, evidence collection, or punishment.",Business study
"whenever an appeal is filed, the trial record is forwarded to the appellate court for review.",Di trial record don forward to di appellate court for review.,Business study
appellate courts do not conduct new trials and are unable to recall witnesses or call new witnesses.,Di appellate court no conduct new trials and no dey unable to recall witnesses or call new witnesses.,Business study
"the trial court's duty is to figure out the facts ofthe case who did what, when, why, or how.","Di trial court's duty dey to sabi wetin dey happen or find solution by dey think amor try different tin di facts of di case wey dey wen, why, or how.",Business study
"this process of fact-finding is an important part ofthe judicial process, and a great deal of deference is placed on the judgment ofthe fact finder( trier of fact).","Di process of fact-finding dey important part of di judicial process, and great deal of deference dey place on di judgment of di fact finder( trier of fact).",Business study
"the trier of fact is typically the jury, or the judge in the case of a bench trial.","Di trier of fact na typically di jury, or di judge for di case of bench trial.",Business study
"on appeal, the appellate judge cannot substitute his or her interpretation ofthe facts for that ofthe trier of fact, even if the appellate judge believes the trier of fact was wrong.","Di appellate judge no fit substitute hin or her interpretation of di facts for dat of di trier of fact, even if di appellate judge believe di trier of fact na wrong.",Business study
the issues on appeal are therefore limited to questions of law or legal errors.,Di issues wey dey appeal dey limited to questions of law or legal errors.,Business study
"for example, the appellate court may disagree with the trial judge's interpretation ofthe meaning of a law, or it may disagree with a ruling the trial judge made about what evidence should be admitted or excluded to the trier of fact.","Di appellate court go disagree wit di trial judge's interpretation of di meaning of law, or e go disagree wit a ruling di trial judge make about what evidence go dey admitted or exclude to di trier of fact.",Business study
"the deference to the trier of fact(trial court)means that, as a practical matter, appeals are rarely won.","Di deference to di trier of fact(trial court)mean say, as practical matter, appeals dey rarely won.",Business study
"even if a litigant is successful in persuading a court of appeals that legal error has taken place, it doesn't automatically win the case.","Di litigant dey successful for persuading court of appeal say legal error don take place, e no automatically win di case.",Business study
"in most cases, the best remedy a litigant can hope for is for the court of appeals to send the case back to a trial court(a process called remand )for reconsideration or perhaps anew trial.",Di best remedy wey litigant fit hope for dey for di court of appeal to send di case back to trial court(a process wey call remand )for reconsideration or perhaps new trial.,Business study
state constitutions remain a vibrant source of civil rights protections for many citizens because state constitutions are permitted to grant more civil rights(but not less)than the federal constitution.,Di state constitution dey remain vibrant source of civil rights protections for many citizens because state constitution dey permitted to grant more civil rights(but no less)than di federal constitution.,Business study
subject matter jurisdiction is the authority of a court to hear a case based on its subject matter.,Subject matter pawa of kot to judge case na di authority of a court to hear a case based on its subject matter.,Business study
"state law claims are generally heard in state courts, while federal question cases are generally heard in federal court.","Di state law claims dey generally hear for state courts, while federal question case dey hear for federal court.",Business study
federal courts sometimes hear state law claims under diversity jurisdiction.,Di federal courts don hear state law claims under diversity jurisdiction.,Business study
federal cases are filed in a u. s. district court and appealed to a u. s. circuit court of appeals.,Di federal case dey filed for u. s. district court and appealed to u. s. circuit court of appeal,Business study
the u. s.,Di u. s.,Business study
"supreme court is the highest court in the country, and all other courts must follow the precedent in supreme court opinions.","Di supreme court dey di highest court for di kontri, and all oda court must follow di precedent for supreme court opinion.",Business study
"trial courts are the triers of fact, and their judgment is not questioned by appellate courts.","Di trial courts dey di triers of fact, and dia judgment no question by appellate courts.",Business study
appellate court review is limited to legal errors.,Di court review dey limited to legal errors.,Business study
"do you think that the""home court advantage""that justifies diversity jurisdiction still exists?","Di""home court advantage"" wey justifies diversity jurisdiction still exist?",Business study
should states retain the ability to grant more civil rights than the federal constitution?,Dem retain di ability to grant more civil rights than di federal constitution?,Business study
can you think of historical examples of this happening?,Dem think of historical examples of dis happening?,Business study
what implications does this have for the future?,Di implications wey dey for di future?,Business study
stare decisis requires courts to respect and follow established precedent.,Na courts to respect and follow established precedent.,Business study
why do you think stare decisis is important in our common-law system?,Di why do you think stare decisis dey important for our common-law system?,Business study
what do you think would happen if courts were not bound to stare decisis?,If courts no dey bound to stare decisis?,Business study
under what circumstances do you think the supreme court should feel comfortable abandoning a prior precedent?,Di supreme court go feel comfortable abandon a prior precedent?,Business study
do you think the answer differs depending on whether you believe in judicial originalism or activism?,Do you think di answer differs based on whether you believe inside judicial originalism or activism?,Business study
"understand the supreme court's jurisdiction, including what kinds of cases are selected for review.","Di supreme court's jurisdiction, including what kind of case dey selected for review.",Business study
explore what happens when lower courts of appeal disagree with eachother.,We dey explore how lower court of appeal disagree wit each oda.,Business study
learn about the supreme court's process in hearing and deciding a case.,Di supreme court process for hearing and deciding case.,Business study
"video clip: the u. s. supreme court the supreme court's jurisdiction is discretionary, not mandatory.","Di u. s. supreme court di supreme court dey discretionary, no mandatory.",Business study
this means the justices themselves decide which cases they want to hear.,Di justices themselves decide which case dem want hear,Business study
"for the justices to hear a case, the losing party from the appeal below must file a petition for a writ of certiorari.","For di justices to hear a case, di losing party from di appeal below must file a petition for a writ of certiorari.",Business study
"during the 2008 term(a term begins in october and ends the following june), the supreme court received approximately 7, 700 petitions.","During di 2008 term(a term begins inside october plus ends di following june), di supreme court received approximately 7, 700 petitions.",Business study
"of these, about 6, 100 were in forma pauperis, leaving only approximately 1, 600 paid petitions.","But 6, 100 dey for forma pauperis, leaving only approximately 1, 600 paid petitions.",Business study
in forma pauperis petitions are filed by indigent litigants who cannot afford to hire a lawyer to write and file a petition for them.,Di indigent litigants wey no fit hire lawyer to write and file petition for dem.,Business study
"supreme court rules permit these petitions to be filed, sometimes handwritten, without any filing fees.","Supreme court rules permit these petitions to be filed, sometimes handwritten, without any filing fees.",Business study
these petitions are typically filed by prisoners protesting a condition of their detention or a defect in their conviction and are quickly dismissed by the supreme court.,Di petitions dey typically filed by prisoners protest a condition of dia detention or a defect for dia conviction and dey quickly dismiss di supreme court.,Business study
"not all in forma pauperis petitions are meritle ss, however.","But no all for forma pauperis petitions dey meritle ss, however.",Business study
"in the case of gideon v. wainwright,[1] a poor defendant convicted of burglary without being represented by a lawyer filed a handwritten in forma pauperis writ of certiorari with the supreme court.","Di case of gideon v. wainwright,[1]a poor defendant wey dey convicted of burglary without being represented by lawyer wey filed handwritten for forma pauperis writ of certiorari wit di supreme court.",Business study
"the court granted the writ, heard the case, and ruled that gideon was entitled to have a lawyer represent him and that if he could not afford one, then the government had to pay for one.","Di court grant di writ, hear di case, and rule say gideon no fit afford one, then di goment go pay for one.",Business study
"gideon was retried with a lawyer's assistance, and he was acquitted and released.","Di gideon dey retried wit lawyer's assistance, and he dey acquitted and release.",Business study
"ofthe 7, 700 petitions filed in the 2008 term,87 cases were eventually argued.","Di 7, 700 petitions wey dey filed for di 2008 term,87 case dey eventually argued.",Business study
"with such a large number of petitions filed, and a less than 1 percent acceptance rate, what kind of cases do the justices typically grant?",Di justice typically grant? What kind of cases do di justice typically grant?,Business study
"remember, the supreme court is a court of discretionary jurisdiction. it does not exist as a court to right every legal wrong, or to correct every social injustice.","Remember, di supreme court na a court of discretionary jurisdiction. am does no exist as a court to right every legal wrong, or to correct every social injustice.",Business study
"typically, the cases fall into one of three categories.",Di case fall into one of three categories.,Business study
"the first category is a case of tremendous national importance, such as the bush v. gore[2] case to decide the outcome ofthe 2000 presidential election.","Di first category dey case of tremendous national importance, such as bush v. gore[2] case to decide di outcome of di 2000 presidential election.",Business study
"second, the justices typically take on a case when they believe that a lower court has misapplied or misinterpreted a prior supreme court precedent.",Di justice typically take on case wen dem believe say lower court don misapplied or misinterpret a prior supreme court precedent.,Business study
this category is also fairly infrequent.,Di category dey also fairly infrequent,Business study
"by far, the majority of cases granted by the supreme court fall into the third category, the circuit split.","Di majority of cases granted by di supreme court fall into di second category, di circuit split.",Business study
"recall that there are thirteen circuit courts of appeals in the united states(see figure 2. 10""geography of u. s. federal courts"").","Recall wey there be thirteen circuit courts of appeals inside di united states(check di picture 2. 10""geography of u. s. federal courts"").",Business study
eleven are divided geographically among the several states and hear cases coming from district courts within their jurisdiction.,Di eleven dey divide geographically among di several state and hear case wey dey kom from district courts within dia jurisdiction.,Business study
"thus, for example, someone who loses a case in federal district court in pennsylvania will appeal his or her case to the third circuit court of appeals, while a litigant who loses in florida will appeal his or her case to the eleventh circuit court of appeals.","for example, someone wey lose case for federal district court for pennsylvania go appeal hin or her case to di third circuit court of appeals, while litigant wey lose for florida go appeal hin or her case to di eleventh circuit court of appeals, while litigant wey lose for florida go appeal hin or her case to di eleventh circuit court of appeals, while litigant wey lose for florida go appeal hin or her case to di eleventh circuit court",Business study
"in addition to the eleven numbered circuit courts, there are two additional specialized courts of appeals.","Inside addition to di eleven numbered circuit courts, there be two additional specialized courts of appeals.",Business study
they are both seated in the district of columbia.,Di district of columbia dey seated for di district of columbia.,Business study
"the u. s. court of appeals for the federal circuit is a specialized court that mainly hears appeals involving intellectual property cases, such as those involving patent law.","Di u. s. court of appeal for di federal circuit dey specialized court wey mainly hear appeals involving Ideas, books, music, inventions and creative works wey law dey protect as belonging to someone case, such as those involving patent law.",Business study
"decisions by this court on patent law are binding on all district courts throughout the country, unless overruled by the supreme court.","Di court on patent law dey binding on all district courts throughout di kontri, unless overruled by di supreme court.",Business study
the second specialized court is the u. s. court of appeals for the district of columbia circuit.,Di second specialized court na di u. s. court of appeal for di district of columbia circuit.,Business study
"although this appellate court has the smallest geographical area of any court of appeal, it is avery important court as it hears cases against the federal government and the myriad federal agencies in washington, dc.","Di appellate court get di smallest geographical area of any court of appeal, na very important court as e hear cases against di federal government and di myriad federal agencies for washington, dc.",Business study
"chief justice roberts, as well as justices scalia, ginsburg, and thomas, served on this important court before being appointed to the supreme court.","Chief justice roberts, as well as justices scalia, ginsburg, plus thomas, served on this important court before being appointed to di supreme court.",Business study
a circuit split arises when the circuit courts of appeals disagree with eachother on the meaning of federal law.,Di circuit courts of appeal disagree wit each oda on di meaning of federal law.,Business study
"let's assume that two similar cases are being decided in federal district court at the same time, one in california and the other in south carolina.","Dem assume say two similar case dey decide for federal district court for di same time, one for california and di oda for south carolina.",Business study
the cases present similar facts and involve the same federal law passed by congress.,Di cases present similar facts plus involve di same federal law passed by congress.,Business study
both cases are appealed the california case to the ninth circuit and the south carolina case to the fourth circuit.,Dem appeal di california case to di ninth circuit and di south carolina case to di fourth circuit.,Business study
"on appeal, it's possible that the two appellate courts may come to opposite conclusions on what the law means, especially if congress has recently passed the law.","Di two appellate courts go kom to opposite conclusions on what di law means, especially if congress don pass di law.",Business study
"since the circuit court of appeal decision is binding for that circuit, the state and meaning of federal law is different based on where a citizen lives.","Di circuit court of appeal decision dey binding for dat circuit, di state and meaning of federal law dey different based on where citizen lives.",Business study
"when a petition for writ of certiorari is filed with the supreme court, the party that won the case in the appeal below(called the respondent)files an opposition.",Di party wey won di case for di appeal below(called di respondent)file opposition.,Business study
"together, these two documents are considered by the justices during one of their weekly conferences to decide whether or not the case should be granted.",Di two documents dey considered by di justices for one of dia weekly conference to decide whether or no di case go grant,Business study
"as previously discussed, cases that fall into one of three categories are generally granted, while others are dismissed.","As previously discussed, case wey fall into one of three categories dey grant, while odas dey dismissed.",Business study
"the vast majority of cases are dismissed, which means the decision ofthe lower court stands.","Di most part of cases dey dismiss, wey means di decision of di lower court stand.",Business study
each supreme court justice is permitted to hire upto four law clerks every term to assist with his or her work.,Di supreme court justice dey permitted to hire upto four law clerks every term to assist within or her work.,Business study
these law clerks are typically new attorneys from the nation's best law schools.,Di law clerks dey typically new attorneys from di nation's best law school.,Business study
"being selected as a clerk is obviously very prestigious, and the job is reserved for the brightest young legal minds.","Di job dey very prestigious, and di job dey reserved for di brightest young legal minds.",Business study
many justices rely on their clerks to read the thousands of filed petitions and to make recommendations on whether or not to grant the case.,Di many justices dey rely on dia clerks to read di thousands of filed petition and make dem make recommendations on whether or no to grant di case.,Business study
"this arrangement, called a cert pool(the clerk assigned to the case writes a memo that is circulated to all the justices), has been criticized as giving too much power to inexperienced lawyers.","Di arrangement, call a cert pool(the clerk assigned to di case write memo wey dey circulate to all di justices), don criticize as giving too much power to inexperienced lawyers.",Business study
participation in the cert pool is voluntary and not all the justices participate.,Di participation for di cert pool deyvoluntary and no all di justices participate.,Business study
"justice alito, for example, does not participate, and his clerks read all the incoming petitions independently.","Di justice alito, for example, no participate, and hin clerks read all di petition independently.",Business study
"until his retirement, justice stevens also did not participate in the cert pool process.",Di justice stevens no participate for di cert pool process,Business study
"if a petition is granted, the parties are then instructed to file written briefs with the court, laying out arguments of why their side should win.","Di parties dey instruct to file brief wit di court, laying out arguments of why dia side go win.",Business study
"at this point, the court also allows nonparties to file briefs to inform and persuade the justices.","for dis time, di court sef allows nonparties to file briefs to inform plus persuade di justices.",Business study
"this type of brief, known as an amicus brief, is an important tool for the justices.","Di type of brief wey dey known as amicus brief, dey important tool for di justices.",Business study
"many cases before the supreme court are of tremendous importance to abroad array of citizens and organizations beyond the petitioner and respondent, and the amicus brief procedure allows all who are interested to have their voice heard.",Di amicus brief procedure dey allow all wey dey interest to hear dia voice heard.,Business study
"for example, in the 2003 affirmative action cases from the university of michigan, more than sixty-five amicus briefs were filed in support ofthe university's policies, from diverse parties such as mtv, general motors, and retired military leaders.","for example, for di 2003 affirmative action case from di university of michigan, more than sixty-five amicus briefs dey filed for support of di university policy, from different parties such as mtv, general motors, and retired military leaders.",Business study
the supreme court ultimately held that race maybe used as a factor but not as a strict numerical quota.,Di supreme court ultimately hold say race go use as factor but no as strict numerical quota.,Business study
click the link to read some of these briefs and to understand why these companies are strong supporters of affirmative action.,Di company dey strong supporters of affirmative action,Business study
"after the justices have read the briefs in the case, they hear oral arguments from both sides.","Di justices don read di briefs for di case, dem hear oral argument from both sides.",Business study
"oral arguments are scheduled for one hour, in the main courtroom ofthe supreme court building.","For one hour, for di main courtroom of di supreme court building.",Business study
they are open to the public but not televised.,Dem open to di public but no televised.,Business study
"members ofthe press are given special access on one side ofthe courtroom, where they are permitted to take handwritten notes; no other electronic aids are permitted.","Di members of di press don give special access on one side of di courtroom, wey dem dey permitted to take handwritten notes; no oda electronic aids dey permitted.",Business study
"during the oral arguments, the justices are interested not in the attorneys repeating the facts in the briefs but rather in probing the weaknesses of their arguments and the implications should their side win.",Di justices dey interest no for di attorneys wey dey repeat di facts for di brief but rather for probe di weaknesses of dia argument and di implications should dia side win.,Business study
the justices typically hear two or three cases a day while the court is in session.,Di justice typically hear two or three case a day while di court dey session.,Business study
"before each day's session, the marshall ofthe court begins with the invocation in note 2. 58 ""hyperlink: oyez. org"".","Di marshall of di court begin wit di invocation for note 2. 58 ""hyperlink: oyez. org""",Business study
"unlike the other branches of government, the justices work alone.",Di justice work alone.,Business study
no aides or clerks are permitted into their conferences.,Nano aides or clerks dey permitted into dia conference,Business study
"once they decide which side should win, they begin the task of drafting their legal opinions.",Dem begin di task of draft dia legal opinions.,Business study
"the opinions are the only way that justices communicate with the public and the legal community, so a great deal of thought and care is given to opinion drafting.","Di opinions dey di only way wey justices communicate wit di public and di legal community, so great deal of thought and care dey give to opinion drafting.",Business study
"if the chief justice is with the winning side, he or she decides which justice writes the majority opinion, which becomes the opinion ofthe court.","Di chief justice dey wit di winning side, hin or she decide say justice write di majority opinion, wey be di opinion of di court.",Business study
the chief justice can use this assignment power wisely by assigning the opinion to a swing or wavering member ofthe court to ensure that justice's vote doesn't change.,Di chief justice fit use this assignment power wisely by assigning di opinion to a swing or wavering member of di court to ensure wey justice's vote doesn't change.,Business study
"if the chief justice is in the minority, then the most senior ofthe justices in the majority decides who writes the majority opinion.","Di most senior of di justices for di minority, then di most senior of di justices for di majority decide say di majority opinion.",Business study
"dissenting justices are entitled to write their own dissenting opinions, which they doin hopes that one day their view will become the law.","Di dissenting justices dey entitled to write dia own dissenting opinions, wey dem do for hopes say one day dia view go become di law.",Business study
"occasionally, a justice may agree with the outcome ofthe case but disagree with the majority's reasoning, in which case he or she may write a concurring opinion.","Di justice go agree wit di outcome of di case but disagree wit di majority reasoning, in which case hin or she go write a concurring opinion.",Business study
"except in very rare instances, all cases heard in a term are decided in the same term, as the court maintains no backlog.",Di court maintain no backlog.,Business study
"every year, the chance of having the supreme court hear a particular case is less than 1 percent.",Di chance of having di supreme court hear particular case dey less than 1 percent.,Business study
"the supreme court is more likely to hear a case if it involves an issue of national importance, if the court believes a lower court has misinterpreted precedent, or if the case involves a split in the appellate circuits.","Di supreme court dey more likely to hear case if di issue of national importance, if di court believe a lower court don misinterpret di precedent, or if di case involves split for di appellate circuits.",Business study
"a circuit split occurs when two or more federal circuit courts of appeals disagree on the meaning of a federal law, resulting in the law being different depending on where citizens live.","Di federal circuit court of appeal disagree on di meaning of federal law, resulting for di law being different based on where citizens live.",Business study
"although it takes a majority of justices to vote together to win a case, only a minority decides the court's docket under the rule of four.","Dem take majority of justices vote together to win case, only minority decide di court's docket under di rule of four.",Business study
the supreme court decides cases every term by reading briefs and amicus briefs and by hearing oral arguments.,Di supreme court decides cases every term by reading briefs plus amicus briefs plus by hearing oral arguments.,Business study
"in any case, the court may issue a majority opinion, dissenting opinions, and concurring opinions.","Inside any case, di court may issue a majority opinion, dissenting opinions, plus concurring opinions.",Business study
"do you believe that supreme court oral arguments should be televised, as government proceedings are on c-span?","Dem believe say supreme court oral arguments go televised, as goment proceedings dey on c-span?",Business study
"do you think the supreme court should act more as a court of last resort, especially in serious cases such as capital crimes, or should the supreme court continue to accept only avery small number of cases?","Do you think di supreme court suppose act more as a court of last resort, especially inside serious cases such as capital crimes, or suppose di supreme court continue to accept only a well-well small number of cases?",Business study
"in recent decades, however, the judiciary has matured into an independent and transparent institution, remarkably resilient to political turbulence and attack.","Inside recent decades, however, di judiciary don get matured enter an independent plus transparent institution, remarkably resilient to political turbulence plus attack.",Business study
"it's also a relative bargain for taxpayers, considering its role as the primary interpreter and defender ofthe constitution.","Am's sef a relative bargain for taxpayers, considering its role as di primary interpreter plus defender of di constitution.",Business study
"none of this has prevented political attacks on the judiciary, which continue to this day.","Di none of dis don prevent political attack on di judiciary, wey continue to dis day",Business study
"you may recall the florida case involving terri schiavo, a patient in a permanent vegetative state, and what happened when her husband won judicial relief to stop medical measures to keep her alive.","Di florida case wey dey involvin terri schiavo, patient for permanent vegetative state, and how her husband get judicial relief to stop medical measures to keep her alive",Business study
prominent pro-life politicians launched vitriolic attacks on the judges involved.,Prominent pro-life politicians launched vitriolic attacks on di judges involved.,Business study
attacks on the judiciary for politically unpopular decisions have become so toxic that former supreme court justice sandra day o'connor has made it part of her post-court retirement to stop these attacks and inject more civility into political treatment of judges.,Di supreme court justice sandra day o'connor don make am part of her post-court retirement to stop dis attacks and inject more civility into political treatment of judges.,Business study
"while citizen frustration with government is not new, dangerous threats against the judiciary are on the rise and represent a worrying trend.","while citizen frustration wit government no new, dangerous threats against di judiciary dey on di rise and represent a worrying trend.",Business study
you may spend your entire life without ever meeting a single judge.,You may spend your entire life without ever meeting a single judge.,Business study
"if you do have experiences with a judge, you will likely find him or her to be surprisingly human, honest, and above all, fair.","Di judge go likely find hin or her to be surprisingly human, honest, and above all, fair.",Business study
"the judiciary lacks a natural constituency, so the burden of ensuring the continued success of this american institution falls on all of us, citizens and corporations alike.","Di judiciary lacks a natural constituency, so di burden of ensuring di continued success of this american institution falls on all of us, citizens plus corporations alike.",Business study
"litigation provides an opportunity for each side in a dispute, whether criminal or civil, to lay their side ofthe story to an impartial jury or judge and ask that jury or judge to decide who wins and loses, and how much the loser should pay or how much time the defendant should spend in jail.","Di litigation provide opportunity for each side for dispute, whether criminal or civil, to lay dia side of di story to impartial jury or judge and ask say jury or judge to decide who wins and loses, and how much di loser go pay or how much di loser go spend for jail.",Business study
who are the parties involved in litigation?,Di parties wey dey involved for litigation?,Business study
what is standing and how does it impact litigation?,We dey standing and howe dey impact litigation?,Business study
how does a court obtain personal jurisdiction over a defendant?,How does a court obtain personal pawa of kot to judge case over a person wey dem carry go kot?,Business study
how does a trial progress from beginning to end?,How does trial progress from start to end?,Business study
how does a losing side appeal a case?,How does a losing side appeal a case?,Business study
"even if you've never stepped foot in a courtroom before, you can probably describe what a courtroom looks like.","Sef if you've never stepped foot inside a courtroom before, you fit probably describe what a courtroom looks like.",Business study
"it's a large, imposing room with tall ceilings, flags on stands, and wood paneling on the walls.","E dey large, imposing room wit tall ceilings, flags on stand, and wood paneling on di wall.",Business study
the majority ofthe floor space is taken up with seating for the public.,Di majority of di floor space dey take up wit seating for di public.,Business study
"the front ofthe courtroom is dominated by the bench, behind which the judge sits, above everyone else in the room.","Di front of di courtroom dey dominated by di bench, behind which di judge sit, above all else for di room.",Business study
"next to the bench is a solitary chair with a microphone in front of it, where a witness sits.","Di bench dey solitary chair wit microphone for front of am, wia a witness sit",Business study
"along one side ofthe wallis a separated area with two rows of seats, where the jury sits.","For one side of di wall dey separated area wit two rows of seats, wia di jury sit.",Business study
"facing the bench, and always closest to the jury, is one table for the party that is carrying the burden of proof in the case: the prosecution in a criminal trial and the plaintiff in a civil trial.",Di party wey dey carry di responsibility wey person get to provide enough evidence to prove their case for di case: di prosecution for criminal trial and di plaintiff for civil trial.,Business study
"across the aisle, there is another impressive table for the opposite side, the defense.","Na one impressive table for di opposite side, di defense.",Business study
"when court is in session, a hush settles into the room so that everyone can hear the judge, commanding in presence, or the witness, captivating in detail.","As court dey session, hush settle into di room so e fit hear di judge, commanding in presence, or di witness, captivating in detail",Business study
"whether in movies(a civil action, to kill a mockingbird, erin brockovich ), on television shows( law& order, l. a. law, boston legal), or in fictional books( the firm, twelve angry men), courtroom scenes capture our imagination and fire our sense of righteousness and justice as good always prevails over evil.","For movies( civil action, to kill mockingbird, erin brockovich), on television show( law& order, l. a. law, boston legal), or for fictional books( di firm, twelve angry men), courtroom scenes capture awa sense of righteousness and justice as good always prevails over evil.",Business study
"in our collective courtrooms the truth always comes out, our ideals are always upheld, and the bad guys always lose.","Di truth always kom out, awa ideals dey upheld, and di bad guys always lose.",Business study
"who could forget, for example, the psychological breakdown on the witness stand in the movie a few good men, as jack nicholson plays it out?","for example, di psychological breakdown on di witness stand for di movie few good men, as jack nicholson play am out?",Business study
"video clip: you can't handle the truth scenes like these, while providing wonderful imagery, are pure fiction.","Di truth scenes like dis, while providing wonderful imagery, dey pure fiction.",Business study
"in a real courtroom, there is no back-and-forth argument between counsel and witness as examinations proceed through questioning alone. in a real courtroom, the truth doesn't always emerge.","Dem no back-and-forth argument between counsel and witness as examinations proceed through questioning alone. for real courtroom, di truth no dey emerge.",Business study
"in a real courtroom, there are many shades of gray between good and evil.",Na many shades of gray between good and evil.,Business study
"and finally, in a real courtroom, the bad guys don't always lose, and the good guys don't always win.","Di bad guys don always lose, and di good guys don always win, and di good guys don always win.",Business study
"as future business professionals, your responsibility to your company, to your company's stakeholders, and to yourself is to avoid ever seeing the inside of a courtroom.","As future business professionals, your responsibility to your company, to your company's stakeholders, plus to yourself nato avoid ever seeing di inside of a courtroom.",Business study
"acting ethically and legally, and identifying the legal pitfalls that you may encounter by mastering the elements of this course, will help you achieve this goal.","Di legal pitfalls wey you dey encounter by mastering di elements of discourse, go help you achieve dis goal.",Business study
"agreeing to arbitration for parties that you have a preexisting relationship with, such as your customers, suppliers, or employees, will also help you stay away from a courtroom.","Di agreeing to arbitration for parties wey you go get preexisting relationship wit, such as your customers, suppliers, or employees, go help you stay away from courtroom.",Business study
"in spite of this planning, however, many companies still find that litigation is sometimes unavoidable.",Na many companies still find say litigation dey sometimes unavoidable,Business study
"whether litigation is initiated against parties you don't have a contract with(such as another company that steals your intellectual property rights)or by parties you don't have a contract with(such as a customer who is injured by your product or an employee harassed by another employee), litigation maybe the only dispute-resolution mechanism available.","Whether litigation dey initiated against pipo you no get contract wit(such as another company wey dey tiff your Legal rights wey protect person's creative work like books, inventions, music and art)or by parties you no get contract wit(such as customer wey dey injured by your product or employee wey dey harassed by another employee), litigation no be di only dispute-resolution mechanism available.",Business study
you'll learn about the parties involved and about preliminary matters such as standing and personal jurisdiction and then explore the trial and appeal.,You'll learn about di parties involved plus about preliminary matters such as standing plus personal pawa of kot to judge case plus then explore di trial plus appeal.,Business study
we'll also discuss the role of lawyers and juries in our litigation system.,We'll sef discuss di role of lawyers plus juries inside awa to drag matter for kot system.,Business study
key takeaways litigation is an inevitable part of a business's activities.,"Di Tori wey dey important pass, wey person go sabi after dem don read or hear sometin litigation dey inevitable part of business activities.",Business study
"lawsuits, trials, and appeals can be ruinously expensive for some companies, especially small- and medium-sized enterprises.","Lawsuits, trials, plus appeals fit be ruinously expensive for some companies, especially small- plus medium-sized enterprises.",Business study
learning about our litigation system will give you the skills and comfort you need should your company find itself in litigation.,Di learning about our litigation system go give you di skills and comfort wey dey need should your company find itself for litigation.,Business study
identify the parties involved in litigation.,Di parties wey dey involved for litigation,Business study
explore the role of lawyers in our adversarial system.,Di role of lawyers for our adversarial system.,Business study
understand the roles and obligations of jurors.,Di role and obligation of jurors,Business study
the litigation system relies on parties bringing forth and defending their respective claims.,Di to drag matter for kot system relies on parties bringing forth plus defending dia respective claims.,Business study
"as in the game of chess, each move can take place only if a player makes a decision to move in a particular direction; the game doesn ot play itself.","As for di game of chess, each move go take place only if player make decision to move for particular direction; di game go play amself.",Business study
"courts, jurors, and witnesses are similarly moribund: it is upto the players, in this case called litigants, to act decisively.","E dey upto di players, for dis case call litigants, to act decisively.",Business study
"occasionally, a court may act sua sponte, without a direct request from a party.","Di court go act sua sponte, without direct request from party.",Business study
"a judge may decide, for example, to fine a party for bad or unethical behavior.","A judge may decide, for example, to fine a party for bad or unethical behavior.",Business study
these actions are fairly rare.,Di actions dey fairly rare,Business study
"more commonly, judges act on a motion filed by either party asking the judge to make a particular decision.","More commonly, judges act on a motion filed by either party asking di judge to make a particular decision.",Business study
the party that begins the lawsuit is called the plaintiff in a civil case.,Di party wey begin di lawsuit dey call di plaintiff for civil case,Business study
the plaintiff is a victim that has presumably suffered some sort of legal wrong that the law recognizes.,Di plaintiff dey victim wey dey victim wey dey suffer some sort of legal wrong wey di law recognize.,Business study
the plaintiff brings suit against the defendant the alleged wrongdoer or perpetrator.,Di person wey carry case go kot brings suit against di person wey dem carry go kot di alleged wrongdoer or perpetrator.,Business study
"note that in a criminal trial, the party that initiates litigation is the prosecution, representing the people of a state or, in federal cases, representing the people ofthe united states.","For criminal trial, di party wey initiate litigation na di prosecution, represent di pipo of di state or, for federal cases, represent di pipo of di united state.",Business study
in a criminal trial the alleged wrongdoer is also called the defendant.,Di alleged wrongdoer dey call di defendant,Business study
many cases involve multiple plaintiffs and multiple defendants.,Di case dey involve multiple plaintiffs and multiple defendants.,Business study
"civil procedure encourages, and makes it easy for, parties to air all their grievances against eachother at once.","Di civil procedure encourage, and make dem easy for, parties to air all dia grievances against each oda at once.",Business study
"all parties, and every possible claim(each claim is a separate violation of law)arising out of a single incident or series of related incidents, should be identified and named in a lawsuit.","All parties, plus every possible claim(each claim na a separate violation of law)arising comot of a single incident or series of related incidents, suppose be identified plus named inside a lawsuit.",Business study
"for example, if you goto an off- campus party one night and witness a friend being harassed, you might feel the need to step into defend your friend.","for example, if you goto an off- campus party one night plus witness a friend being harassed, you might feel di need to step inside to defend your friend.",Business study
"the harasser may then turn his attention toward you, perhaps taking a swing at you.","Di harasser don turn hin attention toward you, perhaps taking swing for you.",Business study
"let's assume that the harasser is drunk and misses, but in return you take a swing and hit him, knocking him to the ground.","She dey assume say di harasser dey drunk and misses, but for return you take swing and hit him, knock him to di ground.",Business study
"the harasser may file a lawsuit against you, alleging assault and battery.","Di harasser may file a lawsuit against you, alleging assault plus battery.",Business study
"the harasser is the plaintiff, and you are the defendant.","Di harasser is di plaintiff, and you dey di defendant",Business study
"you might decide in return to file a claim against the harasser, alleging that the harasser started the fight and that you acted in self-defense.","Di harasser don decide for return to file claim against di harasser, alleging say di harasser start di fight and say you acted for self defense.",Business study
"this is called a counterclaim, and you are now the counterplaintiff, making the harasser the counterdefendant.","Dis dey call counterclaim, and you dey now di counterplaintiff, make di harasser di counterdefendant.",Business study
"in return, the harasser may allege that he wasn't really harassing your friend but trying to defend himself from your friend's unwanted advances.",Di harasser don allege say hin no really harassing your friend but try to defend himself from your friend's unwanted advances.,Business study
the harasser may sue your friend as a third-party defendant through a process called joinder.,Di harasser may sue your friend as a third-party person wey dem carry go kot through a process called joinder.,Business study
"except in some small-claims courts, parties hire attorneys to litigate most cases.","Except inside some small-claims courts, parties hire attorneys to litigate most cases.",Business study
sometimes individuals feel like they have a sufficient grasp on the law to proceed in litigation without a lawyer or that they have sufficient legal training(or even a law degree)that hiring a lawyer would be a waste of money.,Di sometimes individuals feel like dem get sufficient grasp on di law to proceed for litigation without lawyer or say dem get sufficient legal training(or even law degree) wey dem hire lawyer go be waste of money.,Business study
individuals who represent themselves are called prose litigants and can only proceed prose if the judge overseeing the case allows it.,Di judge wey represent themselves dey call prose litigants and no go proceed prose if di judge wey dey overseeing di case allow am.,Business study
"abraham lincoln once famously said,""he who represents himself has a fool for a client.""",E wey represent himself don fool for a client,Business study
"the complexities of litigation require a cool and detached mind to thread a route to success, and if you are representing yourself it is all too easy to allow passion to cloud your judgment.","Di complexities of to drag matter for kot require a cool plus detached mind to thread a route to success, plus if you be representing yourself am is all too easy to allow passion to cloud your judgment.",Business study
attorneys are sometimes called members ofthe bar.,Di lawyers dey call members of di bar.,Business study
the u. s. legal profession is unique in several respects.,Di u. s. legal profession dey unique for several respects,Business study
"in most countries, legal education is an undergraduate program followed by a period of apprenticeship before an individual is allowed to practice law.",Di legal education dey undergraduate program followed by period of apprenticeship before one individual dey allowed to practice law.,Business study
many countries also make a distinction between attorneys who litigate in court and those who do not.,Di many countries also make distinction between attorneys wey dey litigate for court and those wey no dey no.,Business study
"in the united kingdom, for example, solicitors are lawyers who deal with ordinary legal matters outside of court, while queen's counsel(qc) are specially trained lawyers who are permitted to argue in court.","for example, solicitors dey lawyers wey dey deal wit ordinary legal matters outside of court, while queen's counsel(qc) dey train lawyers wey dey permitted to argue for court.",Business study
"in the united states, lawyers undertake three years of graduate study resulting in the award ofthe juris doctorate degree, or jd.","Inside di united states, lawyers undertake three years of graduate study resulting inside di award of di juris doctorate degree, or jd.",Business study
"every year, m ore than thirty thousand students graduate from u. s. law schools with their jd.","Every year, m ore than thirty thousand students graduate from u. s. law schools with dia jd.",Business study
they then sit for the bar exam in the state where they wish to practice.,For di bar exam for di state wey dem wish to practice.,Business study
"some states permit lawyers from out of state, after a few years of being in practice, to apply for bar admission without taking the exam through a process called reciprocity.","Some states don allow lawyers from out of state, after few years of being for practice, to apply for bar admission without take di exam through process wey called reciprocity.",Business study
"other states, notably california and florida, require attorneys to take the bar exam no matter how long they have been in practice.","Di states, notably california and florida, require lawyers to take di bar exam no matter how long dem dey practice",Business study
"once the lawyer passes the state's bar exam or is otherwise admitted, he or she is permitted to practice all aspects of law in that state, from drafting wills and contracts to arguing a case before the u. s. supreme court.","Di lawyer pass di state bar exam or dey odawise admitted, hin or she dey permitted to practice all aspect of law for dat state, from drafting wills and contracts to arguin case before di u. s. supreme court.",Business study
attorneys in the united states are broadly divided into civil and criminal attorneys; few lawyers excel in both areas.,Di united state dey divide into civil and criminal attorneys; few lawyers excel for both areas.,Business study
"civil attorneys generally workin two different categories: in law firms, where they may represent multiple clients, and as in-house counsel, where they represent only one client, their employer.","Di civil attorneys generally work for two different categories: for law firms, wey dem represent multiple clients, and as in-house counsel, wey dem represent only one client, dia employer.",Business study
most large corporations have an in-house legal department to control legal costs but may still hire outside counsel for representation and advice in complex matters.,Di most large corporations don dey in-house legal department to control legal cost but e still hire outside counsel for representation and advice for complex matters.,Business study
"with the possible exception of politicians, no other profession is subject to more morbid jokes than lawyering.","Di possible exception of politicians, no one profession dey subject to more morbid jokes than lawyering",Business study
"william shakespeare famously wrote in henry vi, through a character speaking of a utopian world,""the first thing we do, let's kill all the lawyers.""","Di first thing we dey do, let's kill all di lawyers",Business study
"in spite of this public animosity toward lawyers, however, if there comes a time when someone needs a lawyer, it's not uncommon to hear them wish they had the most aggressive lawyer money can buy.","Di public animosity toward lawyers, no dey uncommon to hear dem wish dem get di most aggressive lawyer money go buy.",Business study
perhaps part ofthe reason the public has a low opinion of lawyers can be traced to the ethical and legal obligations of attorneys.,Di public don get low opinion of lawyers don dey traced to di ethical and legal obligations of attorneys.,Business study
"lawyers maybe the most regulated of all the professional industries, and they are required to comply with complex and sometimes rigid rules of professional conduct.","Di lawyers dey di most regulated of all di professional industry, and dem dey required to comply wit complex and sometimes rigid rules of professional conduct.",Business study
"unlike rules for other professions, the rules of professional conduct for lawyers are largely drafted and enforced by the bar itself(other lawyers and judges)and almost never involve external enforcement mechanisms.","Unlike rules for other professions, di rules of professional conduct for lawyers be largely drafted plus enforced by di bar itself(other lawyers plus judges)plus almost never involve external enforcement mechanisms.",Business study
"these rules govern virtually every aspect ofthe practice of law, and a violation of these rules can result in disciplinary action from the state bar or supreme court ofthe state in which the lawyer practices, up to lifetime disbarment.","Di rules govern virtually every aspect of di practice of law, and a violation of dis rules go result in disciplinary action from di state bar or supreme court of di state wey di lawyer practice, up to lifetime disbarment.",Business study
"when president bill clinton, for example, lied under oath about certain aspects of his extramarital affairs, he was suspended from practicing law for five years in arkansas and ordered to pay a$25, 000 fine.","Di president bill clinton, for example, lied under oath about certain aspects of hin extramarital affairs, hin dey suspend from practicing law for five years for arkansas and order to pay$25, 000 fine.",Business study
these rules of professional responsibility require attorneys to represent their clients with zealous advocacy.,These rules of professional responsibility require attorneys to represent dia clients with zealous advocacy.,Business study
"ordinarily, we associate the word ""zealot"" with extremists, but that is the standard by which lawyers must represent their clients.","We associate di word ""zealot"" wit extremists, but say na di standard by which lawyers must represent dia clients.",Business study
this might clarify why some lawyers act the way they do.,Di might clarify why some lawyers act di way dem do.,Business study
the communications between a client and his or her attorney are absolutely confidential under the attorney-client privilege doctrine.,Di communications wey dey between client and hin or her attorney dey absolutely confidential under di attorney privilege doctrine.,Business study
"there are many privileges under the law, such as the spousal privilege, doctor-patient privilege, and priest -penitent privilege.","There be boku privileges under di law, such as di spousal privilege, doctor-patient privilege, plus priest -penitent privilege.",Business study
"the attorney-client privilege, however, is arguably the strongest of these privileges.","Di attorney-client privilege, however, dey arguably di strongest of dis privileges.",Business study
"the privilege belongs to the client, and the attorney is not permitted to reveal any of these communications without the client's consent.",Di attorney no dey permitted to reveal any of dis communications without di client's consent,Business study
"a narrow exception exists for clients who tell their lawyers they intend to harm others or themselves, but attorneys must tread very carefully to avoid violating the privilege.","Di narrow exception exist for clients wey tell dia lawyers say dem intend to harm odas or themselves, but attorneys must tread very carefully to avoid violating di privilege.",Business study
"many members ofthe public feel that the privilege maybe open to abuse and can't understand, for example, why an attorney can't reveal a client's confession to a heinous crime.","Na many members of di public feel say di privilege go open to abuse and no understand, for example, why attorney don reveal a client's confession to a heinous crime.",Business study
"ultimately, the privilege exists for the client's benefit.",Di privilege exist for di client's benefit,Business study
someone who cannot communicate with his or her attorney freely is unable to help the attorney prepare the best possible case for litigation.,someone wey no communicate within or her attorney freely dey unable to help di attorney prepare di best possible case for litigation.,Business study
you should note that in-house attorneys represent the corporations they work for and not individual employees.,For-house lawyers represent di corporation wey dey work for and no individual employees.,Business study
"if you communicate with an in-house attorney for the company where you work, for example, that communication may not be automatically protected by the attorney-client privilege.","If you communicate wit attorney for di company wey you work, for example, say communication no be automatically protected by di attorney-client privilege",Business study
"as part of her representation, she agreed to abide by certain conditions when communicating with her client, including not speaking to the media.","As part of im representation, e agreed to abide by certain conditions when communicating with im client, including no speaking to di media.",Business study
ms. stewart broke those promises and inadvertently passed on a communication from her client to his followers around the world.,Ms. stewart broke those promises plus inadvertently passed on a communication from im client to im followers around di world.,Business study
she was indicted and convicted of conspiracy and providing material support to terrorists.,She dey arrest and convicted of conspiracy and provid material support to terrorists.,Business study
she was sentenced to a twenty-eight -month prison term.,She dey sentenced to twenty-eight month prison term.,Business study
"click the link to read more about her case, including the legal documents involved.","Di link to read more about her case, including di legal document wey dey involved.",Business study
avery controversial aspect ofthe case involved the use of secret cameras and recorders to listen in on her conversations with her client while he was in prison.,Di case wey dey involve di use of secret camera and recorders to listen in on her conversation wither client while hin dey for prison.,Business study
"in spite of an attorney's professional obligations to his or her client, it's important to remember that ultimately a lawyer's first duty is to the administration of justice.",Di important to remember say ultimately attorney's first duty dey to di administration of justice.,Business study
the rules of professional conduct are written with this goal in mind.,Di rules of professional conduct dey write wit dis goal for mind.,Business study
"the requirements for lawyers on civility, honesty, and fairness are all written to ensure that lawyers represent the very best aspects of our judicial system.","Di requirements for lawyers on civility, honesty, and fairness dey all written to ensure say lawyers represent di best aspect of awa judicial system.",Business study
"let's say, for example, a client admits to his lawyer that he is guilty or liable in a case.","for example, a client admit to hin lawyer that hin guilty or liable for case.",Business study
the client then wants to testify under oath that he is innocent.,Di client don want to testify under oath say hin dey innocent,Business study
"although a lawyer cannot tell anyone what her client has told her, the lawyer is also prohibited from knowingly suborning perjury.","Di lawyer no tell anyone what her client don tell her, di lawyer dey prohibited from knowingly suborning perjury.",Business study
"the attorney must either convince the client to not testify, or withdraw from the case.","Di attorney must either convince di client to no testify, or withdraw from di case.",Business study
"in the case in note 3. 31 ""hyperlink: a question of ethics"", an attorney goes a little too far in her representation and draws a heavy fine from a judge as a result.","Di question of ethics"", attorney go a little too far for her representation and draw heavy fine from judge as result",Business study
hyperlink: a question of ethics the case ofthe birther attorney order hon.,Di question of ethics di case of di birther attorney order hon,Business study
"clay d. land, u. s. district judge, district court for the middle district of georgia, case no.","Clay d. land, u. s. district judge, district court for di middle district of georgia, case no.",Business study
"after the election, california attorney orly taitz launched a campaign to prove that the president was not, in fact, born in hawaii.","Di election, california attorney orly taitz launch campaign to prove say di president no dey born for hawaii",Business study
her bizarre tirades against the media and the courts earned her this unusual reprimand from a federal judge.,Di media and di courts don earned her dis unusual reprimand from federal judge.,Business study
click the link to read the entire order.,Di link go read di entire order,Business study
"do you believe that in their ""zealous"" representation of their clients, attorneys have the ethical duty to pursue claims such as these?","Dem believe say for dia ""zealous"" representation of dia clients, attorneys don get di ethical duty to pursue claims such as these?",Business study
"order introduction commenting on the special privilege granted to lawyers and the corresponding duty imposed on them, justice cardozo once observed,""membership in the bar is a privilege burdened with conditions.","Di order introduction comment on di special privilege granted to lawyers and di corresponding duty imposed on dem, justice cardozo once observe,""membership for di bar dey privilege burdened wit conditions.",Business study
[a lawyer is]received into that ancient fellowship for something more than private gain.,Di lawyer dey receive into dat ancient fellowship for something more than private gain,Business study
"he[becomes] an officer ofthe court, and, like the court itself, an instrument or agency to advance the ends of justice.""","Na officer of di court, and like di court itself, instrument or agency to advance di end of justice",Business study
"competent and ethical lawyers""are essential to the primary governmental function of administering justice.""","Competent plus ethical lawyers""be essential to di primary governmental function of administering justice.""",Business study
"for justice to be administered efficiently and justly, lawyers must understand the conditions that govern their privilege to practice law.","Di condition wey govern dia privilege to practice law, lawyers must understand di condition wey govern dia privilege to practice law.",Business study
lawyers who do not understand those conditions are at best woefully unprepared to practice the profession and at worst a menace to it.,Di lawyers wey no understand those conditions dey for best woefully unprepared to practice di profession and at worst a menace to am.,Business study
"when a lawyer files complaints and motions without a reasonable basis for believing that they are supported by existing law or a modification or extension of existing law, that lawyer abuses her privilege to practice law.","Di lawyer files complaints and motion without reasonable basis for believing say dem dey support existing law or modification or extension of existing law, say lawyer abus her privilege to practice law.",Business study
"when a lawyer uses the courts as a platform for a political agenda disconnected from any legitimate legal cause of action, that lawyer abuses her privilege to practice law.","When a lawyer uses di courts as a platform for a political agenda disconnected from any legitimate legal cause of action, wey lawyer abuses im privilege to practice law.",Business study
"when a lawyer personally attacks opposing parties and disrespects the integrity ofthe judiciary, that lawyer abuses her privilege to practice law.","When a lawyer personally attacks opposing parties plus disrespects di integrity of di judiciary, wey lawyer abuses im privilege to practice law.",Business study
"when a lawyer recklessly accuses a judge of violating the judicial code of conduct with no supporting evidence beyond her dissatisfaction with the judge's rulings, that lawyer abuses her privilege to practice law.","When a lawyer recklessly accuses a judge of breaking di judicial code of conduct with no supporting evidence beyond im dissatisfaction with di judge's rulings, wey lawyer abuses im privilege to practice law.",Business study
"when a lawyer abuses her privilege to practice law, that lawyer ceases to advance her cause or the ends of justice.","When a lawyer abuses im privilege to practice law, wey lawyer ceases to advance im cause or di ends of justice.",Business study
"specifically, rule 11 ofthe federal rules of civil procedure expressly sets forth the outer boundaries of acceptable attorney conduct.","Specifically, rule 11 of di federal rules of civil procedure expressly sets forth di outer boundaries of acceptable attorney conduct.",Business study
"that rule prohibits a lawyer from asserting claims or legal positions that are not well-founded under existing law or through the modification, extension, or expansion of existing law.","Di rule prohibit lawyer from asserting claims or legal position wey no well-found under existing law or through di modification, extension, or expansion of existing law.",Business study
rule 11 also prohibits an attorney from using the courts for a purpose unrelated to the resolution of a legitimate legal cause of action.,Rule 11 sef prohibits an attorney from using di courts for a purpose unrelated to di resolution of a legitimate legal cause of action.,Business study
"regrettably, the conduct of counsel orly taitz has crossed these lines, and ms. taitz must be sanctioned for her misconduct.","Di conduct of counsel orly taitz don cross dis line, and ms. taitz must sanction her misconduct.",Business study
"after a full review ofthe sanctionable conduct, counsel's conduct leading upto that conduct, and co unsel's response to the court's show cause order, the court finds that a monetary penalty of$20, 000.00 shall be imposed upon counsel orly taitz as punishment for her misconduct, as a deterrent to prevent future misconduct, and to protect the integrity ofthe court.","For plenti review of di sanctionable conduct, counsel orly taitz as punishment for her misconduct, as a deterrent to prevent future misconduct, and to protect di integrity of di court.",Business study
"payment shall be made to the united states, through the middle district of georgia clerk's office, within thirty days of today's order.","Payment shall be bin make to di united states, through di middle district of georgia clerk's office, within thirty days of today's order.",Business study
"if counsel fails to pay the sanction due, the u. s. attorney will be authorized to commence collection proceedings.",Di u. s. attorney go be authorized to begin collection proceedings.,Business study
"the court does not take this action lightly, and in fact, cannot recall having previously imposed monetary sanctions upon an attorney sua sponte.","Di court does no take this action lightly, plus inside fact, cannot recall having previously imposed monetary sanctions upon an attorney sua sponte.",Business study
"as the orly taitz case demonstrates, attorneys must take care to respect a court's authority at all times and conduct themselves in a civil manner.","As di orly taitz case demonstrates, attorneys must take care to respect a court's authority at since forever s plus conduct themselves inside a civil manner.",Business study
"most attorneys have no problem discharging this obligation to the judge, but it is to the jury that they focus their attention the most.","Di most lawyers don no wahala discharging dis obligation to di judge, but e dey to di jury say dem focus dia attention di most.",Business study
"in our legal system, the jury has avery special role to playin ensuring citizen participation in the administration of justice.",Di jury don play special role to play for ensuring citizen participation for di administration of justice.,Business study
"as the trier of fact, the jury has the duty of determining the truth in any given situation: who said and did what, why, and when?","Di jury don dey di duty of determining di truth for any given situation: who tok and do what, why, and when?",Business study
do you know when someone is lying to you?,I know wen someone dey lying to you?,Business study
have you ever been lied to so well that you didn't find out about the lie until much later?,E no dey lied to so well say you no to know about di lie until much later?,Business study
have your roommates or friends who were involved in a dispute ever asked you to decide who should win?,Di roommates or friends wey dey involved for dispute ever asked you to decide who should win?,Business study
"in essence, being a juror relies on those same human skills.","Inside essence, being a juror relies on those same human skills.",Business study
"in every legal proceeding, e ach of two adversarial sides, absolutely opposed to eachother, claims that it is right and the other side is wrong.","Each of two adversarial sides, absolutely oppose to each oda side, claim say na right and di oda side dey wrong.",Business study
there are two types of juries.,There be two types of juries.,Business study
a grand jury is a group of citizens convened by the prosecution in serious criminal cases to simply determine whether there is probable cause to believe that a crime has occurred an d whether it's more likely than not that the defendant in question committed the crime.,Di grand jury dey group of citizens wey dey convene by di prosecution for serious criminal case to simply determine whether e dey probable cause to believe say a crime don occur an d whether e dey more likely than no say di defendant for question committe di crime,Business study
"the grand jury serves as a procedural step to prevent prosecutors from abusing their powers of arrest and indictment, a sort of""sanity check""on the awesome power of government to accuse citizens of crime.","Di grand jury serves as a procedural step to prevent prosecutors from abusing dia powers of arrest plus indictment, a sort of""sanity check""on di awesome power of government to accuse citizens of crime.",Business study
"the grand jury requirement exists at the federal level and in some, but not all, states.","Di grand jury requirement exists at di federal level plus inside some, but no all, states.",Business study
a grand jury typically meets for an extended period of time and can hear several different cases in one day.,Di grand jury typically meet for extended period of time and fit hear several different cases for one day.,Business study
the grand jury does not determine guilt or innocence.,Di grand jury does no determine guilt or innocence.,Business study
a petit jury does that.,Di petit jury don do dat.,Business study
this jury is impaneled for a specific trial.,Di jury dey impanel for specific trial,Business study
"during the trial, members ofthe jury listen to the evidence presented and then deliberate as a group on what they believe the facts ofthe case are.","For di trial, members of di jury listen to di evidence wey dem presented and then deliberate as group on how dem believe di facts of di case dey.",Business study
"they then apply the law, as instructed by the judge, to the facts.","Di judge, to di facts.",Business study
"there are typically twelve members in a petit jury in criminal trials and from six to twelve members in civil trials, and generally speaking they must arrive at a unanimous verdict.","E dey typically twelve members for a petit jury for criminal trials and from six to six members for civil trials, and generally speaking dem must arrive at unanimous verdict",Business study
"the jury system is a jewel in our litigation system for it involves ordinary citizens in adjudicating all sorts of disputes, from domestic family issues to complex business and insurance litigation to heart- wrenching criminal cases.","Di jury system dey jewel for awa litigation system fore dey involves ordinary citizens for adjudicating all sort of disputes, from domestic family issues to complex business and insurance litigation to heart- wrenching criminal case.",Business study
"there are problems with administering this system, however.","Di system dey problem wit administering dis system, however.",Business study
"in high-profile cases, it maybe difficult to find citizens who have not heard about the case or who can be impartial about the case, in spite of their promises to be open minded.","E dey difficult to find citizens wey no hear about di case or wey fit impartial about di case, inspite of dia promises to be open minded.",Business study
"when enron collapsed in 2001, for example, defense attorneys for former ceo jeff skilling argued strenuously that the trial should not be held in houston, where almost every citizen was affected in some way by the energy giant's collapse or knew someone affected.","for example, defense attorneys for former ceo jeff skilling argued strenuously say di trial no be held for houston, where almost every citizen dey affect for some way by di energy giant collapse or knew someone affect.",Business study
the question of juror bias was so serious that the u. s. supreme court agreed to hear skilling's appeal based partially on this argument.,Di question of juror bias na so serious say di u. s. supreme court agree to hear skilling's appeal based partially on dis argument.,Business study
"while most states have laws that prevent an employer from firing a worker or taking any negative work action, such as demotion, against the worker for being on jury duty, there is no legal requirement that an employer continue to pay a worker on jury duty.","Di state don laws wey prevent employer from firing worker or take any negative work action, such as demotion, against di worker for jury duty, no legal requirement say employer continue to pay worker on jury duty.",Business study
"the court system does not pay juries for their services either(although some court systems pay a small amount, typically less than twenty dollars per day, to cover food and transportation costs).","Di court system does no pay juries for dia services either(although some court systems pay a small amount, typically less than twenty dollars per day, to cover food plus transportation costs).",Business study
"some citizens, such as those who are self-employed, are therefore at great risk for losing personal income by serving on juries.","Some citizens, such as those wey be self-employed, be therefore at great risk for losing personal income by serving on juries.",Business study
"imagine being on theo. j. simpson criminal trial jury, for example that trial lasted ten months.","Dio. j. simpson criminal trial jury, for example say trial last ten months.",Business study
the effects of jury service on a juror's personal life can be staggering.,Di effects of jury service on a juror's personal life fit be staggering.,Business study
another potential problem arises in the makeup ofthe jury itself.,Di potential problem arises for di makeup of di jury wey deyself.,Business study
local court rules typically allow judges to excuse potential jurors for hardship or extreme inconvenience.,Local court rules typically allow judges to excuse potential jurors for hardship or extreme inconvenience.,Business study
"if these rules are too generous, then the only citizens left maybe those without full- time employment, such as students or retirees.","Di only citizens dey without full- time employment, such as students or retirees.",Business study
"the only professions that automatically exempt citizens from jury duty are active-duty soldiers, police officers and firefighters, and public officers.","Di only professions wey automatically exempt citizens from jury duty be active-duty soldiers, police officers plus firefighters, plus public officers.",Business study
"in spite of these administrative problems, our jury system remains a cornerstone of litigation and is often openly admired.",Di jury system dey cornerstone of litigation and dey often openly admired,Business study
"in south korea, for example, attempts to create a more open and responsive democracy resulted in a novel and wholesale revision to the country's court system: the adoption of citizen juries.","Inside south korea, for example, attempts to create a more open plus responsive democracy resulted inside a novel plus wholesale revision to di country's court system: di adoption of citizen juries.",Business study
"for now, the jury's decision is only advisory, and the court is free to reject it.","Di jury decision dey only advisory, and di court dey free to reject am",Business study
"the result has been some confusion about the role of citizens in the legal system, some concern about the methodology employed to implement the jury system, and an increase in transparency and greater citizen participation in government affairs.","Di result don dey some confusion about di role of citizens for di legal system, some concern about di methodology wey dey employ to implement di jury system, and increase for transparency and greater citizen participation for government affairs.",Business study
the goal of civil litigation is to find the truth.,Di goal of civil litigation nato find di truth,Business study
litigants typically rely on lawyers to assist them in litigation.,Di litigants typically rely on lawyers to assist dem for litigation.,Business study
an attorney's highest duty is to the administration of justice.,Di attorney's highest duty nato di administration of justice,Business study
lawyers are ethically bound to represent their clients with zealous advocacy.,Di lawyers dey ethically bound to represent dia clients wit zealous advocacy,Business study
a grand jury acts as a body of citizens to prevent abuse of discretion by prosecutors.,A grand jury acts as a body of citizens to prevent abuse of discretion by prosecutors.,Business study
a petit jury sits in trials as the trier of fact to ascertain the truth through their observations ofthe presented evidence.,Di kind jury sit for trial as di trier of fact to ascertain di truth through dia observations of di presented evidence.,Business study
can you think of a situation where an in-house attorney may advise you to retain your own counsel?,Di situation wey di in-house attorney don advise you to retain your own counsel?,Business study
"most rules of legal professional conduct are drafted and enforced by the bar itself, but the sarbanes -oxley act(passed in reaction to the enron accounting scandal)imposed a legal duty on lawyers to report acts of misconduct in publicly traded corporations.",Di sarbanes -oxley act(passed for reaction to di enron accounting scandal)impose legal duty on lawyers to report acts of misconduct for publicly trade corporations.,Business study
"do you believe that the bar does an effective job of policing itself, or do you think external government agencies should be more involved?","Di bar don dey effective job of policing itself, or do you think external government agencies go more involved?",Business study
"read the legal documents available for the lynne stewart case at note 3. 28 ""hyperlink: the lynne stewart case"".","Read di legal documents available for di lynne stewart case at note 3. 28 ""hyperlink: di lynne stewart case"".",Business study
do you think that the u. s. government should be able to curb the attorney-client privilege when the client is a convicted terrorist?,Di u. s. goment go able to curb di attorney-client privilege wen di client dey convicted terrorist?,Business study
or a suspected terrorist?,Di terrorist or suspected terrorist?,Business study
"how aggressive shoulda lawyer bein representing his or her client ""zealously""?","How aggressive should lawyer be for represent hin or her client ""zealously""?",Business study
"read the rest of judge land's order in note 3. 31 ""hyperlink: a question of ethics"".","Read di rest of judge land's order inside note 3. 31 ""hyperlink: a question of ethics"".",Business study
do you think orly taitz's conduct warranted a twenty-thousand -dollar fine?,Dem think orly taitz conduct warrant twenty thousand-dollar fine?,Business study
do you think that juries can be trusted to always arrive at the truth?,I think say juries go trust to always arrive at di truth?,Business study
do you think the u. s.,Di u. s.,Business study
jury system should be adopted by other countries?,Di jury system go adopted by oda kontri?,Business study
what factors do you think should affect a country's decision to adopt a jury system?,Di factors do you think don affect a kontri decision to adopt jury system?,Business study
explore the standing requirement.,E dey explore di standing requirement,Business study
understand how a court obtains personal jurisdiction over the parties.,Di court dey obtain personal jurisdiction over di parties.,Business study
"before a case can be litigated, parties have to demonstrate that they meet two pretrial requirements: standing and personal jurisdiction.",Di parties don demonstrate say dem meet two pretrial requirements: standing and personal jurisdiction.,Business study
standing is a constitutional requirement.,Di standing na constitutional requirement.,Business study
"article iii ofthe constitution grants the judiciary the power to hear""cases"" and""controversies.""","Di constitution grant di judiciary di power to hear""cases"" and""controversies""",Business study
"this means actual cases and controversies, not merely hypothetical ones.","This means actual cases plus controversies, no merely hypothetical ones.",Business study
"unlike some other jurisdictions, the standing requirement means that courts are unable to give advisory opinions.",Di standing requirement mean say courts dey unable to give advisory opinions.,Business study
"let's say, for example, congress is considering whether or not to pass a law and would like to know whether the law is constitutional.","for example, congress dey consider whether or no pass law and go like to know whether di law dey constitutional.",Business study
"standing prevents this question from being litigated, because it's not yet an actual case or controversy.","Di standing prevent dis question from being litigated, bikos e no dey any act al case or controversy.",Business study
"standing, therefore, is a doctrine that limits judicial overreach by circumscribing the types of cases that are litigated in our courts.",Di doctrine wey limit judicial overreach by circumcribing di type of case wey dey litigated for our courts.,Business study
"to demonstrate standing, a party has to prove first that it hasan actual case to proceed.",Di party don prove first say e get actual case to proceed.,Business study
"this is a procedural matter, and it requires the case to be brought at the right time.","E dey procedural matter, and e require di case to be brought for di right time.",Business study
"if a case is brought too early, it's not yet ripe.","Di case dey brought too early, no dey ripe.",Business study
"if it's brought too late, then the case is moot.",Di case dey moot.,Business study
"for example, assume that a state is debating whether or not to pass a law that would require thirty hours of financial management classes before anyone is allowed to form his or her own company.",Di state dey debating whether or no pass law wey go require thirty hours of financial management class before anyone dey allowed to form hin or her own company.,Business study
"if an entrepreneur who wishes to form her own company but doesn't want to take the thirty hours of classes sues the state for an unconstitutional law, that lawsuit would be dismissed for being brought too early it is not ripe since the law hasn't been passed yet.","As entrepreneur wey wish to form her own company but no want to take di thirty hours of classes wey dey sues di state for unconstitutional law, say lawsuit go dey pass yet.",Business study
"now let's assume that the law has been passed, and the entrepreneur, who has abandoned her plans and is now working for someone else, sues the state anyway.","Di law don pass, and di entrepreneur, wey don abandon her plans and dey now work for someone else, sues di state anyway.",Business study
that lawsuit would also be dismissed since it is now moot.,Di lawsuit go also dey dismiss since dem no dey moot,Business study
"even if the entrepreneur won the case and the law was overturned, the remedy would be meaningless to her since she does not plan to take the class anyway.",Di remedy go be meaningless to her since she no plan to take di class anyway.,Business study
"to show standing, a plaintiff has to demonstrate that he hasan actual stake in the litigation, or something of value that would be lost if he loses the case.","Di plaintiff don demonstrate say hin get actual stake for di litigation, or something of value wey e go lost if hin lose di case.",Business study
"ofcourse, ifa plaintiff has lost money in a contract dispute or has been injured in a tort case, that is sufficient legal injury.","If plaintiff don lost money for contract dispute or don injure for tort case, wey dey sufficient legal injury",Business study
"let's say, for example, that your roommate is the victim of internet fraud when she does not receive the goods that she paid for online.","for example, say your roommate dey victim of internet fraud wen she no receive di goods wey she pay for online.",Business study
"she would rather move on and forget the whole episode, but you are outraged and decide to sue the perpetrator in court.","Di perpetrator for court, but you dey outraged and decide to sue di perpetrator for court",Business study
"even if the perpetrator admitted that it committed fraud, you would still lose the case because you're not the right plaintiff here; yo ur roommate is.","Di perpetrator admitted say im committe fraud, you go still lose di case because you no dey di right plaintiff here; yo ur roommate dey.",Business study
cases that don't involve monetary damages are sometimes more difficult to call.,Di case wey don involve monetary damages dey sometimes more difficult to call.,Business study
"for example, what if a constitutional right is at stake?","for example, what if constitutional right dey stake?",Business study
what standing does a citizen have to prove to file a lawsuit?,What standing does a citizen get to prove to file a lawsuit?,Business study
courts have generally held that merely being a taxpayer does not give standing to challenge government expenditures.,Di courts don generally hold say merely be taxpayer no give standing to challenge government expenditures.,Business study
"so, for example, a citizen cannot sue the government to stop the war in afghanistan just because he pays his taxes.","for example, citizen no sue di goment to stop di war for afghanistan just because he pay hin taxes.",Business study
"if taxpayers don't have standing to challenge government action, then who does?",Di does?,Business study
"in 2007 massachusetts, along with eleven other states, sued the environmental protection agency(epa) to force the agency to regulate carbon dioxide as a pollutant.","Inside 2007 massachusetts, along with eleven other states, sued di environmental protection agency(epa) to force di agency to regulate carbon dioxide as a pollutant.",Business study
"for years, the epa had argued that carbon dioxide is not a pollutant and therefore could not be regulated.",Di epa don argu say carbon dioxide no dey pollutant and therefore no dey regulated,Business study
"in response to the suit, the epa argued that the states lacked standing since they couldn't prove they had been harmed by excess carbon dioxide in the air.",Di epa argu say di state no fit standing since dem no prove dem dey harmed by excess carbon dioxide for di air.,Business study
"in a major decision,[1] the supreme court ruled that the states had standing because they had suffered environmental degradation as a result of global warming brought about by excess carbon dioxide and that therefore the epa has jurisdiction over carbon dioxide as a pollutant.",Di supreme court rule say di state don standing because dem don suffered environmental degradation as result of Global warming na how the temperature of di earth dey hot as pipu dey do tins wey dey bring about by excess carbon dioxide and say therefore di epa don jurisdiction over carbon dioxide as pollutant.,Business study
"this decision, along with the election of president obama, led to a major policy reversal at the epa, which is now aggressively pursuing the regulation of carbon pollution to combat global warming.","Di election of president obama, led to major policy reversal for di epa, wey dey aggressively pursuing di regulation of carbon pollution to combat Global warming na how the temperature of di earth dey hot as pipu dey do tins.",Business study
another high-profile case on standing involves the pledge of allegiance.,Di high-profile case wey dey standing involves di pledge of allegiance.,Business study
in 2000 a california attorney and physician sued the government because his daughter attended a school where the pledge of allegiance was recited every morning.,Di california attorney and physician dey sued di goment because hin daughter attend school wey di pledge of allegiance dey recited every morning.,Business study
"in 2002 the ninth circuit court of appeals agreed with newdow, ruling that the pledge is indeed unconstitutional.","Di ninth circuit court of appeal agree wit newdow, ruling say di pledge dey unconstitutional.",Business study
"on appeal to the supreme court, the court ducked the question of whether the pledge is unconstitutional.",Di court ducked di question of whether di pledge dey unconstitutional.,Business study
"only his wife, who had custody ofthe daughter, could bring the lawsuit.","Di wife, wey dey custody of di daughter, go bring di lawsuit.",Business study
it's important to note that standing doesn't have anything to do with the merits ofthe case.,Di important to note say standing no get any to do wit di merit of di case.,Business study
being able to prove standing doesn't mean that you can win the case at hand.,E no mean say you fit win di case for hand.,Business study
it only means that you've been able to clear a procedural bar toward proceeding with litigation.,Di only mean say you dey able to clear procedural bar toward proceeding wit litigation.,Business study
another procedural bar before a plaintiff can proceed is personal jurisdiction.,Di procedural bar before plaintiff go proceed na personal jurisdiction.,Business study
"personal jurisdiction is different from subject matter jurisdiction, which is the power of a court to hear a case.","Di personal jurisdiction dey different from subject matter jurisdiction, wey dey power of court to hear case.",Business study
"personal jurisdiction is the power of a court over specific litigants, and it requires litigants to have some form of minimum contacts with the state where the case is filed.","Di power of court over specific litigants, and e require litigants to get some form of minimum contact wit di state wey di case dey filed.",Business study
"personal jurisdiction seeks to avoid inconvenient litigation, even if the case has actual merit.","Personal pawa of kot to judge case seeks to avoid inconvenient to drag matter for kot, sef if di case don get actual merit.",Business study
"if you've never been to nebraska, for example, and don't have any connections to nebraska, then you might be very surprised to find that you're being sued in a nebraska state court.","for example, if you no dey to nebraska, for example, and don get any connections to nebraska, then you go suppose find say you no dey reach nebraska state court.",Business study
"in addition to that, you'd have to goto nebraska to answer the lawsuit, hire local lawyers to assist you, and spend alot of time and money in a state you have nothing to do with.","For addition to dat, you goto nebraska to answer di lawsuit, hire local lawyers to assist you, and spend alot of time and money for state wey no fit do wit.",Business study
a court obtains personal jurisdiction over the plaintiff when the plaintiff files its lawsuit.,Di court don obtain personal jurisdiction over di plaintiff wen di plaintiff file dia lawsuit.,Business study
obtaining personal jurisdiction over the defendant can be a little trickier.,Di defendant no dey trickier.,Business study
"typically, there has to be some sort of connection between the defendant and the state where the court is located.",Dem get some sort of connection between di defendant and di state wey di court dey locate.,Business study
"for example, living in the state would create personal jurisdiction.","for example, living inside di state go create personal pawa of kot to judge case.",Business study
residency for purposes of personal jurisdiction is different from residency for other legal requirements such as voting and driving.,Di residency for purpose of personal jurisdiction dey different from residency for oda legal requirements such as voting and driving,Business study
"even temporary residency, such as a college student studying out of state, creates residency for personal jurisdiction purposes.","Sef temporary residency, such as a college student studying comot of state, creates residency for personal pawa of kot to judge case purposes.",Business study
"moreover, merely being in the state temporarily creates personal jurisdiction.",Di state don create personal jurisdiction.,Business study
"if you're driving through nebraska, for example, and you're speeding on a local highway, nebraska courts have jurisdiction to hear a speeding ticket issued against you.","for example, if you dey drive through nebraska, for example, and you dey speed on local highway, nebraska court don jurisdiction to hear speeding ticket issue against you.",Business study
"for corporations, courts generally hold that personal jurisdiction is proper in the state of incorporation aswell as in any state the corporation does business.",Di court generally hold say personal jurisdiction dey proper for di state of incorporation aswell as for any state di corporation dey business.,Business study
"personal jurisdiction, like standing, is a constitutional requirement.",Di constitutional requirement.,Business study
the due process clause ofthe fourteenth amendment requires government processes to be carried out fairly.,Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system clause of di fourteenth amendment require government process to dey carried out fairly.,Business study
"in 1980, the supreme court heard an important case on personal jurisdiction involving a car crash in oklahoma.","Inside 1980, di supreme court heard an important case on personal pawa of kot to judge case involving a car crash inside oklahoma.",Business study
"the distributor and the retailer moved to dismiss the case for lack of personal jurisdiction, arguing that they had no business in oklahoma, had no employees or property there, and did not target citizens of oklahoma to purchase vehicles from them in new york.","Di distributor and di retailer move to dismiss di case for lack of personal jurisdiction, arguing say dem no fit target citizens of oklahoma to buy vehicle from dem for new york.",Business study
"the supreme court held in favor ofthe distributor and car dealer, finding that neither had""purposefully availed"" themselves ofthe privileges that come from doing business in oklahoma.","Di supreme court wey di supreme court hold for favor of di distributor and car dealer, finding say e no fit avail di privileges wey kom from do business for oklahoma.",Business study
"the court noted that for personal jurisdiction to attach,""substantial notions of fair play and justice""cannot be offended.","Di court noted wey for personal pawa of kot to judge case to attach,""substantial notions of fair play plus justice""cannot be offended.",Business study
"today, most states have written these concepts into laws known as long-arm statutes.",Di state don write dis concepts into laws wey dey known as long-arm statutes,Business study
these statutes set forth the procedure by which out-of-state defendants can be required to appear before a local court.,Di statutes set forth di procedure wey out-of-state defendants go need to appear before local court.,Business study
the statutes provide for how service of process can occur.,Di statutes provide for how service of process dey occur,Business study
service of process is the process by which any defendant(both local and out-of-state) is notified that it is being sued.,Di process wey any defendant(both local and out-of-state) dey notified say dem dey sued,Business study
service of process typically requires a copy ofthe summons(notice to appear before a court)to be personally delivered to the defendant or the defendant's agent.,Service of process typically requires a copy of di summons(notice to appear before a court)to be personally delivered to di person wey dem carry go kot or di person wey dem carry go kot's agent.,Business study
"in the case of companies and other nonhuman entities, service of process is usually easy since they are required to have a registered agent as part ofthe process of forming an organization.","Di case of companies and oda nonhuman entities, service of process dey easy since dem no need to get registered agent as part of di process of forming organization.",Business study
"service can be more challenging with an individual, since some defendants know that litigation can be held up while service is attempted and therefore choose to avoid being served at all costs.",Di defendants know say litigation go hold up while service dey attempt and therefore choose to avoid being served for all costs.,Business study
"while the best service is personal delivery ofthe summons, some states prescribe alternative methods such as leaving a copy with a family member while also mailing a copy.","While di best service na personal delivery of di summons, some states prescribe alternative methods such as leaving a copy with a family member while sef mailing a copy.",Business study
the internet era has raised some interesting personal jurisdiction issues.,Di internet era don rais some interesting personal jurisdiction issues.,Business study
"does creating a website, for example, subject you to personal jurisdiction in all states where the website is accessible?","for example, subject you to personal jurisdiction for all states wey di website dey accessible?",Business study
"if it is a general informational website that describes a product, then there are insufficient minimum contacts to create personal jurisdiction.","Di general informational website site wey dey scribe a product, then there dey insufficient minimum contacts to create personal jurisdiction.",Business study
"if, on the other hand, the website reaches out to specific customers and urges them to make a purchase, either through a shopping cart function or by calling the seller, then there are minimum contacts to justify jurisdiction.","For di oda hand, di website reach out to specific customers and urge dem make a purchase, either through shopping cart function or by call di seller, na minimum contacts to justify jurisdiction.",Business study
taxpayers lack standing to sue the government just by being taxpayers.,Di taxpayers don lack standing to sue di government just by being taxpayers.,Business study
"legal injury does not have to be monetary based; environmental harm, for example, may be sufficient to demonstrate standing.","for example, legal injury no fit be monetary based; environmental harm, for example, suppose be sufficient to demonstrate standing; environmental harm, for example, suppose dey sufficient to demonstrate standing; environmental harm, for example, dey sufficient to demonstrate standing.",Business study
standing has nothing to do with the merits ofthe underlying case.,Di underlying case no dey do wit di merit of di underlying case.,Business study
courts must have personal jurisdiction over a defendant before litigation can proceed.,Courts must get personal pawa of kot to judge case over a person wey dem carry go kot before to drag matter for kot fit proceed.,Business study
"personal jurisdiction, a constitutional requirement, requires minimum contacts with the state such that substantial notions of fair play and justice are not offended.",Dem require minimum contact wit di state such say substantial notions of fair play and justice no dey offended.,Business study
"once personal jurisdiction is established, service of process can occur, where a copy ofthe summons is delivered to the defendant.","Di personal jurisdiction dey establish, service of process dey occur, wia copy of di summons dey deliver to di defendant.",Business study
"if the defendant lives out of state, a long-arm statute prescribes the method for service to occur.","If di person wey dem carry go kot lives comot of state, a long-arm statute prescribes di method for service to occur.",Business study
aw eb site creates personal jurisdiction in any state where it reaches out for customers through a shopping cart function.,Di w eb site create personal jurisdiction for any state wey dey reach out for customers through shopping cart function.,Business study
what procedural bar stopped citizens from challenging the nomination?,What procedural bar stopped citizens from challenging di nomination?,Business study
do you believe the supreme court acted properly by finding that states with environmental damage from global warming had standing to challenge the federal government?,Di supreme court acting properly by finding say states wit environmental damage from Global warming na how the temperature of di earth dey hot as pipu dey do tins don stand to challenge di federal government?,Business study
"in the volkswagen car crash case, the manufacturer(volkswagen, a german company)and the importer did not contest personal jurisdiction of oklahoma state courts.","Inside di volkswagen car crash case, di manufacturer(volkswagen, a german company)plus di importer did no contest personal pawa of kot to judge case of oklahoma state courts.",Business study
why do you think they submitted to jurisdiction so readily?,Di why do you think dem submit to jurisdiction so readily?,Business study
"if a car dealer in a neighboring state runs advertisements in your state claiming that its deals are better than those of in-state dealers, does that out-of-state car dealer create personal jurisdiction in your state?","If a car dealer for neighboring state run advertisements for your state claiming say im deals dey better than those of in-state dealer, does dat out-of-state car dealer create personal jurisdiction for your state?",Business study
"if you sell something on ebay, do you create personal jurisdiction in the buyer's state?",I create personal jurisdiction for di buyer state?,Business study
"if you commit a tort on the internet, do you create personal jurisdiction in the victim's state?",Di victim's state don create personal jurisdiction for di victim's state?,Business study
"for example, if you defamed someone w ho lives out of state on facebook, have you created jurisdiction in that foreign state?","for example, if you dey destroy someone wey dey lives out of state on facebook, don create jurisdiction for dat foreign state?",Business study
"explore pretrial procedures such as pleadings, discovery, and motions.","Explore pretrial procedures such as pleadings, discovery, plus motions.",Business study
find out how class-action lawsuits are organized and prosecuted.,Find comot how class-action lawsuits be organized plus prosecuted.,Business study
learn about issues and challenges facing parties during discovery.,E learn about issues and challenges wey dey face parties during discovery.,Business study
"after issues related to subject matter jurisdiction, standing, and personal jurisdiction are sorted out and parties have hired counsel to represent them, then a dispute can proceed to the pretrial stage.","Di issue dey related to subject matter jurisdiction, standing, and personal jurisdiction dey sort out and parties don hir counsel to represent dem, then dispute go proceed to di pretrial stage.",Business study
"in civil cases, litigation begins with th e filing of a complaint by the plaintiff.",Di plaintiff begin wit th e filing of complaint by di plaintiff.,Business study
"the complaint is a simple document setting forth who the parties are, the facts ofthe case, and what specific laws the defendant has violated.","Di complaint dey simple document setting forth who di parties dey, di facts of di case, and what specific laws di defendant don violated.",Business study
(each of these is a claim.),Di claim na claim.),Business study
"the complaint ends with a prayer for relief. the plaintiff maybe seeking damages(money), specific performance in certain kinds of contract cases, or a temporary or permanent injunction.","Di complaint ends with a prayer for relief. di person wey carry case go kot maybe seeking damages(money), specific performance inside certain kinds of contract cases, or a temporary or permanent injunction.",Business study
"it is much easier to get a temporary injunction in the early stages of litigation, because courts don't want to see the defendant take some action that may result in irreparable harm.","E dey easier to get temporary injunction for di early stage of litigation, because court don want to see di defendant take some action wey dey result in irreparable harm.",Business study
"for example, if a real estate development company wants to tear down an old shopping mall to build anew skyscraper, and one ofthe tenants in the old mall claims it still has a right to be there, the tenant maybe able to obtain a temporary injunction stopping the demolition until the lease issues are sorted out.","If real estate development company want to tear down old shopping mall to build new skyscraper, and one of di tenants for di old mall claim e still get right to be there, di tenant go able to obtain temporary injunction stop di demolition until di lease issues dey sort out.",Business study
"if the demolition is allowed to continue and the tenant later turns out to be the winner, it will be too late to grant th e tenant any meaningful remedy.","Di tenant later turnout to be di winner, na too late to grant th e tenant any meaningful remedy.",Business study
citizen advocacy groups with an antilitigation public policy agenda often complain about frivolous lawsuits being filed in court.,"Di citizen advocacy groups wit antilitigation public policy agenda often complain about kase wey no get basis or wey dem dey take harass or intimidate person, wey no dey based on truth or fact, na im dem dey call frivolous lawsuits, but for pidgin, we fit call am'yarn wey no dey make sense' or 'kase wey no get head' wey dey filed for court.",Business study
most court systems have rules to prevent the filing of frivolous suits.,Di most court systems don rules to prevent di filing of frivolous suits.,Business study
"in the federal system, the rules state that all claims must be signed by a lawyer certifying that to the""best ofthe person's knowledge,""formed after""an inquiry reasonable under the circumstances,""the claim is not being presented for an unlawful purpose such as harassment a nd that the claims are either""warranted by existing law""or a nonfrivolous argument for modifying existing law.","For di federal system, di rules state say all claims no be warranted by existing law""or a nonfrivolous argument for modifying existing law.",Business study
"in practice, this standard is quite easy to meet, and it's hard to think of a factual scenario other than the most absurd that would rise to th e level of being legally frivolous.","Di standard dey easy to meet, and e hard to think of factual scenario wey dey different than di most absurd wey go rise to th e level of being legally frivolous",Business study
every court has a clerk's office to handle administrative matters relating to litigation.,Di court don get clerk office to handle administrative matters relating to litigation.,Business study
"even though the court system is a public service, there is usually a fee associated with filing a complaint to cover some ofthe court's costs.","Di court system dey public service, usually fee wey dey associated wit filing complaint to cover some of di court costs.",Business study
"the clerk will next issue a summons to the defendant, along with a copy ofthe complaint.","Di clerk go next issue a summons to di person wey dem carry go kot, along with a copy of di complaint.",Business study
the summons is sent to a process server to effect service on the defendant.,Di summons dey send process server to effect service on di defendant.,Business study
"when the defendant is served, it is very important for the defendant to respond to the complaint in a timely manner.",E dey important for di defendant to respond to di complaint for timely manner.,Business study
"ignoring the complaint, even if the defendant believes the complaint is devoid of any merit, is a fatal error.","Di defendant believe di complaint dey devoid of any merit, na fatal error.",Business study
"if the defendant does not reply to the complaint, the plaintiff can ask the court to issue a default judgment against the defendant, including granting all the relief the plaintiff is asking for.","Di plaintiff go ask di court to issue default judgment against di defendant, including grant all di relief wey di plaintiff don ask for.",Business study
"in certain types of cases, there maybe a large number of plaintiffs injured by a defendant's actions.",Na large number of plaintiffs injured by defendant's actions.,Business study
"this may happen in a product liability lawsuit where a product is purchased by many thousands of consumers, all of whom experience the same product failure.","Dis go happen for product liability lawsuit wey a product dey purchase by many thousands of consumers, all of who dey experience di same product failure.",Business study
"the batteries for apple's popular ipod, for example, had a high failure rate, leading to a large number of consumer claims.","Di batteries for apple's popular ipod, for example, bin get a high failure rate, leading to a large number of consumer claims.",Business study
"there also maybe a large number of plaintiffs in financial services cases, where a financial institution or investment firm defrauds a large number of investors.","Na large number of plaintiffs for financial services case, wey A business or organisation wey manage money— like bank, insurance, or investment companies or investment firm defraud large number of investors.",Business study
"in these cases, several lead plaintiffs may attempt to form a class in a class-action lawsuit against the defendants.","Inside these cases, several lead person wey carry case go kots may attempt to form a class inside a class-action lawsuit against di person wey dem carry go kots.",Business study
"under federal civil procedure rules, class actions maybe granted when there are so many plaintiffs that it is impractical for them to file separate lawsuits, there are questions of law or fact that are common to members ofthe class, and the lead plaintiffs will fairly and adequately protect the interests ofthe class.","E dey question of law or fact wey dey common to members of di class, and di lead plaintiffs go fairly and adequately protect di interest of di class.",Business study
"the defendant must file an answer to the complaint within a specified period of time, typically thirty days.","Di person wey dem carry go kot must file an answer to di complaint within a specified period of time, typically thirty days.",Business study
"the answer is a paragraph-by-paragraph response to the complaint, admitting certain paragraphs and denying others.","Di answer na paragraph-by-paragraph response to di complaint, admit certain paragraphs and denying odas.",Business study
"the answer may also contain an affirmative defense(self -defense in an assault charge, for example)the defendant wishes to pursue.","Di answer don also contain affirmative defense(self -defense for assault charge, for example)di defendant wish to pursue.",Business study
"taken together, the complaint and answer are known as the pleadings.",Di complaint and answer dey known as di pleadings,Business study
"the answer may admit, for example, noncontroversial claims by the plaintiff such as the defendant's name, address, and the nature ofthe defendant's relationship with the plaintiff.","for example, noncontroversial claims by di plaintiff such as di defendant name, address, and di nature of di defendant relationship wit di plaintiff.",Business study
reducing the number of claims to be resolved before an actual trial begins makes the trial shorter.,Di number of claims wey dey resolve before an actual trial begins make di trial shorter,Business study
"for example, in many civil cases, the plaintiff will make claims about liability and damages.",Di plaintiff no fit make claim about liability and damages.,Business study
a defendant maybe willing to admit that it is liable but may argue about the plaintiff's claims for damages.,Di defendant go willing to admit say e dey liable but go argue about di plaintiff's claim for damages.,Business study
"this can sometimes lead to bifurcated trials, where the issues of liability and damages are litigated separately.","Di sometimes lead to bifurcated trials, wey di issues of liability and damages dey litigated separately.",Business study
"at any point in litigation, either party may file motions with the court.",Di party go file motion wit di court.,Business study
the motions are designed to short-circuit the litigation and lead to an early end to the lawsuit.,Di motion dey design to short-circuit di litigation and lead to early end to di lawsuit.,Business study
litigation is so time consuming and expensive that either party would be gratified if the judge would simply cut the lawsuit short and declare a winner.,Di lawsuit dey so time consuming and expensive say either party go simply cut di lawsuit short and declare winner.,Business study
one such motion is the motion to dismiss for failure to state a cause of action.,One such motion na di motion to dismiss for failure to state a cause of action.,Business study
"in this motion, the defendant argues that even if it admits everything in the complaint is fa ctually true, that doesn't lead to any legal liability.","Di defendant argues say even if e admit all in di complaint na fa ctually true, say e no lead to any legal liability.",Business study
"in other words, the defendant's conduct has not broken any laws.",Di defendant's conduct no broken any laws,Business study
a similar motion is the motion for judgment on the pleadings.,Di similar motion dey di motion for judgment on di pleadings.,Business study
"in this motion, one party asks the judge to decide the case based simply on the answer and complaint.",One party ask di judge to decide di case based simply on di answer and complaint.,Business study
"if along period of time has passed since the incident in question and the filing ofthe lawsuit, a defendant may file a motion to dismiss based on the statute of limitations.","Di incident for question and di filing of di lawsuit, defendant go file motion to dismiss based on di statute of limitations.",Business study
"every civil and criminal action has a statute of limitations, which states that any claim or prosecution under the statute must be brought within a specified period of time or it will be dismissed.","Di civil and criminal action don get statute of limitations, wey states say any claim or prosecution under di statute must be within a specified period of time or im go dismiss am.",Business study
only a few crimes are exempt from the statute of limitations and can be prosecuted at anytime: murder(in most states)and rape(in many states).,Di statute of limitations dey exempt from di statute of limitations and dey prosecut for anytime: murder(in most states)and rape(in many states).,Business study
"the statute of limitations exists to encourage aggrieved parties to file their lawsuits quickly, while evidence is still fresh and relevant people have memories of what occurred.","Di statute of limitations exist to encourage aggrieved parties to file dia lawsuits quickly, while evidence still fresh and relevant pipo don memories of what occurred.",Business study
"as time passes, evidence may become stale, witnesses may die or move away, and those that can be located can't remember what they saw or heard.","As time pass, witnesses don dey move away, witnesses don dey move away, and those wey dem dey locate no remember what dem hear.",Business study
"in other words, the quicker a suit is filed, the more likely that the real truth will be discovered by litigation.","Di quicker suit dey filed, di more likely say di real truth go discover by litigation.",Business study
"for businesses, a statute of limitations also allows it to""close the books""on past liabilities, such as accounts payable or tax payments, knowing that too much time has passed for anyone to come collecting on those monies.","For businesses, a statute of limitations also allow im to close di books on past liabilities, such as account payable or tax payments, know say too much time don pass for anyone to collect on those monies.",Business study
"it is possible, though, in many cases to toll the statute of limitations.","Di statute of limitations dey possible, though, for many case to toll di statute of limitations",Business study
"if an accountant commits fraud, for example, and a criminal complaint is filed but the accountant flees overseas for many years, the statute of limitations does not run while the suspect is hiding.","Di statute of limitations no run while di suspect dey hiding, di statute of limitations no run while di suspect dey hid.",Business study
affidavits play an important role in pretrial procedure because they are an effective way for parties to tell their side ofthe story to the judge.,Di affidavit play important role for pretrial procedure because dem dey effective way for parties to tell dia side of di story to di judge.,Business study
"they are limited, however, because even though they are given under oath, they may raise more questions and are not subject to examination by the other side.","Dem dey limited, because even though dem dey give under oath, dem no dey subject to examination by di oda side.",Business study
"after pleadings are filed, the litigation moves into the discovery phase.",Di litigation move into di discovery phase.,Business study
discovery is a process in which each side finds out information about the other's case.,Di process wey each side to know information about di oda case.,Business study
"let's assume, for example, that you buy anew car and within a few weeks, a tire falls off suddenly while you're driving.","for example, say you buy new car and within few weeks, tire fall off suddenly while you drive.",Business study
"you would rightly conclude that there's something wrong with the car, so you sue the manufacturer.","Di manufacturer go conclude say there's something wrong wit di car, so you sue di manufacturer.",Business study
"at this point, you have no idea what's wrong with the vehicle.","Di point, you no know what's wrong wit di vehicle.",Business study
was the design flawed?,Di design flawed?,Business study
was there something wrong with the manufacturing of your specific vehicle?,Di thing wrong wit di manufacturing of your specific vehicle?,Business study
all you know is that new cars should not experience this sort of failure.,Di all you know say new cars no experience dis sort of failure.,Business study
"after you file a lawsuit against the manufacturer, discovery allows you to find out more information about the vehicle so that you can effectively proceed with the lawsuit.",Di discovery allows you to know more information about di vehicle so say you fit effectively proceed wit di lawsuit.,Business study
you could find out what engineers did when they designed the vehicle and review records of similar accidents or factory records from the day your vehicle was produced.,We goto know what engineers do wen dem design di vehicle and review records of similar accident or factory records from di day your vehicle dey produce.,Business study
"discovery is designed to prevent trial by surprise, where either side may suddenly produce a damning piece of evidence that allows it to win the trial.","Di discovery dey design to prevent trial by surprise, wia either side dey suddenly produce damning piece of evidence wey dey allow dem win di trial.",Business study
"since trials are based on the discovery of truth, they should be tried on the merits ofthe case rather than a party's deceit.","Di trials dey based on di discovery of truth, dem go try on di merits of di case no be party's deceit.",Business study
"in that spirit, the rules of discovery are written broadly to cover scope and obligation.",Di rules of discovery dey written widely to cover scope and obligation.,Business study
"in scope, any piece of evidence that maybe relevant to the trial is discoverable.",Di piece of evidence wey dey relevant to di trial dey discoverable.,Business study
"even if evidence maybe ruled later to be inadmissible for a legal reason, it is discoverable during discovery.","If evidence dey rule later to be inadmissible for legal reason, e dey discoverable during discovery.",Business study
"in obligation, both parties are obligated to turnover material that supports their own case, without demand from the other side.","Di parties dey obligate to turnover material wey support dia own case, without demand from di oda side.",Business study
"if the material harms their own case, they have to turn it over if the other side asks for it.","Di material harm dia own case, dem don turn am over if di oda side ask for am.",Business study
there are four types of discovery.,Na four types of discovery wey dey discovery,Business study
the simplest(and least expensive)is an interrogatory.,Di simplest(and least expensive)na interrogatory.,Business study
these are written questions addressed to the other party.,Dis dey written questions wey dey address to di oda party.,Business study
"the questions tend to be simple and straightforward, dealing with uncontroversial matters such as a company's structure or the names and addresses of relevant witnesses.","Di question dey simple and straightforward, dealing wit uncontroversial matters such as company structure or di name and address of relevant witnesses.",Business study
"using this form of deposition, a party can request the other party to produce written communications such as internal company reports, e -mails, product manuals, and engineering specifications.","Using this form of deposition, a party fit request di other party to produce written communications such as internal company reports, e -mails, product manuals, plus engineering specifications.",Business study
in some cases physical evidence may also be produced.,For some cases physical evidence dey produce,Business study
"if you sued a vehicle manufacturer because your tire fell off while driving, for example, the manufacturer may ask you to produce your vehicle so that its engineers can inspect it.","for example, di manufacturer go ask you to produce your vehicle so say di engineers go inspect am",Business study
"failure to preserve and produce key evidence in litigation can lead to charges of spoliation, which may result in severe sanctions against the offending party.","Di failure to preserve and produce key evidence for litigation go lead to charges of spoliation, wey dey result for severe sanctions against di offending party.",Business study
a third form of discovery is a request for admission.,Di third form of discovery dey request for admission,Business study
"remember that a complaint contains a series of claims the plaintiff is making against the defendant, and the answer is mainly a series of denials of those claims.","Di answer dey remember say complaint contains series of claims di plaintiff dey make against di defendant, and di answer dey mainly series of denials of those claim.",Business study
"as each party finds more information about the other's case in discovery, one party may ask the other to admit that one ofthe contested claims is true.","As each party find more information about di oda case for discovery, one party go ask di other to admit say one of di contested case dey true.",Business study
doing so narrows the issues for trial because it is one less thing that the jury has to decide.,Di jury don decide so narrows di issues for trial because e dey one less thing wey di jury don decide.,Business study
asking a party to give up a contested claim can be done at anytime during litigation.,Dem ask a party to give up contested claim go dey done for anytime during litigation.,Business study
"if not done as a formal method of discovery, it maybe done as a stipulation instead.","Formal method of discovery, na stipulation forstead.",Business study
"for example, in your trial against the vehicle manufacturer, you may ask the manufacturer to admit that your specific vehicle was manufactured on a specific date at a specific factory.","for example, for your trial against di vehicle manufacturer, you go ask di manufacturer to admit say your specific vehicle dey manufacture on specific date for specific factory.",Business study
"finally, discovery can take the form of a deposition.",discovery go take di form of deposition.,Business study
"a deposition is a sworn oral statement, in response to questions, given by a potential witness in a trial to the attorneys in the case.","Di deposition na sworn oral statement, for response to questions, wey dey given by potential witness for trial to di attorneys for di case.",Business study
"a deposition hearing is attended by the witness being deposed and lawyers from both side, as well as a court reporter who keeps a written transcript ofthe entire deposition.","Di witness wey deposed and lawyers from both side, as well as court reporter wey keep a written transcript of di entire deposition",Business study
"in your product liability suit against your vehicle's manufacturer, for example, you might want to depose the safety engineer who designed the car's tire and braking systems.","Di product liability suit against your vehicle's manufacturer, for example, you go want to depose di safety engineer wey design di car's tire and braking systems.",Business study
"there is no judge present, so there is great latitude for parties to ask questions, even if those questions may result in testimony that is later inadmissible in court.","Di great latitude for parties to ask questions, even if those questions dey result for testimony wey dey later inadmissible for court.",Business study
depositions serve to allow attorneys to prepare for trial by knowing everything a witness may sayin court.,Depositions serve to allow attorneys to prepare for trial by knowing everything a witness may say inside court.,Business study
"they also serve to pin down a witness's testimony, since a witness who changes testimony between a deposition and trial can be easily impeached.","Diy serve to pin down witness's testimony, since a witness wey dey change testimony between deposition and trial dey easily impeached.",Business study
"in some cases they can degenerate without the presence of a judge, as note 3. 72""video clip: a deposition goes awry"" shows.","Di video clip: a deposition go awry"" show.",Business study
"video clip: a deposition goes awry although the policy behind liberal rules of discovery is to permit both sides to prepare adequately for trial, in effect discovery is an expensive phase of litigation.","Di policy wey dey behind liberal rules of discovery dey to allow both sides to prepare adequately for trial, in effect discovery dey expensive phase of litigation.",Business study
"with most lawyers charging by the hour, responding to discovery requests can quickly rack up daunting legal bills.","Di lawyers charging by di hour, respond to discovery request don quickly rack up daunting legal bills.",Business study
discovery can also drag out litigation to many months or years.,Discovery fit sef drag comot to drag matter for kot to boku months or years.,Business study
"most large corporations find they must dedicate entire in-house staffs of attorneys, paralegals, and support staff to respond exclusively to discovery requests.","Di most large corporation find dem need dedicate entire for-house staff of attorneys, paralegals, and support staff to respond exclusively to discovery request.",Business study
"the judge assigned to the case is supposed to supervise discovery and ensure that the parties respond in a timely manner, as well as make rulings on specific discovery requests and objections.","Di judge assigned to di case dey suppose supervise discovery and ensure say di parties respond for timely manner, as well as make rulings on specific discovery request and objections.",Business study
"theoretically, a judge has the power to sanction parties for abusive discovery, up to and including ordering a default judgment against the offending party.","Theoretically, a judge don get di power to sanction parties for abusive discovery, up to plus including ordering a default judgment against di offending party.",Business study
"there are, however, few meaningful sanctions that can be levied against parties that abuse discovery, and plaintiffs in particular have a vested interest in making discovery last longer than the price of a sought-after settlement.","E dey, however, few meaningful sanctions wey dey levied against pipo wey abuse discovery, and plaintiffs for particular don dey vest interest for make discovery last longer than di price of a sought-after settlement.",Business study
"these issues are magnified in e-discovery, when mountains of electronic data have to be sifted through to find relevant discoverable material.","Di issues dey magnified fore-discovery, wen mountains of electronic data don sift through to find relevant discoverable material.",Business study
"objections to turning over material that maybe proprietary, privileged, or the result ofthe work product doctrine also become more time consuming when parties are engaged in e-discovery.","Di objections to turn over material wey dey proprietary, privileged, or di result of di work product doctrine dey more time consuming wen parties dey engage fore discovery.",Business study
"during or after discovery, parties typically make a motion for summary judgment.","During or after discovery, parties typically make a motion for summary judgment.",Business study
this motion is designed to cut the trial short by asking the judge to decide based on the information discovered so far in the case.,Di motion dey designed to cut di trial short by asking di judge to decide based on di information wey dem discover so far for di case.,Business study
"in essence, the party making the motion is saying,""why have a trial?""","Di party make di motion dey say,""why have trial?""",Business study
since the evidence would lead any reasonable jury to the same an d inevitable conclusion.,Di evidence go lead any reasonable jury to di same conclusion.,Business study
"if the plaintiff wishes to represent many others with the same claim against the same defendants, the plaintiff may try to certify the lawsuit as a class-action suit.",Di plaintiff go try to certify di lawsuit as class-action suit.,Business study
"frivolous cases are prohibited in litigation, but it is relatively easy to argue that a case is not frivolous.","E dey easy to argue say a case no dey frivolous, but e dey easy to argue say case no dey frivolous.",Business study
the defendant files an answer to the complaint or risks a default judgment.,Di person wey dem carry go kot files an answer to di complaint or risks a default judgment.,Business study
"during the discovery phase of litigation, parties share and exchange information about each other's cases so that neither side is surprised during the trial.","Di discovery phase of litigation, parties share and exchange information about each oda case so say neither side dey surprise during di trial.",Business study
"there are four methods for conducting discovery: interr ogatories, requests for production, requests for admissions, and depositions.","Di four methods wey dey conduct discovery: interr ogatories, requests for production, requests for admission, and depositions.",Business study
"during the catholic priest sex scandal, many potential plaintiffs who were abused as children found that their lawsuits against the church and individual priests were barred by the statute of limitations because the abuse happened so many years ago.","Di catholic priest sex scandal, many potential plaintiffs wey dey abused as children find say dia lawsuits against di church and individual pipo dey barred by di statute of limitations because di abuse dey so many years ago.",Business study
do you believe that these lawsuits were rightfully barred?,Di lawsuits dey rightfully barred?,Business study
should the statute be changed in sexual misconduct cases?,Di statute change for sexual misconduct case?,Business study
do you think there are too many frivolous cases filed?,For you think na too many frivolou cases wey dey filed?,Business study
"if you answered yes, how would you revise the federal rules of civil procedure to raise the standard on what constitutes a frivolous case?",We go revise di federal rules of civil procedure to raise di standard on what constitute frivolous case?,Business study
this interrogatory was issued by the u. s. department of justice in an antitrust investigation against frito -lay for possible violations ofthe sherman antitrust act.,Di interrogatory dey issue by di u. s. department of justice for antitrust investigation against frito -lay for possible violations of di sherman antitrust act.,Business study
what do you notice about the questions?,Di question do you notice about di question?,Business study
how long do you think it would take to compile a response to these questions?,How long do you think am go take to compile a response to these questions?,Business study
"if you were the defendant, would you object to any of them?","If you dey di defendant, go you object to any of dem?",Business study
"if so, on what grounds?",For what grounds?,Business study
learn about jury selection.,Di jury selection dey learn about jury selection,Business study
follow a trial from opening statement to closing arguments.,Follow a trial from opening statement to closing arguments.,Business study
explore the public policy rationale for the trial system.,Di public policy rationale for di trial system.,Business study
"after discovery is finally completed, and assuming that neither side has been successful in short- circuiting litigation through motions, the case is finally scheduled for a trial.",Di case dey finally schedule for trial.,Business study
"in civil litigation, this is a most unusual development, for well over 90 percent of cases filed are resolved or settled before a trial.","Di most unusual development, for well over 90 percent of case wey dey filed dey resolve or settled before trial.",Business study
"if a case actually goes to trial, it means there are genuine issues of fact that the parties cannot resolve, and both sides are determined to see their side win.","Di parties no resolve, and both sides dey determined to see dia side win.",Business study
"remember that a trial is a fact-finding process, through which the trier of fact(the jury in most cases or the judge in a bench trial)attempts to determine what happened. the trier of fact applies the facts to applicable law as instructed by the judge and determines guilt or innocence in a criminal case, or liability or no liability in a civil case.","Di trier of fact(the jury for most cases or di judge for bench trial) deytempt to determine what happened. di trier of fact( di jury for most cases or di judge for bench trial)dey try to determine what happened. di trier of fact( di jury for most cases or di judge for bench trial)dey try to determine what happened. di trier of fact(the judge for bench trial)dey determine guilt or innocence for criminal case, or liability or",Business study
the first step in this process is to seat a jury.,Di first step for dis process dey seat a jury,Business study
"at any given day in a courthouse, several citizens maybe called by a judge as potential jurors in a case.",Di citizens go call judge as potential jurors for case.,Business study
"if a jury needs twelve members, it's not unusual for a judge to begin with a pool of more than fifty or sixty potential jurors to narrow down to a dozen.","If a jury needs twelve members, am's no unusual for a judge to begin with a pool of more than fifty or sixty potential jurors to narrow down to a dozen.",Business study
the process of selecting a petit jury is called voir dire.,Di process of selecting a petit jury dey call voir dire.,Business study
voir dire typically begins with the jurors filling out a written questionnaire.,Voir dire typically begins with di jurors filling comot a written questionnaire.,Business study
"the questionnaire asks the jurors to identify their occupation, any work or occupational conflicts, and any potential conflicts of interest with the case.","Di questionnaire asks di jurors to identify dia occupation, any work or occupational conflicts, plus any potential conflicts of interest with di case.",Business study
the process then continues with attorneys quizzing each potential juror in turn.,Di process continue wit lawyers quizzing each potential juror for turn.,Business study
"during this questioning, attorneys ask each juror if he or she has any biases against upholding the law and whether he or she can keep an open mind during the trial.","Di questioning, attorneys ask each juror if hin or she get any biases against upholding di law and whether hin or she fit keep open mind during di trial.",Business study
"if an attorney does not like a juror's response, that juror maybe excused.","Di lawyer no like attorney's response, say juror dey excuse.",Business study
there are two types of challenges to a potential juror: peremptory or for cause.,There be two types of challenges to a potential juror: peremptory or for cause.,Business study
"since these excuses are for a good reason, each side is allowed an unlimited number of for cause challenges.","Di excuses dey for good reason, each side dey allowed unlimited number of for cause challenges",Business study
"a party can also make a peremptory challenge against a juror, without giving any reason for the challenge.","A party fit sef make a peremptory challenge against a juror, without giving any reason for di challenge.",Business study
"since these challenges are unsupported by rationale or reason, each side is given a limited number of peremptory challenges.","Di challenges dey unsupported by rationale or reason, each side dey give limited number of peremptory challenges.",Business study
a party may make a peremptory challenge based on a juror's perceived bias because of that juror's occupation or life background but may not make a peremptory challenge because ofthe juror's race[1] or gender.,A party may make a peremptory challenge based on a juror's perceived bias because of wey juror's occupation or life background but may no make a peremptory challenge because of di juror's race[1] or gender.,Business study
"after a jury has been selected and sworn in, the trial begins.",Di trial begin.,Business study
the plaintiff or prosecution begins by delivering an opening statement.,Di person wey carry case go kot or prosecution begins by delivering an opening statement.,Business study
the opening statement is a preview ofthe trial.,Di opening statement dey preview of di trial,Business study
"in it, the attorneys explain the facts ofthe case to the jury and indicate what witnesses they will be calling and what the witnesses will say.",Di attorneys explain di facts of di case to di jury and indicate say witnesses dem go call and what di witnesses go say.,Business study
attorneys do not make any arguments during the opening statement; they simply layout what jurors can expect from the trial ahead.,Di attorneys no make any argument during di opening statement; dem simply layout what jurors go expect from di trial ahead.,Business study
"in a trial against your vehicle's manufacturer, your attorney may begin by telling the jury to expect testimony from you about your car accident, from your doctor about the injuries you suffered, and perhaps from an expert witness who has examined your vehicle and believes it was manufactured defectively.","Di attorney go begin by tell di jury to expect testimony from you about your car accident, from your doctor about di injuries you suffered, and perhaps from expert witness wey dey investigate your vehicle and believe say e dey manufacture defectively.",Business study
"once the plaintiff has delivered an opening statement, the defendant will deliver the defense opening statement.","Di plaintiff don deliver opening statement, di defendant go deliver di defense opening statement.",Business study
"in a criminal case, the defense has the right to reserve delivering the opening statement until after the prosecution has rested its case(concluded presenting all the witnesses).",Di defense don get di right to reserve di opening statement until after di prosecution don rest im case(concluded present all di witnesses).,Business study
"after opening statements, the trial moves into the examination phase.",Di trial move into di examination phase.,Business study
"jurors are presented with witnesses, called by each side, to give evidence.","Di jurors dey present wit witnesses, wey dey call by each side, to give evidence.",Business study
the plaintiff begins by calling its witnesses.,Di plaintiff begin by call dia witnesses,Business study
the attorney will guide the witness in delivering testimony by a series of short open-ended questions during the direct examination.,Di attorney go guide di witness inside delivering testimony by a series of short open-ended questions during direct examination.,Business study
leading questions(questions that call for a yes or no answer)are not permitted during direct examination.,Di leading questions(questions wey call for no answer)no dey permitted during direct examination.,Business study
"as the questioning proceeds, a court reporter maintains a record of all the words spoken in case there is an appeal.","As di questioning proceeds, court reporter maintain record of all di words wey dey spoken for case wey dey appeal.",Business study
"the opposing side may raise objections during the examination, which the judge will rule on.","Di opposing side go raise objections during di examination, wey di judge go rule on.",Business study
these rulings can also form the basis for a later appeal.,Di rulings go form di basis for later appeal.,Business study
"during the trial, the prosecution sought to introduce a pair of gloves into evidence.",Di prosecution don introduce pair of gloves into evidence.,Business study
the prosecution claimed the gloves contained blood from the victims.,Di prosecution claim di gloves contain blood from di victims.,Business study
"in this scene, the defendant, o. j. simpson, is asked to try on the gloves so that the jury can see for themselves whether or not the gloves might belong to him.","Di defendant, o. j. simpson, dey ask to try on di gloves so say di jury go see for themselves whether or no di gloves go belong to him",Business study
the fact that the gloves appear too small for his hands later becomes fertile ground for the defense attorneys to argue that reasonable doubt exists as to his guilt.,Di fact say di gloves appear too small for hin hands later become fertile ground for di defense attorneys to argue say reasonable doubt exist as to hin guilt.,Business study
"after direct examination, the other side has the right to conduct across -examination.","Di oda side get di right to conduct cross examination, di oda side get di right to conduct cross examination",Business study
"during the cross-examination, the attorney will try to discredit the witness to convince the jury that the witness is not credible.",Di attorney go try discredit di witness to convince di jury say di witness no credible,Business study
the attorney may probe into any potential biases the witness may have or try to prove that the witness's recollection of events may not be as clear or certain as the witness believes.,Di attorney go probe into any potential biases di witness don get or try to prove say di witness's recollection of events no be as clear or certain as di witness believe.,Business study
"during cross-examination, attorneys frequently engage in asking leading questions, which is permitted.","Di lawyers frequently engage for asking leading questions, wey dey permitted.",Business study
"once the prosecution or plaintiff has called all its witnesses, and the witnesses have undergone direct and cross-examination, then the prosecution or plaintiff will rest its case.","Di prosecution or plaintiff don call all di witnesses, and di witnesses don undergone direct and cross examination, then di prosecution or plaintiff go rest im case.",Business study
"the defendant may make a motion for a directed verdict, arguing that no reasonable juror could possibly find in favor ofthe prosecution or plaintiff after hearing the evidence presented so far.","Di defendant go make motion for directed verdict, arguing say no reasonable juror go find for favor of di prosecution or plaintiff before hear di evidence wey dey present so far.",Business study
this motion can be made anytime during the trial before the jury returns a verdict.,Di motion go make anytime during di trial before di jury return verdict.,Business study
"the defense will then present its witnesses, who are led through direct and cross-examination.","Di defense go then present im witnesses, wey dey led through direct and cross examination.",Business study
"after the defense has rested its case, the attorneys once again address the jury in closing arguments.",Di attorneys one more time address di jury for closing argument.,Business study
"here, the attorneys summarize the case for the jury.",Di attorneys summarize di case for di jury.,Business study
they address what witnesses were called and what the witnesses said.,Di witnesses tok say witnesses dey call witnesses and what di witnesses tok.,Business study
"during closing arguments, the attorneys are permitted to be much more persuasive and argumentative than during the opening statement.",Di attorneys dey permitted to be much more persuasive and argumentative than during di opening statement,Business study
they appeal to the jur y's emotions and argue how the jury should interpret the evidence before them.,Dem appeal to di jur y's emotions and argue how dem interpret di evidence before dem.,Business study
"video clip: johnnie cochran delivers closing arguments after closing arguments are made, the judge in the case charges the jury by giving the jury its instructions.","Johnnie cochran deliver closing arguments afta closing arguments dey made, di judge for di case charge di jury by giving di jury its instructions.",Business study
the instructions acquaint the jury with the relevant law.,Di instructions acquaint di jury with di relevant law.,Business study
the jury then retires to deliberate.,Di jury retire to deliberate.,Business study
"during deliberations, the jury will decide first what facts it believes to be true.",Di jury go decide first what facts wey dem believe to be true.,Business study
then it will apply those facts to the law as outlined in the jury instructions.,E go apply those facts to di law as outline for di jury instructions.,Business study
"in a trial against your vehicle's manufacturer, for example, the judge may explain to the jury what is legally required for a product to be considered defective so that the jury can make a determination, based on the evidence presented, whether or not there is any liability.","Di judge go explain to di jury what dey legally required for product to be defective so say di jury go make determination, based on di evidence wey dey present, whether or no dey any liability.",Business study
central to the jury's deliberations is the burden of proof applicable to the case.,Di responsibility wey person get to provide enough evidence to prove their case wey dey applicable to di case.,Business study
"in criminal trials, the prosecution always carries the burden of proof.",Di prosecution always get di responsibility wey person get to provide enough evidence to prove their case.,Business study
that burden is to prove the defendant committed all the elements required in the crime beyond a reasonable doubt.,Di burden dey to prove di defendant committe all di elements wey dey required for di crime beyond reasonable doubt.,Business study
"if any member ofthe jury has any reasonable doubts about the defendant's guilt or innocence, then the only appropriate verdict is not guilty.",Di only appropriate verdict dey guilty.,Business study
"many people confuse the burden with""without a doubt.""","As many pipo confuse di burden wit""without doubt""",Business study
"jurors may have doubts, but the only question for the jurors is whether they have any reasonable doubts.","Di only question for di jurors na whether dem get any reasonable doubts, but di only question for di jurors na whether dem get any reasonable doubts.",Business study
this standard is deliberately set high because ofthe severe sanctions and penalties that follow a criminal conviction.,Di standard dey deliberately set high because of di severe sanctions and penalties wey follow An official court decision saying person is guilty of a crime.,Business study
"in a criminal trial, the defense only has to prove reasonable doubt exists and has no burden of proof at all.",Di defense only don prove reasonable doubt exist and no Di responsibility wey person get to provide enough evidence to prove their case for all.,Business study
"that is why in criminal trials, the defense may strategically decide to not call any witnesses and to rest its case strictly on creating doubt by cross-examining the prosecution's witnesses.",Di defense go strategically decide to no call any witnesses and to rest im case strictly on creating doubt by cross -examin di prosecution witnesses.,Business study
this standard requires the scales of justice to tilt ever so slightly toward one party to declare that party the winner.,This rule or level requires di scales of justice to tilt ever so slightly toward one party to declare wey party di winner.,Business study
"if the jury believes one side is 51 percent correct and the other is 49 percent correct, that is enough to declare a winner.","Di jury believe one side na 51 percent correct and di oda na 49 percent correct, wey dey enough to declare winner.",Business study
"it is a much easier standard to win, because it only requires a party to prove that its side is more likely than not telling the truth.","E dey easier standard to win, because e no require party to prove say im side dey likely than no tell di truth",Business study
"in a civil liability suit against your vehicle's manufacturer, your burden is to convince the jury that more likely than not, your vehicle was somehow defective.","Di burden dey convince di jury say more likely than no, your vehicle dey defective.",Business study
"sometimes it's possible for a jury in a criminal trial to find the defendant not guilty, while a separate jury in a civil case applying a lower burden of proof finds the defendant liable for the same act.","E dey possible for jury for criminal trial to find di defendant no guilty, while separate jury for civil case apply lower Di responsibility wey person get to provide enough evidence to prove their case find di defendant no guilty, while separate jury for civil case apply lower Di responsibility wey person get to provide enough evidence to prove their case find di defendant liable for di same act.",Business study
this is what happened too. j. simpson when he was tried for the murder of his wife.,E dey wey dey happen too. j. simpson wen he dey try for di murder of hin wife,Business study
"during jury deliberations, the jurors are permitted to ask the judge for clarification about the law and to request to see the evidence again.",Di jurors dey permitted to ask di judge for clarification about di law and to request to see di evidence wey dey ag for.,Business study
"if the jury is unable to come to a verdict, the jury is said to be deadlocked, and a mistrial results.","Dem tok say if di jury dey unable to kom to verdict, di jury dey tok say dem dey deadlocked, and mistrial results.",Business study
"since trials are expensive and time consuming, the judge will usually instruct the jury to try its best before giving up.",Di judge go usually instruct di jury to try im best before giving up.,Business study
"if the jury does arrive at a decision, it is called a verdict.","Di jury dey arrive at decision, e call verdict.",Business study
"once the jury delivers its verdict, the losing side typically makes a motion forjudgment notwithstanding the verdict.","Once di jury delivers its verdict, di losing side typically dey make a motion forjudgment sef though di verdict.",Business study
"in this motion, the party is arguing that the jury arrived at the wrong verdict and that no reasonable jury could have arrived at that verdict.",Di party dey arguin say di jury arrive at di wrong verdict and say no reasonable jury go arrive at dat verdict.,Business study
the judge typically will not grant this verdict.,Di judge typically no grant dis verdict.,Business study
"even if the judge believes that the jury arrived at the wrong factual conclusion, the judge is not permitted to substitute his or her judgment for that ofthe jury.","Di judge no believe say di jury arrive at di wrong factual conclusion, di judge no permitted to substitute hin or her judgment for dat of di jury",Business study
"if, however, the jury clearly ignored the law in arriving at its verdict in a criminal case, the judge may overrule the jury.","Di jury clearly ignor di law for arriving at dia verdict for criminal case, di judge go overrule di jury.",Business study
this phenomenon is known as jury nullification.,Di phenomenon dey known as jury nullification,Business study
"if the judge denies the motion for judgment notwithstanding the verdict, then the judge enters the jury's verdict as a judgment.",Di judge enter di jury's verdict as judgment.,Business study
"after that, the losing party has the right to file an appeal.",Di losing party don get di right to file appeal,Business study
"remember that on appeal, the appellate court is only reviewing the record for legal error and cannot call new witnesses or substitute its judgment on the facts for the jury's.",Di appellate court no review di record for legal error and no call new witnesses or substitute dia judgment on di facts for di jury's.,Business study
"in the following excerpt, supreme court justice ruth bader ginsburg uses the trial record to make a point in her dissenting opinion in an important employment discrimination case involving gender discrimination.","Inside di following excerpt, supreme court justice ruth bader ginsburg uses di trial record to make a point inside im dissenting opinion inside an important employment discrimination case involving gender discrimination.",Business study
"over the course of her career, her pay slipped when compared to the pay of men of equal experience and seniority.","Over di course of im career, im pay slipped when compared to di pay of men of equal experience plus seniority.",Business study
"she sued the company, alleging pay discrimination on the basis of her gender under title vii ofthe 1964 civil rights act.","E sued di company, alleging pay discrimination on di basis of im gender under title vii of di 1964 civil rights act.",Business study
the law states that any lawsuit must be initiated within 180 days ofthe unlawful discriminatory act occurring.,Di law states wey any lawsuit must be initiated within 180 days of di unlawful discriminatory act occurring.,Business study
"ledbetter argued that each paycheck she received was an unlawful discriminatory act, so the fact that she filed her lawsuit within 180 days of her last paycheck means her lawsuit is within the time limit.","Ledbetter argued wey each paycheck e received bin dey an unlawful discriminatory act, so di fact wey e filed im lawsuit within 180 days of im last paycheck means im lawsuit na within di time limit.",Business study
"goodyear argued that the discriminatory act was the decision to pay her less, which took place many years ago and that therefore her lawsuit is too late.","Di discriminatory act na di decision to pay her less, wey took place many years ago and say therefore her lawsuit dey too late.",Business study
"in a 54 decision, the supreme court ruled in goodyear's favor.",Di supreme court rule for goodyear's favor.,Business study
"in h er dissent, justice ginsburg returns to the trial record to make her point that ledbetter is the victim of unlawful discrimination.",Di justice ginsburg return to di trial record to make her point say ledbetter na di victim of unlawful discrimination.,Business study
"the following is from the dissenting opinion: specifically, ledbetter's evidence demonstrated that her current pay was discriminatorily low due to along series of decisions reflecting goodyear's pervasive discrimination against women managers in general and ledbetter in particular.","Di following dey from di dissenting opinion: specifically, ledbetter's evidence demonstrate say her current pay dey discriminatorily low due to long series of decisions reflecting goodyear's pervasive discrimination against women managers for general and ledbetter for particular.",Business study
"ledbetter's former supervisor, for example, admitted to the jury that ledbetter's pay, during a particular one-year period, fell below goodyear's minimum threshold for her position.","Di jury wey ledbetter pay, duri di one year period, fall below goodyear minimum threshold for her position.",Business study
"although goodyear claimed the pay disparity was due to poor performance, the supervisor acknowledged that ledbetter received a""top performance award""in 1996.",Di supervisor tok say ledbetter receive top performance award for 1996.,Business study
the jury also heard testimony that another supervisor who evaluated ledbetter in 1997 and whose evaluation led to her most recent raise denial was openly biased against women.,Di jury hear testimony say another supervisor wey evaluat ledbetter for 1997 and whose evaluation led to her most recent raise denial dey openly bias against women.,Business study
and two women who had previously worked as managers at the plant told the jury they had been subject to pervasive discrimination and were paid less than their male counterparts.,Di jury tell di jury say dem dey subject to pervasive discrimination and dem pay less than dia male counterparts.,Business study
one was paid less than the men she supervised.,Di men she supervise.,Business study
ledbetter herself testified about the discriminatory animus conveyed to her by plant officials.,Dem testify about di discriminatory animus wey dem convey to her by plant officials.,Business study
"after weighing all the evidence, the jury found for ledbetter, concluding that the pay disparity was due to intentional discrimination.","Di jury find for ledbetter, concluding say di pay disparity dey due to intentional discrimination.",Business study
"once all appeals are exhausted, the winner in litigation can finally collect whatever damages it is entitled to.","Di winner for litigation go finally collect anything damage wey dey entitled to, di winner for litigation go finally collect whatever damage wey dey entitled to.",Business study
this process is called execution.,Di process dey call execution,Business study
"if the loser is unable or unwilling to pay the judgment, the winner can petition th e court to use its full legal resources, including asking the sheriff to seize the loser's assets for sale, to satisfy the judgment.","Di winner go petition th e court to use dia full legal resources, including ask di sheriff to seize di loser assets for sale, to satisfy di judgment.",Business study
the winner can also ask that the loser's wages be garnished until the judgment is satisfied.,Di winner go ask say di loser's wages be garnished until di judgment dey satisfied.,Business study
the loser in litigation cannot refile a civil lawsuit once it has been decided under the doctrine of res judicata.,Di loser for litigation no refile civil lawsuit once im don decide under di doctrine of res judicata.,Business study
"just like criminal cases cannot be retried after acquittal under the double jeopardy clause ofthe constitution, res judicata operates as a bar to relitigation.","Just like criminal cases cannot be retried after acquittal under di double jeopardy clause of di constitution, res judicata operates as a bar to reto drag matter for kot.",Business study
each side is permitted to question a potential juror and excuse that juror for any reason through a peremptory challenge or for a good reason through a for cause challenge.,Di side dey permitted to question potential Juror and excuse say Juror for any reason through peremptory challenge or for good reason through a for cause challenge.,Business study
a trial begins with opening statements where the parties layout the essential facts of their case.,Di trial begin wit opening statements wey di parties dey out di essential facts of dia case.,Business study
"next, witnesses are called to provide testimonial evidence.",witnesses dey call witnesses to provide testimonial evidence,Business study
"the side calling the witness conducts a direct examination, while the opposing side conducts across -examination.","Di side calling di witness conducts a direct examination, while di opposing side conducts across -examination.",Business study
"after all witnesses are called, the parties make closing arguments to the jury, which then deliberates and applies the law as outlined in the jury instructions.","Di parties make closing arguments to di jury, wey dey deliberate and appli di law as outline for di jury instructions.",Business study
"the burden of proof in a criminal case is""beyond a reasonable doubt,""while the burden of proof in a civil case is ""preponderance of evidence.""","Di responsibility wey person get to provide enough evidence to prove their case for criminal case dey""beyond reasonable doubt,""while di responsibility wey person get to provide enough evidence to prove their case for civil case dey""beyond reasonable doubt,""while di responsibility wey person get to provide enough evidence to prove their case for civil case dey""beyond reasonable doubt,""while di responsibility wey person get to provide enough evidence to prove their case for civil case dey ""preponderance of evidence",Business study
a jury's verdict must be converted into a legal judgment by the trial judge.,A jury's verdict must be converted enter a legal judgment by di trial judge.,Business study
"once all appeals are settled, res judicata prevents the case from being tried again.","Di case dey settled, res judicata prevent di case from being tried again.",Business study
why would a jury engage injury nullification?,Di why a jury engage for jury nullification?,Business study
"if a jury cannot engage in nullification, what are its alternatives to express a similar view?",We dey alternative to express a similar view?,Business study
one of president obama's first acts as president was to sign into law a statute aimed at overturning the ledbetter decision.,One of president obama's first act as president dey sign into law a statute wey dey aimed at overturning di ledbetter decision.,Business study
how can congress overturn the supreme court in this instance?,How go congress turn di supreme court for dis instance?,Business study
"although litigation is rightfully criticized as slow and expensive, res judicata means the parties have only one chance to""get it right.""","Di litigation dey rightfully criticized as slow and expensive, res judicata means di parties don only one chance to get am right",Business study
do you think relaxing the rules of res judicata would help with the expense and time involved in litigating cases?,Di rules of res judicata go help wit di expense and time wey dey involved for litigating case?,Business study
the system permits parties to air their grievances against eachother in an open and transparent manner and is typically very effective at finding the truth.,Di system dey allow parties to air dia grievances against each oda for open and transparent manner and dey typically effective at finding di truth.,Business study
"the jury system, in particular, is largely admired for its ability to involve ordinary citizens in an important form of civil service.","Di jury system, for particular, dey largely admire for its ability to involve ordinary citizens for important form of civil service.",Business study
"for many businesses, however, litigation can be a vexing and distracting problem.",Di litigation go be vexing and distracting problem.,Business study
"the extraordinarily high costs associated with complex litigation, along with pressure from stakeholders to settle cases rather than litigate them fully, means that most businesses would prefer to avoid litigation whenever possible.","Di extraordinarily high cost wey dey associated wit complex litigation, along wit pressure from stakeholders to settle cases no be litigate dem fully, mean say most business go prefer to avoid litigation whenever possible.",Business study
"these problems have led many courts to experiment with various levels of reform, from mandatory pretrial settlement attempts to mandatory mediation to jury selection and management reforms.","Di problem don led many courts to experiment wit different level of reform, from mandatory pretrial settlement attempt to mandatory mediation to jury selection and management reforms.",Business study
"these reforms are aimed at maintaining the vitality and usefulness ofthe litigation system, which can be a trusted and valuable resource for all citizens and corporations.","Di reforms dey aimed at maintain di vitality and usefulness of di litigation system, wey dey trust and valuable resource for all citizens and corporations.",Business study
"you will know the legal basis for mandatory arbitration, aswell as why parties enter into voluntary adr methods.","You go know di legal basis for mandatory arbitration, aswell as why parties enter voluntary adr methods.",Business study
you will understand current debates regarding the fairness of adr.,You go understand current debates regarding di fairness of adr.,Business study
"additionally, you should be able to answer the following questions:1.","For additionally, you go able to answer di following questions:",Business study
what are the benefits and drawbacks of adr as compared to litigation?,What be di benefits plus drawbacks of adr as compared to drag matter for kot?,Business study
what legal basis supports the use of adr rather than litigation?,What legal basis supports di use of adr no be to drag matter for kot?,Business study
"what unique challenges exist in adr efforts among b2b(business to business), b2c (business to consumer), and b2e (business to employees)?","What unique challenges exist inside adr efforts among b2b(business to business), b2c (business to consumer), plus b2e (business to employees)?",Business study
what are the ethical implications of adr between parties that are unequal in power?,Di ethical implications of adr between parties wey dey unequal for power?,Business study
"imagine that you've been wronged by a supplier, by your employer, or by a business where you area customer.","I imagine say you dey wrong by supplier, by your employer, or by business wey you dey customer",Business study
you've correctly determined that you have an actionable legal claim.,Dem correctly determin say you go get actionable legal claim.,Business study
what are you going to do?,Di going to do?,Business study
you probably won't run to the courthouse to file a formal complaint to initiate litigation.,Di courthouse go file formal complaint to initiate litigation.,Business study
this is because litigation is very expensive and time consuming.,Dis dey because litigation dey expensive and time consuming,Business study
"besides, you may wish to continue doing business with the supplier, employer, or business.","Besides, you may wish to continue doing business with di supplier, employer, or business.",Business study
"perhaps the matter is of a private nature, and you do not want to engage in a public process to determine the outcome.","Di matter dey private nature, and you no want to engage for public process to determine di outcome.",Business study
"you would like the dispute to be resolved, but you do not want to engage in public, time -consuming, expensive litigation to do it.","Di dispute go resolve, but you no want to engage for public, time -consuming, expensive litigation to do am",Business study
a common method of dispute resolution that avoids many ofthe challenges associated with litigation is alternative dispute resolution.,Di common method of dispute resolution wey avoid many of di challenges wey dey associated wit litigation dey alternative dispute resolution.,Business study
alternative dispute resolution (adr) is a term that encompasses many different methods of dispute resolution other than litigation.,For alternative dispute resolution (adr) dey term wey dey compass many different methods of dispute resolution oda than litigation.,Business study
"adr involves resolving disputes outside ofthe judicial process, though the judiciary can require parties to participate in specific types of adr, such as arbitration, for some types of conflicts.","Adr involves resolving disputes outside of di judicial process, though di judiciary fit require parties to participate inside specific types of adr, such as to settle matter outside kot with judge, for some types of conflicts.",Business study
"see figure 4. 1 ""a continuum of different adr methods""for a continuum of different adr methods based on where power to solve the dispute is vested.",Di continuum of different adr methods wey dey based on where power to solve di dispute dey vested.,Business study
"common methods of adr include negotiation, mediation, and arbitration.","Common methods of adr include negotiation, to settle matter with person wey go help both sides talk, plus to settle matter outside kot with judge.",Business study
"lesser used methods of adr include minitrials, hybrid forms of mediation-arbitration (with elements of both), and collaborative goal-oriented processes.","Lesser used methods of adr include minitrials, hybrid forms of to settle matter with person wey go help both sides talk-to settle matter outside kot with judge(with elements of both), plus collaborative goal-oriented processes.",Business study
"adr is often used to resolve disputes among businesses, employers and employees, and businesses and consumers.","Di adr dey use to resolve disputes among business, employers and employees, and business and consumers.",Business study
adr can also be used in many other types of conflicts.,Di adr don also use for many oda type of conflicts,Business study
"for instance, adr strategies can be used in domestic law cases, such as divorce, or in international legal issues, such as issues relating to transboundary pollution.","for example, adr strategies go use for Di laws of one particular country wey apply inside that country's borders case, such as divorce, or for international legal issues, such as issues wey dey relating to transboundary pollution.",Business study
"particularly, we will examine the common methods of adr, including the benefits and drawbacks to each.","We go examine di common methods of adr, including di benefit and drawbacks to each.",Business study
we will also examine potential consequences to parties that have unequal bargaining power.,We go also examine potential consequences to pipo wey don get unequal bargain power.,Business study
"additionally, we will examine the use of adr methods in situations where adr may not be the most appropriate method of dispute resolution, such as civil rights violations.","We go examine di use of adr methods for situation wey adr no be di most appropriate method of dispute resolution, such as civil rights violations.",Business study
"adr methods are used outside ofthe courtroom, but that does not meant hat they are outside ofthe interests of our legal system.","Di adr methods dey use outside of di courtroom, but say no meant hat dem dey outside of di interest of awa legal system.",Business study
participation in adr has important legal consequences.,Di participation for adr don important legal consequences.,Business study
"for instance, parties that have agreed by contract to be subject to binding arbitration give up their constitutional right to bring their complaint to court.","for example, parties wey don agree by contract to be subject to binding arbitration give up dia constitutional right to bring dia complaint to court.",Business study
"the federal arbitration act(faa) is a federal statute under which parties are required to participate in arbitration when they have agreed by contract to do so, even in state court matters.","Di federal arbitration act(faa) na federal statute under which parties dey required to participate for arbitration wen dem agree by contract to do so, even for state court matters.",Business study
"indeed, the faa is a national policy favoring arbitration.",Di faa dey national policy favoring arbitration,Business study
this is an example of federal preemption exercised through the supremacy clause in the u. s. constitution.,This na an example of federal preemption exercised through di supremacy clause inside di u. s. constitution.,Business study
there is avery good chance that you will or already have signed a contract that contains a mandatory arbitration clause.,Di very good chance say you go or already get contract wey dey contains mandatory arbitration clause.,Business study
"this means that if a dispute arises under that contract, then you will be required to arbitrate your claim rather than going straight to court.","Di means say if dispute dey under dat contract, then you go need to arbitrate your claim no be go straight to court.",Business study
"under a binding arbitration clause, you will have waived your constitutional rights to goto court.","Under a binding to settle matter outside kot with judge clause, you go get waived your constitutional rights to goto court.",Business study
"even if you have never signed such a contract and never will, there is still a good likelihood that you will be involved in a commercial dispute at some point in your life.","For even if you no sign such contract and no go, na still good likelihood say you go dey involved for commercial dispute for some point for your life.",Business study
"because of this, it's important to understand the adr process, situations in which litigation is a better choice than adr, and special issues that arise when parties have unequal bargaining power.","E important to understand di adr process, situation wey dey litigation dey better choice than adr, and special issues wey dey arise wen parties get unequal bargaining power.",Business study
key takeaways alternative dispute resolution (adr) is a body of dispute-resolution methods outside ofthe litigation process.,"Tori wey dey important pass, wey person go sabi after dem don read or hear sometin alternative dispute resolution (adr) na a body of dispute-resolution methods outside of di to drag matter for kot process.",Business study
"adr is often faster, less expensive, and more private than litigation.","Di adr dey faster, less expensive, and more private than litigation",Business study
"however, some types of disputes might be best resolved through litigation, such as in cases where parties have unequal power or resources or in civil rights violations.","Di type of disputes dey best resolve through litigation, such as for case wey parties don get unequal power or resources or for civil rights violations.",Business study
"common methods of dispute resolution are negotiation, mediation, and arbitration.","Di common methods of dispute resolution dey negotiation, mediation, and arbitration.",Business study
"mandatory arbitration clauses are common in contracts, and such clauses are enforceable against the parties even if they wish to litigate their claims.","For contracts, and such clause dey enforceable against di parties even if dem wish to litigate dia claim.",Business study
understand the role of negotiation in avoiding and settling disputes.,Di role of negotiation for avoiding and settling disputes,Business study
explore negotiation as it is commonly employed in business.,Di business dey commonly employ for business.,Business study
understand the implications of bargaining power during negotiation.,Understand di implications of bargaining power during negotiation.,Business study
become familiar with the benefits and drawbacks of negotiation as a form of alternative dispute resolution (adr).,Become familiar with di benefits plus drawbacks of negotiation as a form of alternative dispute resolution (adr).,Business study
imagine that you area tent manufacturer.,I imagine say you dey a tent manufacturer,Business study
"your supplier of tent fabric routinely supplies you with appropriate water-resistant fabric to construct your tents, so that you can produce your products and bring them to market.","Di supplier of tent fabric routinely supplies you wit appropriate water resistant fabric to construct your tents, so say you fit produce your products and bring dem market.",Business study
"after many years of a good working relationship, your fabric supplier delivered nonconforming goods.","After boku years of a good working relationship, your fabric supplier delivered nonconforming goods.",Business study
"specifically, the fabric delivered was not water-resistant, despite your need for water-resistant fabric to produce your tents.","Specifically, di fabric delivered bin dey no water-resistant, despite your need for water-resistant fabric to produce your tents.",Business study
"however, on your notifying the supplier ofthe problem, the supplier denied that t he fabric was nonconforming to your order.","For your notifying di supplier of di problem, di supplier denied say t he fabric noconforming to your order.",Business study
you refused to pay for the goods.,Dem refused to pay for di goods.,Business study
the fabric supplier insisted on payment before future delivery of any additional fabric.,Di fabric supplier insisted on payment before future delivery of any additional fabric.,Business study
"without water-resistant fabric, you cannot continue to produce your tents.",E no continue to produce your tents.,Business study
this is an example of a business to business( b2b)dispute.,This na an example of a business to business( b2b)dispute.,Business study
"despite the problem, you will likely wish to continue working with this supplier, since you have a good, long -standing relationship with it.","Di problem, you go likely wish to continue work wit dis supplier, since you go get good, long standing relationship wit di supplier.",Business study
"this problem seems to be a ""hiccup"" in your regular business relationship.","This problem seems to be a ""hiccup"" inside your regular business relationship.",Business study
"accordingly, you will probably want to resolve this dispute quickly and without hard feelings.","Di accordingly, you go resolve dis dispute quickly and without hard feelings.",Business study
it is very unlikely that you will immediately hire an attorney to file a formal complaint against your supplier.,Am na well-well unlikely wey you go immediately hire an attorney to file a formal complaint against your supplier.,Business study
"however, that does not change the fact that there is a dispute that needs to be resolved.","Di fact no change di fact say dispute wey dey resolve, e no change di fact say dispute wey dey resolve",Business study
one ofthe first strategies that you and your supplier are likely to employ is negotiation.,One of di first strategies wey you and your supplier dey like to employ na negotiation.,Business study
negotiation is a method of alternative dispute resolution (adr) that retains power to resolve the dispute to the parties involved.,Na method of alternative dispute resolution (adr) wey retain power to resolve di dispute to di parties involved.,Business study
no outside party is vested with authoritative decision-making power concerning the resolution ofthe dispute.,Di outside party dey vested wit authoritative decision-making power concerning di resolution of di dispute.,Business study
negotiation requires the parties to define the conflicts and agree to an outcome to resolve those conflicts.,Di parties go define di conflict and agree to an outcome to resolve those conflicts.,Business study
"often, this can take th e form of a compromise.",Di fit take th e form of compromise.,Business study
"note that a compromise does not mean that anyone""loses.""","Di compromise no mean say anyone""loses""",Business study
"benefits to negotiation as a method of adr include its potential for a speedy resolution, the inexpensive nature of participation, and the fact that parties participate voluntarily.","Benefits to negotiation as a method of adr include its potential for a speedy resolution, di inexpensive nature of participation, plus di fact wey parties participate voluntarily.",Business study
"drawbacks include the fact that there are no set rules, and either party may bargain badly or even unethically, if they choose to do so.","Di drawbacks include di fact say dire no set rules, and either party go bargain badly or even unethically, if dem choose to do so.",Business study
"in a negotiation, there is no neutral party charged with ensuring that rules are followed, that the negotiation strategy is fair, or that the overall outcome is sound.","Di neutral party charge wit ensuring say rules dey follow, say di negotiation strategy dey fair, or say di overall outcome dey sound.",Business study
"moreover, any party can walk away whenever it wishes.","Di party fit walk away whenever dey wish, any party fit walk away wen dey wish.",Business study
there is no guarantee of resolution through this method.,Di method dey guarantee of resolution through dis method.,Business study
"the result may not be""win -win""or ""win-lose,"" but no resolution at all.","Di result may no be""win -win""or ""win-lose,"" but no resolution at all.",Business study
"also, generally speaking, attorneys are not involved in many negotiations.","Di generally speaking, attorneys no dey involved for many negotiations",Business study
"this last point maybe seen as a drawback or a benefit, depending on the circumstances ofthe negotiation.","Di last point dey see as drawback or benefit, based on di circumstances of di negotiation",Business study
"though our example involves b2b, the parties mayor may not have equal bargaining power.","Di example dey involv b2b, di parties no fit get equal bargaining power.",Business study
"if your business and your supplier are both dependent on eachother for roughly equal portions ofthe respective businesses, then they are most likely relatively equal with respect to bargaining power.","Di business and your supplier dey dependent on each oda for roughly equal portions of di respective business, then dem dey relatively equal wit respect to bargaining power.",Business study
"however, in our example, if your business is avery small business but your supplier is avery large business perhaps with a patent protecting the rights to the specialty fabric that you need then we might say that the b2b negotiation is potentially unbalanced, since one party has a much more powerful bargaining position than the other.","Di example, if your business dey small business but your supplier dey very large business perhaps wit patent protect di rights to di specialty fabric wey you need then we go tok say di b2b negotiation dey potentially unbalance, since one party don get much more powerful bargaining position than di oda.",Business study
"specifically, y our business needs that particular type of fabric, which is only available from one supplier.","Di business need say particular type of fabric, wey dey only available from one supplier.",Business study
"but your supplier does not need your business because it has a legal monopoly in the form of a patent for its product, and it probably sells to many manufacturers.","But your supplier does no need your business because am don get a legal monopoly inside di form of a patent for its product, plus am probably sells to boku manufacturers.",Business study
this would bean example of unequal bargaining power.,This go bean example of unequal bargaining power.,Business study
"when the negotiation occurs as a result of a dispute, but not a legal dispute per se, then the party with the weakest bargaining position maybe in avery vulnerable spot.",Di party wit di weakest bargaining position dey for very vulnerable spot.,Business study
"this is illustrated in note 4. 13 ""hyperlink: rubbermaid's unequal bargaining power"".","E dey illustrate for note 4. 13 ""hyperlink: rubbermaid's unequal bargain power""",Business study
"when rubbermaid's raw materials price for resin increased, it needed to raise its prices.","When rubbermaid's raw materials price for resin increased, am needed to raise its prices.",Business study
"however, wal -mart refused to accept the necessary price increase for rubbermaid products.",Di Wal-mart don accept di necessary price increase for rubbermaid products.,Business study
"in short, rubbermaid needed wal- mart, but wal-mart did not need rubbermaid.","Inside short, rubbermaid needed wal- mart, but wal-mart did no need rubbermaid.",Business study
to see how unequal bargaining power can affect the least powerful party in a negotiation.,To see how unequal bargaining power fit affect di least powerful party inside a negotiation.,Business study
"as economist brink lindsey from the cato institute commented,""we've definitely seen a shift in the balance of bargaining power between manufacturers and retailers. back in the old days, manufacturing was a high-productivity endeavor; retailing and distribution was fairly low-productivity. and so manufacturers called the shots.""[","We definitely see shift for di balance of bargaining power between manufacturers and retailers, back for di old days, manufacturing dey high-productivity endeavor; retailing and distribution dey fairly low-productivity",Business study
negotiation is a skill often developed by people who are charged with settling existing disputes or with creating new agreements.,Di skill wey dey develop by pipo wey dey charge wit settling existing disputes or wit create new agreements.,Business study
"in getting to yes, written by members ofthe harvard program on negotiation, the goal of negotiation is viewed as""win -win.""[",Di goal of negotiation dey viewed as win-win,Business study
"our adversarial legal system requires one party to""win"" and the other party to""lose.""","Di adversarial legal system require one party to win""and di oda party to""lose"" and di oda party to""lose""",Business study
"getting to yes focuses on principled negotiation, and it sets forth specific steps and discusses strategies to allow participants to achieve the""win -win""goal.","We dey focus on principled negotiation, and e sets forth specific steps and discuss strategies to allow participants to achieve di win-win goal.",Business study
"this book's popularity perhaps suggests that people have a real interest in learning about adr, avoiding litigation, and ensuring that all parties leave the resolution process as""winners.""","This book's popularity perhaps suggests wey pipo get a real interest inside learning about adr, avoiding to drag matter for kot, plus ensuring wey all parties leave di resolution process as""winners.""",Business study
"some concepts common in negotiation include the batna, watna, and the bargaining zone.","Some concepts common inside negotiation include di batna, watna, plus di bargaining zone.",Business study
"for example, the authors of getting to yes encourage negotiators to know their best alternative to a negotiated agreement( batna ).","for example, di authors of getting to yes encourage negotiators to know dia best alternative to a negotiated agreement( batna ).",Business study
"the bargaining zone is the area in which parties to a negotiation are willing to trade, barter, or negotiate their positions, within which parties can find an acceptable agreement.","Di bargaining zone dey di area wey parties go negotiate, barter, or negotiate dia position, within which parties go find acceptable agreement.",Business study
"if you think of a venn diagram, the bargaining zone would be where the two ovals overlap.","If you think of a venn diagram, di bargaining zone go be where di two ovals overlap.",Business study
"the reservation point is essentially a party's ""bottom line,""beyond which it will not agree to terms.","Di reservation point dey essentially a party's ""wetin dey show say dem don succeed, like if dem make profit or loss, dem get one way to take know am, no be like for school wey dem no dey count profit""beyond which e no agree to terms.",Business study
let's go back to our example.,We to go back to awa example,Business study
"imagine that after negotiating with your fabric supplier, the following facts emerged: the fabric supplier believed that it sent the correct fabric to you, because o ne of your new employees inadvertently ordered the wrong fabric.","Di fabric supplier believe say dem send di correct fabric to you, bikos o ne of your new employees inadvertently order di wrong fabric.",Business study
you reviewed your business records and determined that this allegation was true.,Di allegation dey true,Business study
"this sounds like a misunderstanding that would be easy to clear up in negotiation, doesn't it?","Di sound like misunderstanding wey dey easy to clear up for negotiation, no dey e?",Business study
"imagine the embarrassment and hard feelings that would have been caused by immediately filing a formal complaint in court, not to mention the great expense that both parties would have incurred.","Dem imagine di embarrassment and hard feeling wey dem dey caused by immediately filing formal complaint for court, no to mention di great expense wey both parties go incurred.",Business study
"through negotiation, chances are very good that this misunderstanding will be resolved in a win-win outcome and that you will be able to continue your working relationship with your supplier.",Dem dey good say dis misunderstanding go resolve for win-win outcome and say you go continue your work relationship wit your supplier.,Business study
"negotiation is also used between parties entering into agreements, when there is no legal dispute.","Di negotiation dey also use between pipo wey dey enter into agreements, wen no legal dispute dey.",Business study
"negotiation is often the first method of dispute resolution attempted, because it is inexpensive and relatively fast.","Di first method of dispute resolution wey dey try, because e dey inexpensive and relatively fast.",Business study
"additionally, parties that wish to continue working together in the future often employ negotiation as a friendly method to resolve disputes.",Di parties wey wish to continue work together for di future often employ negotiation as a friendly method to resolve disputes.,Business study
"negotiation between parties with unequal bargaining power can result in the stronger party being heavy-handed at the negotiation table, which can result in unfair outcomes for the weaker party.","Di negotiation between parties wit unequal bargaining power go result for di stronger party being heavy handed for di negotiation table, wey go result for unfair outcomes for di weaker party.",Business study
"since negotiation does not follow an externally imposed set of rules, parties may negotiate as their conscience dictates.","Since negotiation does no follow an externally imposed set of rules, parties may negotiate as dia conscience dictates.",Business study
"however, negotiation is often considered a dispute-resolution option that can result in a win-win situation for all parties, as illustrated by the popular book getting to yes, in which negotiation strategies are set forth in detail.","Na however, negotiation dey consider dispute-resolution option wey dey result for win-win situation for all parties, as di popular book get to yes, in which negotiation strategies dey set forth for detail.",Business study
this is a free interactive negotiation exercise.,Di free for Teractive negotiation exercise.,Business study
"after completing the negotiation, answer the following questions: how far did you get?",We answer di following questions: how fargo get? how fargo get?,Business study
"(if you did not get to level three, go back and try it again.","(if you did no get to level three, go back plus try am again.",Business study
see if you can get all the way through to level three.),We see if you fit get all di way through to level three,Business study
what negotiation strategies did you learn?,Di negotiation strategies wey you learn?,Business study
"in other words, what works?",How dey work?,Business study
what doesn't work?,We no dey work?,Business study
what are the benefits of negotiation as a dispute-resolution method?,What be di benefits of negotiation as a dispute-resolution method?,Business study
what are the drawbacks?,Di drawbacks na di drawbacks?,Business study
"how can parties that have unequal bargaining power negotiate meaningfully, without one party taking advantage ofthe other?","How can parties wey dey unequal bargaining power negotiate meaningfully, without one party take advantage of di oda?",Business study
have you ever negotiated with someone who had more bargaining power than you?,Di negotiate wit someone wey dey more bargaining power than you?,Business study
what were your strategies during the negotiation?,Di strategies wey dey during di negotiation?,Business study
did you obtain your goal by the conclusion ofthe negotiation?,Di conclusion of di negotiation?,Business study
"watch the video in note 4. 13 ""hyp erlink: rubbermaid's unequal bargaining power"".","Watch di video inside note 4. 13 ""hyp erlink: rubbermaid's unequal bargaining power"".",Business study
"if you were a manufacturer and you had to raise prices due to an increase in price for your raw materials, and if wal- mart was your most important customer, what strategies would you employ so that both parties would have a chance to have a""win -win""outcome?","If you dey a manufacturer and you don raise price due to increase for price for your raw materials, and if wal- mart dey your most important customer, what strategies go you employ so say both parties go get chance to get win-win outcome?",Business study
learn what mediation is.,Di mediation dey.,Business study
explore the process of mediation as an alternative dispute resolution (adr) strategy.,Explore di process of to settle matter with person wey go help both sides talk as an alternative dispute resolution (adr) strategy.,Business study
identify disputes suitable to mediation as a form of adr.,Dem identify disputes wey dey suitable to mediation as form of adr,Business study
become familiar with the benefits and drawbacks of mediation as a form of adr.,Become familiar with di benefits plus drawbacks of to settle matter with person wey go help both sides talk as a form of adr.,Business study
mediation is a method of adr in which parties work to form a mutually acceptable agreement.,Di method of mediation na method of adr wey parties work to form mutually acceptable agreement.,Business study
"like negotiation, parties in mediation do not vest authority to decide the dispute in a neutral third party.",Dem no vest authority to decide di dispute for neutral third party.,Business study
"instead, this authority remains with the parties themselves, who are free to terminate mediation if they believe it is not working.","Di authority remain wit di parties themselves, wey dey free to terminate mediation if dem believe am no work.",Business study
"often, when parties terminate mediation, they pursue another form of adr, such as arbitration, or they choose to litigate their claims in court.","Di parties terminate mediation, dem pursue one form of adr, such as arbitration, or they choose to litigate dia claim for court.",Business study
mediation is appropriate only for parties who are willing to participate in the process.,Di mediation dey appropriate only for parties wey dey willing to participate for di process,Business study
"like negotiation, mediation seeks a""win -win""outcome for the parties involved.","Like negotiation, to settle matter with person wey go help both sides talk seeks a""win -win""outcome for di parties involved.",Business study
"additionally, mediation is confidential, w hich can bean attractive attribute for people who wish to avoid the public nature of litigation.","Di mediation dey confidential, wey fit be attractive attribute for pipo wey wish to avoid di public nature of litigation.",Business study
"the mediation process is usually much faster than litigation, and the associated costs can be substantially less expensive than litigation.","Di to settle matter with person wey go help both sides talk process na usually well-well faster than to drag matter for kot, plus di associated costs fit be substantially less expensive than to drag matter for kot.",Business study
"unlike in many negotiations, a third party is involved in mediation.",Di third party dey involved for mediation.,Business study
"indeed, a neutral mediator is crucial to the mediation process.",Di neutral mediator dey crucial to di mediation process.,Business study
"mediators act as a go-between for the parties, seeking to facilitate the agreement.","Mediators act as a go-between for di parties, seeking to facilitate di agreement.",Business study
requirements to be a mediator vary by state.,Requirements to be a mediator vary by state.,Business study
"see note 4. 23 ""hyperlink: mediators"" to compare the requirements between states.","See note 4. 23 ""hyperlink: mediators"" to compare di requirements between states.",Business study
"there are no uniform licensing requirements, but some states require specific training or qualifications for a person to be certified as a mediator.","There be no uniform licensing requirements, but some states require specific training or qualifications for a person to be certified as a mediator.",Business study
mediators do not provide advice on the subject matter ofthe dispute.,Mediators do no provide advice on di subject matter of dispute.,Business study
"in fact, the mediators may not possess any subject-matter expertise concerning the nature ofthe dispute.","Inside fact, di mediators may no possess any subject-matter expertise concerning di nature of dispute.",Business study
"however, many mediators are trained in conflict resolution, and this allows them to employ methods to discover common goals or objectives, set aside issues that are not relevant, and facilitate an agreement into which the parties will voluntarily enter.","Di mediators dey train for conflict resolution, and dis allow dem employ methods to discover common goals or objectives, set aside issues wey no relevant, and facilitate agreement into which di parties go enter.",Business study
disputants choose their mediator.,Di disputants choose dia mediator.,Business study
"this choice is often made based on the mediator' s reputation as a skilled conflict resolution expert, professional background, training, experience, cost, and availability.","This choice na often bin make based on di mediator' s reputation as a skilled conflict resolution expert, professional background, training, experience, cost, plus availability.",Business study
"after a mediator is chosen, the parties prepare for mediation.","As mediator dey select, di parties prepare for mediation.",Business study
"for instance, prior to the mediation process, the mediator typically asks the parties to sign a mediation agreement.",Di mediator typically ask di parties to sign mediation agreement.,Business study
"this agreement may embody the parties' commitments to proceed in good faith, understanding ofthe voluntary nature ofthe process, commitments to confidentiality, and recognition ofthe mediator's role of neutrality rather than one of legal counsel.","Di agreement don embody di parties' commitments to proceed for good faith, understanding of di voluntary nature of di process, commitments to confidentiality, and recognition of di mediator role of neutrality no be one of Getting help and advice from a qualified lawyer on legal matters.",Business study
"at the outset, the mediator typically explains the process that the mediation will observe.",Di mediator typically explain di process wey di mediation go observe.,Business study
"the parties then proceed according to that plan, which may include opening statements, face -to-face communication, or indirect communication through the mediator.","Di parties then proceed according to wey plan, wey may include opening statements, face -to-face communication, or indirect communication through di mediator.",Business study
"the mediator may suggest options for resolution and, depending on his or her skill, may be able to suggest alternatives not previously considered by the disputants.","Di mediator go suggest options for resolution and, based on hin or her skill, go able to suggest alternatives wey dem dey considered by di disputants.",Business study
mediation is often an option for parties who cannot negotiate with eachother but who could reach a mutually beneficial or mutually acceptable resolution with the assistance of a neutral party to help sort out the issues to find a resolution that achieves the parties' objectives.,Di mediation dey often option for parties wey dey negotiate wit each oda but wey go reach mutually beneficial or mutually acceptable resolution wit di assistance of neutral party to help sort out di issues to find resolution wey dey achieve di parties' objectives.,Business study
"sometimes parties in mediation retain attorneys, but this is not required.","But sometimes parties formed iation retain attorneys, but dis no dey required.",Business study
"if parties do retain counsel, their costs for participating in the mediation will obviously increase.","If parties don retain counsel, dia cost for participatin for mediation go increase.",Business study
"in business, mediation is often the method of adr used in disputes between employers and employees about topics such as workplace conditions, wrongful discharge, or advancement grievances.","Inside business, to settle matter with person wey go help both sides talk na often di method of adr used inside disputes between employers plus employees about topics such as workplace conditions, wrongful to free person from duty, or advancement grievances.",Business study
"mediation is used in disputes between businesses, such as in contract disputes.","Di mediation dey use for disputes between business, such as for contract disputes.",Business study
"like other forms of dispute resolution, mediation has benefits and drawbacks.","Di form of dispute resolution, mediation don benefit and drawbacks.",Business study
benefits are many.,Di benefits dey many,Business study
"they include the relative expediency of reaching a resolution, the reduced costs as compared to litigation, t he ability for parties that are unable to communicate with eachother to resolve their dispute using a nonadversarial process, the imposition of rules on the process by the mediator to keep parties""within bounds""of the process, confidentiality, and the voluntary nature of participation.","Di ability for parties wey dey unable to communicate wit each oda to resolve dia dispute using a nonadversarial process, di imposition of rules on di process, confidentiality, and di volutary nature of participation.",Business study
"ofcourse, the potential for a""win -win""outcome is a benefit.",Di potential for win-win outcome dey benefit.,Business study
"attorneys mayor may not be involved, and this can be viewed as either a benefit or a drawback, depending on the circumstances.","Di attorneys no dey involved, and dis no be either benefit or drawback, based on di circumstances.",Business study
drawbacks to mediation also exist.,Drawbacks to settle matter with person wey go help both sides talk sef exist.,Business study
"for example, if disputants are not willing to participate in the mediation process, the mediation will not work.","If disputants no fit participate for mediation process, di mediation no work.",Business study
this is because mediation requires voluntary participation between willing parties to reach a mutually agreeable resolution.,This na because to settle matter with person wey go help both sides talk requires voluntary participation between willing parties to reach a mutually agreeable resolution.,Business study
"additionally, even after considerable effort by the parties in dispute, the mediation may fail.","Di mediation go fail, even after considerable effort by di parties for dispute, di mediation go fail.",Business study
"this means that the resolution ofthe problem may have to be postponed until another form of adr is used, or until the parties litigate their case in court.","Di means say di resolution of di problem go postpone until one form of adr dey use, or until di parties litigate dia case for court.",Business study
"since mediators a re individuals, they have different levels of expertise in conflict resolution, and they possess different backgrounds and worldviews that might influence the manner in which they conduct mediation.","Dem get different level of expertise for conflict resolution, and dem possess different groups of expertise for conflict resolution, and dem possess different groups of expertise for conflict resolution, and dem possess different groups of expertise for conflict resolution, and dem possess different background and worldviews wey dem fit influence di manner wey dem conduct mediation.",Business study
parties maybe satisfied with one mediator but not satisfied in subsequent mediations with a different mediator.,Dem no satisfied wit one mediator but no satisfied for subsequent mediations wit different mediator.,Business study
"even if an agreement is reached, the mediation itself is usually not binding.",Di mediation dey usually no binding.,Business study
parties can later become dissatisfied with the agreement reached during mediation and choose to pursue the dispute through other adr methods or through litigation.,Di parties go later become disatisfied wit di agreement wey dey reach during mediation and choose to pursue di dispute through oda adr methods or through litigation.,Business study
"for this reason, parties often enter into a legally binding contract that embodies the terms ofthe resolution ofthe mediation immediately on conclusion ofthe successful mediation.","For dis reason, parties often enter into legally binding contract wey embodies di terms of di resolution of di mediation immediately on conclusion of di successful mediation.",Business study
"therefore, the terms ofthe mediation can become binding if they are reduced to such a contract, and some parties may find this to be disadvantageous to their interests.","Di terms of di mediation go binding if dem reduce to such contract, and some parties go find dis to be disadvantageous to dia interest.",Business study
"ofcourse, any party that signs such an agreement would do so voluntarily.",Di party wey sign such agreement go do so voluntarily.,Business study
"however, in some cases, if legal counsel is not involved, parties may not fully understand the implications ofthe agreement that they are signing.","For some case, if Getting help and advice from a qualified lawyer on legal matters no dey involved, parties no fully understand di implications of di agreement wey dem sign.",Business study
"however, mediation relies on neutral mediators who facilitate the mediation process to assist the parties in achieving an acceptable, voluntary agreement.","Di mediation relies on neutral mediators wey facilitate di mediation process to assist di parties for achieving acceptable, voluntary agreement.",Business study
mediation is more formal than negotiation but less formal than arbitration or litigation.,Di mediation dey more formal than negotiation but less formal than arbitration or litigation,Business study
"mediation is relatively inexpensive, fast, and confidential, unlike litigation.","Di mediation dey relatively inexpensive, fast, and confidential, unlike litigation",Business study
"though nonbinding mediation resolutions are not binding on the parties, these resolution agreements maybe incorporated into a legally binding contract, which is binding on the parties who execute the contract.","Di resolution agreement no dey binding on di parties, dis resolution agreement no dey binding on di parties wey execute di contract.",Business study
"mediation does not follow a uniform set of rules, though mediators typically set forth rules that the mediation will observe at the outset ofthe process.","Di mediation no follow uniform set of rules, though mediators typically set forth rules wey di mediation go observe for di outset of di process.",Business study
successful mediation often reflects not only the parties' willingness to participate but also the mediator's skill.,Successful to settle matter with person wey go help both sides talk often reflects no only di parties' go ingness to participate but sef di mediator's skill.,Business study
"visit the link in note 4. 23 ""hyperlink: mediators"" and find your state's requirements and qualifications for mediators.","Visit di link inside note 4. 23 ""hyperlink: mediators"" plus find your state's requirements plus qualifications for mediators.",Business study
what would it take for you to become a mediator in your state?,We go take for you to become mediator for your state?,Business study
do you think that your state requirements ensure that only qualified mediators practice?,Di state requirements ensure say only qualified mediators practice?,Business study
identify a situation in which you would choose mediation as your preferred method of dispute resolution.,E go identify situation wey you go choose mediation as your preferred method of dispute resolution.,Business study
why is mediation the best method in this situation?,Na why dey mediation di best method for dis situation?,Business study
what are the potential benefits and drawbacks of mediation in this situation?,Di potential benefit and drawbacks of mediation for dis situation?,Business study
"click on""play game""under ""the angry neighbours.""",Di angry neighbours,Business study
this is a free interactive mediation exercise.,E dey free interactive mediation exercise,Business study
"after completing the mediation, answer the following questions: were you able to successfully mediate this dispute?",Di following questions: na you able to successfully mediate dis dispute?,Business study
"if you did not reach a successful resolution, go back and try it again.","As you no get successful resolution, go back and try again",Business study
see if you can reach a successful resolution.,See if you fit reach a successful resolution.,Business study
what mediation strategies did you learn?,Di mediation strategies dey learn?,Business study
explore the option of arbitration as an alternative dispute resolution (adr) strategy.,Explore di option of to settle matter outside kot with judge as an alternative dispute resolution (adr) strategy.,Business study
explore contemporary issues of fairness in arbitration.,Explore contemporary issues of fairness inside to settle matter outside kot with judge.,Business study
determine when arbitration is a viable option for dispute resolution.,Dem determine wen arbitration dey viable option for dispute resolution.,Business study
"examine the benefits and drawbacks of arbitration as a form of ad r. arbitration is a method of adr in which parties vest authority in a third-party neutral decision maker who will hear their case and issue a decision, which is called an arbitration award.","Di method of adr wey parties vest authority for third-party neutral decisionmaker wey go hear dia case and issue a decision, wey dey call arbitration award",Business study
an arbitrator presides over arbitration proceedings.,An arbitrator presides over to settle matter outside kot with judge proceedings.,Business study
arbitrators are neutral decision makers who are often experts in the law and subject matter at issue in the dispute.,Di arbitrators dey neutral decision makers wey dey expert for di law and subject matter for issue for di dispute.,Business study
their decisions do not form binding precedent.,Di decision no form binding precedent.,Business study
"arbitrators maybe members ofthe judiciary, but in arbitrations they are not judges.","Di arbitrators no dey members of di judiciary, but for arbitrations dem no dey judges.",Business study
arbitrators actin an analogous capacity to judges in trials.,Arbitrators act inside an analogous capacity to judges inside trials.,Business study
"for instance, they determine which evidence can be introduced, hear the parties' cases, and issue decisions.","for example, dem determine which evidence dey introduced, hear di parties' case, and issue decisions.",Business study
"they maybe certified by the state in which they arbitrate, and they may arbitrate only certain types of claims.","Di state wey dem arbitrate, and dem go arbitrate only certain types of claim.",Business study
"for instance, the better business bureau trains its own arbitrators to hear common complaints between businesses and consumers (b2c).","for example, di better business bureau trains its own arbitrators to hear common complaints between businesses plus consumers (b2c).",Business study
participation in the arbitration proceeding is sometimes mandatory.,Di arbitration proceeding dey mandatory.,Business study
mandatory arbitration results when disputes arise out of a legally binding contract involving commerce in which the parties agreed to submit to mandatory arbitration.,Di parties agree to submit mandatory arbitration results wen disputes arise out of legally binding contract wey dem agree to submit to mandatory arbitration.,Business study
arbitration is also mandatory when state law requires parties to enter into mandatory arbitration.,Di law don require parties to enter into mandatory arbitration.,Business study
"although perhaps not obvious, federal law lies at the heart of mandatory arbitration clauses in contracts.","Although perhaps no obvious, federal law lies at di heart of mandatory to settle matter outside kot with judge clauses inside contracts.",Business study
"specifically, congress enacted the federal arbitration act(faa) [1]through its commerce clause powers.","Specifically, congress enacted di federal to settle matter outside kot with judge act(faa) [1]through its commerce clause powers.",Business study
"this act requires parties to engage in arbitration when those parties have entered into legally binding contracts with a mandatory arbitration clause, providing the subject of those contracts involves commerce.","Di act requires parties to engage for arbitration wen those parties don entered into legally binding contract wit mandatory arbitration clause, providing di subject of those contracts involves commerce.",Business study
it also held that the faa preempts state power to create a judicial forum for disputes arising under contracts with mandatory arbitration clauses.,Am sef held wey di faa preempts state power to create a judicial forum for disputes arising under contracts with mandatory arbitration clauses.,Business study
some states require mandatory arbitration for certain types of disputes.,Some states require mandatory to settle matter outside kot with judge for certain types of disputes.,Business study
"for instance, in oregon, the state courts require mandatory arbitration for civil suits where the prayer for damages is less than$50, 000, excluding attorney fees and costs.","for example, inside oregon, di state courts require mandatory to settle matter outside kot with judge for civil suits where di prayer for damages na less than$50, 000, excluding attorney fees plus costs.",Business study
"however, when state law requires mandatory arbitration of certain types of disputes, parties are permitted to appeal because the arbitration is nonbinding.","However, when state law requires mandatory to settle matter outside kot with judge of certain types of disputes, parties be permitted to appeal because di to settle matter outside kot with judge na nonbinding.",Business study
"in nonbinding arbitration, the parties may choose to resolve their dispute through litigation if the arbitration award is rejected by a party.",Di parties go choose to resolve dia dispute through litigation if di arbitration award dey reject di party.,Business study
"however, some states have statutory requirements that, in practice, create a chilling effect on appealing an arbitration award.","Di state don statutory requirements say, for practice, create one kind situation wey dey make journalists fear to yarn wetin dem wan yarn, because dem dey fear say dem go suffer consequence, like say dem go censor dem, punish dem, or pipo go backlash demon appealing arbitration award.",Business study
"for example, in the state of washington, if the appealing party from a nonbinding mandatory arbitration does not do better at trial than the original award issued by the arbitrator, then that party will incur liability not only for its own expenses but also for those ofthe opposing side.","for example, for di state of washington, if di appealing party from nonbinding mandatory arbitration no do better for trial than di original award issued by di arbitrator, then say party go incur liability no only for its own expenses but also for di opposing side.",Business study
"voluntary arbitration also exists, and it is frequently used in business disputes.","Di voluntary arbitration also exist, and e dey frequently use for business disputes.",Business study
"sometimes parties simply agree that they do not want to litigate a dispute because they believe that the benefits of arbitration outweigh the costs of litigation, so they choose voluntary arbitration in hopes of a speedy and relatively inexpensive outcome.","Dem agree say dem no want to litigate dispute bikos dem believe say di benefits of arbitration outweigh di cost of litigation, so dem choose voluntary arbitration for hopes of speedy and relatively inexpensive outcome.",Business study
"other times, parties are not certain how strong their case is.",Dem no certain how strong dia case dey.,Business study
"in such cases, arbitration can seem much more attractive than litigation.","Inside such cases, to settle matter outside kot with judge fit seem well-well more attractive than to drag matter for kot.",Business study
arbitration awards can be binding or nonbindi ng.,Di arbitration awards don be binding or nonbindi,Business study
"some states, like washington state, have codified the rule that arbitration decisions are binding when parties voluntary submit to the arbitration procedure.","Di state, like washington state, don codified di rule say arbitration decisions dey binding wen parties voluntary submit to di arbitration procedure.",Business study
"this process, called confirmation, is contemplated by the faa and often included in arbitration agreements.","Di process, wey dey call confirmation, dey contemplated by di faa and often include for arbitration agreements.",Business study
"but even if the faa does not apply, most states have enacted versions of either the uniform arbitration actor the revised uniform arbitration act.",Di states don enacted version of either di uniform arbitration actor di revised uniform arbitration act.,Business study
these state laws allow confirmation of arbitration awards into judgments aswell.,These state laws allow confirmation of to settle matter outside kot with judge awards enter judgments aswell.,Business study
"like any other form of dispute resolution, arbitration has certain benefits and drawbacks.","Di form of dispute resolution, arbitration don certain benefit and drawbacks.",Business study
"arbitration is an adversarial process like a trial, and it will produce a""winner"" and a""loser.""","Di arbitration dey adversarial process like trial, and e go produce winner and a loser",Business study
"arbitration is more formal than negotiation and mediation and, in many ways, it resembles a trial.","For many ways, arbitration dey formal than negotiation and mediation and, for many ways, e dey resemble trial.",Business study
parties present their cases to the arbitrator by introducing evidence.,Parties present dia cases to di arbitrator by introducing evidence.,Business study
"after both sides have presented their cases, the arbitrator issues an arbitration award.","After both sides get presented dia cases, di arbitrator issues an to settle matter outside kot with judge award.",Business study
rules related to arbitration differ by state.,Di rules wey dey related to arbitration differ by state.,Business study
the rules of procedure that apply to litigation in a trial do not typically apply to arbitration.,Di rules of procedure wey apply to litigation for trial no typically apply to arbitration.,Business study
"specifically, the rules are often less formal or less restrictive on the presentation of evidence and the arbitration procedure.",Di rules dey often less formal or less restrictive on di presentation of evidence and di arbitration procedure,Business study
"arbitrators decide which evidence to allow, and they are not required to follow precedents or to provide their reasoning in the final award.","Di arbitrators decide say evidence to allow, and dem no need to follow precedent or to provide dia reasoning for di final award.",Business study
"in short, arbitrations adhere to rules, but those rules are not the same as rules of procedure for litigation.","For short, arbitrations don adhere to rules, but those rules no dey same as rules of procedure for litigation.",Business study
"regardless of which rules are followed, arbitrations proceed under a set of external rules known to all parties involved in any given arbitration.","Di arbitrations proceed under set of external rules wey dey follow, arbitrations proceed under set of external rules wey dey known to all parties involved for any given arbitration.",Business study
"arbitration can be more expensive than negotiation or mediation, but it is often less expensive than litigation.","Di arbitration dey less expensive than negotiation or mediation, but e dey often less expensive than litigation.",Business study
"in circuit city stores inc. v. adams, the u. s. supreme court noted that avoiding the cost of litigation was a real benefit of arbitration.",Di u. s. supreme court tok say avoid di cost of litigation na real benefit of arbitration.,Business study
"however, arbitration is not necessarily inexpensive.",Di arbitration no necessarily inexpensive,Business study
"parties must bear the costs ofthe arbitrator, and they typically retain counsel to represent them.","Di parties must bear di cost of di arbitrator, and dem typically retain counsel to represent dem",Business study
"additionally, in mandatory arbitration clause cases, the arbitration maybe required to take place in a distant city from one ofthe disputants.","In mandatory arbitration clause case, di arbitration go need take place for distance city from one of di disputants.",Business study
this means that the party will have to pay travel costs and associated expenses during the arbitration proceeding.,This means wey di party go get to pay travel costs plus associated expenses during di to settle matter outside kot with judge proceeding.,Business study
"the circuit city court also noted that mandatory arbitration clauses avoid difficult choice-of-law problems that litigants often face, particularly in employment law cases.","Di circuit city court also note say mandatory arbitration clauses avoid difficult choice-of-law problems wey litigants often face, particularly for employment law case.",Business study
"unlike mediators, arbitrators are often subject-matter experts in the legal area of dispute.","Di mediators, arbitrators dey often subject-matter experts for di legal area of dispute.",Business study
"however, as is true for mediators, much depends on the arbitrator's skill and judgment.","As dey true for mediators, much depend on di arbitrator skill and judgment.",Business study
a common issue that arises is whether mandatory arbitration is fair in certain circumstances.,Di common issue wey arises na whether mandatory arbitration dey fair for certa for circumstances.,Business study
it's easy to imagine that arbitration is fair when both parties are equally situated.,Di easy to imagine say arbitration dey fair wen both parties dey equally situated,Business study
"for example, business to business( b2b) arbitrations are often perceived as fair, especially if businesses are roughly the same size or have roughly equal bargaining power.","for example, business to business( b2b) arbitrations dey often perceived as fair, especially if businesses dey roughly di same size or get roughly equal bargaining power.",Business study
"this is because they will be able to devote approximately the same amount of resources to a dispute resolution, and they both understand the subject under dispute, whatever the commercial issue maybe.","Dem dey because dem go devote approximately di same amount of resources to dispute resolution, and dem both understand di subject under dispute, and dem both understand di subject under dispute, whatever di commercial issue dey be.",Business study
"moreover, in b2b disputes, the subjects of disputes are commercial issues, which may not implicate deeper social and ethical questions.","Di subjects of disputes dey commercial issues, wey no dey implicate deeper social and ethical questions",Business study
"for example, contract disputes between businesses might involve whether goods are conforming goods or nonconforming goods under the uniform commercial code (ucc).","for example, contract disputes between businesses might involve whether goods be conforming goods or nonconforming goods under di uniform commercial code (ucc).",Business study
no powerful social or ethical questions arise in such disputes.,Nano powerful social or ethical question dey arise for such disputes.,Business study
"indeed, resolving such disputes might be seen as""business as usual""to many commercial enterprises.","But indeed, resolve such disputes go dey as""business as normal""to many commercial enterprises.",Business study
"however, issues of fairness often arise in business to employee( b2e) and business to consumer (b2c) situations, particularly where parties with unequal bargaining power have entered into a contract that contains a mandatory arbitration clause.","Di issue of fairness often arise for business to employee( b2e) and business to consumer (b2c) situation, particularly wia parties wit unequal bargaining power don enter into contract wey contains mandatory arbitration clause.",Business study
"in such cases, the weaker party has no real negotiating power to modify or to delete the mandatory arbitration clause, so that party is required to agree to such a clause if it wants to engage in certain types of transactions.","Di weaker party no get real negotiating power to modify or to delete di mandatory arbitration clause, so say party no need to agree to such clause if e want to engage for certain types of transaction.",Business study
"for example, almost all credit card contracts contain mandatory arbitration clauses.","for example, almost all credit card contracts contain mandatory to settle matter outside kot with judge clauses.",Business study
"this means that if a consumer wishes to have a credit card account, he will agree to waive his constitutional rights to a trial by signing the credit card contract.","Di means say if consumer wish to get credit card account, hin go agree to waive hin constitutional rights to trial by signing di credit card contract.",Business study
"as we know, the faa will require parties to adhere to the mandatory arbitration agreed to in such a contract, in the event that a dispute arises under that contract.","As we know, di faa go require parties to adhere to di mandatory to settle matter outside kot with judge agreed to inside such a contract, inside di event wey a dispute arises under wey contract.",Business study
"in such cases, questions regarding whether consent was actually given may legitimately be raised.","Di cases, question regarding whether consent dey give suppose legitimately be raised.",Business study
"however, the u. s. supreme court has held that in b2e contexts, unequal bargaining power alone is not a sufficient reason to hold that arbitration agreements are unenforceable, [9]and it is not sufficient to preclude arbitration.","Di u. s. supreme court don hold say for b2e context, unequal bargaining power alone no dey sufficient reason to hold say arbitration agreements dey unenforceable, [9]and e no sufficient to preclude arbitration.",Business study
"if a dispute arises and mandatory arbitration is commenced, the unequal power between parties will continue to bean important issue.",Di unequal power wey between parties continue to be important issue.,Business study
"in the case between a credit card company and an average consumer debtor, the credit card company would clearly bein a more powerful position vis-a-vis the debtor by virtue ofthe company's financial strength and all that comes with it, such as experienced attorneys on staff, dispute -resolution experience, and contractual terms that favor it, rather than the consumer debtor.","Di credit card company go clearly bein a more powerful position vis-a-vis di debtor by virtue of di company financial strength and all wey kom wit am, such as experienced attorneys on staff, dispute -resolution experience, and contractual terms wey dey favor am, no be di consumer debtor.",Business study
"in such cases, if the consumer debtor is the aggrieved party, he ma y very well decide to drop the matter, especially if the arbitration clause requires arbitration proceedings to occur in a distant city.","If di consumer debtor dey di aggrieved party, hin very well decide to drop di matter, especially if di arbitration clause require arbitration proceedings to occur for distance city.",Business study
the credit card company will have vast financial resources as compared to the consumer debtor.,Di credit card company go get vast financial resources as compared to di consumer debtor.,Business study
"moreover, in this example the credit card company's legal counsel will know how to navigate the arbitration process and will have experience in dispute resolution, processes that often confound people who are not trained in law.","Di example di credit card company Getting help and advice from a qualified lawyer on legal matters go know how to navigate di arbitration process and go get experience for dispute resolution, process wey dey confound pipo wey no train for law.",Business study
"additionally, the list of arbitrators may include people who are dependent on repeat business from the credit card company for their own livelihoods, thereby creating or atleast suggesting an inherent conflict of interest.","Di list of arbitrators dey include people wey dey depend on repeat business from di credit card company for dia own livelihood, thereby create or least suggest an inherent conflict of interest.",Business study
many mandatory arbitration clauses create binding awards on one party while reservi ng the right to bring a claim in court to the other party.,Boku mandatory to settle matter outside kot with judge clauses create binding awards on one party while reservi ng di right to bring a claim inside court to di other party.,Business study
"that is, a mandatory arbitration clause may allow the credit card company to appeal an arbitrator's award but to render an award binding on the consumer debtor.","Wey na, a mandatory to settle matter outside kot with judge clause may allow di credit card company to appeal an arbitrator's award but to render an award binding on di consumer debtor.",Business study
"obviously, this would allow the credit card company to appeal an unfavorable ruling, while requiring the consumer debtor to abide by an arbitrator's unfavorable ruling.","Obviously, this go allow di cred am card company to appeal an unfavorable ruling, while requiring di consumer debtor to abide by an arbitrator's unfavorable ruling.",Business study
"to a consumer debtor, the arbitration experience can seem like a game played on the credit card company's home court daunting, feckless, and intimidating.","Di arbitration experience go seem like game wey dey play on di credit card company home court daunting, feckless, and intimidating.",Business study
"additionally, some types of disputes that have been subjected to mandatory arbitration raise serious questions about the appropriateness of adr, due to the nature ofthe underlying dispute.","Di type of disputes wey dey subject to mandatory arbitration raise serious questions about di appropriateness of adr, due to di nature of di underlying dispute.",Business study
"for example, in some recent b2e disputes, claims relating to sexual assault have been subjected to mandatory arbitration when the employee signed an employment contract with a mandatory arbitration clause.","for example, inside some recent b2e disputes, claims relating to yawa wey dey happen when person no gree, dem force am do tin wey no right, like dem take person by force, or dem do am wetin person no like, wey dey under sexual palava get been subjected to mandatory to settle matter outside kot with judge when di employee signed an employment contract with a mandatory to settle matter outside kot with judge clause.",Business study
"tracy barker, for example, was reportedly sexually assaulted by a state department employee in iraq while she was employed as a civilian contractor by kbr inc, a former halliburton subsidiary.","Tracy barker, for example, bin dey reportedly sexually assaulted by a state department employee inside iraq while e bin dey employed as a civilian contractor by kbr inc, a former halliburton subsidiary.",Business study
"after arbitration, she won a three-million -dollar arbitration award.","After to settle matter outside kot with judge, e won a three-million -dollar to settle matter outside kot with judge award.",Business study
"as kbr inc. noted, this ""decision validates what kbr has maintained all along; that the arbitration process is truly neutral and works in the best interest ofthe parties involved.""",Di decision validate say kbr don maintain all along; say di arbitration process dey truly neutral and works for di best interest of di parties involved,Business study
"despite this statement, kbr inc. has filed a motion to modify the award.","Di statement, kbr inc. don filed motion to modify di award",Business study
she was initially prohibited from suing kbr inc. in court because her employment contract contained a mandatory arbitration clause.,E bin dey initially prohibited from suing kbr inc. inside court because im employment contract contained a mandatory to settle matter outside kot with judge clause.,Business study
"however, when considering this case, the fifth circuit court of appeals ruled that sexual assault cases may, in fact, be brought in court rather than being subjected to mandatory arbitration, despite the contract language requiring mandatory arbitration.","Di fifth circuit court of appeals rule say yawa wey dey happen when person no gree, dem force am do tin wey no right, like dem take person by force, or dem do am wetin person no like, wey dey under sexual palava case dey, for true, be brought for court no be being subject to mandatory arbitration, despite di contract language wey dey require mandatory arbitration.",Business study
"moreover, under senator al franken's lead, the senate took action to prohibit the department of defense from contracting with defense contractors that require mandatory arbitration for sexual assault claims.","Di senate tok action to prohibit di department of defense from contract wit defense contractors wey require mandatory arbitration for yawa wey dey happen when person no gree, dem force am do tin wey no right, like dem take person by force, or dem do am wetin person no like, wey dey under sexual palava claims.",Business study
"if such action is passed, it would essentially allow the fifth circuit's holding to apply in all federal jurisdictions rather than justin the fifth circuit.",E go essentially allow di fifth circuit holding to apply for all federal jurisdictions no be just for di fifth circuit.,Business study
"checkout note 4. 44""video clip: al franken"" to hear the details of senator franken's work on this matter.","Di video clip: al franken"" to hear di details of senator franken work on dis matter",Business study
"one might think that passing such a law would be a""no brainer""to lawmakers.","One might think wey passing such a law go be a""no brainer""to lawmakers.",Business study
"however, some senators voted against the measure, arguing that the federal government should not insert itself into rewriting contracts.","Dem vote against di measure, arguin say di federal goment no fit insert imself into rewriting contracts.",Business study
"instead, some argued that the use of arbitration and mediation should be expanded for such cases.",Dem argu say di use of arbitration and mediation go expand for such case.,Business study
"video clip: al franken watch senator al franken discuss the facts ofthe jamie leigh jones case here: in b2c cases, different issues of fairness exist.","Video clip: al franken watch senator al franken discuss di facts of di jamie leigh jones case here: inside b2c cases, different issues of fairness exist.",Business study
"as noted previously, when the disputants possess unequal power, these issues can be magnified.","Di disputants possess unequal power, dis issues go dey magnified.",Business study
"public citizen, a nonprofit organization that represents consumer interests in congress, released a report concerning arbitration in b2c disputes.","Di public citizen, a nonprofit organization wey represent consumer interest for Congress, release report concerning arbitration for b2c disputes.",Business study
"specifically, the report argued that arbitration is unfair to consumers in b2c disputes and that consumers fare better in litigation than in arbitration.",Di report argu say arbitration dey unfair to consumers for b2c disputes and say consumers fare better for litigation than for arbitration.,Business study
"according to the report, incentives exist to favor businesses over consumers in the arbitration process.","According to di report, something wey go ginger persons exist to favor businesses over consumers inside di to settle matter outside kot with judge process.",Business study
"checkout note 4. 45 ""hyperlink: arbitration""for the full report.","Dem to look at note 4. 45 ""hyperlink: arbitration for di full report",Business study
"importantly, and despite the faa's broad interpretation, not all binding arbitration clauses have been upheld by courts in b2c cases.","Di faa's broad interpretation, no all binding arbitration clauses dey upheld by courts for b2c case.",Business study
"in 2007, the ninth circuit court of appeals ruled that at&t's binding arbitration clause for wireless customers is unenforceable under california state law.",Di ninth circuit court of appeal rule say at&t's binding arbitration clause for wireless customers dey unenforceable under california state law.,Business study
"in this case, that law involved unconscionability of contract terms.","Di case, say law involve unconscionability of contract terms",Business study
"as noted previously, the faa requires parties to submit to mandatory arbitration when they agree to do so in a legally binding contract, and it preempts state powers to provide a judicial forum in those matters.","Di faa require parties to submit to mandatory arbitration wen dem agree to do so for legally binding contract, and e preempts state power to provide judicial forum for dis matters.",Business study
"however, the ninth circuit's holding in this case underscores the fact that state contract law is not circumvented by the federal statute.",Di ninth circuit's holding for dis case underscore di fact say state contract law no dey circumvented by di federal statute.,Business study
"arbitration is a widely used form of adr, but important questions have been raised about its appropriateness in certain types of disputes.","Di arbitration dey widely used form of adr, but important questions dey raised about its appropriateness for certain types of disputes.",Business study
"before signing a mandatory arbitration agreement, it's important to realize that under current law, your opportunity to bring your claim in court will be severely restricted or entirely precluded.","Before signing a mandatory to settle matter outside kot with judge agreement, am's important to realize wey under current law, your opportunity to bring your claim inside court go be severely restricted or entirely precluded.",Business study
"moreover, if you sign such an agreement with a party who holds inherently greater power than you, such as your employer, then you may find yourself at an extreme disadvantage in an arbitration proceeding.","If you sign such agreement wit a party wey hold inherently great power than you, such as your employer, then you go find you at extreme disadvantage for arbitration proceeding.",Business study
"arbitration maybe binding or nonbinding, and it maybe mandatory or voluntary.","Di arbitration dey binding or nonbinding, and e dey mandatory or voluntary.",Business study
arbitration awards issued by arbitrators can be confirmed to judgments by judges.,Di arbitration awards wey arbitrators don confirm to judgments by judges.,Business study
"issues of fairness arise in arbitration when disputants possess unequal power, such as arbitration in employment or consumer disputes.","Di issues of fairness dey arise for arbitration wen disputants possess unequal power, such as arbitration for employment or consumer disputes.",Business study
questions concerning the appropriateness of mandatory arbitration arise in cases involving issues of civil rights violations.,Di questions concern di appropriateness of mandatory arbitration arise for case wey dey involvin issues of civil rights violations.,Business study
the federal arbitration act requires enforcement of mandatory arbitration clauses in contract disputes involving commerce where mandatory arbitration clauses exist.,Di federal arbitration act require enforcement of mandatory arbitration clauses for contract disputes involving commerce wey mandate ry arbitration clauses exist.,Business study
"the arbitration fairness act of 2009 would resolve several issues of unfairness, but this act has not yet been passed into law.","Di arbitration fairness act of 2009 go resolve several issues of unfairness, but dis act no dey pass for law.",Business study
does the comedian accurately portray this issue?,Di comedian accurately portray dis issue?,Business study
what role does popular culture have in shaping our opinions and conceptions of our legal system?,Di role wey popular culture get for shaping awa opinions and conceptions of our legal system?,Business study
"in the barker v. halliburton inc. case, does the three-million -dollar arbitration award in favor ofthe sexual assault victim prove that arbitration works, even in violations of civil rights disputes?","Di three million-dollar arbitration award for favor of di yawa wey dey happen when person no gree, dem force am do tin wey no right, like dem take person by force, or dem do am wetin person no like, wey dey under sexual palava victim prove say arbitration work, even for violations of civil rights disputes?",Business study
"choose one argument in the arbitration debate trap: how opponents of corporate accountability distort the debate on arbitration in note 4. 45 ""hyperlink: arbitration""and develop a counterargument to support the contention that arbitration is good in b2c disputes.","How opponents of corporate accountability distort di debate on arbitration for note 4. 45 ""hyperlink: arbitration""and develop counterargument to support di contention say arbitration dey good for b2c disputes.",Business study
compare your argument with the argument in the report.,Dem compare your argument wit di argument for di report,Business study
which side is the most persuasive?,Di side dey di most persuasive?,Business study
"after completing this exercise, do you believe that arbitration is good or bad for consumers in b2c disputes?",Dem believe say arbitration dey good or bad for consumers for b2c disputes?,Business study
bank of america announced that it would no longer require mandatory arbitration in disputes arising between it and consumer credit card account holders.,Di bank of America announce say e no require mandatory arbitration for disputes wey dey arising between im and consumer credit card account holders.,Business study
what are the benefits and drawbacks to bank of america's credit card account customers with respect to this change?,What be di benefits plus drawbacks to bank of america's credit card account customers about this change?,Business study
"in what contexts have you entered into an arbitration agreement(e. g, home purchase, credit card agreement, cell phone agreement)?","Inside what contexts get you entered enter an to settle matter outside kot with judge agreement(e. g, home purchase, credit card agreement, cell phone agreement)?",Business study
write a short essay discussing the implications of entering into that agreement.,Di implications of entering into dat agreement.,Business study
"learn about in-house dispute-resolution methods, med -arb, private judging, minitrials, and summary jury trials.","Learn about inside-house dispute-resolution methods, med -arb, private judging, minitrials, plus summary jury trials.",Business study
remember that adr is abroad term used to denote methods to resolve disputes outside of litigation.,Di adr dey wide term wey denote methods to resolve disputes outside of litigation.,Business study
"this can really be any method, whether or not it bears a specific label or adheres to a particular procedure.","Dis no be any method, whether or no e bear specific label or adhere to a particular procedure.",Business study
"for instance, negotiation might be a quick meeting in the hallway between disputants, or it might involve a formal round of negotiations where all parties are represented by legal counsel.","for example, negotiation go be quick meeting for di hallway be two disputants, or e go involve formal round of negotiations wey all parties represent Getting help and advice from a qualified lawyer on legal matters.",Business study
"however, when parties are attempting to resolve a dispute, it makes sense for them to agree to a specific procedure for doing so beforehand, so that each party understands how to proceed.","Di however, wen parties dey attempt to resolve dispute, e make sense for dem agree to specific procedure for doing so beforehand, so say each party understand how to proceed.",Business study
"negotiation, mediation, and arbitration are the most common forms of adr.",Di most common form of adr.,Business study
"however, these methods might not be appropriate for every dispute.",Di methods no dey appropriate for every dispute.,Business study
"other forms of adr exist, ranging from in -house programs to very formal external processes.","Other forms of adr exist, ranging from inside- house programs to well-well formal external processes.",Business study
"some adr processes or programs are available only to certain groups of people, s uch as members of a particular organization.","Di adr processor programs dey available only to certain groups of pipo, such as members of a particular organization.",Business study
"for instance, some organizations, like boeing, have an internal ethics hotline.","Di organization, like boeing, don get internal ethic hotline.",Business study
this hotline is available for employees to report perceived ethics violation that they have observed.,Di hotline dey available for employees to report perceived ethic violation wey dem don observe.,Business study
ethics advisors answer employees' questions and follow upon reports that need further investigation.,Ethics advisors answer employees' questions plus follow upon reports wey need further investigation.,Business study
one major benefit is that reporting parties generally(but not always)remain anonymous.,One major benefit na say reporting parties generally(but no always)remain anonymous,Business study
another benefit is that the company has time to redress problems that could give rise to disputes of much greater magnitude if left unaddressed.,Di company don time to redress problems wey go give rise to disputes of much greater magnitude if left unaddressed.,Business study
"an open-door policy is an in-house program that allows company employees to go directly to any level of management to file a complaint or grievance, without threat of retaliation for their reporting.","Di open-door policy na in-house program wey allow company employees go directly to any level of management to file complaint or grievance, without threat of retaliation for dia report.",Business study
"however, many employees may not feel comfortable in making a complaint about a manager's decision.",Dem no feel comfortable for make complaint about a manager decision.,Business study
"moreover, supervisors may not be comfortable with their employees bypassing them to file complaints.",Di supervisors no dey comfortable wit dia employees bypassing dem to file complaints.,Business study
"open-door policies sound very good in theory, but they may not work aswell in practice.","Di open-door policy sound good for theory, but dem no work aswell for practice.",Business study
another type of in-house program is an ombudsmen's office.,Di type of in-house program dey ombudsmen's office,Business study
"these stations generally hear complaints from stakeholders, such as employees or customers.","These stations generally hear complaints from stakeholders, such as employees or customers.",Business study
ombudsmen try to troubleshoot these complaints by investigating and attempting to resolve the issues before they escalate into more formal complaints.,Di ombudsmen try to troubleshoot dis complaints by investigating and attempt to resolve di issues before dem escalate into more formal complaints.,Business study
"more formal methods of adr include mediation-arbitration (med-arb), which is essentially a mediation followed by an arbitration.","Di formal methods of adr include mediation-arbitration (med-arb), wey dey essentially a mediation followed by arbitration (med-arb), wey dey essentially a mediation followed by arbitration.",Business study
"if the mediation does not produce a satisfactory outcome, then the parties submit to arbitration.","If di to settle matter with person wey go help both sides talk does no produce a satisfactory outcome, then di parties submit to settle matter outside kot with judge.",Business study
the neutral party mediating the dispute also serves as the arbitrator if the dispute -resolution process goes that far.,Di neutral party mediating dispute sef serves as di arbitrator if dispute -resolution process goes wey far.,Business study
"med -arb has the same benefits and drawbacks as mediation and arbitration alone, with some important differences.","Med -arb don get di same benefits plus drawbacks as to settle matter with person wey go help both sides talk plus to settle matter outside kot with judge alone, with some important differences.",Business study
"for instance, parties in a med -arb know that their dispute will be resolved.","for example, parties formed -arb know say dia dispute go resolve",Business study
"this is unlike mediation alone, where parties may walk away if they do not think that the mediation is serving their interests.","Dis dey unlike mediation alone, where parties go walk away if dem no think say di mediation dey serving dia interest.",Business study
"moreover, the parties in med -arb have an opportunity to reach a win-win outcome as in mediation.",Di parties formed -arb don get opportunity to reach win-win outcome as mediation.,Business study
"however, if they do not reach a satisfactory outcome, then one party will""win"" and one party will""lose"" during the arbitration phase.","If dem no reach satisfactory outcome, then one party go win and one party go""lose"" during di arbitration phase.",Business study
the knowledge that an arbitration will definitely follow a failed mediation can be a strong incentive to ensure that the mediation phase of a med -arb works.,Di knowledge wey an to settle matter outside kot with judge go definitely follow a failed to settle matter with person wey go help both sides talk fit be a strong something wey go ginger person to ensure wey di to settle matter with person wey go help both sides talk phase of a med -arb works.,Business study
"private judging, contemplated by many state statutes, is a process in which active or retired judges maybe hired for private trials.",Di process wey active or retired judges go dey hir for private trials.,Business study
private judging is essentially private litigation.,Di private judging dey essentially private litigation,Business study
"the hired judge can preside over a private trial that is not truncated by limits on discovery or abbreviated rules of procedure, as would be the case in arbitration.","Di judge go preside over private trial wey no dey truncated by limits on discovery or abbreviated rules of procedure, as e go be di case for arbitration.",Business study
"additionally, the judge who oversees the process is highly experienced in such matters as evidence and decision rendering.",Di judge wey dey oversees di process dey highly experience for such matters as evidence and decision render.,Business study
"moreover, the parties who can afford to pay for this service have a substantial benefit in not having to wait to have their cases heard in the public court.",Di parties wey dey afford to pay for dis service don afford substantial benefit for no having to wait to get dia case hear for di public court.,Business study
"the private trial is also private rather than public, which maybe important to parties who require confidentiality.","Di private trial dey private no be public, wey dey important to parties wey require confidentiality.",Business study
"drawbacks include the sometimes questionable nature of enforceability of judgments rendered, though some state statutes allow enforceability of those judgments as if they were issued in public court.","Di drawbacks include di sometimes questionable nature of enforceability of judgments, though some state statutes allow enforceability of those judgments as if dem dey issue for public court.",Business study
"moreover, this system may benefit those who can afford to pay for this service, while others must wait for their case to appear on the docket in public court.","Di system go benefit those wey go pay for dis service, while odas must wait for dia case to appear on di docket for public court.",Business study
this raises questions of fairness.,This raises questions of fairness.,Business study
"see note 4. 54 ""hyperlink: private judges""for one state's frequently asked questions(faq) regarding private judges.","See note 4. 54 ""hyperlink: private judges""for one state's frequently asked questions(faq) regarding private judges.",Business study
does your state permit private judging?,Di state don permit private judging?,Business study
"a minitrial is a procedure that allows the parties to present their case to decision makers on both sides ofthe dispute, following discovery.","Di minitrial dey procedure wey dey allow di parties to present dia case to decisionmakers on both sides of di dispute, following discovery.",Business study
this is a private affair.,E dey private affair,Business study
"after the cases are presented, the parties enter into mediation or negotiation to resolve their dispute.",Di parties enter mediation or negotiation to resolve dia dispute.,Business study
a summary jury trial is a mock trial presented to a jury whose verdict is nonbinding.,Di summary jury trial na mock trial wey dey presented to a jury wey dey submit to a jury wey dey verdict nobinding.,Business study
"the presentation is brief and succinct, a nd it follows a discovery period.","Di presentation dey brief and succinct, nd e follow discovery period.",Business study
the jury does not know that its verdict will be advisory only.,Di jury no know say im verdict go be advisory only.,Business study
"this process allows parties to measure the strengths and weaknesses of their cases prior to engaging in litigation, which presumably saves both time and money.","Di process allow parties to measure di strength and weaknesses of dia case prior to engagin for litigation, wey presumably save both time and money.",Business study
"after the minitrial, parties are in a better position to negotiate or mediate an outcome that fairly represents their positions.","Di minitrial, parties dey in better position to negotiate or mediate outcome wey fairly represent dia position.",Business study
"for example, minitrials, med -arb, private judging, and summary jury trials are common alternatives, as are in -house programs like ombudsmen, anonymous ethics hotlines, and open-door policies.","for example, minitrials, med -arb, private judging, plus summary jury trials be common alternatives, as be inside- house programs like ombudsmen, anonymous ethics hotlines, plus open-door policies.",Business study
benefits and drawbacks to these methods exist relative to other methods of ad rand to litigation.,Benefits plus drawbacks to these methods exist relative to other methods of ad r plus to drag matter for kot.,Business study
do you think this program can address all disputes before they get out of hand?,Di program go address all disputes before dem get out of hand?,Business study
what type of dispute might not be appropriate to bring to an ethics hotline program?,Di type of dispute no dey appropriate to bring to ethics hotline program?,Business study
"locate two""ethics hotline""programs from an online search.","Locate two""ethics hotline""programs from an online search.",Business study
compare these programs.,Di program dey compare dis programs.,Business study
what are the benefits and drawbacks to each?,What be di benefits plus drawbacks to each?,Business study
"checkout note 4. 54 ""hyperlink: private judges"".","Check comot note 4. 54 ""hyperlink: private judges"".",Business study
do you think that people should be permitted to hire judges to preside over private trials if they can afford to do so?,For you think say pipo dey permitted to hire judges to preside over private trial if dem fit afford to do so?,Business study
what benefits to litigants in a private trial have over litiga nts in a public trial?,Di benefits to litigants for private trial don over litiga nts for public trial?,Business study
what ethical issues exist with respect to private judges?,Di ethic issues exist wit respect to private judges?,Business study
why would a party choose med -arb over mediation or arbitration alone?,Why go a party choose med -arb over to settle matter with person wey go help both sides talk or to settle matter outside kot with judge alone?,Business study
explore potential restrictions upon adr.,E dey explore potential restrictions upon adr,Business study
review points of access to government to change public policy.,Review points of access to government to change public policy.,Business study
examine the arbitration fairness act bill.,Examine di to settle matter outside kot with judge fairness act bill.,Business study
alternative dispute resolution can be avery useful alternative to litigation.,Alternative dispute resolution fit be a well-well useful alternative to drag matter for kot.,Business study
"there are many advantages to disputant s, such as expediency, cost savings, and greater privacy than litigation.","There be boku advantages to disputant s, such as expediency, cost savings, plus greater privacy than to drag matter for kot.",Business study
"in business to business(b2b) disputes, alternative dispute resolution (adr) often makes sense.","Inside business to business(b2b) disputes, alternative dispute resolution (adr) often dey make sense.",Business study
the federal arbitration act(faa) is a federal statute that the u. s. supreme court interpreted as a national policy favoring arbitration in southland corp. v. keating.,Di federal arbitration act(faa) na federal statute wey di u. s. supreme court interpret as national policy favoring arbitration for southland corp. v. keating.,Business study
"however, not all disputes are well suited for adr.",But no all disputes dey well suite for adr,Business study
"this is an area in which congress could make substantial changes in public policy through the creation of new law, to ensure fairness between unequal parties and to ensure the protection of civil rights.","Di area wey congress go make substantial change for public policy through di creation of new law, to ensure fairness between unequal parties and to ensure di protection of civil rights.",Business study
"congress could do this by making adr optional, rather than mandatory, for some types of disputes.","Congress fit do this by making adr optional, no be mandatory, for some types of disputes.",Business study
it could exclude certain types of disputes from being bound to arbitration through mandatory arbitration clauses.,Am fit exclude certain types of disputes from being bound to settle matter outside kot with judge through mandatory to settle matter outside kot with judge clauses.,Business study
"for example, the proposed arbitration fairness act of 2009 (afa) would invalidate mandatory arbitration clauses in employment and consumer disputes, as well as in disputes arising from civil rights violations.","Di proposed arbitration fairness act of 2009 (afa) go invalidate mandatory arbitration clauses for employment and consumer disputes, as well as for disputes wey dey arising from civil rights violations.",Business study
"see note 4. 63 ""hyperlink: arbitration fairness act bill"".","See note 4. 63 ""hyperlink: to settle matter outside kot with judge fairness act bill"".",Business study
the afa is a proposed bill to amend the faa.,Di afa dey proposed bill to amend di faa,Business study
"under the commerce clause, congress has the power to limit the use of mandatory arbitration, just as it has the power to enforce mandatory arbitration clauses under the commerce clause through the existing faa.","Di congress don get power to limit di use of mandatory arbitration, just as di power to enforce mandatory arbitration clauses under di commerce clause through di existing faa.",Business study
"by passing anew law that excludes certain types of disputes from being subjected to mandatory arbitration, congress could set new policy regarding fairness in dispute resolution.",Di congress go set new policy regarding fairness for dispute resolution.,Business study
"likewise, if it fails to act, congress is also acceding to the u. s. supreme court's broad interpretation ofthe faa as a national policy favoring arbitration.",Di congress dey acceding to di u. s. supreme court's broad interpretation of di faa as national policy favoring arbitration.,Business study
"in 1925, when the faa was originally passed, records indicate that congress intended that mandatory arbitration clauses be enforced in contracts between merchants, rather than between businesses and consumers or between employers and employees.","Dem tok say congress dey suppose say mandatory arbitration clauses be enforce for contracts between merchants, no be between business and consumers or between employers and employees.",Business study
"in the latter relationships, the parties have vastly unequal power.",Di parties don dey unequal power.,Business study
"moreover, despite the existence of mandatory arbitration clauses in contracts, the faa was not contemplated as a means to preempt state power to provide judicial forums for certain types of disputes.",Di faa no dey contemplate as means to preempt state power to provide judicial forums for certain type of disputes.,Business study
"if congress passed the afa, this would bean example of one branch of government""checking"" another branch's power as contemplated by the u. s. constitution.","Di example of one branch of goment ""check""one branch's power as dey contemplated by di u. s. constitution.",Business study
"specifically, the legislative branch would be checking the judicial branch's power bypassing a law to counteract the u. s. supreme court's broad interpretation ofthe faa in southland corp. v. keating.","Specifically, di legislative branch go be checking di judicial branch's power bypassing a law to counteract di u. s. supreme court's broad interpretation of di faa inside southland corp. v. keating.",Business study
this is how our government is supposed to work.,E dey how awa government dey suppose work,Business study
one branch checks another branch's power.,One branch checks another branch's power.,Business study
"this""checking"" of power maintains relative balance among the branches.","Di""checking"" of power maintain relative balance among di branch.",Business study
"because people have different points of entry into the lawmaking process, this system ultimately balances the many special interests ofthe american people.",Di system ultimately balance di many special interest of di american pipo.,Business study
"for example, some businesses and employers that do not wish the afa to pass may wonder what recourse they have.","for example, some business and employers wey no wish di afa to pass no wonder what recourse dem get.",Business study
"after all, the u. s. supreme court's interpretation ofthe faa currently favors their interests.",Di u. s. supreme court's interpretation of di faa currently favor dia interest,Business study
"since the afa has not yet passed, they could lobby lawmakers against its passage.","Di afa no yet pass, dem go lobby lawmakers against dia passage.",Business study
"note too that if the afa becomes law, these interest groups are not simply shutout ofthe government's lawmaking process.",Di interest groups no dey shutout of di goment lawmaking process.,Business study
they continue to have access to lawmaking.,Dem continue to get access to lawmaking.,Business study
one point of entry is through the legislative branch.,Di legislative branch dey through di legislative branch.,Business study
"for instance, they could return to congress and ask it to pass anew law to counteract the afa, or to repeal the afa altogether.","Dem go return to congress and ask dem pass new law to counteract di afa, or to repeal di afa altogether.",Business study
"specifically, once a case or controversy arose under the afa in which they h ad standing, they could ask the courts to interpret the statute narrowly, or they could ask the courts to strike down the statute altogether.","Dem go ask di courts to interpret di statute narrowly, or dem go ask di courts to interpret di statute narrowly, or dem go ask di courts to interpret di statute narrowly, or dem go ask di courts to strike down di statute altogether.",Business study
"on the other side ofthe issue, consumers and employees who do not like the faa's current broad interpretation can work within our government system to change the law.","For di oda side of di issue, consumers and employees wey no like di faa's current broad interpretation go work within our goment system to change di law.",Business study
"for instance, they can ask congress to pass anew law, such as the afa.","Dem go ask congress to pass new law, such as di afa.",Business study
they could ask congress to repeal the faa.,Dem go ask congress to repeal di faa,Business study
they could also wait for another case to arise under the faa to try to get the relevant holding in the southland corp. case overturned.,Dem go wait for another case to arise under di faa to try to get relevant holding for di southland corp. case overturned.,Business study
"this is perhaps more difficult than the first two options, because any u. s. supreme court case produces many progeny at the circuit court level.","Di first two options, because any u. s. supreme court case produce many progeny for di circuit court level.",Business study
each decision at the circuit court level also produces binding precedent within that jurisdiction.,Di decision for di circuit court level also produce binding precedent within dat jurisdiction.,Business study
it is very difficult to get a case before the u. s. supreme court.,E dey difficult to get case before di u. s. supreme court.,Business study
"even if that happened, there would be no guarantee that the court would overturn a prior opinion.",Nano guarantee say di court go overturn a prior opinion,Business study
"in fact, the opposite is usually true.",Di opposite dey true,Business study
precedent is most often followed rather than overturned.,Di precedent dey most often follow no be overturned,Business study
"in the united states, the policy process is open for participation, though changes often take much work and time.","Di policy process dey open for participation, though changes dey take much work and time.",Business study
people with special interests tend to coalesce and press for changes in the law to reflect those positions.,Di pipo wey dey special interest don coalesce and press for change for di law to reflect those positions.,Business study
this appears to be what is happening in the world of adr now.,Di appear to be what dey happen for di world of adr now.,Business study
"after many years of mandatory arbitration requirements that have yielded perhaps unfair processes or results, groups that believe they should not be forced into adr by mandatory arbitration clauses are building momentum for their position in congress.","For many years of mandatory arbitration requirements wey don yield perhaps unfair processes or results, groups wey believe say dem no fit force into adr by mandatory arbitration requirement wey don yield perhaps unfair processes or results, groups wey believe dem no fit force into adr by mandatory arbitration clauses dey building momentum for dia position for congress.",Business study
"if the afa passes, that will not be the end ofthe story, however.","E no be di end of di story, however.",Business study
"new interest groups may form to support the previous law, or anew law altogether.","New interest groups may form to support di previous law, or anew law altogether.",Business study
"to change public policy, interest groups can access the government lawmaking power through several points, including through the legislative branch and through the judicial branch.","To change public policy, interest groups fit access di government lawmaking power through several points, including through di legislative branch plus through di judicial branch.",Business study
"to change public policy regarding mandatory arbitration clauses, for instance, congress could amend or repeal the faa.","for example, congress go amend or repeal di faa.",Business study
"additionally, given another dispute arising under the faa concerning its scope, the u. s. supreme court could overturn prior decisions that broadly interpret the faa's reach.",Di u. s. supreme court go overturn prior decisions that widely interpret di faa's reach.,Business study
the u. s. government is a dynamic system that provides opportunities for special interests to coalesce and change the law and public policy.,"Di u. s. goment dey system wey no dey stay the same, e dey keep changing wey provide opportunities for special interests to coalesce and change di law and public policy.",Business study
how many points of entry are there into lawmaking processes?,How many points of entry dey there for lawmaking process?,Business study
which point would be the easiest to access if you wanted to change the law?,Di point go be di easiest to access if you want change di law?,Business study
"checkout note 4. 63 ""hyperlink: arbitration fairness act bill"".","Check comot note 4. 63 ""hyperlink: to settle matter outside kot with judge fairness act bill"".",Business study
do you think that the afa will solve the issue of perceived unfairness in dispute resolution?,Di afa go solve di issue of perceived unfairness for dispute resolution?,Business study
"are there any additions that you can make to this bill to make it more likely to achieve the goal of greater fairness in dispute resolution, if passed?","Di additions wey you fit make to dis bill make am more likely to achieve di goal of greater fairness for dispute resolution, if pass?",Business study
"in business, adr is commonly used in business to business(b2b), business to consumer (b2c), and business to employee (b2e) disputes.","Di adr dey common for business to business(b2b), business to consumer (b2c), and business to employee (b2e) disputes.",Business study
several methods of adr exist.,Several methods of adr exist.,Business study
"the most commonly employed methods include negotiation, mediation, and arbitration.","Di most commonly employed methods include negotiation, to settle matter with person wey go help both sides talk, plus to settle matter outside kot with judge.",Business study
"under federal law, national policy favors arbitration.","Under federal law, national policy favors to settle matter outside kot with judge.",Business study
"sometimes adr is perceived as unfair, b ecause parties have unequal power relative to eachother or because the subject matter ofthe dispute is not considered suitable for adr.","Di sometimes adr dey perceived as unfair, b ecause parties don unequal power relative to each oda or because di subject matter of di dispute no consider suitable for adr.",Business study
"like other areas of law and public policy, adr is dynamic and subject to change, particularly when special interest groups coalesce successfully and create momentum for change within our legal system.","Like other areas of law plus public policy, adr na dynamic plus subject to change, particularly when special interest groups coalesce successfully plus create momentum for change within awa legal system.",Business study
"currently, there is a nascent movement to exclude certain types of disputes from adr by amending the federal law that requires mandatory arbitration when parties have contra ctually consented to it.",Di nascent movement to exclude certain types of disputes from adr by amending di federal law wey require mandatory arbitration wen parties don contra ctually consent to am.,Business study
what are the main purposes ofthe u. s. constitution?,Di main purpose of di u. s. constitution?,Business study
how does the constitution grant authority to the government to regulate business?,How does di constitution grant authority to di government to regulate business?,Business study
how does the bill of rights provide basic civil liberties to all persons in the united states?,How does di bill of rights provide basic Di basic freedoms and rights wey law protect every person from government interference to all persons inside di united states?,Business study
how do due process and equal protection operate to constrain governments from acting unfairly?,How do Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system plus equal protection operate to constrain governments from acting unfairly?,Business study
"video clip: schoolhouse rock, the preamble the constitution is not the first constitution adopted by the original thirteen colonies.","Video clip: schoolhouse rock, di preamble di constitution nano di first constitution adopted by di original thirteen colonies.",Business study
"during the time ofthe revolutionary war against great britain, the states were governed by the articles of confederation.","For di time of di revolutionary war against great Britain, di state dey governed by di article of confederation.",Business study
"the articles granted limited authority to a federal government, including the power to wage wars, conduct foreign policy, and resolve issues regarding claims by the states on western lands.","Di articles granted limited authority to a federal government, including di power to wage wars, conduct wetin koncern how govment of one kontri dey relate with odas kontri, like how dem go dey do business, make peace or fight, plus resolve issues regarding claims by di states on western lands.",Business study
"many leading scholars and statesmen at the time, known as federalists, thought that the articles created a federal government that was too weak to survive.","Na many leading scholars and statesmen for di time, known as federalists, tok say di article dey create federal goment wey dey too weak to survive.",Business study
"the lack of power to tax, for example, meant that the federal government was frequently near bankruptcy in spite of its repeated requests to the states to put forth more money to the federal government.",Di federal goment dey frequently near bankruptcy for spite of its repeat request to di states to put forth more money to di federal goment.,Business study
"larger states resented the structure under the articles, which gave small states an equal vote to larger states.","larger states dey resent di structure under di article, wey give small states equal vote to larger state.",Business study
"finally, the articles reserved the power to regulate commerce to the states, meaning each pursued its own trade and tariff policy with other states and with foreign nations.","Finally, di articles reserved di power to regulate commerce to di states, meaning each pursued its own trade plus tariff policy with other states plus with foreign nations.",Business study
"in 1786, work began in a series of conventions to rewrite the articles, resulting in the adoption ofthe u. s. constitution in philadelphia in 1787.","Di work began for series of conventions to rewrite di articles, resulting for di adoption of di u. s. constitution for philadelphia for 1787.",Business study
"we'll examine how the constitution sought to rectify the weaknesses in the articles, especially in commerce.","We go examine how di constitution go rectify di weaknesses for di articles, especially for commerce.",Business study
"we go beyond the meaning ofthe words and explain how judicial interpretation ofthe constitution, while still evolving, has forever changed its original place in u. s. political economy.","We go beyond di meaning of di words plus explain how judicial interpretation of di constitution, while still evolving, don get forever changed its original place inside u. s. tori of how money and power dey relate, wey concern how pesin dem dey manage resources, share am, and use am for development, including wetin dem dey produce, share, and use.",Business study
key takeaways the articles of confederation established the united states of america.,Di article of confederation establish di united states of America.,Business study
"it provided a central federal government with limited powers, including the power to wage war.","Dem provide central federal goment wit limited powers, including di power to wage war",Business study
the articles ultimately failed because the federal government lacked the power to raise its own taxes or to regulate commerce.,Di article ultimately fail because di federal goment dey lack di power to raise im own taxes or to regulate commerce.,Business study
"in 1787, the philadelphia convention adopted anew constitution to replace the articles.","Inside 1787, di philadelphia convention adopted anew constitution to replace di articles.",Business study
explore how the constitution creates a limited government through the separation of powers and through checks and balances among the three branches of government.,Explore how di constitution creates a limited government through di separation of powers plus through checks plus balances among di three branches of government.,Business study
learn how the constitution resolves conflicts between state and federal laws.,Learn how di constitution resolves conflicts between state plus federal laws.,Business study
understand the rules surrounding preemption.,Di rules wey dey surround preemption,Business study
have you ever read the constitution from beginning to end?,Get you ever read di constitution from beginning to end?,Business study
look at the text ofthe constitution.,Di constitution don make we look di text of di constitution,Business study
it's remarkably short shorter than many people realize.,E dey remarkably short shorter than many pipo realize,Business study
"historically, it is the shortest and oldest written constitution still in force.","Historically, am na di shortest plus oldest written constitution still inside force.",Business study
"ironically, the constitution's brevity maybe one ofthe reasons that it endures to this day, as judicial interpretation has kept its meaning relevant for modern times.","Di constitution's brevity go be one of di reasons say e endure to dis day, as judicial interpretation don keep dia meaning relevant for modern times.",Business study
much of its content deals with the allocation of power among three separate and coequal branches of government.,Well-well of its content deals with di allocation of power among three separate plus coequal branches of government.,Business study
"substantively, much more attention is paid to the limitations on the power given to each ofthe three branches than to any positive grant of rights.",Di limitations on di power wey dey give to each of di three branch than to any positive grant of rights.,Business study
"indeed, while many americans believe that it is their""constitutional right""to be free, many of those freedoms are actually contained in the bill of rights, which are amendments to the constitution.","Dem believe say e dey constitutional right to be free, many of di freedoms dey contain for di bill of rights, wey dey amendments to di constitution.",Business study
"in contrast, the main body ofthe constitution is concerned primarily with structure.",Di main bodi of di constitution dey concerned primarily wit structure,Business study
"in other words, the constitution is a document of prohibition, outlining what government cannot do as opposed to what government must do.","Di constitution dey document of prohibition, outlining what goment no go do as oppose to wen go do.",Business study
"as a result of this structure, the constitution is rarely the right place to deal with contemporary political issues, no matter how important.","Di constitution dey rarely di right place to deal wit contemporary political issues, no matter how important.",Business study
"at the state level, many states permit frequent amendments to their constitutions to reflect contemporary public policy, from school funding to gambling to gay marriage.","Di level wey dey control for state, no be for federal or local government, many states don allow frequent amendments to dia constitution to reflect contemporary public policy, from school funding to gambling to gay marriage.",Business study
"there is often support among many people for constitutional amendments to ban flag burning, permit prayer in school, ban gay marriage, or ban abortion.","There na often support among boku pipo for constitutional amendments to ban flag burning, permit prayer inside school, ban gay marriage, or ban abortion.",Business study
"at the federal level, however, these issues are rarely resolved at the constitutional level.","Di issue dey rarely resolve for di federal level, however, dis issues dey rarely resolve for di constitutional level.",Business study
"there is a practical bar, of course, given how difficult it is to amend the constitution.","Di practical bar, of course, given how difficult e dey amend di constitution.",Business study
"even if it were easier to amend, however, the constitution remains very much a document of structure rather than substantive law.",Di constitution dey very much document of structure no be substantive law.,Business study
"if judges are umpires, then the constitution sets forth the rules ofthe game.",Di constitution sets forth di rules of di game,Business study
the biggest rule laid down in the constitution is the separation of powers.,"Di biggest rule wey dey laid down for di constitution na di dem dey talk of how power dey divide, wey one group no go too powerful, like dem divide am for different hand, wey make dem get balance, like legislative, executive, and judicial, dem all dey work together, but dem no be one, to avoid say one group go dey misuse power",Business study
"fundamentally, the separation of powers requires that each branch of government play its own role in governing the people.","Di dem dey talk of how power dey divide, wey one group no go too powerful, like dem divide am for different hand, wey make dem get balance, like legislative, executive, and judicial, dem all dey work together, but dem no be one, to avoid say one group go dey misuse power require say each branch of goment play dia own role for governing di pipo.",Business study
the judicial branch plays a critical role in interpreting the constitution and outlining the powers ofthe legislature and executive branches.,Di judicial branch plays a critical role inside interpreting di constitution plus outlining di powers of di legislature plus executive branches.,Business study
the interplay between article i(legislative) and article ii(executive) is no less important.,Di interplay between article i(legislative) and article ii(executive) no dey important.,Business study
"although more than two centuries have passed since the first congress and the first president served, the limits of power between these two branches continue to be redefined, especially in the wake ofthe september 11 terrorist attacks.","As more than two centuries don pass since di first congress and di first president served, di limit of power between dis two branch continue to dey redefined, especially for di wake of di september 11 terrorist attack.",Business study
article i ofthe constitution establishes the legislative branch through a bicameral legislature.,Article i of di constitution establishes di legislative branch through a bicameral legislature.,Business study
"the lower house of representatives, with frequent elections(every even-numbered year), has 435 members, with representation spread proportionately to a state's population as determined by a census every decade.","Di lower house of representatives, wit frequent election(every even-number year), don 435 members, wit representation spread proportionately to state population as determined by a census every decade.",Business study
"the most populous state, california, has fifty-three members, while several states are so small that they have only one representative(alaska, delaware, montana, north dakota, south dakota, vermont, and wyoming).","Di most popular state, california, don get fifty-three members, while several states dey so small say dem get only one representative(alaska, delaware, montana, north dakota, south dakota, vermont, and wyoming).",Business study
"the house is led by the speaker ofthe house, typically from the party that holds the majority in the house.","Di house dey led by di speaker of di house, typically from di party wey dey hold majority for di house.",Business study
"the house is generally thought to represent the most contemporary views ofthe american public, with its large body of members and frequent elections.","Di house dey generally thought to represent di most contemporary views of di american public, wit its large bodi of members and frequent election.",Business study
"as a check on the majority will, and on the power of larger states, the senate is a smaller body with one hundred members(two from each state)and with less frequent elections(every six years).","As a check on di majority go, plus on di power of larger states, di senate na a smaller body with one hundred members(two from each state)plus with less frequent elections(every six years).",Business study
the senate is meant to be a more deliberative body and to ensure a wider level of debate before impassioned legislation is hastily rushed into law.,Di senate na meant to be a more deliberative body plus to ensure a wider level of debate before impassioned legislation na hastily rushed enter law.,Business study
"the makeup ofthe senate means that citizens from smaller states, representing much fewer people, can often frustrate the will ofthe majority of americans.","Di makeup of di senate means wey citizens from smaller states, representing well-well fewer pipo, fit often frustrate di go of di majority of americans.",Business study
"additionally, while the house retains the right t oimpeach officials for""high crimes and misdemeanors,"" the senate tries such impeached officials.","Additionally, while di house retains di right t oimpeach officials for""high crimes plus misdemeanors,"" di senate tries such impeached officials.",Business study
article ii ofthe constitution establishes the executive branch of government.,Di constitution establish di part of government wey dey carry out and enforce laws— led by President or Prime Minister of goment.,Business study
"while the constitution was being drafted, the delegates knew that they wanted george washington to be president.",Di delegates know say dem need george washington to be president.,Business study
"washington was in retirement in mount vernon at the time, after successfully leading the colonies in the revolutionary war.","Di washington dey retirement for mount vernon for di time, afta successfully leading di colonies for di revolutionary war.",Business study
"since the delegates knew washington would be president, they spent remarkably little time in writing article ii, which is very short.","Di delegates knew washington go be president, dem spend remarkably little time for writing article ii, wey dey short.",Business study
"washington was elected to both his first and second terms with 100 percent ofthe electoral college vote, something no other president has since done.","Di washington dey elected to both hin first and second terms wit 100 percent of di electoral college vote, something no oda president don done.",Business study
"while article ii sets forth some ofthe mechanisms for becoming president and is the only place in the constitution that prescribes a specific oath of office when the constitution was drafted, little was known about what the president's role would be.","Di article ii sets forth some of di mechanisms wey dey becoming president and dey di only place for di constitution wey dey prescribe specific oath of office wen di constitution dey draft, little dey known about what di president role go be.",Business study
"article ii grants the president an almost total power over foreign affairs, including the power to make treaties and appoint ambassadors.","Article ii grants di president an almost total power over foreign affairs, including di power to make treaties plus appoint ambassadors.",Business study
he is commander-in-chief ofthe armed forces.,E dey commander-in-chief of di armed forces.,Business study
"the president is also responsible for executing, or enforcing, the laws ofthe country.","Di president dey also responsible for executing, or enforcing, di laws of di kontri",Business study
"while congress can pass any legislation it wants to, ultimately legislation is meaningless unless there are sanctions for violating the law.","Dem go pass any legislation wey dem want to, ultimately legislation dey meaningless unless dem dey sanction for violating di law.",Business study
"through the prosecutorial and police functions, the president ensures that the will ofthe people, as expressed through congress, is carried out.","Di president ensure say di will of di pipo, as express through congress, dey carried out.",Business study
the constitution's deliberate ambiguity on the powers ofthe president left much room for debate on how strong the executive branch should be.,Di constitution's deliberate ambiguity on di power of di president dey too room for debate on how strong di part of government wey dey carry out and enforce laws— led by President or Prime Minister go be.,Business study
"after the september 11 attacks, many in the george w. bush administration argued for a strong unitary executive theory.","After di september 11 attacks, boku inside di george w. bush administration argued for a strong unitary executive theory.",Business study
bush administration lawyers reasoned that only a strong executive could effectively wage war with al-qaeda.,Di bush administration lawyers tok say only strong executive go effectively wage war wit al-qaeda,Business study
"under a congressional authorization, the administration embarked on a program to capture and kill terrorists around the world and to gather as much information about terrorist activities as possible.","Under a congressional authorization, di administration embarked on a program to capture plus kill terrorists around di world plus to gather aswell-well information about terrorist activities as possible.",Business study
"many in congress believed, however, that the executive branch overstepped its authority in pursuing these goals, leaving congress behind.","Di part of government wey dey carry out and enforce laws— led by President or Prime Minister don overstepped dia authority for pursuing dis goals, leaving congress behind.",Business study
"for example, to collect intelligence on suspected terrorists in the united states, co ngress passed a law, the foreign intelligence surveillance act, in 1978.","for example, to collect intelligence on suspected terrorists inside di united states, co ngress passed a law, di foreign intelligence surveillance act, inside 1978.",Business study
"the bush administration routinely carried out surveillance on persons in the united states without this judicial oversight, arguing that it was part ofthe unitary executive theory to do so.","Di bush administration routinely carried out surveillance on persons for di united state without dis judicial oversight, arguing say na part of di unitary executive theory to do so.",Business study
"in another program, the bush administration allegedly captured suspected terrorists abroad and moved them to secret prisons outside the jurisdiction ofthe united states for interrogation, a practice known as extraordinary rendition.","Di bush administration allegedly captured suspected terrorists abroad and moved dem to secret prison outside di jurisdiction of di united states for interrogation, practice wey dey known as extraordinary rendition.",Business study
"in late 2009, an italian court convicted twenty-three american officials, including members ofthe central intelligence agency(cia), of extraordinary rendition in the case of a muslim cleric kidnapped from milan.","Di Italian court don convicted twenty- three american officials, including members of di central intelligence agency(cia), of extraordinary rendition for di case of muslim cleric kidnapped from Milan.",Business study
the officials were convicted in their absence and have not been extradited to italy.,Di officials dey convicted for dia absence and no dey extradit to italy.,Business study
"extraordinary rendition is likely illegal under u. s. and international law, but lawsuits attempting to find out more information about the program have been thwarted by the executive branch's claim ofthe state secrets doctrine.","For u. s. and international law, but lawsuits wey dey try to know more information about di program don dey illegal under u. s. and international law, but lawsuits wey dey try to know more information about di program don dey illegal under u. s. and international law.",Business study
congress and the president have also clashed over the treatment of suspected terrorists.,Di president don also clash over di treatment of suspected terrorists,Business study
"the right of habeas corpus is a fundamentally important right, appearing first in the magna carta and considered so important by constitutional delegates that it was inserted into the text ofthe constitution itself, not in the bill of rights.","Di right of Legal order wey say government must bring person in custody to court to justify holding dem dey fundamentally important right, wey dey appear first for di magna carta and consider so important by constitutional delegates say e dey insert into di text of di constitution itself, no for di bill of rights.",Business study
"when the bush administration began imprisoning suspected terrorists at the military base in guantanamo bay, cuba, the administration took a series of unprecedented positions on the legal status of those detainees, including the position that the detainees did not have the right to seek habeas relief.","Di administration tok a series of unprecedented positions on di legal status of di detainees, including di position say di detainees no get di right to seek habeas relief.",Business study
"federal courts, including the supreme court, gradually overturned most of these positions, and the detainees are now being tried by either military tribunals or civilian courts.","Di supreme court, gradually overturned most of disposition, and di detainees don tried by either military tribunal or civilian courts.",Business study
"another controversial position adopted by the administration was on the use of enhanced, or aggressive, interrogation methods.","Di controversial position adopted by di administration na on di use of enhanced, or aggressive, interrogation methods.",Business study
"critics claimed these techniques amounted to torture(which is banned byu. s. law as passed by congress)and maybe unconstitutional under the eighth amendment, which prohibits cruel or unusual punishment.","Di critics dey claim say dis technique dey amount to torture(which dey banned byu. s. law as pass by congress)and dey unconstitutional under di eighth amendment, wey prohibit cruel or unusual punishment.",Business study
you already know that state and federal governments sometimes share power and that the rules of subject matter jurisdiction determine which legal system has jurisdiction over a particular matter or controversy.,Dem know say state and federal goment don share power and say di rules of subject matter jurisdiction determine which legal system don jurisdiction over particular matter or controversy.,Business study
"in some areas, such as family or property law, the states have near exclusive jurisdiction.","For some area, such as family or property law, di state don near exclusive jurisdiction.",Business study
"in other areas, such as negotiating treaties with foreign countries or operating airports and licensing airlines, the federal government has near exclusive authority.",Di federal goment don near exclusive authority.,Business study
"in the middle, however, is a large area of subject matter where both state and federal governments may potentially have jurisdiction.","Di middle, however, dey large area of subject matter wey both state and federal goment go potentially get jurisdiction.",Business study
"what happens if state and federal laws exist on the same subject matter, or worse, what happens if they directly contradict eachother?","If state and federal laws exist on di same subject matter, or worse, if dem directly contradict each oda?",Business study
legal rules of preemption seek to provide an answer to these questions.,Legal rules of preemption seek to provide an answer to these questions.,Business study
"let's say, for example, that congress sets the minimum wage at$7. 25 an hour.","for example, say congress sets di lowest amount of money that law say employer must pay worker per hour for$7. 25 an hour.",Business study
"a state that passe sa law making the minimum wage lower than that would immediately see the law challenged in federal court as unconstitutional under preemption and supremacy clause principles, and the state law would be overturned.","Di state law go dey challenge for federal court as unconstitutional under preemption and supremacy clause principle, and di state law go dey overturned.",Business study
"fourteen states have passed laws that permit marijuana to be grown, sold, and used for medicinal purposes, such as treating nausea and stimulating hunger in cancer patients.","Di fourteen state don pass laws wey allow marijuana to grow, sold, and use for medicinal purposes, such as treat nausea and stimulating hunger for cancer patients.",Business study
"the federal government aggressively prosecuted medicinal use of marijuana, and in 2005 the supreme court ruled that the federal law trumps state laws,[1] meaning that local growers could be arrested and prosecuted under federal law even if what they were doing was perfectly legal and authorized under state law.","Di federal goment aggressively prosecut medicinal use of marijuana, and for 2005 di supreme court rule say di federal law trump state law even if dem dey legal and authorized under state law.",Business study
in 2009 the obama administration announced a change in policy.,Di obama administration don announce change for policy.,Business study
listen to this national public radio story about what this change means for the medicinal use of marijuana in the states.,Di national public radio story about how dis change means for di medicinal use of marijuana for di state.,Business study
"if there is no clear statement by congress that it wishes to preempt state law, or if it is unclear what congress meant to do, then the state law will survive if possible(i. e, there is a presumption against preemption).","Di state law go survive if possible(i. e, di state law go survive if possible(i. e, di state law go survive if possible).",Business study
"even if there is no statement by congress on preemption, however, if congress so completely regulates a particular subject area that there is""no room""left for states to regulate, then preemption exists.","If congress so completely regulate particular subject area wey dey no room for states to regulate, then preemption exist.",Business study
"for example, after september 11, michigan passed a law requiring student pilots in michigan to pass a federal bureau of investigation(f bi)background check.","for example, after september 11, michigan passed a law requiring student pilots inside michigan to pass a federal bureau of investigation(f bi)background check.",Business study
"the federal aviation administration, which sets forth pilot qualifications and licensing, has no such requirement, and since the federal government regulates the aviation industry completely(from airports to pilots to airlines to training standards), michigan's law is preempted.","Di federal aviation administration, wey set forth pilot qualification and licensing, don no such requirement, and since di federal goment regulate di aviation industry completely(from airports to pilots to airlines to training standards), michigan law dey preempted.",Business study
hyperlink: can states regulate car safety standards?,Hyperlink: fit states regulate car safety rule or levels?,Business study
"in geier v. honda, [2]for example, a teenager filed a tort lawsuit against honda for injuries she suffered durin ga car accident.","Inside geier v. honda, [2]for example, a teenager filed a tort lawsuit against honda for injuries e suffered durin ga car accident.",Business study
her lawsuit claimed that her 1987 honda accord was defective because it didn't have any airbags.,She lawsuit claim say her 1987 honda accord no defective because e no get any airbags,Business study
"airbag technology, which existed at the time but was used primarily inexpensive luxury cars, would have minimized her injuries.","Di airbag technology, wey dey use for di time but dey use primarily for expensive luxury cars, go dey minimize her injuries.",Business study
"if she had won her state lawsuit in the district of columbia, then in effect all 1987 honda accords sold in the district of columbia would have to be equipped with airbags to avoid tort liability.","For effect all 1987 honda accords sold for di district of columbia, then for effect all 1987 honda accords wey dey sold for di district of columbia go get airbags to avoid tort liability.",Business study
honda's defense was preemption.,Di defense dey preemption,Business study
"under a federal regulatory scheme known as the federal motor vehicle safety standards (fmvss), the federal government sets forth safety standards that cars must meet to be sold in the united states.","For federal regulatory scheme wey dey known as di federal motor vehicle safety standards (fmvs), di federal goment set forth safety standards wey cars must meet for di united state.",Business study
"fmvss 208 sets the standard for seat belts, and in 1987 manufacturers were required to install either airbags or passive(motorized) seat belts.","Fmvss 208 sets di standard for seat belts, and for 1987 manufacturers dey need install airbags or passive(motorized) seat belts.",Business study
"a rule that required manufacturers to install airbags exclusively would directly contradict fmvss 208, so the supreme court ruled that fmvss preempted any state attempts to regulate motor vehicle safety standards.","A rule wey required manufacturers to install airbags exclusively go directly contradict fmvss 208, so di supreme court ruled wey fmvss preempted any state attempts to regulate motor vehicle safety standards.",Business study
federal regulation would in effect provide a shield against liability lawsuits.,Federal regulation go inside effect provide a shield against liability lawsuits.,Business study
"these hopes were short lived, as the supreme court continues to hold a presumption against preemption.","Di hopes dey short lived, as di supreme court continue to hold presumption against preemption.",Business study
"the drug industry, in particular, would like preemption to end tort litigation.","Di drug industry, inside particular, go like preemption to end tort to drag matter for kot.",Business study
"hyperlink: if the fda approves a drug label, can patients still sue drug manufacturers?","Hyperlink: if di fda approves a drug label, fit patients still sue drug manufacturers?",Business study
"under federal law, the fda must approve the wording on labels and documentation accompanying regulated drugs.","Under federal law, di fda must approve di wording on labels plus documentation accompanying regulated drugs.",Business study
"the fda-approved label contained warnings against""intra -arterial""injection, which carried the risk of irreversible gangrene.","Di fda-approved label contain warning against""intra -arterial""injection, wey dey carried di risk of irreversible gangrene.",Business study
"the plaintiff in the case, vermont musician diana levine, went to a clinic for treatment and ended up losing her arm when phenergan was incorrectly administered to her.","Di person wey carry case go kot inside di case, vermont musician diana levine, went to a clinic for treatment plus ended up losing im arm when phenergan bin dey incorrectly administered to im.",Business study
"she sued wyeth, arguing that the warning label on the drug didn't prohibit the type of injection that led to her injuries.",Di warning label on di drug no dey prohibit di type of injection wey dey led to her injuries.,Business study
a jury awarded her more than six million dollars in damages.,A jury awarded im more than six million dollars inside damages.,Business study
"on appeal to the supreme court, wyeth argued that since the fda approved the label, lawsuits arguing that the label was inadequate were pree mpted.","Dem tok say since di fda approve di label, lawsuits arguin say di label dey inadequate dey pree mpted.",Business study
"the supreme court examined the history ofthe food and drug act and ruled for diana levine, holding that when congress wrote the law, it never meant to preempt state laws.","Di supreme court examin di history of di food and drug act and rule for di state law, e no meant to preempt state law.",Business study
"in fact, the supreme court found that congress meant for state lawsuits to work alongside the food and drug act to ensure drug safety for consumers.","Inside fact, di supreme court found wey congress meant for state lawsuits to work alongside di food plus drug act to ensure drug safety for consumers.",Business study
"it is concerned mainly with what the government cannot do, as opposed to what the government must do.","E dey concerned mainly wit what di goment no do, as oppose to what di goment must do.",Business study
"at the federal level, constitutional amendments are rarely used to carry out social policy.","Di federal level, constitutional amendments dey rarely use to carry out social policy.",Business study
"article i ofthe constitution establishes a bicameral legislature, w ith a house of representatives and a smaller, more deliberative senate.","Article i of di constitution establishes a bicameral legislature, w ith a house of representatives plus a smaller, more deliberative senate.",Business study
both chambers must agree before legislation can be passed.,Di chamber must agree before legislation go pass.,Business study
"the balance of power between congress and the president is subject to much interpretation and change throughout history, including the post september 11 era.","Di balance of power wey congress and di president dey subject to much interpretation and change throughout history, including di post september 11 era.",Business study
power is also divided between state and federal governments under federalism.,Di power dey divide between state and federal goment under federalism.,Business study
"the supremacy clause states that when there is a conflict between state and federal law, federal law wins.","Di supremacy clause states wey when there na a conflict between state plus federal law, federal law wins.",Business study
"if there is no direct conflict, the state law survives unless congress expressly preempts state law.","If there nano direct conflict, di state law survives unless congress expressly preempts state law.",Business study
one ofthe attempts to use the constitution to achieve a social policy was prohibition.,Di attempt to use di constitution to achieve social policy dey prohibition.,Business study
review the twenty- seven amendments to the constitution.,Review di twenty- seven amendments to di constitution.,Business study
"other than the bill of rights, can you identify other amendments used to achieve social policy?","Di bill of rights, can you identify oda amendments wey dey use to achieve social policy?",Business study
can you name your representatives in the house of representatives and t he senate?,Fit you name your representatives inside di house of representatives plus te senate?,Business study
who is the current speaker ofthe house and the senate majority leader?,Wey na di current speaker of di house plus di senate majority leader?,Business study
"can you think of current examples where legislation that is popular with the majority of americans is held up in the senate, especially by senators from smaller states?","Di current examples wey dey popular wit di majority of americans dey hold up for senate, especially by senators from smaller state?",Business study
do y ou believe that the united states is better served by a strong or weak unitary executive?,Di united states dey better serve by strong or weak unitary executive?,Business study
explain your answer.,Di answer go explain your answer,Business study
where should the balance of power lie between congress and the president in prosecuting the war on terror?,Di balance of power lie between congress and di president for prosecuting di war on terror?,Business study
"if the president believes enhanced interrogation such as waterboarding is necessary to obtain necessary intelligence, should congress attempt to intervene?","If di president believes enhanced interrogation such as waterboarding na necessary to obtain necessary intelligence, suppose congress attempt to intervene?",Business study
"in 2007 five victims of extraordinary rendition filed suit against jeppesen dataplan inc.(a boeing subsidiary), claiming that jeppesen provided logistical support to the cia's extraordinary rendition program.","Inside 2007 five victims of extraordinary rendition filed suit against jeppesen dataplan inc.(a boeing subsidiary), claiming wey jeppesen provided logistical support to di cia's extraordinary rendition program.",Business study
"the government has so far successfully kept the case from going to trial, arguing that doing so would endanger government secrets.","Di goment don so far successfully kept di case from going trial, arguing say do so would endanger government secrets.",Business study
"do you believe that someone who has been subject to extraordinary rendition should be able to sue the government, or private companies, for what happened to them?","Dem believe say someone wey dey subject to extraordinary rendition go be able to sue di government, or private companies, for what dem dey happen to dem?",Business study
"in the geier case, the supreme court held that states may not regulate motor vehicle safety standards.",Di supreme court tok say states no regulate motor vehicle safety standards.,Business study
how do you think states like california and massachusetts can impose stricter emission controls on motor vehicles than the federal standard?,How do you think states like california plus massachusetts fit impose stricter emission controls on motor vehicles than di federal rule or level?,Business study
explore how the constitution grants the power to regulate commerce to the federal government.,Di constitution don grant di power to regulate commerce to di federal government.,Business study
understand how the meaning ofthe commerce clause has expanded greatly.,Di meaning of di commerce clause don expand greatly,Business study
learn about state police powers and the limitations on those powers.,Learn about state police powers plus di limitations on those powers.,Business study
learn about the power given to congress to tax and spend money.,Di power wey dem give to congress to tax and spend money,Business study
"to avoid the rise of tyrannical government, the constitution carefully grants certain powers to congress, reserving all other powers to the states.","Di constitution carefully grant certain powers to congress, reserving all oda powers to di state.",Business study
"the list begins with monetary matters, an issue of great concern at the time because the prior government was bankrupt and states regulated their own money supply.","Di list begins with monetary matters, an issue of great concern at di time because di prior government bin dey bankrupt plus states regulated dia own money supply.",Business study
"the congress therefore has the power to borrow money, lay and collect taxes, regulate commerce(the commerce clause), establish a uniform law on bankruptcy and natu ralization, make money(currency) and establish its value, punish the counterfeiting of u. s. money, and establish a uniform system of weights and measures.","Di congress therefore don get di power to borrow money, lay plus collect taxes, regulate commerce(di commerce clause), establish a uniform law on bankruptcy plus natu ralization, make money(currency) plus establish its value, punish di counterfeiting of u. s. money, plus establish a uniform system of weights plus measures.",Business study
the list then moves onto aspirational ideals for the young new country to strive toward.,Di list then moves onto aspirational ideals for di young new country to strive toward.,Business study
congress h as the power to establish post offices and post roads and to protect intellectual property in copyrights and patents.,"Di power to establish post office and post road and to protect Ideas, books, music, inventions and creative works wey law dey protect as belonging to someone for copyright and patents.",Business study
"next, the list turns to congress's adjudicative powers: to create lower courts under the supreme court created in article iii and to define crimes committed on the""high seas""and against the""law of nations.""","Next, di list turns to congress's adjudicative powers: to create lower courts under di supreme court created inside article iii plus to define crimes committed on di""high seas""plus against di""law of nations.""",Business study
"congress is also given fiscal responsibility over the armed forces and navy(note there is, of course, no mention of an air force)and the power to provide oversight to the militia.","Di congress don give fiscal responsibility over di armed forces and navy(note, ofcourse, no mention of air force)and di power to provide oversight to di militia.",Business study
the clause granting congress the power to regulate commerce is particularly troublesome.,Di clause grant congress di power to regulate commerce dey troublesome.,Business study
there is very little debate about the power of congress to regulate foreign trade.,There na well-well little debate about di power of congress to regulate foreign trade.,Business study
"this power is explicit, total, and exclusive.","Di power dey explicit, total, and exclusive",Business study
"if congress wanted to ban all imports and exports into and out ofthe united states, for example, it could legitimately do so.","If congress wanted to ban all imports plus exports enter plus comot of di united states, for example, am fit legitimately do so.",Business study
"indeed, congress routinely uses economic trade sanctions against""rogue"" nations such as cuba and north korea as a means of economic warfare to try to bring about regime change.","Indeed, congress routinely uses economic trade sanctions against""rogue"" nations such as cuba plus north korea as a means of economic warfare to try to bring about regime change.",Business study
"even in the case of friendly allies such as canada, mexico, and the european union, congress routinely engages in trade regulations that restrict or distort foreign trade.","Sef inside di case of friendly allies such as canada, mexico, plus di european union, congress routinely engages inside trade regulations wey restrict or distort foreign trade.",Business study
"since this power is exclusive to congress, state attempts to regulate foreign commerce are invalid.","Di power dey exclusive to congress, state attempt to regulate foreign commerce dey invalid.",Business study
"oregon, for example, cannot ban oregon companies from exporting to mexico or establish a free trade zone with duty-free imports with china.","Oregon, for example, cannot ban oregon companies from exporting to mexico or establish a Trade between countries without taxes or restrictions on goods zone with duty-free imports with china.",Business study
there is more disagreement about congress's power to regulate domestic commerce.,There na more disagreement about congress's power to regulate domestic commerce.,Business study
"many scholars believe that this list is complete and exhaustive, since it lists all the powers the founding fathers wanted to give congress at the time.","Di list dey complete and exhaustive, since di list dey list all di power wey dey foundin fathers go give congress for di time.",Business study
"the idea, they argue, was to create powerful and limited government, leaving the states room to govern in all other areas.","Di idea, dem argue, na to create powerful and limited government, leaving di state room to govern for all oda areas.",Business study
"as evidence, these scholars point to the structure ofthe list and the high level of detail provided(such as specific crimes to be made punishable and the square mile limitation for the seat of government).",Di scholars point to di structure of di list and di high level of detail wey dey provided(such as specific crimes wey dem make punishable and di square mile limitation for di seat of goment).,Business study
"other scholars believe that the list should be interpreted more broadly and that the language granting congress the power to""make all laws necessary and proper""to carry out the enumerated powers demonstrates the founding fathers' desire for a more flexible interpretation, to allow congress the power to react to needs and challenges not foreseeable at the time the clause was drafted.","Di list go interpret more broadly and say di language grant congress di power to make all laws necessary and proper""to carry out di enumerated powers demonstrate di founding fathers' desire for a more flexible interpretation, to allow congress di power to react to needs and challenges no dey foreseeable for di time di clause dey draft.",Business study
"in the early part ofthe country's history, the first view held firm sway, and together courts and congress carefully observed the constitutional limits to the growth of federal government power.","Inside di early part of di country's history, di first view held firm sway, plus together courts plus congress carefully observed di constitutional limits to di growth of federal government power.",Business study
"from regulating educational standards, to defining clean air and water, to outlawing workplace discrimination, to licensing portions ofthe electromagnetic spectrum for cellphone and digital television providers to use, it's clear that if a member ofthe constitutional convention were to travel forward in time, he would be shocked at both the pace of progress and the size and power ofthe federal government.","Di clear say if member of di constitutional convention dey travel forward for time, he go shock for both di pace of progress and di size and power of di federal government.",Business study
how did our country's view of congressional power evolve overtime?,How did awa country's view of congressional power evolve overtime?,Business study
the answer can be traced to the great depression.,Di answer go dey traced to di great depression.,Business study
"in response to unprecedented economic distress, president roosevelt sought to redefine the very nature ofthe employer/employee relationship.",Dem don redefine di very nature of di employer employee relationship.,Business study
"he, along with congress, enacted legislation that established a minimum hourly wage, set maximum weekly working hours, established workplace safety rules, outlawed child labor, and provided for a safety net to protect older and disabled workers.","He, along wit congress, enacted legislation wey establish minimum hourly wage, set maximum weekly work hours, establish workplace safety rules, outlaw child labor, and provide for safety net to protect older and disabled workers.",Business study
these laws initially ran into stiff opposition at the supreme court.,These laws initially ran enter stiff opposition at di supreme court.,Business study
"in this view, if a worker wanted to work and an employer was willing to provide that work, then the government should not interfere with that contract.","Di view, if worker dey want work and employer dey willing to provide dat work, then di goment go no interfere wit dat contract.",Business study
"thus, early portions ofthe new deal were struck down as unconstitutional under the commerce clause.",Di new deal dey struck down as unconstitutional under di commerce clause.,Business study
"after president roosevelt proposed his court-packing plan, leading one ofthe swing votes on the supreme court to change his vote to begin upholding the new deal, the barriers surrounding the interpretation ofthe commerce clause came crashing down.","Na president roosevelt propos hin court-packing plan, leading one of di swing votes on di supreme court to change hin vote to begin upholding di new deal, di barriers wey dey surround di interpretation of di commerce clause kom crash down.",Business study
courts have now adopted avery flexible reading ofthe commerce clause.,Di court don adopt very flexible reading of di commerce clause.,Business study
"as long as congress makes reasonable findings that a certain activity has some sort of effect on interstate commerce, congress can regulate that activity.","as long as congress dey make reasonable findings wey a certain activity don get some sort of effect on interstate commerce, congress fit regulate wey activity.",Business study
this broad interpretation ofthe commerce clause has been challenged repeatedly.,Di broad interpretation of di commerce clause don challenge repeatedly.,Business study
"in 1964, for example, congress passed abroad and sweeping civil rights act, prohibiting discrimination against citizens on the basis of race, color, national origin, and sex.","Inside 1964, for example, congress passed abroad plus sweeping civil rights act, prohibiting discrimination against citizens on di basis of race, color, national origin, plus sex.",Business study
congress relied on its power under the commerce clause to pass this legislation.,Congress relied on its power under di commerce clause to pass this legislation.,Business study
"the supreme court held the law to be constitutional, finding that since 75 percent ofthe motel's clients came from out of state and since the motel was located near interstates 75 and 85, the business had an""effect"" on interstate commerce.","Di supreme court tok say since 75 percent of di motel's clients kom from out of state and since di motel dey locat near interstates 75 and 85, di business don dey effect on interstate commerce.",Business study
"in the late 1990s, several curious decisions by the conservative wing ofthe supreme court led some observers to wonder if the days of virtually unfettered authority by congress to regulate under the commerce clause were coming to an end.",Di conservative wing of di supreme court led some observers to wonder if di days of virtually unfettered authority by congress to regulate under di commerce clause dey kom to end.,Business study
"in a 1995 case, the supreme court held that the 1990 gun-free school zones act was unconstitutional.",Di supreme court tok say di 1990 gun-free school zone act dey unconstitutional.,Business study
"the law prohibited the possession of weapons in schools and was based on a congressional finding that possession of firearms in educational settings would lead to violent crime, which in turn affects general economic conditions by causing damage and raising insurance costs and by limiting travel to and through unsafe areas.","Di law prohibit di possession of firearms for educational settings go lead to violent crime, wey dey affect general economic condition by causing damage and raise insurance costs and by limiting travel to and through unsafe areas.",Business study
"students intimidated by a violent educational setting would also be affected, learning less and leading to a weaker educational system and economy.","Students intimidated by a violent educational setting go sef be affected, learning less plus leading to a weaker educational system plus economy.",Business study
"by a 54 margin, the supreme court found these arguments unpersuasive and overturned the law, holding that congress lacked authority under the commerce clause to regulate the carrying of handguns into schools.","By a 54 margin, di supreme court found these arguments unpersuasive plus overturned di law, holding wey congress lacked authority under di commerce clause to regulate di carrying of handguns enter schools.",Business study
"these powers stem from the states' police power, which permits states to regulate broadly to protect and promote the public order, health, safety, morals, and general welfare.","Di powers stem from di state police power, wey allow states to regulate broadly to protect and promote di public order, health, safety, morals, and general welfare.",Business study
you've probably experienced this yourself.,E dey probably experience dis yourself,Business study
"different states have different speed limits, for example.","Di states don dey different speed limit, for example.",Business study
"some states permit the sale of alcohol on sundays, while others prohibit it.","Dem prohibit di sale of alcohol on sundays, while odas prohibit am.",Business study
"some states permit casino gambling, while others do not.","Di state don allow casino gambling, while odas no dey.",Business study
"a few states permit same-sex marriage, while many do not.","Di states don allow same-sex marriage, while many do no.",Business study
"some states prohibit smoking in bars and restaurants, including north carolina, home to the nation's tobacco industry.","Dem prohibit smoking for bars and restaurants, including north carolina, home to di nation's tobacco industry.",Business study
"in california, an attempt to rein in obesity resulted in a state law to require calorie counts on restaurant menus and a ban on the use of trans fats.","Inside california, an attempt to rein inside obesity resulted inside a state law to require calorie counts on restaurant menus plus a ban on di use of trans fats.",Business study
"in texas, teenagers must have parental permission to u se tanning beds at a salon.","Inside texas, teenagers must get parental permission to u se tanning beds at a salon.",Business study
massachusetts bans dog racing.,Di massachusetts ban dog racing,Business study
many states are implementing bans on texting while driving.,Dem implement bans on texting while driving.,Business study
the law permits certain patients to voluntarily hasten death by taking a lethal dose of prescription medication.,Di law permits certain patients to voluntarily hasten death by taking a lethal dose of prescription medication.,Business study
"to meet the law's requirements, the patient must be terminally ill with less than six months to live, must be informed and voluntarily request the medication, must be able to consume the medication by himself or herself, must be referred to counseling, and must have the terminal diagnosis confirmed by a second doctor.","To meet di law's requirements, di patient must be terminally ill with less than six months to live, must be informed plus voluntarily request di medication, must be able to consume di medication by himself or herself, must be referred to counseling, plus must get di terminal diagnosis confirmed by a second doctor.",Business study
"many patients, fearing a painful or torturous natural death, obtain the medication and never take it, but some do.","Boku patients, fearing a painful or torturous natural death, obtain di medication plus never take am, but some do.",Business study
"in 2001 attorney general john ashcroft issued a rule interpreting the federal controlled substances ac t as prohibiting any physician from prescribing medication under the death with dignity act, subjecting any doctor who did soto federal prosecution.","Di lawyer general john ashcroft issue rule interpreting di federal controlled substances ac t as prohibiting any physician from prescribing medication under di death wit dignity act, subject any doctor wey dey soto federal prosecution.",Business study
"in a 63 decision, the supreme court decided that the controlled substances act did not grant the attorney general the authority to override a state standard for regulating medicine.","Inside a 63 decision, di supreme court decided wey di controlled substances act did no grant di attorney general di authority to override a state rule or level for regulating medicine.",Business study
listen to the national public radio story for one physician's account of how the death with dignity act has affected his practice.,Di national public radio story for one physician account of how di death wit dignity act don affect hin practice.,Business study
"the oregon death with dignity act case illustrates how a state, in exercising its police power, can actually grant more civil rights to its citizens than the federal government does or wishes to.","Di oregon death wit dignity act case illustrate how state, for exercising dia police power, go grant more civil rights to dia citizens than di federal goment go wish to.",Business study
"similarly, states that have legalized same-sex marriage have done so under their police powers, which is permissible as long as the exercise of police power does not violate the federal constitution.","Di state wey don legalize same-sex marriage don done so under dia police powers, wey no violate di federal constitution.",Business study
"generally, this means the state legislation must be reasonable and applied fairly rather than arbitrarily.","Generally, this means di state legislation must be reasonable plus applied fairly no be arbitrarily.",Business study
"additionally, a critical limitation on the state police power is that it cannot interfere with congress's power to regulate interstate commerce.",Di critical limitation on di state police power na say dem no interfere wit congress power to regulate interstate commerce.,Business study
"this concept is known as the dormant commerce clause because it restricts the states' abilities to regulate commerce, rather than the federal government's.","Di concept dey known as di dormant commerce clause because e restrict di state' ability to regulate commerce, no be di federal goment's.",Business study
"a state law that discriminates against out-of-state commerce, or places an undue burden on interstate commerce, would violate the dormant commerce clause.","Di state law wey discriminate against out-of-state commerce, or place undue burden on interstate commerce, go violate di dormant commerce clause.",Business study
"for example, if a state required out-of-state corporations to pay a higher tax or fee than an in-state corporation, that would be unconstitutional.","for example, if state require out-of-state corporations to pay higher tax or fee than di in-state corporation, wey go be unconstitutional.",Business study
"a state that required health and safety inspections of out-of-state, but not in-state, produce or goods would be unconstitutional.","Di state wey require health and safety inspections of out-of-state, but no for-state, produce or goods go dey unconstitutional.",Business study
"note, however, that this prohibition against out-of-state discrimination does not prevent a state from exercising its police power to protect state citizens, as long as the power is exercised evenly and equally.","Di prohibition against out-of-state discrimination no prevent state from exercis dia police power to protect state citizens, as long as di power dey exercise evenly and equally.",Business study
"if a state wanted to weigh trucks on highways to ensure they did not exceed maximum weight rules, for example, that action would be permissible even if the trucks came from out of state, as long as the requirement applied equally to all trucks on that state's highways.","as long as di requirement wey dey apply equally to all trucks wey dey out of state, as long as di requirement wey dey apply equally to all trucks wey dey inside state, as long as di requirement wey dey apply equally to all trucks wey dey inside state, as long as di requirement wey dey apply equally to all trucks wey dey inside state, as long as di requirement wey dey apply equally to all trucks wey dey inside state, as",Business study
"in addition to the power to regulate commerce, the constitution places two critical powers with congress: the taxing power and the power to spend the taxes it collects.",Di constitution place two critical power wit congress: di taxing power and di power to spend di taxes wey dem collect.,Business study
"the taxing power is abroad one, and the supreme court has not overturned a tax passed by congress in nearly a century.","Di taxing power dey broad one, and di supreme court no overturned tax pass by congress for nearly a century",Business study
"as long as the tax bears some reasonable relationship to generating revenue, th e taxis valid.","as long as di tax bear some reasonable relationship to generating revenue, th e tax dey valid.",Business study
"states are also permitted to tax, but only if the activity taxed has a nexus to the state.","Di states dey also permitted to tax, but only if di activity tax don get nexus to di state.",Business study
a transaction(such as a sale)that takes place inside the state would create a nexus for sales tax to attach.,Di state go create nexus for sales tax to attach.,Business study
"working typically creates a nexus for state or local income tax to apply, and owning real property creates a nexus for real estate tax to apply.","Working typically creates a nexus for state or local income tax to apply, plus owning real property creates a nexus for real estate tax to apply.",Business study
"what happens, however, if a state's citizen purchases goods from a seller out of state?",Di state's citizen buy goods from a seller out of state?,Business study
"traditionally, buyers do not pay sales tax to the government directly rather, they pay the sales tax to the seller, who collects the tax on behalf ofthe government and turns it over to the government at regular intervals.","For traditionally, buyers no pay sales tax to di goment directly rather, dem pay di sales tax to di seller, wey collect di tax on behalf of di government and turn dem over to di goment at regular intervals.",Business study
"in the past, mail -order catalog sellers from out of state would not collect sales tax in states where they don't have a physical presence.","Di past, mail -order catalog sellers from out of state no collect sales tax for states wey dem don collect sales tax for state wey dem no get physical presence.",Business study
"as the popularity of e-commerce has skyrocketed, more and more states are reexamining how to tax transactions from out- of-state sellers by compelling those sellers to collect the applicable sales tax.","Di popularity of ecommerce don skyrocket, more and more states dey reexamin how to tax transactions from out- of-state sellers by compelling dia sellers to collect di applicable sales tax.",Business study
some states are so desperate they are starting to look for a nexus anywhere they can.,Some states dey so desperate dem start look for nexus anywhere dem fit,Business study
"in new york, for example, the legislature passed a law requiring amazon. com to collect sales tax from new york residents based on the presence of new york citizens who link to amazon's website in turn for a commission generated by those links.",Di legislature pass law requiring amazon. com to collect sales tax from new york residents wey dey based on di presence of new york citizens wey link to amazon website for turn for commission wey dey generate by those link.,Business study
this spending power is considered very broad.,Di spending power dey consider very broad.,Business study
"for example, in 1984 congress passed the national minimum drinking age act, which required states to adopt a minimum age of twenty-one for the purchase and possession of alcohol.","for example, for 1984 congress pass di national minimum drinking age act, wey require state to adopt minimum age of twenty-one for di purchase and possession of alcohol",Business study
"if a state did not adopt the age-twenty -one requirement, congress would withhold federal highway funds from that state to repair and build new roads.","If a state did no adopt di age-twenty -one requirement, congress go withhold federal highway funds from wey state to repair plus build new roads.",Business study
"one by one, states began adopting age twenty-one as the minimum drinking age, even though the age requirement would typically be a matter of state police power.","Dem don adopt age twenty-one as di minimum drinking age, even though di age requirement go typically be matter of state police power.",Business study
"in a challenge by south dakota, which wanted to keep nineteen as the minimum drinking age, the supreme court upheld congress's use of withholding funds to force the states to raise the minimum drinking age.","Inside a challenge by south dakota, wey wanted to keep nineteen as di minimum drinking age, di supreme court upheld congress's use of withholding funds to force di states to raise di minimum drinking age.",Business study
"the power to regulate commerce is one of these powers, and the power of foreign commerce is explicit, total, and exclusive.","Di power to regulate commerce dey one of dis powers, and di power of foreign commerce dey explicit, total, and exclusive.",Business study
"during the great depression, the supreme court greatly expanded the interpretation of congress's ability to regulate domestic interstate commerce, and this expansion led to congressional authority to regulate virtually all human activity within the united states, with very few limited exceptions.","Di supreme court greatly expand di interpretation of congress's ability to regulate domestic interstate commerce, and dis expansion led to congressional authority to regulate virtually all human activity wey dey inside di united state, wit very few exceptions.",Business study
"this authority extends to civil rights, where congress has passed several key pieces of legislation, including the civil rights act of 1964 and the americans with disabilities act, under the commerce clause.","Di authority extend to civil rights, wey congress don pass several key piece of legislation, including di civil rights act of 1964 and di americans wit disabilities act, under di commerce clause.",Business study
attempts by judicial conservatives to circumscribe th e power ofthe commerce clause appear to have failed for now.,Di attempt by judicial conservatives to circumscribe th e power of di commerce clause don fail for now.,Business study
"unlike the federal government, states have broad police powers to regulate for the health, safety, and moral well-being of their citizens.","Di federal goment, state don wide police power to regulate for di health, safety, and moral well-being of dia citizens.",Business study
"the exercise of these police powers cannot violate the federal constitution and, importantly, cannot violate the dormant commerce clause by discriminating against or placing an undue burden on interstate commerce.","Di exercise of these police powers cannot violate di federal constitution plus, importantly, cannot violate di dormant commerce clause by discriminating against or placing an undue burden on interstate commerce.",Business study
"the power to taxis broad, and as long as a tax bears a reasonable relationship to raising revenue, the taxis upheld as constitutional.","as long as a tax bear reasonable relationship to raise revenue, di tax dey upheld as constitutional.",Business study
"the power to spend is similarly broad, and congress can spend funds to achieve broad objectives beyond its enumerated powers.","Di power to spend na similarly broad, plus congress fit spend funds to achieve broad objectives beyond its enumerated powers.",Business study
"residents of washington, dc, have no representation in congress other than a nonvoting delegate.","Di residents of washington, dc, don no representation for congress oda than a nonvoting delegate",Business study
"should washington, dc, residents be granted more representation?","Na washington, dc, residents go grant more representation?",Business study
what are the legal impediments toward such a move?,What be di legal impediments toward such a move?,Business study
what would be the political repercussions?,Di political repercussions?,Business study
today the united states is one ofthe few remaining countries to refuse the adoption ofthe metric system for weights and measures.,Di united states dey one of di few remaining countries to refuse di adoption of di metric system for weight and measures.,Business study
"would the decision to""go metric""be within the powers of congress?","Go di decision to""go metric""be within di powers of congress?",Business study
"for more information on this topic, explore the national institute of standards and technology at.","for more tins on thin topic, explore di national institute of standards and technology for.",Business study
congressional authority to regulate foreign trade extends to the use of economic sanctions against rogue foreign nations.,Congressional authority to regulate foreign trade extends to di use of economic sanctions against rogue foreign nations.,Business study
how effective have these sanctions been in the past?,Di sanctions dey for di past?,Business study
do you believe it is more effective for congress to ban trade with a foreign nation to encourage its citizens to overthrow hostile governments or for congress to encourage trade so that those citizens may prosper economically?,Di believe e dey more effective for congress to ban trade wit foreign nation to encourage its citizens to overthrow hostile government or for congress to encourage trade so dat those citizens dey prosper economically?,Business study
"if states are prohibited by the dormant commerce clause from discriminating against out-of-state commerce, how can state universities charge a lower tuition rate to in-state residents?","Di universities dey prohibited by di dormant commerce clause from discriminating against out-of-state commerce, how fit state universities charge lower tuition rate to for-state residents?",Business study
"can you distinguish the role the state is playing when it does so, between that of a spender and that of a collector of monies?","Di role di state dey play wen e dey play wen e dey so, between dat of spender and dat of collector of monies?",Business study
read the new york times article on amazon. com and its efforts to avoid a nexus to collect sales tax.,Read di new york times article on amazon. com plus its efforts to avoid a nexus to collect sales tax.,Business study
"amazon. com generates more than twenty billion dollars in sales annually but only collects sales taxes in five states, where it is headquartered and where it has facilities.","Di amazon. com generate more than twenty billion dollar for sales annually but only collect sales taxes for five states, wey dey headquartered and wey dey facilities.",Business study
"through a process called""entity isolation,""the company has created methods that allow it to avoid creating a nexus even in states where it has employees and facilities.",Di company don create methods wey allow im to avoid create nexus even for state wey dey get employees and facilities.,Business study
what are the implications of this behavior?,Di implications of dis behavior?,Business study
states that failed to comply would be punished by its citizens being denied access to federally run facilities including airports.,Di states say failed to comply go dey punished by di citizens wey dey denied access to federally run facilities including airports,Business study
how is this an exercise ofthe spending power?,Di exercise of di spending power?,Business study
do you believe congress should have the ability to stipulate who can use federally funded airports?,Dem believe congress go get di ability to stipulate who go use federally funded airports?,Business study
learn how the constitution protects the civil liberties of business entities.,Learn how di constitution protects di basic freedoms and rights wey law protect every person from government interference of business entities.,Business study
explore how the first amendment protects a company's right to speak.,Explore how First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) protects a company's right to speak.,Business study
discuss how the due process clause protects companies from arbitrary government action.,Discuss how di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system clause protects companies from arbitrary government action.,Business study
learn how the equal protection clause protects companies from government discrimination.,Learn how di equal protection clause protects companies from government discrimination.,Business study
the ink on the constitution was barely dry when the first congress began turning its attention to amending it.,Di first congress began turn im attention to amending am,Business study
"during the debate surrounding the constitution, there was much discussion about whether or not an explicit protection of civil liberty was necessary.","Di debate wey dey surround di constitution, na much discussion about whether or no explicit protection of civil liberty dey necessary.",Business study
"some believed that the british common-law system implicitly protected civil liberties, so a written declaration of rights wasn't necessary.","Some believed wey di british common-law system implicitly protected Di basic freedoms and rights wey law protect every person from government interference, so a written declaration of rights wasn't necessary.",Business study
others believed that the constitution created a strong federal government and that a written declaration of rights was therefore critically necessary.,Di constitution create strong federal government and say a written declaration of rights dey critically necessary.,Business study
"in 1789, the same year the constitution went into effect, congress proposed ten amendments to the constitution, a package that became known as the bill of rights.","Di same year di constitution go into effect, congress proposed ten amendments to di constitution, package wey be di bill of rights.",Business study
"within two years, the bill of rights had garnered the necessary votes to become law.",Di bill of rights don garner di necessary votes to become law.,Business study
"when we speak of civil liberties protected in the constitution, we often think of how these liberties apply to people.","We dey speak of Di basic freedoms and rights wey law protect every person from government interference protected for di constitution, we often think of how these liberties apply to pipo.",Business study
"although the constitution does not contain the word""corporation,"" corporations have some characteristics of being a""person,"" so various courts have held that several of these civil rights also apply to business entities.","Di constitution no contain di word""corporation"", corporations no get some characteristics of being a person, so various courts don hold say several of dis civil rights also apply to business entities.",Business study
"in particular, we'll examine the first, fifth, and fourteenth amendments.","We go examine di first, fifth, and fourteenth amendments.",Business study
"before we begin, it's worth making some observations about civil liberties generally.",E dey worth make some observation about Di basic freedoms and rights wey law protect every person from government interference generally.,Business study
"first, the re are no absolute rights, in spite ofthe wording of any specific amendment.","First, di re be no absolute rights, inside spite of di wording of any specific amendment.",Business study
"for example, the first amendment states that""congress shall make no law abridging the freedom of speech.""","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) states say""congress go make no law abridging di freedom of speech",Business study
"in fact, there are many laws that limit the freedom of speech.",Di laws wey dey limit di freedom of speech,Business study
"you aren't allowed to libel or slander someone, for example, or incite a crowd into a riot.","Di pipo dey allowed to libel or slander someone, for example, or incite crowd into riot",Business study
"instead of absolute rights, courts have to constantly balance competing interests in deciding where the limits of our rights lie.","Forstead of absolute rights, courts don constantly balance competing interests for deciding wen di limit of awa rights lie.",Business study
"second, it's fair to say that while the constitution sets up a system of government based on principles of representative democracy, the bill of rights exists to protect the minority, not the majority.","Di constitution sets up system of government wey dey based on principles of representative democracy, di bill of rights exist to protect di minority, no di majority.",Business study
the vast majority of americans will go through life without ever having their constitutional rights trampled on.,Di most part of americans go through life without ever having dia constitutional rights trampled on.,Business study
it is for the very small minority of americans that find themselves victims of constitutional violations that we find the greatest strength ofthe bill of rights.,Am na for di well-well small minority of americans wey find themselves victims of constitutional violations wey we find di greatest strength of di bill of rights.,Business study
"for this reason, many issues raised by civil liberties generally rise above the political process, where the majority generally prevails.","For dis reason, many issues wey Di basic freedoms and rights wey law protect every person from government interference generally rise above di political process, wey di majority generally prevails.",Business study
"for example, public opinion polls show that well over 95 percent of americans feel that burning the american flag should be illegal.","for example, public opinion polls show wey well over 95 percent of americans feel wey burning di american flag suppose be illegal.",Business study
"when such an overwhelming majority agrees on something, in a democracy the majority should prevail.","Di majority go prevail, for democracy di majority go prevail",Business study
"in our democracy, h owever, the supreme court has stepped in and decided that the first amendment will protect the very tiny percentage ofthe american population that wishes to burn the flag as a display of political opposition.",Di supreme court don step in and decide say First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) go protect di very tiny percentage of di American population wey wish to burn di flag as display of political opposition.,Business study
"additionally, it's important to note that the only reason those of us in the majority know where the boundaries of our civil liberties lie is because of that tiny minority.",E important to note say di only reason wey dey us for di majority know where di boundaries of our Di basic freedoms and rights wey law protect every person from government interference lie dey bikos of dat tiny minority.,Business study
"if americans weren't willing to test the boundaries by burning the flag or joining the communist party or refusing to take loyalty oaths or refusing to send their amish children to public schools, then our civil liberties would remain theoretical ideals rather than concrete rights.","If americans weren't willing to test di boundaries by burning di flag or joining di communist party or refusing to take loyalty oaths or refusing to send dia amish children to public schools, then awa Di basic freedoms and rights wey law protect every person from government interference go remain theoretical ideals no be concrete rights.",Business study
"finally, note that other than the right to vote, the civil liberties protected by the constitution extend to all persons physically on u. s. soil, not just citizens or legal immigrants.","Finally, note wey other than di right to vote, di basic freedoms and rights wey law protect every person from government interference protected by di constitution extend to all persons physically on u. s. soil, no just citizens or legal immigrants.",Business study
"persons visiting the united states temporarily, such as tourists and students, as well as undocumented aliens, are all entitled to the full protections ofthe u. s. constitution while subject to u. s. law.","Di persons wey dey visit di united states temporarily, such as tourists and students, as well as undocumented aliens, dey entitled to di full protection of di u. s. law.",Business study
"third, the extent of our civil liberties protections vary from time to time.","Third, di extent of awa Di basic freedoms and rights wey law protect every person from government interference protections vary from time to time.",Business study
"society evolves with progress and challenges, and with that evolution, different needs arise in the realm of civil liberties.","Society evolves with progress plus challenges, plus with wey evolution, different needs arise inside di realm of Di basic freedoms and rights wey law protect every person from government interference.",Business study
"the founding fathers could not contemplate a digital world where an act of defamation on facebook can spread to millions of people in a matter of hours, or imagine a society as pluralistic and diverse as ours has become.","Di founding fathers no dey contemplate digital world wia act of defamation on facebook don spread to millions of pipo for matter of hours, or imagine society as pluralistic and diverse as ours don become.",Business study
"one constitutional amendment, the eighth, illustrates how time shifts the meaning and application of civil liberty.","Di eighth, illustrate how time shift di meaning and application of civil liberty.",Business study
"the supreme court, in defining what""cruel and unusual""is, looks to""evolving standards of decency""in making the determination in other words, what is cruel and unusual today may have been normal in years past.","Di supreme court, for defining what""cruel and unusual""dey, look to""evolving standards of decency""for making di determination for other words, what dey cruel and unusual today go normal for years past.",Business study
"finally, major portions ofthe bill of rights apply equally to the states as they do the federal government.","For finally, major portion of di bill of rights apply equally to di state as dem do di federal government.",Business study
"when adopted, the amendments were meant to restrict the federal government only(for example,""congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion."").","Di amendments dey meant to restrict di federal government only(for example,""congress go make no law respect di establishment of religion",Business study
"states were not similarly restricted, and many states did in fact establish official state churches in the early days ofthe united states.","Di states no dey similarly restricted, and many state don establish official state churches for di early days of di united states.",Business study
"after the civil war, the constitution was amended to include the fourteenth amendment, which prevents any state from depriving citizens of their rights without""due process of law.""","Di constitution dey amend to include di fourteenth amendment, wey prevent any state from depriving citizens of dia rights without""Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system of law""",Business study
"gradually, throughout the twentieth century, the supreme court developed a doctrine called incorporation, by which the limitations on government behavior in the bill of rights were extended to apply to the states aswell.","Di supreme court develop doctrine wey dey call incorporation, by which di limitations on government behavior for di bill of rights dey extend to apply to di state aswell.",Business study
"while many portions ofthe bill of rights apply to the states, not all of it does.","As many portion of di bill of rights apply to di state, no all of im go do.",Business study
"there is no requirement, for example, that states use a grand jury system to indict criminals.","There nano requirement, for example, wey states use a grand jury system to indict criminals.",Business study
there is also no requirement that states provide juries in civil trials.,Nano requirement say states provide juries for civil trials.,Business study
hyperlink: does the second amendment apply to the states?,Di second amendment apply to di state?,Business study
"in 2010 the supreme court decided that the second amendment is indeed incorporated against the states, meaning that state laws banning the possession of handguns in private homes are unconstitutional.","Di supreme court decide say di second amendment dey incorporated against di state, meaning say state laws banning handguns for private homes dey unconstitutional.",Business study
the first amendment contains several important clauses pertaining to speech and religion.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) contains several important clauses wey dey pertaining to speech and religion.,Business study
the two different clauses on religion are designed to be almost always in conflict with eachother.,Di two different clauses on religion dey design to be almost always for conflict wit each oda.,Business study
"on the other hand, the first amendment prohibits the government from restricting the free exercise of religion this is called the free exercise clause.","On di other hand, First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) prohibits di government from restricting di free exercise of religion this na called di free exercise clause.",Business study
"the conflict arises when some segments of society believe that the free exercise clause means that they can practice their religion freely and openly, such as ina public school or city hall.","Di conflict arises wen some segments of society believe say di free exercise clause mean say dem fit practice dia religion freely and openly, such as public school or city hall.",Business study
"those who believe in what thomas jefferson called a""wall of separation"" between church and state, on the other hand, believe that the free exercise clause must be subservient to the establishment clause, which would strictly prohibit such public displays of religious life.","Di those wey believe for what thomas jefferson call a wall of separation"" between church and state, on di oda hand, believe say di free exercise clause must subservent to di establishment clause, wey go strictly prohibit such public displays of religious life.",Business study
"as is often true in bill of rights cases, courts have had to fashion a test to draw the lines between these two competing visions ofthe establishment and free exercise clauses.","For bill of rights case, court don fashion test to draw di line between dis two competing visions of di establishment and free exercise clauses.",Business study
"generally speaking, the use of public funds for religious purposes and the public display of religious life are generally acceptable as long as the primary motivation is not to advance a specific religion.",Di use of public funds for religious purposes and di public display of religious life dey e dey okay as long as di primary motivation no fit advance specific religion.,Business study
"a city that wishes to display a christmas tree or nativity scene, for example, would be permitted to do so as part of a general holiday-themed cultural display that also included a menorah and rudolph, while a public highschool that wished to have a public prayer before a football game would be prohibited.","Di city wey wish to display christmas tree or nativity scene, for example, go dey permitted to do so as part of a general holiday-themed cultural display wey also include menorah and rudolph, while a public highschool wey wish to get public prayer before football game go prohibited.",Business study
"several evangelical christian groups have campaigned hard to de-emphasize teaching evolution in public high schools, replacing it with an alternative theory called intelligent design, which states that the universe is so complex that it is impossible to be explained by random nature and, therefore, an intelligent entity designed it.","Di several evangelical christian groups don campaign hard to dey emphasize teaching evolution for public high schools, replacin am wit alternative theory wey dey call intelligent design, wey states say di universe dey so complex wey dey impossible to dey explain by random nature and, therefore, intelligent entity designed am.",Business study
"in one high-profile trial involving a lawsuit against a school board for adopting intelligent design, a republican-appointed federal judge found intelligent design to be a thin disguise for the teaching of bible-based creationism, a violation ofthe establishment clause.","Inside one high-profile trial involving a lawsuit against a school board for adopting intelligent design, a republican-appointed federal judge found intelligent design to be a thin disguise for di teaching of bible-based creationism, a violation of di establishment clause.",Business study
"while many nations believe in the right of citizens to think and speak freely, the united states is fairly unique in enshrining those principles into constitutional law.",Di united state dey fairly unique for enshrining those principles into constitutional law.,Business study
"as is true in most bill of rights cases, the cases that test the limits ofthe first amendment tend to be ones that involve the most unpopular, even heinous, speech.","For most bill of rights case, di case wey test di limits of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) go be ones wey dey involve di most unpopular, even heinous, speech.",Business study
"as a result, many pro-nazi and white supremacist websites, books, catalogs, and music are hosted in the united states, where th e first amendment protects even hateful speech.","as result, many pro-nazi and white supremacist websites, books, catalogs, and music dey host for di united state, wey First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) protect even hateful speech",Business study
not all speech is protected by the first amendment; the type of speech very much drives the level of protection afforded it under the first amendment.,Di type of speech dey protected by First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo); di type of speech very much drive di level of protection wey dey afford am under First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo); di type of speech very much drive di level of protection wey dey afford am under First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo); di type of speech very much drive di level of protection wey dey afford am under First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo); di type of speech very much drive di level of protection wey dey afford am under First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo); di type of,Business study
courts generally recognize political speech as speech most deserving of protection.,Courts generally recognize political speech as speech most deserving of protection.,Business study
"political dissent, displeasure with the government, forced loyalty oaths, restrictions on party membership, and even speech advocating the overthrow of government, all deserve extraordinary protection under the first amendment.","Political dissent, displeasure with di government, forced loyalty oaths, restrictions on party membership, plus sef speech advocating di overthrow of government, all deserve extraordinary protection under First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).",Business study
political speech isn't always written or uttered it can sometimes take place through symbolic speech.,Di political speech no dey always written or utter e fit take place through symbolic speech.,Business study
"the supreme court has held, for example, that burning the u. s. flag as a form of protest against u. s. government policy is symbolic speech, and therefore attempts to criminalize flag burning are unconstitutional restrictions on political speech.","Di supreme court don hold, for example, say burn di u. s. flag as form of protest against u. s. government policy dey symbolic speech, and therefore attempts to criminalize flag burning na unconstitutional restrictions on political speech.",Business study
"defamation is another type of speech that falls into this category, and both libel and slander are actionable torts.","Di defamation na one type of speech wey falls into dis category, and both libel and slander dey actionable torts",Business study
obscene speech is also not subject to any protection under the first amendment.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) no dey subject to any protection under di firstamendment,Business study
defining what is obscene has always vexed courts.,Dem defining wey be obscene don always vex courts.,Business study
the best test courts have developed is called the miller test.,Di best test courts don develop dey call di miller test,Business study
"it's important to keep in mind, however, that even obscene and defamatory speech is subject to the doctrine of prior restraint.","Di important to remember, however, say even obscene and defamatory speech dey subject to di doctrine of Wetin dem dey call prior restraint be say government no go gree make person talk or write wetin dem wan write before dem publish am, na like say government dey hold person mouth before dem talk",Business study
attempts to shutdown the speech before it is uttered are considered unconstitutional.,Di attempt to shutdown di speech before e dey uttered dey consider unconstitutional.,Business study
"unlike cable and satellite programming, w hich requires viewers and listeners to""opt in""with a paid subscription to access content, broadcast radio and television use the public airwaves to carry transmissions that are readily accessible for free by anyone with a television or a radio.","We require viewers and listeners to""opt for""wit paid subscription to access content, broadcast radio and television use di public airwaves to carry transmissions wey dey readily accessible for free by anyone wit television or radio.",Business study
"in 1973, in a case involving comedian george carlin's ""dirty words""monologue, the supreme court held that although the monologue wasn't obscene, the government(through the federal communications commission, or fcc)could nonetheless regulate indecent material when vulnerable listeners, such as children, may be listening.","Di supreme court tok say although di monologue no dey obscene, di goment (through di federal communications commission, or fcc)go nonetheless regulate indecent material when vulnerable listeners, such as children, go listen.",Business study
"in 2010, after several rounds of litigation, the second circuit court of appeals held the fcc's policy was unconstitutionally vague.",Di second circuit court of appeals hold di fcc policy unconstitutionally vague.,Business study
"one area of first amendment law that remains unsettled is what rights corporations have to speak, also known as commercial speech.","Di area of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) law wey remain unsettled na what rights corporations don speak, also known as commercial speech.",Business study
"in the early part ofthe twentieth century, the supreme court found that corporations had virtually no protection under the first amendment.",Di supreme court found say corporations don virtually no protection under First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).,Business study
this view gradually evolved as the role and influence of companies grew.,This view gradually evolved as di role plus influence of companies grew.,Business study
"today, corporations engage not justin purely commercial speech such as product advertising but also in matters of public policy, from globalization to human rights to environmental protection and global warming.","Today, corporations engage no just inside purely commercial speech such as product advertising but sef inside matters of public policy, from globalization to human rights to environmental protection plus Global warming na how the temperature of di earth dey hot as pipu dey do tins.",Business study
in 2002 it looked like the supreme court would finally issue some guidance on this issue.,Di supreme court go finally issue some guidance on dis issue.,Business study
"in response to these allegations, nike issued a series of press releases and denials, the ""speech"" in this case.","Di allegations, nike issue series of press release and denials, di ""speech"" for dis case.",Business study
"several activists filed lawsuits against nike, claiming that these press releases and denials constituted false advertising by a company, which is against california law.","Di press release and denials constitute false advertising by company, wey dey against california law.",Business study
nike's defense was that the press releases were more like political speech and were therefore protected by the first amendment.,Di press release dey more like political speech and dem dey protected by di firstamendment.,Business study
"nike lost the argument in california state courts, and when the u. s. supreme court agreed to hear the case, the parties settled before the case could proceed any further.","Di u. s. supreme court agree to hear di case, di parties settled before di case go proceed any further.",Business study
"in early 2010, however, t he supreme court handed down another important decision on the rights of corporations to speak.",Di supreme court hand down one important decision on di rights of corporations to speak.,Business study
"since corporations are unable to literally""speak,"" they speak through spending money, and thus restrictions on how corporations may spend money during political campaigns are unconstitutional.","Di fact since corporations dey unable to literally""speak"", dem speak through spending money, and thus restrictions on how corporations go spend money for political campaigns dey unconstitutional.",Business study
the four dissenting justices worried about the implications of this ruling.,Di four dissenting justices worried about di implications of this ruling.,Business study
"if corporations aren't allowed to vote, then why should corporations be allowed to spend freely to drown out the voices of real voters, who have no hopes of matching corporate spending on issue advertisements?","Na why should corporations go spend freely to drown out di voices of real voters, wey no dey hope to matching corporate spending on issue advertisements?",Business study
"similarly, foreign persons have the same rights asu. s. citizens in making speeches on u. s. soil.","For similarly, foreign persons don get di same rights asu. s. citizens for make speeches on u. soil.",Business study
"if corporations are persons for purposes of speech, then it stands to reason that foreign corporations operating in the united states are entitled to the same protections and can also spend freely to influence u. s. elections.",Di reason say foreign corporations wey dey operate for di united state dey entitled to di same protections and dey also spend freely to influence u. s. election.,Business study
the implications of this ruling will likely be felt for many years to come.,Di implications of this ruling go likely be felt for boku years to come.,Business study
not all protected speech is protected all the time in all places.,Na all protected speech dey protected all di time for all places,Business study
"the government is permitted to place reasonable time, place, and manner restrictions on speech to maintain important governmental functions.","Di government na permitted to place reasonable time, place, plus manner restrictions on speech to maintain important governmental functions.",Business study
"these restrictions are generally upheld if they further an important or substantial governmental interest, they are unrelated to the suppression of free expression(in other words, are content neutral), and any restriction on first amendment freedoms is no greater than that necessary to further governmental interests(the restriction is not overbreadth ).","Di restrictions dey generally upheld if dem further important or substantial governmental interest, dem dey unrelated to di suppression of free expression(in oda words, dey content neutral), and any restriction on First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) freedoms no dey pass, as in one thing pass anoda, for example, if u get 10 naira and v get 5 naira, u pass v dat necessary to further goment interest(the restriction no dey overbreadth ).",Business study
"thus, for example, courts have upheld restrictions on posting signs on city-owned utility poles and picketing or protest permit requirements.","Thus, for example, courts get upheld restrictions on posting signs on city-owned utility poles plus picketing or protest permit requirements.",Business study
"on the other hand, when congress tried to make it illegal for commercial websites to allow minors to access""harmful"" content on the internet in the child online protection act(copa), the supreme court held the act unconstitutional because ofthe overbreadth doctrine.","Di supreme court tok say make dem illegal for commercial websites to allow minors access""harmful"" content on di internet for di child online protection act(copa), di supreme court tok say di act unconstitutional because of di overbreadth doctrine.",Business study
"does this doctrine permit school officials to curb the free speech rights of highschool students, who otherwise have rights outside of school hours?","Di doctrine allow school officials to curb di free speech rights of highschool students, wey odawise get rights outside of school hours?",Business study
in 2002 an eighteen-year -old highschool senior was suspended after he(with help from some friends) unfurled a banner during the olympic torch relay through his town.,Di eighteen-year -old highschool senior dey suspended afta hin (with help from some friends) unfurled banner for di olympic torch relay through hin town.,Business study
"the student, joseph frederick, was not in school that day and was standing across the street from the school when he unfurled the banner( figure 5. 4""joseph frederick and bong hits 4 jesus"").","Di student, joseph frederick, no dey school dat day and dey standing across di street from di school wen he unfurled di banner( figure 5. 4""joseph frederick and bong hits 4 jesus""",Business study
"when asked later what the banner meant, frederick replied that it was a nonsensical phrase he saw on a sticker while snowboarding.","Di banner meant, frederick repli say na nonsensical phrase he saw on a sticker while snowboarding.",Business study
frederick sued his highschool principal for violating his first amendment rights and won in the lower courts.,Frederick sued im highschool principal for breaking im First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) rights plus won inside di lower courts.,Business study
"on appeal, however, by a 54 decision the supreme court held that the school, which has a zero-tolerance policy on drug use, could restrict a student's prodrug message even in these circumstances.","Di supreme court tok say di school, wey get zero tolerance policy on drug use, go restrict student's prodrug message even for dis circumstances.",Business study
"the due process clause appears in both the fifth amendment(""no person shall. be deprived of life, liberty or property without due process of law"")and the fourteenth amendment(""nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law"").","Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system clause appears inside both di fifth amendment(""no person shall. be deprived of life, liberty or property without Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system of law"")plus di fourteenth amendment(""nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system of law"").",Business study
"the fifth amendment applies to the federal government, and after the civil war, the fourteenth amendment made due process applicable to the states aswell.","Di fifth amendment appli to di federal goment, and afta di Armed fighting wey happen inside one country between different groups of its own pipo, di fourteenth amendment make Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system wey di states aswell.",Business study
"at its core, due process means""fundamental fairness and decency.""","At its core, Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system means""fundamental fairness plus decency.""",Business study
"notice that the due process clause applies only to government action it does not apply to the actions of private citizens or entities such as corporations or, for that matter, to actions of private universities and colleges.","Notice wey di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system clause applies only to government action am does no apply to di actions of private citizens or entities such as corporations or, for wey matter, to actions of private universities plus colleges.",Business study
"as interpreted by the courts, the due process clause contains two components.","As interpreted by di courts, di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system clause contains two components.",Business study
the first is called procedural due process.,Di first dey call procedural Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system,Business study
"procedural due process requires that any government action that takes away life, liberty, or property must be made fairly and using fair procedures.","Di procedural Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system require say any goment action wey takeaway life, liberty, or property must be fairly and using fair procedures.",Business study
"for example, in 2009 the supreme court held that a state supreme court judge's refusal to remove himself from a case involving a big campaign donor violated the procedural due process clause promise for a neutral judge.","for example, inside 2009 di supreme court held wey a state supreme court judge's refusal to remove himself from a case involving a big campaign donor violated di procedural Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system clause promise for a neutral judge.",Business study
a jury awarded caperton more than fifty million dollars in damages.,A jury awarded caperton more than fifty million dollars inside damages.,Business study
"when massey appealed the case to the west virginia supreme court, he spent more than three million dollars on a campaign to defeat an incumbent judge and promote another judge, who then refused to excuse himself from the appeal and ended up casting the swing vote in a 32 decision to overturn the fifty-million -dollar award.","As massey appeal di case to di west virginia supreme court, e spend more than three million dollars on campaign to defeat an incumbent judge and promote another judge, wey then refused to excuse himself from di appeal and ended up casting di swing vote for 32 decision to overturn di fifty million-dollar award.",Business study
"on appeal to the supreme court, the court held that the judge's actions violated procedural due process.",Di court tok say di judge's actions violated procedural Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system.,Business study
the second component ofthe due process clause is substantive due process.,Di second component of di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system clause dey substantive Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system.,Business study
substantive due process focuses on the content of government legislation itself.,Di substantive Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system focus on di content of government legislation wey deyself.,Business study
"generally speaking, government regulation is justified whenever the government can articulate a rational reason for the regulation.",Di government regulation dey justified wenever di goment fit articulate rational reason for di regulation.,Business study
"in certain categories, however, the government must articulate a compelling reason for the regulation.",Di goment must articulate compelling reason for di regulation.,Business study
"this is the case when the regulation affects a fundamental right, which is a right deeply rooted in american history and implicit in the concept of ordered liberty.","Di case wey di regulation affect fundamental right, which deeply root for american history and implicit for di concept of ordered liberty.",Business study
"since substantive due process is a fairly amorpho us concept, it is often used as a general basis for any lawsuit challenging government procedures or laws that affect an individual's or company's civil liberties.","Na since substantive Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system dey fairly amorphous concept, na general basis for any lawsuit wey dey challenging government procedures or laws wey affect di individual or company Di basic freedoms and rights wey law protect every person from government interference.",Business study
hyperlink: a question of ethics when can a state force sterilization?,Di question of ethics wey dey suppose make state force sterilization?,Business study
"as part of this program, virginia approved a law that would allow the forced sterilization of inmates in state institutions.",virginia approve law wey go allow di forced sterilization of inmates for state institutions.,Business study
eighteen-year -old carrie buck became the first woman sterilized under this program.,Eighteen-year -old carrie buck became di first woman sterilized under this program.,Business study
"buck, who had been raped by a nephew, was committed to the virginia state colony for epileptics and feeble-minded in lynchburg, virginia.","Dem committed to di virginia state colony for epileptics and feeble-minded for lynchburg, virginia.",Business study
"her birth mother was also committed, as washer daughter.","Di birth mother dey also committed, as she dey her daughter",Business study
"when buck challenged virginia's law at the supreme court, justice oliver wendell holmes overruled her due process objections, holding that""it is better for all the world, if instead of waiting to execute degenerate offspring for crime, or to let them starve for their imbecility, society can prevent those who are manifestly unfit from continuing their kind. three generations of imbeciles are enough.""[","As buck challenge virginia law for di supreme court, justice oliver wendell holmes overruled her Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system objections, holding say""it dey better for all di world, if not dat one waiting to execute degenerate offspring for crime, or to let dem starve for dia imbecility, society fit prevent those wey dey unfit from continuing dia kind",Business study
"read the linked article to learn more about carrie buck, including the total lack of any evidence of mental defect when she was sterilized.","Read di linked article to learn more about carrie buck, including di total lack of any evidence of mental defect when e bin dey sterilized.",Business study
businesses have used the substantive due process clause to limit the award of punitive damages in tort cases.,Di business don use di substantive Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system clause to limit di ward of punitive damages for tort case.,Business study
"they argue that a startlingly high punitive damage award is a state-sanctioned deprivation of property, which means the due process clause is implicated.","Dem argue say startlingly high punitive damage award na state sanctioned deprivation of property, wey means di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system clause dey implicated.",Business study
"furthermore, if the award is grossly excessive, then due process is violated.","If di award dey grossly excessive, then Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system dey violated",Business study
in 1996 the supreme court heard an appeal from german automobile manufacturer bmw arising from a case from alabama.,Inside 1996 di supreme court heard an appeal from german automobile manufacturer bmw arising from a case from alabama.,Business study
"it cost six hundred dollars to fix the actual damage to his car, and the jury awarded him four thousand dollars in compensatory damages for the lost resale value on his car.","Di jury award him six hundred dollars to fix di actual damage to hin car, and di jury award him four thousand dollars for compensatory damages for di lost resale value for hin car.",Business study
"the jury then awarded him four million dollars in punitive damages, which the alabama supreme court reduced to two million.","Di jury don award am four million dollars for punitive damages, wey di alabama supreme court reduce to two million.",Business study
the supreme court found the punitive damages award unconstitutional under the due process clause.,Di supreme court found di punitive damages award unconstitutional under di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system clause.,Business study
"in its holding, the court said that there are three factors that determine if a punitive damage award is too high.",Di court tok say three factors wey dey determine if punitive damage award dey too high.,Business study
first is the degree of reprehensibility ofthe defendant's conduct.,Di first na di degree of reprehensibility of di defendant's conduct.,Business study
"second is the ratio between the compensatory and punitive damage award; generally, this ratio should be less than ten.","Di ratio wey dey between di compensatory and punitive damage award; generally, dis ratio dey less than ten.",Business study
"finally, courts should compare the punitive damage award with civil or criminal penalties awarded for similar misconduct.","Finally, courts suppose compare di punitive damage award with civil or criminal penalties awarded for similar misconduct.",Business study
the court reiterated its holding again in a case involving a$145 million punitive damage award against state farm in a case where the compensa tory award was one million dollars.,Di court reiterated im holding again for case wey dey involving$145 million punitive damage award against state farm for case wey di compensatory award na one million dollars.,Business study
the final constitutional protection we'll consider here is the equal protection clause ofthe fourteenth amendment.,Di final constitutional protection wey dey consider here na di equal protection clause of di fourteenth amendment.,Business study
"the clause states that""no state shall deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection ofthe laws.""","Di clause states wey ""no state shall deny to any person within its pawa of kot to judge case di equal protection of di laws.""",Business study
"as discussed previously, this clause incorporates constitutional protections against the states in addition to the federal government.",Di clause incorporate constitutional protections against di state for addition to di federal goment.,Business study
"although drafted and adopted in response to resistance to efforts at integration of african americans in the south after the civil war, the promise ofthe equal protection clause (enshrined at the supreme court building, figure 5. 5""u. s. supreme court building"") continues to find application in all manner of american public life where discrimination is an issue.","Di promise of di equal protection clause (enshrined for di supreme court building, figure 5. 5""u. s. supreme court building"") continue to find application for all manner of american public life wey discrimination dey issue.",Business study
the equal protection clause is implicated anytime a law limits the liberty of some people but not others.,Di equal protection clause dey implicate anytime law limit di liberty of some pipo but no oda.,Business study
"in other words, it operates to scrutinize government-sponsored discrimination.","Inside other words, am operates to scrutinize government-sponsored discrimination.",Business study
"while the word""discrimination"" has a negative connotation, in legal terms not all discrimination is illegal.","Di word""discrimination"" don negative connotation, for legal terms no all discrimination dey illegal",Business study
"a criminal law might discriminate against those who steal, for example, in favor of those who don't steal.","Di criminal law go discriminate against those wey dey tiff, for example, for favor of those wey no tiff",Business study
the equal protection clause seeks to determine what forms of discrimination are permissible.,Di equal protection clause seeks to determine what forms of discrimination be permissible.,Business study
"to establish a guideline for courts to use in answering equal protection cases, the supreme court has established three standards of review when examining statutes that discriminate.","Di supreme court don establish three standards of review wey dem use for answering equal protection cases, di supreme court don establish three standards of review wen dem dey discriminate.",Business study
"the three standards are known as minimal scrutiny, intermediate scrutiny, and strict scrutiny.","Di three rule or levels be known as minimal scrutiny, intermediate scrutiny, plus strict scrutiny.",Business study
"in the minimal scrutiny test, think ofthe courts turning on a twenty-watt lightbulb to look at the statute.",Di courts turn on twenty-watt lightbulb to make we look di statute.,Business study
"there's enough light to see the statute, but the light is so dim that the judges won't examine the statute in great detail.",Di light dey so dim say di judges don examine di statute for great detail.,Business study
"under this standard, government needs to put forth only a rational basis for the law the law simply has to be reasonably related to some legitimate government interest.","Di standard, goment need to put forth only rational basis for di law wey dey reasonably related to some legitimate government interest.",Business study
"if the judge is satisfied that the law is based on some rational basis(keeping in mind that with the twenty-watt lightbulb, the inquiry isn't very deep), then the law passes equal protection.","Di judge dey satisfied say di law dey based on some rational basis(keeping in mind say wit di twenty-watt lightbulb, di inquiry no dey deep), then di law pass equal protection.",Business study
"thus, a law that imprisons thieves easily passes minimal scrutiny, since there are many rational reasons to imprison thieves.","Di law wey imprison thieves easily pass minimal scrutiny, since there dey many rational reasons to imprison thieves.",Business study
most laws fall into this category of scrutiny by default courts apply heightened scrutiny only in special circumstances.,Dem fall into dis category of scrutiny as e be courts apply heightened scrutiny only for special circumstances.,Business study
"even under this low standard, however, governments must be able to articulate a rational basis for the law.","Sef under this low rule or level, however, governments must be able to articulate a rational basis for di law.",Business study
"for example, in 1995 colorado approved a state constitutional amendment that would have prevented any city, town, or county in colorado from recognizing homosexuals as a protected class of citizens.","Di state constitution amendment wey go prevent any city, town, or county for colorado from recognizing homosexuals as protected class of citizens.",Business study
"the supreme court struck down the constitutional amendment, finding there was no rational basis for it and that it was in fact motivated by a""bare desire to harm a politically unpopular group.","Di supreme court struck down di constitutionalamendment, finding e no rational basis for am and say e dey motivate by a""bare desire to harm politically unpopular group.",Business study
"""[15]the intermediate scrutiny test is reserved for cases where the government discriminates on the basis of sex or gender.",Di intermediate scrutiny test dey reserved for case wey di goment discriminate on di basis of sex or gender.,Business study
"under this test, the government has to prove that the law in question is substantially related to an important government interest.",Di goment don prove say di law for question dey substantially related to important government interest.,Business study
"think ofthe courts turning on a sixty-watt lightbulb in this test, because they're expecting the government to provide more than just a rational justification for the law.","Di courts turn on sixty-watt lightbulb for dis test, bikos dem expect di goment to provide more than just rational justification for di law.",Business study
"using this test, courts have invalidated gender restrictions on admissions to nursing school, laws that state only wives can receive alimony, and a higher minimum drinking age for men.","Using this test, courts get invalidated gender restrictions on admissions to nursing school, laws wey state only wives fit receive alimony, plus a higher minimum drinking age for men.",Business study
"in one important case, the supreme court held that the system for single-sex education at the virginia military institute violated the equal protection clause.",Di supreme court tok say di system for single-sex education for di virginia military institute violated di equal protection clause.,Business study
the strict scrutiny test is used when the government discriminates against a suspect class.,District scrutiny test dey use wen di goment discriminate against suspect class.,Business study
"under this test, the government has to prove that the law is justified by a compelling governmental interest, that the law is narrowly tailored to achieve that goal or interest, and that the law is the least restrictive means to achieve that interest.","Di goment don prove say di law dey justified by compelling governmental interest, say di law dey narrowly tailored to achieve dat goal or interest, and say di law dey di least restrictive means to achieve dat interest.",Business study
"here, the courts are turning on a one-hundred -watt lightbulb in examining the law, so they can examine the law in great detail to find justification.","Di courts dey turn on one hundred-watt lightbulb for examining di law, so dem fit examine di law for great detail to find justification",Business study
"the standard is reserved for only a few classifications: laws that affect""fundamental rights""such as the rights in the bill of rights and any government discrimination that affects a""suspect classification""such as race or national origin.","laws wey affect""fundamental rights""such as di rights for di bill of rights and any goment discrimination wey dey affect a""suspect classification""such as race or national origin.",Business study
"in practice, when courts find that strict scrutiny applies, a law is very often struck down as unconstitutional because it's so hard for government to pass this standard of review.","For practice, wen court find say strict scrutiny applies, a law dey very often struck down as unconstitutional because dey so hard for goment pass dis standard of review.",Business study
"certainly, most laws that discriminate on the basis of race are struck down on this basis.","Di certainly, most laws wey discriminate on di basis of race dey struck down on dis basis.",Business study
"the first case rose in the height of world war ii, when the federal government sought to intern japanese americans into camps on the basis that they may pose a national security risk.","Di first case rose for di height of Wahala wey happen for 1939 reach 1945, wey all kontri for world join bodi, dem form two group, one dey call dem Allies, anoda one dey call dem Axis, na im be di big fight wey everybody sabi, wen di federal goment sought to intern japanese americans into camps on di basis say dem go pose Di way wey dem take dey protect di kontri, di pipo wey dey di kontri, and di tins wey important for di kontri from bad tins wey fit happen from outside or inside, including make sure say terrorist no go cause trouble, or say anoder kontri no go spy on dem risk.",Business study
"fred korematsu sued the federal government under the equal protection clause, arguing that as an american citizen the government was unfairly discriminating against him on the basis of race, especially in light ofthe fact that americans of italian and german descent were not treated similarly.","Di federal goment under di equal protection clause, arguing say as American citizen di goment dey unfairly discriminate against hin on di bas of race, especially for light of di fact say americans of italian and german descent no dey treated similarly.",Business study
"in a 63 decision, the supreme court sided with the government.",Di supreme court tok wit di goment.,Business study
a second case involving the use of racial discrimination surrounds the issue of affirmative action in higher education.,Di second case wey dey involvin di use of racial discrimination surround di issue of affirmative action for higher education.,Business study
many elite colleges and universities would have no problem filling their entire entering class with stellar academic students with high grade point averages and standardized testing scores.,Di elite college and universities go need no wahala fill dia entire entry class wit stellar academic students wit high grade point average and standardized testing scores.,Business study
"if they did this, howe ver, their classrooms would generally look quite similar, as these students tend to come from a largely white, upper -middle-class socioeconomic profile.","Di classrooms go generally look quite similar, as dem dey kom from largely white, upper -middle class socioeconomic profile.",Business study
"in a belief that diversity adds value to the classroom learning experience, the university of michigan added""points"" to an applicant's profile if the applicant was a student athlete, from a diverse racial background, or from a rural area in michigan.","Di university of michigan don add point to applicant profile if di applicant dey student athlete, from diverse racial background, or from rural area for michigan.",Business study
"when this practice was challenged, the supreme court found that this point system operated too much like a race quota, which has been illegal since the 1970s, and overturned the system.","Di supreme court found say dis point system operat too much like race quota, wey dey illegal since di 1970s, and overturned di system.",Business study
"the court did caution, however, that schools should move toward race-neutral systems and that affirmative action should not last more than twenty-five more years.","Di court don caution, however, say schools go move toward race-neutral systems and say affirmative action no last more than twenty-five years.",Business study
"these liberties are never absolute, subject to competing interests that courts must balance in making their decisions.","Di liberties dey never absolute, subject to competition interest wey court must balance for make dia decision.",Business study
these rights also vary from time to time and a re generally designed to protect the weakest in society rather than the strongest.,These rights sef vary from time to time plus a re generally designed to protect di weakest inside society no be di strongest.,Business study
"many, but not all, of the restrictions on government activity found in the bill of rights also apply to the states through incorporation.",Di bill of rights also apply to di state through incorporation.,Business study
the first amendment prohibits the government from establishing religion and from restricting the free exercise thereof.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) prohibits di government from establishing religion plus from restricting di free exercise thereof.,Business study
the first amendment also prohibits the government from restricting the freedom of speech.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) also prohibit di goment from restrict di freedom of speech,Business study
"political speech is protected to the fullest extent by the first amendment, while obscene and defamatory speech is not protected at all but subject to the doctrine of prior restraint.","Di political speech dey protected to di fullest extent by di firstamendment, while obscene and defamatory speech no dey protected for all but subject to di doctrine of Wetin dem dey call prior restraint be say government no go gree make person talk or write wetin dem wan write before dem publish am, na like say government dey hold person mouth before dem talk.",Business study
corporations have some free speech rights under the corporate speech doctrine.,Di corporation don get some free speech rights under di corporate speech doctrine.,Business study
"generally speaking, states may impose reasonable time, place, and manner restrictions on the delivery of speech.","Generally speaking, states may impose reasonable time, place, plus manner restrictions on di delivery of speech.",Business study
"procedural due process requires that the government use fair procedures anytime it seeks to deprive a citizen of life, liberty, or property.","Di goment use fair procedures anytime dem seeks to deprive citizen of life, liberty, or property.",Business study
"substantive due process requires the government to articulate a rational basis for passing laws or, when fundamental rights are involved, to articulate a compelling reason to do so.","Di goment to articulate rational bas na for pass laws or, wen fundamental rights dey involved, to articulate compelling reason to do so.",Business study
substantive due process has been used by the supreme court to limit punitive damage amounts.,Di supreme court don use di supreme court to limit punitive damage amounts,Business study
equal protection requires the government to justify discrimination.,Di goment go justify discrimination.,Business study
"in cases of racial discrimination, courts apply strict scrutiny to the law.","Inside cases of racial discrimination, courts apply strict scrutiny to di law.",Business study
"in cases involving sex or gender discrimination, the courts apply an intermediate level of scrutiny, and in all other cases, courts apply a minimal basis of scrutiny.","Di courts apply intermediate level of scrutiny, and for all oda cases, courts apply minimal basis of scrutiny.",Business study
"although the first amendment prohibits the government from establishing religion, there is no prohibition on spending money to support religious life generally.","First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) prohibit di goment from establish religion, na no prohibition on spending money to support religious life generally.",Business study
"for example, the whitehouse office of faith-based and neighborhood partnerships provides funding to several religious organizations, including organizations that maintain discriminatory policies toward gays and lesbians and routinely engage in proselytizing activity.","for example, di whitehouse office of faith-based plus neighborhood partnerships provides funding to several religious organizations, including organizations wey maintain discriminatory policies toward gays plus lesbians plus routinely engage inside proselytizing activity.",Business study
do you believe that public money should be used to fund these groups?,Dem believe say public money go use to fund those groups?,Business study
wh y or why not?,Na why no?,Business study
"in 2006 ohio passed a law requiring all public schools that receive a donation of a plaque or poster with ohio's state motto,""in god we trust,""to display the donation prominently in a school cafeteria or classroom.","Di law wey dey require all public schools wey receive donation of plaque or poster wit ohio statemotto, ""in god we trust,""to display di donation prominently for school cafeteria or classroom.",Business study
do you believe this law isa violation ofthe first amendment?,Di law is violation of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo)?,Business study
"during the 2004 superbowl halftime show, a performance by janet jackson and justin timberlake ended in a""wardrobe malfunction""when janet jackson's breast was exposed for a split second.","During di 2004 superbowl halftime show, a performance by janet jackson plus justin timberlake ended inside a""wardrobe malfunction""when janet jackson's breast bin dey exposed for a split second.",Business study
cbs was fined more than half a million dollars for this violation after a record number of complaints were filed with the fcc.,Di cbs dey fine more than half a million dollar for dis violation afta record number of complaints wey dey filed wit di fcc.,Business study
do you believe that the government's action was fair?,Dem believe say di goment action na fair?,Business study
"in 1969 the supreme court ruled that school officials could not restrict students from wearing black armbands as a peace sign protesting the u. s. involvement in the vietnam war, ruling that students do not shed their constitutional rights at the schoolhouse gates.","Di supreme court rule say school officials no restrict students from wearing black armband as peace sign protest di u. s. involvement for di vietnam war, ruling say students no shed dia constitutional rights for di schoolhouse gate.",Business study
what factors do you think might explain the court's decisions in these two cases?,Di factors do you think might explain di court decision for dis two cases?,Business study
try to find out if the supreme court has ever overturned buck v. bell.,Di supreme court don ever overturned buck v. bell.,Business study
do you believe that an attempt by the state to force sterilization on mentally disabled women would survive a due process challenge today?,Do you believe wey an attempt by di state to force sterilization on mentally disabled women go survive a Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system challenge today?,Business study
"if the government is permitted to force sterilization, does that mean that the government also has the power to force women to have children if it can articulate compelling enough reasons to do so?",Di goment also get power to force women to have children if im fit articulate enough reasons to do so?,Business study
laws discriminating on the basis of age fall into the minimal basis scrutiny category.,Laws discriminating on di basis of age fall enter di minimal basis scrutiny category.,Business study
"a state that wishes to raise the drinking age to twenty-five or the driving age to twenty, for example, needs to put forward only a rational basis for that law.","Di state wey wish to raise di drinking age to twenty-five or di driving age to twenty, for example, need to put forward only rational basis for dat law.",Business study
do you believe that age should fall into this category or into one ofthe other two categories for heightened review?,Di age go fall into dis category or into one of di oda two categories for heightened review?,Business study
do you believe that public universities should be able to consider race as a factor in deciding whether or not to admit a student?,Do you believe wey public universities suppose be able to consider race as a factor inside deciding whether or no to admit a student?,Business study
"if a university is unable to consider race, how else might it design an admissions program to achieve a diverse classroom?","If a university na unable to consider race, how else might am design an admissions program to achieve a diverse classroom?",Business study
what would have been the impact if the grutter case had been decided in favor ofthe plaintiff?,Di impact if di grutter case don decide for favor of di plaintiff?,Business study
"co. v. campbell, 538 u. s. 408(2003).",Na 538 u. s. 408(2003).,Business study
"the needs of a varied and diverse nation, as well as corporate enterprises, all demand a constitutional framework that is rigid enough to provide strict checks against tyranny by the majority, while flexible enough to adapt to new changing societal values and mores, aswell as rapidly changing business conditions.","Di needs of a varied plus diverse nation, as well as corporate enterprises, all demand a constitutional framework wey na rigid enough to provide strict checks against tyranny by di majority, while flexible enough to adapt to new changing societal values plus mores, aswell as rapidly changing business conditions.",Business study
"understanding the framework of government established by the constitution, the powers of each branch of government, and the substantive rights afforded to individuals and companies is a critical part of being an informed citizen.","Di framework wey dey establish by di constitution, di power of each branch of goment, and di substantive rights wey dey afford to individuals and companies dey critical part of being informed citizen.",Business study
"as our nation faces anew century with both uncertain currents and a future brighter than the founding fathers could have envisioned, the constitution will continue to provide bedrock principles to ensure the""blessings of liberty""to all.","As awa nation face new century wit both uncertain currents and future brighter than di founding fathers go envision, di constitution go continue to provide bedrock principles to ensure di""blessings of liberty""to all.",Business study
"you will learn about performance and discharge, breach, and remedies.","You go learn about performance plus to free person from duty, breach, plus remedies.",Business study
you will also understand important differences between common-law contracts and contracts between merchants under the uniform commercial code (ucc).,You go sef understand important differences between common-law contracts plus contracts between merchants under di uniform commercial code (ucc).,Business study
you will recognize commonly used clauses in contracts and their importance.,I go recognize commonly used clauses for contract and dia importance.,Business study
"you will also learn about assignment, delegation, and parol evidence.","You go sef learn about assignment, delegation, plus parol evidence.",Business study
what is a contract?,Di contract wey be contract?,Business study
how is a contract formed?,Di contract wey dey form?,Business study
"when does common law govern contract formation, and when is the ucc relevant?","Di common law govern contract formation, and when dey di ucc relevant?",Business study
what ar e the defenses to performance of a contract?,What ar e di excuse for kots to performance of a contract?,Business study
"what does it mean to breach a contract, and what are the consequences of breach?","What does am mean to breach a contract, plus what be di consequences of breach?",Business study
what are remedies for breach of contract?,We dey remedies for When person no follow or break the terms of a legal agreement dem made?,Business study
"what common clauses can be used to accomplish certain goals, such as ensuring expediency, limiting liability, or restricting assignment?","What common clauses fit be used to accomplish certain goals, such as ensuring expediency, limiting liability, or restricting assignment?",Business study
clint eastwood had along -term relationship with sondra locke.,Clint eastwood don get long-term relationship wit sondra locke.,Business study
"sadly, the relationship deteriorated and, allegedly, ended on unfriendly terms.","Sadly, di relationship deteriorated plus, allegedly, ended on unfriendly terms.",Business study
"the couple never married, but they shared a household for many years, and they worked on many professional projects together.","Di couple never married, but dem shared household for many years, and dem work on many professional projects together.",Business study
"when the relationship ended, locke sued eastwood for various causes of action.","Di relationship ended, locke sued eastwood for different cause of action.",Business study
"to settle the case, eastwood proposed, among other things, that if locke dropped the lawsuit against him, he would secure a development deal for locke at warner bros. inc. locke was not only an actress; she was also a director.","Di case, eastwood proposed, among oda things, say if locke dropped di lawsuit against him, he go secure development deal for locke for warner bros. inc.",Business study
"no doubt assuming that this deal would advance her professional interests and, at the same time, bring along -standing personal dispute to an end, locke agreed.","without question assuming wey this deal go advance im professional interests plus, at di same time, bring along -standing personal dispute to an end, locke agreed.",Business study
"first, it required locke to submit work that she was interested in developing, before she submitted it elsewhere.","E require locke to submit work wey she interest for development, before she submit am elsewhere.",Business study
warner bros. was to accept or reject the work within thirty days.,Nato accept or reject di work within thirty days.,Business study
"for this part ofthe contract, locke would receive$250, 000 per year for three years.","For this part of di contract, locke go receive$250, 000 per year for three years.",Business study
"second, the contract was a$750, 000""pay or play""deal, which gave warner bros. a choice between using locke's services as a director and paying locke a fee.","Di contract na $750, 000""pay or play""deal, wey give warner bros. choice between using locke services as director and pay locke fee.",Business study
"though locke did not know this, eastwood agreed to reimburse warner bros. for the cost of this contract if she did not have success in developing her projects or using her director services.","Though locke did no know this, eastwood agreed to reimburse warner bros. for di cost of this contract if e did no get success inside developing im projects or using im director services.",Business study
"warner bros. paid the$1. 5 million contemplated under the contract, but it did not develop any of locke's thirty proposed projects, and it did not hire her to direct any films.","Dem don develop any of locke's thirty proposed projects, but dem no develop any of locke's thirty proposed projects, and dem no hire her to direct any films",Business study
"locke argued that the agreement had been a sham, because warner bros. had never intended to make films with her.","Dem tok say di agreement don dey sham, because warner bros no fit make films wither",Business study
she also argued that its only motivation for entering into the contract with her was to help eastwood in settling her earlier claims against him.,She also argu say im only motivation for entering into di contract wither nato help eastwood for settling her earlier claims against hin.,Business study
"locke sued warner bros. for a number of claims, including a breach ofthe implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing, and fraud.","Locke sued warner bros. for a number of claims, including a breach of di implied covenant of good faith plus fair dealing, plus fraud.",Business study
she alleged that she was deprived ofthe benefit ofthe bargain and that warner bros. had no intention of honoring its agreement with her.,She allege say she deprive of di benefit of di bargain and say warner bros no fit honor dia agreement wither.,Business study
"warner bros. won at trial, and locke appealed.","For trial, and locke appealed.",Business study
"the california court of appeals found that while the creative decisions of warner bros. were not appropriate for judicial review, acting in bad faith by refusing to consider the merits of locke's proposals was a matter for the courts.","Di california court of appeal find say while di creative decision of warner bros. no dey appropriate for judicial review, acting for bad faith by refuse to consider di merit of locke's proposals na matter for di courts.",Business study
"the court also noted that even though the contractual sum of money was paid, that alone did not constitute performance under the contract.","Di court also tok say even though di contractual sum of money don pay, say alone no constitute performance under di contract.",Business study
part ofthe value ofthe contract for locke was the opportunity to work on projects that would earn additional money and promote and enhance locke's career.,Di part of di value of di contract for locke na di opportunity to work on projects wey go earn additional money and promote and enhance locke career.,Business study
"moreover, the appellate court found that if warner bros. never intended to work with locke but had entered into the contract solely to accommodate eastwood, then a lack of good faith might be inferred.","Di appellate court found say if warner bros no fit work wit locke but don enter into di contract solely to accommodate eastwood, then lack of good faith might be inferred.",Business study
"after all, locke was compensated the amount of money explicitly contemplated under the contract.","For all, locke dey compensat di amount of money wey dey contemplate under di contract.",Business study
should it matter whether one party acts in good faith or not?,Dem matter whether one party act for good faith or no?,Business study
"however, a lack of good faith by one party could lead to damages.","However, a lack of good faith by one party fit lead to damages.",Business study
"after the court's decision, the parties settled for an undisclosed amount.","After di court's decision, di parties settled for an undisclosed amount.",Business study
contracts area fundamental part of doing business.,Dem dey fundamental part of do business,Business study
a contract is a legally enforceable promise.,Di contract dey legally enforceable promise,Business study
"as you know, breaking promises is a big deal.","As you know, breaking promises na a big deal.",Business study
ethical questions arise when promises are broken.,Dem dey arise wen promises dey broken,Business study
"for example, what if you promised to mow your elderly neighbor's lawn because you wanted to help him, but then you never got around to doing it?","for example, what if you promised to mow your elderly neighbor's lawn because you wanted to help him, but then you never got around to doing am?",Business study
wouldn't you feel guilty about watching his grass grow into tall weeds?,I no feel guilty about watching hin grass grow into tall weeds?,Business study
"when the promise is a legally enforceable promise, feeling guilty about breaking the promise is not the only fallout.","Di promise dey legally enforceable promise, feeling guilty about breaking di promise no dey only fallout.",Business study
"when a legally enforceable promise is broken, the injured party can seek damages.","For when legally enforceable promise dey broke, di injured party go seek damages.",Business study
"in contracts, this usually means that the party who breaches the contract must pay the injured party an amount that would make that party whole again.",Dis usually mean say di party wey breach di contract must pay di injured party an amount wey go make dat party whole again.,Business study
"also, some people disagree about whether breaching a legally enforceable promise that is, a contract carries any ethical implications.","Some pipo disagree about whether breach legally enforceable promise wey dey, contract carry any ethical implications.",Business study
"for instance, if a company decides that it is less expensive to pay damages than fulfill its promise by performing under a contract, it might make the decision to breach based on rational decision making.","If a company decide say e dey less expensive to pay damages than fulfill im promise by perform under contract, e go make di decision to breach based on rational Di proses to chuze di best tin to do, as dem don gada tori and sabi wetin dey suppose do, den dem go yuz am take decide.",Business study
"that is, since it will be less expensive to breach, it makes sense to breach.","E make sense to breach, e make sense to breach",Business study
"others disagree with this approach, pointing out that reliance on promises is an important part of business that provides necessary stability, regardless of whether keeping the promise makes economic sense or not.","Di approach, to show say reliance on promises dey important part of business wey provide necessary stability, regardless of whether keeping di promise make economic sense or no.",Business study
"if you had a business, would you breach a contract to save money?","If you go get business, go you go get contract to save money?",Business study
contracts are agreements between two or more parties.,Di contract dey agreement between two or more parties.,Business study
"generally speaking, c ontracts area form of private law, because the terms ofthe contract are binding on those parties but not on everyone.","Na generally speaking, c ontracts dey form of private law, because di terms of di contract dey binding on those parties but noon all.",Business study
the contract represents mutual assent to a bargained -for exchange between parties.,Di contract represents mutual assent to a bargained -for exchange between parties.,Business study
"generally speaking, in the united states parties may enter into contracts for whatever they wish and under any terms that they agree on.",Di united state parties go enter into contracts for whatever dem wish and under any terms wey dem agree on.,Business study
"in other words, parties may assent to agreements even if those agreements represent bad bargains.",Di parties go assent to agreement even if dem represent bad bargains,Business study
"additionally, certain internal(to the contract)restrictions may exist on our abilities to exercise rights or to engage in other contracts.",Di internal(to di contract)restrictions go exist on awa ability to exercise rights or to engage for oda contracts.,Business study
"legal restrictions, external to the contract, limit our ability to bargain.","Legal restrictions, external to di contract, limit awa ability to bargain.",Business study
"for example, if you wanted to hire someone to work for your company, you could not contract with that person to work one- hundred-hour workweeks at twenty-five cents per hour.","for example, if you want to hire someone to work for your company, you fit no contract with wey person to work one- hundred-hour workweeks at twenty-five cents per hour.",Business study
"even if you could find someone to work under those conditions and even if you both agreed to those terms of th e contract, our statutory and regulatory laws prohibit you from entering into a contract with those terms.","Sef if you fit find someone to work under those conditions plus sef if you both agreed to those terms of th e contract, awa statutory plus regulatory laws prohibit you from entering enter a contract with those terms.",Business study
such wages would violate minimum wage laws.,Na such wages go viola Di lowest amount of money that law say employer must pay worker per hour law.,Business study
there may also be restrictions that are internal to the contract.,Di contract dey internal to di contract.,Business study
"imagine that you entered into an employment contract with a company to work for$55, 000 per year, plus benefits, and for a term of two years.","Imagine wey you entered enter an employment contract with a company to work for$55, 000 per year, plus benefits, plus for a term of two years.",Business study
you might be pretty happy about that.,Di suppose be pretty happy about dat,Business study
"but what if, one month later, another company offered you the same position at its company, but for a salary of$65,000 per year, plus benefits.","But what if, one month later, another company offered you di same position at its company, but for a salary of$65,000 per year, plus benefits.",Business study
the better offer does not invalidate your first contract.,Di better offer no dey invalidate your first contract,Business study
"in fact, in such a case, your first contract would probably contain a noncompete clause that would prohibit you from working in a similar capacity for a specified length of time and geographic area.",Di first contract go contain noncompete clause wey go prohibit you from work for similar capacity for a specified length of time and geographic area.,Business study
"so even if you decided to breach your first contract to enter into the second, you would be prohibited from doing so under the noncompete clause.","So sef if you decided to breach your first contract to enter di second, you go be prohibited from doing so under di noncompete clause.",Business study
"key takeaways contracts are legally enforceable promises that, if breached, res ult in compensable damages.","Di Tori wey dey important pass, wey person go sabi after dem don read or hear sometin contract dey legally enforceable promises say, if breach, res ult for compensable damages.",Business study
"contracts area fundamental part of doing business, which require not only performance ofthe terms ofthe contract but also good faith in dealing.","Di contract dey fundamental part of do business, wey require no only performance of di terms of di contract but also good faith for dealing.",Business study
"parties may enter into a contract for any agreement with terms, providing the agreement is legal.","Di parties go enter into contract for any agreement wit terms, providing di agreement dey legal",Business study
"also, restrictions on ability to contract maybe external, such as those imposed by law, or they maybe internal, such as those imposed by clauses like noncompete agreements.","Di also, restrictions on ability to contract go external, such as those wey dem impose by law, or dem dey internal, such as those wey dey imposed by law, or dem dey internal, such as those wey dey imposed by clauses like noncompete agreements.",Business study
find out when the uniform commercial code (ucc) is the appropriate law to apply and when the common law is the appropriate law.,Di uniform commercial code (ucc) dey di appropriate law to apply and wen di common law dey di appropriate law.,Business study
learn the elements of common-law contracts.,Learn di elements of common-law contracts.,Business study
identify the difference between common-law contracts and contracts between merchants.,Dem identify di difference between common-law contracts and contract between merchants.,Business study
"therefore, it is important to know whether promises made are legally enforceable.",E dey important to know whether promises make dey legally enforceable,Business study
you certainly have made many promises in your life.,Dem certainly don make many promises for your life,Business study
"you have probably broken a few promises, too.","Dem don probably broken few promises, too",Business study
"for example, if you promised your best friend that you would be best friends forever, but then your relationship changed, we might say that is a broken promise.","If you promis your best friend say you go be best friends forever, but then your relationship change, we might say na broken promise.",Business study
"however, you would not be held legally liable to pay damages for breaking that promise.",E no go hold legally liable to pay damages for breaking dat promise.,Business study
"on the other hand, if you promised your bank that you would make payments to it in exchange for the bank loaning money to you to purchase a car, and if you broke that promise by failing to pay as scheduled, then you have broken a legally enforceable promise.","If you promis your bank say you go make payments to dem for exchange for di bank loaning money to you to purchase car, and if you broke dat promise by fail to pay as scheduled, then you go get broken a legally enforceable promise.",Business study
the bank could seek damages from you to make itself whole again.,Di bank fit seek damages from you to make itself whole again.,Business study
what is the difference between these two promises?,Di difference wey dey between dis two promises?,Business study
why would you have to pay damages to the bank but not to your former best friend?,Why go you go get to pay damages to di bank but no to your former best friend?,Business study
"more specifically, why is one considered a breach of contract and the other simply a broken promise?",One consider a breach of contract and di oda simply broken promise?,Business study
we can examine the elements of formation to determine whether the contract is valid or whether it suffers some deficiency that renders it not legally enforceable.,We fit examine di elements of formation to determine whether di contract dey valid or whether dem suffer some deficiency wey dey render im no legally enforceable,Business study
"in the united states, two primary sources of law govern our contracts: the common law and the uniform commercial code.",Di primary source of law govern our contracts: di common law and di uniform commercial code.,Business study
the uniform commercial code (ucc) article 2 governs contracts between a merchant and the sale of goods.,Di uniform commercial code (ucc) article 2 governs contracts between a merchant plus di sale of goods.,Business study
"essentially, the ucc contains two sets of rules for contracts.","Essentially, di ucc contains two sets of rules for contracts.",Business study
"one set involves rules for everyone, and the other set involves rules for merchants.","One set involves rules for everyone, plus di other set involves rules for merchants.",Business study
common law governs contracts for services aswell as contracts not otherwise governed by the ucc.,Di common law govern contract for services aswell as contracts wey dey governed by di ucc.,Business study
it is important to recognize the elements of common-law contract formation because they are more stringent than the requirements for formation between merchants under the ucc.,E dey important to recognize di elements of common-law contract formation bikos e dey more stringent than di requirements for formation between merchants under di ucc.,Business study
"if all elements of common-law contract formation do not exist, then the contract maybe void or voidable.","If all elements of common-law contract formation do no exist, then di contract maybe void or voidable.",Business study
"the elements of common-law contract formation include offer, acceptance, and consideration.","Di elements of common-law contract formation include offer, acceptance, plus consideration.",Business study
offer and acceptance together form mutual assent.,Offer plus acceptance together form mutual assent.,Business study
"additionally, to be enforceable, the contract must be for a legal purpose and parties to the contract must have capacity to enter into the contract.","Additionally, to be enforceable, di contract must be for a legal purpose plus parties to di contract must get capacity to enter di contract.",Business study
"an offer gives power of acceptance to another party, and it includes the agreement's essential elements, which must be definite and certain.","Di offer give power of acceptance to another party, and e include di agreement's essential elements, wey must be definite and certain.",Business study
"for example, if an offeror says to you,""i offer to sell you my scooter for four hundred dollars,""then that offer is valid.","If a offeror tok say,""i offer to sell you my scooter for four hundred dollar, then dat offer dey valid.",Business study
"it contains th e price, the person to whom the offer is made, and the object ofthe offer(i. e, the scooter).","Di offer contains th e price, di person wey dey offer make, and di object of di offer(i. e, di scooter).",Business study
"it creates a power of acceptance in you, the offeree.","E create power of acceptance for you, di offeree.",Business study
"importantly, in common-law contracts, the acceptance must be a mirror image ofthe offer to constitute valid acceptance.","Importantly, inside common-law contracts, di acceptance must be a mirror image of di offer to constitute valid acceptance.",Business study
this means that the acceptance must be precisely the same as the offer.,Di means say di acceptance must be exactly di same as di offer,Business study
"if the acceptance is not precisely the same, then it will fail to meet the requirements of an acceptance, and it will not constitute a valid element of formation in contract.","E no fail to meet di requirements of acceptance, and e no constitute valid element of formation for contract.",Business study
"to accept the offer, the offeree could say something like this:""i agree to buy your scooter for four hundred dollars.""","To accept di offer, di offeree fit say something like dis:""i agree to buy your scooter for four hundred dollars.""",Business study
"if a counteroffer is made, then that would not be acceptance, because the counteroffer would not be a mirror image ofthe offer itself.",Di counteroffer no be mirror image of di offer itself.,Business study
"so, for example, if the offeree said,""i agree to buy your scooter for three hundred dollars,""that would not bean acceptance.","for example, if di offeree tok say,""i agree to buy your scooter for three hundred dollar, wey no be acceptance.",Business study
"in fact, a counteroffer is a rejection ofthe offer.",Di counteroffer dey a rejection of di offer,Business study
"once an offeree rejects an offer either outright(e. g, by declining to accept)or through counteroffer, the offeror is free to walk away from the failed negotiation.","Once an offeree rejects an offer either outright(e. g, by declining to accept)or through counteroffer, di offeror na free to walk away from di failed negotiation.",Business study
"in this example, he no longer has to sell his scooter at all, not even if the offeree changes his mind and agrees to pay four hundred dollars.","Di example, hin no longer get sell hin scooter for all, no even if di offeree change hin mind and agree to pay four hundred dollar.",Business study
"likewise, if the offeror revokes an offer before the offeree accepts, then the power of acceptance has been withdrawn by that revocation.","If di offeror revokes offer before di offeree accept, then di power of acceptance don withdraw di power of acceptance.",Business study
the offeror would no longer have to sell the item originally offered.,Di offeror go no longer go sell di item originally offered,Business study
"if the offer is not accepted during that time, then the offeror is not required to honor any acceptance that is made after expiration ofthe offer.","Di offeror no need to honor any acceptance wey dey made before expiration of di offer, then di offeror no require to honor any acceptance wey dey made before expiration of di offer.",Business study
what if you saw an advertisement for a scooter for sale at a local shop?,What if you saw an advertisement for a scooter for sale at a local shop?,Business study
"perhaps the advertisement looked like this: do you think that this advertisement should create the power of acceptance in you, a potential customer?","Di advertisement look like dis: do you think say dis advertisement go create power of acceptance for you, a potential customer?",Business study
the fact is that an advertisement is not an offer.,Di fact na say advertisement no dey offer,Business study
it is simply an invitation to bargain.,E dey simply an invitation to bargain,Business study
advertisements are requests for people to make offers.,Di advertisements dey request for pipo make offers,Business study
"this places the power of acceptance on the merchant, who is free to reject offers or to choose to whom he sells.","Di place di power of acceptance on di merchant, wey dey free to reject offers or to choose to whom he sell",Business study
"ofcourse, certain statutory protections exist today to protect consumers against unscrupulous merchants who might engage in unethical behavior, such as bait-and-switch or false advertising, or race-based denial of services or refusal to contract.","Ofcourse, certain statutory protections exist today to protect consumers against unscrupulous merchants wey might engage inside unethical behavior, such as bait-plus-switch or false advertising, or race-based denial of services or refusal to contract.",Business study
"specifically, consumer protection statutes and civil rights statutes, respectively, would protect consumers in such circumstances.","Na specifically, consumer protection statutes and civil rights statutes, respectively, go protect consumers for such circumstances.",Business study
"if an offer is valid, then the acceptance must be a mirror image, as mentioned previously.","If an offer na valid, then di acceptance must be a mirror image, as mentioned previously.",Business study
a bilateral contract is a contract in which both parties make a promise.,Di bilateral contract dey contract wey both parties make promise,Business study
the previous example is an example of a bilateral contract.,Di for di before example na example of bilateral contract,Business study
"the following is a promise for a promise: the offeror says,""i offer to sell you my scooter for four hundred dollars.""","Di offeror tok say,""i offer sell my scooter for four hundred dollar",Business study
"the offeree replies,""i agree to buy your scooter for four hundred dollars.""","Di offeree replies,""i agree to buy your scooter for four hundred dollars.""",Business study
"specifically, it is a promise to sell the scooter in exchange for a promise to buy the scooter for four hundred dollars.",Di promise to sell di scooter for exchange for promise to buy di scooter for four hundred dollar.,Business study
"since this is a promise for a promise, then this is a bilateral contract.","E dey promise for promise, then dis dey bilateral contract",Business study
a unilateral contract is one in which the accepting party may only accept through an action.,Di accepting party go only accept through action.,Business study
"here is an example: the offeror says,""i will sell this scooter to the first person who puts four hundred dollars cash in my hands.""","Di offeror tok say,""i go sell dis scooter to di first person wey put four hundred dollar cash for my hands",Business study
the offeree says nothing but places four hundred dollars cash into the offeror's hands.,Di offeree says nothing but places four hundred dollars cash enter di offeror's hands.,Business study
"specifically, it is a promise to sell the scooter in exchange for the action of placing four hundred dollars cash into the offeror's hands.",Di promise to sell di scooter for exchange for di action of placing four hundred dollar cash into di offeror's hands.,Business study
common-law contracts can be either bilateral or unilateral.,Common-law contracts fit be either bilateral or unilateral.,Business study
"additionally, all common-law contracts must contain valid consideration.","Additionally, all common-law contracts must contain valid consideration.",Business study
"this means that there must be a bargained -for exchange of acts or promises, and both parties must incur new legal detriment or obligations as a result ofthe contract.","This means wey there must be a bargained -for exchange of acts or promises, plus both parties must incur new legal detriment or obligations because of di contract.",Business study
imagine that you have accepted anew position with a company.,I imagine say you don accept new position wit company.,Business study
you have a valid employment contract that you've successfully negotiated prior to beginning work.,Di valid employment contract wey you dey successfully negotiate prior to start work.,Business study
"all terms ofthe contract are valid, and both parties are bound to the contract.","Di contract dey valid, and both parties dey bound to di contract",Business study
"basically, this means that you have agreed to work for a specified period of time, and your employer has agreed to compensate you with a specified salary and benefits in exchange for your work.","Di means say you don agree to work for a specified period of time, and your employer don agree to compensate you wit a specified salary and benefit for exchange for your work",Business study
"so far, so good, right?","Dem dey good, right?",Business study
"now, imagine that during your first week, your boss appears in your office and asks you to sign anew contract that, in essence, is a noncompete agreement.","I imagine say during your first week, your boss appear for your office and ask you to sign new contract wey dey noncompete agreement",Business study
this means that your employer now wants you to sign anew contract agreeing not to compete with the company if you decide to terminate your employment arrangement.,This means wey your employer now wants you to sign anew contract agreeing no to compete with di company if you decide to terminate your employment arrangement.,Business study
"the employer wants you to make this promise, but the employer doesn ot offer anything additional in return.","Di employer want you make dis promise, but di employer don offer anything additional for return.",Business study
"for the purposes of this example, let's say that you sign the new agreement.","Di example, let say you sign di new agreement",Business study
is this new agreement valid and binding on you?,Na this new agreement valid plus binding on you?,Business study
because the company has not suffered any new legal detriment or obligation as a result ofthe contract.,Because di company don get no suffered any new legal detriment or obligation because of di contract.,Business study
"you have agreed to refrain from competing with the company if you leave, but the company itself has not given you anything in return for your promise.","Di company dey no agree to refrain from competition wit di company if you leave, but di company dey no give you anything for return for your promise.",Business study
"to make this contract binding against you, your employer should have provided consideration.","To make this contract binding against you, your employer suppose get provided consideration.",Business study
"for example, it could have asked you to sign the noncompete agreement in consideration of an additional one thousand dollars of salary per year.",E go ask you to sign di noncompete agreement for consideration of one thousand dollars of salary per year,Business study
"then, the contract would have consideration and it would have a much greater chance of being found to be valid.",Di contract go get consideration and e go get much great chance of being find to valid.,Business study
"better yet, the company should have negotiated the noncompete agreement along with your original contract before you assumed your new position.","Better yet, di company suppose get negotiated di noncompete agreement along with your original contract before you assumed your new position.",Business study
let's continue our example of an offeror who offers to sell his scooter for four hundred dollars.,Di example of offeror wey dey offer to sell hin scooter for four hundred dollars.,Business study
"he says,""i offer to sell you my scooter for four hundred dollars.""","E says,""i offer to sell you my scooter for four hundred dollars.""",Business study
this is because you have placed a condition on the consideration.,E dey because you don place condition on di consideration.,Business study
"in essence, you have made what appears to be a promise to do something, but instead of being a promise, it is only an illusion of a promise.","Di essence, you don make what appear to be promise to do something, but not dat one being promise, na only illusion of promise.",Business study
"this is called an illusory promise, and it does not constitute valid consideration.","Dis dey call illusory promise, and e no constitute valid consideration.",Business study
"there is no legal detriment to you here, because you might find a scooter that you like more than the one offered by the offeror.",Di offeror go find scooter wey you like more than di one offered by di offeror.,Business study
you have away out.,Di way out.,Business study
a legal detriment is a detriment(or burden or obligation)that is legally enforceable.,Di legal detriment na detriment(or burden or obligation) wey dey legally enforceable.,Business study
"you cannot ""get out""of the promise without suffering legal detriment.","You cannot ""get comot"" of di promise without suffering legal detriment.",Business study
the other party must be able to rely on the promise for it to constitute valid consideration.,Di other party must be able to rely on di promise for am to constitute valid consideration.,Business study
the thing bargained for can bean actor a promise(either to do something or to refrain from doing something.),Di thing wey dey bargain for don be actor promise(either to do something or to refrain from do something.),Business study
"additionally, for a contract to be valid, the subject matter ofthe contract must be for a legal purpose.","For contract to valid, di subject matter of di contract must be legal purpose.",Business study
"if a distributor of illegal drugs hires a pilot to fly his illegal cargo to a particular place in exchange for payment, this is a contract for an illegal subject matter.","If a distributor of illegal drugs hires a pilot to fly im illegal cargo to a particular place inside exchange for payment, this na a contract for an illegal subject matter.",Business study
"if the drug dealer fails to honor his agreement to pay, or if the pilot fails to honor his agreement to transport the cargo, neither aggrieved party will find a remedy in our courts, even if the elements of contract are all present and perfectly formed.","Di drug dealer fail to honor hin agreement to pay, or if di pilot fail to honor hin agreement to transport di cargo, neither aggrieved party go find remedy for awa court, even if di elements of contract dey present and perfectly formed.",Business study
"moreover, the parties to contract must have capacity to enter into the contract for its terms to be enforceable against them.","Moreover, di parties to contract must get capacity to enter di contract for its terms to be enforceable against dem.",Business study
adults of sound mind have capacity.,Di adults of sound mind don capacity.,Business study
"minors lack legal capacity, but they may enter into contracts that they may cancel at their sole option.","Di minors lack legal capacity, but dem no enter into contracts wey dem cancel for dia sole option.",Business study
"in other words, a minor who enters into a contract with a party who has capacity may void the contract, but the other party may not.","Di minor wey enter into contract wit a party wey don get capacity go void di contract, but di oda party no void di contract, but di oda party no.",Business study
this means that any contract with a minor is voidable by the minor under the infancy doctrine.,Di means say any contract wit a minor dey voidable by di minor under di infancy doctrine,Business study
let's compare common-law contract formation with ucc contract formation.,Dem compare common-law contract formation wit ucc contract formation.,Business study
recall that common law governs contracts for services and contracts not governed by the ucc.,Dem recall say common law govern contract for services and contracts no governed by di ucc.,Business study
"article 2 ofthe ucc governs the sale of goods, which is defined by 2-105 and includes things that are moveable, but not money or securities.","Di ucc govern di sale of goods, wey dey defined by 2-105 and includes things wey dey moveable, but no money or securities.",Business study
it does not include land or houses.,E no dey include land or house,Business study
contracts between merchants are also governed by article 2 ofthe ucc.,Di ucc dey governed by article 2 of di ucc,Business study
"since contracts law is a state law issue, each state can have different laws related to contracts.","Di contract law dey state law issue, each state fit get different laws wey dey related to contracts.",Business study
the ucc seeks to provide uniformity to contracts law among the different states.,Di ucc seeks to provide uniformity to contracts law among different states.,Business study
"however, like other uniform laws, the ucc does not become a law until state legislatures adopt it as law.",Di ucc no become law until state legislatures adopt am as law.,Business study
all fifty states have adopted some version ofthe ucc.,Di fifty state don adopt some version of di ucc,Business study
"as you can imagine, contracts between merchants do not always contain offers that include definite terms, and acceptances are not always mirror images.","As you imagine, contracts between merchants no contain offers wey include definite terms, and acceptances no dey mirror images.",Business study
"merchants typically place a purchase order when they wish to purchase materials, and the seller often sends an invoice with the order when it ships.","Di merchants typically place purchase order wen dem wish to purchase materials, and di seller often send invoice wit di order wen dem ship.",Business study
merchants frequently use boilerplate language in their individual purchase orders and invoices.,Di merchants frequently use boilerplate language for dia individual purchase order and invoices.,Business study
"obviously, not every merchant's contract will contain the same language as those of other merchants.",Di merchant contract go contain di same language as oda merchants.,Business study
"this can lead to discrepancies between terms that would be fatal in common-law contract formation, otherwise known as battle ofthe forms.","Di can lead to discrepancies between terms wey would be fatal for common-law contract formation, odawise known as battle of di forms.",Business study
"however, the ucc provides more flexibility in contract formation than exists in common-law contracts, thereby accommodating the reality of business practices.","Di ucc provide more flexibility for contract formation wey exist for common-law contracts, thereby accommodate di reality of business practices.",Business study
the requirements for common-law contract formation would be too burdensome for merchants.,Di requirements for common-law contract formation go be too burdensome for merchants.,Business study
"can you imagine if every merchant had to issue offers with definite terms and receive mirror image acceptances for every item that it sold or purchased to have valid, enforceable contracts?","But you imagine if every merchant don issue offer wit definite terms and receive mirror image acceptances for every item wey dem sell or purchase to get valid, enforceable contract?",Business study
such a burden might cause commerce to come to a screeching halt.,Na such burden go cause commerce to kom to screeching halt.,Business study
or it might lead to many contracts disputes.,Di contract disputes go lead to many contract disputes,Business study
the ucc also embodies some elements ofthe statute of frauds.,Di ucc sef embodies some elements of di statute of frauds.,Business study
the statute of frauds requires certain types of contracts to bein writing to be enforceable.,Di statute of frauds requires certain types of contracts to be inside writing to be enforceable.,Business study
"specifically, it requires contracts to bein writing for goods priced at five hundred dollars or more and signed by the defendant, for those contracts to be enforceable.","E require contracts to dey write for goods price for five hundred dollars or more and signed by di defendant, for dia contract to dey enforceable.",Business study
"other important types of contracts relevant to business that must bein writing and signed by the defendant to be enforceable include contracts for any interest inland, promises to pay the debts of another, and contracts that cannot be performed within one year.","Di defendant dey enforceable include contracts for any interest for land, promises to pay di debts of another, and contracts wey no fit perform within one year.",Business study
the types of contracts that are contemplated by the statute of frauds but are not captured by the ucc are often embodied in state statutes.,Di type of contract wey dey contemplate by di statute of fraud but no dey captured by di ucc.,Business study
"the peculiar name the statute of frauds is derived from its early incarnation in seventeenth-century england, when a statute was passed by parliament to reduce or prevent fraud in property transactions and other important civil matters.","Di peculiar name di statute of frauds dey derived from its early incarnation for seventeenth century england, wen a statute dey pass by parliament to reduce or prevent fraud for property transaction and oda important civil matters.",Business study
"when analyzing a contracts issue, identification ofthe type of law that governs th e contract should be addressed first.","Na when analyze contract issue, identification of di type of law wey govern th e contract go address first.",Business study
this is because you cannot know which rule applies unless you know which type of law is applicable.,Dina because you no know which rule wey dey applies unless you know which type of law dey applicable.,Business study
the primary differences between common-law contracts and the ucc are in the ucc's relaxation of various common-law contract formation requirements.,Di primary di difference between common-law contract and di ucc dey in di ucc's relaxation of different common-law contract formation requirements.,Business study
"see table 6. 1""differences between contract formations by type of law""for a comparison between common-law and ucc contract formation requirements.","See table 6. 1""differences between contract formations by type of law""for a comparison between common-law plus ucc contract formation requirements.",Business study
"when a battle ofthe forms ensues between merchants, for example, the conflicting terms are not fatal to the contract.","Di battle of di forms dey ensues between merchants, for example, di conflicting terms no dey fatal to di contract.",Business study
this is a major departure from the mirror image rule required by common-law contracts.,Di major departure from di mirror image rule wey common-law contracts.,Business study
"for the ucc, the primary issue is whether the parties intended to enter into a binding agreement.",Di primary issue na whether di parties go enter into binding agreement.,Business study
new or additional terms included in an offer will become part ofthe contract on acceptance.,Di contract on acceptance go become part of di contract on acceptance.,Business study
"terms that conflict with eachother will""fall out""of the contract and be replaced by ucc gap fillers, which can create the terms ofthe contract.",Di terms wey conflict wit each oda go fallout of di contract and be replace by ucc gap fillers wey go create di terms of di contract.,Business study
"likewise, terms that are left open will be filled in.","For likewise, terms wey dey left open go be filled for.",Business study
"gap fillers are terms provided by the ucc, and they can be inserted into a contract when those terms are not definite.","Di gap fillers dey terms wey dey provided by di ucc, and dem fit insert into contract wen dem no dey definite.",Business study
"while prices, delivery dates, warranties, and other terms can be""filled in""by the ucc gap fillers, quantity cannot.","Di price, delivery dates, warranties, and oda terms dey filled for di ucc gap fillers, quantity no be.",Business study
"quantity, therefore, is an essential term that must be specified in the contract for it to be binding.",Di essential term wey must be specified for di contract for am to be binding.,Business study
common law and the ucc are different sources of contract law.,Di common law and di ucc dey different source of contract law.,Business study
the ucc governs contracts involving the sale of goods with a price of five hundred dollars or more and in contracts between merchants.,Di ucc governs contracts involving di sale of goods with a price of five hundred dollars or more plus inside contracts between merchants.,Business study
"common-law contract formation requires a valid offer, acceptance, and consideration.","Common-law contract formation requires a valid offer, acceptance, plus consideration.",Business study
"the parties must have capacity, and the subject matter must be a legal purpose.","Di parties must get capacity, plus di subject matter must be a legal purpose.",Business study
the ucc relaxes formation requirements by allowing the use of gap fillers for undefined or conflicting terms and by allowing a contract to be formed by any manner that shows agreement to contract.,Di ucc relaxes formation requirements by allowing di use of gap fillers for undefined or conflicting terms plus by allowing a contract to be formed by any manner wey shows agreement to contract.,Business study
quantity is a required term for contracts governed by the ucc.,Di quantity dey required term for contract governed by di ucc.,Business study
"if a contract was not entered in good faith, do you think that fact alone should matter?",Dem think say fact alone dey matter?,Business study
"all essential elements ofthe contract appear to have existed, and the parties performed as required by the wording ofthe contract.",Di parties dey perform as required by di wording of di contract.,Business study
how can lack of good faith be shown?,How fit lack of good faith be shown?,Business study
has anyone ever broken a promise to you?,Don get anyone ever broken a promise to you?,Business study
were those promises legally enforceable promises?,Di promises legally enforce ble promises?,Business study
be sure to analyze the agreement by checking to see if all elements of contract formation were present.,Di agreement be sure to analyze di agreement by check say all elements of contract formation dey present,Business study
remember to first determine whether the promise was one governed by the ucc or by common law.,Di promise na one governed by di ucc or by common law.,Business study
what are the dangers inherent to making a counteroffer?,Di dangers wey dey inherent make counteroffer?,Business study
imagine that you really wanted to sell your house.,I imagine say you go sell your house,Business study
"you receive an attractive offer, but you wondered whether you might be able to sell the house for a little more money.","E wonder say you go get attractive offer, but you wonder say you go sell di house for a little more money",Business study
what types of things should you think about before submitting a counteroffer?,Di type of things wey you think about before submit a counteroffer?,Business study
learn what constitutes performance.,We dey learn what constitute performance,Business study
understand what it means to discharge obligations in a contract.,Di contract means to discharge obligations for contract.,Business study
explore different standards of performance.,E dey explore different standards of performance.,Business study
explore defenses to breach.,Dem explore defenses wey dey breach,Business study
learn about equitable remedies.,Learn about equitable remedies.,Business study
a contract is an enforceable promise.,Di contract dey enforceable promise,Business study
"when the promise is fulfilled, then the contract terms have been satisfied.","Na when di promise dey fulfilled, then di contract terms dey satisfy",Business study
"this means that the parties are discharged from the contract, because they have already fulfilled their legal duties under it.","Di means say di parties dey discharge from di contract, because dem don fulfilled dia legal duties under am.",Business study
"that is, they have satisfactorily performed their obligations under the contract.","For di contract, dem get satisfactorily perform dia obligation under di contract.",Business study
performance simply means undertaking the legal duties imposed on us by the terms ofthe contract.,Di performance simply means undertaking di legal duties wey dey imposed on us by di terms of di contract.,Business study
this is certainly what parties hope for when they enter into a contract the successful execution ofthe terms ofthe contract and subsequent discharge from it.,Di certainly wey parties hope for wen dem enter into contract di successful execution of di terms of di contract and subsequent discharge from am.,Business study
but how do we know whether the contract terms have been performed?,We know whether di contract terms don perform? but how do we know whether di contract terms don perform? but how we know whether di contract terms don perform?,Business study
sometimes it's easy to determine.,But sometimes e easy to determine.,Business study
"for instance, if i offer to sell you my scooter for four hundred dollars, you agree to buy my scooter for four hundred dollars, and we exchange those items, then we have fulfilled our obligations under the terms ofthe contract.","If i offer to sell you my scooter for four hundred dollar, you agree to buy my scooter for four hundred dollar, and we exchange dia items, then we get fulfilled awa obligation under di terms of di contract.",Business study
"we formed a contract, we fully performed our obligations under it(known as complete performance), and we are subsequently discharged from further duties arising under that contract.","We fully performed awa obligation under am(known as complete performance), and we dey subsequently discharge from further duties wey dey arising under dat contract.",Business study
"in other cases, whether a party has performed can be trickier to determine.",Whether a party don perform e dey trickier to determine.,Business study
"for example, imagine that you hire a builder to construct anew home for you.",I imagine say you hire builder to construct new house for you.,Business study
"you specify all dimensions ofthe home, as well as your chosen building materials.","You specify all dimensions of di home, as well as your chosen building materials.",Business study
certainly this would be avery detailed contract.,Di suppose be very detailed contract,Business study
imagine that all essential elements have been determined and that the contract is valid.,I imagine say all essential elements don determined and say di contract dey valid,Business study
"in short, the builder agrees to build your specified home, and you agree to pay the builder the agreed on price.","Inside short, di builder agrees to build your specified home, plus you agree to pay di builder di agreed on price.",Business study
imagine that everything goes according to plan.,Di plan dey according to plan.,Business study
"to your dismay, you see that the foyer has been tiled in red ceramic, even though you clearly specified and the contract clearly reflected that the foyer should be tiled in blue ceramic.","Di foyer don dey tiled for red ceramic, even though you clearly specified and di contract clearly reflect say di foyer go dey tiled for blue ceramic.",Business study
"however, on your further inspection, every other item specified in the contract has been completely performed.","Di further inspection, every oda item wey dey specified for di contract don completely perform.",Business study
would we say that the builder has performed his duties under this contract?,Di builder don perform hin duties under dis contract?,Business study
the item at issue is the problem with the foyer tile.,Di item wey dey issue na di problem wit di foyer tile.,Business study
does this error rise to breach?,Does this error rise to breach?,Business study
"more importantly, does this excuse your obligations under the contract to pay the builder for his work?",Di excuse your obligation under di contract to pay di builder for hin work?,Business study
"when a party fails to perform under the terms ofthe contract without a legally justifiable reason, the party is said to bein breach ofthe contract.","Dem tok say when a party fail to perform under di terms of di contract without legally justifiable reason, di party dey tok say bein breach of di contract.",Business study
"however, in a service contract such as a service to build a house the standard of performance is substantial performance.",For service contract such as service to build house di standard of performance dey substantial performance.,Business study
"this means that the performing party acted in good faith and conveyed enough benefit ofthe contract to the other party so that the other party can use the benefit for its intended purpose, and the defects arising under the contract maybe remedied by money damages.","Di means say di performing party get good faith and convey enough benefit of di contract to di oda party so say di oda party go use di benefit for its intended purpose, and di defects wey dey arising under di contract go remede by money damages.",Business study
a material breach in a service contract is when a party has not substantially performed under the terms ofthe contract.,Di material breach for service contract dey when parti no fit perform under di terms of di contract.,Business study
a minor breach is when the party has substantially performed but has n ot strictly performed.,Di party don substantially perform but no dey strictly perform.,Business study
"in our example, installation ofthe red tile in the foyer would not rise to material breach, because presumably the builder acted in good faith, he produced a house that is capable of being used for its intended purpose, and the defects(the red tile)can be remedied through monetary damages.","For awa example, installation of di red tile for di foyer no rise to material breach, because presumably di builder acted for good faith, hin produce house wey dey capable of being use for its intended purpose, and di defects( di red tile)no dey remedied through monetary damages.",Business study
they simply need to be replaced by blue tiles.,E no need to replace blue tiles,Business study
this was a minor breach.,Dis dey minor breach,Business study
"if this were your contract, you would have to pay the builder as required under the contract, less the cost of replacing the tile.","For di contract, you go pay di builder as required under di contract, less di cost of replacing di tile",Business study
"consider the firing of texas tech's head football coach, mike leach, in note 6. 47 ""hyperlink: coach mike leach""to practice your analytical skills.","Consider di firing of texas tech's head football coach, mike leach, inside note 6. 47 ""hyperlink: coach mike leach""to practice your analytical skills.",Business study
"try to identify what additional information you would need to determine whether substantial performance exists, or whether the contract has been materially breached.","Di contract dey materially breach, or whether di contract dey materially breach, or whether di contract dey materially breach",Business study
"sometimes, substantial performance is not adequate.","For sometimes, substantial performance no dey adequate.",Business study
adherence to a strict performance standard requires express terms in the contract to that effect and circumstances where such a highs tandard is reasonable.,Di adherence to strict performance standard require express terms for di contract to dat effect and circumstances wey such highs tandard dey reasonable.,Business study
you might recall that the contract w as a bargain for a scooter in exchange for four hundred dollars.,You might recall wey di contract w as a bargain for a scooter inside exchange for four hundred dollars.,Business study
"here, strict performance makes sense and is reasonable.",District performance make sense and dey reasonable,Business study
performance to the standard of personal satisfaction can be enforced if the contract expressly requires it.,Di contract expressly require am if di contract expressly require am.,Business study
"this means that the performance under the contract is scrutinized subjectively, either by one party to the contractor by a third-party beneficiary specified in the contract.","Di means say di performance under di contract dey scrutinized subjectively, either by one party to di contractor by third-party beneficiary wey dey specified for di contract.",Business study
"if the subject ofthe contract is something for which approval is dependent on someone's subjective opinion, like personal taste, then assessment can be made on a subjective standard providing this standard is clearly specified in the contract.","Di contract dey something for which approval dey depend on someone's subjective opinion, like personal taste, then assessment go make on subjective standard wey dey provide di standard wey dey clearly specified for di contract",Business study
"for example, if you owned a piano bar, and you wished to hire a truly inspired pianist for entertainment, you might enter into a contract with a pianist subject to a personal satisfaction standard.","for example, if you owned a piano bar, plus you wished to hire a truly inspired pianist for entertainment, you might enter enter a contract with a pianist subject to a personal satisfaction rule or level.",Business study
"even if that person could tickle the ivory flawlessly, you might decide that his or her music is technically accurate but not truly inspired.","Di person go tickle di ivory flawlessly, you go decide say hin or her music dey technically accurate but no truly inspired",Business study
"providing that your contract with t he pianist allows for personal satisfaction to be the standard of performance, you may terminate that contract based on his or her failure to meet the personal satisfaction standard.","Di contract wit thin pianist allows for personal satisfaction to be di standard of performance, you go terminate dat contract wey dey based on hin or her failure to meet di personal satisfaction standard.",Business study
"this standard is unlike the substantial performance standard, which requires an objective assessment based on the reasonable person standard.","Di standard dey unlike di substantial performance standard, wey require objective assessment based on di person wey get sense, wey fit reason like person wey sabi, wey go tok say wetin normal person go think or do for dat kind situation standard.",Business study
"referring again to note 6. 47 ""hyperlink: coach mike leach"", which standard appears to be controlling texas tech's decision to terminate coach leach's contract personal satisfaction or substantial performance?","coach mike leach"" wey standard appear to control texas tech decision to terminate coach leach contract personal satisfaction or substantial performance?",Business study
which standard is appropriate for a contract for coaching services?,Di standard dey appropriate for contract for coaching services?,Business study
hyperlink: coach mike leach head football coach mike leach of texas tech was fired for breach of contract.,coach mike leach head football coach mike leach of texas tech don fire for When person no follow or break the terms of a legal agreement dem made,Business study
"he had recently signed a$12. 7 million contract for five years, and he had been named by the associated press as the big xii coach ofthe year in 2008.",Di associated press as di big xii coach of di year for 2008.,Business study
"however, that didn't stop texas tech from firing him, citing breach of performance as the reason for the termination.","Dem no stop texas tech from firing him, citing breach of performance as di reason for di termination.",Business study
"under the terms of his contract, he was to""assure the fair and responsible treatment of student-athletes in relation to their health, welfare, and discipline.""","Di contract, hin go assure di fair and responsible treatment of student athletes for relation to dia health, welfare, and discipline",Business study
"allegedly, coach leach forced a student athlete to stand in a shed after the athlete was diagnosed with a mild concussion.",Di coach leach force student athlete to stand for shed afta di athlete dey diagnosed wit mild concussion.,Business study
"leach's supporters argue that the""shed"" was a comfortable garage-like room with a cooler and a fan and that coach leach was simply having the player stand inside, out ofthe sun, in accordance with medical orders.","Di""shed"" be comfortable garage-like room wit cooler and fan and say coach leach dey simply having di player stand inside, out of di sun, in accordance wit medical orders.",Business study
"was leach being cruel, or was he being protective of his charge in accordance with his contract terms?",E dey protective of hin charge for accordance within contract terms?,Business study
underlying this controversy are allegations that the firing occurred because leach interviewed with another university unbeknownst to texas tech and because he has a colorful personality that might offend some people.,Di controversy dey allegations say di firing occur because leach interview wit another university wey dey be texas tech and because he get colorful personality wey might dey open some pipo.,Business study
"for instance, he allegedly blamed his players'""fat little girlfriends""for distracting them to their defeat against texas a&m.","for example, hin allegedly blamed hin player'""fat little girlfriends""for distracting dem to dia defeat against texas a&m",Business study
"coach leach was fired just before receiving an alleged $800, 000 contractual bonus.","Di coach leach dey fire just before receiv di alleged $800, 000 contractual bonus.",Business study
"as mentioned previously, when the promises in a contract have been fulfilled based on the appropriate standard substantial performance, strict performance, or personal satisfaction then the parties are discharged.","Di promises for contract don fulfilled based on di standard substantial performance, strict performance, or personal satisfaction then di parties dey discharge.",Business study
"however, when a material breach occurs, the injured party may bring a claim for damages.",Di injured party go bring claim for damages.,Business study
but that isn't necessarily th e end ofthe story.,Di story no dey necessarily di end of di story,Business study
the breaching party may have a valid reason for breaching the contract.,Di breaching party don get valid reason for breach di contract.,Business study
these valid reasons are known as defenses to contract.,Di valid reasons dey known as defenses to contract,Business study
"bankruptcy discharge is a permanent legal excuse from performance, and it will discharge obligations that are dischargeable by law if the debtor successful fulfills his obligations under the bankruptcy.","Di bankruptcy discharge na permanent legal excuse from performance, and e go discharge obligations wey dey dischargeable by law if di debtor successful fulfill hin obligations under di bankruptcy.",Business study
obligations that are not dischargeable by law will not be permanently discharged by a bankruptcy.,Di obligations wey no dey dischargeable by law no be permanently discharge by bankruptcy.,Business study
"however, during the bankruptcy, the performance of contract terms requiring payment of debt incurred prior to filing the bankruptcy petition is suspended by the court until the bankruptcy is terminated either by successful completion ofthe bankruptcy or by dismissal ofthe case.","For di bankruptcy, di performance of contract terms wey dey requiring payment of debt incurred before filing di bankruptcy petition dey suspended by di court until di bankruptcy dey successful completion of di bankruptcy or by dismissal of di case.",Business study
"formation problems in common-law contracts relate to whether the offer, acceptance, and consideration were valid.","Di formation problems for common-law contract relate to whether di offer, acceptance, and consideration dey valid.",Business study
"for example, if th e offer did not contain the essential terms indefinite and certain form, then that offer will not be valid.","for example, if th e offer did no contain di essential terms inside definite plus certain form, then wey offer go no be valid.",Business study
"if i offered to sell you my house for a fair price, it would not be a sufficient offer because the price term is an essential element, and in this offer it is vague.","Di offer no be sufficient offer because di price term dey essential element, and for dis offer na vague.",Business study
"to say that a house will be sold""for a fair price""is not specific.","Di house go sell""for fair price""no specific.",Business study
"likewise, in a common-law contract, if the acceptance is not a mirror image ofthe offer, then the acceptance will not be valid.","If di acceptance no be mirror image of di offer, then di acceptance no be valid.",Business study
"similarly, if consideration does not firmly commit the parties to the deal, then consideration will fail, as is the case with an illusory promise.","If consideration no firmly commit di parties to di deal, then consideration go fail, as na di case wit illusory promise.",Business study
"for example, if i offered to sell you my house for$150, 000, and you agreed to buy it""if you like it,""then that is not a firm commitment.","for example, if i offer to sell you my house for$150, 000, and you agree to buy am""if you like am,""then na firm commitment.",Business study
"consideration will fail, and the contract has not formed.","Di contract no fail, and di contract no formed.",Business study
"as a practical matter, how can this defense be used?","As a practical matter, how fit dis defense use?",Business study
"the defendant simply needs to show that the contract was never formed in the first place, due to one or more deficiencies information.","Di defendant simply need show say di contract no form for di first place, due to one or more deficiencies for formation.",Business study
"keep in mind, how ever, that if the uniform commercial code (ucc) is the relevant type of law, formation is much simpler than in common law.","Di uniform commercial code (ucc) dey relevant type of law, formation dey much simpler than for common law.",Business study
"for example, all essential elements do not need to be stated indefinite and certain terms(but quantity must be stated), and acceptance does not need to be a mirror image ofthe offer.","for example, all essential elements do no need to be stated inside definite plus certain terms(but quantity must be stated), plus acceptance does no need to be a mirror image of di offer.",Business study
"accordingly, in contracts in which the ucc is the relevant type of law, this defense can be more challenging to successfully mount.","For contracts wey di ucc dey relevant type of law, dis defense fit be more challenging to mount.",Business study
quasi-contract and promissory estoppel are two types of equitable remedies that a court may impose.,E dey two types of equitable remedies wey court go impose.,Business study
"when detrimental reliance is found, an equitable remedy can substitute for consideration.",Di equitable remedy fit substitute for consideration.,Business study
"this allows the court to enforce the terms ofthe ""contract,""even though, technically speaking, there was no contract to begin with.","Dem allow di court to enforce di terms of di contract, even though, technically speaking, no contract to begin wit.",Business study
"quasi-contract is determined when o ne party will receive a benefit from the other unjustly (unjust enrichment), and the party who tendered the benefit reasonably expected to be paid for it.","E dey determined wen o ne party go receive benefit from di oda unjustly (unjust enrichment), and di party wey tender di benefit reasonably expected to pay am",Business study
the party who received the benefit knew that the other party reasonably expected to be paid.,Di party wey receive di benefit knew say di oda party reasonably expected to be paid,Business study
"for example, imagine that your neighbor hired painters to paint his house, but the painters accidentally appeared at your house to work.","Di neighbor dey hir painters to paint hin house, but di painters accidentally appear for your house to work.",Business study
"instead of sending them away, you decided to let them paint your house, but you did not tell them that they were at the wrong house.","I decide to let dem paint your house, but you no tell dem say dem dey at di wrong house.",Business study
"at the end ofthe job, they demanded payment.","Di job, dem demand payment",Business study
you point out that they never had a contract with you.,Dem to show say dem no get contract wit you.,Business study
"while this would be true in fact, the issue is that you would be unjustly enriched by their painting of your house if you were not made to pay.",Di issue na say you go dey unjustly enriched by dia painting of your house if you no make pay.,Business study
"additionally, you knew that the painters would reasonably expect to be paid for their services, and you did nothing to stop them.","We know say di painters go reasonably expect to pay for dia services, and you no dey stop dem.",Business study
this would be a good case for a court to impose the equitable remedy of quasi-contract.,This go be a good case for a court to impose di equitable remedy of quasi-contract.,Business study
"the damages awarded in such case are called quantum meruit, which means""as much as is deserved.""","Di damage wey dey award for such case dey call quantum meruit, wey mean""as much as dey deserved",Business study
the painters will receive the value of their services in damages.,Di painters go receive di value of dia services for damages.,Business study
compare this situation with one in which you were on vacation when the painters painted your house.,Di situation wit one wey you dey on vacation wen di painters paint your house.,Business study
you knew nothing of their presence.,We know nothing of dia presence.,Business study
"in such a case, quasi -contract would not be imposed as an equitable remedy because you were not aware of their presence.","Di case, quasi -contract no fit impose as equitable remedy because you no dey to know dia presence",Business study
"in fact, you would have a potential claim against the painters for interfering with your property and entering your land without your permission.","Inside fact, you go get a potential claim against di painters for interfering with your property plus entering your land without your permission.",Business study
promissory estoppel is another equitable remedy.,E dey another equitable remedy.,Business study
"it is imposed on parties when one party detrimentally relied on another's promise, and to avoid injustice, the enforcement ofthe promise is required.",Di enforcement of di promise dey required.,Business study
"like quasi-contract, when promissory estoppe l is used, there is some formation problem with the contract so, technically speaking, no contract exists.","Di contract wey technically speaking, no contract exist.",Business study
"that is, there are no formation problems.","Di formation problem wey dey, na no formation problems",Business study
"for example, if ap arty lacks capacity to enter into a binding contract, that can be used as a defense.","for example, if party lack capacity to enter into binding contract, wey go use as defense.",Business study
"when people lack the mental ability to understand, they lack capacity.","Dem lack di mental ability to understand, dem lack capacity",Business study
this is the case with minors.,Di case wit minors.,Business study
"though some may certainly understand the terms of a contract, they lack the legal capacity to be bound to it.","Dem certainly understand di terms of contract, dem lack di legal capacity to be bound to am",Business study
that means that they can disaffirm the contract if they wish.,E mean say dem fit disaffirm di contract if dem wish.,Business study
"likewise, someone who suffers from a temporary or permanent cognitive defect lacks capacity to be bound to a contract.","Likewise, someone wey suffers from a temporary or permanent cognitive defect lacks capacity to be bound to a contract.",Business study
"this maybe the case with an infant, a person who suffers from dementia, or a person who has other profound cognitive or mental impairment.","Di case wit an infant, a person wey suffers from dementia, or a person wey dey suffer from dementia, or a person wey no get oda profound cognitive or mental impairment.",Business study
"use of alcohol or drugs may impair capacity, but the courts are reluctant to find this as a convincing defense, particularly if the person voluntarily imbibed in the alcohol or drug use themselves.","Di courts dey reluctant to find dis as convincing defense, particularly if di person dey imbibed for di alcohol or drug use themselves, but di court dey reluctant to find dis as convincing defense, particularly if di person imbibed for di alcohol or drug use themselves.",Business study
"if they were involuntarily drugged, however, then lack of capacity can be a good defense.",Di lack of capacity fit be good defense.,Business study
"if someone does not read or speak the language in which the contract is written, that can also indicate a lack of capacity.","If someone no read or speak di language wey di contract dey written, e fit also indicate lack of capacity.",Business study
"if the subject matter of a contractor the terms ofthe contract are illegal, then the contract maybe void at the outset, or it may become void if the subject matter or the terms ofthe contract become illegal after the contract is formed.","Di contract dey void if di subject matter or di terms of di contract dey illegal, then di contract dey void if di subject matter or di terms of di contract dey illegal, then di contract dey void if di subject matter or di terms of di contract dey illegal if di contract dey form.",Business study
the former case can be illustrated by imagining a contract for the production of illegal drugs.,Di former case go dey illustrate by imagining contract for di production of illegal drugs.,Business study
a defense to performance is that the contract itself concerns an illegal subject matter.,Na defense to performance na say di contract wey dey concern illegal subject matter.,Business study
a court will not step into such a contract to enforce its promises.,A court go no step inside to such a contract to enforce its promises.,Business study
the latter case of illegality ofthe terms ofthe contract is an example of impossibility as a defense.,Di latter case of illegality of di terms of di contract na example of impossibility as defense.,Business study
impossibility is a defense that can be used when performing the contract has become truly impossible.,Di impossibility na defense wey dey use when performi di contract don become truly impossible.,Business study
"for example, if you entered into a contract to do business in a country that was subsequently placed on a no-trade list by the federal government, then you would be excused from performing your obligations under that contract, because it would violate federal law for you to perform as promised.","for example, if you enter into contract to do business for a kontri wey dey subsequently place on no-trade list by di federal goment, then you go excuse from perform your obligations under dat contract, bikos e go violate federal law for you to perform as promised.",Business study
"it would be impossible, and impossibility would be a valid defense.","Am go be impossible, plus impossibility go be a valid excuse for kot.",Business study
"sometimes impossibility does not involve the legality ofthe subject matter or the terms ofthe contract. instead, it might simply be a matter ofthe destruction ofthe subject matter ofthe contract.",Di sometimes impossibility no deyinvolve di legality of di subject matter or di terms of di contract.,Business study
"in our scooter example, imagine that before the transaction was completed, the scooter was crushed by the trash collector by accident.","Di scooter example, imagine say before di transaction dey complete, di scooter dey crush di trash collector by accident.",Business study
"the subject matter of t he contract was destroyed, and so it would be impossible for the offeror to perform.","Di subject matter of t he contract don destroy, and so e go impossible for di offeror to perform.",Business study
the offeror would not need to find another scooter to sell to fulfill the obligations under the contract.,Di offeror no need find one scooter to sell to fulfill di obligation under di contract.,Business study
"instead, he or she would use the defense of impossibility.",He or she go use di defense of impossibility,Business study
"if a party suffers from duress when entering the contract, that party will have a valid defense.","If a party suffers from duress wen entering di contract, na party go get valid defense.",Business study
duress means that the party had no other reasonable alternative but to enter into the contract.,Di party no dey reasonable alternative but to enter into di contract.,Business study
the party was coerced into entering into the agreement.,Di party dey coerced into entering into di agreement,Business study
"for example, imagine that you entered into a contract for automobile insurance.","for example, imagine wey you entered enter a contract for automobile insurance.",Business study
part of your insurance contract requires your insurance company to defend you in the event of a lawsuit arising from a traffic accident.,Part of your insurance contract requires your insurance company to defend you inside di event of a lawsuit arising from a traffic accident.,Business study
"this is bad news, because you will still need to mount a defense.","Dina bad news, because you no need mount defense.",Business study
"you will probably expend a great deal of money defending yourself, not to mention trying to launch a complaint against your insurance company for breach of contract.","You go probably expend a great deal of money defending yourself, no to mention trying to launch a complaint against your insurance company for to break agreement.",Business study
"after spending all of your savings and borrowing just to pay your bills, imagine that your insurance company comes to you with an offer to pay you fifty thousand dollars if you sign a waiver that it has no liability to you.",Di insurance company kom to you wit offer to pay you fifty thousand dollars if you sign waiver say e no liability to you.,Business study
you will probably sign that waiver and take the money.,We go sign say waiver and take di money,Business study
because you have no reasonable alternative.,E no dey reasonable alternative,Business study
"this is an example of economic duress, and it is likely that no court would enforce the waiver for the benefit ofthe insurance company given such facts.","Di example of economic duress, and na likely say no court go enforce di waiver for di benefit of di insurance company give such facts.",Business study
the insurance company forced you into signing an agreement with it that you would not have signed if you had any other reasonable alternative.,Di insurance company force you into sign an agreement wit it say you no get any oda reasonable alternative.,Business study
unconscionability is a defense used when the contract contains markedly unfair terms against the party with less bargaining power or sophistication than the party who created the terms and induced the other party to sign it.,Di contract contains markedly unfair terms against di party wit less bargaining power or sophistication than di party wey create di terms and induce di oda party to sign am.,Business study
"for example, imagine a biotech company discovering a cure for cancer from a plant growing on the private lands of an indigenous people.","for example, imagine biotech company discover cure for cancer from plant wey dey grow on private lands of indigenous pipo.",Business study
"imagine that the indigenous people did not understand the importance ofthe discovery, and they did not understand the value of it.","Di indigenous pipo no understand di importance of di discovery, and dem no understand di value of am",Business study
"if the biotech company offered to pay for the absolute and complete rights to the plant with ten dollars and a bag of flour, that contract might be said to be unconscionable.","If di biotech company offered to pay for di absolute plus complete rights to di plant with ten dollars plus a bag of flour, wey contract might be said to be unconscionable.",Business study
undue influence is a defense that can be used when one party ceases to be able to exercise his or her free will due to the superior power and influence exerted over that party by the other.,Di undue influence na defense wey dey use wen one party ceases to exercise hin or her free go due to di superior power and influence exerted over dat party by di oda.,Business study
"for example, imagine an elderly person who is completely isolated from social contact due to poor health and remote living conditions.","for example, imagine an elderly person wey na completely isolated from social contact due to poor health plus remote living conditions.",Business study
that person might be quite lonely and eager for company.,Wey person might be quite lonely plus eager for company.,Business study
say that an unscrupulous person entered that elderly person's life and exerted influence over that person so that the elderly person really could not exercise his free will any longer.,Di unscrupulous person entered say elderly person life and exerted influence over dat person so say di elderly person no fit exercise hin free go any longer.,Business study
how might this happen?,How might this happen?,Business study
"maybe the unscrupulous intruder is the only human contact that the elderly person has, and maybe he or she led the wealthy elderly person to believe that theo nly way to salvation is by handing over his assets.","Di unscrupulous intruder dey di only human contact wey di elderly person get, and maybe he or she led di wealthy elderly person to believe say di only way to salvation dey by hand over hin assets",Business study
"remember, too, that the statute of frauds requires certain contracts to bein writing and signed by the defendant to be enforceable against the defendant.","Remember, too, wey di statute of frauds requires certain contracts to be inside writing plus signed by di person wey dem carry go kot to be enforceable against di person wey dem carry go kot.",Business study
"if those types of contracts are not in writing, that can be used as a defense to performance.","Di type of contract no dey write, wey fit use as defense to performance",Business study
"contracts for any interest inland, in consideration of marriage, and to pay the debts of another that cannot be performed within one year and contracts for the sale of goods with a price of five hundred dollars or more are all examples of contracts that are required to bein writing to be enforceable according to the statute of frauds.","For any interest for land, for consideration of marriage, and to pay di debts of another wey no fit perform within one year and contracts for di sale of goods wit price of five hundred dollars or more na all examples of contract wey dey enforceable according to di statute of frauds.",Business study
"if a contract exists for these items, but the contract is not in writing, it maybe performed.","Di contract no exist for dis items, but di contract no dey write, e go perform.",Business study
"however, if there is a dispute arising under the contract, it will not be enforced because it violates the statute of frauds requirement for a writing.","If dispute arising under di contract, e no dey violate di statute of fraud requirement for a writing.",Business study
"the statute of limitations is an affirmative defense that can be raised by a defendant to argue that the complaint is being brought too late, by law, to do anything about it.","Di statute of limitations dey affirmative defense wey dey raised by defendant to argue say di complaint dey being brought too late, by law, to do anything about am",Business study
"this means that if a dispute arises under a contract, then the plaintiff must bring a complaint concerning that dispute within a certain time period.","This means wey if a dispute arises under a contract, then di person wey carry case go kot must bring a complaint concerning wey dispute within a certain time period.",Business study
every state has different statutes of limitations for different types of disputes.,Di state don different statutes of limitations for different types of disputes.,Business study
"contracts statutes of limitations range from three to ten years, depending on whether the contract was oral or written, and depending on the jurisdiction.","Contracts statutes of limitations range from three to ten years, based on whether di contract bin dey oral or written, plus based on di pawa of kot to judge case.",Business study
"mistake is rarely a successful defense to contract, but it is a defense nonetheless.","Di mistake dey rarely successful defense to contract, but e dey defense nonetheless.",Business study
mistake does not mean bad bargaining.,Di mistake no mean bad bargaining,Business study
"after all, we have the freedom to bargain badly, and the courts will not step into save us if we do so.","We get di freedom to bargain badly, and di courts no step into save us if we do so.",Business study
"for instance, if you agree to buy a house for$170, 000, but the house is only worth$150, 000, you may have bargai ned badly, particularly if the seller did not deceive you in anyway.","If you agree to buy house for$170, 000, but di house dey only worth$150, 000, you go get bargai ned badly, particularly if di seller no deceive you for anyway.",Business study
the court will not step into rewrite the contractor allow you to use mistake as a defense to excuse your performance.,Di court go no step inside to rewrite di contractor allow you to use mistake as a excuse for kot to excuse your performance.,Business study
"indeed, the court will enforce the terms ofthe contract if it is a valid contract.",Di court go enforce di terms of di contract if e dey valid contract,Business study
mistake refers to something that is truly a mistake either by one party or by both.,Di mistake to talk about something wey dey truly mistake either by one party or by both.,Business study
misr epresentation and fraud are also defenses to contract.,Di misr epresentation and fraud dey defenses to contract,Business study
misrepresentation is when a party makes a false statement that induces the other party to enter into the contract.,Di misrepresentation dey wen a party make false statement wey induces di oda party enter into di contract.,Business study
"fraud is a closely related concept, and it simply means that one party has used deception to acquire money or property.",E simply means say one party don use deception to acquire money or property.,Business study
"often, unscrupulous salespeople will commit fraud or misrepresent the subject matter ofthe contract in such away that the other party will enter into the contract.",Di unscrupulous salespipo go commit fraud or misrepresent di subject matter of di contract for such way say di oda party go enter into di contract.,Business study
"however, fraud and misrepresentation both maybe used as successful defenses in such circumstances.","Di however, fraud and misrepresentation dey use as successful defenses for such circumstances.",Business study
commercial impracticability is a defense that can be used when fulfilling a contract has become extraordinarily difficult or unfair for one party.,Di commercial impracticability dey defense wey dey use wen fulfill contract dey difficult or unfair for one party.,Business study
"frustration of purpose is when the contract has become essentially worthless to one party, though the event giving rise to that state was nonexistent or unknown to both parties to the contract at formation.","Dis frustration of purpose dey when di contract don become essentially worthless to one party, though di event wey dey give rise to dat state dey nonexistent or unknown to both parties to di contract for formation.",Business study
"finally, sometimes a party to a contract files for bankruptcy protection.",Di party go contract files for bankruptcy protection.,Business study
"when that party is required to pay a debt that was incurred before the bankruptcy was filed, that duty is suspended temporarily or permanently when the bankruptcy is filed through the court's automatic stay.","Di party dey required to pay di debt wey dey incurred before di bankruptcy dey filed, say duty dey suspend temporarily or permanently wen di bankruptcy dey filed, say duty dey suspend temporarily or permanently wen di bankruptcy dey filed, say duty dey suspend temporarily or permanently wen di bankruptcy dey filed, say duty dey suspend temporarily or permanently wen di bankruptcy dey filed, say duty dey suspend temporarily or permanently wen di bankrupt",Business study
"in other words, the debt does not have to be paid during the course ofthe bankruptcy.",Di debt no go pay during di course of di bankruptcy.,Business study
"at the conclusion ofthe bankruptcy, if the debtor is successful in bankruptcy and if the contract obligation is a dischargeable debt, then the debt will never have to be paid.","Di conclusion of di bankruptcy, if di debtor dey successful for bankruptcy and if di contract obligation dey dischargeable debt, then di debt no go pay.",Business study
"the debt is, in fact, discharged.","Di debt dey, for true, discharged",Business study
bankruptcy is a defense to performance of contract for debtors who file for bankruptcy protection.,Di bankruptcy na defense to performance of contract for debtors wey file for bankruptcy protection.,Business study
remedies for breach of contract are typically monetary damages.,Di remedies for When person no follow or break the terms of a legal agreement dem made dey typically monetary damages,Business study
"expectation damages, including compensatory and consequential damages, can be recovered.","Di expectation damages, including compensatory and consequential damages, go recover.",Business study
"however, consequential damages may not be speculative.",Di consequential damage no dey speculative.,Business study
"indeed, they must be foreseeable to both parties at the time ofthe contract formation to constitute damages by breach.","Indeed, dem must be foreseeable to both parties at di time of di contract formation to constitute damages by breach.",Business study
"specific performance might be required under certain types of contracts, such as in contracts for land.","Specific performance might be required under certain types of contracts, such as inside contracts for land.",Business study
"for example, in contracts f or real property, the assumption is that land is unique.",Di assumption na say land dey unique,Business study
"importantly, specific performance is not an appropriate remedy for service contracts, given the prohibition against involuntary servitude in the thirteenth amendment to the u. s. constitution.","Importantly, specific performance nano an appropriate remedy for service contracts, given di prohibition against involuntary servitude inside di thirteenth amendment to di u. s. constitution.",Business study
"finally, it is important to note that on breach, the injured party has a duty to mitigate his damages.","Di important to note say on breach, di injured party don duty to mitigate hin damages.",Business study
this means that he must avoid damages by making reasonable efforts to do so.,Di means say hin must avoid damages by make reasonable effort to do so.,Business study
"if a tenant breaches a contract by moving out of his apartment before the lease is over, the landlord will be able to recover damages from that tenant for breaking the lease(i. e, brea ching the contract).","Di landlord go be able to recover damage from dat tenant for breaking di lease(i. e, brea ching di contract).",Business study
"however, the landlord also has a duty to mitigate those damages by trying to find another tenant.",Di landlord don get duty to mitigate those damages by try to find one tenant.,Business study
"parties to the contract must perform according to the relevant standard substantial performance for most service contracts, personal satisfaction, complete performance, or strict performance.","Parties to di contract must perform according to di relevant rule or level substantial performance for most service contracts, personal satisfaction, complete performance, or strict performance.",Business study
"once parties have performed, they are discharged from further obligations under the contract.","Di parties don perform, dem dey discharge from further obligations under di contract.",Business study
"failure to perform according to the requisite standard is a breach, which is a compensable injury.","Di failure to perform according to di requisite standard na breach, wey dey compensable injury.",Business study
a breach maybe minor or major.,A breach maybe minor or major.,Business study
several defenses exist to breach of contract.,Several excuse for kots exist to break agreement.,Business study
"referring to note 6. 47 ""hyperlink: coach mike leach"", what additional information would you need to determine whether coach leach's services fell below substantial performance and were a material breach or whether he substantially performed his contract so that he did not materially breach it?",Di extra information wey you need to determine whether coach leach services fall below substantial performance and dey material breach or whether hin substantially perform hin contract so say hin no materially breach am?,Business study
should coaching services be evaluated based on substantial performance or personal satisfaction?,We need coaching services evaluate based on substantial performance or personal satisfaction?,Business study
"in international business, it is very common for parties to contract not to read or speak the same language.",E dey common for parties to contract no read or speak di same language.,Business study
"if someone sought to enter into a contract with you, but that party could not read the language in which your contract was written, should you enter into that contract with that person?","Di party no read di language wey your contract dey written, should you enter into dat contract wit you, but dat party no read di language wey your contract dey written, should you enter into dat contract wit dat person?",Business study
how can this problem be overcome so that both parties can form a legally binding contract with eachother?,Di problem dey overcome so say both parties fit form legally binding contract wit each oda?,Business study
learn about assignment and delegation.,Learn about assignment plus delegation.,Business study
"explore restrictions on assignment, exculpatory clauses, noncompete clauses, mandatory arbitration clauses, acceleration clauses, and liquidated damages clauses.","Explore restrictions on assignment, exculpatory clauses, noncompete clauses, mandatory to settle matter outside kot with judge clauses, acceleration clauses, plus liquidated damages clauses.",Business study
explore the parol evidence rule.,Explore di parol evidence rule.,Business study
what if y ou formed a contract with a rock 'n' roll band for its services?,If y dey form contract wit rock 'n' roll band for its services?,Business study
"specifically, you wanted the band to play at your nightclub, because you thought that your customers would enjoy the band enough to pay to see it perform.","Di band go play for your nightclub, bikos you thought say your customers go enjoy di band enough to pay to see am perform",Business study
you hired this specific band because you heard that it drew large crowds of paying customers.,Di specific band because you hearsay e drew large crowds of pay customers.,Business study
"imagine your surprise when, as you anticipate the band's performance, you discover that another band one you have never heard of has come to play instead ofthe original contracting band.","As you anticipate di band performance, you discover say another band one you no hear of don play forstead of di original contracting band.",Business study
"on inquiry, you learn that the original band transferred its duties to perform to a lesser known band.",Di original band transfer dia duties to perform to a lesser known band.,Business study
can it do that?,Dem do dat?,Business study
contract elements the terms ofthe contract are important.,Di contract elements di terms of di contract dey important.,Business study
"they may, among other things, foreclose your ability to bring a complaint in court, they may render you unable to be hired in your profession(at least within certain boundaries), or they may limit liability to a party that had a role in causing injury to you.","Di ability to bring complaint for court, dem go render you unable to bring complaint for court, dem go limit liability to a party wey dey carry complaint for court, or dem go limit liability to a party wey dey carry injury to you.",Business study
"if you are not aware of these elements, then you may face an unpleasant surprise if you actin away contrary to the restrictions imposed by those terms.","If you no dey to know dis elements, then you go face unpleasant surprise if you act for way contrary to di restrictions wey dey imposed by dis terms.",Business study
"likewise, contracts possess certain qualities that prohibit parties from acting in certain ways, unless those qualities are expressly waived.","For likewise, contracts possess certain qualities wey prohibit parties from acting for certain way, unless those qualities dey expressly waived.",Business study
"if you are negotiating a contract and you do not like a term, then you should not agree to it.","If you dey negotiate contract and you no like term, then you go agree to am.",Business study
"in law, there is a presumption that you have read, understood, and agreed to each and every term of any contract to which you area party.","Di presumption say you read, understand, and agree to each and every term of any contract wey you dey party.",Business study
arguing that you did not understand or that you did not approve of ap articular term in the contract will not be a valid excuse to performance.,Di arguing say you no understand or say you no approve of particular term for di contract no be valid excuse to performance.,Business study
you should know what you can expect when you enter into a contract.,We go know how you fit expect when you enter into contract,Business study
"as a preliminary matter, it is important to realize that contracts are, by law, assignable and delegable.","Di important to realize say contracts dey, by law, assignable and delegable",Business study
"this means that the rights conveyed by the contract maybe transferred to another party by assignment, unless an express restriction on assignment exists within the contract, or unless an assignment would violate public policy.","Di means say di rights wey di contract don transfer to another party by assignment, unless express restriction on assignment exist within di contract, or unless assignment go violate public policy.",Business study
"likewise, the duties imposed on a party maybe transferred to another party by delegation, unless the contract expressly restricts delegation, or there is a substantial interest in personal performance by the original party to the contract, or if delegation would violate public policy.","Di duties wey dey impose on a party go transfer to another party by delegation, unless di contract expressly restrict delegation, or if delegation go viola public policy.",Business study
"in the case of a band hired to perform at a nightclub, an argument could be made that the original band cannot delegate its duties under the contract because there was a substantial interest in personal performance by the original band.",Di argument suppose make say dior iginal band no delegate dia duties under di contract bikos e dey substantial interest for personal performance by di original band.,Business study
this would render the contract nondelegable.,Di contract nondelegable go render di contract nondelegable,Business study
"to be on the safe side, your contract with that band should have h ad a clause expressly prohibiting delegation.",Di contract wit dat band go get h ad clause expressly prohibiting delegation.,Business study
many students have seen restrictions on assignment in the form of no -sublease clauses in leases with landlords.,Di many students don see restriction on assignment for di form of no -sublease clauses for leases wit landlords.,Business study
do you have a no -sublease clause in your lease?,Dino -sublease clause for your lease?,Business study
"if so, that is a restriction on assignment.","If so, wey na a restriction on assignment.",Business study
this clause is necessary to prevent you from assigning your rights under the lease your rights to inhabit the premises to another party.,Di clause dey necessary to prevent you from assign your rights under di lease your rights to inhabit di premises to another party.,Business study
"it is necessary for the landlord to include that provision expressly if she wishes to prevent you from subleasing the unit, b ecause there is a presumption in law that assignment is permitted unless it is expressly prohibited by the contractor unless the assignment would violate public policy.","Di landlord dey include say provision expressly if she wish to prevent you from subleasing di unit, b ecause di presumption for law say assignment dey permitted unless di contractor unless di assignment go violate public policy.",Business study
"since it is unlikely that letting someone else live in your housing unit in your absence would violate public policy, then the landlord must expressly prohibit the assignment within the original contract if she wishes to prevent tenants from subleasing.","Since am na unlikely wey letting someone else live inside your housing unit inside your absence go violate public policy, then di landlord must expressly prohibit di assignment within di original contract if e wishes to prevent tenants from subleasing.",Business study
a landlord may have avery good reason to wish to prevent subleasing; she may wish to ensure that each tenant is creditworthy prior to allowing the tenant to live in the property.,She go wish say each tenant dey creditworthy prior to allow di tenant to live for di property.,Business study
"note that in delegation and in assignment, the original contracting party is not""off the hook""if it transfers its duties or rights to another party.","Note wey inside delegation plus inside assignment, di original contracting party nano ""off di hook""if am transfers its duties or rights to another party.",Business study
"if the subleasing tenant does not pay the rent, the original party to the lease is still liable.",Di original party to di lease dey still liable.,Business study
"the way to excuse oneself from this liability is to form a three-way novation with the original party and the new party, thereby excusing the exiting party from future liability arising under the contract.","Di way to excuse oneself from dis liability dey form three way renovation wit di original party and di new party, thereby excuse di exiting party from future liability arising under di contract.",Business study
a novation is essentially anew contract that transfers all rights and duties to the new party to the contract and releases the previous party from any further obligation arising from the original contract.,Essentially anew contract wey transfer all rights and duties to di new party to di contract and release di previous party from any further obligation wey dey arising from di original contract.,Business study
restrictions on assignment or delegation are not the only common elements that can be found in contracts.,Di only common elements wey dey found for contracts.,Business study
"for example, you have probably encountered exculpatory clauses.","for example, you don probably encounter exculpatory clauses.",Business study
an exculpatory clause is an express limitation on potential or actual liability arising under the subject matter ofthe contract.,Di exculpatory clause dey express limitation on potential or actual liability arising under di subject matter of di contract.,Business study
"in short, exculpator y clauses are often employed when risk of injury exists.",Di exculpator y clauses dey employ when risk of injury exist.,Business study
they seek to limit one party's liability to another.,Dem seek to limit one party's liability to another.,Business study
you most certainly have signed exculpatory agreements or contracts containing exculpatory clauses if you have participated in any potentially dangerous activity at a club or with an organized group that could incur liability from injuries suffered by its patrons or members.,Di most certainly don sign exculpatory agreement or contract wey dey containing exculpatory clauses if you don participate for any potentially dangerous activity for club or wit organized group wey go incur liability from injuries wey dem dey suffer by dia patron or members.,Business study
"for example, if you join a kayaking club, you will most likely be asked to sign such an agreement to""hold harmless""the club in the event of any accident or injury.","for example, if you join a kayaking club, you go most likely be asked to sign such an agreement to""hold harmless""di club in di event of any accident or injury.",Business study
"however, despite the existence of an exculpatory clause, liability will not be limited(that is, the liability limitations will be unenforceable) when the party who would benefit from the limitation on liability acted with gross negligence, committed an intentional tort, or possessed greatly unequal bargaining power, or if the limitation on liability violates public policy.","Despite di existence of exculpatory clause, liability no be limited(that na, di liability limitations no be enforceable) wen di party wey dey benefit from di limitation on liability acting wit gross negligence, committed intentional tort, or possess greatly unequal bargaining power, or if di limitation on liability violate public policy.",Business study
"imagine that you signed an agreement to engage in kayaking activities with a kayaking group, but the leader ofthe group battered you with her oar because she was angry with you for mishandling your kayak.","I imagine say you sign agreement to engage for kayaking activities wit a kayaking group, but di leader of di group dey angry wit you for mishandling your kayak.",Business study
"since battery is an intentional tort, the exculpatory clause will not protect the kayaking organization from liability it incurred through the actions of its employee.",Di exculpatory clause no protect di kayaking organization from liability wey dey incurred through di actions of its employee.,Business study
another common contract element that you may have encountered is a noncompete clause.,Di common contract element wey you go encounter na noncompete clause.,Business study
"a noncompete clause attempts to restrict competition for a specified period of time, within a certain geographic region, and for specified activities. noncomplete clauses are generally valid against the party who signed it if the time, place, and scope are reasonable.","Di noncompete clause dey valid against di party wey signed am if di time, place, and scope dey reasonable.",Business study
a mandatory arbitration clause is very common in consumer contracts and employment contracts.,Di mandatory arbitration clause dey common for consumer contract and employment contracts,Business study
you have certainly subjected yourself to the restrictions imposed by these clauses if you have signed a contract for a credit card.,Di restrictions wey dey imposed by dis clauses if you don sign contract for credit card.,Business study
mandatory arbitration clauses require parties to a contract that contains such a clause to submit to mandatory arbitration in the event of a dispute arising under the contract.,Dem require parties to contract wey contains such clause to submit to mandatory arbitration for di event of dispute arising under di contract.,Business study
mandatory arbitration clauses frequently foreclose any possibility of appealing arbitration awards in court.,Mandatory to settle matter outside kot with judge clauses frequently foreclose any possibility of appealing to settle matter outside kot with judge awards inside court.,Business study
an acceleration clause commonly exists in contracts where periodic payments are contemplated by the agreement.,Na acceleration clause commonly exist for contracts wey periodic payments dey contemplated by di agreement.,Business study
"for example, if you signed a lease for your housing unit, then you most likely pay rent on a month-to-month basis.","for example, if you signed a lease for your housing unit, then you most likely pay rent on a month-to-month basis.",Business study
"if you breached your lease, you would still owe rent for each subsequent month contemplated by the lease agreement.",Di lease agreement go still owe rent for each subsequent month wey di lease agreement.,Business study
this means that your landlord would have new injury every month that you did not pay.,Di means say your landlord go get new injury every month wey you no pay.,Business study
an acceleration clause accelerates all payments due under the contract on breach.,Di acceleration clause accelerate all payments wey dey due under di contract on breach.,Business study
"this allows the injured party in this case, the landlord to sue for all damages due for unpaid rent under that contract at once, rather than having to bring anew suit each month to seek monthly unpaid rent.","This allows di injured party inside this case, di landlord to sue for all damages due for unpaid rent under wey contract at once, no behaving to bring anew suit each month to seek monthly unpaid rent.",Business study
a liquidated damages clause allows parties to set the amount of damages in the event of breach.,Di liquidated damages clause don allow parties set di amount of damages for di event of breach.,Business study
agreeing to a damage amount before any breach occurs can save money and time spent litigating.,Dem agree to damage amount before any breach occurs go save money and time spent litigating.,Business study
"providing that the liquidated damages clause does not look like a penalty, the clause will be valid and enforced by a court that hears a dispute arising under the contract.","Di clause no look like penalty, di clause go be valid and enforce by court wey hear dispute arising under di contract.",Business study
"for example, imagine that you entered into a contract for the sale of your car.","for example, imagine wey you entered enter a contract for di sale of your car.",Business study
"if the liquidated damages clause provided for two thousand dollars of damages in the event of breach, that will probably be a valid liquidated damages clause, providing that your car is an""average"" car.","Di liquidated damages clause wey dey provide for two thousand dollar of damages for di event of breach, wey go probably be valid liquidated damages clause, provid say your car dey average car.",Business study
"however, if the liquidated damages clause provided for one million dollars of damages payable by the breaching party, then that would not be enforceable by the court because it looks like a penalty.","If di liquidated damages clause wey dey provided for one million dollar of damage payable by di breaching party, then e no be enforceable by di court because e look like penalty.",Business study
the proposed liquidated damages far exceed the value ofthe car that is the subject ofthe agreement.,Di proposed liquidated damage far exceed di value of di car wey dey subject of di agreement.,Business study
"this is not an exhaustive study of possible provisions, though it is a list of commonly encountered elements.","Dis no dey exhaustive study of possible provisions, though e dey list of commonly encountered elements.",Business study
"for example, time of performance is often included as a separate provision.","for example, time of performance dey often include as separate provision",Business study
"however, time for performance is an essential element in common-law contract formation, and without it, the contract may fail due to lack of definite and certain terms information.","Di time for performance dey essential element for common-law contract formation, and without it, di contract go fail due to lack of definite and certain terms for formation.",Business study
"a major assumption made about a written contract is that it is integrated, which means that it contains the entire expression ofthe parties' agreement.","Di major assumption wey dey make about written contract na say e dey integrated, wey means say e dey integrate di entire expression of di parties' agreement.",Business study
"that means that any statements made before the parties signed the contract are not part ofthe contract, unless those statements are memorialized in the contract itself.","Di statements wey dem signed for di contract no dey part of di contract, unless those statements dey memorialized for di contract.",Business study
"in fact, any statements or actions that are not captured within the four corners ofthe contract are considered parol evidence, and they will not be used to interpret the meaning ofthe contract.","Di statement or action wey dey captured wit for di four corners of di contract dey consider parol evidence, and dem no use to interpret di meaning of di contract.",Business study
"properties of contracts include ability to assign, delegate, and exclude parol evidence.","Properties of contracts include ability to assign, delegate, plus exclude parol evidence.",Business study
several types of contracts clauses are commonly used to restrict rights and limit liability.,Di several type of contract clauses dey commonly use to restrict rights and limit liability.,Business study
think of an example of an exculpatory clause that you have signed.,Di example of exculpatory clause wey you don sign.,Business study
for what type of activity would you be unwilling to sign an exculpatory clause?,Di type of activity go you dey unwilling to sign exculpatory clause?,Business study
"if your refusal to sign the exculpatory clause or agreement prevented you from participating in that activity, would you still refuse to sign it?","If your refusal to sign di exculpatory clause or agreement prevented you from participating inside wey activity, go you still refuse to sign am?",Business study
do you think that too many limitations and restrictions can be placed on parties in a contract?,Dem think say too many limitations and restrictions dey place on parties for contract?,Business study
should there be more government regulation and standardization of contract terms between private parties?,Suppose there be more government regulation plus rule or levelization of contract terms between private parties?,Business study
"without contracts, promises would not be enforceable, which would wreak havoc on our financial stability, both individually and professionally.","For contracts, promises no be enforceable, wey go dey wreak havoc on awa financial stability, both individually and professionally.",Business study
the law presumes that people who sign contracts have read the contract and understood its terms.,Di law tok say pipo wey sign contract don read di contract and tok say pipo wey sign contract dey read di contract and understand dia terms,Business study
"ofcourse, contract language includes many terms of art, and simply reading a contract alone may not be enough to fully understand its implications.","Ofcourse, contract language includes boku terms of art, plus simply reading a contract alone may no be enough to fully understand its implications.",Business study
"contracts for important matters should be reviewed and explained by attorneys, so that parties who enter into contracts do not do so without understanding the agreement.",As parties wey enter into contracts no do so without understanding di agreement,Business study
it's important to understand the implications of making promises.,E important to understand di implications wey dey of make promises,Business study
"if those promises carry legal duties, then, barring a defense, the promise will need to be performed so that the obligation or duties arising under that promise can be discharged.","Di promise go need to dey perform so say di obligation or duties wey dey carry legal duties, then, barring defense, di promise go need to dey discharge.",Business study
"if the promise is not performed, and if there are no defenses, then the contract has been breached.","If di promise no perform, and if no defenses, then di contract don breach.",Business study
"breach is an actionable claim, with the goal of recovering the loss and placing the nonbreaching party back to the position that he or she would have been in if the contract had not been breached.","Na actionable claim, wit di goal of recover di loss and place di nonbreaching party back to di position wey hin or she go dey for if di contract no dey breach.",Business study
recognizing fundamental elements of contracts and how to incorporate considerations important to you when entering into them can go far toward ensuring business success.,Di fundamental elements of contracts and how to incorporate considerations important to you wen dey enter into dem go far toward ensuring business success.,Business study
"likewise, the failure to recognize the traps and tricks that can be incorporated into contracts can derail a good business idea.",Di failure to recognize di trap and tricks wey dey incorporated into contracts go dey rail good business idea.,Business study
in some cases it doesn't matter how careful or reasonable the company or individual is they maybe liable for any injury resulting from their actions.,E no matter how careful or reasonable di company or individual dey liable for any injury resulting from dia actions.,Business study
what are torts?,Di tort wey dey tort?,Business study
"what are intentional torts, and how does one defend against an accusation of one?","Di accusation wey dey intentional torts, and how does one defend against accusation of one?",Business study
what is negligence and how does it affect virtually all human activity?,Di negligence wey dey negligence and howe affect virtually all human activity?,Business study
what is strict liability and how does it affect businesses engaged in making and selling products?,District liability wey dey strict liability and how dey affect businesses engage for make and selling products?,Business study
what are the arguments for and against tort reform?,What be di arguments for plus against tort reform?,Business study
"you've probably seen a similar picture of a construction site near where you live, with multiple orange traffic cones(with reflective stripes so they can be seen at night)and a large sign warning vehicles not to attempt to drive on the road.","Di probably see similar picture of construction site near where you live, wit multiple orange traffic cones(with reflective stripes so dem fit see at night)and large sign warning vehicles no dey attempt to drive on road.",Business study
"if you were driving, would you still attempt to drive on this road?","As you dey drive, go you still attempt to drive on dis road?",Business study
"most of us would probably answer no, since the road is obviously under construction and attempting to drive on it may result in severe damage to property(our vehicles)and personal injury.","For most of us go answer no, since di road dey under construction and attempt to drive on e go result for severe damage to property(our vehicle)and personal injury.",Business study
"similarly, pedestrians, skateboarders, and bicyclists will likely steer clear of this road even if it wasn't clearly marked or roped off.","Dem likely, pedestrians, skateboarders, and bicyclists go likely steer clear of dis road even if dem no dey clear or rope off.",Business study
"so if the dangers associated with this construction are obvious, why would the construction workers go through the time and expense of setting up the traffic cones, sign, and tape?","Di danger wey dey associated wit dis construction dey obvious, why go di construction workers go through di time and expense of setting up di traffic cones, sign, and tape?",Business study
the answer has to do with tort law.,Di answer don do wit tort law.,Business study
"a tort can be broadly defined as a civil wrong, other than breach of contract.","Di tort dey defined as civil wrong, oda than When person no follow or break the terms of a legal agreement dem made",Business study
"in other words, a tort is any legally recognizable injury arising from the conduct(or nonconduct, because in some cases failing to act maybe a tort)of persons or corporations.","Di tort na any legally recognizable injury wey dey arising from di conduct(or nonconduct, because for some cases fail to act no be tort)of persons or corporations.",Business study
the other area of civil law that corporations have to be concerned about is contract law.,Di oda area of civil law wey corporations dey concerned about is contract law.,Business study
there are several key differences between torts and contracts.,Di key difference wey dey between tort and contract,Business study
first is the realm of possible plaintiffs.,First na di realm of possible person wey carry case go kots.,Business study
"in contract law, only persons that you have a contract with, or you area third-party -beneficiary to(such as when you are named the beneficiary to a life insurance policy and the company refuses to pay the claim), can possibly sue you for breach of contract.","For contract law, only persons wey you go get contract wit, or you be third-party -beneficiary to(such as when you dey name di beneficiary to life insurance policy and di company refuse to pay di claim), can possibly sue you for When person no follow or break the terms of a legal agreement dem made.",Business study
"in tort law, just about anyone can sue you, as long as they can establish that you owe them some sort of legally recognized duty.","as long as dem fit establish say you owe dem some sort of legally recognized duty, just about anyone fit sue you, as long as dem fit establish say you owe dem some sort of legally recogned duty.",Business study
"the second key difference is damages, or remedies.","Di second key difference dey damage, or remedies.",Business study
"in contract law, damages are usually not difficult to calculate, as contract law seeks to place the parties in the same position as if the bargain had been performed(known as compensatory damages).",As contract law seeks to place di parties for di same position as if di bargain don perform(known as compensatory damages).,Business study
"compensatory damages also apply in tort law, but they are much more difficult to calculate.","Di damage dey apply for tort law, but dem dey difficult to calculate.",Business study
"since money cannot bring the dead back to life or regrow a limb, tort law seeks to find a suitable monetary equivalent to those losses, which as you can imagine is avery difficult thing to do.","Di law seeks to find suitable monetary equivalent to those losses, wey as you imagine na very difficult thing to do.",Business study
"additionally, tort law generally allows for the award of punitive damages, something never permitted in contract law.","Di tort law generally allow for di award of punitive damages, something no dey permitted for contract law.",Business study
"often, the same conduct can be both a crime and a tort.",Di same conduct fit be both crime and tort.,Business study
"if claire punches charlie in the gut, for example, without provocation and for no reason, then claire has committed the tort of battery and the crime of battery.","for example, if claire punches charlie for di gut, for example, without provocation and for no reason, claire don committe di tort of battery and di crime of battery",Business study
that case would be tried based on the civil burden of proof preponderance ofthe evidence.,Di case go dey try based on di civil Di responsibility wey person get to provide enough evidence to prove their case preponderance of di evidence.,Business study
"that same action, however, could also lead charlie to file a criminal complaint with the prosecutor's office.",Dem also lead charlie to file criminal complaint wit di prosecutor office.,Business study
"society is harmed when citizens punch eachother in the gut without provocation or justification, so the prosecutor may file a criminal case against claire, where the people ofthe state would sue her for the crime of battery.","Di prosecutor go file criminal case against claire, wen di pipo of di state go sue her for di crime of battery, so di prosecutor go file criminal case against claire, wen di pipo of di state go sue her for di crime of battery.",Business study
"if convicted beyond a reasonable doubt, claire may have to pay a fine to the people(the government)and may lose her liberty.",claire go pay a fine to di pipo (the government)and go lose her liberty.,Business study
charlie gets nothing specifically from claire in the criminal case other than the general satisfaction of knowing that his attacker has been convicted of a crime.,Di charlie get nothing specifically from claire for di criminal case oda than di general satisfaction of knowing say hin attacker don convicted of crime.,Business study
"therefore, if someone is convicted of a crime, he or she is also automatically liable in civil tort law under the negligence per se doctrine.","If someone dey convicted of crime, hin or she dey automatically liable for civil tort law under di negligence per se doctrine.",Business study
"for that reason, criminal defendants who wish to avoid a criminal trial are permitted to plead""no contest""to the criminal charges, which permits the judge to sentence them as if they were guilty but preserves the right ofthe defendant to defend a civil tort suit.","For dat reason, criminal defendants wey wish to avoid criminal trial dey permitted to plead""no contest""to di criminal charges, wey allow di judge to sentence dem as if dem dey guilty but preserve di right of di defendant to defend civil tort suit.",Business study
"perhaps more than any other area of law, tort law is a reflection of american societal values.",Di tort law dey reflection of american societal values.,Business study
contracts are enforced because they protect our expectation that our promises are enforced.,Di contracts dey enforce because dem protect awa expectation say awa promise dey enforce,Business study
criminal law is the result of elected legislatures prohibiting behavior that the community finds offensive or immoral.,Di result of elected legislatures prohibiting behavior wey di community find offensive or immoral,Business study
"tort law, on the other hand, is generally not the result of legislative debate or committee reports.","Di oda hand, no dey di result of legislative debate or committee report.",Business study
"each tort case arises out of different factual situations, and a jury of peers is asked to decide whether or not the tortfeasor (the person committing the tort)has violated a certain societal norm.","Di tort case arise out of different factual situation, and a jury of peers dey ask to decide whether or no di tortfeasor (the person commit di tort)don violated certain societal norm.",Business study
"additionally, we expect that when an employee is working for the employer's benefit and commits a tort, the employer should be liable.","We expect say wen employee dey work for di employer's benefit and commit tort, di employer go liable.",Business study
"under the respondeat superior doctrine, employers are indeed liable, unless they can demonstrate the employee was on a frolic and detour at the time he or she committed the tort.","Di respondeat superior doctrine, employers dey indeed liable, unless dem fit demonstrate di employee na frolic and detour for di time hin or she committe di tort.",Business study
the norms that society protects makeup the basis for tort law.,Di norms wey society protect makeup di basis for tort law.,Business study
"for example, we have an expectation that we have the right to move freely without interference unless detained pursuant to law.","for example, we get an expectation wey we get di right to move freely without interference unless detained pursuant to law.",Business study
"we have an expectation that if someone spills a jug of milk in a grocery store, the store owners will promptly warn other customers of a slippery floor and cleanup the spill.","We don expectation say if someone spill jug of milk for grocery store, di store owner go promptly warn oda customers of slippery floor and cleanup di spill",Business study
failure to do so might constitute the tort of negligence.,Failure to do so might constitute di tort of negligence.,Business study
"likewise, we expect that the products we purchase for everyday use won't suddenly and without explanation injure us, and if that happens then a tort has taken place.","We expect say di products wey we buy for everyday use no dey suddenly and without explanation injure us, and if we don take place a tort don take place.",Business study
it has been said many times that tort law is a unique feature of american law.,E don tok many times say tort law dey unique feature of american law,Business study
"in asian countries that follow a buddhist tradition, for example, many people have a belief that change is a constant part of life and to resist that change is to cause human suffering.","for example, many pipo get belief say change dey constant part of life and to resist say change dey cause human suffering",Business study
"rather than seeking to blame someone else for change(such as an injury, death, or damage to personal property), a buddhist may see it as part of that person's or thing's ""nature""to change.","Di buddhist go see am as part of say person or thing's ""nature""to change.",Business study
"in countries with an islamic tradition, virtually all events are seen as the will of god, so an accident or tragedy that leads to injury or death is accepted as part of one's submission to god.",Di incident or tragedy wey lead to injury or death dey accept as part of one's submission to god.,Business study
"in the united states, however, the tradition is one of questioning and inquiry when accidents happen.",Di tradition dey one of questioning and inquiry wen accident dey happen,Business study
"indeed, it can be said with some truth that many americans believe there is no such thing as an accident if someone is injured or killed unexpectedly, we almost immediately seek to explain what happened(and then often place blame).","E dey tok wit some truth say many americans believe say no such thing as accident if someone dey injured or kill unexpectedly, we almost immediately seek to explain what dey happen(and then often place blame).",Business study
"torts can be broadly categorized into three categories, depending on the level of intent demonstrated by the tortfeasor.","Di tortfeasor dey categorized into three categories, based on di level of intent wey di tortfeasor dey demonstrate by di tortfeasor.",Business study
"if the tortfeasor acted with intent to cause the damage or harm that results from his or her action, then an intentional tort has occurred.","Di tortfeasor acted wit intent to cause di damage or harm wey result from hin or her action, then an intentional tort don occur.",Business study
"if the tortfeasor didn't act intentionally but nonetheless failed to actin away a reasonable person would have acted, then negligence has taken place.","Di tortfeasor no act intentionally but nonetheless failed to act for way a person wey get sense, wey fit reason like person wey sabi, wey go tok say wetin normal person go think or do for dat kind situation go get acting, then negligence don take place.",Business study
"finally, if the tortfeasor is engaged in certain activities and someone is injured or killed, then under strict liability the tortfeasor is held liable no matter how careful or careless he or she may have been.","For finally, if di tortfeasor dey engage for certain activities and someone dey injured or kill, then under strict liability di tortfeasor dey hold liable no matter how careful or careless he or she go be.",Business study
key takeaways a tort is a civil wrong(other than breach of contract)arising out of conductor nonconduct that violates societal norms as determined by the judicial system.,"Di Tori wey dey important pass, wey person go sabi after dem don read or hear sometin na tort na civil wrong(other than When person no follow or break the terms of a legal agreement dem made)arising out of conductor nonconduct wey violate societal norms as determined by di judicial system.",Business study
"torts protect certain expectations we cherish in a free society, such as the right to travel freely and to enjoy our property.","Torts protect certain expectations we cherish inside a free society, such as di right to travel freely plus to enjoy awa property.",Business study
"there are three primary areas of tort law, classified depending on the level of intent demonstrated by the tortfeasor.","Di three primary areas of tort law, based on di level of intent wey di tortfeasor dey demonstrate.",Business study
explore what constitutes an intentional tort.,We dey explore what constitute intentional tort,Business study
study various intentional torts in detail.,E dey study different intentional torts for detail,Business study
examine the defenses to intentional torts.,Examine di excuse for kots to intentional torts.,Business study
"examine figure 7. 2 ""a coworker attacks"".","Dem examine figure 7. 2 ""a coworker attack""",Business study
the office worker on the right has grabbed the office worker on the left and is strangling him.,Di office worker on di right don grab di office worker on di right and dey strangling am,Business study
"this conduct is clearly criminal, and it is also tortious.","Di conduct dey clearly criminal, and e dey tortious",Business study
"since the tortfeasor here has acted intentionally by grabbing his colleague's neck, the tort is considered intentional.","Di tortfeasor here don act intentionally by grabbing hin colleague neck, di tort dey consider intentional.",Business study
"(it is, in fact, likely assault and battery.)","I dey, for fact, likely assault and battery.",Business study
"in an intentional tort, the tortfeasor intends the consequences of his or her act, or knew with substantial certainty that certain consequences would result from the act.","Di tortfeasor intend di consequences of hin or her act, or know wit substantial certainty say certain consequences go result from di act.",Business study
this intent can be transferred.,Di intent go transferred.,Business study
"for example, if someone swings a baseball bat at you, you see it coming and duck, and the baseball bat continues to travel and hits the person standing next to you, then the person hit is the victim of a tort even if the person swinging the bat had no intention of hitting the victim.","for example, if someone swing a baseball bat for you, you see e coming and duck, and di baseball bat continue to travel and hit di person standing next to you, then di person hit di victim.",Business study
"in addition to the physical pain that accompanies being strangled by a coworker, the victim may also feel a great deal of fear.","For addition to di physical pain wey accompanies being strangled by coworker, di victim go feel great deal of fear",Business study
"that fear is something we expect to never have to feel, and that fear creates the basis for the tort of assault.","Di fear dey something we expect to feel, and say fear create di basis for di tort of assault.",Business study
"an assault is an intentional, unexcused act that creates in another persona reasonable apprehension or fear of immediate harmful or offensive contact.",Di assault dey unexcused act wey create for one person reasonable apprehension or fear of immediate harmful or offensive contact.,Business study
note that actual fear is not required for assault mere apprehension is enough.,Di note say actual fear no need for assault mere apprehension dey enough.,Business study
"for example, have you ever gone to sit down on a chair only to find out that one of your friends has pulled the chair away, and therefore you are about to fall down when you sit?","for example, get you ever gone to sit down on a chair only to find comot wey one of your friends don get pulled di chair away, plus therefore you be about to fall down when you sit?",Business study
that sense of apprehension is enough for assault.,Di sense of apprehension dey enough for assault,Business study
"similarly, a diminutive ninety-pound woman who attempts to hit a burly three-hundred -pound police officer with her bare fists is liable for assault if the police officer feels apprehension, even if fear is unlikely or not present.","Di diminutive ninety-pound woman wey dey tempt to hit burly three-hundred -pound police officer wither bare fists dey liable for assault if di police officer feel apprehension, even if fear dey unlikely or no present.",Business study
physical injuries aren't required for assault.,Di physical injuries dey required for assault,Business study
it's also not necessary for the tortfeasor to intend to cause apprehension or fear.,Am's sef no necessary for di tortfeasor to intend to cause apprehension or fear.,Business study
"the intentional element of assault exists here, because the tortfeasor intended to point the realistic-looking toy pistol at the stranger.",Di tortfeasor dey suppose point di realistic-looking toy pistol for di stranger,Business study
a battery is a completed assault.,Di battery dey completed assault,Business study
"it is any unconsented touching, even if physical injuries aren't present.","Na any unconsented touching, even if physical injuries no dey present",Business study
"in battery, the contact or touching doesn't have to bein person.",Di contact or touching no need to be for person,Business study
"grabbing someone's clothing or cane, swinging a baseball bat at someone sitting in a car, or shooting a gun(or nerf ball, for that matter, if it's unconsented) at someone is considered battery.","For dat matter, if e dey unconsented) for someone dey sitting for car, or shoot gun(or nerf ball, for dat matter, if e dey unconsented) for someone dey considered battery.",Business study
notice that assault and battery aren't always present together.,Di notice say assault and battery no dey present together,Business study
shooting someone in the back usually results in battery but not assault since the victim didn't see the bullet coming and therefore did not feel fear or apprehension.,Shooting someone inside di back usually results inside battery but no assault since di victim didn't see di bullet coming plus therefore did no feel fear or apprehension.,Business study
"similarly, a surgeon who performs unwanted surgery or a dentist who molests a patient while the patient is sedated has committed battery but not assault.",Di surgeon wey perform unwanted surgery or dentist wey dey molest patient while di patient dey sedated don committe battery but no assault.,Business study
sending someone poisoned brownies in the mail would be battery but not assault.,Di sending someone poison brownies for di mail go be battery but no assault.,Business study
"on the other hand, spitting in someone's face, or leaning in for an unwanted kiss, would be assault and possibly battery if the spit hit the victim's face, or the kiss connected with any part ofthe victim's body.","For di oda hand, spitting in someone face, or leanin for unwanted kiss, go be assault and battery if di spit hit di victim's face, or di kiss connected wit any part of di victim's bodi.",Business study
"when someone issued for assault or battery, several defenses are available.","Dem dey sued for assault or battery, several defenses dey available.",Business study
the first is consent.,Di first dey consent,Business study
"for example, players on a sports team or boxers in a ring are presumed to have consented to being battered.","for example, players wey dey sports team or boxers for ring dey presumed to get consent to being battered.",Business study
"self-defense and defense of others are also available defenses, bearing in mind that any self- defense must be proportionate to the initial force.","Di self-defense and defense of odas dey available defenses, bearing in mind say any self defense must be proportionate to di initial force.",Business study
a battery must result in some form of physical touching ofthe plaintiff.,A battery must result inside some form of physical touching of di person wey carry case go kot.,Business study
"when that physical touching is absent, courts sometimes permit another tort to be claimed instead, the tort of intentional infliction of emotional distress (iied).","When wey physical touching na absent, courts sometimes permit another tort to be claimed instead, di tort of intentional infliction of emotional distress (iied).",Business study
"in a sense, iied can be thought of as battery to emotions, but a great deal of caution is warranted here.","Iied go think of as battery to emotions, but a great deal of caution dey warrant here.",Business study
many people are battered emotionally everyday to varying degrees.,Di many pipo dey batter emotionally everyday to varying degrees,Business study
"someone may cut you off in traffic, leading you to curse at him or her in anger.","Someone may cut you off inside traffic, leading you to curse at him or im inside anger.",Business study
"a stranger may cut inline in front of you, leading you to exclaim in indignation.","Di stranger dey cut for line for front of you, leading you to exclaim for indignation",Business study
"a boyfriend or girlfriend may decide to break off a relationship with you, leading to hurt feelings and genuine grief or pain.","A boyfriend or girlfriend may decide to break off a relationship with you, leading to hurt feelings plus genuine grief or pain.",Business study
"none of these situations, nor any ofthe normal everyday stresses of day-to-day living, are meant to be actionable in tort law.","Dis situation, nor any of di normal everyday stresses of day-to-day living, dey meant to be actionable for tort law.",Business study
"the insults, indignities, annoyances, or even threats that we experience as part of living in modern society are to be expected.","Di insults, indignities, annoyances, or even threats wey we experience as part of living for modern society dey expected.",Business study
"instead, iied is meant to protect only against the most extreme of behaviors.",Iied dey meant to protect only against di most extreme of behaviors,Business study
notice that the standard here is objective; it's not enough for the plaintiff to feel that the defendant has acted outrageously.,Di standard here dey objective; e no enough for di plaintiff to feel say di defendant don act outrageously,Business study
"in some states, the concern that this tort could be abused and result in frivolous litigation has led to the additional burden that the plaintiff must demonstrate some physical manifestation ofthe psychological harm(such as sleeplessness or depression)to win any recovery.",Di concern say distort could be abused and result in frivolous litigation don led to di additional burden wey di plaintiff must demonstrate some physical manifestation of di psychological harm(such as sleeplessness or depression)to win any recovery.,Business study
hyperlink: does picketing a fallen soldier's funeral constitute iied or constitutionally protected speech?,Hyperlink: does picketing a fallen soldier's funeral constitute iied or constitutionally protected speech?,Business study
"members ofthe church, led by their pastor, fred phelps, believe that american soldier deaths in iraq and afghanistan are punishment from g od for the country's tolerance of homosexuality.","Di pastor, fred phelps, believe say american soldier deaths for iraq and afghanistan dey punishment from g od for di kontri tolerance of homosexuality.",Business study
church members travel around the country to picket at the funerals of fallen soldiers with large bold signs.,Church members travel around di country to picket at di funerals of fallen soldiers with large bold signs.,Business study
"some ofthe signs proclaim""thank god for dead soldiers.""","Di sign dey proclaim""thank god for dead soldiers""",Business study
"in 2006 members ofthe church picketed t he funeral of marine lance corporal matthew snyder, and snyder's father sued phelps and the church for iied and other tort claims.","Inside 2006 members of di church picketed te funeral of marine lance corporal matthew snyder, plus snyder's father sued phelps plus di church for iied plus other tort claims.",Business study
"the jury awarded snyder's family over$5 million in damages, but on appeal, the u. s. court of appeals for the fourth circuit overturned the verdict.","Di jury award snyder family over$5 million for damages, but on appeal, di u. s. court of appeal for di fourth circuit don turn di verdict.",Business study
"the court found the speech ""distasteful and repugnant"" but pointed out that""judges defending the constitution must sometimes share their foxhole with scoundrels of every sort, but to abandon the post because ofthe poor company is to sell freedom cheaply.","Di court find di speech ""distasteful and repugnant"" but pointed out say judges defend di constitution must sometimes share dia foxhole wit scoundrels of every sort, but to abandon di post because of di poor company dey sell freedom cheaply.",Business study
"it is a fair summary of history to say that the safeguards of liberty have often been forged in controversies involving not very nice people.""[",Di fair summary of history to say di safeguards of liberty don dey forged for controversies involving no very nice pipo.,Business study
"although the standard for outrageous conduct is objective, the measurement is made against the particular sens itivities ofthe plaintiff.","Di standard for outrageous conduct dey objective, di measurement dey made against di particular sens itivities of di plaintiff.",Business study
"exploiting a known sensitivity in a child, the elderly, or pregnant women can constitute iied.","Di elderly, or pregnant women go constitute iied.",Business study
"a prank telephone call made by someone pretending to be from the army to a mother whose son was at war, telling the mother her son ha s been killed, would most certainly be iied.","Di mother wey be from di army to a mother wey dey for war, telling di mother her son no dey kill, would most certainly be iied.",Business study
this is especially true when terminating or laying off employees.,E dey especially true wen terminate or laying off employees.,Business study
such actions must be taken with care a nd civility.,Di such action must take wit care a nd civility.,Business study
"similarly, companies involved in alot of public interactions should be careful of this tort aswell.","Aswell, companies wey dey involved for alot of public interactions go careful of distort aswell.",Business study
"bill collectors and foreclosure agencies must be careful not to harass, intimidate, or threaten the people they deal with daily.","Dem careful no to harass, intimidate, or threaten di pipo wey dem deal wit daily.",Business study
"in one foreclosure case, for example, bank of america was sued by a mortgage borrower when the bank's local contractor entered the home ofthe borrower, cut off utilities, padlocked the door, and confiscated her pet parrot for more than a week, causing severe emotional distress.","Di bank of America dey sued by mortgage borrower wen di bank local contractor enter di house of di borrower, cut off utilities, padlocked di door, and confiscated her pet parrot for more than a week, causing severe emotional distress.",Business study
"the form was supposed to annotate notes about patients, but some pharmacists filled in the form with comments such as""crazy!","Di form dey suppose to annotate notes about patients, but some pharmacists filled for di form wit say""crazy!",Business study
she's really a psycho!,She dey really psycho!,Business study
"do not say her name too loud; never mention her meds by name.""[",Nano say her name too loud; no mention her meds by name,Business study
"there are several forms of this tort, with the most common being misappropriation.","Di most common form of distort, wit di most common being misappropriation.",Business study
"misappropriation takes place when a person or company uses someone else's name, likeness, or other identifying characteristic without permission.","Misappropriation takes place when a person or company uses someone else's name, likeness, or other identifying characteristic without permission.",Business study
"for example, in 1986 model russell christoff posed for a photo shoot for nestle canada for taster's choice coffee.","for example, inside 1986 model russell christoff posed for a photo shoot for nestle canada for taster's choice coffee.",Business study
"he was paid$250 and promised$2, 000 if nestle used his photo on its product.","Dem pay$250 and promised$2, 000 if nestle used hin photo on its product.",Business study
"in 2002 he discovered nestle had indeed used his photo on taster's choice coffee without his permission( figure 7. 3""russell christoff"" ), and he sued nestle for misappropriation.","Inside 2002 e discovered nestle bin get indeed used im photo on taster's choice coffee without im permission( figure 7. 3""russell christoff"" ), plus e sued nestle for misappropriation.",Business study
a california jury awarded him over$15 million in damages.,A california jury awarded him over$15 million inside damages.,Business study
"for example, in 1988 ford motor company approached bette m idler to sing a song for a commercial, which she declined to do.","for example, inside 1988 ford motor company approached bette m idler to sing a song for a commercial, wey e declined to do.",Business study
"the company then hired someone who sounded just like midler to sing one of midler's songs, and asked her to sound as much like midler as possible.","Di company don hir someone wey sound just like midler to sing one of midler's songs, and ask her to sound as much like midler as possible.",Business study
"the company had legally obtained the copyright permission to use the song, but midler sued anyway, claiming that the company had committed misappropriation by using someone who sounded like her to perform the commercial.","Di company don legally obtained di copyright permission to use di song, but midler sued say di company don committe misappropriation by using someone wey sound like her to perform di commercial.",Business study
"an appellate court held that while ford did not commit copyright infringement, it had misappropriated midler's right to publicity by hiring the sound-alike, [6]and a jury awarded her over$400, 000 in damages.","As ford no commit copyright infringement, e don misappropriate midler's right to publicity by hiring di sound-alike, [6]and a jury award her over$400, 000 for damages.",Business study
"in addition to someone's voice, an identifying characteristic can be the basis for misappropriation.",Di identifying characteristic go be di basis for misappropriation.,Business study
"for example, samsung electronics rana series of print advertisements to demonstrate how long-lasting their products can be.","for example, samsung Electronics ran series of print advertisements to demonstrate how long lasting dia products fit be.",Business study
the ads featured a common item from popular culture along with a humorous tagline.,Di ads featured a common item from popular culture along with a humorous tagline.,Business study
"one ofthe ads featured a female robot dressed in a wig, gown, and jewelry posed next to a game show board that looked exactly like the game show board from wheel of fortune( figure 7. 4""samsung advertisement"").","One of di ads featured female robot dress for wig, gown, and jewelry wey dey pose next to game show board wey look exactly like di game show board from wheel of fortune( figure 7. 4""samsung advertisement""",Business study
"the tagline said,""longest -running game show.","Di tagline tok say,""longest -running game show",Business study
video clip: is a single name a likeness or identifying characteristic?,Video clip: na a single name a likeness or identifying characteristic?,Business study
invasion of privacy can also take the form of an invasion of physical solitude.,Di form of invasion of privacy go take di form of invasion of physical solitude.,Business study
media that are overly aggressive in pursuing photos of private citizens may sometimes run afoul of this tort.,Di media wey dey overly aggressive for pursuing photos of private citizens sometimes run foul of distort.,Business study
another important intentional tort for businesses is false imprisonment.,Di important intentional tort for business dey false imprisonment,Business study
this tort takes place when someone intentionally confines or restrains another person's movement or activities without justification.,This tort takes place when someone intentionally confines or restrains another person's movement or activities without justification.,Business study
the interest being protected here is your right to travel and move about freely without impediment.,Di interest wey dey protected here na your right to travel and move about freely without impediment,Business study
this tort requires an actual and present confinement.,This tort requires an actual plus present confinement.,Business study
"if your professor locks the doors to the classroom and declares noone may leave, that is false imprisonment.","Di professor locks di doors to di classroom and declare noone go leave, dat na false imprisonment.",Business study
"if the professor leaves the doors unlocked but declares that anyone who leaves will get an f in the course, that is n ot false imprisonment.","Di professor leave di doors unlocked but declare say anyone wey leave dem go get f for di course, dat dey n ot false imprisonment.",Business study
"on the other hand, a threat to detain personal property can be false imprisonment, such as if your professor grabs your laptop and says,""if you leave, i'll keep your laptop.""","On di other hand, a threat to detain personal property fit be false imprisonment, such as if your professor grabs your laptop plus says,""if you leave, i'll keep your laptop.""",Business study
companies that engage in employee morale-building activities should bear in mind that forcing employees to do something they don't want to do raises issues of false imprisonment.,Di companies wey engage for employee morale-building activities go bear in mind say forcing employees to do something wey dem no want to do false imprisonment.,Business study
"false imprisonment is especially troublesome for retailers and other businesses that interact regularly with the public, such as hotels and restaurants.","For retailers and oda business wey dey interact regularly wit di public, such as hotels and restaurants.",Business study
"if such a business causes a customer to become arrested by the police, for example, it may lead to the tort of false imprisonment.","for example, if such business dey cause customer to become arrested by di police, for example, im go lead to di tort of false imprisonment.",Business study
"in one case, a pharmacist who suspected a customer of forging a prescription deliberately caused the customer to be detained by the police.",Di pharmacist wey suspect customer of forging prescription deliberately caused di customer to detained by di police.,Business study
"when the prescription was later validated, the pharmacist was sued for false imprisonment.",Di pharmacist dey sued for false imprisonment.,Business study
businesses confronted with potential thieves are permitted to detain suspects until police arrive at the establishment; this is known as the shopkeeper's privilege.,Businesses confronted with potential thieves be permitted to detain suspects until police arrive at di establishment; this na known as di shopkeeper's privilege.,Business study
"the detention must be reasonable, however.","Di detention must be reasonable, however.",Business study
"store employees must not use excessive force in detaining the suspect, and the grounds, manner, and time ofthe detention must be reasonable or the store maybe liable for false imprisonment.","Store employees must no use excessive force inside detaining di suspect, plus di grounds, manner, plus time of di detention must be reasonable or di store maybe liable for false imprisonment.",Business study
intentional torts can also be committed against property.,Di intentional torts go also dey committed against property,Business study
"trespass to land occurs whenever someone enters onto, above, or below the surface of land owned by someone else without the owner's permission.","Dem enter onto, above, or below di surface of land wey dem dey owned by someone else without di owner's permission.",Business study
the trespass can be momentary or fleeting.,Di trespass go momentary or fleeting.,Business study
"soot, smoke, noise, odor, or even a flying arrow or bullet can all become the basis for trespass.","Soot, smoke, noise, odor, or sef a flying arrow or bullet fit all become di basis for trespass.",Business study
a particular trespass problem takes place in suburban neighborhoods without clearly marked property lines between homes.,Di particular trespass problem dey take place for suburban neighborhoods without clearly marked property line between homes.,Business study
"children are often regular trespassers in this area, and even if they are trespassing, homeowners are under a reasonable duty of care to ensure they are not harmed.","Dem dey regular threepassers for dis area, and even if dem dey trespasse, homeowners dey under reasonable duty of care to ensure dem no dey harmed",Business study
"this doctrine can apply to pools, abandoned cars, refrigerators left out for collection, trampolines, piles of sand or lumber, or anything that might pose a danger to children and that they cannot understand or appreciate.","Di doctrine fit apply to pools, throw away cars, refrigerators wey dey out for collection, trampolines, piles of sand or lumber, or anything wey dey might pose danger to children and that dem no understand or appreciate.",Business study
"there maybe times, however, when trespass is justified.","Di time dey suppose be, however, when trespass dey justified",Business study
"obviously, someone invited by the owner is not a trespasser; such a person is considered an invitee until the owner asks him or her to leave.","For obviously, someone invited by di owner no dey trespasser; such person dey consider invitee until di owner ask him or her to leave.",Business study
"there may also be times when it maybe necessary to trespass for example, to rescue someone in distress.","Di times wey dem need to trespass for example, to rescue someone for distress.",Business study
trespass to personal property is the unlawful taking or harming of another's personal property without the owner's permission.,Trespass to personal property na di unlawful taking or harming of another's personal property without di owner's permission.,Business study
"if your roommate borrowed your vehicle without your permission, for example, it would be trespass to personal property.","for example, if your roommate borrowed your vehicle without your permission, for example, e go dey trespass to personal property",Business study
the tort of conversion takes place when someone takes your property permanently; it is the civil equivalent to the crime of theft.,Di tort of conversion take place wen someone take your property permanently; it dey civil equivalent to di crime of dift.,Business study
"if you gave your roommate permission to borrow your car for a day and he or she stole your car instead, it would be conversion rather than trespass.","If you gave your roommate permission to borrow your car for a day plus e or e stole your car instead, am go be conversion no be trespass.",Business study
an employer who refuses to pay you for your work has committed conversion.,Di employer wey refuse to pay you for your work don committed conversion.,Business study
"another intentional tort is defamation, which is the act of wrongfully hurting a living person's good reputation.","One intentional tort defamation na defamation, wey be di act of wrongfully hurt a living person good reputation.",Business study
"oral defamation is considered slander, while written defamation is libel.","Di oral defamation dey consider slander, while written defamation dey libel, while written defamation dey libel",Business study
"to be liable for defamation, the words must be published to a third party.","To be liable for defamation, di words must be published to a third party.",Business study
"there is no liability for defamatory words written in a secret diary, for example, but there is liability for defamatory remarks left on a facebook wall.","Nano liability for defamatory words wey dey write for secret diary, for example, but na liability for defamatory remarks wey defamatory remarks wey defamatory remarks wey dey written for secret diary, for example, but na liability for defamatory remarks wey defamatory remarks wey defamatory remarks wey defamatory remarks wey defamatory for facebook wall.",Business study
"issues sometimes arise with regard to celebrities and public figures, who often believe they are defamed by sensationalist ""news""organizations that cover celebrity gossip.","Di issue sometimes arise wit regard to celebrities and public figures, wey dey believe say dem dey defamed by sensationalist ""news""organizations wey cover celebrity gossip.",Business study
"the first amendment provides strong protection for these news organizations, and courts have held that public figures must show actual malice before they can win a defamation lawsuit, which means they have to demonstrate the media outlet knew what it was publishing was false or published the information with reckless disregard for the truth.","Di firstamendment provide strong protection for di news organizations, and courts don hold say public figures must show actual malice before dem win a defamation lawsuit, wey means dem don demonstrate di media outlet know say dem don show di information wit reckless disregard for di truth.",Business study
"this is a much higher standard than that which applies to ordinary citizens, so public figures typically have a difficult time winning defamation lawsuits.","Dem dey higher standard than dat wey dey appli to ordinary citizens, so public figures typically get difficult time win defamation lawsuits.",Business study
"ofcourse, truth is a complete defense to defamation.",Di truth dey complete defense to defamation,Business study
defamation can also take place against goods or products instead of people.,Di defamation go take place against goods or products forstead of pipo.,Business study
"for example, in 1988 the influential product testing magazine consumer reports published a test ofthe suzuki samurai small suv, claiming that it""easily rolls over in turns.""","for example, inside 1988 di influential product testing magazine consumer reports published a test of di suzuki samurai small suv, claiming wey am""easily rolls over inside turns.""",Business study
"product sales dropped sharply, and suzuki sued consumers union, the publisher, for trade disparagement.","Product sales dropped sharply, plus suzuki sued consumers union, di publisher, for trade disparagement.",Business study
the case was settled nearly a decade later after along and expensive legal battle.,Di case dey settled nearly decade later afta long and expensive legal battle,Business study
businesses often make claims about their products in marketing their products to the public.,Businesses often make claims about dia products inside marketing dia products to di public.,Business study
"if these claims are false, then the business maybe liable for the tort of misrepresentation, known in some states as fraud.","Di business go liable for di tort of misrepresentation, known for some state as fraud.",Business study
fraud requires the tortfeasor to misrepresent facts(not opinions)with knowledge that they are false or with reckless disregard for the truth.,Di tortfeasor require di tortfeasor to misrepresent facts(not opinions)wit knowledge wey dey false or wit reckless disregard for di truth.,Business study
"an""innocent"" misrepresentation, such as someone who lies without knowing he or she is lying, is not enough the defendant must know he or she is lying.","Di defendant must know hin or she dey lying, no enough di defendant must know hin or she dey lying.",Business study
"fraud can arise in any number of business situations, such as lying on your resume to gain employment, lying on a credit application to obtain creditor to rent an apartment, or in product marketing.","Fraud fit arise inside any number of business situations, such as lying on your resume to gain employment, lying on a credit application to obtain creditor to rent an apartment, or inside product marketing.",Business study
"here, there is a fine line between puffery, or seller's talk, and an actual lie.","Di fine line wey dey between puffery, or seller's talk, and an actual lie.",Business study
"if an advertisement claims that a particular car is the""fastest new car you can buy,""then fraud liability arises if there is in fact a car that travels faster.","Di advertisement claim say a particular car dey di""fastest new car you fit buy"", then fraud liability arises if di car wey travel faster.",Business study
"on the other hand, an advertisement that promises""unparalleled luxury""is only puffery since it is opinion.","Di advertisement wey dey promis ""unparalleled luxury""dey only puffery since e dey opinion.",Business study
makers of various medicinal supplements and vitamins are often the target of fraud lawsuits for making false claims about their products.,Di makers of various medicinal supplements and vitamins dey often di target of fraud lawsuits for making false claims about dia products.,Business study
"finally, an important intentional tort to keep in mind is tortious interference.",Di important intentional tort to remember dey tortious interference.,Business study
"this tort, which varies widely by state, prohibits the intentional interference with a valid and enforceable contract.","Di tort, wey varies widely by state, prohibit di intentional interference wit valid and enforceable contract.",Business study
"if the defendant knew ofthe contract and then intentionally caused a party to break the contract, then the defendant maybe liable.","If di person wey dem carry go kot knew of di contract plus then intentionally caused a party to break di contract, then di person wey dem carry go kot maybe liable.",Business study
"in 1983 oil giant pennzoil made a bid for a smaller oil rival, getty oil.","Inside 1983 oil giant pennzoil bin make a bid for a smaller oil rival, getty oil.",Business study
"a competitor to pennzoil, texaco, found out about the deal and approached getty with another bid for a higher amount, which getty then accepted.","Di competitor to pennzoil, texaco, found out about di deal and tok getty wit another bid for higher amount, wey getty accept.",Business study
"pennzoil sued texaco, and a jury awarded over$10 billion in damages.",Di jury award$10 billion for damages.,Business study
"a battery is a completed assault, when the harmful or offensive contact occurs.","Di battery dey completed assault, wen di harmful or offensive contact occur.",Business study
the intentional infliction of emotional distress (iied) is extreme and outrageous conduct that intentionally causes severe emotional distress to another person.,Di intentional infliction of emotional distress (iied) dey extreme and outrageous conduct wey intentionally cause severe emotional distress to another person.,Business study
this is a difficult tort to win because of its inherent clash with values embodied by the first amendment.,Dis dey difficult tort to win because of its inherent clash wit values wey dey embodied by First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo).,Business study
"misappropriation is the use of another person's name, likeness, or other identifying characteristic without permission.","Misappropriation na di use of another person's name, likeness, or other identifying characteristic without permission.",Business study
false imprisonment occurs when someone intentionally confines or restrains another person's movement without justification.,False imprisonment occurs when someone intentionally confines or restrains another person's movement without justification.,Business study
"trespass is the entry onto land without the owner's permission, while conversion is the civil equivalent ofthe theft crime.","Di trespass na di entry onto land without di owner's permission, while conversion na civil equivalent of di dift crime.",Business study
"defamation is the intentional harm to a living person's reputation, while trade disparagement takes place when someone publishes false information about someone else's product.","Defamation na di intentional harm to a living person's reputation, while trade disparagement takes place when someone publishes false information about someone else's product.",Business study
fraudulent misrepresentation is any intentional lie involving facts.,Di fraudulent misrepresentation na any intentional lie wey dey involvin facts,Business study
tortious interference is the intentional act of causing someone to break a valid and enforceable contract.,Tortious interference na di intentional act of causing someone to break a valid plus enforceable contract.,Business study
members ofthe westboro baptist church claim that the first amendment protects them from iied lawsuits since they are expressing a political opinion by picketing at soldier funerals.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) protect dem from iied lawsuits since dem dey express political opinion by picketing at soldier funerals since dem dey express political opinion by picketing at soldier funerals.,Business study
the pickets take place on public property and in compliance with local picketing laws.,Di pickets take place on public property plus inside compliance with local picketing laws.,Business study
"if the plaintiffs win the case, the church is unlikely to have the money to satisfy the judgment and may seek bankruptcy.",Di church dey unlikely to get di money to satisfy di judgment and make dem seek bankruptcy.,Business study
do you believe that this conduct is extreme and outrageous enough to constitute a tort?,Di conduct dey extreme and outrageous enough to constitute a tort?,Business study
in 1983 hustler magazine(owned by publisher larry flynt) rana print advertisement patterned after a campari liquor ad campaign.,Inside 1983 hustler magazine(owned by publisher larry flynt) rana print advertisement patterned after a campari liquor ad campaign.,Business study
"the real ad campaign featured celebrities""talking about their first time""in a question-and-answer interview format, slowly revealing that the celebrities were speaking about their first time drinking campari.","Di real ad campaign featured celebrities""talking about dia first time""for question-and answer interview format, slowly reveal say di celebrities dey speak about dia first time drink campari",Business study
"the hustler advertisement featured fundamentalist preacher jerry falwell, who was running a campaign against pornography at the time, and in sinuated that falwell had lost his virginity to his mother.","Di hustler advertisement featured fundamentalist preacher jerry falwell, wey dey run campaign against pornography for di time, and in sinuated say falwell don lost hin virginity to hin mother.",Business study
"falwell sued flynt and the magazine, and a jury awarded falwell $150, 000 in damages.","Di jury award falwell $150, 000 for damages.",Business study
"the supreme court overturned the verdict on appeal on grounds ofthe first amendment, holding that as a public figure, falwell had to endure the advertisement.","Di supreme court don turn di verdict on appeal on grounds of First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo), holding say as public figure, falwell don endure di advertisement.",Business study
"do you believe that an""identifying characteristic""should be protected by the tort of misappropriation, or do you believe that society has gone too far in recognizing property rights?","Di""identifying characteristic""go dey protected by di tort of misappropriation, or do you believe say society don go too far for recognizing property rights?",Business study
"does it make sense to you that comedians like fey and john stewart can make money through misappropriation, but other businesses cannot?","Dem make sense to you say comedian like fey and john stewart fit make money through misappropriation, but oda business no fit?",Business study
"look at the advertisement featured in note 7. 21""video clip: is a single name a likeness or identifying characteristic?""",Di video clip: na single name a likeness or identifying characteristic?,Business study
do you think that the ad is referring to lindsay lohan?,Di ad dey referring to lindsay lohan?,Business study
"has the name""lindsay"" become so linked to lohan that companies run the risk of being sued if they use the name lindsay in advertisements?","Di name""lindsay"" become so linked to lohan say companies run di risk of being sued if dem use di name lindsay for advertisements?",Business study
"what if the advertisement had used a name like""oprah"" or""cher""?","Di advertisement don used name like""oprah"" or""cher""?",Business study
defamation law only protects the living.,Di defamation law only protect di living,Business study
some legal commentators believe that defamation should also protect the dead.,Di legal commentators believe say defamation go also protect di dead,Business study
"turley points out examples of how the dead have been defamed, such as the character of william murdoch in the 1997 movie titanic, where he was portrayed as a murderous nut.","Di character of william murdoch for di 1997 movie titanic, wey dem dey portray as murderous nut.",Business study
"in reality, survivors reported he took heroic actions to save passengers.","For reality, survivors report say he take heroic action to save passengers.",Business study
do you believe defamation should be extended to protect the dead aswell as t he living?,Do you believe defamation suppose be extended to protect di dead aswell as te living?,Business study
learn about whom we owe duties to under the tort of negligence.,Learn about whom we owe duties to under di tort of negligence.,Business study
explore how those duties can be legally breached.,Di duties dey legally breached,Business study
"discuss how causation, both actual and proximate, can affect liability.","Discuss how causation, both actual plus proximate, fit affect liability.",Business study
examine the requirement to demonstrate damages to win a negligence suit.,Examine di requirement to demonstrate damages to win a negligence suit.,Business study
understand various defenses to negligence.,Understand various excuse for kots to negligence.,Business study
"video clip: the crash of continental flight 3407 ordinarily, we don't expect perfectly good airplanes to fallout ofthe sky for no reason.","Video clip: di crash of continental flight 3407 ordinarily, we don't expect perfectly good airplanes to fall comot of di sky for no reason.",Business study
"when it happens, and it turns out that the reason was carelessness or a failure to act reasonably, then the tort of negligence may apply.","Di reason na carelessness or failure to act reasonably, then di tort of negligence go apply.",Business study
"all persons, as established by state tort law, have the duty to act reasonably and to exercise a reasonable amount of care in their dealings and interactions with others.",Di duty to act reasonably and to exercise reasonable amount of care for dia dealings and interaction wit odas.,Business study
"breach of that duty, which causes injury, is negligence.","Di duty, wey cause injury, na negligence.",Business study
negligence is distinguished from intentional tort s because there is a lack of intent to cause harm.,Di negligence dey distinguished from intentional tort s because lack of intent to cause harm,Business study
"if a pilot intentionally crashed an airplane and harmed others, for example, the tort committed maybe assault or battery.","If a pilot intentionally crashed an airplane plus harmed others, for example, di tort committed maybe assault or battery.",Business study
"when there is no intent to harm, then negligence may nonetheless apply and hold th e pilot or the airline liable, for being careless or failure to exercise due care.","Di negligence suppose apply and hold th e pilot or di airline liable, for being careless or failure to exercise due care.",Business study
note that the definition of negligence is purposefully broad.,Di definition of negligence dey purposefully broad,Business study
"negligence is about breaching the duty we owe others, as determined by state tort law.","Di negligence dey about breach di duty wey we owe odas, as determined by state tort law.",Business study
this duty is often broader than the duties imposed by law.,Di duty dey wide er than di duties wey law dey impose by law.,Business study
"colgan air, for example, may have been fully compliant with applicable laws passed by congress while still being negligent.","Colgan air, for example, may get been fully compliant with applicable laws passed by congress while still being negligent.",Business study
"in away, the law of negligence is an expression of democracy at the community and local level, b ecause ultimately, citizen juries(as opposed to legislatures)decide what conduct leads to liability.","Inside away, di law of negligence na an expression of democracy at di community plus local level, b ecause ultimately, citizen juries(as opposed to legislatures)decide what conduct leads to liability.",Business study
"to prove negligence, plaintiffs have to demonstrate four elements are present.",Di plaintiffs don demonstrate four elements dey present.,Business study
"first, they have to establish that the defendant owed a duty to the plaintiff.",Di defendant don establish say di defendant owed duty to di plaintiff.,Business study
"second, the plaintiff has to demonstrate that the defendant breached that duty.",Di plaintiff don demonstrate say di defendant breach dat duty.,Business study
"finally, the plaintiff has to demonstrate legally recognizable injuries.",Di plaintiff don demonstrate legally recognizable injuries.,Business study
we'll address each of these elements in turn.,We go address each of dis elements for turn,Business study
"first, the plaintiff has to demonstrate that the defendant owed it a duty of care.",Di plaintiff don demonstrate say di defendant owed am duty of care.,Business study
"the general rule in our society is that people are free to act anyway they want to, as long as they don't infringe on the freedoms or interests of others.","Di as general rule for awa society na say pipo dey free to act anyway dem want to, as long as dem don infringe on di freedom or interests of oda.",Business study
that means that you don't owe anyone a special duty to help them in anyway.,Di means say you don owe anyone special duty to help dem for anyway,Business study
"for example, if you're driving along a deserted rural highway at night in a snowstorm, and you see a car ahead of you fishtail and drive into a ditch, you are entitled to keep driving and do nothing, not even report the accident, because you don't owe that driver any special duty.","Di example, if you dey drive along deserted rural highway for night for snowstorm, and you see car ahead of you fishtail and drive into ditch, you dey entitled to keep driving and do nothing, no even report di accident, because you don owe say driver any special duty.",Business study
"on the other hand, if you rana stop sign, which then caused the other driver to drive into a ditch, you would owe that driver a duty of care. another way to look at duty is to consider whether or not the plaintiff is a foreseeable plaintiff.","For di oda hand, if you run stop sign, wey dey caus di oda driver to drive into ditch, you go owe say driver duty of care.",Business study
"in other words, if the risk of harm is foreseeable, then the duty exists.","If di risk of harm dey foreseeable, then di duty exist.",Business study
"take, for instance, the act of littering with a banana peel.","Take, for example, di act of littering with a banana peel.",Business study
"if you carelessly throw away a banana peel, then it is foreseeable that someone walking along may slip on it and fall, causing injuries.","As you carelessly throw away banana peel, then e dey foreseeable say someone walking along may slip on am and fall, causing injuries.",Business study
"under tort law, by throwing away the banana peel you now owe a duty to anyone who maybe walking nearby who might walk on that banana peel, because any of those persons might foreseeably step on the peel and slip.","Di banana peel you now owe duty to anyone wey dey walk nearby wey dey walk on dat banana peel, because any of those persons go foreseeably step on di peel and slip.",Business study
an emerging area in tort law is whether or not businesses have a duty to warn or protect customers for random crimes committed by other customers.,Di emerging area for tort law dey whether or no businesses get duty to warn or protect customers for random crimes committed by oda customers.,Business study
"by definition, crimes are random and therefore not foreseeable.","Di definition, crimes dey random and therefore no foreseeable",Business study
"however, some cases have determined that if a business knows about, or should know about, a high likelihood of crime occurring, then that business must warn or take steps to protect its customers.","However, some cases get determined wey if a business knows about, or suppose know about, a high likelihood of crime occurring, then wey business must warn or take steps to protect its customers.",Business study
"for example, in one case a state supreme court held that when a worker at burger king ignored a group of boisterous and loud teenagers, burger king was liable when those teenagers then assaulted other customers.","Di state supreme court tok say wen worker for burger king ignor a group of boisterous and loud teenagers, burger king dey liable wen dem dey attack oda customers.",Business study
the concept of duty is broad and extends beyond those in immediate physical proximity.,Di concept of duty dey broad and extend beyond those for immediate physical proximity.,Business study
the first listener to figure out his location and reach him earned a cash prize.,Di first listener to figure comot im location plus reach him earned a cash prize.,Business study
"one particular listener, a minor, was rushing toward the dj when the listener negligently caused a car accident, killing the other driver.","One particular listener, a minor, dey rushing toward di dj wen di listener dey carry car accident, killing di oda driver.",Business study
"during a negligence trial, the radio station argued that hindsight is not foreseeability and that the station therefore did not owe the dead driver a duty of care.",Di radio station argu say hindsight no dey foreseeability and say di station no owe di dead driver duty of care.,Business study
"the california supreme court held that when the radio station started the contest, it was foreseeable that a young and inexperienced driver may drive negligently to claim the prize and that therefore ad uty of care existed.","Di california supreme court tok say wen di radio station start di contest, e dey foreseeable say young and inexperienced driver go drive negligently to claim di prize and say therefore ad uty of care exist.",Business study
"this lesson apparently eluded sacramento station kdnd, which in 2007 held a contest titled""hold your wee for a wii""where contestants were asked to drink a large amount of water without going to the bathroom for the chance of winning a game console.","Di lesson apparently eluded sacramento station kdnd, wey for 2007 hold contest titled""hold your wee for a wii"" wey contestants dey asked to drink large amount of water without going to di bathroom for di chance of win game console.",Business study
"an otherwise healthy twenty-eight -year-old mother died of water intoxication hours after the contest, which led to a lawsuit and a$16 million jury verdict.","Di contest, wey led to lawsuit and$16 million jury verdict.",Business study
the general rules surrounding when a duty exists can be modified in special situations.,Di general rules wey dey surround when duty exists go modified for special situation.,Business study
"for example, landowners owe a duty to exercise reasonable care to protect persons on their property from foreseeable harm, even if those persons are trespassers.","for example, landowners don owe duty to exercise reasonable care to protect persons on dia property from foreseeable harm, even if dem dey trespassers.",Business study
"if you are aware of a weak step or a faucet that dispenses only scalding hot water, for example, you must take steps to warn guests about those known dangers.","If you be to know a weak step or a faucet wey dispenses only scalding hot water, for example, you must take steps to warn guests about those known dangers.",Business study
businesses owe a duty to exercise a reasonable degree of care to protect the public from foreseeable risks that the owner knew or should have known about.,Di business owe duty to exercise reasonable degree of care to protect di public from foreseeable risks wey di owner know or go know about.,Business study
"there are many foreseeable ways for customers to be injured in retail stores, from falling objects improperly placed on high shelves, to light fixtures exploding or falling due to improper installation, to customers being injured by forklifts in so-called warehouse stores.","There be boku foreseeable ways for customers to be injured inside retail stores, from falling objects improperly placed on high shelves, to light fixtures exploding or falling due to improper installation, to customers being injured by forklifts inside so-called warehouse stores.",Business study
"one particular area of concern for businesses is liquid on walking surfaces, which can be very dangerous.","One particular area of concern for businesses na liquid on walking surfaces, wey fit be well-well dangerous.",Business study
"spilled product (milk, orange juice, wine, etc.","E dey play uct (milk, orange juice, wine, etc.",Business study
professional negligence by these professionals is known as malpractice.,Di professional negligence by dis professionals dey known as malpractice,Business study
"the government estimates that between forty-four thousand and ninety- eight thousand people die each year in hospitals due to medical mistakes, the vast majority of them preventable.","Di goment estimate say between forty-four thousand and ninety- eight thousand pipo die each year for hospitals due to medical mistakes, di most part of dem preventable.",Business study
"a breach is demonstrated by showing the defendant failed to act reasonably, when compared with a reasonable person.","Di defendant don fail to act reasonably, wen compare wit person wey get sense, wey fit reason like person wey sabi, wey go tok say wetin normal person go think or do for dat kind situation.",Business study
it's important to keep in mind that this reasonable person is hypothetical and does not actually exist.,"E important to remember say dis person wey get sense, wey fit reason like person wey sabi, wey go tok say wetin normal person go think or do for dat kind situation dey hypothetical and no actually exist",Business study
"this reasonable person is never tired, sleepy, angry, or intoxicated.","Di person wey get sense, wey fit reason like person wey sabi, wey go tok say wetin normal person go think or do for dat kind situation dey tired, sleepy, angry, or intoxicated.",Business study
he or she is reasonably careful not taking every single precaution to prevent accidents but considering his or her actions and consequences carefully before proceeding.,He or she dey reasonably careful no take every single precaution to prevent accident but consider hin or her actions and consequences carefully before proceeding.,Business study
"in reality, once a duty has been established, the presence of injury or harm is usually enough to satisfy the""breach of duty""requirement.","Di presence of injury or harm dey usually enough to satisfy di""breach of duty requirement.",Business study
the third element of negligence is causation.,Di second one of negligence dey causation.,Business study
"in deciding whether there is causation, courts have to consider two questions.",Di court don consider two questions.,Business study
"first, courts query as to whether there is causation in fact, also known as but-for causation.","Di court query as to whether dire dey causation for fact, also known as but-for causation.",Business study
this form of causation is fairly easy to prove.,Di form of causation dey fairly easy to prove,Business study
"but for the defendant's actions, would the plaintiff have been injured?","For di defendant's actions, would di plaintiff dey injured?",Business study
"if yes, then but-for causation is proven.",For causation dey proven.,Business study
"for example, if you are texting while driving and you hit a pedestrian because your attention was diverted, then but-for causation is easily met, because ""but for""your actions of texting while driving, you would not have hit the pedestrian.","for example, if you dey text while driving and you hit di pedestrian because your attention dey diverted, then but for causation dey easily met, because ""but for""your actions of texting while driving, you no get hit di pedestrian.",Business study
the second question is tougher to establish.,Di second question dey tougher to establish.,Business study
it asks whether the defendant's actions were the proximate cause ofthe plaintiff's injury.,Di defendant's actions dey di proximate cause of di plaintiff injury.,Business study
"in asking this question, courts are expressing a concern that causation-in-fact can be taken to a logical but extreme conclusion.","For asking dis question, courts dey express concern say causation-in-fact fit take logical but extreme conclusion.",Business study
"for example, if a speeding truck driver crashes his or her rig and causes the interstate highway to be shutdown for several hours, causing you to become stuck in traffic and miss an important interview, you could argue that but for the truck driver's negligence, you may have landed anew job.","If a speeding truck driver crash hin or her rig and cause di interstate highway to shutdown for several hours, causing you to become stuck for traffic and miss important interview, you go argue say but for di truck driver's negligence, you go land new job.",Business study
"at some point, the law has to break the chain of causation.",Di law don break di chain of causation.,Business study
"the truck driver maybe liable for injuries caused in the crash, but not beyond the crash.","Di truck driver go liable for injuries caused for di crash, but no beyond di crash.",Business study
this is proximate causation.,Dis dey proximate causation.,Business study
"video clip: palsgraf v. long island railroad company in determining whether proximate cause exists, we once again use the foreseeability test, already used for determining whether duty exists.","Video clip: palsgraf v. long island railroad company inside determining whether proximate cause exists, we one more time use di foreseeability test, already used for determining whether duty exists.",Business study
"if an injury is foreseeable, then proximate cause exists.","Di injury dey foreseeable, then proximate cause exist.",Business study
"if it is unforeseeable, then it does not.",E no dey.,Business study
"in some cases it can be difficult to pinpoint a particular source for a product, which then makes proving causation difficult.","Di case dey difficult to pinpoint a particular source for a product, wey make dem proving causation difficult.",Business study
this is particularly true in mass tort cases where victims may have been exposed to dangerous substances from multiple sources over a number of years.,E dey particularly true for mass tort cases wey victims don exposed to dangerous substances from multiple sources over a number of years.,Business study
"for example, assume that you have been taking a vitamin supplement for a number of years, buying the supplement from different companies that sell it.","for example, assume say you don take vitamin supplement for a number of years, buy di supplement from different companies wey sell am",Business study
after awhile the government announces that this supplement can be harmful to health and orders sales to stop.,Di goment don announce say dis supplement go harmful to health and order sales to stop.,Business study
you find out that your health has been affected by this supplement and decide to file a tort lawsuit.,Dem to know say your health don affect di supplement and decide to file tort lawsuit.,Business study
"the problem is that you don't know which manufacturer's supplement caused you to fall ill, so you cannot prove any specific manufacturer caused your illness.","Di problem dey say you no know which manufacturer's supplement caused you fall ill, so you no prove any specific manufacturer caused your illness.",Business study
"under the doctrine of joint and several liability, however, you don't have to identify the specific manufacturer that sold you the drug that made you ill.","Di doctrine of joint and several liability, however, you don identify di specific manufacturer wey sell you di drug wey make you ill.",Business study
"you can simply sue one, two, or all manufacturers ofthe supplement, and any ofthe defendants are then liable for the entirety of your damages if they are found liable.","Di defendants go simply sue one, two, or all manufacturers of di supplement, and any of di defendants dey liable for di entirety of your damage if dem find liable.",Business study
this doctrine has been used in cases involving asbestos production and distribution.,Di doctrine don use for cases involving asbestos production and distribution.,Business study
the final element in negligence is legally recognizable injuries.,Di final element for negligence dey legally recognable injuries.,Business study
"if someone walks on a discarded banana peel and doesn't slip or fall, for example, then there is no tort.","for example, if someone walk on discarded banana peel and no fit slip or fall, for example, na no tort.",Business study
"if someone has been injured, then damages maybe awarded to compensate for those injuries.",Di damages go dey award to compensate for dis injuries.,Business study
"these damages take the form of money, as there is nothing tort law can do to bring back the dead or regrow lost limbs, and tort law does not allow for incarceration.","Di damages take di form of money, as nothing tort law don do to bring back di dead or regrow lost limb, and tort law no allow for incarceration",Business study
"money is therefore the only appropriate measure of damages, and it is left to the jury to decide how much money a plaintiff should be awarded.","Di only appropriate measure of damages, and e dey left to di jury to decide how much money wey plaintiff go award.",Business study
"the first, compensatory damages, seeks to compensate the plaintiff for his or her injuries.","Di first, compensatory damage, seeks to compensate di plaintiff for hin or her injuries.",Business study
"comp ensatory damages can be awarded for medical injuries, economic injuries(such as loss of a car, property, or income), and pain and suffering.","Comp ensatory damages fit be awarded for medical injuries, economic injuries(such as loss of a car, property, or income), plus pain plus suffering.",Business study
"they can also be awarded for past, present, and future losses.","Dem fit sef be awarded for past, present, plus future losses.",Business study
"while medical and economic damages can be calculated using available standards, pain and suffering is afar more nebulous concept.","While medical plus economic damages fit be calculated using available rule or levels, pain plus suffering na afar more nebulous concept.",Business study
"juries are often left to their conscience to decide what amount of money can compensate for pain and suffering, based on the severity and duration ofthe pain aswell as its impacts on the plaintiff's life.","Di juries dey often left to dia conscience to decide what amount of money go compensate for pain and suffering, based on di severity and duration of di pain aswell as impacts on di plaintiff's life.",Business study
the second type of damage award is known as punitive damages.,Di second type of damage award dey known as punitive damage,Business study
"here, the jury is awarded a sum of money not to compensate the plaintiff but to deter the defendant from ever engaging in similar conduct.",Di jury don award sum of money no to compensate di plaintiff but to deter di defendant from ever engaging for similar conduct.,Business study
"the idea behind punitive damages is that compensatory damages maybe inadequate to deter future bad conduct, so additional damages are necessary to ensure the defendant corrects its ways to prevent future injuries.","Di idea behind punitive damages na say compensatory damages dey inadequate to deter future bad conduct, so additional damages dey necessary to ensure di defendant correct dia way to prevent future injuries.",Business study
"punitive damages are available in cases where the defendant acted with willful and wanton negligence, a higher level of negligence than ordinary negligence.","Di defendant acting wit willful and wanton negligence, higher level of negligence than ordinary negligence.",Business study
"bear in mind, however, that there are constitutional limits to the award of punitive damages.","Di constitution limits to di award of punitive damages, however, say constitutional limits to di award of punitive damages.",Business study
a defendant being sued for negligence has three basic affirmative defenses.,Di defendant wey dey sued for negligence don three basic affirmative defenses.,Business study
"an affirmative defense is one that is raised by the defendant essentially admitting that the four elements for negligence are present, but that the defendant is nonetheless not liable for the tort.","Di defendant essentially admit say di four elements for negligence dey present, but say di defendant no dey liable for di tort",Business study
the first defense is assumption of risk.,Di first defense dey assumption of risk,Business study
"if the plaintiff knowingly and voluntarily assumes the risk of participating in a dangerous activity, then the defendant is not liable for injuries incurred.",Di defendant no dey liable for injuries incurred.,Business study
"for example, if you decide to bungee jump, you assume the risk that you might be injured during the jump.","If you decide to bungee jump, you assume di risk say you go injure during di jump.",Business study
"it's common for bungee jumpers to experience burst blood vessels in the eye, soreness in the back and neck region, and twisted ankles, so these injuries are not compensable.","Di common for bungee jumpers to experience burst blood vessels for di eye, soreness for di back and neck region, and twist ankles, so dem no compensate.",Business study
"on the other hand, you can only assume risks that you know about.","Di oda hand, you fit only assume risk wey you know about.",Business study
"when a person bunge e jumps, one ofthe first steps is for the jump operator to weigh the jumper, so that the length ofthe bungee can be adjusted accordingly.","Di first step dey for di jump operator to weigh di jumper, so say di length of di bungee fit adjust accordingly.",Business study
"if this is not done properly, the jumper may overshoot or undershoot the expected bottom ofthe jump.",Di jumper go overshoot or undershoot di expected bottom of di jump.,Business study
"while you can assume known risks from bungee jumping, you cannot assume unknown risks, such as the risk that a jump operator may negligently calculate the length ofthe bungee rope.",Di risk wey a jump operator don calculate di length of di bungee rope.,Business study
"for example, if there is a spill on a store's floor and the store owner has put up a sign that says""caution slippery floor,""yet someone decides to run through the spill anyway, then that person would lose a negligence lawsuit if he or she slips and falls because the spill was open and obvious.","for example, if there dey spill on store floor and di store owner don put up sign say""caution slippery floor""yet someone decide to run through di spill anyway, then say person go lose negligence lawsuit if he or she slip and falls because di spill dey open and obvious.",Business study
"use ofthe open and obvious doctrine varies widely by state, with some states allowing it to be used in a wide variety of premises liability cases and other states circumventing its usefulness.","Di open and obvious doctrine varies widely by state, wit some states allow im use for wide variety of premises liability case and oda state dey circumvent im usefulness.",Business study
both the assumption of risk and open and obvious defenses are not available to the defendant who caused a dangerous situation in the first place.,Di assumption of risk and open and obvious defenses no available to di defendant wey dey dangerous situation for di first place.,Business study
"for example, if you negligently start a house fire while playing with matches and evacuate the house with your roommates, if one of your roommates decides to reenter the burning house to rescue someone else, you cannot rely on assumption of risk as a defense since you started the fire.","Di example, if you no start house fire while play wit match and evacuate di house wit your roommates, if one of your roommates decide to reenter di burning house to rescue someone else, if one of your roommates decide to reenter di burning house to rescue someone else, if one of your roommates decide to reenter di burning house to rescue someone else, you no rely on assumption of risk as defense since you start di fire.",Business study
the second defense to negligence is to allege that the plaintiff's own negligence contributed to his or her injuries.,Di second defense to negligence nato allege say di plaintiff own negligence don contribute to hin or her injuries.,Business study
"in a state that follows the contributory negligence rule, a plaintiff's own negligence, no matter how minor, bars the plaintiff from any recovery.","Inside a state wey follows di contributory negligence rule, a person wey carry case go kot's own negligence, no matter how minor, bars di person wey carry case go kot from any recovery.",Business study
"this is a fairly harsh rule, so most states follow the comparative negligence rule instead.","Di rule na fairly harsh rule, so most stat dey follow di comparative negligence rule forstead.",Business study
"under this rule, the jury is asked to determine to what extent the plaintiff is at fault, and the plaintiff's total recovery is then reduced by that percentage.","Di jury dey ask say how extent di plaintiff dey fault, and di plaintiff's total recovery dey reduce by dat percentage.",Business study
"for example, if you jaywalk across the street during a torrential thunderstorm and a speeding car strikes you, a jury may determine that you are 20 percent at fault for your injuries.","If you jaywalk across di street during a torrential thunderstorm and speeding car strike you, a jury go determine say you dey 20 percent at fault for your injuries.",Business study
"if the jury decides that your total compensatory damage award is$1 million, then the award will be reduced by$200, 000 to account for your own negligence.","Di jury decide say your total compensatory damage award dey$1 million, then di award go reduce by$200, 000 to account for your own negligence.",Business study
"finally, in some situations, the good samaritan law maybe a defense in a negligence suit.",Di good samaritan law go be defense for negligence suit.,Business study
good samaritan statutes are designed to remove any hesitation a bystander in an accident may have to providing first aid or other assistance.,Di good samaritan statutes dey designed to remove any hesitation a bystander for accident go need provide first aid or o dir assistance.,Business study
"they vary widely by state, but most provide immunity from negligent acts that take place while the defendant is rendering emergency medical assistance.","Dem vary widely by state, but most provide immunity from negligent act wey dey take place while di defendant dey render emergency medical assistance.",Business study
"most states limit good samaritan laws to laypersons (i. e, police, emergency medical service providers, and other first responders are still liable if they act negligently) and to medical actions only.","Most states limit good samaritan laws to laypersons (i. e, police, emergency medical service providers, plus other first responders be still liable if dem act negligently) plus to medical actions only.",Business study
there are four elements to the tort of negligence.,Dem dey four elements to di tort of negligence,Business study
"first, the plaintiff must demonstrate the defendant owed the plaintiff a duty.",Di plaintiff must demonstrate di defendant owed di plaintiff duty.,Business study
"if the risk of injury is foreseeable, then the defendant owes the plaintiff a duty.",Di defendant owe di plaintiff duty.,Business study
"second, there must be a breach of that duty.",Di must be breach of dat duty.,Business study
a breach occurs when the defendant fails to act like a reasonable person.,"Di defendant fail to act like person wey get sense, wey fit reason like person wey sabi, wey go tok say wetin normal person go think or do for dat kind situation.",Business study
professional negligence is known as malpractice.,Di professional negligence dey known as malpractice.,Business study
"third, the plaintiff must demonstrate that the defendant caused the plaintiff's injuries.",Di plaintiff must demonstrate say di defendant don caus di plaintiff injuries.,Business study
both causation-in-fact and proximate causation must be proven.,Both causation-inside-fact plus proximate causation must be proven.,Business study
"finally, the plaintiff must demonstrate legally recognizable injuries, which include past, present, and future economic, medical, and pain and suffering damages.","Finally, di person wey carry case go kot must demonstrate legally recognizable injuries, wey include past, present, plus future economic, medical, plus pain plus suffering damages.",Business study
"defendants can raise several affirmative defenses to negligence, including assumption of risk, comparative or contributory negligence, and in some cases, good samaritan statutes.","Person wey dem carry go kots fit raise several affirmative excuse for kots to negligence, including assumption of risk, comparative or contributory negligence, plus inside some cases, good samaritan statutes.",Business study
does a private investigator owe a duty of care to potential victims of crime if their clients use information obtained by the investigator to commit the crime?,Di private investigator owe duty of care to potential victims of crime if dia clients use information wey dem use di investigator to commit di crime?,Business study
in 2003 a court held the answer is yes.,Di court dey hold di answer na yes.,Business study
"in that case, an internet-based investigative firm charged fees to a client to find out the social security number, place of employment, and home and work addresses of a third party.","Inside wey case, an internet-based investigative firm charged fees to a client to find comot di A special number wey US government give to every person for identification and tax purposes, place of employment, plus home plus work addresses of a third party.",Business study
the client then used the information to stalk and kill the third party.,Di client don use di information to stalk and kill di third party,Business study
"the court held that since the risk of harm is foreseeable, the company owed the third party a duty of care.","Di court tok say since di risk of harm dey foreseeable, di company owed di third party duty of care.",Business study
"see remsburg v. docusearch, inc, 816 a.2d 1001 (n. h.2003).","See remsburg v. docusearch, inc, 816 a.2d 1001 (n. h.2003).",Business study
"in january 2001 anew york man attended a family birthday party at a benihana restaurant, where chefs, while cooking at the table, routinely throw pieces of food for diners to catch with their mouths.","Di new york man attend family birthday party for Benihana restaurant, wey chefs, while cooking for di table, routinely throw pieces of food for dem to catch wit dia mouths.",Business study
"the man wrenched his neck while ducking apiece of flying shrimp, requiring treatment by several doctors.","Di man wrenched im neck while ducking apiece of flying shrimp, requiring treatment by several doctors.",Business study
"by that summer, doctors determined surgery was necessary to treat numbness in his arm.",Di doctors determined surgery dey necessary to treat numbness for hin arm.,Business study
"five months after surgery, he checked into the hospital with a high fever and died.","For five months afta surgery, hin check into di hospital wit high fever and die",Business study
"the family sued benihana for$10 million in damages, claiming that the fever was the result of surgery, which in turn was the result ofthe chef's actions in throwing food at diners.","Di family don sued Benihana for$10 million for damages, claiming say di fever na di result of di chef's actions for throwing food for diners.",Business study
do you believe that benihana should be liable for the man's death?,Dem believe say Benihana go dey liable for di man's death?,Business study
what kind of duty of care do cities that own a nd operate public transportation systems owe to the paying and traveling public?,Di kind of duty of care do cities wey own a nd operate public transportation systems wey dey owe to di paying and traveling public?,Business study
"on february 4, 2010, shaun mills was traveling home on a public bus in jacksonville beach, florida.","Sheun mills dey travel home for public bus for jacksonville beach, florida.",Business study
"he missed his regular stop, so he got off at the next stop.","He miss hin regular stop, so he get off for di next stop.",Business study
the remarkable accident was captured on video.,Di remarkable accident dey captured on video,Business study
mills survived and is suing the bus company.,Di bus company survive and dey sui di bus company.,Business study
"in this case, what defenses are available to the defendant bus company?","Di case, wen defenses dey available to di defendant bus company?",Business study
"medical malpractice claims tens of thousands of lives per year, leaving victims and their families little recourse except through the tort system.","Medical malpractice claims tens of thousands of lives per year, leaving victims plus dia families little recourse except through di tort system.",Business study
"most doctors purchase medical malpractice insurance policies to pay a claim in case they are sued, but in some cases these premiums can be exorbitantly high.","Di doctors purc don get medical malpractice insurance policy to pay claim for case dem dey sued, but for some case dem dey sued, but for some case dem dey sued",Business study
"the fear of medical malpractice suits also drives some doctors to practice""defensive medicine,""which further increases the price of healthcare for everyone.","Di fear of medical malpractice suits sef drives some doctors to practice""defensive medicine,"" wey further increases di price of healthcare for everyone.",Business study
how do you think the legal system can best balance these two competing interests?,How do you think di legal system fit best balance dis two competing interests?,Business study
explore what strict liability is and when it applies.,District liability dey and wen e dey applies,Business study
"understand how a product maybe unreasonably dangerous, triggering strict liability.","Di product dey unreasonably dangerous, trigger strict liability.",Business study
learn about how a product's warnings and labels area part of a product's safe design.,Di product's warning and label dey part of a product's safe design.,Business study
examine defenses available to strict product liability.,Examine excuse for kots available to strict product liability.,Business study
"intentional torts require some level of intent to be committed, such as the intent to batter someone.","Intentional torts require some level of intent to be committed, such as di intent to batter someone.",Business study
negligence torts don't require intent to harm but require some level of carelessness or neglect.,Negligence torts don't require intent to harm but require some level of carelessness or neglect.,Business study
strict liability torts require neither intent nor carelessness.,Strict liability torts require neither intent nor carelessness.,Business study
"in fact, if strict liability applies, it is irrelevant how carelessly, or how carefully, the defendant acted.","If strict liability applies, e dey irrelevant how carelessly, or how carefully, di defendant acted.",Business study
"it doesn't matter if the defendant took every precaution to avoid harm if someone is harmed in a situation where strict liability applies, then the defendant is liable.","Di defendant tok every precaution to avoid harm if someone dey harmed for situation wey strict liability applies, then di defendant dey liable.",Business study
"since this rule can have harsh consequences, it applies in a only few limited circumstances.","Di rule don get harsh consequences, e dey appli for only few limited circumstances.",Business study
one of those circumstances is when the defendant is engaged in an ultrahazardous activity.,Di defendant dey engage for ultrahazardous activity.,Business study
"an ultrahazardous activity is one that is so inherently dangerous that the risk to human life is great if anything wrong happens, so the person carrying out the ultrahazardous activity is held strictly liable for those activities.","Di person carry out di ultrahazardous activity na one wey dey so inherently dangerous say di risk to human life dey great if anything wrong happen, so di person carry out di ultrahazardous activity dey hold strictly liable for dis activities.",Business study
"transporting dangerous chemicals or nuclear waste, for example, is inherently dangerous.","Di dangerous chemical or nuclear waste, for example, dey inherently dangerous.",Business study
"if the chemicals spill, it is very difficult, if not impossible, to prevent injury to property or persons.","Di chemical spill, na very difficult, if no impossible, to prevent injury to property or persons.",Business study
"similarly, businesses that use dynamite, such as building demolition crews, run the risk that no matter how careful they are, people or property could be damaged by intentionally igniting dynamite.","businesses wey dey use dynamite, such as building demolition crews, run di risk say no matter how careful dem dey, pipo or property go dey damage, pipo or property go dey damage by intentionally igniting dynamite.",Business study
"therefore, strict liability applies.","Therefore, strict liability applies.",Business study
"strict liability also applies when restaurants, bars, and taverns serve alcohol to minors or visibly intoxicated persons.","Strict liability sef applies when restaurants, bars, plus taverns serve alcohol to minors or visibly intoxicated persons.",Business study
"this activity is dangerous, and there is a high risk of probability that these patrons, if they drive, will injure others.","Di activity dey dangerous, and e dey high risk of probability say dem drive, go injure odas.",Business study
many states have dram shop acts that impose strict liability in this circumstance.,Di state don dey dram shop act wey impose strict liability for dis circumstance.,Business study
"as with most issues in law, the answer lies in social policy.",Di answer lies for social policy.,Business study
"in essence, strict liability torts exist because businesses that engage in covered activities(such as transporting hazardous chemicals or operating bars)profit from those activities.","For essence, strict liability torts exist because business wey engage for covered activities(such as transport hazardous chemicals or operating bars)profit from dis activities.",Business study
"they are also in the best position to ensure that every precaution can be taken to avoid an unexpected event, which may have catastrophic consequences.","Di best position to ensure say every precaution go take to avoid unexpected event, wey dey catastrophic consequences.",Business study
victims of these events are often innocent members ofthe public who are not in any position to avoid being injured and therefore should not be denied a legal remedy simply because the defendant took prudent precautions.,Victims of these events be often innocent members of di public wey be no inside any position to avoid being injured plus therefore suppose no be denied a legal remedy simply because di person wey dem carry go kot took prudent precautions.,Business study
"this social policy concern is also expressed in the most important area of strict liability application, strict product liability.","Di social policy concern dey also express for di most important area of strict liability application, strict product liability.",Business study
"in strict product liability, any retailer, wholesaler, or manufacturer that sells an unreasonably dangerous product is strictly liable.","Di retailer, wholesaler, or manufacturer wey sell unreasonably dangerous product dey strictly liable.",Business study
"for example, toyota recently disclosed that it had manufactured and sold several vehicle models with faulty accelerators, leading to several cases of unintended acceleration and subsequent deaths.","toyota recently disclosed say e don manufacture and sell several vehicle models wit faulty accelerators, leading to several cases of unintended acceleration and subsequent deaths.",Business study
vehicles that accelerate unintentionally are clearly unreasonably dangerous.,Di vehicles wey accelerate unintentionally dey clearly unreasonably dangerous.,Business study
"in this case, the manufacturer(toyota japan), the wholesaler or importer (toyota's u. s. sales company), and the retailer(local dealers)are all strictly liable for injuries caused by these faulty accelerators.","Di manufacturer(toyota Japan), di wholesaler or importer (toyota's u. s. sales company), and di retailer(local dealers)dey all strictly liable for injuries wey dey caused by dis faulty accelerators.",Business study
"note, however, that strict liability applies only to commercial sellers.","Di note, however, say strict liability dey only to commercial sellers.",Business study
"if a private citizen sold his or her toyota on craigslist, for example, he or she would not be strictly liable for selling an unreasonably dangerous product.","Di private citizen don sell hin or her Toyota on craigslist, for example, hin or she go no be strictly liable for selling unreasonably dangerous product.",Business study
"to demonstrate that a product is unreasonably dangerous, plaintiffs have two theories available to them.",Di plaintiffs don get two diories available to dem.,Business study
"first, they might allege that the product was defective because of a flaw in the manufacturing process.",Dem suppose allege say di product defective because of flaw for di manufacturing process.,Business study
"under this theory, the vast majority of products being produced turnout fine, but due to some sort of production defect, a few samples or a batch turns out defective.","Di most part of product wey dey produce turnout fine, but due to some sort of production defect, few samples or batch turnout defective",Business study
"if these defective samples are sold to the public, the manufacturer or seller is strictly liable.",Di manufacturer or seller dey strictly liable.,Business study
"a light bulb factory that manufacture sa million safe light bulbs, for example, and then manufacturers one that explodes when it is turned on due to some production defect, is strictly liable for the injuries caused.","Di light bulb factory wey manufacture million safe light bulbs, for example, and then manufacturers one wey dey turn on due to some production defect, dey strictly liable for di injuries caused.",Business study
"similarly, a frozen pizza factory that produces thousands of pizzas without any trouble would be strictly liable if one frozen pizza is produced that contains foreign contaminants because of a production defect such as an inattentive worker or machine breakdown.",Di frozen pizza factory wey produce thousands of pizzas without any trouble go be strictly liable if one frozen pizza produce thousands of pizzas wey dey produce without any trouble if one frozen pizza dey produce foreign contaminants because of production defect such as inattentive worker or machine breakdown.,Business study
"here, there is nothing wrong with the manufacturing or production ofthe product.",Di manufacturing or production of di product.,Business study
"rather, the product is defective because it was designed incorrectly or in a manner that causes the product to be unreasonably dangerous.",Di product dey defective because e dey design correctly or in manner wey dey cause di product to be unreasonably dangerous,Business study
"engineers continually work to design products to be as safe as possible, but in some cases the product is nonetheless dangerous, and the manufacturer or seller is strictly liable.","Di engineers continually work to design producects to be safe as possible, but for some case di product no dey safe, but for some case di product no dey safe, and di manufacturer or seller dey strictly liable.",Business study
"for example, starting in 1991 several boeing 737 jetliners began experiencing unexpected movement in the rudder, leading to several high-profile crashes including a usair flight in pittsburgh that killed 132 people.","for example, starting for 1991 several boeing 737 jetliners dey experience unexpected movement for di rudder, leading to several high-profile crashes including a usair flight for pittsburgh wey kill 132 pipo.",Business study
this design defect was eventually fixed by upgrading the rudder control systems on all existing boeing 737s worldwide.,This design defect bin dey eventually fixed by upgrading di rudder control systems on all existing boeing 737s worldwide.,Business study
hyperlink: what's wrong with the tire?,Di tire dey wrong wit di tire?,Business study
"the tires would disintegrate, leading to a loss of control and often a rollover crash.","Di tires go disintegrate, leading to a loss of control plus often a rollover crash.",Business study
"the company initially believed that the problem was limited to the middle east because of unique characteristics there such as extremely hot weather, lowered tire inflation pressures for driving in sand, and harsh operating environments.","Di company initially believe say di problem dey limited to di middle east because of unique characteristics wey dey like extreme hot weather, lower tire inflation pressures for driving for sand, and harsh operating environments.",Business study
"soon, however, vehicles in the united states, especially in hotter regions ofthe country, began experiencing the same problems.","Di united states, especially for hotter regions of di kontri, began experience di same problem.",Business study
the death toll mounted to over 170 deaths and over 700 injuries from these accidents.,Di death toll mounted to over 170 deaths plus over 700 injuries from these accidents.,Business study
"ford's investigation led the company to believe that certain fifteen-inch tires manufactured by firestone were to blame; virtually all the accidents involved firestone tires manufactured in one plant in decatur, illinois (now closed).","Di company tok say certain fifteen-inch tire wey firestone dey manufacture for one plant for decatur, illinois (now closed).",Business study
similar vehicles equipped with goodyear tires rarely experienced tread separation problems.,Di similar vehicle wey dey equipped wit goodyear tires rarely experience tread separation problems.,Business study
"firestone, on the other hand, blamed the ford explorer for being defectively designed.",Di ford explorer dey blamed di ford explorer for being defectively designed.,Business study
"firestone argued that the explorer lacked critical safety features to lower the center of gravity, reduce the propensity to roll over, and lessen the chance of underinflating the tires.","Firestone argued wey di explorer lacked critical safety features to lower di center of gravity, reduce di propensity to roll over, plus lessen di chance of underinflating di tires.",Business study
firestone pointed out that the same tires did not experience any problems when installed on gm vehicles.,Di firestone tok say di same tire no experience any problems wey dem install on gm vehicle.,Business study
"whether the fault lay with a production defect in firestone tires or design defect in ford explorers, both companies were strictly liable.","Di fault lay wit production defect for firestone tire or design defect for ford explorers, both companies dey strictly liable",Business study
"congress also responded, passing a federal law requiring all vehicles to be equipped with tire pressure monitoring systems.","Di congress also responde, pass federal law wey dey require all vehicles to be equipped wit tire pressure monitoring systems.",Business study
"many product liability cases arise from the defective design theory because courts have held that the warning labels on products, as well as accompanying literature, are all part of a product's design.","Di warning label on products, as well as accompanying literature, dey all part of a product design.",Business study
"a product that might be dangerous if used in a particular way, therefore, must have a warning label or other caution on it, so that consumers are aware ofthe risk posed by that product.","E must have warning label or oda caution on di product, so say consumers dey to know di risk wey dey posed by dat product.",Business study
"manufacturers must warn against a wide variety of possible dangers from using their products, as long as the injury is foreseeable.","Di manufacturer must warn against wide variety of possible dangers from using dia products, as long as di injury dey foreseeable",Business study
"if consumer misuse is foreseeable, manufacturers must warn against that misuse aswell.","Di manufacturers must warn say misuse dey foreseeable, manufacturers must warn say misuse aswell.",Business study
"for these reasons, window blinds come with warnings about choking hazards posed by the rope used to raise and lower them, and hair dryers come with warnings about operating them in bathtubs and showers.","Di window blinds kom wit warnings about choking hazards posed by di rope wey dey use to raise and lower dem, and hair dryers kom wit warnings about operating dem for bathtubs and showers.",Business study
"while you may think that these warnings area little silly, keep in mind that products can harm or kill people who don't know how to use them correctly.","Di warnings dey little silly, to remember say products don harm or kill pipo wey no know how to use dem correctly.",Business study
"for example, in one case, a woman traveling in the passenger seat of a gm suv was killed in a low-speed collision in a parking lot when airbags deployed in a collision.","for example, in one case, woman traveling for di passenger seat of gm suv dey killed for low-speed collision for parking lot wen airbags deploy for collision.",Business study
"the woman was killed because her seat was reclined and rather than being restrained by the seat and seatbelt, she ""submarined"" underneath the seatbelt and hit the deploying airbag.","Di woman dey kill because her seat dey reclined and no be being restrained by di seat and seatbelt, she ""submarined"" underneath di seatbelt and hit di deploying airbag.",Business study
"when her family sued gm, the company argued that seats and seatbelts work only when the seat is in an upright position and that the owner's manual warns not to recline the seat when the vehicle is in motion.",Di company argued say seat and seatbelt work only when di seat dey in upright position and say di owner manual warn no to recline di seat wen di vehicle dey motion.,Business study
"the family argued successfully that this warning was not clear and conspicuous enough, and that as a result many people travel with their seat reclined.","Di family argued successfully say dis warning no clear and conspicuous enough, and say as result many pipo travel wit dia seat reclined.",Business study
do y ou believe the lack of a clear and conspicuous warning about the danger of traveling with the seat reclined makes a vehicle's design defective?,Do y ou believe di lack of a clear plus conspicuous warning about di danger of traveling with di seat reclined dey make a vehicle's design defective?,Business study
hyperlink: a near-fatal mistake due to labeling?,Di near-fatal mistake wey dey label?,Business study
in november 2007 actor dennis quaid and his wife kimberly were celebrating the birth of their newborn twins at cedars -sinai medical center in los angeles.,Di actor dennis quaid and hin wife kimberly dey celebrat di birth of dia newborn twins for cedars -sinai medical center for los angeles,Business study
"the twins suffered a staph infection, and doctors prescribed a blood thinner to prevent blood clots.","Di twins suffered a staph infection, plus doctors prescribed a blood thinner to prevent blood clots.",Business study
"the blood thinner, heparin, comes in two doses, with the heavier dose one thousand times more potent than the lower dose.","Di blood thinner, heparin, comes inside two doses, with di heavier dose one thousand times more potent than di lower dose.",Business study
"however, the two doses come in similar packaging with blue labels.",Di two doses dey similar packaging wit blue label.,Business study
"nurses at the hospital inadvertently gave the twins the higher dose, nearly killing the twins.","Di nurses for di hospital don give di twins di higher dose, nearly killing di twins",Business study
"in indianapolis earlier that year, three premature infants did in fact die from overdosing on heparin.",Di three premature for fants don for true die from overdosing on heparin.,Business study
"the quaids are suing the manufacturer, arguing that the labels on the drug represent a design defect because it is too easy to confuse the two doses.","Di quaids dey suing di manufacturer, arguin say di label on di drug represent design defect bikos e dey too easy to confuse di two doses.",Business study
"the manufacturer, baxter healthcare, has since changed t he design to include a red warning label that must be torn off before the drug can be used.","Di manufacturer, baxter healthcare, don change t he design to include red warning label wey must dey torn off before di drug go use.",Business study
there are several defenses to strict product liability.,There be several excuse for kots to strict product liability.,Business study
"since product liability is strict liability, the plaintiff's contributory or comparative negligence is not a defense.",Di plaintiff's contributory or comparative negligence no dey defense.,Business study
"however, assumption of risk can be a defense.","Assumption of risk don be defense, however, assumption of risk don be defense.",Business study
"as in negligence, the user must know ofthe risk of harm and voluntarily assume that risk.",Di user must know of di risk of harm and voluntarily assume say risk.,Business study
"for example, someone cutting carrots with a sharp knife voluntarily assumes the risk that the knife may slip and cut him or her, meaning he or she cannot sue the knife manufacturer.","for example, someone cutting carrots wit sharp knife voluntarily assum di risk say di knife fit slip and cut him or her, meaning he or she no sue di knife manufacturer.",Business study
product misuse is another defense to strict product liability.,Na one defense to strict product liability.,Business study
"if the consumer misuses the product in away that is unforeseeable by the manufacturer, then strict liability does not apply.","Di consumer misuse di product for way wey dey unforeseeable by di manufacturer, then strict liability no apply.",Business study
"modifying a lawn mower to operate as a go-kart, for instance, is product misuse.","for example, dey product misuse.",Business study
"note that manufacturers are still liable for any misuse that is foreseeable, and they must take steps to warn against that misuse.","Dem still liable for any misuse wey dey foreseeable, and dem must take steps to warn against say misuse.",Business study
a related defense is known as the commonly known danger doctrine.,Di commonly known danger doctrine dey known as di common danger doctrine.,Business study
"if a manufacturer can convince a jury that the plaintiff's injury resulted from a commonly known danger, then the defendant may escape liability.","Di plaintiff's injury result from commonly known danger, then di defendant go escape liability.",Business study
carrying out ultrahazardous activities results in strict liability for defendants.,Di defendants dey carry out ultrahazardous activities results for strict liability for defendants.,Business study
another area where strict liability applies is in the serving of alcohol to minors or visibly intoxicated persons.,Di area wey strict liability applies na in di serving of alcohol to minors or visibly intoxicated persons.,Business study
"a large area of strict liability applies to the manufacture, distribution, and sale of unreasonably dangerous products.","A large area of strict liability applies to di manufacture, distribution, plus sale of unreasonably dangerous products.",Business study
"products can be unreasonably dangerous because of a production defect, design defect, or both.","Products fit be unreasonably dangerous because of a production defect, design defect, or both.",Business study
"a product's warnings and documentation area part of a product's design, and therefore inadequate warnings can be a basis for strict product liability.","A product's warnings plus documentation be apart of a product's design, plus therefore inadequate warnings fit be a basis for strict product liability.",Business study
"assumption of risk, product misuse, and commonly known dangers are all defenses to strict product liability.","Assumption of risk, product misuse, plus commonly known dangers be all excuse for kot s to strict product liability.",Business study
is the risk of death from smoking a commonly known danger?,Na di risk of death from smoking a commonly known danger?,Business study
"it maybe today, but in the fifties and sixties, the tobacco industry undertook an extraordinary campaign to convince the public that there was no harm in smoking cigarettes, and even suggested that smoking may have health benefits.","Di tobacco industry undertook extraordinary campaign to convince di public say no harm for smoking cigarettes, and even suggest say smoking no get health benefit.",Business study
should older plaintiffs who grew up viewing these advertisements be allowed to sue tobacco companies under strict product liability?,Suppose older person wey carry case go kots wey grew up viewing these advertisements be allowed to sue tobacco companies under strict product liability?,Business study
is fast food or restaurant food an unreasonably dangerous product?,Na fast food or restaurant food an unreasonably dangerous product?,Business study
you maybe surprised at exactly how bad these food products can be for you.,Di food products dey bad for you.,Business study
for an example of how unhealthy eating out at italian restaurants can be.,for example of how unhealthy eating out for italian restaurants fit be.,Business study
should these food producers therefore take steps to make their product less dangerous or to warn about the dangers of overconsumption?,Suppose these food producers therefore take steps to make dia product less dangerous or to warn about di dangers of overconsumption?,Business study
should congress pass legislation such as the personal responsibility in food consumption act to immunize the food industry from product liability suits?,Suppose congress pass legislation such as di personal responsibility inside food consumption act to immunize di food industry from product liability suits?,Business study
"stella liebeck, an elderly grandmother, received third-degree burns when she spilled coffee purchased at a mcdonald's drive-through.","Stella liebeck, an elderly grandmother, received third-degree burns when e spilled coffee purchased at a mcdonald's drive-through.",Business study
"at trial, experts testified that mcdonald's coffee was too hot to be consumed at the point of purchase, was hotter than any other restaurant's coffee or coffee brewed at home, and was so hot that third-degree burns would result within three to five seconds of coming into contact with the skin.","Di experts test say mcdonald's coffee dey too hot to be consumed for di point of purchase, na hotter than any oda restaurant's coffee or coffee wey dey brew for home, and na so hot say third degree burns go result within three to five seconds of coming into contact wit di skin.",Business study
"mcdonald's also conceded that the coffee was brewed extremely hot for commercial(profit) reasons, because most customers wanted coffee to be hot throughout their commute.","Dem concede say di coffee dey brew extremely hot for commercial(profit) reasons, because most customers dey want coffee to be hot throughout dia commute.",Business study
"after finding the company liable, the jury awarded mrs. liebeck two days' worth of coffee sales at mcdonald's, an amount equivalent to$2. 7 million, in punitive damages.","Dem award mrs. liebeck two days' worth of coffee sales for mcdonald's, an amount equivalent to$2. 7 million, for punitive damages.",Business study
"the award, although reduced to much less than that, set off a firestorm of criticism that has not died down to this day.","Di award, although reduce to much less than dat, set off firestorm of criticism wey no dey down to dis day.",Business study
do you believe that it's possible for coffee to be unreasonably dangerous?,Dem believe say e possible for coffee to be unreasonably dangerous?,Business study
"although it has endured for many years, recent debates have sought to recast the viability of tort law in political terms.",Di recent debates don sought to recast di viability of tort law for political terms.,Business study
"the republican party platform, for example, maintains that the rule of tort trial lawyers threatens america's""global competitiveness, denies americans access to the quality of justice they deserve, and puts every small business one lawsuit away from bankruptcy.""[","Di republican party platform, for example, maintain say di rule of tort trial lawyers threaten America's""global competitiveness, denies America access to di quality of justice wey dem deserve, and put every small business one lawsuit away from bankruptcy.",Business study
"consumer rights activists, on the other hand(and often backed by plaintiff lawyer groups), believe that tort lawsuits are the most effective way to keep corporations honest and prevent them from putting profits before safety.","For di oda hand(and often back by plaintiff lawyer groups), believe say tort lawsuits dey di most effective way to keep corporations honest and prevent dem from putting profit before safety.",Business study
"this debate has led to several proposals for tort reform among the various states, or by the federal government.","Di debate don led to several proposals for tort reform among di various state, or by di federal goment.",Business study
these reforms can take several different forms.,These reforms fit take several different forms.,Business study
one common reform is to impose a statute of repose on product liability claims.,One common reform nato impose a statute of repose on product liability claims.,Business study
these statutes function like a statute of limitations and bar plaintiffs from filing tort claims after a certain period of time has lapsed.,These statutes function like a time wey law give to report case plus bar person wey carry case go kots from filing tort claims after a certain period of time don get lapsed.,Business study
"for example, in 1994 president clinton signed the general aviation revitalization act into law, imposing an eighteen-year statute of repose on product liability claims brought against general aviation aircraft manufacturers such as cessna and piper.","for example, for 1994 president clinton sign di general aviation revitalization act into law, impose eighteen-year statute of repose on product liability claims wey dey against general aviation aircraft manufacturers such as cessna and piper.",Business study
the law allowed these manufacturers to once again launch new light aircraft production in the united states.,Di law allowed dis manufacturers to launch new light aircraft production for di united state.,Business study
another popular tort reform is a cap on punitive damages.,Di popular tort reform na cap on punitive damages.,Business study
"president george w. bush supported a nationwide punitive damage cap of$250, 000 for medical malpractice claims, but congress did not pass any such law.","President george w. bush supported a nationwide punitive damage cap of$250, 000 for medical malpractice claims, but congress did no pass any such law.",Business study
"other reforms call for eliminating defective design as a basis for recovery, barring any claims if a product has been modified by the consumer in anyway, and allowing for the state-of-the-art defense(if something was""state ofthe art""at the time it was produced then no strict liability can apply).","Di reform call for eliminate defective design as a basis for recovery, barring any claims if product don dey modified by di consumer for anyway, and allow for di state-of-art defense(if something dey state of di art defense(if something dey state of di art wey dey produce, and allow for di state-of-art defense(if something dey state of di art wey dey produce, and allow for di state-of-art defense(if something dey modified by di consumer for anyway,",Business study
occasionally congress passes legislation that provides industry-wide tort lawsuit protection for certain industries.,Dem pass legislation wey provide industry-wide tort lawsuit protection for certain industries.,Business study
"for example, in 2005 president george w. bush signed the protection of lawful commerce in arms act.",Di president george w. bush sign di protection of lawful commerce for arms act.,Business study
the law shields firearm manufacturers and dealers from product liability lawsuits for crimes committed with their products.,Di law shields firearm manufacturers plus dealers from product liability lawsuits for crimes committed with dia products.,Business study
"most recently, drug manufacturers hoped for industry-wide protection by arguing that if the food and drug administration approved drug labels, labeling lawsuits would be preempted by the constitution.","Di drug manufacturers hope for industry-wide protection by arguing say if di food and drug administration approve drug label, label lawsuits go dey preempted by di constitution.",Business study
the supreme court rejected this argument in 2009.,Di supreme court reject dis argument for 2009.,Business study
"all businesses, of all sizes and across all industries, must maintain a keen understanding ofthe duties and responsibilities imposed by tort law.","All businesses, of all sizes plus across all industries, must maintain a keen understanding of di duties plus responsibilities imposed by tort law.",Business study
"being able to understand, and even embrace, these duties can help businesses thrive while keeping consumers and customers safe.","E dey able to understand, and even embrace, dis duties go help businesses thrive while keeping consumers and customers safe",Business study
you will also learn about methods of acquisition and transfer of real property.,You go sef learn about methods of acquisition plus transfer of real property.,Business study
what is the difference between real property and personal property?,What na di difference between real property plus personal property?,Business study
how is ownership interest in personal property transferred?,How dey ownership interest for personal property transferred?,Business study
what interests in real property exist?,Di interests for real property exist?,Business study
how is real property acquired and transferred?,How dey real property acquired and transferred?,Business study
what legal relationships exist between landlord and tenants?,What legal relationships exist between landlord plus tenants?,Business study
the concepts of property and ownership are fundamental to any society.,Di concept of property and ownership dey fundamental to any society.,Business study
property refers to tangible and intangible items that can be owned.,Di property to talk about tangible and intangible items wey dey owned,Business study
ownership is a concept that means the right to exclude others.,Di right to exclude odas,Business study
disputes over both have been at the root of conflicts and wars since time immemorial.,Disputes over both get been at di root of conflicts plus wars since time immemorial.,Business study
"without laws to protect property ownership, the stability of our society would be seriously undermined.",Di stability of awa society go be seriously undermined.,Business study
"for example, if law did not protect ownership interests in property, then people would have to protect their property themselves.","If law no protect ownership interest for property, then pipo go get to protect dia property themselves.",Business study
"this means that people would have to hire their own security forces to protect their property, or they would have to stand guard over their property personally.","Di means say pipo go need hire dia own security forces to protect dia property, or dem go stand guard over dia property personally.",Business study
it would be difficult to get anything else done.,E go dey difficult to get anything else done,Business study
such a system would likely result in the development of powerful factions.,Di system go likely result for di development of powerful factions.,Business study
"those with the greatest power would dominate property ownership, and weaker members of society would beat their mercy.","Those with di greatest power go dominate property ownership, plus weaker members of society go beat di ir mercy.",Business study
"for example, one ofthe opening scenes ofthe movie black hawk down illustrates a u. n. food distribution point in mogadishu, somalia.","for example, one of di opening scenes of di movie black hawk down illustrates a u. n. food distribution point inside mogadishu, somalia.",Business study
"as depicted in that scene, people were waiting to receive the distribution of food, but a powerful, armed faction seized the cargo and opened fire on them.","Di scene, pipo dey wait to receive di distribution of food, but powerful, armed faction seize di cargo and opened fire on dem",Business study
"obviously, such a system of property ownership would prove to be very unsettling, and it would lead to great instability in our economic system.","Obviously, such a system of property ownership go prove to be well-well unsettling, plus am go lead to great inhow things take relax well inside awa economic system.",Business study
it punishes those who operate outside of those rules.,Dem punish those wey dey operate outside of those rules.,Business study
"indeed, those who do not acquire property lawfully or who do not settle property disputes within the confines of our legal system are subjected to criminal and civil penalties.","But indeed, those wey no acquire property lawfully or we no settle property disputes within di confines of our legal system dey subject to criminal and civil penalties.",Business study
"in the united states, our legal system ensures the ability to own property to everyone that the system recognizes can own property.",Di legal system ensure di ability to own property to all wey di system recognize go own property.,Business study
"ofcourse, not everyone has always been able to own property.",Dem no dey able to own property.,Business study
the history ofthe united states is replete with examples of exclusion from the property ownership system.,Di history of di united state dey replete wit examples of exclusion from di property ownership system.,Business study
"fo r example, at various times and indifferent ways, married women, african americans, and people of chinese and japanese descent have been subject to restrictions regarding the ownership of real property.","For different times and for different way, married women, african americans, and pipo of chinese and japanese descent don subject to restrictions regarding di ownership of real property.",Business study
"because property law is a state law issue, those restrictions and exclusions varied from state to state.","Di property law dey state law issue, those restrictions and exclusions vari from state to state.",Business study
"today, no such restrictions exist.",Nano such restriction exist.,Business study
"indeed, even a nonhuman legal person, such as a corporation, can own property.","Di nonhuman legal person, such as corporation, go own property",Business study
"however, some biological beings cannot own property.",Di biological beings no own property.,Business study
"for example, nonhuman animals cannot own real or personal property in our legal system.","for example, nonhuman animals cannot own real or personal property inside awa legal system.",Business study
this is because nonhuman animals are not legal persons.,Dis dey because nonhuman animal no legal persons,Business study
"however, a nonhuman animal can be a beneficiary of a trust in many states.",Di nonhuman animal go be beneficiary of trust for many states.,Business study
"moreover, not everything is subject to ownership.",Dem no dey subject to ownership,Business study
"for instance, the human body cannot be owned by another, though historically, in legal systems that recognized slavery, certain human bodies could be owned.","for example, di human body no be owned by one, though historically, for legal systems wey dey recognize slavery, certain human bodies go dey owned.",Business study
"today, public policy discourages the treatment of human body as personal property, rendering ""gifts""of body parts to specific individuals largely suspect.","Today, public policy discourages di treatment of human body as personal property, rendering ""gifts""of body parts to specific individuals largely suspect.",Business study
"for example, organ donees may have a need for an organ destined for transplant into their own bodies after the donor's body dies, but they do not have a legal right to it.","for example, organ donees no get need for organ wey dey for transplant into dia own bodies afta di donor's bodi dey fall, but dem no get legal right to am.",Business study
"checkout note 8. 7 ""hyperlink: when dna is isolated from the human body, is it subject to ownership by patent?""","Di hyperlink: when dna dey isolated from di human body, dey subject to ownership by patent?",Business study
"and consider whether the benefits of patentability of certain body parts, like genes, might ou tstrip the concerns surrounding ownership ofthe human body.","Di benefit of patentability of certain bodi parts, like genes, might dey tstrip di concerns wey dey surrounding ownership of di human bodi.",Business study
"hyperlink: when dna is isolated from the human body, is it subject to ownership by patent?","Di dna dey isolated from di human bodi, na im subject to ownership by patent?",Business study
it is this foundation to which we now turn.,Di foundation wey we now turn,Business study
"additionally, it examines different interests in real property.",E dey examin different interests for real property,Business study
"key takeaways the u. s. legal system protects the rights to own, acquire, protect, and divest of real and personal property.","Tori wey dey important pass, wey person go sabi after dem don read or hear sometin di u. s. legal system protects di rights to own, acquire, protect, plus divest of real plus personal property.",Business study
these protections are necessary for peaceful civil society.,Dem dey necessary for peaceful civil society.,Business study
"historically, different groups of people have been subjected to discriminatory practices both legal and illegal regarding property ownership.",Di group of pipo dey subject to discriminatory practices both legal and illegal regarding property ownership.,Business study
"today, legal persons can own, acquire, transfer, and sell property.","Today, legal persons fit own, acquire, transfer, plus sell property.",Business study
"however, not everything is subject to property ownership concepts.",Dem no dey subject to property ownership concepts.,Business study
distinguish between personal property and real property.,Distinguish between personal property plus real property.,Business study
understand classifications of property.,E dey understand classification of property,Business study
examine methods of acquisition of personal property.,Examine methods of acquisition of personal property.,Business study
"understand the concept of bailment, and the legal duties associated with bailment.","Di concept of bailment, and di legal duties wey dey associated wit bailment",Business study
let's begin with an understanding ofthe differences between types of property.,Na let begin wit understanding of di differences wey dey between types of property,Business study
"this is important, because different laws apply to different types of property.","Di important, because different laws dey apply to different types of property",Business study
"while it might be perfectly legal to destroy apiece of personal prope rtylike a chair without obtaining permission from the government, destruction of real property is a different matter altogether.","While am might be perfectly legal to destroy apiece of personal prope rtylike a chair without obtaining permission from di government, destruction of real property na a different matter altogether.",Business study
"for example, the owner of an office building who wishes to demolish it would be subject to many local laws, such as requirements to obtain the necessary permits.","Di owner of office building wey wish dem demolish dem go subject to many local laws, such as requirements to obtain di necessary permits.",Business study
"such an activity might also be subject to further legal scrutiny, if the building in question holds particular historic value, for example.","Di building for question dey subject to legal scrutiny, if di building for question holds particular historic value, for example.",Business study
"let's compare this to the destruction of a chair, which is personal property.","Dem compare dis to di destruction of chair, wey dey personal property",Business study
"even if the chair is the chair that abraham lincoln satin while drafting the emancipation proclamation, as long as the chair is owned by the person who wishes to destroy it, the owner may simply load it into his or her truck and haul it to the dump.","Di chair dey di chair wey dey abraham lincoln sat for while draft di emancipation proclamation, as long as di chair dey owned by di person wey wish to destroy am, di owner go simply load am into hin or her truck and haul am to di dump.",Business study
"no special permission is required, because there are few legal restrictions to the destruction of private property.","Di legal restrictions to di destruction of private property, because few legal restrictions to di destruction of private property",Business study
"as you can see, property can be classified as real or personal.","As you see, property fit be real or personal",Business study
"real property island, and certain things that are attached to it or associated with it.","Di real property dey land, and certain things wey dey attach to amor associated with am",Business study
"real property is raw land, such as a forest or a field, as well as buildings, like a house, a condominium, or an office building.","Di real property dey raw land, such as forest or field, as well as building, like house, a condominium, or office building.",Business study
"additionally, things that are associated with land, like mineral rights, are also real property.","But things wey dey associated wit land, like mineral rights, dey also real property.",Business study
"people often talk about real property by using the term real estate, which reflects both the concept of real property and the ownership interest concept of estate.","Di pipo often talk about real property by using di term real estate, wey reflect both di concept of real property and di ownership interest concept of estate.",Business study
"many businesses, from grocery stores to coffee shops to hotels, rely on real property for customers or clients to visit to conduct business.","Boku businesses, from grocery stores to coffee shops to hotels, rely on real property for customers or clients to visit to conduct business.",Business study
"today, many businesses are also conducted virtually, and have only virtual shops.","Di today, many business dey conduct virtually, and dey only virtual shops.",Business study
"virtual stores, such as those found on ebay, are not forms of real property.","Virtual stores, such as those found on ebay, be no forms of real property.",Business study
"checkout the two links in note 8. 13 ""hyperlink: ""unreal""property"" to read about this""property"" boom, where real business occurs over nonreal property.","Di two link for note 8. 13 ""hyperlink: ""unreal""property"" to read about dis""property boom, wey real business occur over nonreal property",Business study
tangible property is something that can be touched.,Di tangible property dey something wey dey touch,Business study
"moveable, tangible personal property is chattel.",Di personal property dey chattel.,Business study
many businesses exist to sell personal property.,Boku businesses exist to sell personal property.,Business study
"for example, the primary purpose of retailers such as wal-mart, and sears is to sell personal property.","for example, di primary purpose of retailers such as wal-mart, plus sears nato sell personal property.",Business study
some property can also be described as fungible property.,Dem also dey described as fungible property,Business study
property that can easily be substituted with identical property is said to be fungible.,Di property wey dey easily dey substitued wit identical property dey tok say to be fungible,Business study
"for example, if you bought a pound of sugar from a container containing ten pounds of sugar, you wouldn't care which specific grains of sugar made up your purchase, because all the sugar in the container is fungible.","for example, if you buy pound of sugar from container wey dey containing ten pounds of sugar, you go care which specific grains of sugar makeup your purchase, because all di sugar for di container dey fungible",Business study
"other types of fungible goods include juices, oil, metals such as steel or aluminum, and physical monetary currency.","Other types of fungible goods include juices, oil, metals such as steel or aluminum, plus physical monetary currency.",Business study
some personal property is intangible.,Na some personal property wey dey intangible,Business study
"intangible property does not physically exist, but it is still subject to ownership principles, including acquisition, transfer, and sale.","E no dey subject to ownership principles, including acquisition, transfer, and sale.",Business study
"for instance, the right to payment under a contract, the right to exclude others from a patented product, and the right to prohibit others from using copyrighted materials are all examples of intangible property.","Di right to payment under contract, di right to exclude oda from a patented product, and di right to prohibit oda from using copyrighted materials dey all examples of intangible property.",Business study
"sounds simple, right?","Sounds simple, right?",Business study
"your ipod, your flash drive, and your computer are all personal property.","Di ipod, your flash drive, and your computer dey all personal property.",Business study
"your dorm room, apartment, or house is real property.","Di dorm room, apartment, or house dey real property.",Business study
"so far, so good.","So good, so good",Business study
but imagine that you found a jacuzzi for sale that you loved.,But imagine say you find jacuzzi for sale wey you loved,Business study
"you plunked down$5, 000 to buy it, and you have it delivered to your house.","Dem plunk down$5, 000 to buy am, and you go get am deliver to your house.",Business study
you pay for construction of a deck to surround it and plumbing to service it.,Dem pay for construction of deck to surround am and plumbing to service am.,Business study
is the jacuzzi personal property or is it real property?,Di jacuzzi personal property or dey real property?,Business study
this is an example of personal property that becomes attached to the land as a fixture.,Di example of personal property wey dey attached to di land as a fixture,Business study
"a fixture is something that used to be personal property, but it has become attached to the land so that it is legally apart of t he land.","Di fixture dey something wey dey use to be personal property, but e don attach to di land so say e dey legally part of t he land.",Business study
"accordingly, when real property is transferred, fixtures are transferred as apart ofthe real property.","Di real property dey transferred, fixtures dey transfer as part of di real property.",Business study
"in our example, if you move, you will have to leave your beloved jacuzzi behind, unless you make express provisions to remove it.","Di example, if you move, you go need to leave your beloved jacuzzi behind, unless you make expres provision to remove am",Business study
what if you were just renting?,If you dey just renting?,Business study
"since removing a fixture would cause substantial harm to the property, that fixture remains with the land.","Dis since removing fixture go cause substantial harm to di property, say fixture remain wit di land.",Business study
the landlord might be very happy about that!,Di landlord go be very happy about dat,Business study
somethings that are attached to the land ar e not fixtures but are part ofthe real property itself.,Dem attach somethings wey dey attach to di land ar e no fixtures but dey part of di real property itself.,Business study
imagine a farm with one thousand acres planted in corn.,Dem imagine farm wit one thousand acres planted for corn,Business study
"is the corn crop personal property, or is it real property?","Di corn crop personal property, or na di real property?",Business study
or imagine a forest.,E dey imagine forest or imagine forest,Business study
maybe the owner has been thinking about timbering the forest f or some extra money.,Di owner don think about timbering di forest f or some extra money.,Business study
"is the forest personal property, or is it real property?","Di forest personal property, or na di real property?",Business study
"both the corn crop and trees are examples of real property that can become personal property, if they are severed from the land.","Di corn crop and trees dey examples of real property wey dey become personal property, if dem dey sever from di land.",Business study
"this means that when an ear of corn is picked from the stalk, the ear of corn becomes personal property, even though while it was growing and still attached the land, it was real property.","Di means say wen ear of corn dey pick from di stalk, di ear of corn become personal property, even though while e dey grow and still attach di land, na real property.",Business study
"likewise, when a tree is felled, that tree is transformed from real property to personal property.","Di tree dey fall, say tree dey transform from real property to personal property.",Business study
"besides property types, property can be classified by ownership, too.","Di property type wey dey besides property type, property fit be classified by ownership, too.",Business study
personal property and real property can be private or public.,Personal property plus real property fit be private or public.,Business study
private property is owned by someone or something that is not the government.,E no dey di goment.,Business study
"individuals, corporations, and partnerships, for instance, can own private property.","Individuals, corporations, plus partnerships, for example, fit own private property.",Business study
"private property can include real property like land or buildings, and personal property, such as automobiles, furniture, and computers.","Private property fit include real property like land or buildings, plus personal property, such as automobiles, furniture, plus computers.",Business study
property that is owned by the government is public property.,Di government dey public property.,Business study
yellowstone national park and the gi fford pinchot national forest are both examples of public property that is real property.,Di yellowstone national park and di gi fford pinchot national forest na both examples of public property wey dey real property.,Business study
"public property can also include personal property, such as automobiles, furniture, and computers owned by state or local governments.","Dem also include personal property, such as automobiles, furniture, and computers wey dey owned by state or local goment.",Business study
methods of acquisition of personal property personal property maybe acquired for ownership in several different ways.,Di methods of acquisition of personal property personal property dey acquired for ownership for several different ways.,Business study
"for example, if you produce something, then you may own it, unless you are producing it in the capacity of your work for someone else.","for example, if you produce something, then you go own am, unless you dey produce am for di capacity of your work for someone else.",Business study
"if you buy four yards of wool fabric and sew a coat out of it, then you own that coat by virtue of having produced it with your own materials.","If you buy four yards of wool fabric plus sew a coat comot of am, then you own wey coat by virtue of having produced am with your own materials.",Business study
this is ownership by production.,E dey ownership by production,Business study
"however, if you sew a coat as part of your job while working for your employer, then the employer will own the coat.","However, if you sew a coat as part of your job while working for your employer, then di employer go own di coat.",Business study
"regardless of whether someone is a merchant or not, purchase is a means of acquiring ownership.","We dey regardless of whether someone dey merchant or no, purchase na means of acquiring ownership",Business study
"indeed, in today's world, purchase maybe the most common method of acquiring property.","Indeed, inside today's world, purchase maybe di most common method of acquiring property.",Business study
property may also be gifted.,Di property dey also gifted,Business study
a gift is a voluntary transfer of property.,Di gift dey voluntary transfer of property,Business study
"generally, th e donor ofthe gift must intend to gift the property, the donor must deliver the gift, and the gift must be accepted by the intended recipient, known as the donee.","Di donor of di gift must intend to gift di property, di donor must deliver di gift, and di gift must be accepted by di intended recipient, known as di donee.",Business study
a conditional gift is a gift that requires a condition to be met before the gift will transfer.,Di conditional gift dey gift wey require condition to be met before di gift go transfer.,Business study
"for example, if your parents said,""you can have anew car, if you graduate from school,""then that would bean example of a conditional gift.","If your parents tok say, you fit get new car, if you graduate from school, then dat would be example of conditional gift.",Business study
"if you do not graduate from school, then you cannot have the gift ofthe car.","If you no graduate from school, then you no get gift of di car.",Business study
what if you find something?,What if you find something?,Business study
"dating atleast to the institutes of justinian in roman law, the concept of ""finders keepers""is one known to every preschooler: finders keepers, losers weepers.","Di concept of""finder keepers"" dey one known to every preschooler: finder keepers, losers weepers",Business study
"however, in law, things are not quite so simple.","For law, things no dey simple.",Business study
property that someone finds can be classified in several ways.,Di property wey someone find fit be classified for several way.,Business study
a finder of personal property may claim ownership ofthe property if it is abandoned.,A finder of personal property may claim ownership of di property if e leave am,Business study
the owners of abandoned property must intend to relinquish ownership in it.,Di owner of throw away property must intend to relinquish ownership for am.,Business study
"for example, if you take your chair to the landfill, you have abandoned the chair.","If you take your chair to di landfill, you don abandon di chair.",Business study
"someone may come along and take possession of it, which will place ownership ofthe chair in that person.","someone go kom along and take possession of am, wey go place ownership of di chair for dat person.",Business study
"if you change your mind later, that's too bad.","If you change your mind later, na too bad",Business study
the chair now belongs to the new owner.,Di chair now belongs to di new owner.,Business study
"however, if the property is simply lost or mislaid, then the finder must relinquish it once the rightful owner demands its return.","If di property dey lost or mislaid, then di finder must relinquish am once di rightful owner demand am return.",Business study
"if the finder refuses to return lost or mislaid property to its rightful owner, the owner can sue for conversion, which is a tort.","Di owner go sue for conversion, wey dey tort.",Business study
"conversion is intentional, substantial interference with the chattel of another.","Di conversion dey intentional, substantial interference wit chattel of another",Business study
another classification of personal property applicable to found property is treasure trove.,Di classification of personal property wey dey available to find property dey treasure trove.,Business study
"a treasure trove is money or precious metals, like gold, for which the concept of ""finders keepers""sometimes is applicable.","Di concept of""finder keepers""sometimes dey applicable.",Business study
imagine finding the next-generation iphone just lying on a bar stool.,Imagine finding di next-generation iphone just lying on a bar stool.,Business study
"it has not been released yet, but there you are with an actual prototype in your hands!","Di prototype no dey release yet, but there you dey wit actual prototype for your hands",Business study
"this is valuable property because it embodies the cutting-edge intellectual property of apple, both in utility and design.","Dis dey valuable property because e dey embodies di cutting-edge Ideas, books, music, inventions and creative works wey law dey protect as belonging to someone of apple, both for utility and design.",Business study
"apparently, an apple software engineer had accidentally left the prototype on a bar stool one evening.",Di apple software engineer don accidentally left di prototype on bar stool one evening.,Business study
"hogan decided to sell the prototype to gizmodo, a tech site, which was willing to pay for it so that it could write an early and exclusive review of this soon-to-be hot item on the market.","Di hogan decide to sell di prototype to gizmodo, tech site, wey dey willing to pay for am so say e go write early and exclusive review of dis soon-to-be hot item on market.",Business study
gizmodo subsequently discovered that apple had lost an iphone prototype and wanted it returned.,Di gizmodo subsequently discover say apple don lost an iphone prototype and wanted am return,Business study
"regardless of that fact, gizmodo dismantled the prototype and published photos on its website.","Regardless of wey fact, gizmodo dismantled di prototype plus published photos on its website.",Business study
"subsequently, it returned the property to apple.",E return di property to apple,Business study
"if apple filed a civil lawsuit against gizmodo, what would the claim be and who should win?","If apple filed a civil lawsuit against gizmodo, what go di claim be plus wey suppose win?",Business study
"since we know that apple wanted the property back, we know that it had no intention of relinquishing ownership of it.","We know say apple wanted di property back, we know say e no fit relinquishing ownership of am",Business study
"therefore, the property was not abandoned.",Di property no throw away,Business study
since a next-generation iphone is not money or precious metals even though it is very valuable and worth alot of money to apple the concept of treasure trove does not apply.,Di concept of treasure trove no apply.,Business study
a phone is not actual coin or cash.,Di phone no dey actual coin or cash,Business study
"in this case, the property was either lost or mislaid, because it was unintentionally relinquished or set down for later retrieval, but the owner had forgotten where it was placed.","Di property no dey lost or mislaid, because dem no dey relinquished or set down for later retrieval, but di owner don forgotten where dem place.",Business study
"in either case, if the phone had not been returned, apple could have brought a suit for conversion.","If di phone no return, apple go get suit for conversion.",Business study
a successful conversion claim would have awarded damages to apple.,Di successful conversion claim go award damages to apple.,Business study
"just like any successful conversion claim, damages would not include a requirement to return the property itself.","Just like any successful conversion claim, damages go no include a requirement to return di property itself.",Business study
"incidentally, california has captured the duty to return lost or mislaid property in its criminal statutes, and the facts of this case are being investigated for possible theft charges.","california don captur di duty to return lost or mislaid property for its criminal statutes, and di facts of dis case dey investigate for possible di ft charges.",Business study
"checkout note 8. 32 ""hyperlink: finders keepers?""",Di hyperlink: finder keepers?,Business study
for this story and two additional cautionary tales about claiming found property.,For this story plus two additional cautionary tales about claiming found property.,Business study
hyperlink: finders keepers?,finder keepers?,Business study
be careful what you wish for.,Na careful wetin you wish for.,Business study
"these stories might seem like a miracle to the cash-strapped, but they are cautionary tales.","Di stories go seem like miracle to di cash-strapped, but dem dey cautionary tales.",Business study
"for example, imagine that you own a cat.","for example, imagine wey you own a cat.",Business study
"if your cat, which is considered to be chattel, needs to have surgery, you will need to leave her at the veterinary hospital.","Di cat, wey dey consider to be chattel, need to get surgery, you go need to leave her for di veterinary hospital.",Business study
"clearly, taking your cat to a veterinary hospital does not constitute abandonment.","Clearly, taking your cat to a veterinary hospital does no constitute abandonment.",Business study
"likewise, you have not lost or mislaid your cat.",We no dey lost or mislaid your cat,Business study
"and, precious though she maybe, your cat is not subject to the concept of treasure trove.",Di cat no subject to di concept of treasure trove.,Business study
"instead, in this situation you will be known as bailor, and you will be seeking a bailment with your veterinarian.","Di situation wey dey known as bailor, and you go dey seeking bailment wit your veterinarian.",Business study
a bailor is someone in the rightful possession of personal property who gives the property to someone else to hold.,Di bailor dey someone for di rightful possession of personal property wey give di property to someone else to hold.,Business study
a bailment is the arrangement in which when the rightful possessor (such as the owner)of personal property gives the property to someone else to hold.,Di arrangement wey when di rightful possessor (such as di owner)of personal property give di property to someone else to hold.,Business study
"the holding party, known as the bailee, agrees to accept the property and has the duty to return it.","Di holding party, wey dey known as di bailee, agree to accept di property and get di duty to return am",Business study
the bailee is someone who is in possession of someone else's property.,Di bailee dey someone wey dey possession of someone else property,Business study
"in our example, you rightfully have possession of your cat because she is your personal property.","Di example, you rightfully get possession of your cat bikos she dey your personal property.",Business study
"you give your cat to the veterinarian to hold, who has agreed to accept the cat.","I give your cat to di veterinarian to hold, wey don agree to accept di cat",Business study
"indeed, the veterinarian has a duty, by virtue ofthe bailment, to return the cat to you.","Di veterinarian don duty, by virtue of di bailment, to return di cat to you.",Business study
"consider note 8. 36 ""hyperlink: lost dog"", where delta airlines was the bailee of a dog, which it lost.","Di hyperlink: lost dog"", wey delta airlines dey di bailee of a dog, wey dey lost",Business study
hyperlink: lost dog checkout this link.,Na lost dog to look at dis link,Business study
do you think the remedy offered by delta airlines is adequate in this case?,Di remedy wey Delta airlines dey adequate for dis case?,Business study
"for example, a bailee has a duty to take reasonable care ofthe property while the property is in his or her possession.",Di bailee get duty to take reasonable care of di property while di property dey for hin or her possession.,Business study
this means different things for different types of bailment.,This means different things for different types of bailment.,Business study
"if the bailee is the only party who benefits from the bailment, then the bailee must take extraordinary care with the personal property.","Di bailee dey di only party wey benefit from di bailment, then di bailee must take extraordinary care wit di personal property.",Business study
a common example of a bailee being the only party who benefits is where the owner ofthe property loans the property to someone for his or her use.,Di common example of bailee being di only party wey benefits na wia di owner of di property loan di property to someone for hin use.,Business study
"for instance, if you loan your neighbor a snow shovel without asking for something in return, then your neighbor receives the sole benefit ofthe bailment.","for example, if you loan your neighbor a snow shovel without asking for something inside return, then your neighbor receives di sole benefit of di bailment.",Business study
his or her duty of care is that he or she must take extraordinary care with the snow shovel.,Di duty of care na say hin or her duty of care na say hin or she must take extraordinary care wit di snow shovel.,Business study
"however, when both parties receive benefit from the bailment, such as when you rent a dvd from blockbuster, only the duty of ordinary care is imposed on the bailee.","However, when both parties receive benefit from di bailment, such as when you rent a dvd from blockbuster, only di duty of ordinary care na imposed on di bailee.",Business study
the bailee receives the dvd and blockbuster receives a rental fee.,Di bailee receives di dvd plus blockbuster receives a rental fee.,Business study
"when the benefit ofthe bailment exists for the benefit ofthe bailor only, then only minimum care is required.","Di benefit of di bailment exist for di benefit of di bailor only, then only minimum care dey required.",Business study
"gross negligence will give rise to liability, but there is no great duty for the bailee to be as careful ashe or she would be if he or she were receiving some benefit.",E no great duty for di bailee to dey careful as hin or she go receive some benefit.,Business study
"if someone asks you to hold his or her books while he or she jumps into a swimming pool, you would have a minimum duty of care.","If someone ask you to hold hin or her books while hin or she jump into swimming pool, you go get minimum duty of care.",Business study
"if you lost the books, then you would not be liable.",Di bauchs no dey liable,Business study
"however, if you intentionally threw the books into the pool, then you would be grossly negligent and liable for damages.","However, if you intentionally threw di books enter di pool, then you go be grossly negligent plus liable for damages.",Business study
an involuntary bailment is created when someone finds lost or mislaid property.,Di involuntary bailment dey create wen someone find lost or mislaid property,Business study
"a voluntary bailment is created when intention exists to create the bailment, as described in the previous paragraph.",Di one wey come before dey described for di one wey come before,Business study
"as you can imagine, bailment is common in business.","As you fit imagine, bailment dey common for business",Business study
"examples of bailment in business include placing packages or goods with common carriers for delivery, warehousing goods with a third party prior to sale or delivery, or taking clients' or customers' automobiles in a valet service.","Examples of bailment inside business include placing packages or goods with common carriers for delivery, warehousing goods with a third party prior to sale or delivery, or taking clients' or customers' automobiles inside a valet service.",Business study
consider whether a business should be able to disclaim bailment (and the duties that go along with bailment).,Di business go able to disclaim bailment (and di duties wey go along wit bailment).,Business study
"for example, if a hotel required its guests to sign a""no bailment created""clause on check-in, should that excuse the hotel from liability if the guests' personal property is damaged while the property is left in the hotel?","If a hotel require dia guests sign a""no bailment created""clause on check-in, should say excuse di hotel from liability if di guests' personal property dey damage while di property dey left for di hotel?",Business study
personal property can be transformed into real property when it is affixed to the land.,Di personal property go transform into real property wen dem dey affixed to di land.,Business study
real property can be transformed into personal property when it is severed from the land.,Dem transform real property into personal property wey dem dey sever from di land.,Business study
"personal property can be acquired for ownership through production, purchase, or gift or, in certain circumstances, by finding it.","Di personal property dey acquired for ownership through production, purchase, or gift or, for certain circumstances, by finding am.",Business study
bailments are legal arrangements in which the rightful possessor of personal property leaves t he property with someone else who agrees to hold it and return it on demand.,Di rightful possessor of personal property leave t he property wit someone else wey agree to hold am and return am on demand.,Business study
"classify the following as(1) personal property or real property,(2) tangible or intangible property, and (3) fungible property: a.","Classify di following as(1) personal property or real property,(2) tangible or intangible property, plus (3) fungible property: a.",Business study
"a prosthetic device, for example, an artificial leg b.","A prosthetic device, for example, an artificial leg b.",Business study
"an expected inheritance of stock c. draperies hanging in a dining room d. a bank account with a five-hundred -dollar balance e. a fictional story that you created f. a condominium on the thirty-second floor of a building in lower manhattan g. the right to receive payment for your work(e. g, wages, salary)h. a wig that someone is wearing i.","E. g, wages, salary) h. a fictional story wey you create f. a condominium on di thirty-second floor of a building for lower manhattan g. di right to eceive payment for your work(e. g, wages, salary)h. a wig wey someone wear i.",Business study
the wheat in a silo would you be willing to pay real money for nonreal property in a virtual world like second life?,Di wheat for a silo go you fit pay real money for nonreal property for virtual world like second life?,Business study
what are people buying when they buy virtual real property?,Di pipo b uyin wen dem buy virtual real property?,Business study
"how does this differ from buying actual real property, like land?","How does this differ from buying actual real property, like land?",Business study
"if you found a prototype ofthe next-generation iphone lying on a bar stool, what would you have done with it?","If you find prototype of di next generation iphone wey dey lying on bar stool, what would you do wit am?",Business study
what would be the consequences of your chosen action?,What go be di consequences of your chosen action?,Business study
think of an example of when you have asked for a bailment.,Di example of when you don ask for bailment,Business study
did you feel confident that you would receive your personal property when you demanded it?,I feel confident say you go receive your personal property wen you demand am?,Business study
did you worry that it would be damaged in anyway?,I go worry say e go damage for anyway?,Business study
"if it had been misdelivered, what would your legal remedies be?",Di legal remedies be?,Business study
should bailees be permitted to disclaim liability for bailment agreements?,Di bailees dey permitted to disclaim liability for bailment agreement?,Business study
"at major league baseball games, who do you think owns the baseball when it is being played, and who owns it when the ball enters the stands where members ofthe public sit?",We dey think own di baseball wen di ball enter di stands where members of di public sit?,Business study
who owns the ball if a member ofthe public picks it up?,Wey own di ball if member of di public pick am up?,Business study
understand the concept of real property.,Understand di concept of real property.,Business study
examine methods of acquisition of real property.,Examine methods of acquisition of real property.,Business study
"understand different interests in real property, including ownership interests and scope of interests.","Dem understand different interests for real property, including ownership interest and scope of interest",Business study
examine the landlord-tenant relationship.,Examine di landlord-tenant relationship.,Business study
"real property island, and certain things that area ttached to it or associated with it.","Di real property dey land, and certain things wey dey attach to amor associated wit am",Business study
"real property includes undeveloped land, like a forest or a field, and it includes buildings, such as houses, condominiums, and office buildings.","Real property includes undeveloped land, like a forest or a field, plus am includes buildings, such as houses, condominiums, plus office buildings.",Business study
"real property also includes things associated with the land, like subsurf ace rights.","Di real property also include things wey dey associated wit di land, like subsurface rights.",Business study
"fixtures are personal property that have become attached to the land, and they are transferred with the land.","Di fixtures dey personal property wey dey attach to di land, and dem dey transfer wit di land",Business study
"fixtures in a house include things like the lights affixed to the ceiling, the furnace, and the bathtub.","Fixtures inside a house include things like di lights affixed to di ceiling, di furnace, plus di bathtub.",Business study
plants and trees that grow on the land are real property until they are severed from the land.,Di plants and trees wey dey grow on di land dey real property until dem dey sever from di land.,Business study
"for example, farmers' crops are part of their real property until they are separated from the land, at which time they become personal property.","for example, farmers' crops dey part of dia real property until dem dey separated from di land, at wich time dem become personal property.",Business study
methods of acquisition real property maybe acquired for ownership(the title maybe obtained)in one of several ways.,Di method of acquisition real property dey acquired for ownership(the title wey dey obtained)for one of several ways.,Business study
"it maybe purchased, inherited, gifted, or even acquired through adverse possession.","Am maybe purchased, inherited, gifted, or sef acquired through adverse possession.",Business study
ownership rights are transferred by title.,Di ownership rights dey transfer by title,Business study
"ownership of real property means that the owner hast he right to possess the property, as well as the right to exclude others, within the boundaries ofthe law.","Di ownership of real property mean say di owner dont he right to possess di property, as well as di right to exclude odas, inside di boundaries of di law.",Business study
"if someone substantially interferes with your use and enjoyment of your real property, you may bring a claim in nuisance(a form of tort law).","If someone substantially interferes with your use plus enjoyment of your real property, you may bring a claim inside nuisance(a form of tort law).",Business study
"fore xample, if a neighbor decides to start burning tires on his property, the smell ofthe burning tires might substantially interfere with your use and enjoyment of your property, so you would have an actionable claim in nuisance.","If a neighbor decide to start burning tires on hin property, di smell of di burning tires go substantially interfere wit your use and enjoyment of your property, so you go get actionable claim for nuisance.",Business study
"similarly, if you own real property, you might rightfully seek damages against those who enter your land without your consent or permission.","Similarly, if you own real property, you might rightfully seek damages against those wey enter your land without your consent or permission.",Business study
this would be a trespass to land claim.,This go be a trespass to land claim.,Business study
"owners of real property may also sell the real property, in whole or in part.","Di owners of real property go sell di real property, for whole or part.",Business study
"property law is a state law matter, and state laws vary regarding conveyance of property.","Di property law dey state law matter, and state laws dey regarding conveyance of property",Business study
"typically, someone who is interested in acquiring real property will ask a third party, such as a real estate agent or a broker, to help locate a suitable property and to facilitate the terms ofthe deal.","For typically, someone wey dey interest for acquiring real property go ask third party, such as real estate agent or a broker, to help locate suitable property and to facilitate di terms of di deal.",Business study
"the buyer and seller will negotiate a contract, which will contain all essential terms ofthe sale, such as location ofthe real property, price, fixtures that will be excluded from sale, and the type of ownership interest that is being transferred.","Di buyer and seller go negotiate contract, wey go contain all essential terms of di sale, such as location of di real property, price, fixtures wey dey excluded from sale, and di type of ownership interest wey dey transferred.",Business study
"both parties will perform their promises under the contract(e. g, the buyer will pay the seller, and the seller will transfer the title via deed)to close the deal(""closing""), and then the deed will be recorded.","Di buyer go pay di seller, and di seller go transfer di title via deed)to close di deal(""closing""), and then di deed go record.",Business study
a contract for any interest in property must bein writing to be valid against the defendant according to the statute of frauds.,A contract for any interest inside property must be inside writing to be valid against di person wey dem carry go kot according to di statute of frauds.,Business study
different types of deeds convey different types of interests.,Different types of deeds convey different types of interests.,Business study
"a quitclaim deed, for instance, conveys whatever interests in title that the grantor has in the property to the party to whom the quitclaim is given.","Di quitclaim dey, for example, conveys whatever interest for title wey di grantor don get for di property to di party to whom di quitclaim dey give.",Business study
"ofcourse, that means if the grantor has no interests in the real property, a conveyance by quitclaim will not grant any interests in the property.","Di grantor no interest for di real property, a conveyance by quitclaim no grant any interest for di property.",Business study
"for example, if you grant a quitclaim deed to your friend for the empire state building, then that means that you have transferred your interests in title to that building to your friend.","If you grant quitclaim dey to your friend for di empire state building, then dat means say you don transfer your interest for title to dat building to your friend.",Business study
"if you have no interests in the title to the empire state building to begin with, then on conveyance ofthe quitclaim deed, your friend will not have any interests in the building either.","Di friend no get any interest for di title to di empire state building to begin wit, then on conveyance of di quitclaim dey, your friend no get any interest for di building either.",Business study
you cannot convey interests that you do not have.,Dem no convey interest wey you no get.,Business study
"on the other hand, many states allow a warranty deed, which conveys title and a warranty against defects in title aswell as encumbrances.","For di oda hand, many states allow warranty dey, wey convey title and warranty against defects for title aswell as encumbrances.",Business study
buyers typically demand a warranty deed when they purchase property.,Di buyers typically demand warranty wey dem dey when dem purchase property.,Business study
"after title is transferred by the deed, the deed is typically recorded.","Di deed dey record for di deed, di deed dey record.",Business study
recording the deed is not necessary for ownership.,Di deed no necessary for ownership,Business study
"however, recording a deed to property is important because it places others on notice that whoever has recorded the deed to the property owns the property.","Di however, recording a deed to property dey important because dem place odas on notice say wey dey record di deed to di property own di property.",Business study
"some states favor the rights of those who record the deed first(under a race statute), while other states favor the rights of those who acquired the interest first without notice of other claims to the property(under a notice statute).","Some states favor di rights of those wey record di deed first(under race statute), while oda state favor di rights of those wey record di deed first(under race statute), while oda state favor di rights of those wey record di deed first(under notice statute), while oda state favor di rights of those wey record di deed first without notice of oda claim to di property(under notice statute), while oda state favor di rights of those wey de",Business study
"a race/notice system, which has a race/notice statute, is one in which priority is given to the first bona fide purchaser to record when there is a conflict in ownership claim.","Di race notice system wey don get race notice statute, na one wey priority dey give to di first bona fide purchaser to record wen conflict for ownership claim.",Business study
"a bona fide purchaser is simply a purchaser who takes title in good faith, with no knowledge of competing claims to title.","Di bona fide purchaser dey simply a purchaser wey dey take title for good faith, wit no knowledge of competing claims to title",Business study
real property maybe bequeathed through a will or may transfer per state statutes when a decedent dies intestate.,Di real property go bequeathed through a will or go transfer per state statutes wen a decedent dey intestate.,Business study
"generally speaking, people have the right to dispose of their property as they wish when they die, providing that their will or other transfer instrument meets their state's requirements for validity.","Di generally speaking, pipo don get di right to dispose of dia property as dem wish wen dem die, providing say dia will or oda transfer instrument meet dia state's requirements for validity.",Business study
"when someone dies intestate, state statutes will determine who among the decedent's relatives receives the property.",Di state statutes go determine who among di decedent's relatives receive di property,Business study
"for example, state statutes often specify that property will goto the spouse, and if there is no spouse, then to the children.","for example, state statutes often specify wey property goto di spouse, plus if there nano spouse, then to di children.",Business study
"if there are no children, then to the parents.",For di parents.,Business study
"if there are no living parents, then to the siblings, and soon.","If there be no living parents, then to di siblings, plus soon.",Business study
"if no such person exists, the property may finally escheat to the state.","If no such person exist, di property go finally echeat to di state",Business study
real property may also be acquired through a gift.,Di real property go also dey acquired through gift,Business study
"providing that the person who is giving the property actually intends to make the gift of title, delivers the deed to the recipient, and the gift is accepted, then the gift is valid.","Di person wey dey give di property actually intend to make di gift of title, deliver di deed to di recipient, and di gift dey valid.",Business study
a less common way to acquire real property is through the doctrine of adverse possession.,A less common way to acquire real property na through di doctrine of adverse possession.,Business study
"colloquially, this is often referred to as ""squatter's rights.""","Dis dey often dem dey call ""squatter's rights""",Business study
"at its heart, this method of acquiring property captures the deeply held belief that a land's value is in its use for profit.",Di method of acquiring property captur di deeply held belief say land value dey for its use for profit.,Business study
"if a land sits idle at the owner's hands but someone else puts it to use, then the law may just may favor the user's claim to the land over that ofthe actual owner.",Di law no go favor di user's claim to di land over dat of di actual owner.,Business study
adverse possession is when someone who is not the owner of real property has claimed the real property for his own.,Di adverse possession na wen someone wey no dey di owner of real property don claim di real property for hin own,Business study
"to be successful under this doctrine, several elements must be met.","For dis doctrine, several elements must be met.",Business study
these include the following: the possessor must bein actual possession.,Dis include di following: di possessor must be for actual possession,Business study
"for example, some states, like maine, require a twenty-year period, while other states, like nevada, require only a five-year period.","for example, some states, like maine, require twenty-year period, while oda state, like nevada, require e only five year period, while oda state, like nevada, require e only five year period, while oda state, like nevada, require e only five year period.",Business study
some states' adverse possession laws also require that the possessor pay property taxes on the property during the course ofthe adverse possession.,Some states' adverse possession laws sef require wey di possessor pay property taxes on di property during di course of di adverse possession.,Business study
"if all of these elements are met, then the possessor can bring a claim to quiet title.",Di possessor go bring claim to quiet title.,Business study
"if successful, the possessor becomes the owner, without any compensation being made to the former owner.","Di possessor become di owner, without any compensation wey dey made to di former owner.",Business study
"adverse possession and claims for quiet title often occur around property lines, where one party has routinely used another's property because a fence has been misplaced.","Di adverse possession and claim for quiet title often occur around property line, where one party don use one property because fence don misplace.",Business study
"other instances involve claims concerning land owned by people who do not visit it, such as land owned in a remote area.","Di instance dey involve claim concerning land owned by pipo wey no visit am, such as land owned for remote area.",Business study
"still other examples exist in cases of ouster, when a tenant in common constructively or actually evicts others with valid ownership interests.","Still other examples exist inside cases of ouster, when a tenant inside common constructively or actually evicts others with valid ownership interests.",Business study
remember that all elements of an adverse possession must occur for the entire statutory length of time for an action for quiet title to be successful.,Remember wey all elements of an adverse possession must occur for di entire statutory length of time for an action for quiet title to be successful.,Business study
"this means, for instance, if the owner checks on the property and finds someone there, the owner must interfere with those elements.","This means, for example, if di owner checks on di property plus finds someone there, di owner must interfere with those elements.",Business study
"the owner should evict the trespasser, and this can be accomplished by summoning the police.","Di owner go evict di trespasser, and dis go accomplished by summoning di police.",Business study
doing so would break the continuity requirement.,Dem break di continuity requirement.,Business study
"a recent case in boulder, colorado, prompted the colorado legislature to substantially alter the state's adverse possession laws.","A recent case inside boulder, colorado, prompted di colorado legislature to substantially alter di state's adverse possession laws.",Business study
"in that case, a married couple, composed of a judge and an attorney, met the requirements for adverse possession and successfully brought an action for quiet title.","Inside wey case, a married couple, composed of a judge plus an attorney, met di requirements for adverse possession plus successfully brought an action for quiet title.",Business study
"in that case, the adverse possessors were clearly versed in the law.",Di adverse possessors dey clearly versed for di law.,Business study
the actual owners ofthe property had purchased the land many years before to build a future retirement home.,Di actual owners of di property don purchase di land many years before to build future retirement home,Business study
"checkout note 8. 59 ""hyperlink: a question of ethics""and see whether you think the colorado legislature overreacted.","Check comot note 8. 59 ""hyperlink: a question of ethics""plus see whether you think di colorado legislature overreacted.",Business study
hyperlink: a question of ethics is adverse possession a legally sanctioned form of theft?,Di question of ethics dey adverse possession legally sanctioned form of dift?,Business study
"it is important to recognize the duties associated with property ownership, and learn how to protect yourself against potential liability associated with it.","Am na important to recognize di duties associated with property ownership, plus learn how to protect yourself against potential liability associated with am.",Business study
"for instance, if a toxic waste site is discovered on your real property, you may very well be liable for its cleanup, even if you did not realize that such a site was there when you purchased the land.","If a toxic waste site dey discover on your real property, you go very well be liable for its cleanup, even if you no realize say such site dey there wen you buy di land.",Business study
each buyer of real property has a duty to exercise due diligence when purchasing land.,"Di each buyer of real property don duty to exercise to sabi wetin dey happen, you go need make thorough investigation, yanfu, take time research well, so you fit get correct tori, before you take decision wen purchasing land.",Business study
"the idea is that you should have known about the site, if it was discoverable on inspection.","Di idea na say you go know about di site, if e dey discoverable on inspection.",Business study
"knowing this, along with familiarity with the federal comprehensive environmental response, compensation, and liability act (cercla), helps us recognize that we should never agree to buy land""sight unseen,""or atleast without a professional inspector that we trust.","Di federal comprehensive environmental response, compensation, and liability act (cercla) help us recognize say we go no agree to buy land""sight unseen,""or atleast without professional inspector wey we trust.",Business study
but what if an old toxic waste site is located on property that you wish to sell?,Di old toxic waste site dey located on property wey you wish to sell? but what if di old toxic waste site dey located on property wey you wish to sell? but what if di old toxic waste site dey located on property wey you wish to sell? but what if di old toxic waste site dey located on property wey you wish to sell? but what if di old toxic waste site dey located on property wey you wish to sell? but what if di old toxic waste site dey located on property wey you wish to,Business study
you would have a duty to disclose such a defect in the land to prospective buyers before conveying ownership.,You go get a duty to disclose such a defect inside di land to prospective buyers before conveying ownership.,Business study
"additionally, we must consider duties that landowners have to other people who enter the land.",We must consider duties say landowners don get oda pipo wey enter di land.,Business study
what are our duties to people who visit our home?,Di duties wey dey our duties to pipo wey visit our home?,Business study
or our retail establishment?,Or awa retail establishment?,Business study
what if they are not invited but instead are trespassers?,If dem no invite but instead dey trespassers?,Business study
these duties of landowners will vary depending on the status ofthe person who was injured.,Di duties of landowners go vary based on di status of di person wey injured,Business study
what if a gold mine were discovered on land that you used to own?,Di gold mine dey discover on land wey you use to own?,Business study
can you profit from that discovery?,Na you profit from dat discovery?,Business study
"probably not, if you conveyed full ownership to someone else.","Probably no, if you conveyed full ownership to someone else.",Business study
"as these examples illustrate, it is important to know about the duties of landowners, how to limit liability associated with the ownership of land, and when severance of liability occurs.","E dey important to know about di duties of landowners, how to limit liability associated wit di ownership of land, and when severance of liability occur.",Business study
these types of questions can be considered more fully when we consider ownership interests.,These types of questions fit be considered more fully when we consider ownership interests.,Business study
"additionally, it is important to know how an owner of real property may use the property, or the scope of his or her rights.","E dey important to know how owner of real property go use di property, or di scope of hin or her rights.",Business study
"consider these questions: if you owned alot in the middle of a city, can you build an apartment building that blocks the neighboring landowner's light?","If you owned lot for di middle of a city, go build apartment building wey dey blocks di neighboring landowner light?",Business study
"or if you own apiece of raw land where you discover oil, can you drill on your land if it siphons oil from underneath your neighbor's land, or if it causes your neighbor's land to collapse due to lack of subsurface support?","If you own piece of raw land wey you discover oil, fit you drill on your land if e siphon oil from underneath your neighbor land, or if e cause your neighbor land to collapse due to lack of subsurface support?",Business study
"conversely, if the ebb and flow of water along the coastline increases your property due to natural accretion, do you own the""new"" property, even though it wasn't part ofthe original purchase?","Conversely, if di ebb plus flow of water along di coastline increases your property due to natural accretion, do you own di""new"" property, sef though am wasn't part of di original purchase?",Business study
"consider water disputes, which area very hot topic in the western states.","Dem dey consider water disputes, wey dey very hot topic for di western states.",Business study
"if you live next to a river, can you divert the entire stream of water, even if you wanted to divert it for a capricious reason?","If you live next to a river, fit you divert di entire stream of water, sef if you want to divert am for a capricious reason?",Business study
"imagine that you dreamed of having avery large private water park for your family, but you needed all the water in a river that adjoined your property to make that dream a reality.","I imagine say you dream of having very large private water park for your family, but you need all di water for river wey dey adjoin your property to make dat dream reality.",Business study
"if you diverted all that water, other riparian owners might very well have an actionable claim.",Di riparian owners go very well get actionable claim.,Business study
"what if it was a drought year and you relied on water from a river to irrigate your commercial crops, but endangered salmon in the river needed the water for their habitat?","What if am bin dey a drought year plus you relied on water from a river to irrigate your commercial crops, but endangered salmon inside di river needed di water for dia habitat?",Business study
"can you take the water for your crop, or must the water be left in the river for the endangered salmon?","Di water for your crop, or must di water be left for di river for di endangered salmon?",Business study
these types of legal questions can be addressed when we consider the scope of rights.,We consider di scope of rights.,Business study
duties of landowners landowners owe different duties to different types of people who enter their land.,Di duties of landowners owe different duties to different types of people wey enter dia land.,Business study
"a trespasser is a person who voluntarily, intentionally enters the land of another without permission or privilege.","Di trespasser dey person wey voluntarily, intentionally enter di land of another without permission or privilege.",Business study
a landowner has a duty not to intentionally injure a trespasser.,Di landowner don duty no to intentionally injure a trespasser,Business study
"for instance, booby traps, pitfalls, or anything ofthe sort are simply not permitted.","for example, booby traps, pitfalls, or any of di sort no dey permitted.",Business study
trespassers injured from such a trap have valid claims against the landowner for injuries.,Di landowner dey injured from such trap don valid claim against di landowner for injuries.,Business study
landowners have a higher duty of care to such a person.,Di landowners don higher duty of care to such person.,Business study
failure to do so may result in liability for the landowner.,Di landowner failure to do so go result in liability for di landowner.,Business study
businesses have issued invitations to the public.,Di business don issue invitations to di public.,Business study
public places have issued invitations to the public.,Di public place don issue invitations to di public.,Business study
anyone who arrives at the invitation of an owner is an invitee.,Anyone wey arrive for di invitation of an owner dey invitee,Business study
"landowners must inspect their property for defects, correct those defects when found, and warn invitees about such defects.","Di landowners must inspect dia property for defects, correct those defects wey dem find, and warn invitees about such defects.",Business study
"this is why you will see a""caution"" sign on the floor of a grocery store, after it has been mopped or after a liquid spill.","Dina why you go see""caution"" sign on di floor of grocery store, afta e don mopped or after a liquid spill.",Business study
ownership interests in real property different types of interests maybe owned in real property.,For real property different type of interest wey dey owned for real property different type of interest wey dey owned for real property different type of interest wey dey owned for real property.,Business study
"for example, real property maybe owned without restriction, subject only to local, state, and federal laws.","for example, real property maybe owned without restriction, subject only to local, state, plus federal laws.",Business study
"or ownership interests maybe narrower, subject to conditions, the violation of which can lead to loss of those ownership interests.","Or ownership interests maybe narrower, subject to conditions, di violation of wey fit lead to loss of those ownership interests.",Business study
the most complete ownership interest is represented by fee simple absolute.,Di most complete ownership interest dey represent by fee simple absolute.,Business study
the owner of property in fee simple absolute has the greatest ownership interest recognized by law.,Di owner of property for fee simple absolute get di greatest ownership interest wey law recognize by law.,Business study
"generally, if someone wants to buy real property, he or she is looking to buy property in fee simple absolute.","If someone want to buy real property, hin or she dey looking to buy property i fee simple absolute.",Business study
compare that with a defeasible fee.,Di defeasible fee dey compare say wit a defeasible fee.,Business study
a fee simple defeasible is subject to a condition of ownership or to some future event.,A fee simple defeasible na subject to a condition of ownership or to some future event.,Business study
"for instance, if you donated land to""the city of nashville, so long as it is used as a public greenway,"" then the land would be owned in defeasible fee by the city of nashville, unless it decided to do something else with the land, besides maintain it as a public greenway.","If you donat land to di city of nashville, so long as e dey use as public greenway, di land go dey use as public greenway, di n di land go dey use as public greenway.",Business study
"once the condition is violated, the land would revert back to either the original owner or whoever owned the reversion interest, which is a future interest in real property.","Di land go revert back to either di original owner or wey dey owned di reversion interest, wey dey future interest for real property.",Business study
another ownership interest is a life estate.,Di ownership interest na life estate,Business study
this interest is measured by the life ofthe owner in the life estate.,Di interest dey measure by di life of di owner for di life estate.,Business study
"if you wished to grant ownership rights in real property to your mother for the length of her life, but then expected the property to be returned to you upon her death, you might grant a life estate to her.","If you wished to grant ownership rights inside real property to your mother for di length of im life, but then expected di property to be returned to you upon im death, you might grant a life estate to im.",Business study
"similarly, a common investment, known as a reverse mortgage, employs the concept of life estate.","Di common investment wey dey known as reverse mortgage, employ di concept of life estate.",Business study
a reverse mortgage is an arrangement where the purchaser of real property agrees to allow the seller ofthe property to retain possession ofthe property for a specified period of time(such as the remainder of his or her life)in exchange for the ability to purchase the property at today's price.,Di purchaser of real property agree to allow di seller of di property to retain possession of di property for a specified period of time(such as di remainder of hin or her life)for exchange for di ability to purchase di property for today price.,Business study
these arrangements essentially gamble on life expectancies ofthe sellers of real property by granting life estates to them in the property.,Di arrangements essentially gamble on life expectancies of di sellers of real property by grant life estates to dem for di property.,Business study
"however, sometimes this backfires.","For however, sometimes dis backfires",Business study
"checkout note 8. 70 ""hyperlink: reverse mortgage""for an example of a seller who outlived her investor in such an arrangement.","Dem to look at note 8. 70 ""hyperlink: reverse mortgage""for example of seller wey outlived her investor for such arrangement.",Business study
"hyperlink: reverse mortgage""in life, one sometimes makes bad deals,""said jeanne calment, the oldest living woman in history, concerning the investor who""reverse mortgaged"" her apartment.","Di oldest living woman for history, wey dey concern di investor wey dey reverse mortgage her apartment",Business study
several types of co-ownership interests are recognized in law.,Di several types of co-ownership interests dey recognise for law.,Business study
"these ownership interests are important for matters of possession, right to transfer, right to profits from the land, and liability.","Di ownership interest dey important for matters of possession, right to transfer, right to profit from di land, and liability.",Business study
"for example, tenancy in common describes an ownership interest in which all owners have an undivided interest in the property, equal rights of possession, and a devisable interest.","for example, tenancy inside common describes an ownership interest inside wey all owners get an undivided interest inside di property, equal rights of possession, plus a devisable interest.",Business study
"compare this to a joint tenancy, which describes an ownership interest in which the surviving owner has the right of survivorship.",Di joint tenancy wey dey describe ownership interest wey di survivin owner get di right of survivorship.,Business study
"imagine that you own a gold mine with your partner, frank.","Imagine wey you own a gold mine with your partner, frank.",Business study
would you rather have a tenancy in common or a joint tenancy?,Go you rather get a tenancy inside common or a joint tenancy?,Business study
"you would rather have a joint tenancy because if frank dies, then his interest in the gold mine would vest in you, rather than in his heirs.","If frank dies, then hin interest for di gold mine go vest for you, no be for hin heirs",Business study
"after all, you may not want to be a partner with frank's grandson(or whoever), but that is exactly what might happen with tenancy in common.","Dem no want to be partner wit frank's grandson(or whoever), but dat dey exactly what might happen wit tenancy for common.",Business study
"similarly, a tenancy by the entirety includes the right of survivorship, but it can only occur between a husband and wife.","Di tenancy by di entirety includes di right of survivorship, but na only occur between husband and wife.",Business study
"this concept is recognized in some states, but not all states.","Di concept dey recognize for some states, but no all states.",Business study
these different interests are created by specific wording in the instrument of conveyance.,Di different interests dey create by specific wording for di instrument of conveyance.,Business study
"to create a tenancy in common, the language would be""to john and frank,"" if john and frank were to be the co -owners.","Di language go be""to john and frank"", if john and frank go be di co owners.",Business study
"however, if a joint tenancy were intended, the conveyance would have to be more specific, like this:""to john and frank, with rights of survivorship.""","Di conveyance go get more specific, like dis:""to john and frank, wit rights of survivorship",Business study
"moreover, such questions have not yet arisen in our courts because the legal concept of same-sex marriage is still nascent and, in many states, not yet recognized in law.","Di legal concept of same-sex marriage no dey nascent and, for many states, no dey recognise for law.",Business study
note that a tenant in tenancy in common may sell or transfer his or her rights without seeking permission from his or her cotenant.,Di tenant for tenancy for common go sell or transfer hin or her rights without seeking permission from hin or her cotenant.,Business study
imagine that you owned a farm with your best friend.,Imagine wey you owned a farm with your best friend.,Business study
"at first, you agree to engage only inorganic farming practices.","At first, you agree to engage only inside organic farming practices.",Business study
"later, your friend wants to move to conventional farming practices.","Later, your friend wants to move to conventional farming practices.",Business study
"since you do not want any part in the spraying of pesticides or herbicides on the land, you decide to sell your interests to someone else.","Dem no want any part for di spraying of pesticides or herbicides for di land, you decide to sell your interest to someone else.",Business study
"even if your friend opposes the sale, he or she cannot block it.","Di friend oppose di sale, hin or she no block am",Business study
this is because cotenants in a tenancy in common have the unilateral right to transfer their interests in property.,Dem dey because cotenants for tenancy for common don get di unilateral right to transfer dia interests for property.,Business study
"imagine, later, that someone working on that land becomes very sick from a pesticide sprayed thereafter you sold your interest.","Di imagine, later, say someone work on dat land dey very sick from pesticide sprayed there afta you sold your interest.",Business study
"you would not be liable for any damages resulting from such an event, because your liability would be severed with the sale.","Dem no dey liable for any damages result from such event, because your liability go dey sever wit di sale.",Business study
"compare this to a joint tenancy, including tenancy by the entirety.","Compare this to a joint tenancy, including tenancy by di entirety.",Business study
"to transfer one's interests, the consent and approval ofthe cotenant is required.",Di consent and approval of di cotenant dey required,Business study
"in the case that joint tenants disagree about the use ofthe property or its disposal, the courts can step into grant a partition ofthe land, which essentially results in a separate parcels being granted to the individual tenants.","Di case wey joint tenants disagree about di use of di property or its disposal, di court go step into grant partition of di land, wey essentially result for separate parcels wey dem dey grant to di individual tenants.",Business study
"this recasts the formerly joint tenants into adjacent landowners, and it allows them to dispose of or use their property as each sees fit, with no rights to the other's property.","Dis recast di formerly joint tenants into adjacent landowners, and e allow dem to dispose of or use dia property as each sees fit, wit no rights to di oda property.",Business study
"scope of interests in real property scope of ownership matters, because it is determinative of what can(or cannot)be done with the land.","Di scope of interests for real property scope of ownership matters, bikos e dey determinative of what fit(or no)be done wit di land.",Business study
the surface ofthe land and the buildings that are attached to the land are implicitly included when most people contemplate the scope of ownership of real property.,Di surface of di land and di buildings wey dey attach to di land dey implicitly included when most pipo contemplate di scope of ownership of real property.,Business study
"however, other interests can be parsed and conveyed separately, including subsurface or mineral rights, and right to light or right to a view.","Di interests go dey pars and convey separately, including subsurface or mineral rights, and right to light or right to view.",Business study
"moreover, water rights are granted differently, depending on whether the property is in the western or th e eastern united states.","Di water rights dey grant differently, based on whether di property dey for di western or th eastern united state.",Business study
"additionally, easements and covenants grant certain rights to nonpossessors of land.","Additionally, easements plus covenants grant certain rights to nonpossessors of land.",Business study
subsurface or mineral rights are rights to the substances beneath the actual surface ofthe land.,Di subsurface or mineral rights dey rights to di substances wey dey inside di actual surface of di land.,Business study
this would allow you the right to extract whatever you find under the surface ofthe land and sell it.,Di would allow you di right to extract anything you find under di surface of di land and sell am,Business study
water rights are determined in two different ways in the united states.,Di united state dey determined for two different way for di united state.,Business study
"generally speaking, states east ofthe mississippi river follow a riparian water rights doctrine, which means that those who live next to the water have a right to use the water.","Di generally speaking, state east of di mississippi river follow riparian water rights doctrine, wey means say those wey live next to di water go use di water.",Business study
the water is shared among the riparian owners.,Di water dey share among di riparian owner.,Business study
"in a quite different scheme, most western states use the concept of prior appropriation, which grants rights to those who used those rights""first in time.""","Di western state use di concept of prior appropriation, wey grants rights to those wey use dia rights""first for time""",Business study
"moreover, under this concept, the use must be beneficial, bu t the owner ofthe right need not bean adjacent landowner.","Di use must be beneficial, bu t di owner of di right need no be adjacent landowner.",Business study
"this policy has led to some unnatural uses of land in western states, where water rights are highly valued due to the scarcity.","Di policy don led to some unnatural use of land for western states, wey water rights dey highly value due to di scarcity.",Business study
"for example, we see flourishing farmlands in extremely arid climates because the owners ofthe water rights want to make sure that they retain their prior appropriation rights to the water by putting it to beneficial use(e. g, crop irrigation).","We see flourishing farmlands for extremely arid climates because di owners of di water rights want make sure say dem retain dia prior appropriation rights to di water by putting am to beneficial use(e. g, crop irrigation).",Business study
"if water is not put to beneficial use under a prior appropriation doctrine, th en those rights can be lost.",Di rights dey lost.,Business study
"prior appropriation is basically a""use it or lose it""doctrine.","Di prior appropriation dey basically a""use amor lose am""doctrine.",Business study
"moreover, adjacent landowners in prior appropriation states may have no right whatsoever to use the water that runs through their land.",Di landowners wey dey prior appropriation state no get right whatsoever to use di water wey dey run through dia land.,Business study
"indeed, such an outcome is very common.",Di outcome dey very common,Business study
easements and covenants are nonpossessory interests in real property.,E dey nonpossessory interest for real property,Business study
"an easement is created expressly or impliedly, and it generally gives people the right to use another's land for a particular purpose.","Di easement dey create expressly or impliedly, and e generally give pipo di right to use one land for particular purpose.",Business study
"for example, an easement for utility companies to enter onto the land of others is common.",Di easement for utility companies to enter onto di land of odas dey common.,Business study
"this allows the utility companies to maintain poles, power lines, cable lines, and soon.","This allows di utility companies to maintain poles, power lines, cable lines, plus soon.",Business study
"other examples include a landlocked property having an easement across another piece of property for the purpose of a driveway, or an easement granted to the public to walk along the property of another to gain access to the shoreline.","Di example include landlocked property wey dey having easement across one piece of property for di purpose of driveway, or easement grant to di public to walk along di property of one to gain access to di shoreline.",Business study
a covenant is a voluntary restriction on the use of land.,Di covenant dey voluntary restriction on di use of land,Business study
"common covenants are homeowners associations' rules, which restrict the rights ofthe owners to use their land in certain ways, often for aesthetic purposes.","Di common covenants dey homeowners associations' rules, wey restrict di right of di owners to use dia land for certain ways, especially for aesthetic purposes.",Business study
"for instance, such covenants might require houses subject to the covenant to be painted only in certain preapproved colors, or they might contain prohibitions against building swimming pools.","for example, such covenants go require house subject to di covenant to paint only for certain preapproved colors, or dem go contain prohibitions against building swimming pools.",Business study
whether a covenant or easement runs with the land depends on the type of interest granted.,E dey depend on di type of interest granted.,Business study
landlord-tenant relationships a leasehold interest maybe created in real property.,Di landlord-tenant relationship a leasehold interest go create for real property.,Business study
"for example, if you rent an apartment, house, or dormitory room from campus, you area tenant with a leasehold interest.","for example, if you rent an apartment, house, or dormitory room from campus, you be a tenant with a leasehold interest.",Business study
"in such a relationship, you are the tenant and the property owner is the landlord.",Di tenant and di property owner dey di landlord,Business study
"a leasehold is simply a possessory interest with certain rights and duties, which are typically specified in the lease agreement.","Di leasehold dey simply possessory interest wit certain rights and duties, wey dey typically specified for di lease agreement.",Business study
"for example, a tenant has the right to exclusive possession ofthe real property and the duty to follow the rules of occupancy set out by the landlord, and a landlord in a residential lease agreement has the right to be paid rent and the duty to ensure that the premises are habitable.","for example, a tenant get di right to exclusive possession of di real property and di duty to follow di rules of occupancy set out by di landlord, and a landlord for residential lease agreement get di right to pay rent and di duty to ensure say di premises dey habitable.",Business study
"if one party does not perform under the lease as required, the other party may seek legal remedy.",Di oda party go seek legal remedy.,Business study
"for example, if a tenant does not pay rent, then a landlord may lawfully evict the tenant from the premises, even if the term ofthe lease has not run.","If tenant no pay rent, then landlord go lawfully evict di tenant from di premises, even if di term of di lease no run.",Business study
"like other interests in real property, leases generally must bein writing to be enforceable against the defendant.","Like other interests inside real property, leases generally must be inside writing to be enforceable against di person wey dem carry go kot.",Business study
different types of tenancies maybe created.,Di different types of tenancies dey create.,Business study
the most common tenancies are probably tenancies for years and periodic tenancies.,Di most common tenancies dey probably tenancies for years and periodic tenancies.,Business study
"tenancy for years is simply a tenancy that lasts for a particular, specified period of time.",Di tenancy for years dey simply a tenancy wey last for a particular period of time.,Business study
"when you rent an apartment, you might sign a lease for nine months to reflect the school year.","When you rent an apartment, you might sign a lease for nine months to reflect di school year.",Business study
"that would be a tenancy for years, even though the term ofthe lease is less than one year.","Di term of di lease na less than one year, even though di term of di lease dey less than one year",Business study
"a periodic tenancy, on the other hand, is a tenancy that simply runs for a particular period of time and then automatically renews if it is not terminated by the landlord or the tenant.","Di oda hand, na tenancy wey simply run for particular period of time and then automatically renews if e no dey terminated by di landlord or di tenant.",Business study
"for instance, a one-year lease may become a periodic tenancy if neither party terminates.","for example, a one-year lease may become a periodic tenancy if neither party terminates.",Business study
"imagine that you had a one-year lease but you d id not move out at the end ofthe year, and the landlord continued to accept rent payments and took no action to terminate the lease.","One-year lease but you no move out for di end of di year, and di landlord continued to accept rent payments and tok no action to terminate di lease.",Business study
anew lease for a one-year period of time would be created.,Anew lease for a one-year period of time go be created.,Business study
"less common types of tenancies are tenancy at will, which is a tenancy for no particular fixed period of time and subject to termination at will by either the landlord or the tenant, and tenancy at sufferance, which is a tenancy that occurs when a tenant remains on the property after the right of possession has ended and without the landlord's consent.","For less common types of tenancies dey tenancy for no particular fixed period of time and subject to termination for will by either di landlord or di tenant, and tenancy for sufferance, wey dey tenancy wey dey subject to termination for will by either di landlord or di tenant, and tenancy for sufferance, wey dey a tenancy wey dey for di right of possession don ended and without di landlord consent.",Business study
commercial leases typically last for longer periods of time than residential leases.,Commercial leases typically last for longer periods of time than residential leases.,Business study
"for example, it is not uncommon to hear about commercial leases that last five, ten, twenty-five, or even ninety-nine years.","E no dey uncommon to hear about commercial leases wey last five, ten, twenty-five, or even ninety-nine years.",Business study
"many ofthe same responsibilities and duties exist with commercial leases, but there are some important differences.","Boku of di same responsibilities plus duties exist with commercial leases, but there be some important differences.",Business study
"for example, a commercial tenant may demand that the landlord refuse tore nt to a competitor ofthe tenant within the same building.",Di commercial tenant go demand say di landlord refuse tore nt to a competitor of di tenant within di same building.,Business study
"for example, if a golf shop locates in a strip mall, it may require as a term in the lease that the landlord refrain from renting other retail space to a competitor golf shop within the same strip mall.","If golf shop dey locat for strip mall, e go require as term for di lease say di landlord refrain from renting oda retail space to a competitor golf shop within di same strip mall.",Business study
lease interests are assignable unless those rights are expressly restricted by the lease agreement.,Di lease interest dey assignable unless di rights dey expressly restricted by di lease agreement,Business study
"this means that the rights conveyed by the lease, which is a contract, may be transferred to another party by assignment, unless an express restriction on assignment exists within the lease.","Di means say di rights wey dey convey by di lease, wey dey contract, go transfer to another party by assignment, unless express restriction on assignment exist within di lease.",Business study
you may have seen restrictions on assignment in your own residential lease in the form of a no -subletting clause.,Dem don see restrictions on assignment for your own residential lease for di form of no -subletting clause.,Business study
commercial leases routinely contain a restriction on assignment without permission from the landlord.,Commercial leases routinely contain a restriction on assignment without permission from di landlord.,Business study
"just as the owner of real property may sell any or all of his or her interests, any ownership interest in real property may also be leased.","Di owner of real property go sell any or all of hin or her interests, any ownership interest for real property go also be leased.",Business study
"for example, someone who owns the subsurface rights of land may lease the right to drill for oil or gas to another.","for example, someone wey own di subsurface rights of land go lease di right to drill for oil or gas to another",Business study
owners of property must know the breadth and limits of their ownership interests to understand their rights to profits derived from the land and their liability resulting from use of their land.,Di owner of property must know di breadth and limits of dia ownership interest to understand dia rights to profits wey dem dey from di land and dia liability result from use of dia land.,Business study
"interests inland maybe absolute, conditional, or for a period of time.","Interests inside land maybe absolute, conditional, or for a period of time.",Business study
"additionally, co -owners may have different rights, depending on their kind of ownership.","Additionally, co -owners may get different rights, based on dia kind of ownership.",Business study
"the scope of interest inland may include surface and t he buildings attached to it, while other interests maybe severed and conveyed separately, such as subsurface rights and water rights.","Di scope of interest for land dey include surface and t he buildings attached to am, while oda interests dey convey separately, such as subsurface rights and water rights.",Business study
easements and covenants in real property convey nonpossessory interests.,Easements plus covenants inside real property convey nonpossessory interests.,Business study
"leasehold interests are possessory, nonownership interests.","Di leasehold interest dey possessory, nonownership interests.",Business study
do you agree that a land's value is only its profits?,Di land's value dey only its profits?,Business study
"if not, what makes land valuable?",Di land valuable?,Business study
"does it have an""inherent"" value, which has nothing to do with human profit?","E don get di""inherent"" value, wey no dey do wit human profit?",Business study
consider this contemporary take on the tort of nuisance.,Di contemporary take on di tort of nuisance,Business study
"some gulf coast landowners filed a nuisance suit against power companies for emitting carbon, arguing that the carbon led to global warming, which then led to increased sea levels, which then led to hurricane katrina's unusual ferocity and strength.","For some gulf coast landowners filed nuisance suit against power companies for emitting carbon, arguing say di carbon led to Global warming na how the temperature of di earth dey hot as pipu dey do tins, wey dey led to increased sea level, wey dey led to hurricane katrina's unusual ferocity and strength.",Business study
"the district court dismissed the case, but a three-judge panel on the fifth circuit reversed, saying the landowners had standing to proceed and that the claim was justiciable.","Di district court dismiss di case, but three judge panel on di fifth circuit reversed, say di landowners don standing to proceed and say di claim na justiciable.",Business study
do you think that this is a valid nuisance claim?,Dina valid nuisance claim?,Business study
do you think that adverse possession should be abolished?,Dem think say adverse possession go dey abolished?,Business study
"if you discovered a squatter on your land, what should you do to protect your title?","If you discovered a squatter on your land, what suppose you do to protect your title?",Business study
what type of due diligence can be performed to ensure that property does not contain a buried toxic waste dump?,"What type of to sabi wetin dey happen, you go need make thorough investigation, yanfu, take time research well, so you fit get correct tori, before you take decision fit be performed to ensure wey property does no contain a buried toxic waste dump?",Business study
the mailman b.,Di mailman b.,Business study
"a customer in wal-mart c. a person who cuts across your land to reach the other side, without your permission think of a situation in which you would grant a life estate to someone in property that you own.","Di customer wey cut across your land to reach di oda side, without your permission think of situation wey you go grant life estate to someone for property wey you own.",Business study
how does that situation differ from renting property to a tenant?,How does wey situation differ from renting property to a tenant?,Business study
find a story in the newspaper about liability resulting from the ownership of real property.,Di newspaper about liability result from di ownership of real property,Business study
do you think that landowner should be liable in the case that you located?,Dem think say landowner dey liable for di case wey you locate?,Business study
what benefits can you see for both the landlord and the tenant for extremely long leases?,Di landlord and di tenant for extremely long leases?,Business study
what are the risks?,Di risk wey dey risk?,Business study
"clearly, these transactions are central to many businesses and the livelihoods ofthe people involved in business.",Di transaction dey central to many business and di livelihood of di pipo wey dey involved for business.,Business study
"when thinking about acquiring property, it is important to know not only whether the property is""right"" for your or for your business but also about the rights and duties associated with acquiring it, the protections afforded to you by law as the owner of it, and how to transfer it to another party at the time of sale, lease, or licensing the right to use it.","Di important to know no only whether di property dey right for your or for your business but also about di rights and duties wey dey associated wit acquiring di property, di protections wey dey afford to you by law as di owner of di property, and how to transfer am to another party for di time of sale, lease, or licensing di right to use am.",Business study
"additionally, liability often attaches to property, and limiting one's liability is at the heart of what your study of law should encourage you to do.","Di additionally, liability often attach to property, and limiting one's liability dey for di heart of what your study of law go encourage you to do.",Business study
"while factories and inventory can be rebuilt after a loss, losing control of intellectual property can be ruinous for companies.","While factories plus inventory fit be rebuilt after a loss, losing control of intellectual property fit be ruinous for companies.",Business study
why is it important for the law to protect intellectual property?,"Di law dey important for di law to protect Ideas, books, music, inventions and creative works wey law dey protect as belonging to someone?",Business study
under what authority does congress regulate intellectual property?,"Di authority dey congress regulate Ideas, books, music, inventions and creative works wey law dey protect as belonging to someone?",Business study
how can intellectual property be protected?,"How fit Ideas, books, music, inventions and creative works wey law dey protect as belonging to someone be protected?",Business study
what are the differences between the major forms of intellectual property protection?,"Di differences wey dey between di major form of Ideas, books, music, inventions and creative works wey law dey protect as belonging to someone protection?",Business study
what are some current ethical issues that arise under intellectual property law?,"Na some current ethical issues wey dey arise under Ideas, books, music, inventions and creative works wey law dey protect as belonging to someone law?",Business study
the apple iphone 4 is the latest model of apple's do-it-all cellphone.,Di apple iphone 4 na di latest model of apple's do-it-all cellphone,Business study
"since its introduction in 2007, the iphone has redefined the""smart phone""segment ofthe wireless phone industry and left its competitors scrambling to catch up.","Di iphone don redefined di""smart phone""segment of di wireless phone industry and left im competitors catch up.",Business study
"its sleek lines, gorgeous full-color display, built -in gps navigation and camera, visual voicemail, and web surfing capability(either over wi-fi or 3g phone networks)made it an instant hit, with thousands of consumers lining up for hours to have their chance to buy one.","Its sleek lines, gorgeous full-color display, built -inside gps navigation plus camera, visual voicemail, plus web surfing capability(either over wi-fi or 3g phone networks)bin make am an instant hit, with thousands of consumers lining up for hours to get dia chance to buy one.",Business study
"it s revolutionary business model, where thousands of software programmers could write small programs called""apps"" and sell them on the app store through apple's itunes software, created a win-win-win business model for everyone who touched the iphone.","Di revolutionary business model, wey thousands of software programmers go write small programs wey dey call""apps"" and sell demon di app store through apple itunes software, create win-win-win business model for everyone wey touch di iphone.",Business study
"for software programmers, it was a win because small, untested, and first-time programmers could""strike it rich""by selling thousands of their apps directly to consumers without having to find a software publisher first.","For software programmers, am bin dey a win because small, untested, plus first-time programmers fit""strike am rich""by selling thousands of dia apps directly to consumers without having to find a software publisher first.",Business study
"for apple, it was a win because thousands of talented programmers, not on apple's payroll, were developing content for their product and enhancing its appeal.","Di win because thousands of talented programmers, no on apple payroll, dey develop content for dia product and enhance dia appeal.",Business study
apple also wins because it collects a percentage fee from every app sold on its itunes store.,Di apple also win bikos e collect percentage fee from every app wey dey sell on itunes store.,Business study
"the business has been a tremendous success for both apple and at&t, the exclusive service provider of iphones in the united states.","Di business don dey tremendous success for both apple and at&t, di exclusive service provider of iphones for di united state.",Business study
"there are quite a few companies in the industry that aren't doing aswell, from nokia to motorola to sony ericsson.","Di industry no dey do aswell, from nokia to motorola to sony ericsson.",Business study
"if they wanted to see how apple makes the iphone, all they'd have to do is buy one and then take it apart to see its components(a process known as reverse engineering).","Di apple make di iphone, all dem don do na buy one and then take am apart to see im components(a process wey dey known as reverse engineering).",Business study
"or they could look at the reverse engineering conducted by isuppli, an independent market intelligence firm.","Or dem fit make we look di reverse engineering conducted by isuppli, an independent market intelligence firm.",Business study
"the most expensive components area $27 16gb flash memory module from samsung, a $28. 50 display module that includes the iphone's glossy 3. 5-inch screen, and a$10 touchscreen assembly that includes the touch-sensitive glass on top ofthe screen.","Di most expensive component dey$27 16gb flash memory module from samsung,$28. 50 display module wey include di iphone's glossy 3. 5-inch screen, and $10 touchscreen assembly wey include di touch sensitive glass on top of di screen.",Business study
apple makes alot of money selling iphones.,Apple dey make alot of money selling iphones.,Business study
"although the$199 retail price ofthe 16gb iphone 4 suggests that apple makes only about$12 profit per phone, in reality the""cost"" ofthe iphone is much higher than$199, since each phone is sold with a two-year contract with at&t service.","Di$199 retail price of di 16gb iphone 4 suggest say apple make only about$12 profit per phone, since each phone dey sold wit two-year contract wit at&t service.",Business study
"industry analysts estimate that at&t pays apple approximately$300 for each iphone sold with an at&t plan, in return for apple agreeing not sell the iphone through any other phone network.","Di industry analysts dey imate say at&t pay apple$300 for each iphone sold wit at&t plan, for return for apple agree say no sell di iphone through any oda phone network.",Business study
"apple's profit margin, at an estimated 40 percent, is nearly double that of its nearest competitor, research in motion, maker ofthe blackberry.","Di apple profit margin, for estimated 40 percent, dey nearly double say of its nearest competitor, research for motion, maker of di blackberry.",Business study
"if you were a competitor in the cellphone industry, you'd be sorely tempted to try to duplicate apple's success.","If you dey competitor for di cellphone industry, you go sorely tempt to try to duplicate apple success",Business study
"after all, if it only costs$187. 51 to make an iphone, and you could sell it for a$320 profit, why not just make something that looks alot like an iphone?","Di 51 to make an iphone, and you go sell am for$320 profit, why no just make something wey look alot like an iphone?",Business study
behold the air phone no.,Di air phone no.,Business study
"it lacks many ofthe features ofthe iphone 4 and does not run on the iphone's software platform, but at approximately$150 in online stores, it is proving to be a popular alternative to the iphone.","E no lack many of di features of di iphone 4 and no dey run on di iphone software platform, but at approximately$150 for online stores, e dey proving to be popular alternative to di iphone.",Business study
the bom only lists the component costs to apple; it does not capture the amount of money apple spent in developing the product through ther&d process.,Di bom only list di component cost to apple; e no capture di amount of money apple spend for developing di product through dir&d process.,Business study
"the years of software and hardware development that apple undertook to create the iphone involve labor, just as building a skyscraper involves labor.","Di years of software plus hardware development wey apple undertook to create di iphone involve labor, just as building a skyscraper involves labor.",Business study
"in apple's case, the product of its labor is not a skyscraper or other tangible property it is intangible property known broadly as intellectual property, or ip.","Di product of its labor no be skyscraper or oda tangible property wey dey known widely as Ideas, books, music, inventions and creative works wey law dey protect as belonging to someone, or ip.",Business study
"to be legally sold in the united states, the air phone must be different enough from the iphone that it doesn't actually infringe, or step on, any of apple's intellectual property rights in the iphone.","Di air phone must be different enough from di iphone wey dey actually infringe, or step on, any of apple's Legal rights wey protect person's creative work like books, inventions, music and art for di iphone.",Business study
we'll begin by examining how ip has been apart ofthe country's foundation from its very beginning.,We go begin by examining how ip don been part of di kontri foundation from its very beginning,Business study
"we'll then discuss the four major types of ip protected by the law: patents, trade secrets, trademarks, and copyright.","We'll then discuss di four major types of ip protected by di law: patents, trade secrets, trademarks, plus copyright.",Business study
"you'll also be able to distinguish among the various types of ip protection and how they are similar to, and differ from, each other.","We go also dey able to distinguish among di different type of ip protection and how dem dey similar to, and differ from, each oda.",Business study
key takeaways companies(such as apple)invest tremendous resources in developing exciting and innovative new products and services.,"Tori wey dey important pass, wey person go sabi after dem don read or hear sometin companies(such as apple)invest tremendous resources inside developing exciting plus innovative new products plus services.",Business study
"reverse engineering means that it would be easy for competitors to quickly figure out how these new products are manufactured, and then copy them.","E go easy for competitors to quickly sabi wetin dey happen or find solution by dey think amor try different tin how these new products dey manufacture, and then copy dem",Business study
intellectual property law prevents this from happening and in doing so provides incentive for individuals and companies to create and innovate.,"Ideas, books, music, inventions and creative works wey law dey protect as belonging to someone law prevents this from happening plus inside doing so provides something wey go ginger person for individuals plus companies to create plus innovate.",Business study
"(accessed september 27, 2010).","For september 27, 2010).",Business study
understand the constitutional roots for providing legal protection to intellectual property.,"Understand di constitutional roots for providing legal protection to Ideas, books, music, inventions and creative works wey law dey protect as belonging to someone.",Business study
"explore the tension between content producers and the public good, and how congress resolves this tension.","Di tension wey between content producers and di public good, and how congress resolve dis tension.",Business study
anyone alive when the u. s. constitution was adopted would be surprised at the size and scope ofthe u. s. federal government today.,Di u. s. constitution don adopt di size and scope of di u. s. federal goment today.,Business study
"that clause, known as the copyright clause, says that congress may""promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries.""","Di clause, wey dey known as di copyright clause, tok say congress go""promote di progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors di exclusive right to dia respective writing and discoveries.",Business study
"keep the keywords of this clause in mind, as we'll comeback to them later:""promote progress,""""limited times,""and ""exclusive.""","We go kom back to dem later:""promote progress,""limited times,""and ""exclusive""",Business study
hyperlink: patent and trademark database the uspto website is a treasure trove of information as it includes a searchable database for trademarks and patents.,Di uspto website dey treasure trove of information as e include searchable database for trademarks and patents.,Business study
see if you can search these databases for well-known trademarks or patents.,Di database dey for well known trademark or patents.,Business study
"unlike other controversial portions ofthe constitution, such as state rights and the role ofthe judiciary, the value of laws that protected authors and inventors was well accepted in 1787, when inventions of new machines were shaping upto be part ofthe fabric ofthe new country.","As state rights and di role of di judiciary, di value of laws wey dey protect authors and inventors dey well accept for 1787, wen inventions of new machines dey shaping upto be part of di fabric of di new kontri.",Business study
"indeed, the attendees at the constitutional convention took a break from their work to watch the first steamship in the delaware river.",Di attendees for di constitutional convention take break from dia work to watch di first steamship for di delaware river.,Business study
"a scale model of his invention is on display at the smithsonian(figure 9. 3""president lincoln's patent"").","A scale model of im invention na on display at di smithsonian(figure 9. 3""president lincoln's patent"").",Business study
"lincoln, who many historians described as mechanically inclined and fascinated by engineering, felt that the patent system added""fuel of interest to the fire of genius.""","Lincoln, wey boku historians described as mechanically inclined plus fascinated by engineering, felt wey di patent system added""fuel of interest to di fire of genius.""",Business study
"essentially, the copyright clause permits(even commands)the federal government to protect certain products ofthe mind, just as much as it protects personal land or money.","Di copyright clause dey allow(even command)di federal goment to protect certain products of di mind, just as much as e protect personal land or money.",Business study
"if someone trespasses on your property, you can call the police and have them removed or you can sue them in court for damages.","If someone dey trespasse on your property, you go call di police and dem remove dem for court for damages.",Business study
"in either case, the full force and power of government is involved.",Di full force and power of goment dey involved.,Business study
the same thing can be said about ip.,Di same thing go tok about ip,Business study
"on the other hand, you know from your economics classes that, in general, our capitalist economy frowns on monopolies.","We know from your economics class wey, for general, awa capitalist economy frowns on monopolies",Business study
we believe that monopolies are immune from competitive pressures and can therefore charge exorbitant prices without any regard to the quality of their product.,We believe say monopolies dey immune from competitive pressure and fit therefore charge exorbitant prices without any regard to di quality of dia product.,Business study
"efficiency suffers when monopolies are allowed to exist, and ultimately the consumer loses in choice and price.",Di consumer lose in choice and price.,Business study
"if you think about it, though, the copyright clause essentially allows the government to create a special kind of monopoly around ip.",Di copyright clause essentially allow di goment create special kind of monopoly around ip.,Business study
"take, for example, a pharmaceutical company that invents a certain kind of drug and applies for a patent on that drug.","for example, pharmaceutical company wey invent certain kind of drug and applies for patent on dat drug.",Business study
"if any competitor dares to copy the drug to compete against the inventing company, the full force and weight ofthe government will be brought down on the competitor.",Di full force and weight of di government go dey bring down on di competitor.,Business study
violations of patent law carry extremely stiff penalties.,Violations of patent law carry extremely stiff penalties.,Business study
"how can we say that monopolies are bad, and yet grant constitutional protection to monopolies on ip?","We tok say monopolies dey bad, and yet grant constitutional protection to monopolies on ip?",Business study
the answer lies in the genius ofthe copyright clause itself.,Di answer lies for di genius of di copyright clause itself,Business study
"as in all monopolies, there are two sides: the producer and the consumer.",Di producer and di consumer.,Business study
"the producer always wants the monopoly to last as long as possible, while the consumer wants the monopoly to end as quickly as possible.","Di producer always wants di monopoly to last as long as possible, while di consumer wants di monopoly to end as quickly as possible.",Business study
the copyright clause strikes a compromise between the producer and the consumer in two ways.,Di copyright clause strikes a compromise between di producer plus di consumer inside two ways.,Business study
"first, the clause states that congress can grant the monopoly only to""promote the progress of science and useful arts.""","First, di clause states wey congress fit grant di monopoly only to""promote di progress of science plus useful arts.""",Business study
"in other words, the monopoly exists for a specific purpose.",Di monopoly exist for specific purpose,Business study
"note that""making beyonce rich""or ""allowing pfizer to make billions of dollars""is not the purpose.","Dem note say""making beyonce rich""or ""allow pfizer make billions of dollars""no dey di purpose.",Business study
"rather, the purpose is progress.",Di purpose dey progress,Business study
granting monopolies can encourage progress by providing a financial incentive to producers.,Dem encourage progress by providing finance ial incentive to producers.,Business study
"singers, songwriters, inventors, drug companies, manufacturers they all invent and innovate in the hope of making money.","Di singers, songwriters, inventors, drug companies, manufacturers dem all invent and innovate for di hope of make money",Business study
"if they knew that the law wouldn't protect what they came up with, they'd either not invent at all or they'd simply do it for themselves and their families, without sharing the fruits of their labor with the rest of society.","If dem know say di law no protect what dem kom up wit, dem no fit invent at all or dem simply do am for themselves and dia families, without sharing di fruit of dia labor wit di rest of society.",Business study
"second, the clause states whatever monopoly congress grants has to be for a""limited time.""",Di clause state say whatever monopoly congress grant don be for limited time.,Business study
"in other words, at some point the monopoly will end.",Di monopoly go end.,Business study
"when the monopoly ends, science is once again progressed because then society can freely copy and improve upon the producer's products.","Di monopoly end, science dey one more time progress because society go freely copy and improve upon di producer's products.",Business study
society benefits greatly from the expiration of these ip monopolies.,Society benefits greatly from di expiration of these ip monopolies.,Business study
"important drugs such as aspirin and penicillin, for example, can now be purchased for pennies and are accessible to the entire human population.","Important drugs such as aspirin plus penicill inside, for example, fit now be purchased for pennies plus be accessible to di entire human population.",Business study
"grand literary works, such as shakespeare's hamlet or beethoven's fifth symphony, can be performed and enjoyed by anyone at anytime without seeking permission or paying any fees or royalties.","Grand literary works, such as shakespeare's hamlet or beethoven's fifth symphony, fit be performed plus enjoyed by anyone at anytime without seeking permission or paying any fees or royalties.",Business study
"these inventions and works are in the public domain, to be enjoyed by all of us.","Di invention and works dey for public domain, to dey enjoy all of us",Business study
congress must make the decision based on what's best to promote progress.,Congress must make di decision based on what's best to promote progress.,Business study
"remember, though, that producers want monopolies to last as long as possible.","Remember, though, wey producers want monopolies to last as long as possible.",Business study
"for example, consider how long copyrights last.","for example, consider how long copyrights last.",Business study
since 1976 copyrights have lasted for fifty years after the death ofthe author.,Di author don last for fifty years afta di death of di author,Business study
"after that, copyrighted works fall into the public domain(such as works by shakespeare or beethoven).","After wey, copyrighted works fall enter di public domain(such as works by shakespeare or beethoven).",Business study
"in 1998, however, congress began considering adding an extra twenty years to that term, for a total of seventy years after the author's death.","Dem don consider adding extra twenty years to dat term, for a total of seventy years before di author death.",Business study
"in the early part ofthe twentieth century, the united states experienced a cultural renaissance that accompanied the industrial revolution.",Di united states experience cultural renaissance wey accompanied di industrial revolution.,Business study
"the invention ofthe phonograph and cameras allowed the creative genius of walt disney, george gershwin, and charlie chaplin(to name a few)to flourish.","Di invention of di phonograph plus cameras allowed di creative genius of walt disney, george gershwin, plus charlie chaplin(to name a few)to flourish.",Business study
"under the 1976 copyright law, though, some of these early works(including early versions of winnie the pooh)were about to fall into the public domain by 1998.",Di early works(including early version of winnie di pooh) dey about to fall into di public domain by 1998,Business study
the united states was also under some pressure from international trading partners to increase the copyright term.,Di united state dey under some pressure from international trading partners to increase di copyright term,Business study
"video clip: united airlines commercial as a result of these pressures, u. s. representative sonny bono(himself a popular artist together with his former wife cher)introduced the copyright term extension act to add twenty years to copyrights.","Di united airline commercial because of dis pressure, u. s. representative sonny bono(himself popular artist together within former wife cher) introduc di copyright term extension act to add twenty years to copyright",Business study
"during hearings on this bill, congress heard testimony from jack valenti, then president ofthe motion picture association of america, an industry group that represents film studios and corporations.","Dem hear testimony from jack valenti, then president of di motion picture association of America, industry group wey represent film studios and corporations.",Business study
"when asked how long he thought copyrights should last, he answered""forever minus a day.""","Di answer say how long he thought copyrights go last, hin answer""forever minus a day""",Business study
"although sonny bon o's bill passed, whether or not""forever minus a day""will eventually become the law as congress seeks to strike the right balance between protection and access and whether it satisfies the constitution's demand that the monopoly last for a""limited"" time remain unresolved questions.","As sonny bon o's bill pass, whether or no""forever minus a day""go eventually become di law as congress seeks to strike di right balance between protection and access and whether dem satisfies di constitution's demand say di monopoly last for limited time remain unresolved questions.",Business study
"content producers will always want legal protection to last as long as possible to maximize profits, while the public good benefits when content falls into the public domain.","Di content producers go always want legal protection to last as long as possible to maximize profits, while di public good benefits wey dem dey public domain.",Business study
congress is under intense pressure to resolve this tension.,Dem under intense pressure to resolve dis tension.,Business study
"why do you think the founding fathers decided to empower congress to protect intellectual property, but only for a limited time?","Why do you think di founding fathers decided to empower congress to protect Ideas, books, music, inventions and creative works wey law dey protect as belonging to someone, but only for a limited time?",Business study
how likely do you think it is that congress may extend the term for copyright protection again in the future?,"How likely do you think am na wey congress may extend di term for di right wey dey protect wetin person create, like book, music, or art, from anoda person wey wan use am without permission, e dey last from di time di original person wey create am dey alive plus seventy years again inside di future?",Business study
"understand what a patent is, as well as the different types of patents that exist.","Di different types of patent wey exist, as well as di different types of patent wey exist.",Business study
learn the criteria required for an item to be patentable.,Di criteria wey dey required for item to be patentable,Business study
explore controversial issues surrounding patents.,Dem explore controversial issues wey dey surrounding patents.,Business study
examine patent infringement and its consequences.,Dem examine patent infringement and dia consequences,Business study
understand boundaries and limitations on patent rights.,Understand boundaries plus limitations on patent rights.,Business study
imagine that you invented the apple iphone 4.,Di apple iphone 4.,Business study
"if you invent a patentable item that is useful, new, and nonobvious, and if you are capable of describing it in clear and definite terms, you may wish to protect your invention by obtaining a patent.","If you invent a patentable item wey dey useful, new, and nonobvious, you fit wish to protect your invention by obtaining a patent.",Business study
"a patent grants property rights to the inventor for a specified period of time, with a utility patent and a plant patent expiring twenty years following the original patent application and a design patent expiring fourteen years afterward.","A patent grants property rights to di inventor for a specified period of time, with a utility patent plus a plant patent expiring twenty years following di original ofis patendi gofment dey require say make dem submit formal aplication give dem, wey dem go give you right to make, use, and sell your invention, no let anoda pesin copy am plus a design patent expiring fourteen years afterward.",Business study
a patentee owns a patent.,Di patentee own a patent,Business study
"however, if you invented the apple iphone 4 while employed to perform creative and inventive work, then any patents obtained with respect to your work would be assigned to your employer.","If you invent di apple iphone 4 while employ to perform creative and inventive work, then any patent wey you go get wit respect to your work go dey assigned to your employer.",Business study
many inventors and designers work for employers in creative and inventive capacities.,Boku inventors plus designers work for employers inside creative plus inventive capacities.,Business study
this arrangement allows innovative ideas to be adequately funded in trade for the property rights resulting from patents granted to those inventions.,Di arrangement dey allow innovate ideas to dey fund for trade for di property rights resulting from patent granted to those inventions.,Business study
three patent types exist.,Di three patent type exist.,Business study
"utility patents maybe granted f or machines, processes, articles of manufacture, compositions of matter, or for improvements to any of those items.","Utility patents maybe granted f or machines, processes, articles of manufacture, compositions of matter, or for improvements to any of those items.",Business study
the apple iphone 4 certainly is the subject of utility patents.,Di apple iphone 4 certainly dey subject of utility patents,Business study
a design patent maybe granted for ornamental designs for an article of manufacture.,A design patent maybe granted for ornamental designs for an article of manufacture.,Business study
"a plant patent covers inventions or discoveries of asexually reproduced plants(e. g, plants produced through methods such as grafting).","A plant patent covers inventions or discoveries of asexually reproduced plants(e. g, plants produced through methods such as grafting).",Business study
not all items are patentable.,But no all items dey patentable,Business study
"for instance, an idea alone(without a definite description)cannot be patented.","for example, an idea alone(without a definite description)cannot be patented.",Business study
"so even if you dreamed up the idea of something that looked and functioned exactly like the apple iphone 4, you would not have been eligible for a patent on your idea alone.","If you dream up di idea of something wey look and function exactly like di apple iphone 4, you no fit get patent on your idea alone.",Business study
"note, however, that artistic works can be copyright protected.","Dem note, however, say artistic works go be copyright protected",Business study
"additionally, otherwise patentable subjects that are not useful, or items that are offensive to public morality, are not patentable.","Di additionally, odawise patentable subjects wey no dey useful, or items wey dey offensive to public morality, no dey patentable.",Business study
so what does it mean to have a patent?,So what e mean to get patent?,Business study
"just like real property ownership, a patent confers the right to exclude others.",Di patent don confer di right to exclude odas.,Business study
"if you owned a parcel of real property, your ownership interest would allow you to exclude others from your land.",Di ownership interest go allow you to exclude oda from your land.,Business study
"the rule of law would protect your right to exclude against the intrusions of others, which is the very essence of ownership.","Di rule of law go protect your right to exclude against di intrusions of odas, wey dey di essence of ownership.",Business study
"likewise, a patent confers the legal right to exclude others from making, using, or selling the patented product.","Di patent don confer di legal right to exclude odas from make, using, or selling di patent product.",Business study
"this is consistent with the copyright clause ofthe u. s. constitution, which grants inventors the""exclusive right to their. discoveries.""","This na consistent with di copyright clause of di u. s. constitution, which grants inventors di""exclusive right to dia. discoveries.""",Business study
"for others to legally make, use, or sell the patented product, they would have to be granted permission by the patentee.","For oda to legally make, use, or sell di patented product, dem go grant permission by di patentee.",Business study
"this is often accomplished through a licensing agreement, in which the patentee authorizes others to sell, make, or use the product.","Dis dey accomplished through licensing agreement, wey di patentee authorize odas to sell, make, or use di product.",Business study
"for instance, some genetically modified agricultural products are the subjects of utility patents.","for example, some genetically modified agricultural products be di subjects of utility patents.",Business study
"monsanto company patented genuity bollgard ii cotton, designed to resist worm damage, which can be a devastating problem for cotton farmers.","Dem patent genuity bollgard ii cotton, wey dey designed to resist worm damage, wey dey devastating problem for cotton farmers.",Business study
this product reduces the need for farmers to spray insecticide.,This product reduces di need for farmers to spray insecticide.,Business study
"patentees, such as monsanto company, hold many patents on agricultural products such as cotton, soybeans, canola, and corn.","Dem hold many patents on agricultural products such as cotton, soybeans, canola, and corn.",Business study
in the united states these patents typically protect new plant breeds aswell as parts ofthe plants.,Inside di united states these patents typically protect new plant breeds aswell as parts of di plants.,Business study
"in contrast, some countries, such as canada, do not permit the patenting of life forms.","Di kontri, such as Canada, no allow di patenting of life forms.",Business study
"in countries where the patenting of whole life forms is prohibited, the patents typically protect the genetically modified parts ofthe life form, such as the genes and the cells, as well as the process for inserting the genes into the cells.","Di patents typically protect di genetically modified parts of di life form, such as di genes and di cells, as well as di process for insert di genes into di cells.",Business study
do genetically modified plants meet the threshold requirements to be the subject of a patent?,Do genetically modified plants meet di threshold requirements to be di subject of a patent?,Business study
"remember that to be a patentable item, the invention must be useful, new, and nonobvious.","Remember wey to be a patentable item, di invention must be useful, new, plus nonobvious.",Business study
genetically modified plants are useful because they possess some particular quality for which they were designed.,Di genetically modified plant dey useful because dem possess some particular quality for which dem dey design.,Business study
"for example, genuity bollgard ii cotton resists many types of damaging worms while reducing the need for farmers to use insecticide, and so this invention can be said to be useful.","for example, genuity bollgard ii cotton resists boku types of damaging worms while reducing di need for farmers to use insecticide, plus so this invention fit be said to be useful.",Business study
"roundup ready products are resistant to an herbicide known as glyphosate, which is the main active ingredient in the herbicide line marketed by the monsanto company under the roundup brand.","Di roundup ready products dey resistant to herbicide wey dey known as glyphosate, wey be di main active ingredient for di herbicide line marketed by di monsanto company under di roundup brand.",Business study
"these are also useful inventions, because farmers that plant those patented herbicide -resistant products do not have to wait to plant their crops until their fields are cleared of weeds.","Dem dey also useful inventions, because farmers wey plant di herbicide resistant products no need wait to plant dia crops until dia field dey clear of weeds.",Business study
they can plant their crops before they spray herbicides because the genetically modified crops will resist the herbicide and continue to grow.,Di genetically modified crops gore sist di herbicide and continue to grow,Business study
this allows the farmers to put their land to use for longer periods of time and with more confidence that they can kill weeds without damaging their crops.,Di enable di farmers to put dia land to use for longer periods of time and wit more confidence say dem go kill weeds without dey carry dia crops.,Business study
"they can do so using inexpensive methods such as by spraying herbicides, rather than hand -weeding, which is very labor intensive.","For expensive methods wey dey spraying herbicides, no be hand weeding, wey dey very laborintensive.",Business study
genetically modified plants are new and entitled to be patented when noone else has applied for a patent for that particular invention.,Di genetically modified plant dey new and entitled to be patent for dat particular invention.,Business study
"if, for example, some other company had invented the same product that eventually became known as genuity bollgard ii cotton before the monsanto company had invented that product, then the monsanto company would not have been permitted to patent that product, even if it had independently invented that product with no knowledge ofthe other invention.","As, for example, some oda company don invent di same product wey dey known as genuity bollgard ii cotton before di monsanto company don invent dat product, then di monsanto company no dey permitted to patent dat product, even if e no get knowledge of di oda invention.",Business study
"in this way, we can see that patents are granted in the united states by the""first to invent""rule.","We fit see say patents dey grant for di united state by di""first to invent""rule.",Business study
"many other countries follow the""first to file""rule, which means that the first applicant to file for ap atent on a particular invention is eligible for the patent, regardless of who first invented it.","Di first applicant to file for patent on a particular invention dey eligible for di patent, regardless of who first invent am.",Business study
"there are legal movements to amend the u. s. patent act to change from""first to invent""to ""first to file,""but no amendment has yet been passed.","Di legal movement go amend di u. s. patent act to change from""first to invent""to ""first to file""but no amendment don pass.",Business study
"genetically modified plants are nonobvious inventions if they are different from what has been used before, so that someone with ordinary skill in genetically modified plant technology would not find the new invention to be obvious.",Di ordinary skill for genetically modified plant technology no find di new invention to be obvious.,Business study
"for example, if the""new"" invention only changed the color of one tiny cell in the entire plant, that would probably not be a patentable invention.","for example, if di""new"" invention only change di color of one tiny cell for di entire plant, na probably no be patentable invention.",Business study
"you might be wondering how a patent can be granted over a living thing, like a plant.","We go wonder how a patent go grant over a living thing, like plant.",Business study
"living things became the legal subjects of patents when, in 1980, the u. s. supreme court held that a bacterium designed by its inventor to breakdown crude oil components was the legitimate object of a patent.",Di u. s. supreme court tok say bacterium designed by its inventor to breakdown crude oil component na di legitimate object of a patent.,Business study
"since then, we have seen many living organisms patented.","We don see many living organisms wey dey patented since then, we don see many living organisms wey dey patent",Business study
"for example, the oncomouse was among the first patented mammals.",Di oncomouse dey among di first patented mammals.,Business study
the oncomouse is useful in medical research for its extreme propensity to develop cancer.,Di oncomouse na useful inside medical research for its extreme propensity to develop cancer.,Business study
the patentability of life forms is a contentious issue.,Di patentability of life forms dey contentious issue,Business study
"while the usefulness of such inventions is proven(or else they would not be patentabl e inventions), ethical questions abound.","Di usefulness of such inventions dey proven(or else dem no dey patentabl e inventions), ethical questions abound.",Business study
"for example, when considering the oncomouse, legitimate questions include whether intentionally creating life to experience pain, sickness, and medical procedures is ethical.","for example, when considering di oncomouse, legitimate questions include whether intentionally creating life to experience pain, sickness, plus medical procedures na ethical.",Business study
"moreover, many people find the idea of""creating"" life in a laboratory morally repugnant, aswell as owning the products of that creation.","Di idea of""creating"" life for laboratory morally repugnant, aswell as owning di products of dat creation.",Business study
"many fear a slippery slope: today a mouse; tomorrow, a human?","Boku fear a slippery slope: today a mouse; tomorrow, a human?",Business study
"ofcourse, humans are not patentable subjects today, but the slippery slope argument often arises in such discussions.",Di slippery slope argument always aris am for such discussions.,Business study
"with respect to genetically modified agricultural products, many people question the wisdom of placing control and ownership over items essential to life like staple crop seeds into the hands of few, especially when money must be traded for the rights to use those products.","Di pipo question di wisdom of place control and ownership over items wey dey essential to life like staple crop seeds into di hands of few, especially wen money must dey tr ad for di rights to use those products.",Business study
"this issue is particularly complicated given the fact that genetically modified agricultural products may cross -pollinate with nongenetically modified agricultural products, resulting in progeny that contains the genes or cells that are patented.","Di issue dey complicated given di fact say genetically modified agricultural products go cross pollinate wit nongenetically modified agricultural products, resulting in progeny wey dey contains di genes or cells wey dey patented.",Business study
"when this happens, courts routinely recognize that the patentee has the rights to those progeny by virtue of their patent ownership and that the unwitting possessor of those progeny has, in fact, committed patent infringement by being in possession of those patented products without permission.",Di patentee don recognize say di patentee don di rights to those progeny by virtue of dia patent ownership and say di unwitting possessor of those progeny don committed patent infringement by being in possession of those product without permission.,Business study
another controversial issue surrounds the patents granted to pharmaceutical drugs.,One controversial issue surround di patent granted to pharmaceutical drugs.,Business study
"large drug companies rely on patent law to protect their massive investment in research and development into new drugs, the vast majority of which never make it to market.","Di large drug companies dey rely on patent law to protect dia massive investment for research and development into new drugs, di most part of which no make dem market.",Business study
"for the few drugs that eventually find government approval and commercial success, manufacturers seek to extract the highest possible price during the period of patent monopoly.","For di few drugs wey eventually find government approval plus commercial success, manufacturers seek to extract di highest possible price during di period of patent monopoly.",Business study
"fore xample, the introduction of antiretroviral drugs has greatly extended the lives of hiv/aids patients, but the drugs cost between$10, 000 and$12, 000 per year in the united states.","Di introduction of antiretroviral drugs don greatly extend di lives of hiv aids patients, but di drugs cost between$10, 000 and$12, 000 per year for di united state.",Business study
"in many developing countries in asia and africa, the drugs would make a dramatic impact on human life.",Di drugs go make dramatic impact on human life.,Business study
"cipla, a generic drug manufacturer in india, manufactures the same antiretrovirals for about$350 a year, or less than one dollar a day.","Cipla, a generic drug manufacturer inside india, manufactures di same antiretrovirals for about$350 a year, or less than one dollar a day.",Business study
"the u. s. patent and trademark office (uspto) grants property rights to patentees within the united states, its territories and possessions.","Di u. s. patent plus trademark office (uspto) grants property rights to patentees within di united states, its territories plus possessions.",Business study
"patent law is complicated, and attorneys who wish to prosecute patents(file and interact with the uspto) must have an engineering or science background and pass a separate patent bar exam.",Di lawyers wey wish to prosecute patents(file and interact wit di uspto) must get engineering or science background and pass separate patent bar exam.,Business study
"when an application is filed, the uspto assigns a patent examiner to decide whether the patent application should be approved.","Di uspto assign a patent examiner to decide whether di ofis patendi gofment dey require say make dem submit formal aplication give dem, wey dem go give you right to make, use, and sell your invention, no let anoda pesin copy am go approve.",Business study
"while the application is pending, the applicant is permitted to use the term"" patent pending"" in marketing the product to warn others that a patent claim has been filed.","Di applicant dey permitted to use di term"" patent pending"" for marketing di product to warn odas say a patent claim don filed.",Business study
"even after a patent has been issued by the uspto, however, the patent is merely""presumed"" to be valid.","Di patent don dey issue by di uspto, however, di patent na merely""presume"" to be valid.",Business study
"if someone challenges a patent in a lawsuit, final validity rests with the u. s. federal courts.",Di u. s. federal courts rest wit di u. s. federal courts.,Business study
"for decades, the u. s. supreme court routinely ignored patent appeals, allowing lower courts to develop patent law.","For decades, di u. s. supreme court routinely ignored patent appeals, allowing lower courts to develop patent law.",Business study
"in recent years, under chief justice john roberts, the supreme court has dramatically increased its acceptance of patent disputes, perhaps as a sign that the court believes too many patents have been issued.","For recent years, under chief justice john roberts, di supreme court don dramatically increased its acceptance of patent disputes, perhaps assign say di court believe too many patents don issue.",Business study
"in the last decade there has been an over 400 percent increase in the number of patents filed, resulting in a multiyear delay in processing applications.","Di last decade na over 400 percent increase for di number of patents filed, resulting for multiyear delay for processing applications.",Business study
an increase in the number of business method patents contributed to this dramatic increase in patent applications.,An increase inside di number of business method patents contributed to this dramatic increase inside patent applications.,Business study
a business method patent seeks to monopolize anew way of conducting a business process.,"A business method patent seeks to monopolize anew way of conducting a one set of tins wey dem dey do for work, wey dem arrange well-well, to reach one particular target or goal, like say to sell market or to give service to customers.",Business study
other steps must be taken by the inventor to protect those rights internationally.,Di inventor go protect dia rights internationally.,Business study
"if someone possesses the patented object without permission from the patentee, then the possessor can be said to have infringed on the patent owner's rights.","Di possessor go dey said to get di patented object without permission from di patentee, then di possessor go dey said to dey infringe on di patent owner's rights.",Business study
patent infringement is an actionable claim.,Di patent infringement dey actionable claim,Business study
"a successful action may result in an injunction, treble damages, costs, and attorney's fees.","A successful action may result inside an injunction, treble damages, costs, plus attorney's fees.",Business study
one defense to a patent infringement claim is to challenge the validity ofthe patent.,Di one defense to a patent infringement claim dey challenge di validity of di patent.,Business study
hyperlink: wal-mart tries to produce shoes nike recently sued wal-mart stores for selling a shoe that nike claims infringes on its patents.,Wal-mart don try produce shoes nike recently sued wal-mart store for selling a shoe wey nike claim infringe on its patent.,Business study
the shoe sold by wal-mart uses technology similar to nike's shox technology.,Di shoe sold by wal-mart uses technology similar to nike's shox technology.,Business study
what should wal -mart's defense be?,We need wal -mart's defense be?,Business study
in recent years several companies that do nothing but sue other companies for patent infringement have emerged.,For recent years several companies wey do nothing but sue oda companies for patent infringement don emerge.,Business study
"these patent holding companies, sometimes called patent trolls by critics, specialize in purchasing patents from companies that are no longer interested in owning them and then finding potential infringers.","Di patent holding companies, sometimes call pipo wey dey buy patent, no be say dem wan use am do anything, but dem just dey use am threaten other pipo, make dem pay dem money, or dem go court by critics, dey specialise for purchasing patents from companies wey no dey longer for terested for owning demand then finding potential infringers.",Business study
"one such company, ntp, sued research in motion(rim), the maker ofthe blackberry device, for a key technology used to deliver the blackberry's push e-mail feature.","Na one such company, ntp, sued research for motion(rim), di maker of di blackberry device, for key technology wey dey use to deliver di blackberry push e-mail feature.",Business study
"faced with a potential shutdown ofthe service, rim decided to settle the case for more than six hundred million dollars.",Dem decide to settle di case for more than six hundred million dollar.,Business study
do you think that life forms should be the subjects of patents?,Dem think say life forms go be di subject of patents?,Business study
"does your answer change depending on whether we are talking about bacteria, plants, animals, or humans?","Di answer change based on whether we dey talk about bacteria, plant, animals, or humans?",Business study
"what are the most persuasive arguments in favor of, and against, allowing the patentability of higher life forms?","What be di most persuasive arguments inside favor of, plus against, allowing di patentability of higher life forms?",Business study
how do patent rights encourage innovation?,How do patent rights encourage innovation?,Business study
"if patents are protected monopolies, why do you think patent applications area matter of public record?",Di why do you think patent applications dey matter of public record?,Business study
do you agree with compulsory licensing of lifesaving medications in response to national health emergencies?,Dem agree wit compulsory licensing of lifesaving medications for response to national health emergencies?,Business study
what are the consequences of compulsory licensing to the patentee?,What be di consequences of compulsory licensing to di patentee?,Business study
to the people in need of these medications in wealthy countries?,Di pipo wey dey need these medications for wealthy countries?,Business study
to the people in need of these medications in poor countries?,Di pipo wey dey need di medications for poor kontri?,Business study
understand what a trade secret is.,Di trade secret dey.,Business study
learn the differences between trade secret and patent protection.,Learn differences between trade secret plus patent protection.,Business study
learn how trade secrets maybe lawfully discovered.,Learn how trade secrets maybe lawfully discovered.,Business study
explore the concept of misappropriation and the legal consequences.,Explore di concept of misappropriation plus di legal consequences.,Business study
"imagine that you are in an antique store and find a nineteenth-century ledger book for sale, originally from the w. b. morrison& co. old corner drugstore in waco, texas.","I imagine say you dey for antique store and find a nineteenth-century ledger book for sale, originally from di w. b. morrison& co. old corner drugstore for waco, texas.",Business study
"among the recipes for hair restorers and cough syrups, something in particular catches your eye a recipe entitled d peppers pepsin bitters.","Di recipes for hair restorers and cough syrups, something for particular catch your eye a recipe wey dey titled d peppers pepsin bitters.",Business study
what if you also knew that dr. pepper was first created and served in that very drugstore?,If you also know say dr. pepper dey first create and serve for dat very drugstore?,Business study
"what if you offered to pay two hundred dollars fort he old ledger book, even though if it did contain the recipe for dr. pepper, it would be worth far more?","What if you offered to pay two hundred dollars forte old ledger book, sef though if am did contain di recipe for dr. pepper, am go be worth far more?",Business study
something very similar to this happened to bill waters.,Na something very similar to dis happen to bill waters,Business study
"he found the ledger book in an antique store, and he paid two hundred dollars for it.","Di ledger book for antique store, and hin pay two hundred dollars for am",Business study
"however, at the time, he did not know that the book might date back to the exact time and place from which the popular soda was created.","Di time, hin no know say di book go date back to di exact time and place from which di popular soda dey create",Business study
"in fact, he did not even notice the recipe until later, and it took him several more days to recognize the possibility that it might bean early version of dr. pepper.","For fact, hin no even notice di recipe until later, and e tok him several more days to recognize di possibility say e fit be early version of dr. pepper.",Business study
"unlike patents, a trade secret can last forever.",Di trade secret go last forever.,Business study
"that is, it can last forever if the owner ofthe secret can, well, keep it a secret.","Di owner of di secret fit, well, keep am secret.",Business study
"if someone uses lawful means to uncover the secret, then the secret is no longer protected by the secret's owners.",Di secret no dey protected by di secret owners.,Business study
does this include reverse engineering?,Does this include reverse engineering?,Business study
reverse engineering is an absolutely legal means of discovering a trade secret.,Di reverse engineering dey legal means of discover trade secret,Business study
"what about ferreting out secrets from an employer's safekeeping, while employed and under a binding confidentiality agreement?","What about ferreting comot secrets from an employer's safekeeping, while employed plus under a binding confidentiality agreement?",Business study
"that is an actionable claim for misappropriation, and the secret's owners can pursue damages.","Na actionable claim for misappropriation, and di secret's owner go pursue damages.",Business study
trade secrets are unlike patents in another important way.,Di trade secrets dey unlike patents for one important way.,Business study
"with a patent, the inventor must specifically disclose the details ofthe invention when applying for a patent.","Di inventor must specifically disclose di details of di invention wen apply for patent, di inventor must specifically disclose di details of di invention wen apply for patent.",Business study
this means that the inventor has not protected the secret ofthe invention.,Di inventor no protected di secret of di invention.,Business study
"however, in exchange for this disclosure, a patent owner has a legal monopoly over the property for a specified period of time.","Di disclosure, a patent owner don legal monopoly over di property for a specified period of time.",Business study
"so even if others discover the secret ofthe invention(not a difficult task since patent applications are public record), they are prohibited from making, using, or selling it without the patentee's permission.","If odas discover di secret of di invention(not difficult task since patent applications dey public record), dem dey prohibited from making, using, or selling am without di patentee permission.",Business study
"after the patent expires, then the patentee no longer has a property right to exclude others.",Di patentee no longer get property right to exclude odas,Business study
so what is a trade secret?,We dey trade secret?,Business study
"it is, in short, secret information.","E dey, for short, secret information",Business study
"this information may include a process, formula, pattern, program, device, method, technique, or compilation.","This information may include a process, formula, pattern, program, device, method, technique, or compilation.",Business study
"for many companies, lists of suppliers, costs, margins, and customers are all trade secrets.","For many companies, list of suppliers, cost, margins, and customers dey all trade secrets.",Business study
"soft drink recipes, kfc's eleven spices, the donut mix sent to krispy kreme franchisees, the big mac's special sauce, and even the combination of wood that is used in the burning process to make budweiser beer are all trade secrets.","Di big mac's special sauce, di donut mix wey dey send to krispy kreme franchisees, di big mac special sauce, and even di combination of wood wey dey use for burning process make budweiser beer dey all trade secrets.",Business study
"additionally, the information derives actual or potential economic value from being a secret that is not readily discoverable by others, and the information is the subject of efforts to keep it a secret.","Di information derives actual or potential economic value from being secret wey no readily discoverable by odas, and di information dey di subject of effort to keep am secret.",Business study
"unlike patents, trademarks, and copyrights, there is no federal law protecting trade secrets.",Di federal law protect trade secrets.,Business study
"a claim for misappropriation maybe brought when a trade secret has been wrongfully obtained, such as through corporate espionage or bribery.","Di claim wey dey misappropriation go dey brought wen trade secret don dey wrongfully obtained, such as through corporate espionage or bribery.",Business study
"generally, according to the utsa, misappropriation occurs if the secret was acquired by improper means, or if the secret was disclosed or used without permission from the secret's owner.","Di generally, according to di utsa, misappropriation occur if di secret dey acquired by improper means, or if di secret dey disclosed or use without permission from di secret owner.",Business study
damages may include actual loss and unjust enrichment not captured by actual loss.,Dem include actual loss and unjust enrichment wey dey captured by actual loss.,Business study
"additionally, in cases of willful or malicious misappropriation, double damages maybe awarded, as well as attorney's fees.","Di dditionally, for case of willful or malicious misappropriation, double damages dey award, as well as attorney fees.",Business study
so what if you are never lucky enough to discover a multimillion -dollar secret recipe hidden away in an antique shop?,If you no dey lucky enough to discover multimillion -dollar secret recipe wey dey hidden away for antique shop? So what if you dey lucky enough to discover multimillion -dollar secret recipe wey dey hidden away for antique shop?,Business study
"as long as the recipe is not patented, you can try to reverse engineer it.","as long as di recipe no patent, you go try to reverse engineer am",Business study
"if you succeed, you can use it immediately.","If you succeed, you fit use am immediately",Business study
"however, if you are working for an employer in a creative capacity, working with others to develop the secret, and if you have agreed not to use trades ecrets, then the right to the trade secret will belong to your employer, at least in most jurisdictions.","If you dey work for employer for creative capacity, work wit odas to develop di secret, and if you no agree to use trades ecrets, then di right to di trade secret go belong to your employer, at least for most jurisdictions.",Business study
"ask peter taborsky, an undergraduate student at south florida university in 1988.","Dem ask peter taborsky, undergraduate student for south florida university for 1988.",Business study
"according to taborsky, while working in the university's chemical engineering lab, he began conducting experiments on his own.","Na hin work for di university's chemical Engineering lab, hin began conduct experiments on hin own",Business study
he discovered a highly effective method for treating sewage.,E discovered a highly effective method for treating sewage.,Business study
the university demanded that he hand over his notebooks that contained the secrets of this invention.,Di university demand say he hand over hin notebooks wey contain di secrets of dis invention.,Business study
"taborsky refused and filed for a patent for his invention, which he received.","Di taborsky refused and filed for patent for hin invention, wey hin receive.",Business study
"however, the university pressed criminal charges for stealing trade secrets.","However, di university pressed criminal charges for tiffing trade secrets.",Business study
taborsky lost his case and found himself in a maximum- security facility working on a chain gang.,Di taborsky lost hin case and found himself for maximum- security facility wey dey work on chain gang.,Business study
so does bill waters need to worry about dr. pepper's owners suing him for misappropriation or pressing criminal charges for stealing trade secrets?,So does bill waters need to worry about dr. pepper's owners suing him for misappropriation or pressing criminal charges for tiffing trade secrets?,Business study
he lawfully obtained the ledger book by purchasing it in the open market.,E lawfully obtained di ledger book by purchasing am inside di open market.,Business study
"additionally, according to a company spokesman, the ingredient list under d peppers pepsin bitters is most likely an old remedy for a stomachache rather than any version ofthe recipe for dr. pepper.",Di ingredient list under d peppers pepsin bitters dey most likely old remedy for stomachache no be any version of di recipe for dr. pepper.,Business study
even if mr.,Sef if mr.,Business study
"waters had accidentally stumbled on the exact dr. pepper recipe, he would have a good argument that the company d id not take steps to keep the secret a secret.",Di company no take steps to keep di secret a secret.,Business study
"if it had, he could argue, the company never would have allowed the recipe out of its sight.",Di company no go allow di recipe out of its sight.,Business study
"however, if someone else discovers the secret through a lawful method, then the owner ofthe secret has no right to exclude others from using the secret.","If someone else discovers di secret through lawful method, then di owner of di secret no go exclude odas from using di secret.",Business study
"unlawfully obtaining a trade secret is called misappropriation, which is an actionable claim.","Dem call misappropriation, wey dey actionable claim.",Business study
"the uniform trade secret act has been adopted by most(but not all)states, so different jurisdictions have different rules of law concerning trade secrets.","Di uniform trade secret act don get been adopted by most(but no all)states, so different pawa of kot to judge cases get different rules of law concerning trade secrets.",Business study
"if you owned a trade secret, what methods would you employ to protect it?","If you owned a trade secret, what methods go you employ to protect am?",Business study
"if you invented something that was patentable or the subject of a trade secret, what types of issues would you consider when deciding whether or not to apply for a patent?","If you invent something wey dey patentable or di subject of trade secret, what type of issues go consider wen you decide whether or no to apply for a patent?",Business study
understand what a trademark is.,Di trademark dey.,Business study
learn what can and cannot be trademarked.,We no dey trademark and no be trademark,Business study
explore how companies protect trademarks from dilution and genericide.,Explore how companies protect trademarks from dilution plus genericide.,Business study
examine how the internet poses new challenges to trademark owners.,Examine how di internet poses new challenges to trademark owners.,Business study
explore the tension between trademark protection and free speech.,Di tension wey dey between trademark protection and free speech.,Business study
"look at figure 9. 7""mcdonald's, one ofthe most recognized trademarks in the world"".","Dem make we look figure 9. 7""mcdonald's, one of di most recognized trademarks for di world""",Business study
"it's obviously a mcdonald's restaurant, but can you tell where this restaurant is?","Di restaurant dey obviously a mcdonald's restaurant, but fit tell where di restaurant dey?",Business study
is it in a mall or airport?,Di mall or airport?,Business study
"is it in trenton, toronto, or tokyo(or, as it turns out, messestadt riem in germany)?","As e turnout, messestadt riem for germany?",Business study
"without additional information, it maybe impossible to tell.",E no dey impossible to tell,Business study
"and yet, no matter where you are in the world, if you enter this mcdonald's restaurant, there are certain standards that you expect.","Di mcdonald's restaurant, no matter where you dey for di world, if you enter di mcdonald's restaurant, certain standards wey you expect.",Business study
"you would expect to find a big macon the menu, perhaps chicken mcnuggets and french fries too.","You go expect to find a big macon di menu, perhaps chicken mcnuggets plus french fries too.",Business study
"perhaps you'd expect a certain level of service from the employees, a certain value proposition for your money, a certain look from the uniform and fixtures, or perhaps a clean restroom.","Perhaps you fit think a certain level of service from di employees, a certain value proposition for your money, a certain look from di uniform plus fixtures, or perhaps a clean restroom.",Business study
the ultimate goal of trademark law is to prevent this consumer confusion.,Di ultimate goal of trademark law nato prevent dis consumer confusion.,Business study
"to prevent any other restaurant from using the name mcdonald's, or from using a logo that looks like a stylized""m,"" mcdonald's can trademark both its name and logo(and alot of other elements of its brand aswell).","Dem go prevent any oda restaurant from using di name mcdonald's, or from using logo wey look like stylized""m"", mcdonald's fit trademark both im name and logo(and alot of oda elements of im brand aswell).",Business study
"a trademark is any kind of name, logo, motto, device, sound, color, or look that identifies the origin of a particular good or service.","Di trademark dey any kind of name, logo, motto, device, sound, color, or look wey identify di origin of a particular good or service.",Business study
something begins to look like a trademark when a consumer identifies it with a particular origin.,E begin to look like trademark wen a consumer identify am wit particular origin.,Business study
"for example, someone buying a diet coke knows that he or she is getting a carbonated beverage from the coca-cola company.","for example, someone buy diet coke know say hin or she dey get carbonated beverage from di coca-cola company.",Business study
"if he or she bought a diet cola, on the other hand, there's no association in the mind with any particular company, so it could be from coca-cola, pepsi, or any number of other companies.","Di association for di mind wit any particular company, so e fit be from coca-cola, pepsi, or any number of oda company.",Business study
the key is that consumer identification with a specific origin.,Di key dey say consumer identification wit specific origin,Business study
"if a consumer thinks of a class of goods rather than one specific origin, then it's not a trademark.","If a consumer thinks of a class of goods no be one specific origin, then am's no a trademark.",Business study
"so, for example, when a consumer hears""aspirin,"" he or she thinks of a class of goods with no particular origin because aspirin is not a trademark.","for example, wen a consumer hear""aspirin,"" hin or she think of class of goods wit no particular origin because aspirin no dey trademark.",Business study
"but if a consumer hears""bayer,"" he or she thinks of a specific aspirin from a specific source, making ""bayer""a trademark.","If a consumer hear""bayer,"" hin or she think of specific aspirin from a specific source, make ""bayer""trademark",Business study
"some sounds are instantly recognizable, such as aol's ""you've got mail""and twentieth century fox's movie opening scene.","Some sounds be instantly recognizable, such as aol's ""you've got mail""plus twentieth century fox's movie opening scene.",Business study
click the link to explore other trademarked sounds.,Di link to explore oda trademark sound.,Business study
"a federal law, the lanham act, protects trademarks.","A federal law, di lanham act, protects trademarks.",Business study
"unlike copyrights and patents, trademarks can last forever and are not subject to the constitution's ""limited time""restriction.","Dem no subject to di constitution's ""limited time""restriction.",Business study
"the moment they no longer make that association, however, the trademark ceases to exist.","Di moment dem no make association, however, di trademark ceases to exist.",Business study
"if you are considering marketing as a career, you will become intimately familiar with the concepts related to branding and the value of branding.",Di concept wey dey related to branding and di value of branding.,Business study
"at its core, marketing involves the science of relating to consumers, telling them an authentic story about your product and service, and satisfying their wants and needs.","At its core, marketing involves di science of relating to consumers, telling dem an authentic story about your product plus service, plus satisfying dia wants plus needs.",Business study
"having a brand is essential to carrying out this objective, and it can lead to startling profits.","Di brand dey essential to carry out dis objective, and e fit lead to startling profits",Business study
"the apple and iphone brands, for example, are very strong and yield billions of dollars in profits for apple.","Di apple and iphone brands, for example, dey strong and yield billions of dollars for profit for apple.",Business study
"luxury brands are particularly aware of this phenomenon, as often their brand alone can justify pricing far above a similar good.","Di luxury brands dey particularly to know dis phenomenon, as often dia brand alone fit justify pricing far above a similar good.",Business study
"gucci, such as this store in hong kong( figure 9. 8""gucci store in hong kong""), trades on the value of its brand to command premium prices(and margins)in the marketplace.","Di store for hong kong( figure 9. 8""gucci store for hong kong""), trades on di value of its brand to command premium prices(and margins)for di market.",Business study
"brands such as rolex, hermes, rolls-royce, and bentley have similar business models.","Brands such as rolex, hermes, rolls-royce, plus bentley get similar business models.",Business study
"these brands are all trademarks indeed, all brands are either registered trademarks or are trademark-able because they share the common feature of consumer identification.","Di brands dey all trademarks indeed, all brands dey registered trademarks or dey trademark-able because dem share di common feature of consumer identification.",Business study
"be careful, though.","We dey careful, though",Business study
"""trademark""and ""brand""are not interchangeable terms because not all trademarks are brands.","Di trademark""and ""brand""dey interchangeable terms because no all trademarks dey brands",Business study
so what can be a trademark?,As we fit be trademark?,Business study
"obviously, words can be trademarked.","Dem no dey trademark, words dey trademark.",Business study
"when it comes to trademarks, distinctiveness is good.",Di trademarks dey good.,Business study
"therefore, an invented word is the best type of trademark.",Di invented word dey di best type of trademark,Business study
"in 1997, for example, when stanford grad students larry page and sergey brin were brainstorming names for their new internet search engine, they settled on the word""google,"" a play on ""googol,"" which means 1 followed by 100 zeroes.","for example, wen stanford grad students larry page and sergey brin dey brainstorm names for dia new internet search engine, dem settled on di word""google"", a play on ""googol"", wey means 1 follow 100 zeroes.",Business study
they felt the name reflected their goal to organize the staggering amount of information available on the internet.,Di name reflect dia goal to organize di staggering amount of information available on di internet.,Business study
"on the other hand, regular words can also become trademarks, as long as consumers identify them with a particular source.","as long as consumers identify dem wit a particular source, regular words dey become trademarks, as long as consumers identify dem wit particular source.",Business study
"amazon, for example, is the name ofthe world's longest river, but it's also the name of an online retailer.","Di name of di world's longest river, but na also di name of online retailer",Business study
"since consumers now identify amazon. com as anon line retailer, the name can be trademarked.","Dem don identify amazon. com as one online retailer, di name fit be trademarked.",Business study
"another example is the phrase""you're fired""when used in a television program.","Di example dey di phrase""you dey fire"" wey use for television program.",Business study
the phrase was made popular by billionaire donald trump and has such lasting recognition now that it's unlikely any other television show could use that phrase as a central part of its theme.,Di phrase dey popular by billionaire donald trump and don tok say e dey unlikely any oda television show go use dat phrase as central part of its theme.,Business study
consider what would happen if you tried to trademark your name.,Di name go happen if you tried to trademark your name.,Business study
"if your name happens to be sam smith, you'd probably have a pretty hard time getting a trademark for your name.","Di name go be Sam smith, you go probably get trademark for your name.",Business study
"if, however, you called your business sam smith anyway, and started growing your business so that eventually, over time, consumers began to identify""sam smith""as your business, then your name has acquired secondary meaning and can be trademarked.","For time, consumers began to identify""sam smith""as your business, then your name don acquired secondary meaning and trademarked.",Business study
"thus, sam adams is a trademark for a beer, ben & jerry's is a trademark for ice cream, and ford is a trademark for a motor vehicle.","Sam adams dey trademark for beer, Ben & jerry's dey trademark for ice cream, and ford dey trademark for motor vehicle",Business study
"can paris hilton trademark the phrase""that's hot""?","Na paris hilton trademark di phrase""that's hot""?",Business study
"as long as the public associates these phrases with a distinctive origin, t he answer is yes.","as long as di public dey associat dis phrase wit distinctive origin, t he answer nano.",Business study
listen to this national public radio broadcast for more examples.,Listen to this national public radio broadcast for more examples.,Business study
the same name can sometimes be used for multiple categories of goods.,Di same name dey use for multiple categories of goods.,Business study
"the name delta, for example, is a trademark for both an airline and a brand of faucets.","Di name delta, for example, na a trademark for both an airline plus a brand of faucets.",Business study
"since there is little chance that a consumer will be confused by an airline or faucet brand, trademark law allows these dual registrations.","E dey little chance say a consumer go confused by airline or faucet brand, trademark law allow dis dual registrations.",Business study
"on the other hand, some brands are so strong that they would probably stop registration even for a completely different category of goods.",Some brands dey strong say dem go stop registration even for different category of goods.,Business study
mcdonald's is a good example of this.,Na good example of dis.,Business study
"the mcdonald's trademark is one ofthe strongest in the world, meaning that it is instantly recognizable.","Di mcdonald's trademark dey one of di strongest for di world, meaning say im dey instantly recognable",Business study
"in 1988, f or example, hotel chain quality inns decided to launch anew line of budget motels called ""mcsleep.""","E or example, hotel chain quality inns decide to launch new line of budget motels wey dey call ""mcsleep""",Business study
"mcdonald's sued, claiming trademark infringement.","Di mcdonald's dey sued, claiming trademark infringement",Business study
mcdonald's claimed that consumers might be confused and believe that mcdonald's owned the hotel chain.,Di mcdonald's claim say consumers go dey confused and believe say mcdonald's owned di hotel chain.,Business study
"a federal judge agreed and ordered quality inns to change the name ofthe chain, which it did, to sleep inns.","Di federal judge agree and order quality inns to change di name of di chain, wey dem go sleep inns.",Business study
trademarks go beyond simply a company's name or its logo.,Trademarks go beyond simply a company's name or its logo.,Business study
a color can be trademarked if it's strong enough to create consumer identification.,Di color don dey trademark if e strong enough to create consumer identification,Business study
"pink, for example, is trademarked when used for building insulation by owens corning.","Di pink, for example, dey trademark for building insulation by owens corning.",Business study
all other insulation manufacturers must use different colors.,All other insulation manufacturers must use different colors.,Business study
"sounds can be trademarked too, such as mgm studios'""lion's roar.""","For mgm studios'""lion's roar""",Business study
"even a certain""look"" can be trademarked if ac onsumer identifies it with a certain origin.","Na even a certain""look"" go trademark if consumer identify am wit certain origin.",Business study
"thus, the distinctive colors, materials, textures, and signage of a starbucks or t. g. i.","Thus, distinctive colors, materials, textures, plus signage of a starbucks or t. g. i.",Business study
friday's are considered trade dress and cannot be copied.,For friday's dey consider trade dress and no dey copied,Business study
"a bottle shape can be considered trade dress, too, such as the shape of a nail polish bottle(figure 9. 9 ""opi's nail polish bottle"").","A bottle shape fit be considered trade dress, too, such as dish ape of a nail polish bottle(figure 9. 9 ""opi's nail polish bottle"").",Business study
"opi, a nail polish manufacturer, has registered this bottle shape with the u. s. patent and trademark office (uspto) and issuing other manufacturers that use a similarly designed bottle.",Di bottle shape wit di u. s. patent and trademark office (uspto) and dey suing oda manufacturers wey use similarly designed bottle,Business study
"interestingly, courts have been reluctant to grant certain smells trademark protection, even though it can be argued that certain fragrances such as old spice or ck one are distinctive.","For interestingly, courts don reluctant to grant certain smells trademark protection, even though dem dey argu say certain fragrances wey old spice or ck one dey distinctive.",Business study
imagine the chaos that would ensue if one company claimed trademark protection for vanilla or strawberry scents consumers would ultimately be robbed of choice if that were to happen.,Di chaos wey dey ensue if one company don claim trademark protection for vanilla or strawberry scents consumers go ultimately dey robbed of choice if dat dey happen.,Business study
a trademark is not limited to a name or logo used to sell goods.,Di trademark no dey limited to name or logo wey dey use sell goods,Business study
"if a company provides a service(as opposed to selling goods), it too can receive trademark protection.","Di company dey provide service(as oppose to selling goods), e too fit receive trademark protection.",Business study
in this case it's called a service mark.,Di case wey dey call service mark.,Business study
"facebook, for example, is a service mark.","Di facebook, for example, na service mark",Business study
"if you study operations management, you'll learn about the international organization for standardization(iso) and its various standards for quality management(iso 9000) or environmental quality(iso 14000).","If you study operations management, you'll learn about di international organization for rule or levelization (iso)plus its various rule or levels for quality management(iso 9000) or environmental quality(iso 14000).",Business study
"the forest stewardship council (fsc) allows its logo to be used on paper products that come from sustainable forests, while certain foods can be labeled""organic"" or""fair trade""if they meet certain standards as established by governmental or nongovernmental organizations.","Di forest stewardship council (fsc) allow dia logo to be used on paper products wey kom from sustainable forests, while certain foods go label""organic"" or""fair trade""if dem meet certain standards as dem dey establish by governmental or nongovernmental organization.",Business study
each of these marks is an example of a certification mark.,Di marks dey example of certification mark.,Business study
"finally, a mark can represent membership in an organization, such as the national football league, girl scouts of america, chartered financial analyst, or realtor( figure 9. 10""""realtor"" certification mark"").","Finally, a mark fit represent membership inside an organization, such as di national football league, girl scouts of america, chartered financial analyst, or realtor( figure 9. 10""""realtor"" certification mark"").",Business study
each of these is known as a collective mark.,Di each of dis dey known as collective mark,Business study
"the rules that apply to trademarks apply equally to service marks, collective marks, and certification marks.","Di rules wey apply to trademarks apply equally to service marks, collective marks, plus certification marks.",Business study
"the lanham act excludes a few categories from trademark registration, mainly for public policy purposes.","Di lanham act excludes a few categories from trademark registration, mainly for public policy purposes.",Business study
"obviously, trademarks will not be granted if they are similar or identical to a trademark already granted.","For obviously, trademarks no go grant if dem dey similar or identical to a trademark wey dem grant.",Business study
"if you're starting anew company, it's a good idea to make sure that not only is a domain name available for your company's name, but that the name isn't already trademarked by someone else.","Di good idea to make sure say no only dey domain name available for your company name, but say di name no dey already trademarked by someone else",Business study
"trademarks also cannot contain the u. s. flag, any government symbol(such as the whitehouse or capitol buildings), or anything immoral.","Di trademark no dey contain di u. s. flag, any goment symbol(such as di whitehouse or capitol building), or any immoral.",Business study
trademarks cannot be merely descriptive.,Di ademarks no be merely descriptive,Business study
"whether or not a region can be trademarked (a geographic indicator, or gi)is the subject of some controversy, especially with our trading partners.","Whether or no a region fit be trademarked (a geographic indicator, or gi)na di subject of some controversy, especially with awa trading partners.",Business study
"""maine lobster,""""napa valley wine,""or ""florida orange juice,""for example, may indicate to some consumers the origin of a particular lobster or bottle of wine or orange juice, and thus maybe of commercial value to distinguish the product from competitors from other regions.","Di maine lobster,""napa valley wine,""or ""florida orange juice,""for example, indicate to some consumers di origin of a particular lobster or bottle of wine or orange juice, and thus dey of commercial value to distinguish di product from competitors from oda region.",Business study
"for the time being, these foods must come from maine, california, or florida to avoid liability under consumer protection statutes for fraud(lying) about their origin.","For di time being, these foods must come from maine, california, or florida to avoid liability under consumer protection statutes for fraud(lying) about dia origin.",Business study
"for years, sparkling wine manufacturers in champagne, france, have fought to prevent this from happening by requiring that only sparkling wine made in the champagne region be called""champagne.""","For years, sparkling wine manufacturers for champagne, france, don fought to prevent dis from happening by requiring say only sparkling wine wey dey made for di champagne region be""champagne""",Business study
"now, food producers(especially in the european union)are seeking similar protection under international trademark law for feta, parmesan, gorgonzola, asiago, and hundreds of other names.","Now, food producers(especially inside di european union)be seeking similar protection under international trademark law for feta, parmesan, gorgonzola, asiago, plus hundreds of other names.",Business study
a trademark is valid as long as consumers believe that the mark is associated with a specific producer or origin.,For long as consumers believe say di mark dey associated wit specific producer or origin.,Business study
"if the mark refers to a class of goods instead, then the trademark can no longer exist.","Di mark dey to talk about class of goods forstead, then di trademark no dey exist",Business study
this process is called genericide.,Di process dey call genericide,Business study
"many words today once started as trademarks: furnace, aspirin, escalator, thermos, asphalt, zipper, softsoap, cellophane, lite beer, q -tip, and yo-yo are all examples of trademarks that are now generic and have therefore lost legal protection.","Hinace, aspirin, escalator, thermos, asphalt, zipper, softsoap, cellophane, lite beer, q -tip, and yo-yo dey all examples of trademarks wey dey generic and dey lost legal protection.",Business study
"to prevent genericide from occurring, trademark owners must take active steps, often costing millions of dollars, to educate consumers on the importance of using their trademarks properly and to prosecute infringers.","To prevent genericide from occurring, trademark owners must take active steps, often costing millions of dollars, to educate consumers on di importance of using dia trademarks properly plus to prosecute infringers.",Business study
"for example, when you hear the word ""kleenex,"" do you think of a brand of tissue owned by kimberly-clark, or do you think of tissues generally?","for example, when you hear di word ""kleenex,"" do you think of a brand of tissue owned by kimberly-clark, or do you think of tissues generally?",Business study
"does ""rollerblade"" refer to a brand of in-line skates, or to all in-line skates?","Does ""rollerblade"" to talk about a brand of inside-line skates, or to all inside-line skates?",Business study
"in southern states, does ""coke""refer to a coca-cola, or to soft drinks generally?","Inside southern states, does ""coke""to talk about a coca-cola, or to soft drinks generally?",Business study
"when you run a""xerox"" photocopy, is it on a xerox photocopier or some other machine?","when you run a""xerox"" photocopy, na di xerox photocopier or some oda machine?",Business study
"these trademarks, all currently active and worth billions of dollars to their owners, are in danger of becoming generic in the united states.","Di trademarks, all currently active and worth billions of dollars to dia owner, dey in danger of becoming generic for di united state.",Business study
"if that happens, the companies will lose control ofthe marks and the public(and competitors)will be free to us e those words just as they use""aspirin"" and""yo -yo""today.","Di companies go lose control of di marks and di public(and competitors)go free to us e those words just as dem use""aspirin"" and""yo -yo""today.",Business study
"xerox has taken many steps to educate the public about its trademark, including running print advertisements in business periodicals.","Di xerox don take many step to educate di public about its trademark, including running print advertisements for business periodicals.",Business study
"in one of these ads, the text says,""when you use 'xerox' the way you use 'aspirin,'we get a headache.""","Di text tok say,""when you use 'xerox' di way you use 'aspirin,'we get headache",Business study
"trademark infringement occurs when someone uses someone else's mark, either completely or to a substantial degree, when marketing goods or services, without the permission ofthe mark's owner.","Trademark infringement occurs when someone uses someone else's mark, either completely or to a substantial degree, when marketing goods or services, without di permission of di mark's owner.",Business study
"obviously, making your own pair of jeans and slapping a ""levi's"" label on it, or making your own handbag and sewing a""coach"" label on it, constitutes trademark infringement.","Obviously, making your own pair of jeans plus slapping a ""levi's"" label on am, or making your own handbag plus sewing a""coach"" label on am, constitutes trademark infringement.",Business study
"to avoid trademark infringement liability, apple had to pay cisco an undisclosed sum to purchase the trademark.",Di apple don pay cisco an undisclosed sum to buy di trademark.,Business study
"ford found itself in a similar situation when it released a supercar called the""ford gt.""","Di ford find amself for similar situation wen dem release supercar wey di""ford gt""",Business study
"ford made a similar racing car in the 1960s called the""gt 40""but lost control ofthe trademark after production ceased.","Ford bin make a similar racing car inside di 1960s called di""gt 40""but lost control of di trademark after production ceased.",Business study
"unable to reach agreement with the current trademark owners, ford settled for releasing the new car as simply the""gt.""","Di current trademark owner, ford settled for releasing di new car as simply di""gt""",Business study
the law also permits trademark owners to sue infringers who use their marks to a substantial degree.,Di law also allow trademark owners to sue infringers wey use dia marks to substantial degree.,Business study
"for example, when samsung announced its new smartphone, the blackjack, the makers ofthe blackberry device sued for trademark infringement.","for example, when samsung announced its new smartphone, di blackjack, di makers of di blackberry device sued for trademark infringement.",Business study
"when a software company released a product to eliminate unwanted e-mails called""spam arrest,""it was sued by hormel, makers of spam canned luncheon meat.","Di software company don release product to eliminate unwanted e-mails wey dey call""spam arrest"", e dey sued by hormel, makers of spam canned luncheon meat",Business study
"when a small coffee shop in syracuse, new york, opened as ""federal espresso,""the shipping company fedex filed a trademark infringement claim.","Wey small coffee shop for syracuse, new york, open as ""federal espresso,""di shipping company fedex filed trademark infringement claim.",Business study
"even if a trademark owner doesn't believe a similar use of its mark would lead to any consumer confusion, it can protect its trademark through a concept called dilution.","Di trademark owner no believe a similar use of its mark go lead to any consumer confusion, e fit protect im trademark through concept wey dey call dilution.",Business study
"such wa s the case when an adult novelty store in kentucky opened as ""victor's secret""(the owner's name was victor).","Di case wey adult novelty store for kentucky open as""victor secret""( di owner name dey victor).",Business study
"the trademark owners of""victoria's secret""filed a dilution suit in response.","Di trademark owners of""victoria secret""filed di trademark owners of""victoria secret""filed di trademark owners of""victoria secret""filed di trademark owners of""victoria secret""for response.",Business study
"traditionally, trademarks are intended to prevent consumer confusion. dilution permits a trademark owner to stop usage of a similar word or phrase even if consumers aren't confused.",Dilution dey allow trademark owner to stop usage of similar word or phrase even if consumers no dey confused,Business study
"under dilution concepts, the trademark owner only needs to show that its mark will be diluted or tarnished in some way.",Di trademark owner only need show say im mark go dey diluted or tarnished for some way.,Business study
dilution is controversial in trademark law.,Di dilution dey controversial for trademark law,Business study
"when congress passed the first dilution law in 1995, the federal trademark dilution act, many felt that congress had gone too far in protecting trademarks, to the detriment ofthe public and small businesses.","Di federal trademark dilution act, many felt say congress don go too far for protect trademarks, to di detriment of di public and small business.",Business study
"for one thing, the act only protected""famous"" trademarks.","For one thing, di act only protected""famous"" trademarks.",Business study
"it also failed to clearly define""dilution,"" and what was required for trademark owners to win a lawsuit.","Di failure to clearly define""dilution"" and what dey required for trademark owners to win lawsuit.",Business study
"finally, when the victor's secret case reached the supreme court,[1] the supreme court issued some clarification.","Finally, when di victor's secret case reached di supreme court,[1] di supreme court issued some clarification.",Business study
"the court ruled that to win a dilution case, a trademark owner had to show that it had suffered actual economic damage from the dilution, not merely the""likelihood"" of dilution.","Di court rule say to win di dilution case, trademark owner don show say e don suffered actual economic damage from di dilution, no merely di""likelihood"" of di pipo.",Business study
"unhappy with the court's decision, corporations lobbied congress to pass the trademark revision dilution act of 2006, which overturns the moseley case.","Di court decision, corporations lobbi congress to pass di trademark revision dilution act of 2006, wey dey overturn di moseley case.",Business study
"now, trademark owners of famous trademarks only need to show a likelihood of dilution before filing a dilution lawsuit.","Now, trademark owners of famous trademarks only need to show a likelihood of dilution before filing a dilution lawsuit.",Business study
companies or persons accused of trademark infringement have several defenses to rely on.,Di company or persons accused of trademark infringement don several defenses to rely on.,Business study
the most obvious is arguing that no infringement has occurred because the two marks are sufficiently different that consumers won't be misled.,Di most obvious dey arguin say no infringement don occur because di two marks dey sufficiently different say consumers go misled.,Business study
"for example, in 2002 jeep sued general motors for infringing on what jeep called its trademark grill.","for example, inside 2002 jeep sued general motors for infringing on what jeep called its trademark grill.",Business study
"gm's hummer division released the h2 that year, with a similar seven-bar grill.","Gm's hummer division released di h2 wey year, with a similar seven-bar grill.",Business study
a district court held that there was no trademark infringement because the grills were too dissimilar to cause consumer confusion.,Di district court tok say no trademark infringement because di grills dey too dissimilar to cause consumer confusion.,Business study
"look at the hummer h2 grill( figure 9. 11 ""hummer h2 grill"") and the jeep grill( figure 9. 12""jeep grill"").","make we look di hummer h2 grill( figure 9. 11 ""hummer h2 grill"") plus di jeep grill( figure 9. 12""jeep grill"").",Business study
do you think there is a chance of consumer confusion?,Do you think there na a chance of consumer confusion?,Business study
another defense is fair use.,"Di defense dey him be like say, dem get one kind law wey allow person use small part of wetin another person own, without say make dem ask am, but e get him own rule, wey be say, no be everything dem fit use, and dem no well define am",Business study
the lanham act prohibits the use of someone else's trademark when selling goods.,Di Lanham act prohibit di use of someone else's trademark wey dey sell goods,Business study
"it's not uncommon to see various items such as laptop computers, telephones, soda cans, or other foods with their labels covered by stickers or blurred out on television shows and movies because ofthe trademark law.","E no dey uncommon to see various items such as laptop computers, telephones, soda cans, or oda foods wit dia label wey dey covered by stickers or blurred out on television show and movies because of di trademark law.",Business study
"on the other hand, what if a company wanted to mention a competitor's product to draw a comparison with its own product?","On di other hand, what if a company wanted to mention a competitor's product to draw a comparison with its own product?",Business study
"this is called comparative advertising, and it's considered fair use.","Dem call comparative advertising, and dem consider him be like say, dem get one kind law wey allow person use small part of wetin another person own, without say make dem ask am, but e get him own rule, wey be say, no be everything dem fit use, and dem no well define am.",Business study
"honda, therefore, is free to claim that its""honda accord is better than the ford taurus""in its advertising even though ford and taurus are both trademarks owned by ford motor company.","Dem free to claim say im""honda accord dey better than di ford taurus""for its advertising even though ford and taurus dey both trademarks wey dem dey owned by ford motor company.",Business study
"the first amendment also recognizes the use of parody, comedy, or satire as fair use.","Di first amendment sef recognizes di use of parody, comedy, or satire as him be like say, dem get one kind law wey allow person use small part of wetin another person own, without say make dem ask am, but e get him own rule, wey be say, no be everything dem fit use, and dem no well define am.",Business study
"comedy skits on television that make fun of, or use, company logos are an example of this fair use.","For television wey make fun of, or use, company logos dey example of dis him be like say, dem get one kind law wey allow person use small part of wetin another person own, without say make dem ask am, but e get him own rule, wey be say, no be everything dem fit use, and dem no well define am.",Business study
"canadian nonprofit adbusters, for example, claims to bean organization seeking to advance ""anew social activist movement in the information age.""","Di canadian nonprofit adbusters, for example, claim to be organization wey dey seeking to advance ""anew social activist movement for di information age",Business study
"part of its work involves making fun of corporations and consumer spending, sponsoring ""buy nothing day""as an antidote to the annual holiday spending season.","Part of its work involves making fun of corporations plus consumer spending, sponsoring ""buy nothing day""as an antidote to di annual holiday spending season.",Business study
"making fun of corporations also involves spoofing their commercial messages, as the ad in figure 9. 13""a parody ofthe well-known absolut vodka print ads""illustrates.","Di ad for figure 9. 13""a parody of di well known absolut vodka print ads""dey illustrate.",Business study
an interesting aspect of trademark infringement arises through the use of domain names on the internet.,"An interesting aspect of trademark infringement arises through di use of Domain name na him be dat kain name wey dey identify one website or anoda kain resource for internet, e be like address wey pipo dey use reach one website, e dey make am easy for pipo to sabi and find am for net on di internet.",Business study
the practice of cybersquatting (or domain name squatting) arises when a company registers a domain name containing a famous trademark in hopes of selling that trademark to its rightful owner for a large profit.,Di practice of cybersquatting (or domain name squatting) arises wen a company register domain name wey dey containing famous trademark for hopes of selling say trademark to its rightful owner for large profit.,Business study
"the practice arose in the early days ofthe internet, when domain name registration took place on a first-come, first-served basis.","Di practice arose inside di early days of di internet, when domain name registration took place on a first-come, first-served basis.",Business study
"there is nothing wrong with registering a domain name for a generic word such as but incorporating a registered trademark into the domain name, for purposes of selling it later, is considered cybersquatting.","Dire no dey wrong wit register domain name for generic word such as but incorporating registered trademark into di domain name, for purposes of selling am later, dey consider cyberquatting.",Business study
this practice was made illegal in 1999 with the passage ofthe anticybersquatting consumer protection act.,Di practice don make illegal for 1999 wit di passage of di anticybersquatting consumer protection act.,Business study
"it is only illegal, however, if the domain name is registered to make a profit through later sale.",Di domain name dey registered to make profit through later sale.,Business study
"it is not illegal if someone registers the domain name in""good faith.""","E no illegal if someone register di domain name for""good faith""",Business study
a good example is the domain name registered by canadian teenager mike rowe in 2003.,Di domain name wey canadian teenager mike rowe for 2003.,Business study
"an avid computer user, he registered as a domain name.",Di registered as domain name,Business study
rowe's defense was that the website merely reflected his name and his interest in computer programming and software and was being used for that purpose.,Di rowe's defense na say di website merely reflect hin name and hin interest for computer programming and software and dey use for dat purpose.,Business study
"after heavy negative publicity, rowe and microsoft settled the case with microsoft taking control ofthe domain.",rowe and microsoft settled di case wit microsoft take control of di domain.,Business study
another example surrounds the nissan. com domain.,Di example wey dey surround di nissan. com domain.,Business study
"uzi nissan, a computer storeowner, had owned the domain for years before nissan motors attempted to gain ownership ofthe domain.","Di computer storeowner, don owned di domain for years before nissan motors don tempt to gain ownership of di domain.",Business study
"since the domain was registered in good faith, no cybersquatting has occurred.","Di domain don register for good faith, no cybersquatting don occur.",Business study
the first amendment is also a defense to cybersquatting.,First amendment (wey go bring freedom to pipo) dey also defense to cybersquatting,Business study
"websites run by consumer activists who seek to criticize or parody companies, such as or or are n ot cybersquatting in spite of their use of trademarks.","E dey run by consumer activists wey seek to criticize or parody companies, such as or dey n ot cybersquatting for spite of dia use of trademarks.",Business study
trademarks are granted under federal law by the u. s patent and trademark office and can last forever.,Di u. s patent and trademark office dey last forever.,Business study
"when a trademark is no longer associated with a specific origin, it becomes generic and loses legal protection.","Di trademark no dey associated wit specific origin, e become generic and lose legal protection.",Business study
trademark owners can take legal action against infringement and dilution of their marks.,Trademark owners fit take legal action against infringement plus dilution of dia marks.,Business study
fair use of trademarks includes comparative advertising and parody.,"him be like say, dem get one kind law wey allow person use small part of wetin another person own, without say make dem ask am, but e get him own rule, wey be say, no be everything dem fit use, and dem no well define am of trademarks includes comparative advertising plus parody.",Business study
"trademark protection extends to the internet, where mark owners can prevent bad faith domain name squatting.","Trademark protection extends to di internet, where mark owners fit prevent bad faith domain name squatting.",Business study
"search the trademark database for the phrase""let's roll.""","Di trademark database for di phrase""let's roll""",Business study
do you think that companies should be able to trademark phrases?,Dem think say companies dey able to trademark phrases?,Business study
can you find other examples?,But you find oda examples?,Business study
"""netbook"" is an example of a term the uspto recently rejected as being generic, even though it was at one point a registered trademark.","Na example of term di uspto recently reject as being generic, even though e dey for one point registered trademark.",Business study
can you think of other recent examples of genericized trademarks?,Fit you think of other recent examples of genericized trademarks?,Business study
do you think that the rules of cybersquatting should extend beyond internet domain names to other uses such as facebook or twitter account names?,Di rules of cyberquatting go extend beyond internet domain name to oda use such as facebook or twitter account name?,Business study
understand what a copyright is.,Di copyright dey.,Business study
explore the requirements for copyright protection.,"Explore di requirements for di right wey dey protect wetin person create, like book, music, or art, from anoda person wey wan use am without permission, e dey last from di time di original person wey create am dey alive plus seventy years.",Business study
understand copyright infringement and the fair use defense.,"Dem understand copyright infringement and di him be like say, dem get one kind law wey allow person use small part of wetin another person own, without say make dem ask am, but e get him own rule, wey be say, no be everything dem fit use, and dem no well define am defense.",Business study
understand the digital millennium copyright act.,Understand digital millennium copyright act.,Business study
the final form of intellectual property(ip) protection is copyright.,"Di final form of Ideas, books, music, inventions and creative works wey law dey protect as belonging to someone(ip) protection na copyright.",Business study
"like patents and trademarks, federal law protects copyright.","Like patents plus trademarks, federal law protects copyright.",Business study
"whereas trade secrets protect confidential company information, patents protect processes and inventions, and trademarks protect brands and identity, copyright is designed to protect creativity.","Whereas trade secrets protect confidential company information, patents protect processes plus inventions, plus trademarks protect brands plus identity, copyright na designed to protect creativity.",Business study
it is one ofthe two types of ip specifically mentioned in the copyright clause ofthe u. s. constitution.,Di two types of ip specifically mentioned for di copyright clause of di u. s. constitution.,Business study
"ofcourse, back then the only works copyrighted would have been songs, art, or works in writing.","For course, back then di only works wey dey copyrighted go be songs, art, or works for writing.",Business study
"today, copyright extends to any form of creative expression, including digital forms.","Today, copyright extends to any form of creative expression, including digital forms.",Business study
"if asked to write down four numbers from one to fifty in random sequence, most of us would write four different numbers.","If asked to write down four numbers from one to fifty inside random sequence, most of us go write four different numbers.",Business study
"the process of picking those numbers requires creativity, so the sequence ofthe four numbers you write down is copyrighted.","Di process of pick those numbers require creativity, so di sequence of di four numbers you write down dey copyrighted.",Business study
"note that the numbers themselves aren't copyrighted, ofcourse.","Di numbers wey dey copyright, ofcourse.",Business study
"it's just the unique sequence that you choose, the expression of your creativity, that is copyrighted.","Di unique sequence wey you choose, di expression of your creativity, wey dey copyrighted.",Business study
"since computer software is a compilation of binary code expressed in 1 and 0, all software is copyrighted.","Dis since computer software dey compilation of binary code express for 1 and 0, all software dey copyrighted.",Business study
"on the other hand, sequential page numbers or listings in a phone directory show no creativity and are therefore not copyrightable.","Di oda hand, sequential page numbers or listings for phone directory show no creativity and no dey copyrightable.",Business study
"similarly, if a group of students were given a camera and each was asked to photograph the same subject, each student would come up with a different photograph.","Di group of students dey give camera and each student dey asked to photograph di same subject, each student go kom up wit different photograph.",Business study
"each student would frame the subject differently, and that is an expression of creativity.","Di student go frame di subject differently, and say na expression of creativity.",Business study
"finally, consider the notes that you take in class for this course.","For finally, consider di notes wey you take for class for discourse.",Business study
"a group of students could read the same textbook and listen to the same lecture, and come up with different sets of notes.","A group of students fit read di same textbook plus listen to di same lecture, plus come up with different sets of notes.",Business study
"each work is unique and demonstrates creativity, so each is copyrighted.","Di work dey unique and demonstrate creativity, so each dey copyrighted.",Business study
"therefore, if you sing an original song in the shower in the morning and your roommate hears it and records it, the copyright to the song belongs to your roommate, not you.","If you sing original song for di shower for morning and your roommate hear am and record am, di copyright to di song belongs to your roommate, no you.",Business study
"this requirement exists because it would be impossible to prove, without a durable medium, who is the original author of a work.","Di requirement exist because e go impossible to prove, without durable medium, wey dey di original author of work.",Business study
"ideas, by themselves, cannot be copyrighted.","Ideas, by themselves, cannot be copyrighted.",Business study
"if you had an idea for a novel about a boy wizard who goes to a boarding school with his friends and battles evil monsters while growing up, that would not be copyrighted.","If you go get idea for a novel about boy wizard wey go boarding school within friends and battle evil monsters while growing up, dat no be copyrighted.",Business study
"if you wrote a novel featuring such a storyline, however, y ou would run the risk of violating the copyrighted harry potter works.","Di risk of violating di copyrighted harry potter works, e go run di risk of violating di copyrighted harry potter works.",Business study
"a similar dispute arose in 2006 after the blockbuster success of dan brown's novel,""the da vinci code.""","A similar dispute arose inside 2006 after di blockbuster success of dan brown's novel,""di da vinci code.""",Business study
"two authors, michael baigent and richard leigh, claimed the novel infringed on their copyrighted book,""holy blood holy grail.""","two pipo wey write book, michael baigent plus richard leigh, claimed di novel infringed on their copyrighted book,""holy blood holy grail.""",Business study
"in their book, the authors theorized that jesus survived his crucifixion, married mary magdalene, and had children.","Di authors diorized say jesus survive hin crucifixion, married Mary magdalene, and had children",Business study
"the british judge hearing the case dismissed the claims, holding that the theory was""too general or too low a level of abstraction to be capable of protection by copyright law.""[","Di British judge hear di case dismiss di claim, tok say di theory dey too general or too low level of abstraction to be capable of protection by copyright law.",Business study
"unlike patents and trademarks, which must go through an expensive and rigorous application and approval process with the government, authors do not need to send their work to the government for approval.",Di authors no need to send dia work to di government for approval.,Business study
"although it's a good idea to write""copyright"" or place a symbol on the work, it's not legally required.","Di good idea to write""copyright"" or place symbol on di work, no dey required.",Business study
copyright protection lasts for seventy years after the death ofthe author.,For seventy years afta di death of di author,Business study
"if there is more than one author, the copyright expires seventy years after the death ofthe last surviving author.",Di copyright expires seventy years afta di death of di last surviving author.,Business study
"if a company, such as a publisher, owns a copyrighted work, the copyright expires ninety-five years from th e date of publication, or one hundred twenty years from the date of creation, whichever comes first.","If a company, such as a publisher, owns a wok wey get right, like buk or song or film wey person or kompani get right to stop odas from use am, sell amor share am without permission, di copyright expires ninety-five years from th e date of publication, or one hundred twenty years from di date of creation, whichever comes first.",Business study
"after copyright expires, the work falls into the public domain.",Di work fall into di public domain.,Business study
"the works of shakespeare, bach, and beethoven, for example, are in the public domain.","Di works of shakespeare, bach, and beethoven, for example, dey for public domain.",Business study
"they maybe freely recorded, performed, or modified without permission.","Dem no go record, perform, or modified without permission.",Business study
"if you were to record yourself reciting shakespeare's""to be or not to be""speech from hamlet, however, that recording is copyrighted even though the underlying work(hamlet ) is in the public domain as anew creative expression.",Di recording dey copyright even though di underlying work(hamlet) dey for di public domain as new creative expression.,Business study
classical music recordings are similarly copyrighted under the same concept.,Di same concept wey dey suppose use di same concept.,Business study
"ofcourse, you may purchase those rights if you wish, but they will probably costa lot more than the price ofthe book or disc.","Di price ofcourse, you go buy those rights if you wish, but dem go costa lot more than di price of di book or disc.",Business study
"essentially this means that as the owner ofthe physical work, you can do with it as you please, including resell the original work.","Di essentially dis means say as di owner of di physical work, you fit do with am as you please, including resell di original work.",Business study
copyright holders may use schemes such as digital rights management (drm) to limit your ownership rights in digital media.,Copyright holders may use schemes such as digital rights management (drm) to limit your ownership rights inside digital media.,Business study
"drm limits the number of copies and devices a digital file can be transferred to, and in some cases even permits the copyright holder to delete the purchased work.","Drm limit di number of copies and devices a digital file fit transfer to, and for some case even allow di copyright holder to delete di purchase work.",Business study
"amazon. com recently deleted digital george orwell books from owners who had purchased the works for their kindle reading devices( figure 9. 14""amazon's kindle e-reader""), without any prior notification.","Amazon. com recently deleted digital george orwell books from owners wey bin get purchased di works for dia kindle reading devices( figure 9. 14""amazon's kindle e-reader""), without any prior notification.",Business study
this would have been impossible if the books were in a physical form.,Di suppose be impossible if di books dey in physical form.,Business study
"although amazon. com was within its rights to do so, the public outcry that followed made amazon. com promise to not engage in such behavior again in the future.",Di public outcry wey dey follow make amazon. com promise to no engage for such behavior again for di future.,Business study
"for example, if a classmate takes your class notes without your permission an d makes photocopies of them, the classmate has infringed on your copyright.","for example, if classmate take your class notes without your permission make dem photocopies of dem, di classmate don infringe on your copyright.",Business study
it's also copyright infringement if you take someone else's work and simply repackage it as your own.,Am's sef copyright infringement if you take someone else's work plus simply repackage am as your own.,Business study
this happened recently to harry potter author j. k. rowling.,This happened recently to harry potter author j. k. rowling.,Business study
"her books created a huge fan following, and many fans gather online to discuss the potter series.","Im books created a huge fan following, plus boku fans gather online to discuss di potter series.",Business study
"one such site is the harry potter lexicon, run by steve vander ark, a former school librarian.","One such site na di harry potter lexicon, run by steve vander ark, a former school librarian.",Business study
"the site serves as an encyclopedia to the harry potter world, with reference notes on characters, places, spells, and other details.","Di site serve as encyclopedia to di harry potter world, wit reference no dey on character, place, spells, and oda details.",Business study
the judge agreed and ordered the lexicon rewritten so that it uses less material from the copyrighted work.,Di judge agree and order di lexicon rewritten so say e useless material from di copyright work.,Business study
"thus, web sites such as the former napster and grokster, which existed solely for the purpose of facilitating illegal downloading of music, were held to be infringers even though the websites themselves didn't violate any copyrights.","Di former napster and grokster, wey dey existed solely for di purpose of facilitating illegal downloading of music, dey held to be infringers even though di websites themselves no violate any copyrights.",Business study
"similarly, if you make digital media available for download for others, you are not engaged in illegal downloading but still liable for contributory copyright infringement.","Di similarly, if you make digital media available for download for odas, you no dey aged for illegal downloading but still liable for contributory copyright infringement",Business study
"the recording industry, which is battling for its very survival in anew file-sharing world, pursues these cases aggressively.","Di recording industry, wey dey battling for its very survival for new file-sharing world, pursues dis cases aggressively.",Business study
"in june 2009, a court in minnesota ordered jammie thomas to pay$80, 000 per song for making twenty-four songs available for download, for a total fine of$1. 92 million.","Inside june 2009, a court inside minnesota ordered jammie thomas to pay$80, 000 per song for making twenty-four songs available for download, for a total fine of$1. 92 million.",Business study
"in september 2009, the industry won a$675, 000 verdict against a college student in massachusetts for file sharing thirty songs.","Inside september 2009, di industry won a$675, 000 verdict against a college student inside massachusetts for file sharing thirty songs.",Business study
"devices that can be used for purposes other than violating copyrights (such as photocopiers, video/dvd burners, and peer-to-peer networks used for sharing research)are not considered infringing devices.","Di evices wey dey use for purposes different than violating copyrights (such as photocopiers, video dvd burners, and peer-to-peer networks wey dey use for sharing research)no dey consider infringing devices.",Business study
"copyright law makes a distinction between""fair"" use and""infringing"" use of a copyrighted work.","Copyright law dey make a distinction between""fair"" use plus""infringing"" use of a wok wey get right, like buk or song or film wey person or kompani get right to stop odas from use am, sell amor share am without permission.",Business study
"a fair use includes copying a work for purposes of commentary, criticism, news reporting, teaching, or research.","A him be like say, dem get one kind law wey allow person use small part of wetin another person own, without say make dem ask am, but e get him own rule, wey be say, no be everything dem fit use, and dem no well define am includes copying a work for purposes of commentary, criticism, news reporting, teaching, or research.",Business study
"just because a work is used in a news article or in a classroom, however, does not make its use fair. the law provides four factors that courts must consider in determining whether or not the use is fair.",Di law provide four factors wey court must consider for determining whether or no di use dey fair,Business study
"first, the court must consider the purpose and character ofthe use.",Di court must consider di purpose and character of di use.,Business study
"is it for educational purpose, or for making a profit?","Na am for educational purpose, or for making a profit?",Business study
"second, the court must consider the nature ofthe copyrighted work.",Di court must consider di nature of di copyright work.,Business study
"is the work part ofthe ""core""of the intended protection that copyright provides?","Di work part of di""core"" of di intended protection wey copyright provide?",Business study
"third, the court must consider the amount and substantiality ofthe portion used.",Di court must consider di amount and substantiality of di portion wey dem use.,Business study
this is an important factor it's one thing for your professor to copy an excerpt from a journal or book for distribution in class(probably fair)and another to copy the entire journal or book(probably infringing).,Di important factor na one thing for your professor to copy an excerpt from a journal or book for distribution for class(probably fair)and one to copy di entire journal or book(probably fair)and one to copy di entire journal or book(probably infringing)and one to copy di entire journal or book(probably infringing).,Business study
"finally, the court must consider the effect ofthe use on the potential market for the copyrighted work.",Di court must consider di effect of di use on di potential market for di copyrighted work.,Business study
"if the use is considered fair, what would it do to the market for the copyrighted work?","We go do to di market for di wok wey get right, like buk or song or film wey person or kompani get right to stop odas from use am, sell amor share am without permission?",Business study
"for example, if copying an entire textbook is fair, it would probably eliminate the market for new textbooks.","If copying entire textbook dey fair, e go eliminate di market for new textbooks.",Business study
"in an attempt to tackle the problem of copyright infringement on the internet, congress passed the digital millennium copyright act (dmca) in 1998.",Di congress pass di digital millennium copyright act (dmca) for 1998.,Business study
"another portion ofthe law helps websites by stating that if a website user uploads infringing material and the website complies with a copyright holder's request to remove the material, the website won't be liable for infringement.","Di law help websites by stat say if a website user uploads infringing material and di website complies wit a copyright holder request to remove di material, di website no dey liable for infringement.",Business study
"for example, if you upload a portion of a copyrighted song, movie, or television show to youtube, you may find that youtube has removed your clip at the request ofthe copyright holder.","If you upload portion of a copyrighted song, movie, or television show to youtube, you go find say youtube don remove your clip for di request of di copyright holder.",Business study
"finally, the dmca makes it illegal to attempt to disable a copy protection device.",Di dmca make dem illegal to attempt to disable copy protection device,Business study
"dvd and blu-ray discs, for example, are copy protected to prevent them from being copied easily.","for example, dem dey copy protected to prevent dem from being copied easily",Business study
anyone who writes software(even if the software is distributed for free)that disables this copy protection device is violating the dmca.,Anyone wey write software(even if di software dey distributed for free)say disable dis copy protection device violat di dmca.,Business study
"in recent years the dmca has been used by companies to prevent competitors from making replacement inkjet cartridges, replacement garage door openers, and other replacement parts on the grounds that the replacements circumvent a copy protection device.","Di dmca don use companies to prevent competitors from make replacement inkjet cartridges, replacement garage door openers, and oda replacement parts on di grounds say di replacements dey circumvent copy protection device.",Business study
copyright protection is automatic without any prior government approval and generally lasts for seventy years past the death ofthe author.,"Di right wey dey protect wetin person create, like book, music, or art, from anoda person wey wan use am without permission, e dey last from di time di original person wey create am dey alive plus seventy years dey automatic without any prior government approval and generally last for seventy years past di death of di author",Business study
digital works are fully protected by copyright and maybe encrypted with digital rights management schemes.,Di digital works dey fully protected by copyright and dey encrypt wit digital rights management schemes.,Business study
"copyright infringement, both direct and contributory, is a serious civil violation that can result in heavy monetary penalties.","Di civil violation wey dey direct and contributory, dey serious civil violation wey go result for heavy monetary penalties.",Business study
fair use is a defense to copyright infringement.,"Di him be like say, dem get one kind law wey allow person use small part of wetin another person own, without say make dem ask am, but e get him own rule, wey be say, no be everything dem fit use, and dem no well define am na defense to copyright infringement",Business study
the digital millennium copyright act prohibits any attempts to circumvent a copy protection device or scheme.,Digital millennium copyright act prohibits any attempts to circumvent a copy protection device or scheme.,Business study
how long do you think copyrights should last?,How long do you think copyrights suppose last?,Business study
do you think t he use of copyrighted works in parody is fair use?,"Dem think t he use of copyrighted works for parody na him be like say, dem get one kind law wey allow person use small part of wetin another person own, without say make dem ask am, but e get him own rule, wey be say, no be everything dem fit use, and dem no well define am?",Business study
"consider works by weird al yankovic, or mel brooks movies, for example.","Consider works by weird al yankovic, or mel brooks movies, for example.",Business study
do you think there is any difference between downloading a song on a peer-to-peer network versus walking into a store and putting acd into your jacket and walking out without paying for it?,Di difference wey dey between downloading a song on peer-to-peer network versus walking into store and putting cd into your jacket and walking out without pay for am?,Business study
what are those differences?,Di differences na those differences?,Business study
should the law treat those two acts differently?,Di law treat dia two acts differently?,Business study
is downloading music justifiable because recording artists and companies make alot of money?,Na downloading music justifiable because recording artists plus companies make alot of money?,Business study
can you think of other industries where this reasoning applies aswell?,But you think of oda industries wey dis reasoning applies aswell?,Business study
"as ip law evolved, laws that govern trade secrets, patents, trademarks, and copyright have emerged to protect different forms of ip.","As ip law evolved, law wey govern trade secrets, patents, trademarks, and copyright don emerge to protect different form of ip.",Business study
"these legal protections provide a solid foundation for businesses, e ntrepreneurs, and artists to create useful, innovative, and inspiring works for society.","These legal protections provide a solid foundation for businesses, e ntrepreneurs, plus artists to create useful, innovative, plus inspiring works for society.",Business study
"our lives are enriched by machines to make tasks easier, medicines to heal us, and songs and movies to inspire and entertain us.","Awa lives be enriched by machines to make tasks easier, medicines to heal us, plus songs plus movies to inspire plus entertain us.",Business study
"without the financial incentives provided by ip law, innovation would grind to a halt and the u. s. economy would become unrecognizable.","Di financial incentives wey dey provi dey by ip law, innovation go grind to halt and di u. s. economy go become unrecognizable",Business study
"on the other hand, the constitution is explicit about the primary purpose of providing ip monopolies: to advance the progress of science and useful arts.","On di other hand, di constitution na explicit about di primary purpose of providing ip monopolies: to advance di progress of science plus useful arts.",Business study
"this advance can take place when ip owners create ip, but it can also take place when the ip falls into the public domain at the end of its""limited time.""","This advance fit take place when ip owners create ip, but am fit sef take place when di ip falls enter di public domain at di end of its""limited time.""",Business study
"many legal scholars now believe that congress has gone too far in pleasing copyright holders, mainly large corporations with billions of dollars in profits at stake.","Di legal scholars now believe say congress don go too far for pleasing copyright holders, mainly large corporations wit billions of dollars for profits for stake.",Business study
"private property, including intellectual property, is essential to our way of life.","Private property, including Ideas, books, music, inventions and creative works wey law dey protect as belonging to someone, na essential to awa way of life.",Business study
it provides an incentive for investment and innovation; it stimulates the flourishing of our culture; it protects the moral entitlements of people to the fruits of their labors.,E provide incentive for investment and innovation; e stimulate di flourishing of our culture; e protect di moral entitlements of pipo to di fruits of dia labors.,Business study
but reducing too much to private property can be bad medicine.,But reducing too well-well to private property fit be bad medicine.,Business study
"private land, for instance, is far more useful if separated from other private land by public streets, roads and highways.","Di private land, for example, dey more useful if separated from oda private land by public streets, roads and highways.",Business study
"public parks, utility rights-of-way and sewers reduce the amount of land in private hands, but vastly enhance the value ofthe property that remains.","Di public parks, utility rights-of-way and sewers reduce di amount of land for private hands, but enhance di value of di property wey dey remain.",Business study
so too it is with intellectual property.,"Di Ideas, books, music, inventions and creative works wey law dey protect as belonging to someone dey wit Ideas, books, music, inventions and creative works wey law dey protect as belonging to someone.",Business study
overprotecti ng intellectual property is as harmful as underprotecting it.,"Di Ideas, books, music, inventions and creative works wey law dey protect as belonging to someone dey harmful as underprotectin am",Business study
creativity is impossible without a rich public domain.,Di creativity dey impossible without rich public domain,Business study
overprotection stifles the very creative forces it's supposed to nurture.,Di very creative force wey dey suppose nurture.,Business study
judge kozinski thinks that overprotecting intellectual property is as harmful as underprotecting it.,"Di judge kozinski think say overprotecting Ideas, books, music, inventions and creative works wey law dey protect as belonging to someone dey harmful as underprotectin am",Business study
do you agree?,Dem agree?,Business study
"the challenge for policymakers and courts is to find the balance between the rights of ip holders, who would always like more protection, and the rights ofthe public, which are enhanced when material falls into the public domain.","Di challenge for policymakers and courts dey find di balance between di rights of ip holders, wey go like more protection, and di rights of di public, wey dey enhanced when material fall into di public domain.",Business study
"corporations, policymakers, and members ofthe public will all benefit from a reasoned debate over how to find this balance.","Corporations, policymakers, plus members of di public go all benefit from a reasoned debate over how to find this balance.",Business study
"you will become familiar with white-collar crimes, blue -collar crimes, and crimes committed by businesses.","We go dey familiar wit white collar crimes, blue collar crimes, and crimes wey dey committed by business.",Business study
"you will also learn about the constitutional protections afforded to those accused of committing a crime, and the purpose of punishments for committing crimes.","Di constitutional protection wey dey afford to those accused of committing crime, and di purpose of punishments for committing crime",Business study
it also will examine strategies to minimize corporate criminal liability exposure or losses attributed to criminal activities.,Am sef go examine strategies to minimize corporate criminal liability exposure or losses attributed to criminal activities.,Business study
why is crime relevant to business?,Why na crime relevant to business?,Business study
how does criminal law differ from civil law?,How does criminal law differ from civil law?,Business study
what constitutional protections are afforded to those accused of committing a crime?,Di constitutional protections dey afford to those accused of committing crime?,Business study
what are some relevant defenses to crime?,What be some relevant excuse for kots to crime?,Business study
what are the consequences of committing a crime?,What be di consequences of committing a crime?,Business study
what are the goals of punishment for committing a crime?,Di goal of punishment for committing crime?,Business study
which crimes must businesses be concerned about?,Di crim dey must businesses dey concerned about?,Business study
what strategies exist for businesses to minimize exposure to criminal liability or to loss associated with criminal activities?,What strategies exist for businesses to minimize exposure to criminal liability or to loss associated with criminal activities?,Business study
"consider the photo in figure 10.1 ""businessperson in trouble"".","Di photo for figure 10.1 ""businessperson for trouble""",Business study
it is probably not the usual image conjured by most business students who dream of success in the business world.,Di usual image wey most business students dey dream of success for di business world.,Business study
yet it becomes a sad reality for too many managers and executives who commit crimes in the context of their professional lives.,Di sad reality for too many managers and executives wey dey commit crimes for di context of dia professional lives.,Business study
how can the path from business success lead to a criminal conviction?,How fit di path from business success lead to a An official court decision saying person is guilty of a crime?,Business study
"click on any credible news source today, and you will find among the headlines a story in which this photo would fit.",Di headlines go fit.,Business study
"ofcourse, there are many reasons why something like this happens.",Na many reasons wey dey why something like dis happen,Business study
"people sometimes fall into the""wrong crowd""at work, and they do not know how to walk away.","Di pipo sometimes fall into di""wrong crowd""for work, and dem no know how to walk away",Business study
"if""everyone is doing it,""then someone might believe that it's ok for him or her to do it, too.","Everyone dey do am, then someone might believe say e dey ok for him or her to do am, too.",Business study
"being part of an organization has away of making someone feel insulated and""safe"" when committing wrongdoings.","Di organization don get way of make someone feel insulated and""safe"" wen commit wrongdoings.",Business study
"for example, some members ofthe enron workforce seemed to be swept up in a culture of corporate greed, and they did not know how to walk away.","for example, some members of di enron workforce don dey swept up for culture of corporate greed, and dem no know how to walk away.",Business study
"other people are opportunists, and their moral compass or ethics do not lead them away from temptation.","Di pipo dey opportunists, and dia moral compass or ethics no lead dem away from temptation.",Business study
bernie madoff maybe a prime example of such an opportunist in today's news.,Bernie madoff maybe a prime example of such an opportunist inside today's news.,Business study
"sometimes, criminal behavior results from the emphasis of profit over ethical behavior.","Sometimes, criminal behavior results from di emphasis of profit over ethical behavior.",Business study
"for example, we might think of corporate environmental crimes, in which corporations decide not to follow regulatory requirements regarding hazardous waste disposal or storage.","for example, we might think of corporate environmental crimes, inside wey corporations decide no to follow regulatory requirements regarding hazardous waste disposal or storage.",Business study
"in the end, of course, the reasons for the criminal behavior do not matter.",Di reasons for di criminal behavior no matter.,Business study
"when a crime is committed, others will be injured, and the wrongdoer will be subject to criminal prosecution.","Di crime dey committed, odas go injure, and di wrongdoer go subject to criminal prosecution",Business study
everyone must be diligent about crime.,Dem go dey diligent about crime,Business study
crimes affect businesses both from the inside and from the outside.,Crimes affect businesses both from di inside plus from di outside.,Business study
"even if individuals are honest in their dealings, that does not relieve them from the necessity to maintain a vigilant watch to protect not only their good name but also that of their business from the criminal activities of others. criminal activity""from the outside""can be costly to businesses.","Dem no relieve dem from di necessity to maintain vigilant watch to protect no only dia good name but also say of dia business from di criminal activities of oda s. criminal activity wey dem dey outside, dem no dey cost to businesses.",Business study
"loss through property damage, theft, shoplifting, corporate espionage, fraud, and arson are real threats.","For property damage, dift, shoplifting, corporate espionage, fraud, and arson dey real threat.",Business study
"perhaps more insidiously, threats""from the inside""also pose tremendous risk of loss.","Perhaps more insidiously, threats""from di inside"" sef pose tremendous risk of loss.",Business study
"these activities include crimes such as embezzlement, computer crimes, and fraud.","These activities include crimes such as embezzlement, computer crimes, plus fraud.",Business study
"such""inside jobs""are perhaps more unsettling because the perpetrators are often trusted colleagues who would not ordinarily fall under the suspicion of others.",Di perpetrators dey often trust colleagues wey no fit fall under di suspicion of odas.,Business study
"moreover, a corporation must also protect itself from the bad judgment or overzealous behavior of its employees.","Moreover, a corporation must sef protect itself from di bad judgment or overzealous behavior of its employees.",Business study
"if an employee acting within the scope of employment commits a crime from which the corporation itself will benefit, then the corporation can be convicted ofthe crime, too.","Di corporation dey acting inside di scope of employment commit crime from which di corporation dey benefit, then di corporation fit convicted of di crime, too.",Business study
"ofcourse, not all corporations that are convicted on criminal charges are hapless victims of an overzealous employee who commits crimes on their behalf.",Na all corporations wey dey convicted on criminal charges dey hapless victims of overzealous employee wey dey commit crime on dia behalf.,Business study
"other businesses are actively involved in crime, whether through a corporate culture run amok or through outright organized crime, such as money laundering.","Other businesses be actively involved inside crime, whether through a corporate culture run amok or through outright kriminal wey dem plan am well-well, dey under one group, dey do bad tins like sell drug, collect money by force, and dey cause wahala, such as money laundering.",Business study
"not only do we need to understand basic criminal law and the nature of crime in business to understand everyday headlines, but we also must ensure that our own professional dealings and the people associated with our businesses are never the legitimate focus of such stories.","E no only do we need to understand basic criminal law and di nature of crime for business to understand everyday headlines, but we also must ensure say we no need to understand basic criminal law and di nature of crime for business to understand everyday headlines, but we also must ensure say we no need to understand basic criminal law and di nature of crime for business to understand everyday headlines.",Business study
"it also examines specific crimes relevant to business, including white-collar crime, blue -collar crime that harms businesses, and crimes committed by businesses.","E also examin specific crimes wey dey relevant to business, including white collar crime, blue collar crime wey harm businesses, and crime wey dey committed by businesses.",Business study
"last, it examines different strategies to minimize exposure to criminal liability.","Last, am examines different strategies to minimize exposure to criminal liability.",Business study
key takeaways criminal law is relevant to business because crime presents real threats.,"Tori wey dey important pass, wey person go sabi after dem don read or hear sometin criminal law na relevant to business because crime presents real threats.",Business study
"when crimes are committed, people are injured.","Di crime dey committed, pipo dey injured",Business study
criminal behavior is punishable by law.,Dem dey punishable by law.,Business study
"risks to business posed by crime arise from the losses suffered from the criminal activities of those on the outside ofthe business organization, as well as those on the inside.","Di risk to business posed by crime arise from di losses wey dey arise from di criminal activities of those inside di business organization, as well as those wey dey inside di business organization, as well as those on di inside.",Business study
"corporations themselves can be liable for crime when an employee working within the scope of employment commits crime that benefits the corporation, or when the corporation itself commits crime.","Di corporations dem dey liable for crime wen employee work inside di scope of employment commit crime wey dey benefit di corporation, or wen di corporation dey commit crime.",Business study
understand what crime is.,Di crime dey.,Business study
compare and contrast the differences between criminal law and civil law.,Compare plus contrast differences between criminal law plus civil law.,Business study
understand the constitutional protections afforded to those accused of committing a crime.,Di constitutional protection wey dem dey afford to those accused of committing crime,Business study
examine some common defenses to crime.,Examine some common excuse for kots to crime.,Business study
learn about the consequences of committing a crime.,Learn about di consequences of committing a crime.,Business study
explore the goals or purposes of punishment for committing a crime.,Di goal or purpose of punishment for committing crime,Business study
imagine a bookkeeper who works for a physicians group.,Di bookkeeper wey dey work for physician group,Business study
this bookkeeper's job is to collect invoices that are due and payable by the physicians group and to process the payments for those invoices.,Di bookkeeper job dey collect invoices wey dey due and payable by di physician group and to process di payment for those invoices.,Business study
"the bookkeeper realizes that the physicians themselves are very busy, and they seem to trust the bookkeeper with the task of figuring out what needs to be paid.","Di bookkeeper realize say di physicians themselves dey very busy, and dem seem to trust di bookkeeper wit di task of figuring out what needs to pay",Business study
"she decides to create a fake company, generate bogus invoices for""services rendered,""and send the invoices to the physicians group for payment.","E decides to create a fake company, generate bogus invoices for""services rendered,""plus send di invoices to di physicians group for payment.",Business study
"when she processes payment for those invoices, the fake company deposits the checks in its bank account a bank account she secretly owns.","Di fake company deposit di check for those invoices, di fake company deposit di check for dia bank account she secretly owns.",Business study
"this is a fraudulent disbursement, and it is just one of many ways in which crime occurs in the workplace.","Dis na fraudulent disbursement, and na just one of many ways wey crime occur for di workplace.",Business study
"checkout note 10. 4 ""hyperlink: thefts, skimming, fake invoices, oh my!""","Check comot note 10. 4 ""hyperlink: thefts, skimming, fake invoices, oh my!""",Business study
to examine several other common embezzlement schemes easily perpetrated by trusted employees.,Dem examine several oda common embezzlement schemes wey dey easily perpetrated by trusted employees.,Business study
"hyperlink: thefts, skimming, fake invoices, oh my!","Hyperlink: thefts, skimming, fake invoices, oh my!",Business study
checkout common schemes perpetrated by trusted employees in this article posted on the association of certified fraud examiners' website.,Check comot common schemes perpetrated by trusted employees inside this article posted on di association of certified fraud examiners' website.,Business study
"when crime occurs in the workplace or in the context of business, the temptation might be to think that noone is""really"" injured.",Di temptation go be to think say noone dey injured,Business study
"after all, insurance policies can cover some losses.",Di insurance policy go cover some losses.,Business study
"ofcourse, these excuses are just smoke screens.",Di excuse dey just smoke screens.,Business study
"when an insurance company has to pay for a claim arising from a crime, the insurance company is injured, as are the victim and society at large.","Di insurer company don pay for claim wey dey rising from crime, di insur company dey injured, as dey di victim and society for large.",Business study
"similarly, the fact that wealthy people or businesses do not notice embezzlement immediately does not mean that they are not entitled to retain their property.",Di fact say wealthy pipo or business no notice embezzlement immediately no mean say dem no dey entitled to retain dia property.,Business study
crime undermines confidence in social order and the expectations that we all have about living in a civil society.,Di expectation wey we all get about living for civil society.,Business study
no crime is victimless.,Nano crime dey victimless,Business study
a crime is a public injury.,Di crime dey public injury,Business study
"at the most basic level, criminal statutes reflect the rules that must be followed for a civil society to function.","Di most basic level, criminal statutes reflect di rules wey must follow for civil society to function.",Business study
crimes are an offense to civil society and its social order.,Di crimes dey offense to civil society and its social order,Business study
"in short, crimes are an offense to the public, and someone who commits a crime has committed an injury to the public.","For short, crimes dey offense to di public, and someone wey commit crime don commit injury to di public.",Business study
criminal law differs from civil law in several important ways.,Di criminal law differ from civil law for several important way.,Business study
"see figure 10. 3""comparison between criminal law and civil law""for a comparison.","check di picture 10. 3""comparison between criminal law plus civil law""for a comparison.",Business study
"for starters, since crimes are public injuries, they are punishable by the government.","Di crimes dey public injuries, dem dey punishable by di government.",Business study
it is the government's responsibility to bring charges against criminals.,Am na di government's responsibility to bring charges against criminals.,Business study
"in fact, private citizens may not prosecute eachother for crimes.",Private citizens no prosecute each oda for crimes.,Business study
"when a crime has been committed for instance, if someone is the victim of fraud then the government collects th e evidence and files charges against the defendant.",Di goment collect di evidence and files charges against di defendant.,Business study
"when someone is charged with committing a crime, he or she is charged by the government in an indictment.","For when someone dey charge wit committing crime, hin or she dey charge di goment for an indictment",Business study
the victim ofthe crime is a witness for the government but not for the prosecutor ofthe case.,Di victim of di crime na witness for di goment but no for di prosecutor of di case.,Business study
note that our civil tort system allows a victim to bring a civil suit against someone for injuries inflicted on the victim by someone else.,Di civil tort system don allow victim to bring civil suit against someone for injuries wey dey injured on di victim by someone else.,Business study
"indeed, criminal laws and torts often have parallel causes of action.","Indeed, criminal laws plus torts often get parallel causes of action.",Business study
sometimes these claims carry the same or similar names.,Di claim doncarry di same or similar name.,Business study
"for instance, a victim of fraud may bring a civil action for fraud and may also be a witness for the state during the criminal trial for fraud.","for example, a victim of fraud may bring a civil action for fraud plus may sef be a witness for di state during di criminal trial for fraud.",Business study
this presumption of innocence means that the state must prove the case against the defendant before the government can impose punishment.,Di presumption of innocence mean say di state must prove di case against di defendant before di goment go impose punishment.,Business study
"if the state cannot prove its case, then the person charged with the crime will be acquitted.","Di state no prove im case, then di pers wey di state no prove im case, then di pers wey dem dey charge wit di crime go acquitted.",Business study
"this means that the defendant will be released, and he or she may not be tried for that crime again.","Di means say di defendant go release, and hin or she no go try for dat crime again.",Business study
"the burden of proof in a criminal case is the prosecution's burden, and the prosecution must prove its case beyond a reasonable doubt.","Di responsibility wey person get to provide enough evidence to prove their case for criminal case na di prosecution's burden, and di prosecution must prove im case beyond reasonable doubt.",Business study
"this means that the defendant does not have to prove anything, because the burden is on the government to prove its case.","Di means say di defendant no fit prove anything, because di burden dey on di goment to prove im case.",Business study
"likewise, the person must have committed a criminal act, known as actus reus.","Likewise, di person must get committed a criminal act, known as actus reus.",Business study
"compare this to the standard of proof in a civil trial, which requires the plaintiff to prove the case only by a preponderance ofthe evidence.","Di standard of proof for civil trial, wey require di plaintiff to prove di case only by preponderance of di evidence.",Business study
this means that the evidence to support the plaintiff's case is greater(or weightier) than the evidence that does not.,Di means say di evidence to support di plaintiff case dey greater(or weightier) than di evidence wey no fit support di plaintiff case.,Business study
"it's useful to think ofthe criminal standard of proof beyond areas onable doubt as something like 99 percent certainty, with 1 percent doubt.","Am's useful to think of di criminal rule or level of proof beyond areas onable doubt as something like 99 percent certainty, with 1 percent doubt.",Business study
"compare this to preponderance ofthe evidence, which we might think of as 51 percent in favor ofthe plaintiff's case, but upto 49 percent doubt.","We go compare dis to preponderance of di evidence, wey we go think of as 51 percent for favor of di plaintiff case, but upto 49 percent doubt.",Business study
this means that it is much more difficult to successfully prosecute a criminal defendant than it is to bring a successful civil claim.,Di means say e dey much more difficult to prosecute criminal defendant than e dey bring successful civil claim.,Business study
"since a criminal action and a civil action maybe brought against a defendant for the same incident, these differences in burdens of proof can result in ve rdicts that seem, at first glance, to contradict eachother.","Di differences for burdens of proof go result for ve rdicts wey dey, at first glance, to contradict each oda.",Business study
perhaps the most well-known cases in recent history in which this very outcome happened were theo. j. simpson trials.,Di most well-known cases for recent history wey di very outcome dey happen na dio. j. simpson trials.,Business study
"simpson was acquitted of murder in a criminal trial, but he was found liable for wrongful death in a subsequent civil action.","Di simpson dey acquitted of murder for criminal trial, but he dey found liable for wrongful death for subsequent civil action.",Business study
"checkout note 10. 14 ""hyperlink: not guilty might not mean innocent""for a similar result in the business context.","Di hyperlink: no guilty go no mean innocent""for di business context.",Business study
he was subsequently found guilty in a later criminal case for different crimes committed.,E bin dey later-later found guilty inside a later criminal case for different crimes committed.,Business study
this extra burden reflects the fact that the defendant in a criminal case stands to lose much more than a defendant in a civil case.,Di extra burden reflect di fact say di defendant for criminal case fit lose much more than defendant for civil case.,Business study
"even though it may seem like avery bad thing to lose one's assets in a civil case, the loss of liberty is considered to be a more serious loss.",Di loss of liberty dey consider to be more serious loss.,Business study
"therefore, more protections are afforded to the criminal defendant than are afforded to defendants in a civil proceeding.","Therefore, more protections be afforded to di criminal person wey dem carry go kot than be afforded to person wey dem carry go kots inside a civil proceeding.",Business study
"because so much is at stake in a criminal case, our due process requirements are very high for anyone who is a defendant in criminal proceedings.","Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system requirements dey high for anyone wey dey defendant for criminal proceedings, awa Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system requirements dey high for anyone wey dey defendant for criminal proceedings",Business study
"for example, in a civil case, the due process requirements might simply be notice and an opportunity to be heard.","for example, inside a civil case, di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system requirements might simply be notice plus an opportunity to be heard.",Business study
"in a criminal case, however, the due process requirements are higher.",Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system requirements dey higher.,Business study
this is because a criminal case carries the potential for the most serious penalties.,Di criminal case dey carry di potential for di most serious penalties.,Business study
"constitutional rights relevant to criminal proceedings a person accused of a crime has several rights, which are guaranteed by the u. s. constitution.","Di constitutional rights wey dey relevant to criminal proceedings a person accused of crime don several rights, wey dey guarantee di u. s. constitution.",Business study
many crimes are state law issues.,Di crimes dey state law issues.,Business study
"however, many provisions ofthe u. s. constitution's bill of rights, which contains the rights of concern to criminal defendants, have been incorporated as applicable to the states.","Di provision of di u. s. constitution's bill of rights, wey dey contain di rights of concern to criminal defendants, don dey incorporated as applicable to di states.",Business study
this is known as the incorporation doctrine.,Dis dey known as di incorporation doctrine.,Business study
the sixth amendment guarantees that criminal defendants are entitled to an attorney during any phase of a criminal proceeding where there is a possibility of incarceration.,Di sixth amendment guarantee say criminal defendants dey entitled to attorney during any phase of criminal proceeding wey dey where there dey possibility of incarceration.,Business study
"this means that if a defendant cannot afford an attorney, then one is appointed for him or her at the state's expense.","Di means say if defendant no fit afford attorney, then one dey appointed for him or her for di state's expense.",Business study
the fifth amendment guarantees the right to avoid self -incrimination.,Di fifth amendment guarantees di right to avoid self -incrimination.,Business study
this right means that the government cannot torture someone accused of committing a crime.,Di right means say di goment no torture someone accused of committing crime,Business study
"obviously, someone under the physical and psychological pain of torture will admit to anything, and this might be a strong incentive to allow torture if the government wanted someone to confess to a crime.","Obviously, someone under di physical plus psychological pain of torture go admit to anything, plus this might be a strong something wey go ginger person to allow torture if di government wanted someone to confess to a crime.",Business study
"however, the fifth amendment guarantees that people can choose to remain silent.",Di fifth amendment guarantee say pipo go choose to remain silent,Business study
noone is compelled to testify against himself or herself to make self-incriminating statements.,Nano one dey compelle to testify against hinself or herself make self-incriminating statements.,Business study
the eighth amendment prohibits cruel and unusual punishment.,Di eighth amendment prohibits cruel plus unusual punishment.,Business study
we do not employ many techniques that were once used to punish people who committed crimes.,We no employ many techniques wey dey use to punish pipo wey dey committe crimes.,Business study
"for instance, we do not draw and quarter people, which was a practice in england during the middle ages.",We no draw and quarter pipo wey dey practice for england for di middle ages.,Business study
"recently, h owever, the question ofthe use of torture by the united states against aliens on foreign soil has been a hot topic.","For recently, h owever, di question of di use of torture by di united state against aliens on foreign soil don dey hot topic.",Business study
"many people believe that our eighth amendment protections should be extended to everyone held byu. s. authorities, whether they are on u. s. soil or not.","Di eighth amendment protections go extend to all pipo wey dey u. s. authorities, whether dem dey on u. soil or no.",Business study
"this means that if evidence were obtained in violation ofthe fourth amendment, then it cannot be used against the defendant in a court of law.","Di means say if evidence dey obtained for violation of di fourth amendment, then dem no use against di defendant for court of law.",Business study
"for fourth amendment requirements to be met, the government must first obtain a search warrant to search a particular area for particular items if there is a reasonable expectation of privacy in the area to be searched.",Di goment must first obtain search warrant to search a particular area for particular items if e dey reasonable expectation of privacy for di area to be search.,Business study
the search warrant is issued only on probable cause.,Di search warrant dey issue only on probable cause,Business study
"probable cause arises when there is enough evidence, such as through corroborating evidence, to reasonably lead to the belief that someone has committed a crime.","Di probable cause arises wen evidence dey evidens wey dey confirm tori, wey make am shine say e dey true, like say na fact, to reasonably lead to di belief say someone don committe crime.",Business study
"if a valid search warrant is issued, then the government may search in the area specified by the warrant for the item that is the subject ofthe warrant.",Di goment goto find di area wey dey specified by di warrant for di item wey dey subject of di warrant.,Business study
"if a search occurs without a warrant, the search might still be legal, however.","Di search no dey legal, however.",Business study
this is because there are several exceptions to the requirements for a search warrant.,E dey because e dey several exception to di requirements for search warrant.,Business study
"these include the plain view doctrine, exigent circumstances, consent, the automobile exception, lawful arrest, and stop and frisk.","These include di plain view doctrine, exigent circumstances, consent, di automobile exception, lawful arrest, plus stop plus frisk.",Business study
"the plain view doctrine means that no warrant is required to conduct a search or to seize evidence if it appears in the plain view of a government agent, like a police officer.","Di plain view doctrine mean say no warrant dey required to conduct search or to seize evidence if dem dey appear for di plain view of a government agent t, like police officer.",Business study
exigent circumstances mean that no warrant is required in the event of an emergency.,E mean say no warrant dey required for di event of emergency,Business study
"for instance, if someone is cruelly beating his dog, the state can remove the dog without a warrant to seize the dog.","If someone dey cruelly beating hin dog, di state go remove di dog without warrant to seize di dog.",Business study
the exigent circumstances exception to the warrant requirement is used in hot pursuit cases.,Di exigent circumstances exception to di warrant requirement dey use for hot pursuit case.,Business study
"for example, if the police are in hot pursuit of a suspect who flees into a house, the police can enter the house to continue the pursuit without having to stop to first obtain a warrant to enter the house.","If di police dey hot pursuit of suspect wey flee into house, di police go enter di house to continue di pursuit without having to stop to first obtain warrant to enter di house.",Business study
consent means that the person who has the authority to grant consent for a search or seizure has granted the consent.,Di person wey get di authority to grant consent for search or seizure don grant di consent.,Business study
this does not necessarily have to be the owner ofthe location to be searched.,Di does no need to be di owner of di location wey dey search,Business study
"for example, if your roommate consents to a search of your living room, which is a common area shared by you and your roommate, then that is valid consent, even if the police find something incriminating against you and you or your landlord did not consent to the search.","If your roommate don consent to search of your living room, wey dey common area wey dey shared by you and your roommate, then dat dey valid consent, even if di police find something incriminating against you and you or your landlord no consent to di search.",Business study
the automobile exception means that an automobile maybe searched if it has been lawfully stopped.,Di automobile exception means say automobile go search if e go lawfully stop.,Business study
"when a police officer approaches a stopped carat night and shines a light into the interior ofthe car, the car has been searched.","Di police officer dey approach a stop car for night and shine light into di interior of di car, di car don search.",Business study
no warrant is required.,Nano warrant dey required,Business study
"if the police officer spots something that is incriminating, it maybe seized without a warrant.","Di police officer spots something wey dey incriminating, e go seize without warrant.",Business study
"additionally, no warrant is required to search someone who is subject to lawful arrest.",Nano warrant dey required to search someone wey dey subject to lawful arrest,Business study
this exception exists to protect the police officer.,This exception exists to protect di police officer.,Business study
"similarly, if someone is stopped lawfully, that person maybe frisked without a warrant.","If someone dey stop lawfully, say person go dey frisk without warrant.",Business study
this is the stop and frisk exception to the warrant requirement.,This na di stop plus frisk exception to di warrant requirement.,Business study
"in the business context, it is also important to note that administrative agencies in certain limited circumstances may conduct warrantless searches of closely regulated businesses, such as junkyards, where many stolen cars a re disassembled for parts that can be sold.","E dey important to note say administrative agencies for certain circumstances go conduct warrantless searches of closely regulated business, such as junkyards, wia many stolen cars dey disassemble for parts wey dey sold.",Business study
"defenses if the government violates a defendant's constitutional rights when collecting evidence, then the evidence gathered in violation of those rights maybe suppressed at trial.","Di evidence wey di goment violate defendant's constitutional rights wen collect evidence, then di evidence wey dem collect for violation of di rights wey dem collect for trial.",Business study
"in other words, it may not be used against the defendant in trial.",Di defendant no dey use against di defendant for trial,Business study
"this is because evidence obtained through an illegal search is""fruit ofthe poisonous tree.""","Dis dey because evidence wey dey illegal search dey""fruit of di poisonous tree""",Business study
the fruit ofthe poisonous tree doctrine is known as the exclusionary rule.,Di fruit of di poisonous tree doctrine dey known as di exclusionary rule.,Business study
"you should know, however, that lying to the defendant, or using forms of trickery and deceit, are not constitutional violations.","Di defendant, or using form of trickery and deceit, no dey constitutional violations.",Business study
another common defense arises under the exclusionary rule regarding confessions.,Another common excuse for kot arises under di exclusionary rule regarding confessions.,Business study
"this is when the government, while holding someone in a custodial interrogation, questions that person without first reading the miranda warnings.","Di goment, while holding someone for custodial interrogation, question say person without first reading di miranda warnings.",Business study
"if someone is subjected to a custodial interrogation, he or she must first be read the miranda warnings, which you have probably heard in the movies.","For di movies, if someone dey subject to custodial interrogation, hin or she must first read di miranda warnings, wey you don hear for di movies.",Business study
"though the u. s. supreme court did not script the warnings specifically, the warnings are usually delivered in language close to this:""you have the right to remain silent.","Di u. s. supreme court no script di warnings specifically, di warnings dey deliver for language close to dis:",Business study
anything that you say can and will be used against you in a court of law.,Di anything wey you say can and go use against you for court of law.,Business study
you have the right to an attorney.,Di right to attorney,Business study
"if you cannot afford an attorney, one will be provided to you by the state.","If you no fit afford attorney, one go be provided to you by di state.",Business study
"do you understand your rights?""","Dem understand your rights?""",Business study
the purpose ofthe miranda warnings is to ensure that people understand that they have the right not to make self-incriminating statements and that they have the right to have counsel.,Di purpose of di miranda warnings dey to ensure say pipo understand say dem no make self-incriminating statements and say dem get di right to make counsel,Business study
"if someone wants to invoke his or her rights, he or she has to do so unequivocally.","If someone want to invoke hin or her rights, hin or she don do so unequivocally",Business study
"""don't i need a lawyer?""",Dem need lawyer?,Business study
is not enough.,Nano enough.,Business study
the miranda warnings are not required unless someone is in custody and subject to interrogation.,Di miranda warning no require unless someone dey custody and subject to interrogation.,Business study
someone in custody is not free to leave.,Di someone for custody no dey free to leave,Business study
because you were not in custody and you were free to leave at anytime.,But you no dey custody and you dey free to leave for anytime,Business study
"likewise, if the police are not interrogating a person, then any statement made can also be used against that person, even if he or she is not mirandized.","If di police no interrogate a person, then any statement make dem use against say person, even if hin or she no dey mirandized.",Business study
someone is being interrogated when the statements or actions by the police(or other government agent)are likely to give rise to a response.,Di statement or actions by di police(or oda government agent)dey likely give rise to response.,Business study
another defense provided by the u. s. constitution is the prohibition against double jeopardy.,Di defense wey di u. s. constitution dey di prohibition against double jeopardy,Business study
the fifth amendment prohibits the government from prosecuting the same defendant for the same crime after he or she has already stood trial for it.,Di fifth amendment prohibit di government from prosecuting di same defendant for di same crime after hin or she don already stood trial for am,Business study
"this means that the government must do avery thorough job in collecting evidence prior to bringing a charge against a defendant, because unless the trial results in a hung jury, the prosecution will get only that one chance to prosecute the defendant.","Di goment must do very thorough job for collecting evidence prior to bring charge against defendant, because unless di trial results for a hung jury, di prosecution go get only say one chance to prosecute di defendant.",Business study
"other defenses to crime are those involving lack of capacity, including insanity and infancy.","Dis defenses to crime dey those wey dey involvin lack of capacity, including insanity and infancy.",Business study
"insanity is a lack of capacity defense, specifically applicable when the defendant lacks the capacity to understand that his actions were wrong.","Di insanity dey lack of capacity defense, specifically applicable wen di defendant lack di capacity to understand say hin actions dey wrong.",Business study
"infancy is a defense that maybe used by persons who have not yet reached the age of majority, typically eighteen years of age.","Di defense wey dey use by persons wey no dey reach di age of majority, typically eighteen years of age.",Business study
"those to which the infancy defense applies are not""off the hook""for their criminal actions, however.","Di infancy defense applies no""off di hook""for dia criminal actions, however.",Business study
"juvenile offenders maybe sentenced to juvenile detention centers for crimes they commit, with common goals including things like education and rehabilitation.","Di juvenile offenders go dey sentenced to juvenile detention centers for crime wey dem commit, wit common goal including things like education and rehabilitation.",Business study
"in certain circumstances, juvenile offenders can be tried as adults, too.","Inside certain circumstances, juvenile offenders fit be tried as adults, too.",Business study
"last, the state may not induce someone to commit a crime that he or she did not already have the propensity to commit.",Di state no induce someone to commit crime wey hin or she no get di propensity to commit.,Business study
"if the state does this, then the defendant will have the defense of entrapment.",Di defendant go get di defense of entrapment.,Business study
"punishment if convicted in a criminal case, the defendant will be punished by the government, rather than by the victim.","Di defendant go punished by di goment, no be by di victim.",Business study
"once a defendant is convicted of a crime, he or she is a criminal.","Di defendant dey convicted of crime, hin or she dey criminal",Business study
"punishment for criminal offenses can include fines, restitution, forfeiture, probation, civil disabilities, and a loss of liberty.","Punishment for criminal offenses fit include fines, restitution, forfeiture, probation, civil disabilities, plus a loss of liberty.",Business study
"loss of liberty means that the convicted criminal maybe forced to do community service, may be subject to house arrest, may be incarcerated or, in some states that have the death penalty, may even lose his or her life.","Di convicted criminal dey force to do community service, e dey subject to house arrest, e dey subject to house arrest, or, for some state wey don get death penalty, e even lose hin or her life.",Business study
"a misdemeanor is a less serious offense than a felony, as determined by the legislative body and reflected in the relevant statutes.",Di legislative body dey determined for di relevant statutes.,Business study
"even an infraction, such as a parking ticket, is a criminal offense, typically carrying a penalty of a fine.","Sef an infraction, such as a parking ticket, na a criminal offense, typically carrying a penalty of a fine.",Business study
an infraction is considered less serious than a misdemeanor.,Di misdemeanor dey consider less serious than misdemeanor,Business study
"when someone is convicted of violating a state criminal statute a felony, misdemeanor, or infracti on the penalty will beset by the statute.","Dem dey convicted of violating state criminal statute a felony, misdemeanor, or infracti on di penalty go set by di statute.",Business study
"for instance, the statute might state that the punishment will be""up to$5, 000""or ""upto one year in jail.""","Di statute go state say di punishment go be""up to$5, 000""or ""upto one year for jail",Business study
"often, the possible punishments are given in a range, which allows the judge leeway to take other matters into consideration when sentencing the offender.","Di possible punishments dey give for range, wey dey allow di judge leeway to take oda matters into consideration wen dem sentencin di offender.",Business study
"for example, if someone is convicted of a misdemeanor that carries a penalty of upto one year in jail, but that person is a first-time offender with no prior criminal history, the judge might impose a sentence of some lesser time in jail, such as thirty days, or no jail time whatsoever.","If someone dey convicted of misdemeanor wey dey carry penalty of upto one year for jail, but say person dey first-time offender wit no prior criminal history, di judge go impose sentence of some lesser time for jail, such as thirty days, or no jail time wey dey suppose.",Business study
"historically, all judges had the leeway to use their judgment when sentencing convicted criminals.",Di judges don get di leeway to use dia judgment wen dem dey sentencing convicted criminals.,Business study
"however, disparities in sentences gave rise to concern about unequal treatment for similar offenses.","However, disparities inside sentences gave rise to concern about unequal treatment for similar offenses.",Business study
in the 1980s the u. s.,Di u. s.,Business study
"sentencing commission established the federal sentencing guidelines, which were understood to be mandatory guidelines that federal judges were expected to use when sentencing offenders.",Di federal sentencing guidelines wey federal judges dey expect to use when sentencing offenders.,Business study
"the mandatory nature of these guidelines led some to observe that extremely harsh penalties were mandated for relatively minor offenses, given certain circumstances.","Di mandatory nature of dis guidelines led some to observe say extremely harsh penalties dey mandated for relatively minor offenses, given certain circumstances.",Business study
"today, however, the federal guidelines are only advisory, due to the u. s. supreme court's decision in united states v. booker, which held that a wide range of factors should be taken into consideration when sentencing offenders.","Di federal guidelines dey only advisory, due to di u. s. supreme court decision for united states v. booker, wey tok say a wide range of factors go take into consideration wen dem dey sentencing offenders.",Business study
"several states, however, passed their own versions of sentencing guidelines, and state trial court judges in those states must rely on those guidelines when sentencing state offenders.","For several states, however, pass dia own version of sentencing guidelines, and state trial court judges for those states must rely on dia guidelines wey dem dey sentencing state offenders.",Business study
"this has led to controversial""three strikes""laws, which can also carry extremely harsh penalties such as incarceration for twenty-five years to life for relatively minor offenses.","This don get led to controversial""three strikes""laws, wey fit sef carry extremely harsh penalties such as incarceration for twenty-five years to life for relatively minor offenses.",Business study
"often, the convicted criminal will be subject to various civil disabilities, depending on the state in which he or she lives.","Di convicted criminal go subject to different civil disabilities, based on di state wey he or she lives.",Business study
a felon maybe subject to deportation if he or she is an illegal immigrant.,Di felon dey subject to deportation if hin or she dey illegal immigrant,Business study
"besides loss of liberty and civil disabilities, other forms of punishment exist.","Besides loss of liberty plus civil disabilities, other forms of punishment exist.",Business study
some of these are also appropriate in civil cases.,Dem also appropriate for civil cases.,Business study
"punishment for crimes also includes a fine, which is a monetary penalty for committing an offense.","Di punishment for crime also include fine, wey dey monetary penalty for committing offense.",Business study
fines can also be levied in civil cases.,Di fines don lso be levied for civil case,Business study
"restitution, which is repayment for damage done by the criminal act, is a common punishment for property damage crimes such as vandalism.",Di criminal act dey common punishment for property damage crimes such as vandalism.,Business study
"restitution can also bean appropriate remedy in civil law, particularly in contracts disputes.","Di restitution dey appropriate remedy for civil law, particularly for contracts disputes.",Business study
"forfeiture, which means involuntarily losing ownership of property, is also a punishment, and it is commonly used in illegal drug trafficking cases to seize property used during the commission of a crime.","Forfeiture, wey means involuntarily losing ownership of property, dey also punishment, and e dey commonly use for illegal drug trafficking case to seize property wey dey use during di commission of crime.",Business study
"checkout note 10. 39 ""hyperlink: shopping, anyone?""","Di hyperlink: shopping, anyone?",Business study
"finally, probation is a common penalty for committing crime.",Dem dey common penalty for committing crime.,Business study
probation is when the criminal is under the supervision ofthe court but is not confined.,Di criminal dey under di supervision of di court but no dey confined.,Business study
"typically, the terms ofthe probation require the criminal to periodically report to a state agent, such as a probation officer.","Typically, di terms of di probation require di criminal to periodically report to a state agent, such as a probation officer.",Business study
"hyperlink: shopping, anyone?","E dey shopping, anyone?",Business study
but what is the purpose of punishment?,Di purpose of punishment? but what dey di purpose of punishment?,Business study
"we do not have a vigilante system, where victims may bring their own form of justice to an offender.","We no get vigilante system, wey victims go bring dia own form of justice to an offender.",Business study
"if we had such a system we would have never-ending feuds, such as the infamous and long- standing nineteenth-century dispute between the hatfields and mccoys from the borderlands of west virginia and kentucky.","If we bin get such a system we go get never-ending feuds, such as di infamous plus long- standing nineteenth-century dispute between di hatfields plus mccoys from di borderlands of west virginia plus kentucky.",Business study
several goals could be the focus of a criminal justice system.,Di focus of criminal justice system go be di focus of criminal justice system.,Business study
"these could include retribution, punishment, rehabilitation, the protection of society, or deterrence from future acts of crime.","These fit include retribution, punishment, rehabilitation, di protection of society, or deterrence from future acts of crime.",Business study
our criminal justice system's penalties ostensibly do not exist for the purpose of retribution.,Awa criminal justice system's penalties ostensibly do no exist for di purpose of retribution.,Business study
the federal bureau of prisons captures some of these concepts in its mission statement.,Di federal bureau of prisons captur some of dis concepts for its mission statement.,Business study
"additionally, the goal of deterrence is not always achieved, as reflected in high recidivism rates in the united states.","Di goal of deterrence no always achieve, as reflected for high recidivism rates for di united state.",Business study
"punishment of business-related crime punishments committed by""white -collar criminals""are the same as those committed by any criminal.","Di punishment of business-related crime punishments wey dey committed by""white collar criminals""dey di same as those committed by any criminal",Business study
white-collar crime is a term used to describe nonviolent crimes committed by people in their professional capacity or by organizations.,Di term wey dey use to describe nonviolent crimes committed by pipo for dia professional capacity or by organizations.,Business study
individuals involved in white-collar crime are criminally liable for their own actions.,Di individuals wey dey involved for white collar crime dey criminally liable for dia own actions.,Business study
"additionally, since a corporation is a legal person, then the corporation can be convicted of committing crimes, too.","Di corporation dey legal person, then di corporation dey convicted of committing crimes, too.",Business study
"accordingly, corporations can be punished.","Na accordingly, corporations go dey punished",Business study
"however, not all constitutional protections afforded to individuals are available to corporations.","For however, no all constitutional protection wey dey available to individuals.",Business study
"for instance, a corporation does not have the right against self -incrimination.",Di corporation no get di right against self -incrimination.,Business study
one difficulty that arises is the question of how to punish a corporation for engaging in criminal activity.,Di one difficulty wey arises na di question of how to punish corporation for engaging for criminal activity.,Business study
"after all, as they say, a corporation does not have a soul to rehabilitate or a body to incarcerate.","As dem say, corporation no get soul to rehabilitate or bodi to incarcerate",Business study
"we might argue that a criminal corporation should have its corporate charter revoked, which would be equivalent to a corporate death penalty.","We might argue wey a criminal corporation suppose get its corporate charter revoked, wey go be equivalent to a corporate death penalty.",Business study
"however, if that happened, a lot of innocent people who were not involved in the criminal activity would be harmed.","If dat happen, innocent pipo wey no dey involved for di criminal activity go dey harmed.",Business study
"for instance, employees would lose their jobs, and suppliers and customers would lose the goods or services ofthe corporate criminal.","employees go lose dia jobs, and suppliers and customers go lose di goods or services of di corporate criminal.",Business study
entire communities could suffer the consequences of a few bad actors.,Di entire community go suffer di consequences of few bad actors,Business study
"on the other hand, corporations must be punished to respect the goal of deterrence of future crimes.",Dem dey punished to respect di goal of deterrence of future crimes.,Business study
one way that corporations are deterred is by the imposition of hefty fines.,Di one way say corporations deterred dey by di imposition of hefty fines.,Business study
"it is not uncommon to base such penalties on some percentage of profits, or all profits derived from the ill-gotten gains of criminal activity.","E no dey uncommon to base such penalties on some percentage of profits, or all profits wey dey from di ill-gotten gains of criminal activity.",Business study
"ofcourse, reputational damage can be very difficult to repair.","For course, reputational damage dey difficult to repair.",Business study
"criminal law differs from civil law in important ways, including who brings the claim, the burden of proof, due process, postconviction civil disabilities, and penalties.","Criminal law differs from civil law inside important ways, including wey brings di claim, di responsibility wey person get to provide enough evidence to prove their case, Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system, postconviction civil disabilities, plus penalties.",Business study
"those who are accused of committing a crime are afforded a high level of due process, including constitutional protections against illegal searches and seizures, and self -incrimination; guarantee of an attorney; and prohibition against cruel and unusual punishment.","Di those wey dey accuse of committing crime dey afford high level of Di right wey every person get to be treated fairly and properly by the legal system, including constitutional protections against illegal searches and seizures, and self -incrimination; guarantee of attorney; and prohibition against cruel and unusual punishment.",Business study
several common defenses to crimes exist.,Di common defenses to crime exist.,Business study
"if convicted, criminals can face loss of liberty, with sentencing structures based on statutory language and, in the federal system, guided by the u. s. federal sentencing guidelines.","If convicted, criminals fit face loss of liberty, with sentencing structures based on statutory language plus, inside di federal system, guided by di u. s. federal sentencing guidelines.",Business study
"the goals of imposing penalties for violating criminal laws include protecting society, punishing the offender, rehabilitating the offender, and deterrence from future acts of crime.","Di goals of imposing penalties for breaking criminal laws include protecting society, punishing di offender, rehabilitating di offender, plus deterrence from future acts of crime.",Business study
"corporations can also be convicted of crimes, though unique questions relating to appropriate means of punishment arise in that context.","Di corporations don also dey convicted of crimes, though unique questions wey dey relating to appropriate means of punishment arise for dat context.",Business study
imagine a woman who suffers from dementia and lives in an assisted living facility.,Di woman wey suffers from dementia and lives for assisted living facility.,Business study
"one day, she wanders into another resident's room and picks up an antique vase from the other resident's bureau.",She wander into one resident room and pickup antique vase from di oda resident's bureau.,Business study
"as she holds the vase, she forgets that it belongs to someone else and walks out ofthe room with it.","As she hold di vase, she forget say im belongs to someone else and walk out of di room wit am.",Business study
"later, she places it on her own nightstand, where she admires it greatly.","She place am on her own nightstand, wia she admire am greatly",Business study
has there been a crime here?,Di crime wey dey here?,Business study
"consider the case of o. j. simpson, in which a criminal jury acquitted him of murder, but a civil court found him liable for wrongful death.","Di case of o. j. simpson, wey criminal jury acquit am of murder, but civil court find am liable for wrongful death",Business study
both trials arose out ofthe same incident.,Di same incident arose out of di same incident.,Business study
do you think that the burden of proof should be the same for a civil case as it is for a criminal case?,Di responsibility wey person get to provide enough evidence to prove their case go be di same for civil case as e dey for criminal case?,Business study
what should be the goal of penalties or punishments for criminal offenses?,What suppose be di goal of penalties or punishments for criminal offenses?,Business study
"compare and contrast how our criminal justice system would differ if the goal of punishment was each ofthe following: retribution, rehabilitation, protection of society, or deterrence from future acts of crime.","Compare plus contrast how awa criminal justice system go differ if di goal of punishment bin dey each of di following: retribution, rehabilitation, protection of society, or deterrence from future acts of crime.",Business study
should white- collar criminals receive the same punishment as those convicted of committing a violent crime?,Suppose white- collar criminals receive di same punishment as those convicted of committing a violent crime?,Business study
"before listening to the link in this assignment, write down your perceptions of""federal prison camp.""","Di link for disassignment, write down your perceptions of federal prison camp",Business study
compare your initial perceptions with what you have learned from this interview.,Di interview don dey compare your initial perceptions wit wey you learn from dis interview.,Business study
how are they the same?,How dem dey di same?,Business study
how do they differ?,How dem differ?,Business study
how shoulda corporation be punished for committing a crime?,Di corporation dey punished for committing crime?,Business study
find an example of a corporation that was convicted of a crime.,Di example of corporation wey dey convicted of crime,Business study
do you believe that the punishment was appropriate?,Di punishment dey appropriate?,Business study
what kinds of crimes do college students commit?,Di kind of crime wey college students commit?,Business study
"while the vast majority of college students wouldn't even think of committing a violent crime, many students do engage in crimes they believe to be victimless, such as downloading movies or buying and selling prescription drugs like adderall or ritalin.","Di most part of college students go engage for crime wey dem dey believe to be victimless, such as download movies or buying and sell prescription drug like adderall or ritalin.",Business study
are these crimes actually victimle ss?,Di crime actually victimle ss?,Business study
the exclusionary rule was created by the supreme court as a means of punishing the police for violating a defendant's constitutional rights.,Di exclusionary rule don create by di supreme court as means of punishing di police for violating defendant's constitutional rights.,Business study
"some legal commentators, including several members ofthe supreme court, believe the exclusionary rule should be abolished.",Di exclusionary rule go dey abolished.,Business study
"without it, how do you think society can ensure the police will not violate a citizen's constitutional rights?",How do you think society fit ensure di police no violate citizen's constitutional rights?,Business study
examine white-collar crimes.,Dem examine white collar crimes.,Business study
examine blue-collar crimes that harm businesses.,E dey examine blue collar crime wey harm business,Business study
examine the crimes committed by businesses.,Di crime wey dey committed by business,Business study
imagine that you workin a publicly traded corporation as an accountant.,Imagine wey you work inside a publicly traded corporation as an accountant.,Business study
"one day, your manager calls you.","Di manager call you one day, your manager call you",Business study
"you sense desperation in his voice ashe whispers,""quick!","Dem sense desperation for hin voice as hin whisper,""quick!",Business study
"shred the paper copies ofthe financial records!""","Di paper copies of di financial record!""",Business study
will you do it?,We go do am?,Business study
"after all, how can shredd ing paper be a crime?",How dey shredd ing paper be crime?,Business study
not so fast.,We no dey fast,Business study
"it maybe a crime under the sarbanes -oxley act, specifically if you destroy documents before the statutory length of time required to hold them.","Di crime wey dey under di sarbanes -oxley act, specifically if you destroy documents before di statutory length of time wey dem hold dem.",Business study
"a business must be concerned about criminal activity from the inside, from the outside, and through its own actions.","Di business must dey concerned about criminal activity from inside, from outside, and through dia own actions.",Business study
"white-collar crime white-collar crime is a term used to describe nonviolent crimes committed by people in their professional capacity, or by organizations.","Di term wey dey use to describe nonviolent crimes committed by pipo for di professional capacity, or by organizations.",Business study
"these crimes are committed for financial gain, often through deception.","Di crimes dey committe for financial gain, often through deception.",Business study
"historically, this term derives from a reference to the""white collars""that managers, executives, or professionals who committed these crimes wore as their everyday attire, rather than the""blue collars""of the factory workers and laborers.","Di term derives from reference to di white collars wey managers, executives, or professionals wey dey committe dis crimes wore as dia everyday attire, no be di""blue collars""of di factory workers and laborers.",Business study
"white-collar crimes are not typical street crimes, like burglary or robbery, and they are not person crimes, like murder or rape.","Di white collar crimes no dey typical street crimes, like burglary or robbery, and dem no dey person crimes, like murder or rape.",Business study
"rather, the term is used to describe crime committed in the professional work environment, for the purpose of obtaining a financial reward through the use of deception.","Rather, di term na used to describe crime committed inside di professional work environment, for di purpose of obtaining a financial reward through di use of deception.",Business study
"after all, if someone is earning a good salary, or if a business is financially healthy, why would he or she choose to violate the law?","For all, if someone dey earning good salary, or if business dey financially healthy, why e go choose to violate di law?",Business study
"while names like kenneth lay of enron and bernie ebbers of worldcom are virtually synonymous with corporate greed, lack of ethical decision making, and fraudulent behavior, these examples do not provide satisfactory answers to this question.",Dem no provide satisfactory answer to dis question.,Business study
"indeed, businesses must be vigilant against white-collar crime, because there is no absolute way to identify those who might turn to criminal behavior in the workplace.","Di business must dey vigilant against white collar crime, bikos e no dey absolute way to identify those wey dey turn to criminal behavior for di workplace.",Business study
"white-collar crime can involve fraud or larceny, organized crime, cybercrime, and environmental crime.","White-collar crime fit involve fraud or larceny, kriminal wey dem plan am well-well, dey under one group, dey do bad tins like sell drug, collect money by force, and dey cause wahala, cybercrime, plus environmental crime.",Business study
fraud and lar ceny white-collar crimes generally involve the use of deception to acquire money or property.,Fraud plus lar ceny white-collar crimes generally involve di use of deception to acquire money or property.,Business study
this is the very definition of fraud.,This na di well-well definition of fraud.,Business study
many white-collar crimes are versions of fraud.,Na many white collar crimes dey version of fraud.,Business study
"sometimes, white -collar crime involves outright larceny, which is the trespassory taking of property with the intent to deprive the owner ofthe property.","Di white collar crime involves outright larceny, wey dey di trespassory take of property wit di intent to deprive di owner of di property.",Business study
"in both types of white-collar crime, the criminal is trying to take property for his or her own financial gain.",Di criminal dey try to take property for hin or her own financial gain,Business study
fraud is found in many contexts.,Di fraud dey found for many contexts.,Business study
"for instance, many regulatory violations, like insider trading, are forms of fraud.","for example, many regulator ory violations, like insider trading, dey form of fraud.",Business study
"specifically, these are securities fraud.",Dem dey securities fraud.,Business study
securities fraud is when someone uses deception to circumvent the regulations or statutes interpreted by the u. s. securities and exchange commission(sec) to acquire money or property.,Securities fraud na when someone uses deception to circumvent di regulations or statutes interpreted by di u. s. securities plus exchange commission(sec) to acquire money or property.,Business study
"goldman sachs was recently charged by the sec for securities fraud, because it allegedly misrepresented material facts to investors to gain financially.","Di goldman sachs don recently charge di sec for securities fraud, bikos e allegedly misrepresented material facts to investors to gain financially.",Business study
"checkout note 10. 49 ""hyperlink: sec v. goldman sachs""to review the complaint.","Dem to look at note 10. 49 ""hyperlink: sec v. goldman sachs to review di complaint",Business study
"hyperlink: sec v. goldman sachs one of goldman sachs's employees, fabrice tourre, self-named the""fabulous fab,""was also named as a defendant in the complaint.","Di sec v. goldman sachs one of goldman sachs's employees, fabrice tourre, self named di""fabulous fab""na also named as defendant for di complaint.",Business study
"do you think that the fabulous fab should bear criminal liability for misleading investors, even if he did mislead investors?","Do you think wey di fabulous fab suppose bear criminal liability for misleading investors, sef if e did mislead investors?",Business study
a physician who submits false claims to health insurance companies to receive money is a common example.,Di physician wey submit false claims to health insurance companies to receive money na common example.,Business study
"checkout note 10. 51 ""hyperlink: healthcare fraud's epidemic""to see the u. s. department of justice's comments regarding healthcare fraud.","Check comot note 10. 51 ""hyperlink: healthcare fraud's epidemic""to see di u. s. department of justice's comments regarding healthcare fraud.",Business study
"you can see how someone who creates fake patients to receive money has committed fraud, because he or she is using deception(fake patients)to acquire money(medicaid payments).","Dem see how someone wey create fake patients to receive money don commit fraud, bikos hin or she use deception(fake patients)to acquire money(medicaid payments).",Business study
insurance fraud is the use of deception to receive insurance funds.,Insurance fraud na di use of deception to receive insurance funds.,Business study
"for instance, if someone falsely reports that her office was burglarized and her computer equipment was stolen, and asks her insurance company to cover the loss, then this constitutes insurance fraud.","for example, if someone falsely report say her office dey burglarized and her computer equipment dey stolen, and ask her insurance company to cover di loss, then dis const date dey abuse.",Business study
this is because the person is lying(using deception)to acquire an insurance payment(acquiring money).,This na because di person na lying(using deception)to acquire an insurance payment(acquiring money).,Business study
a common context for insurance fraud is arson.,Di common context for insurance fraud dey arson,Business study
"if someone intentionally burns down his office building because he wishes to collect under his fire insurance policy, then he has committed insurance fraud by arson.",E don commit insurance fraud by arson.,Business study
arson is the act of intentionally setting fire to property.,Arson na di act of intentionally setting fire to property.,Business study
"financial institution fraud is fraud against banks and other similar institutions, such as credit unions.","Dem fraud against banks and oda similar institutions, such as credit unions.",Business study
theirs investigates financial institution fraud.,"Di irs investigates A business or organisation wey manage money— like bank, insurance, or investment companies fraud.",Business study
"cases of financial institution fraud can involve people who falsify tax documents, or profit and loss statements to gain funding from banks, as well as those who commit money laundering.","Cases of A business or organisation wey manage money— like bank, insurance, or investment companies fraud fit involve pipo wey falsify tax documents, or profit plus loss statements to gain funding from banks, as well as those wey commit money laundering.",Business study
"checkout note 10. 56 ""hyperlink: financial institution fraud""for several financial institution fraud cases, most of which are excellent examples of white-collar crime.","Di hyperlink: A business or organisation wey manage money— like bank, insurance, or investment companies fraud for several A business or organisation wey manage money— like bank, insurance, or investment companies fraud case, most of which dey excellent example of white collar crime.",Business study
bernie mad off committed massive fraud in a scheme known as a ponzi scheme.,Hinnie mad off committed massive fraud for a scheme wey dey known as ponzi scheme.,Business study
"a ponzi scheme is a pyramid scheme, where people pay in.","Di ponzi scheme dey pyramid scheme, wey pipo pay for",Business study
"those at the top ofthe pyramid may receive something that appears to be a return on their investment, but those at the bottom do not.","Di top of di pyramid don receive something wey dey return on dia investment, but those for di top do no.",Business study
this is because the funds paid in by those at the bottom are used to pay the people at the top.,Di funds wey dem pay for di pipo for di top dey use to pay di pipo for di top.,Business study
"those who operate ponzi schemes generally solicit investors, and those who invest in such schemes are expecting a legitimate return on investment(roi).","Di those wey operate ponzi scheme generally solicit investors, and those wey invest for such scheme dey expect legitimate return on investment(roi).",Business study
"however, the master ofthe ponzi scheme does not really invest the funds.",Di master of di ponzi scheme no dey invest di funds,Business study
"he simply takes them, and keeps his early""investors"" happy by bringing in new investors, whose money he gives to the old investors as their roi.","He simply take dem, and keep hin early""investors"" happy by bring in new investors, wey dem give dem, and keep hin early""investors"" happy by bring in new investors, wey dem give dem, and keep hin early investors as dia roi.",Business study
"this allows the ponzi scheme to continue, because it appears from the outside that investors are receiving a legitimate roi.","Dem allow di ponzi scheme to continue, because dem dey appear from outside wey investors dey receive legitimate roi.",Business study
"the problem is that the capital contributions eventually disappear, since they are never invested but are simply used by the criminal for his own purposes, including covering his tracks for as long as possible by paying investors with fake roi payments as necessary.","Di problem na say di capital contributions eventually disappear, since dem no invest but dey simply use di criminal for hin own purposes, including covering hin track for as long as possible by pay investors wit fake roi payments as necessary.",Business study
"to continue, the pyramid must get bigger and bigger.","To continue, di pyramid must get bigger plus bigger.",Business study
that is because new investors must be attracted to keep the cash flow going.,E dey because new investors must attract new investors to keep di cash flow going,Business study
"eventually, of course, pyramids will eventually collapse under their own unsustainable structure.","For course, pyramids go eventually collapse under dia own unsustainable structure.",Business study
"checkout note 10. 58 ""hyperlink: the mechanics of a pyramid scheme""for an illustration of a pyramid scheme from the sec.",Di mechanics of pyramid scheme for illustration of pyramid scheme from di sec.,Business study
how does someone getaway with this?,How someone getaway wit dis?,Business study
"interestingly, harry markopolos, a financial analyst, fl agged madoff's actions to the sec as statistically impossible long before madoff was caught.","Interestingly, harry markopolos, a financial analyst, fl agged madoff's actions to di sec as statistically impossible long before madoff bin dey caught.",Business study
"checkout note 10. 59 ""hyperlink: too good to be true?",Na too good to be true?,Business study
"statistically impossible returns""to watch mr. markopolos explain this by using sports analogies.",Dem explain dis by using sports analogies.,Business study
this raises interesting legal questions regarding whether the sec is proactive enough.,Di raise interesting legal questions regarding whether di sec dey proactive enough.,Business study
"the sec actions are often reactive, responding to a situation after it happened.","Di sec actions dey often reactive, respond to situation wey dey happen.",Business study
hyperlink: too good to be true?,Hyperlink: too good to be true?,Business study
owners of businesses are also potential victims.,Di owners of business dey also potential victims,Business study
"for example, embezzlement is a common crime, and it occurs when someone takes property that was in his or her possession lawfully and then converts it to his or her own use.","for example, embezzlement dey common crime, and e dey occur wen someone take property wey dey for hin or her possession lawfully and then convert am to hin own use.",Business study
"as you can see, bernie madoff was an embezzler because he lawfully had possession of his clients' money, but then he wrongfully converted those funds to his own use, rather than exercising his fiduciary duty to his clients.","As you see, bernie madoff na embezzler because hin lawfully don possession of hin clients' money, but then hin wrongfully convert those funds to hin own use, no be exercis hin fiduciary duty to hin clients.",Business study
"embezzlement differs from larceny, because larceny requires the trespassory taking of property with the intent to deprive the owner ofthe property.","Di embezzlement differ from larceny, because larceny require di trespassory take of property wit di intent to deprive di owner of di property.",Business study
"in other words, in a larceny, the thief is not supposed to have possession ofthe property to begin with.",Di thief no suppose get possession of di property to begin wit.,Business study
"someone who embezzles something, however, has the right to bein possession ofthe property to start with but then wrongfully converts it(steals it)for his or her own use.","Di someone wey embezzle something, however, get di right to bein possession of di property to start wit but then wrongfully convert am(tiff am)for hin or her own use.",Business study
"embezzlement strategies can involve forgery, which is counterfeiting someone else's signature or other document.","Di embezzlement strategies go involve forgery, wey dey counterfeit someone else's signature or oda document.",Business study
it can also involve wire fraud if the embezzlement uses electronic communications.,Di embezzlement dey use electronic communications,Business study
to learn about many different embezzlement schemes.,E dey learn about many different embezzlement schemes,Business study
corporate espionage and misappropriation are crimes in which a competitor or would-be competitor has acted illegally to obtain trade secrets of another.,Di corporate espionage and misappropriation dey crimes wey a competitor or would-be competitor don act illegally to obtain trade secrets of another.,Business study
the economic espionage act is a federal statute that criminalizes the theft of trade secrets.,Di economic espionage act na federal statute wey criminalize di dift of trade secrets.,Business study
"in a recent case of corporate espionage, starwood hotels sued hilton, claiming that hilton, along with some of its executives, stole millions of dollars in confidential trade secrets that were used to compete with starwood's successful chain of hotels.","Di recent case of corporate espionage, starwood hotels sued hilton, claiming say hilton, along wit some of its executives, stole million of dollars for confidential trade secrets wey dey use to compete wit starwood's successful chain of hotels.",Business study
"organized crime while the term""organized crime""often summons images ofthe mafia, that is not th e only type of organized criminal activity in this country.","Di term ""kriminal wey dem plan am well-well, dey under one group, dey do bad tins like sell drug, collect money by force, and dey cause wahala"" often summons images of di mafia, wey no dey only type of organized criminal activity for dis kontri.",Business study
"consider the recent case against pfizer, which settled with the u. s. department of justice in 2009.","Di recent case wey against pfizer, wey settled wit di u. s. department of justice for 2009.",Business study
"pfizer's subsidiaries, pharmacia and upjohn, had been selling pharmaceuticals""off -label""in doses and for uses not approved by the food and drug administration(fda), and it had been providing kickbacks to physicians to prescribe those drugs.","Di pfizer subsidiaries, pharmacia and upjohn, don sell pharmaceuticals""off -label""for doses and for use no approved by di food and drug administration(fda), and e don provide kickbacks to physicians to prescribe dis drugs.",Business study
the subsidiaries agreed to plead guilty to misbranding with the intent to defraud or mislead.,Di subsidiaries agreed to plead guilty to misbranding with di intent to defraud or mislead.,Business study
they paid a criminal fine of more than one billion dollars and forfeited their profits from their illegal activities.,Dem pay a criminal fine of more than one billion dollars and forfeit dia profit from dia illegal activities.,Business study
"the repercussions of this conviction are certainly felt by those who were without knowledge of these acts, such as the shareholders and many employees, not to mention the patients who were subjected to off-label marketing in the contexts of what otherwise should have been trusting relationships with their physicians.","Di repercussions of dis conviction dey certainly felt by those wey dey without knowledge of dis act, such as di shareholders and many employees, no to mention di patients wey dey subject to off-label marketing for di context of what odawise go trust relationships wit dia physicians",Business study
"the racketeer influenced and corrupt organizations act(rico) is a federal statute that, if violated, can add substantial prison time to a convicted criminal's sentence.","Di racketeer influence and corrupt organization act(rico) na federal statute wey, if violated, fit add substantial prison time to convicted criminal's sentence.",Business study
"even if someone is not per se involved with organized crime, rico charges can be brought against a defendant who has violated th e statute.","If someone no dey per se involved wit kriminal wey dem plan am well-well, dey under one group, dey do bad tins like sell drug, collect money by force, and dey cause wahala, rico charges go dey bring against defendant wey dey violated th e statute.",Business study
"this statute punishes those engaged in a pattern(at least two)of racketeering activities which include a wide range of activities typically associated with organized crime over a ten-year period,[3] when funds from those activities were used to maintain, operate, or acquire a legitimate business.","Di statute punishes those engage for pattern(at least two)of racketeering activities wey include wide range of activities wey dey associated wit kriminal wey dem plan am well-well, dey under one group, dey do bad tins like sell drug, collect money by force, and dey cause wahala over a ten-year period,[3] wen funds from those activities dey use to maintain, operate, or acquire legitimate business.",Business study
"racketeering activities include crimes such as loan -sharking, bookmaking, money laundering, counterfeiting, smuggling, blackmailing, human trafficking, and other similar crimes.","Racketeering activities include crimes such as loan -sharking, bookmaking, money laundering, counterfeiting, smuggling, blackmailing, human trafficking, plus other similar crimes.",Business study
"although rico was written to target traditional organized crime, less than 10 percent of rico cases filed have been against the mafia.","Dem written to target traditional kriminal wey dem plan am well-well, dey under one group, dey do bad tins like sell drug, collect money by force, and dey cause wahala, less than 10 percent of rico case filed don against di mafia.",Business study
"rico is now used against insurance companies, stock brokerages, tobacco companies, banks, and other large commercial enterprises.","Rico na now used against insurance companies, stock brokerages, tobacco companies, banks, plus other large commercial enterprises.",Business study
"rico also has a civil provision allowing a competitor to file rico charges, which come with triple damages if the suit is successful.","Na civil provision allow a competitor to file rico charges, wey kom wit triple damage if di suit dey successful.",Business study
bribery occurs when someone pays a government official to influence the official's decision or actions in his or her official capacity for the benefit ofthe person paying the bribe.,Di bribery occur wen someone pay government official to influence di official decision or actions for hin or her official capacity for di benefit of di person pay di bribe.,Business study
"the foreign corrupt practices act (fcpa) outlaws bribery byu. s. companies doing business in foreign lands, though grease payments are permitted.","Di foreign corrupt practice act (fcpa) outlaws bribery byu. s. companies do business for foreign lands, though grease payments dey permitted.",Business study
"grease payments are payments given to speed up a process that will occur, rather than to influence a decision.","Di grease payments dey payment wey dey given to speed up process wey will occur, no be to influence decision.",Business study
"however, companies should be very careful in relying on the grease payment exception, since such payments are legal under the fcpa only if they are also legal under the laws ofthe country where the grease payments take place, and there are very few jurisdictions(if any)where they are indeed legal.","Dem go careful for relying on di grease payment exception, since dem dey legal under di fcpa only if dem dey legal under di laws of di kontri wey di grease payments take place, and e dey very few jurisdictions(if any dey) wey dem dey legal.",Business study
states also have statutes against bribery.,Di state also don get statutes against bribery.,Business study
"for example, someone who received$10, 000 for criminal activities will need to""clean"" the money to be able to use it legitimately.","for example, someone wey receive$10, 000 for criminal activities go need to""clean"" di money wey dem use legitimately.",Business study
"one way this can be done is by setting up a business that handles alot of cash, which appears to be a legitimate business.","Di one way dis go dey done na by setting up business wey handle alot of cash, which appear to be legitimate business.",Business study
"this business can overstate its earnings by$10, 000 overtime by running the money through its books, thereby ""cleaning""the funds.","Di business don overstate its earnings by$10, 000 overtime by running di money through di books, thereby ""cleaning""di funds.",Business study
"for example, if the business was a tavern, and the tavern grossed$12, 000 per month, the ill-gotten $10, 000 could be spread out over ten months by having the business claim that it grossed$13, 000 each month.","for example, if di business dey tavern, and di tavern gross$12, 000 every month, di ill-gotten $10, 000 go howe dey far over ten months by having di business claim say im gross$13, 000 every month, di ill-gotten $10, 000 each month.",Business study
"in that way, the ten thousand would eventually be ""laundered"" or""cleaned,"" because it will appear to be money received by the legitimate business itself.","Di ten thousand go eventually be ""laundered"" or""cleaned"" bikos e go appear to be money wey di legitimate business deyself.",Business study
"in that example, if someone found out about this money laundering operation and threatened to goto the authorities unless a payment was given to him to keep quiet, then that would be a form of extortion known as blackmail.","If someone to know about dis money laundering operation and threatened to goto di authorities unless payment dey give to him to keep quiet, then dat would be form of extortion wey dey known as blackmail.",Business study
"blackmail occurs when someone threatens to reveal a harmful truth, such as involvement in criminal activity, but agrees to remain silent if paid.","Blackmail occurs when someone threatens to reveal a harmful truth, such as involvement inside criminal activity, but agrees to remain silent if paid.",Business study
extortion is when someone obtains property through coercion.,Di extortion dey when someone get property through coercion.,Business study
"another example of extortion is when a neighborhood gang extracts ""protection payments""from local businesses.","Di example of extortion na wen a neighborhood gang extract ""protection payments""from local businesses.",Business study
"essentially, the gang requires payment from local businesses periodically, and if the business refuses to pay, then the gang injures the business or its owner in some way, such as through vandalism or battery.","Essentially, di gang requires payment from local businesses periodically, plus if di business refuses to pay, then di gang injures di business or its owner inside some way, such as through vandalism or battery.",Business study
"in organized crime cases, there can be strong incentives for people not to do the right thing.",E fit be strong incentives for pipo no do di right thing.,Business study
maybe they are afraid of punishment by the government.,Di goment dey afraid of punishment by di government,Business study
but they may also fear punishment from their organized crime communities.,"Dem also fear punishment from dia kriminal wey dem plan am well-well, dey under one group, dey do bad tins like sell drug, collect money by force, and dey cause wahala communities.",Business study
"in such cases, sometimes people do not tell the truth when they should.",Di eople no tell di truth wen dem go,Business study
"someone who lies under oath, even if he or she thinks there's a good reason to do so, has committed the crime of perjury.","Di someone wey lies under oath, even if she or she think say e dey good reason to do so, don committe di crime of perjury.",Business study
"additionally, such a person might be charged with obstruction of justice, which is acting in a manner that creates obstacles to the administration of justice.","Di person go charge wit obstruction of justice, wey dey acting for manner wey create obstacles to di administration of justice.",Business study
antitrust laws seek to prevent activities that reduce or eliminate economic competition.,Antitrust laws seek to prevent activities wey reduce or eliminate economic competition.,Business study
"agreements""in restraint of trade""are prohibited.","Di agreements""in restraint of trade""dey prohibited",Business study
"criminal convictions have been obtained forbid -rigging contracts for milk for school children, price -fixing for residential doors, and price-fixing for steel wool scouring pads.","Criminal convictions get been obtained forbid -rigging contracts for milk for school children, price -fixing for residential doors, plus price-fixing for steel wool scouring pads.",Business study
for the movie trailer ofthe informant!,Di informant for di movie trailer of di informant,Business study
video clip: who said antitrust is boring?,We tok say antitrust dey boring?,Business study
checkout the movie trailer for the informant!,Check comot di movie trailer for di informant!,Business study
which commodity was being price fixed?,Di commodity dey price fixed?,Business study
"here is part ofthe trailer: congress has addressed antitrust activities through the passage of several major pieces of legislation, though not all carry criminal penalties.","Here na part of di trailer: congress don get addressed antitrust activities through di passage of several major pieces of legislation, though no all carry criminal penalties.",Business study
"specifically, the sherman anti-trust act carries criminal penalties for antitrust violations, but other antitrust laws do not.","Di sherman anti-trust act carry criminal penalties for antitrust violations, but oda antitrust laws no dey.",Business study
cybercr ime cybercrimes are crimes that are committed virtually from a computer or over the internet.,Na crime wey dey committe virtually from a computer or over di internet.,Business study
"these crimes are on the rise, and they include activities like hacking and identity theft.","Di crimes dey rise, and dem include activities like hacking and identity dift.",Business study
cybercrime is abroad term that includes many white-collar crimes.,Di cybercrime dey wide term wey dey include many white collar crimes.,Business study
"cybe rcrime is ubiquitous these days, because virtually every desk has a computer on it.","Di cybe rcrime dey ubiquitous dis days, because virtually every desk don get computer on am",Business study
"these crimes can range from non-white -collar crimes(like possession of child pornography)to traditional white-collar crime, involving the use of deception to acquire money.","These crimes fit range from non-white -collar crimes(like possession of child pornography)to traditional white-collar crime, involving di use of deception to acquire money.",Business study
the computer fraud and abuse act is a federal statute that carries punishments for compromising computers used in interstate commerce or communication.,Di computer fraud and abuse act na federal statute wey carry punishments for compromising computers wey dey used for interstate commerce or communication.,Business study
"it punishes those who access a computer to commit fraud, among other things.","Dem punish those wey access a computer to commit fraud, among oda things.",Business study
"see table 10.1 ""summary of computer fraud and abuse act compromising confidentiality provisions""[6] for a summary ofthe provisions that carry criminal punishments, as well as the statutory sentences.","See table 10.1 ""summary of computer fraud plus abuse act compromising confidentiality provisions""[6] for a summary of di provisions wey carry criminal punishments, as well as di statutory sentences.",Business study
the unauthorized access to stored communications act is a federal statute to protect the confidentiality of e-mail and voicemail.,Di unauthorized access to stored communications act na a federal statute to protect di confidentiality of e-mail plus voicemail.,Business study
"however, this act does not have as broad of a sweep as it might appear from its name.",Di act no get as broad of a sweep as dem suppose appear from its name,Business study
"courts have held that home computers, business computers, and internet service providers(isps) are not""electronic communications devices""that are covered by this act.","Di court don hold say home computers, business computers, and internet service providers(isps) no dey""electronic communications devices"" wey dey covered by dis act.",Business study
"so hacking into an e-mail account provider[7] would be prohibited by this act, but not hacking into a home computer[8] or a business computer.","E-mail account provider[7] go prohibite dis act, but no hacking into home computer[8] or business computer",Business study
identity thieves obtain credit in an otherwise creditworthy person's name.,Di identity thieves dey obtain credit for di odawise creditworthy person name,Business study
t he victim of these crimes can spend hundreds of hours repairing the damage.,Di victim of dis crimes go spend hundreds of hours repair di damage,Business study
this is one ofthe primary reasons why it is very important not to reveal personal information on the internet.,E dey one of di primary reasons wey dem dey important no to reveal personal information on di internet.,Business study
"finally, spamming is now subject to federal regulations, the violations of which are now a federal crime by virtue ofthe can-spam act.","For finally, spamming dey subject to federal regulations, di violations of which dey violations of which dey violate federal crime by virtue of di can-spam act.",Business study
this law serves as the vehicle to prosecute senders of large quantities of unsolicited e-mails if those e-mails do not meet the federal requirements.,Di law serve as di vehicle to prosecute senders of large quantities of unsolicited e-mails if dem no meet di federal requirements.,Business study
"environmental crimes environmental crimes are actions that violate federal or state statutes relating to the environment, which carry criminal sanctions.","Di environmental crimes dey action wey viola federal or state statutes wey dey relating to di environment, wey carry criminal sanctions.",Business study
"the environmental protection agency enforces federal environmental statutes, including those that carry a criminal penalty.","Di environmental protection agency enforce federal environmental statutes, including those wey dey carry criminal penalty.",Business study
"for instance, corporations that illegally dump toxic substances into waterways, illegally harm endangered species or those species' habitats, or trade in illegal substances that have been banned due to their propensity to cause great harm to the environment are all engaged in environmental crimes.","for example, corporations wey illegally dump toxic substances into waterways, illegally harm endangered species or those species' habitats, or trade for illegal substances wey don dey banned due to dia propensity to cause great harm to di environment.",Business study
"u. s. federal environmental statutes that carry criminal penalties include the clean air act; the clean water act; the resource conservation a nd recovery act; the comprehensive environmental response, compensation, and liability act; and the endangered species act.","U. s. federal environmental statutes wey carry criminal penalties include di clean air act; di clean water act; di resource conservation a nd recovery act; di comprehensive environmental response, compensation, and liability act; and di endangered species act.",Business study
"additionally, state environmental law statutes frequently carry criminal penalties aswell.","Additionally, state environmental law statutes frequently carry criminal penalties aswell.",Business study
"recent examples of corporate convictions for environmental crimes can be found in note 10. 84 ""hyperlink: federal environmental criminal convictions"".","Di recent examples of corporate convictions for environmental crimes don find for note 10. 84 ""hyperlink: federal environmental criminal convictions""",Business study
corporate convictions are not uncommon.,Di corporate convictions no dey uncommon.,Business study
"for example, the tulip corporation of new york was convicted for illegally storing lead contaminated materials without a permit.","for example, di tulip corporation of new york bin dey convicted for illegally storing lead contaminated materials without a permit.",Business study
"penalties included a$100, 000 fine and a$25, 000 to buffalo niagara riverkeepers.","Penalties included a$100, 000 fine plus a$25, 000 to buffalo niagara riverkeepers.",Business study
"in another case, mar -cone appliance part co. was convicted of purchasing and selling ozone depleting refrigerant gas, which was illegally smuggled into the united states in violation ofthe clean air act.","Mar-cone appliance part co. dey convicted of purchasing and selling ozone depleting refrigerant gas, wey dey illegally smuggled into di united state for violation of di clean air act.",Business study
"the sentence included a five-year probation for the business, a half-million -dollar criminal fine, and a four- hundred-thousand -dollar payment to a nonprofit organization.","Di sentence included a five-year probation for di business, a half-million -dollar criminal fine, plus a four- hundred-thousand -dollar payment to a nonprofit organization.",Business study
"the company distributed this illegal substance throughout the united states, which was an action condemned as undermining global environmental efforts to reduce ozone damage for personal gain.","Di company distributed this illegal substance throughout di united states, wey bin dey an action condemned as undermining global environmental efforts to reduce ozone damage for personal gain.",Business study
blue-collar crime blue-collar crime is a generic term used to describe crimes that are not white-collar crimes.,Di generic term wey dey use to describe crime wey no dey white collar crime.,Business study
"in business, property crimes(rather than person crimes)are a primary concern.","For business, property crimes(no be person crime)dey primary concern.",Business study
"a property crime is a crime involving damage to property, while a person crime is a crime involving the injury to a person's body.","Di property crime dey crime involving damage to property, while a person crime dey crime involvin di injury to a person's bodi.",Business study
white-collar criminals are not the only ones who commit larceny.,Di only ones wey dey commit larceny.,Business study
"in retail, for instance, primary loss prevention concerns include shoplifting.","Inside retail, for instance, primary loss prevention concerns include shoplifting.",Business study
shoplifting is a serious and prevalent crime.,Di shoplifting na serious and prevalent crime,Business study
"additionally, in any type of business, employee theft is a serious problem.","For any type of business, employee dift dey serious problem.",Business study
"last, vandalism is unauthorized property damage, and any business with ap hysical presence can become the target of vandals.","Di last, vandalism dey unauthorized property damage, and any business wit physical presence go become di target of vandals.",Business study
"white-collar crimes are particularly insidious because white-collar criminals work from the inside, can be difficult to spot since they often hold positions of trust, and use deception as their primary tool.","Di white collar crimes dey particularly insidious because white collar criminals work from inside, dey difficult to spot since dem dey hold position of trust, and use deception as dia primary tool.",Business study
blue-collar crimes also pose substantial risk of loss for businesses.,Blue-collar crimes sef pose substantial risk of loss for businesses.,Business study
"fraud, cybercrime, environmental crime, organized crime, and various forms of property crimes are all serious threats to businesses.","Fraud, cybercrime, environmental crime, kriminal wey dem plan am well-well, dey under one group, dey do bad tins like sell drug, collect money by force, and dey cause wahala, plus various forms of property crimes be all serious threats to businesses.",Business study
"crime carries high personal costs not only to the individuals involved in the misconduct but also to society at large, including the corporations and others who depend on those corporations.",Di corporations and odas wey depend on di corporations and odas wey depend on those corporations.,Business study
"consider the video in note 10. 59 ""hyperlink: too good to be true?","Consider di video inside note 10. 59 ""hyperlink: too good to be true?",Business study
"statistically impossible returns""concerning harry markopolos's use of statistical modeling to identify bernie madoff's ponzi scheme.","Statistically impossible returns""concerning harry markopolos's use of statistical modeling to identify bernie madoff's ponzi scheme.",Business study
what role should statistical analysis and probability modeling have played in ther egulatory environment that could have identified the madoff ponzi scheme disaster earlier?,Di role wey suppose analysis of data and probability modeling don play for di regulatory environment wey could identify di madoff ponzi scheme disaster earlier?,Business study
how can businesses protect themselves from embezzlement?,How fit businesses protect themselves from embezzlement?,Business study
what are some specific strategies that could be devised to ensure that bookkeepers or accountants do not skim money from the business?,Na some specific strategies wey go dey devised to ensure say bookkeepers or accountants no skim money from di business?,Business study
"if you caught an employee stealing one dollar's worth of office supplies, what would you do?","Di employee dey tiff one dollar's worth of office supplies, what would you do?",Business study
what about twenty five dollars' worth of supplies?,What about twenty five dollars' worth of supplies?,Business study
one hundred dollars'?,Na one hundred dollar'?,Business study
should employees be trained not to even take a pencil home?,Dem train employees no to even take pencil home?,Business study
would that type of training be worth the cost ofthe training itself?,Di type of training be worth di cost of di training itself?,Business study
"checkout note 10. 76""video clip: who said antitrust is boring?",We tok say antitrust dey boring?,Business study
to review some ofthe convictions against corporations.,Dem review some of di convictions against corporations.,Business study
are penalties payable to nonprofit environmental organizations appropriate penalties for corporate convictions for environmental crimes?,Be penalties payable to nonprofit environmental organizations appropriate penalties for corporate convictions for environmental crimes?,Business study
explore strategies for businesses to minimize criminal liability.,Explore strategies for businesses to minimize criminal liability.,Business study
examine whistleblower protections.,Dem examine whistleblower protections.,Business study
businesses can engage in affirmative actions to reduce criminal liability.,Dem engage for affirmative action to reduce criminal liability,Business study
"likewise, individuals do not have to sit by passively if they know that criminal activity is afoot.","Di likewise, individuals no fit sit by passively if dem know say criminal activity dey afoot",Business study
"businesses should conduct annual training sessions, such as ethics training, to help ensure good workplace ethics.","Businesses suppose conduct annual training sessions, such as ethics training, to help ensure good workplace ethics.",Business study
"they should develop company-wide codes of ethics, which serve as the organizational commitment to ethical behavior.","Dem suppose develop company-wide kod wey dey guide profesisonal pipo for one particula work or indostri, wey dem suppose follow to do dia work wel, wey serve as di organizational commitment to ethical behavior.",Business study
"this can go far toward developing a corporate culture that values ethical behavior and condemns unethical actions, by providing leadership that serves as positive role models for all employees.","This fit go far toward developing a corporate culture wey values ethical behavior plus condemns unethical actions, by providing leadership wey serves as positive role models for all employees.",Business study
"some companies, such as boeing, have instituted an ethics hotline, which allows employees to anonymously report unethical behavior so that it can be investigated.","Di company, such as boeing, don institut ethics hotline, wey allow employees to anonymously report unathical behavior so say e fit investigate.",Business study
"additionally, federal sentencing guidelines in place for organizations state that organizations that maintain a rigorous compliance program to detect and report violations ofthe law, and voluntarily disclose those violations when they occur, are eligible for significantly reduced sentences and fines.","Di federal sentencing guidelines for place for organizations state say organizations wey dey maintain rigorous compliance program to detect and report violations of di law, and voluntarily disclose those violations wey dem occur, dey eligible for significantly reduce sentences and fines.",Business study
"sometimes, of course, things still go wrong.","Sometimes, of course, things still go wrong.",Business study
a person who observes illegal behavior in the workplace may choose not to participate in that illegal behavior.,Di person wey observe illegal behavior for di workplace go choose no participate for dat illegal behavior.,Business study
such a person can even choose to become a whistleblower.,Na such a person fit even choose to become whistleblower,Business study
whistleblowers are people who report the illegal activity of their employers or of their organization to authorities.,Di whistleblowers dey pipo wey report di illegal activity of dia employer or of dia organization to authorities.,Business study
"typically, the whistle blowers have observed some wrongdoing that may harm others, and they decide to""blow the whistle""to protect the potential victims or to simply stop the wrongdoing.","Di whistle blowers don observe some wrongdoing wey dey harm odas, and dem decide to""blow di whistle""to protect di potential victims or to stop di wrongdoing.",Business study
"whistleblowers face many challenges in the workplace, not the least of which is the stigma associated with blowing the whistle.","Di whistleblowers face many challenges for di workplace, no di least of which dey di stigma wey dey associated wit blow di whistle.",Business study
"because of this, whistleblowers are often placed in a terrible ethical dilemma, because while they may observe wrongdoing, they may not feel comfortable in reporting the illegal activity.","For dis, whistleblowers dey place for terrible ethical dilemma, because while dem observe wrongdoing, dem no feel comfortable for reporting di illegal activity.",Business study
they may fear losing their job or not being able to find anew job.,Diy no fear losing dia job or no being able to find new job,Business study
"prospects of losing one's status, friends, or reputation can prevent many people from blowing the whistle, even though they may wish the behavior to stop.","Di prospects of losing one status, friends, or reputation go prevent many pipo from blow di whistle, even though dem wish di behavior to stop.",Business study
whistleblower protection laws prohibit retaliatory action against whistleblowers.,Whistleblower protection laws prohibit retaliatory action against whistleblowers.,Business study
some statutes contain whistleblower protection provisions.,Some statutes contain whistleblower protection provisions.,Business study
"fo r example, the sarbanes -oxley act contains whistleblower protection, but the statute is not entirely devoted to whistleblower protection.","Fo r example, di sarbanes -oxley act contains whistleblower protection, but di statute nano entirely devoted to whistleblower protection.",Business study
"the false claims act provides that anyone who blows the whistle on a federal contractor committing fraud on the government can personally receive a portion of any amount recovered, up to 25 percent.","Di false claim act provide say anyone wey blow di whistle on federal contractor commit fraud on di government go personally receive portion of any amount recovered, up to 25 percent.",Business study
"despite these protections, many real-world whistleblowers have discovered that the laws are cold comfort for the realities that face them after whistle is blown.",Di laws dey cold comfort for di realities wey face dem afta whistle dey blow,Business study
"checkout note 10. 93 ""hyperlink: whistleblower law blog"", which lists many ofthe statutes under which whistleblower protections are offered.","whistleblower law blog, wey list many of di statutes under which whistleblower protection dey offer",Business study
hyperlink: whistleblower law blog checkout the links on the right side ofthe webpage below.,Hyperlink: whistleblower law blog check comot di links on di right side of di webpage below.,Business study
"if they see criminal behavior and realize that they maybe implicated in the criminal behavior, they can report certain actions to authorities, which will allow them to receive a lesser penalty, or no penalty at all.","If dem see criminal behavior and realize say dem dey see criminal behavior, dem go report certain actions to authorities, wey go allow dem to receive certain penalty, or no penalty for all.",Business study
"only a few criminal statutes have safe harbor provisions, however.","Di criminal statutes don safe harbor provisions, however.",Business study
"however, whistleblowers often experience negative consequences when they report the illegal activities of their organization to the authorities.",Di whistleblowers dey experience negative consequences wen dem report di illegal activities of dia organization to di authorities.,Business study
"find a corporate code of ethics by searching for""code of ethics""in your internet browser.","Find a corporate kod of etik wey be guide for how pesin or oganization suppose behave for one particula field or wok by searching for ""kod of etik wey be guide for how pesin or oganization suppose behave for one particula field or wok"" inside your internet browser.",Business study
is this a good code of ethics?,Na this a good kod of etik wey be guide for how pesin or oganization suppose behave for one particula field or wok?,Business study
how could it be changed?,Howe go change?,Business study
do you think the employees pay attention to it?,Di employees pay attention to di employees?,Business study
how would you ensure that your employees believed in and adopted your company's code of ethics?,Howe go ensure say your employees believe for and adopt your company kod of etik wey be guide for how pesin or oganization suppose behave for one particula field or wok?,Business study
"should employees who do not follow the code of ethics, but who do not break any laws or company polices, be terminated?","Di ployees wey no follow di kod of etik wey be guide for how pesin or oganization suppose behave for one particula field or wok, but we no break any laws or company polices, beterminated?",Business study
should whistleblowing be encouraged by businesses?,Dem go whistleblowing be encouraged by business?,Business study
imagine a scenario in which you would choose to blow the whistle.,Di scenario wey you go choose to blow di whistle.,Business study
how does that differ from a situation in which you would not blow the whistle?,How does dat differ from situation wey you no blow di whistle?,Business study
develop an outline of topics that you would present to employees to train them to be vigilant against criminal behavior in your organization.,Di outline of topics wey you go present to employees to train dem to be vigilant against criminal behavior for your organization.,Business study
how could you ensure that employees understood the training?,How fit you ensure wey employees understood di training?,Business study
"threats arise from the inside from employees, officers, directors, and employees aswell as from the outside, from professional or opportunistic criminals.","Threats arise from di inside from employees, officers, directors, plus employees aswell as from di outside, from professional or opportunistic criminals.",Business study
it makes good business sense to practice both offensive and defensive strategies to stave off these threats.,Am dey make good business sense to practice both offensive plus defensive strategies to stave off these threats.,Business study
"this can best be accomplished through proactive policies that encourage ethical behavior, encourage whistleblowing, and create disincentives for violating the law in the form of company policies, training programs, and codes of ethics.","For proactive policies wey dey encourage ethical behavior, encourage whistleblowing, and create disintive wey dey violate di law for di form of company policy, training programs, and kod of etik wey be guide for how pesin or oganization suppose behave for one particula field or wok.",Business study
this organization can run from simple to complex and depends greatly on the needs ofthe business owners to structure their liability and taxes.,This organization fit from to simple to complex plus depends greatly on di needs of di business owners to structure dia liability plus taxes.,Business study
what are the available entity choices when conducting business?,Di available entity choices wey dey conduct business?,Business study
what are the factors that determine entity selection?,Di factor wey dey determine entity selection?,Business study
"what are the traditional entity choices, and how are they different from eachother?","Di traditional entity choices, and how dey different from each oda?",Business study
"while you might enjoy apple products as a consumer, have you ever thought about apple as a corporation?","While you might enjoy apple products as a consumer, get you ever thought about apple as a corporation?",Business study
"its corporate headquarters in cupertino, california( figure 11.1 ""apple's headquarters in cupertino, california""), is the physical embodiment of this entity we call a corporation, but what does that mean?","Di physical embodiment of dis entity we call corporation, but what does dat mean?",Business study
"it might surprise you to learn that this building, or rather the legal concept ofthe entity that occupies it, is more like you than you realize.","Di building, or rather di legal concept of di entity wey occupies am, dey more like you than you realize.",Business study
"for example, just like you, this entity can own property.","But like you, dis entity fit own property",Business study
this entity can enter into contracts to buy and sell goods.,Di entity fit enter into contracts to buy and sell goods,Business study
this entity can hire and fire employees.,Di entity fit hire and fire employees,Business study
this entity can open bank accounts and engage in complex financial transactions.,Di entity go open bank account and engage for complex financial transaction.,Business study
"this entity can sue others, and can be sued in court.","Di entity go sue odas, and go dey sued for court",Business study
"this entity even has constitutional rights, just like you.","This entity sef don get constitutional rights, just like you.",Business study
"unlike you, however, this entity does not breathe, doe s not bleed, and in fact maybe immortal.","Di entity no breathe, doe no bleed, and for true no be immortal.",Business study
"and most unlike you, this entity has no independent judgment of its own, no moral compass or conscience to tell it the difference between right and wrong.","Plus most unlike you, this entity don get no independent judgment of its own, no moral compass or conscience to tell am di difference between right plus wrong.",Business study
"we'll examine why human beings choose to organize into corporate entities in the first place, and why the law recognizes these entities for public policy purposes.","We'll examine why human beings choose to organize enter corporate entities inside di first place, plus why di law recognizes these entities for public policy purposes.",Business study
"we'll start by looking at the factors that go into making a decision about entity choice, and then examine the available choices in detail.","We go start by looking at di factors wey go make decision about entity choice, and then examine di available choices for detail",Business study
try to recall the basic function of a business.,Dem try to recall di basic function of business,Business study
"at its most fundamental level, a business exists to make a profit for its owners.",Di business exist to make profit for its owner.,Business study
"in a capitalist market-driven economy, a business that fails to make a profit ultimately ceases to exist, overtaken by creditors and competitors.","For capitalist market driven economy, business wey fail to make profit ultimately ceases to exist, overtaken by creditors and competitors.",Business study
"the need to make a profit is one truism that binds all businesses together, but beyond that, it's hard to draw generalizations about business operations.","Di need to make profit na one truism wey bind all businesses together, but beyond dat, e hard to draw generalizations about business operations.",Business study
"the world of business is as varied as human experience itself, ranging from the neighborhood kids who shovel snow in the winter and sell lemonade in the summer, to the neighborhood pizza restaurant, to the small tool-and-die factory on the outskirts of town making machine tools, to the multinational corporation with hundreds of thousands of employees scattered throughout the globe.","Di world of business dey as varied as human experience, rang from di neighborhood kids wey shovel snow for di winter and sell lemonade for di summer, to di neighborhood pizza restaurant, to di small tool-and-die factory for di outskirts of town make machine tools, to di multinational corporation wit hundreds of thousands of employees scattered throughout di globe.",Business study
"some businesses make things in factories(manufacturers), other businesses sell things that other businesses make(retailers or franchisees ), and still other businesses exist to help both the makers and sellers make and sell better(business consultants).","Di businesses make things for factories(manufacturers), oda business sell things wey oda business make(retailers or franchisees), and still oda business exist to help both di makers and sellers make and sell better(business consultants).",Business study
"with this breadth and diversity, it's not surprising that there is no""one size fits all""approach to choosing a business organization.","Di breadth and diversity dey no surprising say e no fit all""approach to choosing business organization.",Business study
"when choosing what form of entity is best, business professionals must consider several factors.","When choosing what form of entity na best, business professionals must consider several factors.",Business study
"first, they have to consider how much it costs to create the entity and how hard it is to create.",Dem don consider how much e cost to create di entity and how hard e dey create.,Business study
"some entities are easy to create, while others are more complicated and have ongoing maintenance requirements that are important to consider.","Some entities dey easy to create, while odas dey more complicated and get ongoing maintenance requirements wey dey important to consider.",Business study
"second, they have to consider how easy it is for the business to continue if the founder dies, decides to retire, or decides to enter anew business altogether.","Dem don consider how easy e dey for di business to continue if di founder die, decide to retire, or decide to enter new business altogether.",Business study
"third, they have to consider how difficult it might be to raise money to grow or expand the business.","Di third, dem don consider how difficult it go raise money to grow or expand di business.",Business study
"fourth, they have to consider what sort of managerial control they wish to keep on the business, and whether they are willing to cede control to outsiders.","Di fourth, dem go consider what sort of managerial control wey dem wish to keep on di business, and whether dem fit cede control to outsiders.",Business study
"fifth, they have to consider whether or no t they wish to eventually expand ownership to members ofthe public.",Dem don consider whether or no t dem wish to expand ownership to members of di public.,Business study
"sixth, they must give some thought to tax planning to minimize the taxes paid on earnings and income.",Dem go give some thought to tax planning to minimize di taxes paid on earnings and income.,Business study
"finally, and most importantly, they have to consider whether or not they wish to protect their personal assets from claims, a feature known as limited liability.","Dem don consider whether or no dem wish to protect dia personal assets from claims, feature wey dey known as limited liability.",Business study
it's important to remember that choosing a business organization is different from what kind of business you run.,Di important to remember say choosing business organization dey different from what kind of business you run.,Business study
"franchises area very common type of business(especially in the food and services industries), but there is no typical form of business for a franchise.","Di franchises dey very common type of business(especially for food and services industry), but nano typical form of business for a franchise.",Business study
"depending on the needs ofthe franchise owners, a franchise could be a sole proprietorship, a limited liability company (llc), or a corporation.","Di franchise go be sole proprietorship, limited liability company(llc), or corporation.",Business study
"similarly, we sometimes refer to""nonprofit organizations""such as universities or charities as separate legal entities.","Similarly, we sometimes to talk about""nonprofit organizations""such as universities or charities as separate legal entities.",Business study
"although they are nonprofit, some of these enterprises can be very large, with complex operations that spread across borders(for example, the red cross or doctors without borders).","As dem dey nonprofit, some of dis enterprises go large, wit complex operations wey dey spread across borders(for example, di red cross or doctors without borders).",Business study
"if you are ever in a position to start anew business venture, your focus is typically on growing revenue and cutting costs so that you can maximize profit.",Di focus dey typically on growing revenue and cutting costs so say you fit maximize profit.,Business study
"you may not be very concerned with entity choice at the outset, since so many other considerations are competing for your attention.","Dem no dey concerned wit entity choice for di outset, since so many oda considerations dey competing for your attention.",Business study
"once an entity choice is made, however, it is difficult(but not impossible)to change to another selection.",E dey difficult(but no impossible)to change to another selection.,Business study
"since entity choice can have a profound effect on these considerations, it is important to gain a basic understanding ofthe available choices so that you, the business professional, can focus on the business fundamentals rather than legal or accounting details.","E dey important to gain basic understanding of di available choices so say you, di business professional, fit focus on di business fundamentals no be legal or accounting details.",Business study
key takeaways business organizations are an important part of a business's structure.,"Di tori wey dey important pass, wey be say make you no forget, na im be de key point wey you suppose sabi or remember business organizations dey important part of business structure.",Business study
"different organizations provide different advantages and disadvantages in creation cost and simplicity, ongoing maintenance requirements, dissolution and continuity, fundraising, managerial control, public ownership, tax planning, and limited liability.","Different organizations provide different advantages plus disadvantages inside creation cost plus simplicity, ongoing maintenance requirements, dissolution plus continuity, fundraising, managerial control, public ownership, tax planning, plus limited liability.",Business study
"the type of business being conducted(for -profit, nonprofit, franchise)has little to do with the business organization in which the business is conducted.","Di type of business wey dey conduct(for -profit, nonprofit, franchise)get little to do wit di business organization wey di business dey conduct",Business study
"many business organizations take the form of separate legal entities, which the law recognizes as nearly like persons for purposes of legal rights.","Dem take di form of separate legal entity, wey di law recognize as nearly like persons for purpose of legal rights.",Business study
understand the importance of sole proprietorships in our economy.,Di importance of sole proprietorships for awa economy,Business study
explore the advantages presented by doing business as a sole proprietorship.,Di advantage wey dey presented by do business as sole proprietorship.,Business study
assess the disadvantages and dangers of doing business as a sole proprietorship.,Assess disadvantages plus dangers of doing business as a sole proprietorship.,Business study
"lily, a college sophomore, is home for the summer.","Di college sophomore, dey home for di summer",Business study
"unable to find even part-time workin a tough economy, she begins to help her parents by cleaning up their overgrown garden.","Unable to find sef part-time work inside a tough economy, e begins to help im parents by cleaning up dia overgrown garden.",Business study
"after a few days of this work, lily discovers that she enjoys doing this and is good at it.","Di work, lily discover say she enjoy do dis and dey good for am",Business study
"the neighbors see th e work lily is doing, and they ask her to help their gardens too.","Di neighbors see th e work lily dey do, and dem ask her to help dia gardens too.",Business study
"within a week, lily has scheduled appointments and jobs throughout the neighborhood.",Di neighborhood don schedule appointments and jobs throughout di neighborhood.,Business study
"using the money she has earned, she places orders for additional landscaping equipment and materials with a local retailer.","Using di money e don get earned, e places orders for additional landscaping equipment plus materials with a local retailer.",Business study
"within a month, she is so busy that she has to hire workers to do some ofthe more routine tasks, such as mulching and lawn mowing, for her.","She dey so busy say she don hire workers to do some of di more routine tasks, such as mulching and lawn mowing, for her.",Business study
"by the middle of summer, lily has applied knowledge she picked up in her business classes by developing a name for her business (lily's landscaping)and developing marketing materials such as a facebook fan page, flyers to be posted at local stores, business cards, and a youtube video showing her projects.","Di middle of summer, lily don apply knowledge she pickup for her business class by developing name for her business (lily's landscaping)and developing marketing materials such as facebook fan page, flyers wey dey upload for local store, business card, and youtube video show her projects.",Business study
"by the end ofthe summer, lily has earned a healthy profit for all her work and developed valuable know-how on how to run her business.","Di summer, lily don earned healthy profit for all her work and develop valuable know-how on how to run her business",Business study
"she has to stop working when the weather gets cooler and she returns to school, but promises herself to restart the business next summer.","She don stop work wen di weather get cooler and she return to school, but promis herself to restart di business next summer.",Business study
"lily is a sole proprietor, the most common form of doing business in the united states.","Di sole proprietor wey dey sole proprietor, di most common form of do business for di united state.",Business study
"from a legal perspective, there is absolutely no difference between lily and lily's landscaping they are one and the same, and completely interchangeable with eachother.","Di absolutely no di difference between lily and lily's landscaping dem dey one and di same, and completely interchangeable wit each oda.",Business study
"if lily's landscaping makes a profit, that money belongs exclusively to lily.","If lily's landscaping makes a profit, wey money belongs exclusively to lily.",Business study
"if lily's landscaping needs to pay a bill to a supplier or creditor, and lily's landscaping doesn't have the money, then lily has to pay the bill.","Di landscaping need pay bill to supplier or creditor, and lily don pay di bill.",Business study
"when lily's landscaping enters into a contract to plan ta new flower garden, it is actually lily that is entering into the contract.","For when lily's landscaping enter into contract to plan new flower garden, e dey actually lily wey dey enter into di contract.",Business study
"if lily's landscaping wants to open a bank account to accept customer payments or to pay bills, then lily will actually own the account.","If lily's landscaping wants to open a bank account to accept customer payments or to pay bills, then lily go actually own di account.",Business study
"lily can even apply for a""doing business as""or d. b. a.","Di lily fit even apply for""doing business as""or d. b. a.",Business study
"filing in her state, so that her business can carry on under the fictitious name""l ily's landscaping.""","Di business fit carry on under di fictitious name""l ily's landscaping""",Business study
"note, however, that legally lily's landscaping is still no different from lily herself.","Note, however, wey legally lily's landscaping na still no different from lily herself.",Business study
"some business owners are happy to use their own names for their business, but for marketing and branding reasons many business owners prefer to use a fictitious name.","Some business owner dey happy to use dia own name for dia business, but for marketing and branding reasons many business owners prefer to use fictitious name.",Business study
"using a fictitious name is permitted under state laws where the business operates, using a filing known as a d. b. a.","Di business operates, using fictitious name wey dey permitted under state laws wey di business operat, using a fictitious name wey dey permitted under state laws wey di business operat, using a filing wey dey known asd. b. a.",Business study
explore this website to find out how to file a d. b. a.,Di website goto know how to filed. b. a,Business study
filing in your state.,Di state dey filing for your state,Business study
"there are many advantages to doing business as a sole proprietor, advantages that make this form of doing business extremely popular.","Na many advantages to do business as sole proprietor, advantages wey make dis form of do business extremely popular.",Business study
"first, it's easy to create a sole proprietorship.","First, am's easy to create a sole proprietorship.",Business study
"in effect, there is no creation cost or time, since there is nothing to create.","Di creation cost or time, since e no dey create",Business study
"the entrepreneur in charge ofthe business simply starts doing business, charging money, and providing goods or services.","Di entrepreneur inside charge of di business simply starts doing business, charging money, plus providing goods or services.",Business study
another key advantage to sole proprietorships is autonomy.,Di key advantage wey sole proprietorships dey autonomy,Business study
"since the owner is the business, lily ca n decide for herself what she wants to do to lily's landscaping.","Di owner dey di business, lily ca n decide for herself what she want to do to lily's landscaping.",Business study
"she could set her own hours, grow as quickly or slowly as she wants, expand into new lines of businesses, take a vacation, or wind down the business, all at her own whim and direction.","She fit set her own hours, grow as quickly or slowly as she want, expand into new lines of business, take vacation, or wind down di business, all for her own whim and direction.",Business study
that autonomy also comes with total ownership ofthe business's finances.,Wey autonomy sef comes with total ownership of di business's finances.,Business study
"all the money that lily's landscaping takes in, even if it is in a separate bank account, belongs to lily, and she can do with that money whatever she wants.","Di money wey lily's landscaping take for, even if e dey in separate bank account, belongs to lily, and she fit do wit dat money wey she want.",Business study
"first, since a sole proprietorship can have only one owner, it is impossible to bring in others to the business.","Di sole proprietorship don get only one owner, e dey impossible to bring in oda to di business.",Business study
"lily cannot bring in her college roommate to work on website design as a partner in the business, for example.","Lily cannot bring inside im college roommate to work on website design as a partner inside di business, for example.",Business study
"in addition, since the business and the owner are identical, it is impossible to pass on the business from lily.","Di business and di owner dey identical, na impossible to pass on di business from lily.",Business study
"if lily dies, the business dies with her.",Di business dey wither.,Business study
"ofcourse, she can always sell or giveaway the business assets(equipment, inventory, as well as intangible assets such as customer lists and goodwill).","Ofcourse, e fit always sell or giveaway di business assets(equipment, inventory, as well as intangible assets such as customer lists plus goodwill).",Business study
"raising working capital can be a problem for sole proprietors, especially those early in their business ventures.","Na problem for sole proprietors, especially those early for dia business ventures.",Business study
many entrepreneurial ventures are built on great ideas but need capital to flourish and develop.,Di entrepreneurial venture dey build on great ideas but need capital to flourish and develop.,Business study
"if the entrepreneur lacks individual wealth, then he or she must seek those funds from other sources.","Di entrepreneur lack individual wealth, then hin or she must seek those funds from oda source.",Business study
"for example, if lily decides to expand her business and asks her wealthy uncle to invest money in lily's landscaping, there is no w ay for her uncle to participate as a profit-sharing owner in the business.","for example, if lily decides to expand im business plus asks im wealthy uncle to invest money inside lily's landscaping, there nano w ay for im uncle to participate as a profit-sharing owner inside di business.",Business study
"he can make a loan to her, or enter into a profit-sharing contract with her, but there is no way for him to own any part of lily's landscaping.","E fit make a loan to im, or enter a profit-sharing contract with im, but there nano way for him to own any part of lily's landscaping.",Business study
"traditionally, most sole proprietors seek funding from banks.",Di sole proprietors dey seek funding from banks.,Business study
"banks approach these loans just like any other personal loan to an individual, such as a car loan or mortgage.","Banks approach these loans just like any other personal loan to an individual, such as a car loan or mortgage.",Business study
"down payment requirements maybe high, and typically the banks require some form of personal collateral to guarantee the loan, even though the loan is to be used to grow the business.","Di banks require some form of personal collateral to guarantee di loan, even though di loan dey use to grow di business.",Business study
"many sole proprietors resort to running their personal credit cards to the maximum limit, or transferring balances between credit cards, in the early stage of their business.","Di sole proprietors resort to run dia personal credit card to di maximum limit, or transfer balance between credit card, for di early stage of dia business.",Business study
"lending tightened, interest rates went up, credit lines went down, and standards became higher.","Di lending tightened, interest rate go up, credit line go down, and standards go higher.",Business study
"the effect on many sole proprietors, including those featured in this national public radio story, has been very challenging.","Di effect on many sole proprietors, including those wey dey featured for national public radio story, don dey very challenging.",Business study
"venture capital firms combine funds from institutional investors and high net-worth individuals(known as angel investors) to identify promising start-ups, and to fund them in a private placement offering until the start-up has developed its technology to a commercially feasible stage.","Di venture capital firms combine funds from institutional investors and high net worth individuals(known as angel investors)to identify promising start-ups, and to fund dem for private placement offering until di start-up don develop its technology to commercially feasible stage.",Business study
"at that point the venture capital firm seeks an exit strategy, typically through offering sale ofthe business to the public in an initial public offering(ipo).","At wey point di venture capital firm seeks an exit strategy, typically through offering sale of di business to di public inside an initial public offering(ipo).",Business study
tax planning can also be challenging for the sole proprietor.,Di sole proprietor dey challenge for di sole proprietor.,Business study
"since there is no legal distinction between the owner and the business, all the income generated by the business is treated as ordinary personal income to th e owner.",Di legal distinction wey di owner and di business dey dem take am as ordinary personal income to th e owner.,Business study
"the united states has several income tax rates depending on the type of income being taxed, and ordinary personal income typically suffers the highest rate of taxation.","Di United states don several income tax rate based on di type of income wey tax, and ordinary personal income typically suffer di highest rate of taxation.",Business study
being able to plan effectively to take advantage of lower income tax rates is very difficult for the sole proprietor.,Being able to plan effectively to take advantage of lower income tax rates na well-well difficult for di sole proprietor.,Business study
"finally, sole proprietors suffer from one hugely unattractive feature: unlimited liability.","Finally, sole proprietors suffer from one hugely unattractive feature: unlimited liability.",Business study
"since there is no difference between the owner and the business, the owner is personally liable for all the business's debts and obligations.",Di owner and di business dey personally liable for all di business's debts and obligations.,Business study
"for example, let's say that lily's landscaping runs into some financial trouble and is unable to generate planned revenue in a given month due to unexpectedly bad weather.","for example, make I say wey lily's landscaping runs enter some financial trouble plus na unable to generate planned revenue inside a given month due to unexpectedly bad weather.",Business study
"creditors ofthe business include landscaping supply stores, employees, and outside contractors such as the company that prints business cards and maintains the business website.","Di creditors of di business include landscaping supply store, employees, and outside contractors such as di company wey prints business card and maintain di business website.",Business study
"lily is personally liable to pay these bills, and if she doesn't she can be sued for breach of contract.","Di lily dey personally liable to pay dis bills, and if she no dey sued for When person no follow or break the terms of a legal agreement dem made",Business study
some proprietors are very successful and can generate many hundreds of thousands of dollars in profit every year.,Some proprietors dey very successful and get many hundreds of thousands of dollars for profit every year,Business study
unlimited liability puts all the personal assets ofthe sole proprietor reachable by creditors.,Unlimited liability puts all di personal assets of di sole proprietor reachable by creditors.,Business study
"personal homes, automobiles, boats, bank accounts, retirement accounts, and college funds all are within reach of creditors.","Di personal homes, automobiles, boats, bank accounts, retirement accounts, and college funds all dey inside reach of creditors.",Business study
"with unlimited liability, all it takes is one successful personal injury lawsuit, not covered by insurance or exceeding insurance limits, to wipe out years of hard work by an individual business owner.","With unlimited liability, all am takes na one successful personal injury lawsuit, no covered by insurance or exceeding insurance limits, to wipe comot years of hard work by an individual business owner.",Business study
"thankfully, modern business law creates real and viable alternatives for sole proprietors, as we'll discuss shortly.","Thankfully, modern business law creates real plus viable alternatives for sole proprietors, as we'll discuss shortly.",Business study
"legally, there is no difference or distinction between the owner and the business.",Nano difference or distinction between di owner and di business.,Business study
"the legal name ofthe business is the owner's name, but owners may carry on business operations under a fictitious name by filing a d. b. a.","Di legal name of di business dey di owner name, but owners go carry on business operations under fictitious name by filing d. b. a.",Business study
"sole proprietors enjoy ease of start-up, autonomy, and flexibility in managing their business operations.","Sole proprietors enjoy ease of start-up, autonomy, plus flexibility inside managing dia business operations.",Business study
"on the downside, they have to pay ordinary income tax on their business profits, cannot bring in partners, may have a hard time raising working capital, and have unlimited liability for business debts.","Di downside, dem go pay ordinary income tax on dia business profits, no bring partners, go get hard time raise work capital, and get unlimited liability for business debts.",Business study
"many household services professionals such as carpenters, plumbers, and electricians do business as sole proprietors.","Boku household services professionals such as carpenters, plumbers, plus electricians do business as sole proprietors.",Business study
"if they make a promise to their customers that their work(not the products themselves)will be free from defects for a certain period of time(i. e, a warranty), and then subsequently sell their business assets to another individual, is the buyer bound by the promises made by the seller?","If dem make promise to dia customers say dia work(not di products themselves)go free from defects for certain period of time(i. e, warranty), and then subsequently sell dia business assets to another individual, na di buyer bound by di promises make di seller?",Business study
"statutes prohibit sole proprietors from using certain words such as""company,"" ""corp.""","Statutes prohibit sole proprietors from using certain words such as""company,"" ""corp.""",Business study
"or""inc."" in their fictitious names.","Di fictitious name dey""inc"" for dia fictitious name",Business study
why do you think this rule exists?,Na why do you think dis rule exist?,Business study
"if a sole proprietor dies suddenly, what do you think happens to the business run by the sole proprietor?","Di business wey di sole proprietor dey suddenly, wetin you think to di business run by sole proprietor?",Business study
learn about how general and limited partnerships are formed.,We learn about how general and limited partnerships dey form,Business study
explore the major differences between general and limited partnerships.,Di major difference wey dey between general and limited partnerships.,Business study
understand major advantages and disadvantages to doing business as general or limited partnerships.,Understand major advantages plus disadvantages to doing business as general or limited partnerships.,Business study
"let's assume that after her first summer running lily's landscaping, lily decides that it's time to take her business to the next level.","For her first summer running lily's landscaping, lily decide say time to take her business to di next level.",Business study
"she has gathered alot of expertise in running the operations in her business, from placing orders with suppliers to scheduling workers for client projects.","She don gather expertise for running di operations for her business, from place order wit suppliers to scheduling workers for client projects.",Business study
"she realizes, however, that she's not very good at marketing or accounting, and that if her business is to grow, she needs to bring someone onboard who can create a strong brand and strategy for growth, as well as keep good records of her accounts so that she can plan for the future.","She realizes, however, say she no dey good for marketing or accounting, and say if her business dey grow, she need bring someone onboard wey fit create strong brand and strategy for growth, as well as keep good record of her account so she fit pl am for di future.",Business study
"fortunately, her good friend adam is a double major in accounting and marketing, and after a series of discussions, adam and lily decide to run lily's landscaping together.","Fortunately, im good friend adam na a double major inside accounting plus marketing, plus after a series of discussions, adam plus lily decide to run lily's landscaping together.",Business study
lily and adam have formed a general partnership.,Dem don form general partnership.,Business study
"the moment they agreed to run lily's landscaping together, and to share in the profits and losses ofthe business together, the partnership was formed.","Di moment dem agree to run lily's landscaping together, and to share in di profit and losses of di business together, di partnership dey form.",Business study
"although they formed their partnership verbally, most general partnerships are formed formally, with partners writing down their agreement in a special type of contract known as the articles of partnership.","Dem form dia partnership verbally, wit partners writing do dia agreement for special type of contract wey dey known as di article of partnership.",Business study
the articles can set forth anything the partners wish to include about how the partnership will be run.,Di article fit set forth anything di partners wish to include about how di partnership go run,Business study
"normally, all general partners have an equal voice in management, but as a creation of contract, the partners can modify this if they wish.","Di general partners don get equal voice for management, but as creation of contract, di partners go modify dis if dem wish.",Business study
"as in a sole proprietorship, there is no state involvement in creating a general partnership because there is no separation from the business and the partners they are legally the same.",Nano state involvement for creating general partnership because nano separation from di business and di partners wey dey legally di same.,Business study
general partnerships are dissolved as easily as they are formed.,Di general partnership dey dissolved as easily as dem dey form.,Business study
"since the central feature of a general partnership is an agreement to share profits and losses, once that agreement ends, the general partnership ends with it.","Di central feature of general partnership na agreement to share profit and losses, once dat agreement end, di general partnership end wit am.",Business study
"in a general partnership with more than two persons, the remaining partners can reconstitute the partnership if they wish, without the old partner.","Di remaining partners go reconstitute di partnership if dem wish, without di old partner.",Business study
a common issue that arises in this situation is how to value the withdrawing partner's share ofthe business.,Di common issue wey dey arise for dis situation na how to value di witdrawing partner's share of di business.,Business study
"in 1988 the firm tried to persuade him to withdraw as a partner, but he refused.","Di firm don try persuade him to withdraw as partner, but hin refused.",Business study
"in july 1988 the other partners in the firm voted to dissolve the partnership and then immediately re-formed again, without dawson as a partner.","Inside july 1988 di other partners inside di firm voted to dissolve di partnership plus then immediately re-formed again, without dawson as a partner.",Business study
he had effectively been fired as a partner from a general partnership.,E don effectively fire as a partner from general partnership,Business study
"dawson filed a suit against white& case for an""accounting,"" claiming that the""goodwill"" ofthe law firm should be part ofthe valuation ofthe partnership.","Dawson filed a suit against white& case for an""accounting,"" claiming wey di""goodwill"" of di law firm suppose be part of di valuation of di partnership.",Business study
the common law in new york at th e time was that professional partnerships like law firms have no goodwill.,Di common law for new york forth e time na say professional partnership like law firm don no goodwill.,Business study
"the reasoning behind the rule is that as professionals, law firm partners develop and cultivate their own goodwill with clients, and if a partner leaves the firm then the goodwill leaves with that partner.","As professionals, law firm partners develop and cultivate dia own goodwill wit clients, and if a partner leave di firm then di goodwill leaves wit dat partner.",Business study
"the new york court of appeals, in its opinion on this case, held that unless the partnership agreement states otherwise, goodwill is indeed an asset ofthe partnership and has to be distributed when the partnership is dissolved.","Di new york court of appeal, for its opinion on dis case, tok say unless di partnership agreement states odawise, goodwill dey indeed asset of di partnership and dey distributed wen di partnership dey dissolved.",Business study
a general partnership is taxed just like a sole proprietorship.,Di general partnership dey tax just like sole proprietorship.,Business study
"the partnership is considered a disregarded entity for tax purposes, so income""flows through""the business to the partners, who then pay ordinary income tax on the business income.","Di partnership dey consider disregarded entity for tax purposes, so income""flow through""di business to di partners, wey pay ordinary income tax on di business income.",Business study
"the partnership may file an information return, reporting total income and losses for the partnership, and how those profits and losses are allocated among the general partners.","Di partnership fit file information return, reporting total income and losses for di partnership, and how those profit and losses dey allocate among di general partners.",Business study
"as is the case for sole proprietors, tax planning opportunities are limited for general partners.","As na di case for sole proprietors, tax planning opportunities be limited for general partners.",Business study
general partnerships are also similar to sole proprietorships in unlimited liability.,Di general partnerships dey similar to sole proprietorships for unlimited liability,Business study
every partner in the partnership is jointly and severally liable for the partnership's debts and obligations.,Di partnership dey jointly and severally liable for di partnership's debts and obligations.,Business study
this is avery unattractive feature of general partnerships.,This na a well-well unattractive feature of general partnerships.,Business study
one partner maybe completely innocent of any wrongdoing and still be liable for another partner's malpractice or bad acts.,One partner maybe completely innocent of any wrongdoing plus still be liable for another partner's malpractice or bad acts.,Business study
"to grow the landscaping business, they want to bring in lily's wealthy uncle as a partner.","Dem want to grow di landscaping business, dem want to bring in lily's wealthy uncle as partner.",Business study
"the uncle, however, is worried about maintaining limited liability.","Di uncle, however, dey worried about maintain limited liability",Business study
"in most states, they can form alimited partnership.","For most states, dem fit form limited partnership",Business study
"a limited partnership has both general partners and limited partners. in this case, lily and adam will remain as general partners in the business, but the uncle can become a limited partner and enjoy limited liability.","Di case, lily and adam go remain as general partners for di business, but di uncle go become limited partner and enjoy limited liability",Business study
"as a limited partner, the most he can lose is the amount of his investment into the business, nothing more.","Di most he go lose na di amount of hin investment into di business, nothing more.",Business study
"limited partnerships have to be formed in compliance with state law, and limited partners are generally prohibited from participating in day- to-day management ofthe business.","Di limited partners don dey form for compliance wit state law, and limited partners dey prohibited from participating for day- today management of di business.",Business study
"a general partnership is not a separate legal entity, and partners are jointly and severally liable for the partnership's debts, including acts of malpractice by other partners.","Di general partnership no be separate legal entity, and partners dey jointly and severally liable for di partnership's debts, including acts of malpractice by oda partners.",Business study
"income from a general partnership flows through to the partners, who pay tax at the ordinary personal income tax rate.","For generation l partnership flow through to di partners, wey pay tax for di ordinary personal income tax rate.",Business study
"in most states general partners can also bring in limited partners, creating a limited partnership.","Inside most states general partners fit sef bring inside limited partners, creating a limited partnership.",Business study
limited partnerships must be formed in compliance with state statutes.,Di limited partnership must be formed for compliance wit state statutes.,Business study
limited partners enjoy limited liability but generally cannot participate in day-to-day management ofthe business.,Limited partners enjoy limited liability but generally cannot participate inside day-to-day management of di business.,Business study
john approaches his friend kevin and offers kevin 50 percent ofthe profits from his new online venture if kevin designs the website for the venture.,John approach hin friend kevin and offers kevin 50 percent of di profit from hin new online venture if kevin dey sign di website for di venture.,Business study
"kevin says nothing, and later that night begins work on the website, which he then sends to john for his approval.","kevin tok say nothing, and later dat night begin work on di website, wey he send to john for hin approval.",Business study
have john and kevin formed a general partnership?,Na john and kevin don form general partnership?,Business study
do you think it's ethical for a general partnership to fire a partner by dissolving the partnership and then re-forming without the dismissed partner?,E dey ethical for a generation l partnership to fire a partner by dissolving di partnership and then re-forming without di dismissed partner?,Business study
"do modern professional firms such as law firms or accounting firms face the same problems as white& case did in note 11. 24 ""hyperlink: a law firm partner is fired""?",Di hyperlink: law firm partner dey fire,Business study
learn about the advantages and disadvantages of corporations.,Di advantage and disadvantages of corporations,Business study
"study roles and duties of shareholders, directors, and officers in corporations.","Study roles plus duties of shareholders, directors, plus officers inside corporations.",Business study
explore issues surrounding corporate governance.,Dem explore issues wey dey surround corporate governance.,Business study
understand how corporations are taxed.,How corporations dey tax,Business study
"both these forms of business come with significant disadvantages, however, especially in the area of liability.","Di form of business kom with significant disadvantages, especially for di area of liability.",Business study
the idea that personal assets maybe placed at risk by business debts and obligations is rightfully scary to most people.,Di idea say personal assets go dey place at risk by business debts and obligations dey rightfully scary to most pipo.,Business study
businesses therefore need a form of business organization that provides limited liability to owners and is also flexible and easy to manage.,Dem need form of business organization wey dey provide limited liability to owners and dey also flexible and easy to manage,Business study
that is where the modern corporation comes in.,Di modern corporation kom for.,Business study
"as a young man, he was a college dropout without much ability for computer engineering.","As young man, hin dey college dropout without much ability for computer engineering.",Business study
"if doing business as a sole proprietor was his only option, apple would not exist today.","Di only option, apple no exist today.",Business study
"however, jobs meta talented computer engineer named steve wozniak, and the two decided to pool their talents to form apple computer in1976.","Di job dey met talented computer engineer wey named steve wozniak, and di two decide to pool dia talent to form apple computer for1976.",Business study
"a year later, the company was incorporated and in 1980 went public in an initial public offering(ipo).",Di company don incorporated and for 1980 go public for initial public offering(ipo),Business study
incorporation allowed jobs much more flexibility in carrying out business operations than a mere sole proprietorship could.,Di incorporation don allow jobs much more flexibility for carry out business operations than mere sole proprietorship could.,Business study
"it allowed him to bring in other individuals with distinct skills and capabilities, raise money in the early stage of operations by promising shares in the new company, and eventually become very wealthy by selling stock, or securities, in the company.","Am allowed him to bring inside other individuals with distinct skills plus capabilities, raise money inside di early stage of operations by promising shares inside di new company, plus eventually become well-well wealthy by selling stock, or securities, inside di company.",Business study
"as steve jobs points out in this video, great things in business are never accomplished with just one person; they are accomplished with a team of people.","As steve jobs points out for dis video, great things for business no dey accomplished wit just one person; dem dey accomplished wit team of pipo.",Business study
"while jobs may have had the vision to found apple inc. and maintains overall strategic leadership for the company, the products the company releases today are very much the result ofthe corporation, not any single individual.","Di products wey di company release today dey very much di result of di corporation, no any single individual.",Business study
"unlike a sole proprietorship or general partnership, a corporation is a separate legal entity, separate and distinct from its owners.","Di corporation dey separate legal entity, separate and distinct from dia owner.",Business study
"it can be created for a limited duration, or it can have perpetual existence.","For limited duration, or e fit get perpetual existence.",Business study
"since it is a separate legal entity, a corporation has continuity regardless of its owners.","Di separate legal entity, a corporation don continuity regardless of dia owner.",Business study
"entrepreneurs who are now dead founded many modern companies, and their companies are still thriving.","Di entrepreneurs wey dey dead found many modern companies, and dia companies dey still thriving",Business study
"similarly, in a publicly traded company, the identity of shareholders can change many times per hour, but the corporation as a separate entity is undisturbed by these changes and continues its business operations.","Di identity of shareholders don change many times per hour, but di corporation as separate entity don change many times per hour, but di corporation as separate entity dey undisturbed by dis changes and continues im business operations.",Business study
"since corporations have a separate legal existence and have many legal and constitutional rights, they must be formed in compliance with corporate law.","Di fact since corporations don separate legal existence and don get many legal and constitutional rights, dem must form for compliance wit corporate law.",Business study
"most corporations incorporate where their principal place of business is located, but not all do.","Di most corporations dey incorporate wia dia principal place of business dey located, but no all do.",Business study
"many companies choose to incorporate in the tiny state of delaware even though they have no business presence there, not even an office cubicle.","Di many companies dey choose to incorporate for di tiny state of delaware even though dem no get business presence there, no even office cubicle.",Business study
delaware chancery courts have developed a reputation for fairly and quickly applying avery well-developed body of corporate law in delaware.,Di delaware chancery court don develop reputation for fairly and quickly apply avery well-developed bodi of corporate law for delaware.,Business study
"the courts also operate without a jury, meaning that disputes heard in delaware courts are usually predictable and transparent, with well-written opinions explaining how the judges came to their conclusions.","Di court also operate without a jury, meaning say disputes wey dey hear ford elaware courts dey predictable and transparent, wit well-written opinions wey dey explain how di judges kom to dia conclusions.",Business study
these agencies are typically located within the secretary of state.,Di agency dey typically located inside di secretary of state.,Business study
click the link to explore how to fill out the forms for your state to start a company.,Click di link to explore how to fill comot di forms for your state to start a company.,Business study
"you maybe surprised at how quickly, easily, and inexpensively you can form your own company!","Easily, easily, and inexpensively you fit form your own company",Business study
don't forget that your company name must not be the same as another company's name.,Di company name no be di same asher company name.,Business study
(most states allow you to do a name search first to ensure that name is available.),Dem don allow you to do name search first to ensure say name dey available,Business study
"to start a corporation, the corporate founders must file the articles of incorporation with the state agency charged with managing business entities.","To start a corporation, di corporate founders must file di articles of incorporation with di state agency charged with managing business entities.",Business study
these articles of incorporation may vary from state to state but typically include a common set of questions.,E dey suppose vary from state to state but typically include common set of questions.,Business study
"first, the founders must state the name ofthe company and whether the company is for-profit or nonprofit.",Di founders must state di name of di company and whether di company dey for-profit or nonprofit.,Business study
"the name has to be unique and distinctive, and must typically include some form ofthe words""incorporated,"" ""company,""""corporation,"" or""limited.""","Di name don get to be unique plus distinctive, plus must typically include some form of di words""incorporated,"" ""company,""""corporation,"" or""limited.""",Business study
"the founders must state their identity, how long they wish the company to exist, and the company's purpose.","Di founders must state dia identity, how long dem wish di company to exist, and di company purpose.",Business study
"under older common law, shareholders could sue a company that conducted business beyond the scope of its articles(these actions are called ultra vires ), but most modern statutes permit the articles to simply state the corporation can carry out""any lawful actions,""effectively rendering ultra v ires lawsuits obsolete in the united states.","For older common law, shareholders could sue a company wey conduct business beyond di scope of its articles( dis actions dey call ultra v ires ), but most modern statutes allow di articles to simply state di corporation go carry out""any lawful actions, effectively rendering ultra v ires lawsuits wey dey obsolete for di united state.",Business study
"the founders must also state how many shares the corporation will issue initially, and the par value of those shares.","Di founders must sef state how boku shares di corporation go issue initially, plus di par value of those shares.",Business study
"in addition to the foundation requirements, corporate law requires ongoing annual maintenance of corporations.","Inside addition to di foundation requirements, corporate law requires ongoing annual maintenance of corporations.",Business study
a domestic corporation is entitled to operate in its state of incorporation but must register as a foreign corporation to do business out of state.,Di domestic corporation dey entitled to operate for its state of incorporation but must register as foreign corporation to do business out of state.,Business study
"imagine filing as a foreign corporation in all fifty states, and you can see why maintaining corporations can become expensive and unwieldy.",E fit see why maintaining corporations dey expensive and unwieldy.,Business study
video clip: monstrous obligations video clip: the pathology of commerce owners of companies are called shareholders.,Di pathology of commerce owners of companies dey call shareholders,Business study
"corporations can have as few as one shareholder or as many as millions of shareholders, and those shareholders can hold as few as one share or as many as millions of shares.","As corporations fit get as few as one shareholder or as many as millions of shareholders, and those shareholders fit hold as few as one share or as many as millions of shareholders, and those shareholders fit hold as few as one share or as many as millions of shareholders, and those shareholders fit hold as few as one share or as many as millions of shareholders, and those shareholders fit hold as few as one share or as many as millions of shareholders.",Business study
"in a closely held corporation, the number of shareholders tends to be small, while in a publicly traded corporation, the body of shareholders tends to be large.","Di number of shareholder dey small, while for publicly traded corporation, di bodi of shareholder dey small, while for publicly traded corporation, di bodi of shareholder dey small, while for publicly traded corporation, di bodi of shareholder dey large.",Business study
"in a publicly traded corporation, the value of a share is determined by the laws of supply and demand, with various markets or exchanges providing trading space for buyers and sellers of certain shares to be traded.","Di value of share dey determined by di laws of supply and demand, wit different market or exchange wey dey provide trading space for buyers and sellers of certain shares to trade.",Business study
it's important to note that shareholders own the share or stock in the company but have no legal right to the company's assets whatsoever.,E important to note say shareholders own di share or stock for di company but no legal right to di company's assets wey dey legal.,Business study
"as a separate legal entity, the company owns the property.","Di company own di property as separate legal entity, di company own di property",Business study
shareholders of a corporation enjoy limited liability.,Shareholders of a corporation enjoy limited liability.,Business study
"the most they can lose is the amount of their investment, whatever amount they paid for the shares ofthe company.","Di most dem lose e na di amount of dia investment, whatever amount dem pay for di shares of di company.",Business study
"if a company is unable to pay its debts or obligations, it may seek protection from creditors in bankruptcy court, in which case shareholders lose the value of their stock.","Di company dey unable to pay di debts or obligations, e go seek protection from creditors for bankruptcy court, in which case shareholders lose di value of th ear stock.",Business study
"shareholders' personal assets, however, such as their own homes or bank accounts, are not reachable by those creditors.","Di shareholders' personal assets, however, such as dia own house or bank account, no dey reachable by di creditors.",Business study
"shareholders can be human beings or can be other corporate entities, such as partnerships or corporations.","Na human beings or can be oda corporate entities, such as partnership or corporations.",Business study
"if one corporation owns all the stock of another corporation, the owner is said to be a parent company, while the company being owned is a wholly owned subsidiary.","Di owner dey tok say if one corporation own all di stock of one corporation, di owner dey tok say be parent company, while di company being owned na wholly owned subsidiary.",Business study
"many times, large corporations may form subsidiaries for specific purposes, so that the parent company can have limited liability or advantageous tax treatment.","Boku times, large corporations may form subsidiaries for specific purposes, so wey di parent company fit get limited liability or advantageous tax treatment.",Business study
"for example, large companies may form subsidiaries to hold real property so that premises liability is limited to that real estate subsidiary only, shielding the parent company and its assets from tort lawsuits.","for example, large companies go form subsidiary to hold real property so say premises liability dey limited to say real estate subsidiary only, shield di parent company and its assets from tort lawsuits.",Business study
this type of sophisticated liability and tax planning makes the corporate form very attractive for larger business in the united states.,This type of sophisticated liability plus tax planning dey make di corporate form well-well attractive for larger business in di united states.,Business study
corporate law is very flexible in the united states and can lead to creative solutions to business problems.,Di corporate law dey flexible for di united state and fit lead to creative solutions to business problems.,Business study
"take, for example, the case of general motors corporation.","Di case of general motors corporation, for example, di case of general motors corporation.",Business study
general motors corporation was a well-known american company that built a global automotive empire that reached virtually every corner ofthe world.,Di general motors corporation be well known american company wey be well known american company wey built global automotive empire wey reach virtually every corner of di world.,Business study
"in 2009 the general motors corporation faced an unprecedented threat from a collapsing auto market and a dramatic recession, and could no longer pay its suppliers and other creditors.","Inside 2009 di general motors corporation faced an unprecedented threat from a collapsing auto market plus a dramatic recession, plus fit no longer pay its suppliers plus other creditors.",Business study
the u. s. government agreed to inject funds into the operation but wanted the company to restructure its balance sheet at the same time so that those funds could one day be repaid to taxpayers.,Di u. s. government agreed to inject funds enter di operation but wanted di company to restructure its balance sheet at di same time so wey those funds fit one day be repaid to taxpayers.,Business study
"form anew company, general motors company, the""new gm.""","Form anew company, general motors company, di""new gm.""",Business study
"the old gm was brought into bankruptcy court, where a judge permitted the wholesale cancellations of many key contracts with suppliers, dealers, and employees that were costing gm alot of money.","Di old gm dey brought into bankruptcy court, wen judge permitted di wholesale cancellations of many key contract wit suppliers, dealers, and employees wey dey cost gm alot of money.",Business study
stock in the old gm became worthless.,Di old gm dey worthless.,Business study
"the old gm transferred all of gm's best assets to new gm, including the surviving brands of cadillac, chevrolet, buick, and gmc; the plants and assets those brands rely on; and the shares in domestic and foreign subsidiaries that new gm wanted to keep.","Di old gm transfer all of gm's best assets to new gm, including di surviving brands of cadillac, chevrolet, buick, and gmc; di plant and assets wey dem rely on; and di shares for domestic and foreign subsidiaries wey new gm go keep.",Business study
"old gm(subsequently renamed as""motors liquidation company"")kept all the liabilities that noone wanted, including obsolete assets such as shuttered plants, as well as unpaid claims from creditors.","Old gm(later-later renamed as""motors liquidation company"")kept all di liabilities wey noone wanted, including obsolete assets such as shuttered plants, as well as unpaid claims from creditors.",Business study
"the u. s. federal government became the majority shareholder of general motors company, and may one day recoup its investment after shares of general motors company are sold to the public.","Di u. s. federal goment be di majority shareholder of general motors company, and may one day recoup its investment afta shares of general motor company dey sold to di public.",Business study
"to the public, there is very little difference in the old and new gm.",Di public dey very little difference for di old and new gm,Business study
"from a legal perspective, however, they are totally separate and distinct from eachother.",Dem dey totally separate and distinct from each oda.,Business study
many sole proprietors incorporate their businesses to gain limited liability but fail to realize when they do so that they are creating a separate legal entity that must be respected as such.,Di sole proprietors dey corporate dia business to gain limited liability but fail to realize wen dem do so say dem dey create separate legal entity wey must be respect because of dat.,Business study
"if sole proprietors fail to respect the legal corporation with an arm's -length transaction, then creditors can ask a court to pierce the corporate veil.","If sole proprietors fail to respect di legal corporation with an arm's -length business deal, then creditors fit ask a court to pierce di corporate veil.",Business study
"if a court agrees, th en limited liability disappears and those creditors can reach the shareholder's personal assets.","If a court agrees, th en limited liability disappears plus those creditors fit reach di shareholder's personal assets.",Business study
"essentially, creditors are arguing that the corporate form is a sham to create limited liability and that the shareholder and the corporation are indistinguishable from eachother, just like a sole proprietorship.","Di creditors dey argu say di corporate form dey sham to create limited liability and say di shareholder and di corporation dey indistinguishable from each oda, just like sole proprietorship.",Business study
"for example, if a business owner incorporates the business and then opens a bank account in the business name, the funds in that account must be used for business purposes only.","for example, if business owner fit incorporate di business and then open bank account for di business name, di funds for dat account must use for business purpose only.",Business study
"if the business owner routinely ""dips into""the bank account to fund personal expenses, then an argument for piercing the corporate veil can be easily made.","Di business owner dey outinely ""dips into""di bank account to fund personal expenses, then argument for piercing di corporate veil fit make easily make.",Business study
not all shareholders in a corporation are necessarily equal.,Di shareholders for a corporation dey necessarily equal,Business study
"u. s. corporate law allows for the creation of different types, or classes, of shareholders.","U. s. corporate law allows for di creation of different types, or classes, of shareholders.",Business study
shareholders indifferent classes maybe given preferential treatment when it comes to corporate actions such as paying dividends or voting at shareholder meetings.,Di shareholders wey dey different class dey give preferential treatment wen dey kom to corporate actions such as pay dividends or voting at shareholder meetings.,Business study
"for example, founders of a corporation may reserve a special class of stock for themselves with preemptive rights.","for example, founders of a corporation may reserve a special class of stock for themselves with preemptive rights.",Business study
"these rights give the shareholders the right of first refusal if the company decides to issue more stock in the future, so that the shareholders maintain the same percentage ownership ofthe company an d thus preventing dilution of their stock.","Di rights give di shareholders di right of first refusal if di company decide to issue more stock for di future, so say di shareholders maintain di same percentage ownership of di company an d thus prevent di dilution of dia stock.",Business study
a good example of different classes of shareholders is in ford motor company stock.,Di good example of different class of shareholders dey for ford motor company stock.,Business study
"the global automaker has hundreds of thousands of shareholders, but issues two types of stock: class a for members ofthe public and class b for members ofthe ford family.","Di global automaker don hundreds of thousand shareholders, but issues two type of stock: class a for members of di public and class b for members of di ford family.",Business study
"by proportion, class b stock is far outnumbered by class a stock, representing less than 10 percent ofthe total issued stock ofthe company.","Di class b stock dey far outnumber by class b stock, represent less than 10 percent of di total issued stock of di company.",Business study
"however, class b stock is given 40 percent voting rights at any shareholder meeting, effectively allowing holders of class b stock(the ford family)to block any shareholder resolution that requires two-thirds approval to pass.","Di class b stock dey give 40 percent voting rights for any shareholder meeting, effectively allow holders of class b stock(the ford family)to block any shareholder resolution wey require two third approval to pass.",Business study
"in other words, by creating two classes of shareholders, the ford family continues to have a strong and decisive voice on the future direction ofthe company even though it is a publicly traded company.","Di ford family continue to create two class of shareholders, di ford family continue to get a strong and decisive voice on di future direction of di company even though e dey publicly trade company.",Business study
"some of these rights may include the right to obtain a dividend, but only if the board of directors approves one.","Some of dis rights don include di right to obtain dividend, but only if di board of directors don approv one.",Business study
"they may also include the right to vote in shareholder meetings, typically held annually.","Dem also include di right to vote for shareholder meetings, typically annually.",Business study
it is common in large companies with thousands of shareholders for shareholders to not attend these meetings and instead cast their votes on shareholder resolutions through the use of a proxy.,E dey common for large companies wit thousands of shareholders for shareholders to no attend these meetings and instead cast dia vote on shareholder resolution through di use of proxy.,Business study
"video clip: activist shareholders at wal-mart under most state laws, including delaware's business laws, shareholders are also given a unique right to sue a third party on behalf ofthe corporation.","Di activist shareholders for Wal-mart under most state laws, including delaware's business laws, shareholders don give unique right to sue third party on behalf of di corporation.",Business study
"this is called a shareholder derivative lawsuit(so called because the shareholder issuing on behalf ofthe corporation, having ""derived""that right by virtue of being a shareholder).","Dem call shareholder derivative lawsuit(so called because di shareholder dey suing on behalf of di corporation, having ""derived""dat right by virtue of being shareholder).",Business study
"in essence, a shareholder is alleging in ad erivative lawsuit that the people who are ordinarily charged with acting in the corporation's best interests(the officers and directors)are failing to do so, and therefore the shareholder must step into protect the corporation.","Di shareholder dey allege ford erivative lawsuit say di pipo wey dey charge wit acting for di corporation best interest(the officers and directors)dey fail to do so, and therefore di shareholder must step into protect di corporation",Business study
these lawsuits are very controversial because they are typically litigated by plaintiffs' lawyers working on contingency fees and can be very expensive for the corporation to litigate.,Di lawsuits dey very controversial because dem dey typically litigated by plaintiffs' lawyers wey dey work on contingency fees and dey expensive for di corporation to litigate.,Business study
"executives also disfavor them because oftentimes, shareholders sue the corporate officers or directors themselves for failing to actin the company's best interest.","Di executives also disfavor dem because oftentimes, shareholders dey sue di corporate officer or directors themselves for failing to act for di company best interest.",Business study
one ofthe most important functions for shareholders is to elect the board of directors for a corporation.,One of di most important functions for shareholders dey to elect di board of directors for corporation.,Business study
shareholders always elect a director; there is no other way to become a director.,Di shareholders no dey elect director; na no oda way to become director,Business study
"the board is responsible for making major decisions that affect a corporation, such as declaring and paying a corporate dividend to shareholders; authorizing major new decisions such as anew plant or factory or entry into anew foreign market; appointing and removing corporate officers; determining employee compensation, especially bonus and incentive plans; and issuing new shares and corporate bonds.","Di board dey responsible for make major decisions wey affect corporation, such as declaring and pay corporate dividend to shareholders; determining employee compensation, especially bonus and incentive plans; and issuing new shares and corporate bonds.",Business study
"since the board doesn't meet that often, the board can delegate these tasks to committees, which then report to the board during board meetings.","Di board no meet often, di board go delegate dis tasks to committees, wey dey port to di board during board meetings.",Business study
"shareholders can elect anyone they want to aboard of directors, up to the number of authorized board members asset forth in the corporate documents.","Di shareholders don elect anyone wey dey want to board of directors, up to di number of authorized board members asset forth for di corporate documents.",Business study
"outside board members can be drawn from other private companies(but not competitors), former government officials, or academe.","Di outside board members dey draw from oda private companies(but no competetors), former government officials, or academe.",Business study
"it's not unusual for the chief executive officer(ceo) ofthe company to also serve as chair ofthe board of directors, although the recent trend has been toward appointing different persons to these functions.","Di recent trend no dey unusual for di chief executive officer(ceo) of di company to serve as chair of di board of directors, although di recent trend don dey toward appoint different persons to dis functions.",Business study
"many shareholders now actively vie for atleast one board seat to represent the interests of shareholders, and some corporations with large labor forces reserve aboard seat for a union representative.","Boku shareholders now actively vie for atleast one board seat to represent di interests of shareholders, plus some corporations with large labor forces reserve aboard seat for a union representative.",Business study
board members are given wide latitude to make business decisions that they believe are in the best interest ofthe company.,Di board members dey give wide latitude to make business decisions wey dem believe na di best interest of di company.,Business study
"under the business judgment rule, board members are generally immune from second -guessing for their decisions as long as they actin good faith and in the corporation's best interests.","Di business judgment rule, board members dey immune from second -guessing for dia decision as long as dem act for good faith and for di corporation best interests.",Business study
"board members owe a fiduciary duty to the corporation and its shareholders, and therefore are presumed to be using their best business judgment when making decisions for the company.","Di board members dey owe fiduciary duty to di corporation and its shareholders, and e dey presumed to use dia best business judgment wey dem dey make decision for di company.",Business study
"shareholders in derivative litigation can overcome the business judgment rule, however.","Shareholders inside derivative to drag matter for kot fit overcome di business judgment rule, however.",Business study
another fallout from recent corporate scandals has been increased attention to board members and holding them accountable for actually managing the corporation.,Di fallout from recent corporate scandals don dey increased attention to board members and holding dem accountable for actually managing di corporation.,Business study
"for example, when worldcom fell into bankruptcy as a result of profligate spending by its chief executive, board members were accused of negligently allowing the ceo to plunder corporate funds.","for example, when worldcom fell enter bankruptcy because of profligate spending by its chief executive, board members bin be accused of negligently allowing di ceo to plunder corporate funds.",Business study
"corporations pay for insurance fo r board members(known asd&o insurance, for directors and officers), but in some cases d&o insurance doesn't apply, leaving board members to pay directly out of their own pockets when they are sued.","Di corporations pay for insurance fo r board members(known asd&o insurance, for directors and officers), but for some case d&o insurance no fit apply, leaving board members to pay directly out of dia own pockets wen dem dey sued.",Business study
in 2005 ten former outside directors for worldcom agreed to pay$18 million out of their own pockets to settle shareholder lawsuits.,Inside 2005 ten former outside directors for worldcom agreed to pay$18 million comot of dia own pockets to settle shareholder lawsuits.,Business study
one critical function for boards of directors is to appoint corporate officers.,One critical function for boards of directors nato appoint corporate officers.,Business study
"these officers are also known as""c -level""executives and typically hold titles such as chief executive officer, chief operating officer, chief of staff, chief marketing officer, and soon.","Di officers dey also known as""c -level""executives and typically hold titles such as chief executive officer, chief operating officer, chief of staff, chief marketing officer, chief marketing officer, chief marketing officer, chief marketing officer, and soon.",Business study
officers are involved in everyday decision making for the company and implementing the board's strategy into action.,"Di officers dey involved for everyday Di proses to chuze di best tin to do, as dem don gada tori and sabi wetin dey suppose do, den dem go yuz am take decide for di company and implement di board's strategy into action",Business study
"officers are employees ofthe company and work full-time for the company, but can be removed by the board, typically without cause.","Di officers dey employees of di company and work full time for di company, but dey remove di board, typically without cause.",Business study
"in addition to being somewhat cumbersome to manage, corporations possess one very unattractive feature for business owners: double taxation.",Dem possess one very unattractive feature for business owner: double taxation.,Business study
"since corporations are separate legal entities, taxing authorities consider them as taxable persons, just like ordinary human beings.","Since corporations be separate legal entities, taxing authorities consider dem as taxable persons, just like ordinary human beings.",Business study
"a corporation doesn't have a social security number, but it does have an employer identification numbers(ein), which serves the same purpose of identifying the company to tax authorities.","Di corporation no get A special number wey US government give to every person for identification and tax purposes, but e no get A special number wey US government give to every person for identification and tax purposes, but e no get employer identification number(ein) wey dey serve di same purpose of identifying di company to tax authorities.",Business study
"as a separate legal entity, corporations must pay federal, state, and local tax on net income(although the effective tax rate for most u. s. corporations is much lower than the top 35 percent income tax rate).","As a separate legal entity, corporations must pay federal, state, plus local tax on net income(although di effective tax rate for most u. s. corporations na well-well lower than di top 35 percent income tax rate).",Business study
"that same pile of profit is then subject to tax again when it is returned to shareholders as a dividend, in the form ofa dividend tax.","Wey same pile of profit na then subject to tax again when am na returned to shareholders as a dividend, inside di form ofa dividend tax.",Business study
one way for closely held corporations(such as small family-run businesses)to avoid the double taxation feature is to elect to be treated as an s corporation.,Na one way for closely hold corporations(such as small family-run business)to avoid di double taxation feature nato elect to be a corporation.,Business study
"in other words, it is taxed only once, at the shareholder level when a dividend is declared, and not at the corporate level.","E dey tax only once, for di shareholder level wen dividend dey declared, and no for di corporate level",Business study
shareholders then pay personal income tax when they receive their share ofthe corporate profits.,Dem pay personal income tax wen dem receive di ir share of di corporate profits.,Business study
an s corporation is formed and treated just like any other corporation; the only difference is in tax treatment.,Di only difference na tax treatment.,Business study
s corporations provide the limited liability feature of corporations but the single-level taxation benefits of sole proprietorships by not paying any corporate taxes.,S corporations provide di limited liability feature of corporations but di single-level taxation benefits of sole proprietorships by no paying any corporate taxes.,Business study
"there are some important restrictions on s corporations, however.","There be some important restrictions on s corporations, however.",Business study
"they cannot have more than one hundred shareholders, all of whom must be u. s. citizens or resident aliens; can have only one class of stock; and cannot be members of an affiliated group of companies.","Dem no get more than one hundred shareholders, all of whom no be u. s. citizens or resident aliens; no be members of affiliate group of companies.",Business study
"these restrictions ensure that""s"" tax treatment is reserved only for small businesses.","Di restrictions ensure say""s"" tax treatment dey reserved only for small businesses.",Business study
owners of corporations are known as shareholders and can range from a few in closely held corporations to millions in publicly held corporations.,Di owners of corporations dey known as shareholders and dey range from few for closely held corporations to millions for publicly held corporations.,Business study
"shareholders of corporations have limited liability, but most are subject to double taxation of corporate profits.","Di shareholders of corporation don limited liability, but most dey subject to double taxation of corporate profits.",Business study
certain small businesses can avoid double taxation by electing to be treated as s corporations under the tax laws.,For certain small business go dey avoid double taxation by electing to be corporations under di tax laws.,Business study
"shareholders elect aboard of directors, who in turn appoint corporate officers to manage the company.","Di shareholders delect board of directors, wey for turn appoint corporate officers to manage di company.",Business study
"henry ford(ford motor company), ray croc (mcdonald's), and levi strauss (levi's) were all entrepreneurs who decided to incorporate their businesses and in doing so created long-lasting legacies that outlive them.","Hinry ford(ford motor company), ray croc (mcdonald's), and levi strauss (levi's) dey all entrepreneurs wey decide to incorporate dia business and indo so created long lasting legacies wey dey outlive dem.",Business study
why do you think these entrepreneurs were motivated to incorporate when incorporation meant giving up control of their companies?,Di entrepreneur dey motivate to incorporate when incorporation meant give up control of dia companies?,Business study
some corporations are created for just a limited time.,Dem create some corporations for just limited time.,Business study
can you think of any strategic reasons why founders would create a corporation for just a limited time?,Fit you think of any strategic reasons why founders go create a corporation for just a limited time?,Business study
recently some companies have come under fire for moving their corporate headquarters out ofthe country to tax havens such as bermuda or barbados.,Dem don come under fire for moving dia corporate headquarters out of di kontri to tax havens such as bermuda or barbados.,Business study
"which duty do you believe is higher, the duty of corporations to pay tax to government or the duty of corporations to pay dividends to shareholders?","Wey duty do you believe na higher, di duty of corporations to pay tax to government or di duty of corporations to pay dividends to shareholders?",Business study
"some critics believe that the corporate tax code is a form of welfare, since many u. s. corporations make billions of dollars and don't pay any tax.","Di corporate tax code dey form of welfare, since many corporations make billions of dollars and don pay any tax.",Business study
do you believe this criticism is fair?,Di criticism dey fair?,Business study
it is very easy to start a corporation in the united states.,E dey easy to start corporation wey dey united states.,Business study
take a look at how easy it is to start a corporation in china or india.,Na take a make we look how easy it dey start corporation for china or india.,Business study
do you believe there is a link between ease of starting businesses and overall economic efficiency?,Di link wey dey between ease of start business and overall economic efficiency?,Business study
do you agree with filmmaker achbar that a corporation might be psychopathic?,Dem agree wit filmmaker achbar say corporation go be psychopathic?,Business study
what do you think the ethical obligations of corporations are?,Di ethical obligations of corporations dey?,Business study
learn about the development of limited liability entities.,Learn about di development of limited liability entities.,Business study
explore how limited liability entities are created.,We explore how limited liability entities dey create,Business study
understand why limited liability entities are now heavily favored.,E dey understand say limited liability entities dey now heavily favored.,Business study
"by now you should understand how easy yet dangerous it is to do business as a sole proprietor, and why many business organizations are drawn to the corporation as a form for doing business.","E go understand how easy yet dangerous e dey to do business as sole proprietor, and how many business organizations dey draw to di corporation as form for do business.",Business study
"as flexible as the corporation is, however, it is probably best suited for larger businesses.","Di corporation dey flexible as di corporation dey, however, e dey probably best suite for small business",Business study
"annual meeting requirements, the need for directors and officers, and the unattractive taxation features make corporations unwieldy and expensive for smaller businesses.","Annual meeting requirements, di need for directors plus officers, plus di unattractive taxation features make corporations unwieldy plus expensive for smaller businesses.",Business study
"a form of business organization that provides the ease and simplicity of sole proprietorships, but the limited liability of corporations, would be much better suited for a wide range of business operations.","Di form of business organization wey provide di ease and simplicity of sole proprietorships, but di limited liability of corporations, go be much better suite for wide range of business operations.",Business study
a limited liability company(llc) is a good solution to this problem.,A limited liability company(llc) dey good solution to dis problem.,Business study
"llcs area ""hybrid""form of business organization that offer the limited liability feature of corporations but the tax benefits of partnerships.",Di hybrid form of business organization wey offer di limited liability feature of corporation but di tax benefits of partnerships.,Business study
owners of llcs are called members.,Di owner of llcs dey call members,Business study
"just like a sole proprietorship, it is possible to create an llc with only one member.",Di sole proprietorship dey suppose create llc wit only one member,Business study
"llc members can be real persons or they can be other llcs, corporations, or partnerships.","Di llc members fit be real person or dem fit be oda llcs, corporations, or partnerships.",Business study
"compared to limited partnerships, llc members can participate in day-to-day management ofthe business.","E compare to limited partnerships, llc members go participate for day-to-day management of di business.",Business study
"compared to s corporations, llc members can be other corporations or partnerships, are not restricted in number, and maybe residents of other countries.","Dem compare to s corporations, llc members fit be oda corporation or partnerships, no dey restrict for number, and residents of oda kontri.",Business study
taxation of llcs is very flexible.,E dey flexible.,Business study
"essentially, every tax year the llc can choose how it wishes to be taxed.",Di llc go choose how im wish to tax,Business study
"it may want to be taxed as a corporation, for example, and pay corporate income tax on net income.","Am may want to be taxed as a corporation, for example, plus pay corporate income tax on net income.",Business study
"or it may choose instead to have income""flow through""the corporate form to the member- shareholders, who then pay personal income tax just as in a partnership.","Di member- shareholders, wey dey pay personal income tax just as for partnership.",Business study
sophisticated tax planning becomes possible with llcs because tax treatment can vary by year.,Di sophisticated tax plan dey possible wit llcs because tax treatment dey vary by year.,Business study
"llcs are formed by filing the articles of organization with the state agency charged with chartering business entities, typically the secretary of state.","Di llcs dey form by filing di article of organization wit di state agency charge wit chartering business entities, typically di secretary of state.",Business study
"in fact, you might be startled at how easy it is to start an llc; typical llc statutes require only the name ofthe llc and the contact information for the llc's legal agent(in case someone decides to file a lawsuit against the llc).",Di llc statutes require only di name of di llc and di contact information for di llc legal agent(in case someone decide to file lawsuit against di llc),Business study
"in most states, forming an llc can be done by any competent business professional without any legal assistance, for minimal time and cost.","Inside most states, forming an llc fit be done by any competent business professional without any legal assistance, for minimal time plus cost.",Business study
"unlike corporations, there is no requirement for an llc to issue stock certificates, maintain annual filings, elect aboard of directors, hold shareholder meetings, appoint officers, or engage in any regular maintenance ofthe entity.","Unlike corporations, there nano requirement for an llc to issue stock certificates, maintain annual filings, elect aboard of directors, hold shareholder meetings, appoint officers, or engage inside any regular maintenance of di entity.",Business study
"most states require llcs to have the letters""llc"" or words""limited liability company""in the official business name.","Dem require llcs to get di letter""llc"" or words""limited liability company""for di official business name.",Business study
"ofcourse, llcs can also filed. b. a.",Di llcs go filed. b. a,Business study
filings to assume another name.,Filings to assume another name.,Business study
"although the articles of organization are all that is necessary to start an llc, it is advisable for the llc members to enter into a written llc operating agreement.","Di article of organization dey all wey dey necessary to start llc, e dey advisable for di llc members to enter into written llc operating agreement.",Business study
the operating agreement typically sets forth how the business will be managed and operated.,Di operating agreement typically sets forth how di business go be managed plus operated.,Business study
it may also contain a buy/sell agreement just like a partnership agreement.,Di partnership agreement don also contain buy sell agreement just like partnership agreement,Business study
"the operating agreement allows members to run their llcs anyway they wish to, but it can also be a trap f or the unwary.","Di operating agreement don allow members to run dia llc anyway dem wish to, but e fit also be trap f or di unwary.",Business study
"llc law is relatively new compared to corporation law, so the absence of an operating agreement can make it very difficult to resolve disputes among members.",Di absence of operating agreement don make e difficult to resolve disputes among members.,Business study
llcs are not without disadvantages.,Di llcs no dey without disadvantages,Business study
"since they area separate legal entity from their members, members must take care to interact with llcs at arm's length, because the risk of piercing the veil exists with llcs as much as it does with corporations.","Dem dey separate legal entity from di ir members, members must take care to interact wit llcs for arm's length, because di risk of piercing di veil exist wit llcs as much as dem does wit corporations.",Business study
"fundraising for an llc can be as difficult as it is for a sole proprietorship, especially in the early stages of an llc's business operations.","E dey difficult as e dey for sole proprietorship, especially for di early stage of an llc business operations.",Business study
most lenders require llc members to personally guarantee any loans the llc may take out.,Most lenders require llc members to personally guarantee any loans di llc may take comot.,Business study
"finally, llcs are not the right form for taking a company public and selling stock.","Finally, llcs be no di right form for taking a company public plus selling stock.",Business study
"fortunately, it is not difficult to convert an llc into a corporation, so many start-up business begin as llcs and eventually convert into corporations prior to their initial public offering(ipo).","Fortunately, am nano difficult to convert an llc enter a corporation, so boku start-up business begin as llcs plus eventually convert enter corporations prior to dia initial public offering(ipo).",Business study
"a related entity to the llc is the limited liability partnership, or llp.","A related entity to di llc na di limited liability partnership, or llp.",Business study
be careful no t to confuse limited liability partnerships with limited partnerships.,Dem careful no t to confuse limited liability partnership wit limited partnerships wit limited partnerships.,Business study
llps are just like llcs but are designed for professionals who do business as partners.,Di llps dey just like llps but dey design for professionals wey dey do business as partners,Business study
"llps are especially popular with doctors, architects, accountants, and lawyers.","E dey popular wit doctors, architects, accountants, and lawyers.",Business study
most ofthe major accounting firms have now converted their corporate forms into llps.,Di major accounting firms don convert dia corporate form into llps,Business study
"it allows owners, called members, to have limited liability just like corporations.","Dem allow owners, called members, to get limited liability just like corporations.",Business study
"unlike corporations, however, llcs can avoid double taxation by choosing to be taxed like a partnership or sole proprietorship.","Unlike corporations, however, llcs fit avoid double taxation by choosing to be taxed like a partnership or sole proprietorship.",Business study
"unless a business wishes to become publicly traded on a stock exchange, the llc is probably the most flexible, most affordable, and most compatible form for doing business today.","Di llc dey probably di most flexible, most affordable form for do business today.",Business study
"the limited liability partnership(llp) is similar to the llc, except it is designed for professionals such as accountants or lawyers who do business as partners.","Di limited liability partnership(llp) dey similar to di llc, except e dey design for professionals such as accountants or lawyers wey dey do business as partners.",Business study
most small businesses in the united states are still run as sole proprietorships.,Dem still run as sole proprietorships.,Business study
why do you think these businesses have not converted to the llc form?,Di business no convert to di llc form?,Business study
take a look at some ofthe brands and businesses you are most familiar with.,Di brands and business wey dey familiar wit.,Business study
how many of them do business as an llc?,How many of dem do business as llc?,Business study
"private enterprise and the profit motive allow innovation and entrepreneurship to flourish, leading to prosperity and peace.","Private enterprise plus di profit motive allow innovation plus entrepreneurship to flourish, leading to prosperity plus peace.",Business study
underlying the strength of american business enterprises is a flexible and easy-to-manage legal system that allows business owners many options in choosing how to organize their operations.,Di strength of american business enterprises dey flexible and easy-to-manage legal system wey allow business owners many options for choosing how to organize dia operations.,Business study
"the sole proprietorship, which provides autonomy and ease in creation, is a dangerous form to do business because of unlimited liability.","Di sole proprietorship, wey provide autonomy and ease for creation, dey dangerous form to do business because of unlimited liability.",Business study
the general partnership allows business partners to do business together but similarly carries unlimited liability.,Di general partnership don allow business partners to do business together but similarly carry unlimited liability.,Business study
"the corporation provides limited liability for its owners but can be unwieldy and cumbersome to manage, with numerous technical requirements in creation and ongoing management.","Di corporation provides limited liability for its owners but fit be unwieldy plus cumbersome to manage, with numerous technical requirements inside creation plus ongoing management.",Business study
"limited liability entities, such as the limited liability company and limited liability partnership, provide the most flexible choice for doing business, multiple options for tax planning, and limited liability for owners.","Limited liability entities, such as di limited liability company plus limited liability partnership, provide di most flexible choice for doing business, multiple options for tax planning, plus limited liability for owners.",Business study
"in the workplace, however, systematic discrimination continues to take its toll on many.","Inside di workplace, however, systematic discrimination continues to take its toll on boku.",Business study
what are the various civil rights statutes that govern employment discrimination?,Di various civil rights statutes wey govern employment discrimination?,Business study
what legal theories govern recovery discrimination lawsuits?,What legal theories govern recovery discrimination lawsuits?,Business study
how can businesses steer clear of liability for discrimination?,How fit businesses steer clear of liability for discrimination?,Business study
"the columbus, ohio based company generates nearly$2 billion in sales annually by selling clothes in retail locations throughout north america, europe, and asia.","Di columbus, ohio based company generates nearly$2 billion inside sales annually by selling clothes inside retail locations throughout north america, europe, plus asia.",Business study
"as the billboards uggests, a&f's marketing concept(which it calls""casual luxury"")is based heavily on portraying a certain image.","Di billboards uggests, a&f marketing concept (wey dey call""casual luxury"")dey based heavily on portray certain image.",Business study
how would you characterize that image?,Howe characterize say image?,Business study
"if you used adjectives like athletic, young, all-american, sexy, or attractive, you would be correctly identifying the company's strategy.","If you used adjectives like athletic, young, all-american, sexy, or attractive, you go be correctly identifying di company's strategy.",Business study
the strategy works as it has helped the company generate hundreds of millions in profits for its shareholders.,Di strategy works as e don help di company generate billions of millions for profits for its shareholders.,Business study
"a&f relies on a message that boils down to convincing its young consumers that by wearing a&f clothing, they will also be young, athletic, and attractive.","Di&f relies on message wey boils down to convincing its young consumers say by wear a&f clothing, dem go also be young, athletic, and attractive.",Business study
"if consumers don't believe that message, they will likely abandon the brand for another in this hugely competitive segment.","If consumers don believe say message, dem go abandon di brand for another for dis hugely competitive segment.",Business study
"to maintain the authenticity of that marketing message, a&f rigorously hires only models that fit a certain image in print and web advertising.","Di authenticity of dat marketing message, a&f rigorously hires only models wey fit certain image for print and web advertising.",Business study
"it extends this practice to store workers so that anytime a customer interacts with a&f, that brand image is reinforced.","E extend dis practice to store workers so say anytime a customer interact wit a&f, dat brand image dey reinforced.",Business study
"is it illegal for a&f to hire only""attractive"" people to workin its stores?","Na am illegal for a&f to hire only""attractive"" pipo to work inside its stores?",Business study
"the answer is no, just as it's not illegal for vogue magazine to hire only attractive models, or for a cosmetics company to hire only salespeople with clear skin.","Di answer nano, just as am's no illegal for vogue magazine to hire only attractive models, or for a cosmetics company to hire only salespipo with clear skin.",Business study
"under the employment-at-will doctrine, workers in the united states are free to work for whomever they want to(or not work at all), and employers are free to hire whomever they want to, and fire them at will.","Di employment-at-will doctrine, workers for di united state dey free to work for whomever dem want to(or no work for all), and employers dey free to hire whomever dem want to(or no work for all), and employers dey free to hire whomever dem want to, and fire dem at will.",Business study
the vast majority of workers in the united states are covered by the at-will doctrine.,Di most part of workers for di united state dey covered by di at-will doctrine.,Business study
"if you came into work with green hair, you could be fired.","If you came inside to work with green hair, you could be fired.",Business study
"if you came into work with a visible body piercing or tattoo, you could be fired.","If you dey work wit visible bodi piercing or tattoo, you go fire.",Business study
"if you get into an argument with your boss about whether baseball or basketball is a better sport, you could get fired.","If you go get into argument wit your boss about baseball or basketball dey better sport, you go get fire.",Business study
"companies can fire workers for smoking cigarettes, even at home.","Di company don fire workers for smoking cigarettes, even for home",Business study
"companies can fire employees who say anything disparaging or negative about their bosses or the company, even on a private facebook page.","Di companies go fire employees wey say anything disparaging or negative about dia bosses or di company, even on private facebook page.",Business study
"narrow exceptions lie in the law, such as a company that enters into a written contract to hir ea worker for a specified period of time.","Di narrow exception lie for di law, such as company wey enter into written contract to hire worker for specified period of time.",Business study
"(even then, many employment contracts specify at-will status for the worker.)","(sef then, boku employment contracts specify at-go status for di worker.)",Business study
"a problem arises, however, if""all -american casual luxury""starts to suspiciously become another way to say""all -white.""","A problem arises, however, if""all -american casual luxury""starts to suspiciously become another way to say""all -white.""",Business study
"many of a&f's competitors, such as gap, aeropostale, american eagle, and j.","Boku of a&f's competitors, such as gap, aeropostale, american eagle, plus j.",Business study
"crew, market their clothes on a similar""all -american""theme, but their models and store workers tend to look more diverse than those ata&f.","Crew, market dia clothes on a similar""all -american""theme, but dia models plus store workers tend to look more diverse than those ata&f.",Business study
"if a&f is using its""beautiful people only""marketing to hide a more sinister plan to discriminate against racial minorities, then a&f is breaking the law.","Asa&f dey use di""beautiful pipo only""marketing to hide more sinister plan to discriminate against racial minorities, then a&f dey eaking di law.",Business study
the company paid$50 million to settle the claim and hired a vice president for diversity.,Di company paid$50 million to settle di claim plus hired a vice president for diversity.,Business study
"discrimination, then, is not always illegal.",Nano always illegal.,Business study
a&f can discriminate against ugly people and vogue can discriminate against fat people.,Di&f don discriminate against ugly pipo and vogue fit discriminate against fat pipo.,Business study
when is discrimination illegal?,For wen dey discrimination illegal?,Business study
under what circumstances can employers draw lines of classification within the general population?,Dem draw lines of classification within di general population?,Business study
when does a person fall into a protected class that the law recognizes?,For wen a person fall into protected class wey di law recognize?,Business study
what must a disappointed worker be able to prove to demonstrate illegal discrimination?,What must a disappointed worker be able to prove to demonstrate illegal discrimination?,Business study
"key takeaways workers in the united states are hired and fired at will, meaning they can be hired or fired for any reason and at anytime.","Di Tori wey dey important pass, wey person go sabi after dem don read or hear sometin wey dey workers for di united state dey hired and fire for any reason and at anytime.",Business study
workers in a protected class maybe protected if they can demonstrate that they were discriminated against because they were members of a protected class.,Di workers wey dey protected class dey protected if dem fit demonstrate that dem discriminate against because dem dey members of protected class.,Business study
learn about the history ofthe civil rights act.,Di history of di civil rights act,Business study
understand who has to comply with the civil rights act.,Di civil rights act dey understand say we go comply wit di civil rights act,Business study
explore what employment practices are protected by the civil rights act.,Di civil rights act dey explore how employment practices dey protected by di civil rights act.,Business study
study the procedures involved with the equal employment opportunity commission.,Di procedures wey dey involved wit di equal employment opportunity commission.,Business study
he used the occasion to rail against continued discrimination against african americans a century after the civil war.,E used di occasion to rail against continued discrimination against african americans a century after di Armed fighting wey happen inside one country between different groups of its own pipo.,Business study
"""next week i shall ask the congress to act, to make a commitment it has not fully made in this century to the proposition that race has no place in american life or law. i am asking congress to enact legislation giving all americans the right to be served in facilities which are open to the public hotels, restaurants, retail stores, and similar establishments.","Di next week i go ask di congress to act, make a commitment wey no fit make for dis century to di proposition say race no dey place for american life or law.",Business study
this seems tome to bean elementary right.,This seems tome to bean elementary right.,Business study
"its denial is an arbitrary indignity that no american in 1963 should have to endure, but many do.""","Di denial na arbitrary indignity wey no american for 1963 go endure, but many do",Business study
"you can listen to the entire speech, and read the transcript ofthe speech, through the hyperlink.","We go listen to di entire speech, and read di transcript of di speech, through di hyperlink",Business study
in 1963 president kennedy called for the passage of a sweeping civil rights bill in response to intransigent racial segregation.,Dem call for di passage of sweeping civil rights bill for response to intransigent racial segregation.,Business study
"th e bill was vehemently opposed by many in congress, including avowed segregationists who saw the bill as an intrusion on states' rights.","Di bill dey vehemently oppose by many for congress, including avowed segregationists wey saw di bill as a intrusion on states' rights.",Business study
"kennedy was assassinated before he could see the bill passed into law, but his successor president johnson carried kennedy's wish forward through aggressive lobbying of congress to pass the bill.","Di successor president johnson carried kennedy before hin go see di bill pass into law, but hin successor president johnson carried kennedy wish forward through aggressive lobbying of congress to pass di bill.",Business study
"at its core, the bill was designed to integrate african americans into the mainstream of american society.",Di bill dey design to integrate african americans into di mainstream of american society.,Business study
"the bill has several provisions, but the most important for businesses is known widely as""title vii.""","Di bill don several provisions, but di most important for business dey known widely as""title vii""",Business study
it applies to employers with more than fifteen employees.,Am applies to employers with more than fifteen employees.,Business study
"it eliminates job discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, national origin.","Am eliminates job discrimination on di basis of race, color, religion, sex, national origin.",Business study
any act of discrimination on any of these bases is illegal.,Di act of discrimination on any of dis bases dey illegal.,Business study
"these acts maybe a refusal to hire, a discharge or termination, a temporary layoff or retrenchment, compensation, an opportunity for advancement, or any other term or condition of employment.","These acts maybe a refusal to hire, a to free person from duty or termination, a temporary layoff or to sack workers or reduce business, compensation, an opportunity for advancement, or any other term or condition of employment.",Business study
"for example, employers are not permitted to maintain all-white or all-black work crews even if they can demonstrate that doing so is good for business or morale.","for example, employers no dey permitted to maintain all-white or all-black work crews even if dem dey demonstrate say do so dey good for business or moral.",Business study
"title vii also prohibits acts of retaliation against anyone who complains about, or participates in, any employment discrimination complaint.","Dem prohibit acts of retaliation against anyone wey complain about, or participate for, any employment discrimination complaint.",Business study
"employers need to be very careful about this provision, because while the employer maybe innocent ofthe first charge of discrimination, taking any subsequent action after an employee has complained can be a separate charge of discrimination.","Di employer need to dey careful about dis provision, because while di employer dey innocent of di first charge of discrimination, take any subsequent action afta a employee don complain, taking any subsequent action afta a employee don complain separate charge of discrimination.",Business study
"once an employee has made a complaint of discrimination, it is very important that the employer not alter any condition of his or her employment until the complaint has been resolved.",Di employer no change any condition of hin or her employment until di complaint don resolve.,Business study
"the law does, however, allow discrimination on religion, sex, and national origin if there is a bona fide occupational qualification (bfoq) reasonably necessary for normal business operations.","Di law does, however, allow discrimination on religion, sex, plus national origin if there na a bona fide occupational qualification (bfoq) reasonably necessary for normal business operations.",Business study
"for example, a jewish synagogue may restrict hiring of rabbis to jewish people only, and a catholic church can restrict hiring priests to catholic men only.","Di Jewish synagogue go restrict hiring of rabbis to jewish pipo only, and Catholic church go restrict hiring of rabbis to jewish pipo only, and Catholic church go restrict hiring priests to catholic men only.",Business study
a nursing home that caters exclusively to elderly women and is hiring personal assistants to help the patients with personal hygiene and dressing may restrict hiring to women only as a bfoq.,Di nursing home wey dey cater exclusively to elderly women and dey hiring personal assistants to help di patients wit personal hygiene and dressing go restrict hiring to women only as bfoq.,Business study
a movie producer can legally discriminate between men and women when casting for certain roles such as a woman to play bella and a man to play edward in the popular twilight series.,A movie producer fit legally discriminate between men plus women when casting for certain roles such as a woman to play bella plus a man to play edward inside di popular twilight series.,Business study
"since bfoq discrimination extends to national origin, a play producer casting for a role that specifically calls for a filipino can legally restrict hiring to filipinos only.","Na since bfoq discrimination extend to national origin, play producer casting for role wey specifically call for a filipino only.",Business study
a gentlemen's club can hire women only as a bfoq.,Di gentlemen's club fit hire women only as bfoq,Business study
managers should be very careful in applying bfoq discrimination.,Dem dey careful for applying bfoq discrimination.,Business study
it is an exception that is very much based on individual cases and subject to strict interpretation.,Di exception wey dey very much based on individual case and subject to strict interpretation.,Business study
"the bfoq must be directly related to an essential job function to be""bona fide.""","Di bfoq must be directly related to an essential job function to be""bona fide.""",Business study
customer preference is not a basis for bfoq.,E no dey basis for bfoq,Business study
"for example, a taxi company cannot refuse to hire women as taxi drivers even if the company claims that customers overwhelmingly prefer male drivers, and airlines cannot refuse to hire men even if surveys show customers prefer female flight attendants.","Di taxi company no refuse to hire women as taxi driver even if di company claim say customers overwhelmingly prefer male driver, and airlines no refuse to hire men even if survey show customers prefer male flight attendants.",Business study
men are hired for other roles such as kitchen staff and hosts.,Di men dey hir for oda role such as kitchen staff and host.,Business study
in 1997 a group of men sued hooters for sex discrimination.,Di group of men dey sued hooters for sex discrimination.,Business study
"without admitting any wrongdoing, hooters settled the claim.","Di claim no dey admit any wrongdoing, hooters settled di claim.",Business study
hooters says that its policy of hiring only women to act as servers is a bona fide occupational qualification.,Hooters says wey its policy of hiring only women to act as servers na a bona fide occupational qualification.,Business study
what do you think?,We dey think?,Business study
hooters has also been accused by women's groups of only hiring women who fit a certain profile that discriminates against anyone who management deems to be unattractive or overweight.,Dem accuse women groups of only hiring women wey fit certain profile wey dey discriminate against anyone wey management dey unattractive or overweight.,Business study
do you believe hooters should be able to take these factors into account when making hiring decisions?,Di believe hooters dey able to take these factors into account wen dem make hiring decisions?,Business study
note that race and color are not on the list of acceptable bfoqs.,Di note say race and color no dey on di list of acceptable bfoqs,Business study
"this means that in passing the law, congress made a determination that there is no job in the united states where race or color is a bona fide occupational qualification.","Di means say for pass di law, congress make determination say no job for di united state wey race or color dey bona fide occupational qualification.",Business study
"a country-and-western -themed restaurant, for example, may not hire only white people as wait staff.","A country-plus-western -themed restaurant, for example, may no hire only white pipo as wait staff.",Business study
"many other classes, such as weight, attractiveness, and height, are not on the list of protected classes.","Di list of protected classes, such as weight, attractiveness, and height, no dey on list of protected classes.",Business study
"contrary to popular belief, there is also no federal law that protects against discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation.",Di federal law wey protect against discrimination on di basis of sexual orientation.,Business study
"national restaurant chain cracker barrel, for example, for many years maintained an open policy of not hiring homosexuals and dismissing any person who came out at work.","Di national restaurant chain cracker barrel, for example, for many years maintain open policy of no hiring homosexuals and dismissing any person wey kom out for work.",Business study
it was only under pressure from shareholder activists that the company finally rescinded its discriminatory policy.,Na only under pressure from shareholder activists say di company finally rescinde dia discriminatory policy.,Business study
the law would specifically prohibit employment discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation.,Di law go specifically prohibit employment discrimination on di basis of sexual orientation.,Business study
"the house passed the bill in 2007, but it died in the senate.","Di house pass di bill for 2007, but dem die for senate.",Business study
"in 2009 new attempts were made at passing the law, but strident partisanship once again ended chances of passage, as this npr story explains.",Di npr story explain.,Business study
do you believe this law should be passed?,Di law go pass?,Business study
"if it passes, do you see an inconsistency with the defense of marriage act, which prohibits federal recognition of same-sex marriage?","Di defense of marriage act, wey prohibit federal recognition of Same-sex marriage?",Business study
note too that title vii does not prohibit all discrimination.,Dem note too say title vii no prohibit all discrimination,Business study
"employers are free to consider factors such as experience, business acumen, personality characteristics, and even seniority, as long as those factors are related to the job in question.","Di employer dey free to consider factors such as experience, business acumen, personality characteristics, and even seniority, as long as those factors dey related to di job for quEstion.",Business study
"title vii requires employers to treat employees equally, but not identically.","Dem require employers to treat employees equally, but no identically.",Business study
"title vii is a federal law, but it does not give victims of discrimination the immediate right to file a federal lawsuit.",Dem no give victims of discrimination di immediate right to file federal lawsuit.,Business study
"instead, title vii created a federal agency, the equal employment opportunity commission (eeoc) to enforce civil rights in the workplace.","Instead, title vii created a federal agency, di equal employment opportunity commission (eeoc) to enforce civil rights inside di workplace.",Business study
the eeoc publishes guidelines and interpretations for the private sector to assist businesses in deciding what employment practices are lawful or unlawful.,Di eeoc publishes guidelines plus interpretations for di private sector to assist businesses inside deciding what employment practices be lawful or unlawful.,Business study
the eeoc also investigates complaints filed by workers who believe they are victims of unlawful discrimination.,Di eeoc also investigate complaints wey dem filed by workers wey believe dem dey victim of unlawful discrimination.,Business study
"even if the employee has signed a predi spute arbitration clause with the employer agreeing to send employment disputes to arbitration, the supreme court has ruled that the predispute arbitration clause does not extend to the eeoc, which can still file a lawsuit on the employee's behalf in federal court.","Di supreme court don rule say di predispute arbitration clause no extend to di eeoc, wey no fit file lawsuit on di employee's behalf for federal court.",Business study
employees must file title vii charges with the eeoc first before going to court.,Di employees must file title vii charge wit di eeoc first before go court.,Business study
"if the eeoc investigates and decides not to pursue the case any further, the eeoc can issue a""right to sue""letter.","Na if di eeoc investigate and decide no to pursue di case any further, di eeoc go issue""right to sue""letter.",Business study
"with that letter, the employee can then file a case in federal court within 90 days ofthe date ofthe letter.","Di employee go file case for federal court for 90 days of di date of di letter, di employee go file case for federal court within 90 days of di date of di letter.",Business study
any eeoc complaint must be filed within 180 days ofthe alleged discriminatory act taking place.,For 180 days of di alleged discriminatory act taking place.,Business study
this deadline is generally extended to 300 days if there is a state agency that enforces a state law prohibiting discrimination on the same basis.,Di deadline dey generally exten dey to 300 days if state agency don enforce state law prohibiting discrimination on di same basis.,Business study
"if employees wait beyond 180 or 300 days, their claims will be dismissed.","If employees wait beyond 180 or 300 days, dia claim go dey dismiss.",Business study
"the question of when the clock begins was the subject of much debate recently when a female manager at goodyear, lilly ledbetter (figure 12. 3""lilly ledbetter"" ), discovered she had been paid unequally compared to males for many years.","Di question of wen di clock begin na di subject of much debate recently wen female manager for goodyear, lilly ledbetter (figure 12. 3""lilly ledbetter"", discover she don pay unequally compare to male for many years.",Business study
"in response, congress passed the lily ledbetter fair pay act of 2009, which gives victims the right to file a complaint within 180 days of their last discriminatory paycheck.","Di congress pass di lily ledbetter fair pay act of 2009, wey give victims di right to file complaint within 180 days of dia last discriminatory paycheck",Business study
the eeoc has the authority to award several remedies to victims of discrimination.,Di eeoc don di authority to award several remedies to victims of discrimination,Business study
"these include the award of back pay for any lost wages, the issuance of an injunction to stop the employer from making any continuing acts or policies of discrimination, ordering a terminated or demoted employee reinstated to his or her prior position, and the award of compensatory damages for out -ofpocket costs resulting from the discrimination aswell as emotional harm.","Dem include di award of back pay for any lost wages, di issuance of injunction to stop di employer from making any continuing acts or policies of discrimination, ordering a terminated or demoted employee reinstated to hin or her prior position, and di award of compensatory damages for out -ofpocket costs result from di discrimination aswell as emotional harm.",Business study
attorneys' fees may also be recoverable.,Di lawyers' fees dey recoverable.,Business study
"in cases of severe or reckless discrimination, punitive damages are also available.","Inside cases of severe or reckless discrimination, punitive damages be sef available.",Business study
punitive damages are capped by amendments to title vii passed in 1991.,Di punitive damages dey capped by amendments to title vii pass for 1991.,Business study
"these caps start at$50, 000 for employers with less than one hundred employees and rise to$300, 000 for employers with more than five hundred employees.","These caps start at$50, 000 for employers with less than one hundred employees plus rise to$300, 000 for employers with more than five hundred employees.",Business study
anyone who files a title vii claim in federal court must prove his or her claim using one of two possible theories.,Dinyone wey files title vii claim for federal court must prove hin or her claim using one of two possible diories.,Business study
"the first theory, known as disparate treatment, alleges that the defendant employer acted intentionally to discriminate against the victim because ofthe victim's membership in a protected class.","Di first theory, wey dey known as disparate treatment, allege say di defendant employer don act intentionally to discriminate against di victim bikos of di victim membership for protected class.",Business study
"winning a disparate treatment case is very hard because it essentially requires proof that the defendant acted intentionally, such as a statement by the defendant that it is not hiring someone because of that person's race, an e-mail to the same effect, or some other sort of""smoking gun""evidence.","Di defendant no dey hire someone because of dat person race, e-mail to di same effect, or some oda sort of""smoking gun""evidence.",Business study
"if a defendant wants to discriminate against someone illegally in the workplace, it is very unusual for it to say so explicitly since under the at-will doctrine, it is easy for an employer to find a lawful reason to discriminate.","Di at-will doctrine, na easy fore mployer to find a lawful reason to discriminate.",Business study
"under supreme court precedent, a plaintiff wishing to demonstrate disparate treatment has to first make out a prima facie case of discrimination, which involves demonstrating that he or she is a member of a protected class of workers.","Di plaintiff wish to demonstrate disparate treatment don make out a prima facie case of discrimination, wey involves demonstrate say hin or she dey member of protected class of workers.",Business study
"once that demonstration has been made, the employer can rebut the presumption of discrimination by arguing that a legitimate, nondiscriminatory reason existed for taking the adverse action against the plaintiff.","Di employer go rebut di presumption of discrimination by arguing say legitimate, nondiscriminatory reason exist for take di adverse action against di plaintiff.",Business study
"if the employer can state such a legitimate reason, then the burden of proof shifts back to the employee again, who must then prove by a preponderance of evidence that the employer's explanation is insufficient and only a pretext for discrimination.","Di responsibility wey person get to provide enough evidence to prove their case shift back to di employee again, wey must prove by preponderance of evidence say di employer don state such legitimate reason, then di responsibility wey person get to provide enough evidence to prove their case shift back to di employee again, wey must prove by preponderance of evidence say di employer don state such legitimate reason, then di responsibility wey person get to provide enough evidence to prove their case shift back to di employee again, wey must prove by preponderance of evidence say di employer don state such legitimate reason, then di responsibility wey person get to provide enough evidence to prove their case shift back to di employee again, wey",Business study
this last step is very difficult for most victims of intentional discrimination.,This last step na well-well difficult for most victims of intentional discrimination.,Business study
"if a victim is unable to find proof of disparate treatment, he or she may instead use a theory called disparate impact, where the discrimination is unintentional.","Di victim dey unable to find proof of disparate treatment, hin or she go use theory wey dey call disparate impact, wia di discrimination dey unintentional.",Business study
most title vii cases fall into this category because it is so rare to find proof ofthe intentional discrimination required in disparate treatment cases.,Dem dey rare to find proof of di intentional discrimination wey dey required for disparate treatment case.,Business study
"if a victim successfully demonstrates a disparate impact, then the employer must articulate a nondiscriminatory business necessity for the policy or practice.",Di employer must articulate nondiscriminatory business needy for di policy or practice.,Business study
"the supreme court first articulated this theory in 1971 in a case involving a power company that implemented an iq test and highschool diploma requirement for any position outside its labor department, resulting in very few african americans working at the power company other than in manual labor.","Di supreme court first articulate dis theory for 1971 for case involving power company wey implement iq test and highschool diploma requirement for any position outside di labor department, resulting for very few african americans wey dey work for power company wey dey manual labor.",Business study
"the court held that the civil rights act ""proscribes not only overt discrimination, but also practices that are fair inform, but discriminatory in operation.","Di court tok say di civil rights act no only overt discrimination, but also practices wey dey fair for form, but discriminatory for operation.",Business study
"the touchstone is business necessity.""[",Di touchstone dey business necessity,Business study
"business policies that raise suspicions for disparate impact include educational qualifications, written tests, intelligence or aptitude tests, height and weight requirements, credit checks, nepotism in hiring, and subjective procedures such as interviews.","Business policies wey raise suspicions for disparate impact include educational qualifications, written tests, intelligence or aptitude tests, height plus weight requirements, credit checks, nepotism inside hiring, plus subjective procedures such as interviews.",Business study
businesses that have these sorts of policies need to be very careful that the policies are directly related to and necessary for the job function under consideration.,Di businesses wey get dis sort of policies need to dey careful say di policies dey directly related to and necessary for di job function under consideration.,Business study
"in one recent case, the city of chicago received more than twenty-six thousand applications for firefighters in 1995 for only several hundred positions.","Inside one recent case, di city of chicago received more than twenty-six thousand applications for firefighters inside 1995 for only several hundred positions.",Business study
"faced with so many applicants, the city decided to hire only candidates who received a well-qualified score.",Di city decide to hire only candidates wey receive well-qualified score.,Business study
"african americans made up 45 percent ofthe qualified group, but only 11. 5 percent ofthe well-qualified group, so the decision had an adverse and disparate impact on a protected class.","Dem make 45 percent of di qualified group, but only 11. 5 percent of di well-qualified group, so di decision get adverse and disparate impact on protected class.",Business study
"more than ten years later and after an appeal all the way to the supreme court on the question of timeliness of their lawsuit, the plaintiffs are still waiting for a trial on whether the city acted illegally.",Di plaintiffs still wait for trial on whether di city acted illegally.,Business study
it is not enough for the employee to use statistics alone to point out that a job policy or practice has a disparate impact on the victim's protected class.,E no enough for di employee to use statistics alone to show say job policy or practice don get disparate impact on di victim's protected class.,Business study
"in addition, the 1991 amendments to th e civil rights act prohibited the use of race norming in employment testing.","Inside addition, di 1991 amendments to th e civil rights act prohibited di use of race norming inside employment testing.",Business study
"originally created to ensure the integration of african americans into mainstream society, the law prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, and national origin.","Originally created to ensure di integration of african americans enter mainstream society, di law prohibits discrimination on di basis of race, color, religion, sex, plus national origin.",Business study
"some forms of discrimination on the basis of religion, sex, or national origin are permitted if they are bona fide occupational qualifications.","Di forms of discrimination on di basis of religion, sex, or national origin dey permitted if dem dey bona fide occupational qualifications.",Business study
federal law does not prohibit discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation.,Federal law does no prohibit discrimination on di basis of sexual orientation.,Business study
the equal employment opportunity commission investigates charges of illegal workplace discrimination.,Di equal employment opportunity commission investigates charges of illegal workplace discrimination.,Business study
these charges must be filed by workers within 180 days ofthe alleged discriminatory act taking place.,These charges must be filed by workers within 180 days of di alleged discriminatory act taking place.,Business study
"if a worker believes intentional discrimination has taken place, he or she may pursue a theory of disparate treatment in his or her lawsuit.","Di worker believe intentional discrimination don take place, hin or she go pursue theory of disparate treatment for hin or her lawsuit.",Business study
"if the discrimination is unintentional, the worker may pursue a theory of disparate impact.",Di worker go pursue theory of disparate impact.,Business study
"employment practices that have a disparate impact on members of a protected class are permissible, however, if they are job-related and qualify as a business necessity.","Di employment practices wey don get disparate impact on members of protected class dey permissible, however, if dem dey job-related and qualify as business necessity.",Business study
"more than four decades after the passage ofthe 1964 civil rights act, many libertarians and conservatives continue to believe that the law is a violation of states' rights.","Di 1964 civil rights act, many libertarians and conservatives continue to believe say di law dey violation of states' rights.",Business study
"in listening to president kennedy's speech, do you believe that the promise held by the civil rights act has been met?",Di promise wey di civil rights act don dey met?,Business study
businesses sometimes discriminate against their customers on the basis of sex.,Businesses sometimes discriminate against dia customers on di basis of sex.,Business study
"a bar may charge females a reduced or waived cover charge in a""ladies night""promotion, for example, to increase the female ratio in their audience.","Di bar don charge females reduce or waived cover charge for a""ladies night""promotion, for example, to increase di female ratio for dia audience.",Business study
"hair salons routinely charge more for services to women, and even dry cleaners charge higher prices for cleaning women's clothes.","Hair salons routinely charge more for services to women, plus sef dry cleaners charge higher prices for cleaning women's clothes.",Business study
do you believe these forms of discrimination should be illegal?,Di form of discrimination go be illegal?,Business study
"research demonstrates that taller, more athletic, and more attractive people earn more in the workplace than shorter, less fit, or less attractive people.","Di research show say taller, more athletic, and more attractive pipo earn more for di workplace than shorter, less fit, or less attractive pipo.",Business study
"do you believe this is unfair, and if so, do you believe the law should be amended to protect these classes?","Di law go dey unfair, and if so, do you believe di law go dey amend to protect dis class?",Business study
race and color can never be bfoqs.,Di race and color no be bfoqs.,Business study
does that mean that an african american actor could play abraham lincoln in a movie reenactment of lincoln's life?,Di african american actor go play abraham lincoln for movie reenactment of lincoln's life?,Business study
explore what the protections ofthe civil rights act mean.,Di protection of di civil rights act mean.,Business study
understand implications ofthe civil rights act for employers and employment practices.,Understand implications of di civil rights act for employers plus employment practices.,Business study
examine how businesses can protect themselves against claim of discrimination.,Dem examine how business fit protect themselves against claim of discrimination,Business study
"many times in the business world, it pays to be exceptional and different.","Na many times for di business world, im pay to be exceptional and different",Business study
standing out from the crowd allows an employee to be noticed fore xceptional performance and can lead to faster and greater advancement.,Di crowd dey allow employee to notice fore xceptional performance and fit lead to faster and great advancement.,Business study
"in some other respects, however, standing out for being a racial or ethnic minority, or for being a woman, can be incredibly uncomfortable for employees.","Di standing out for being racial or A group of pipo wey different in ethnicity from the majority of pipo in a country, or for being woman, dey incredibly uncomfortable for employees.",Business study
learning to celebrate differences appropriately remains a challenge for many human resource professionals.,Learning to celebrate differences appropriately remains a challenge for boku human resource professionals.,Business study
"the main purpose of title vii was to integrate african americans into the mainstream of society, so it's no surprise that charges of race-based discrimination continue to generate the highest number of complaints to the equal employment opportunity commission (eeoc).",Dem no surprise say charges of race based discrimination continue to generate di highest number of complaints to di equal employment opportunity commission (eeoc).,Business study
"in 2009 the eeoc received nearly thirty-four thousand complaints of race-based discrimination in the workplace, representing 36 percent ofthe total number of complaints filed.","Inside 2009 di eeoc received nearly thirty-four thousand complaints of race-based discrimination inside di workplace, representing 36 percent of di total number of complaints filed.",Business study
that means the eeoc pays close attention to disparate impact cases in this area.,Di eeoc don pay close attention to disparate impact case for dis area.,Business study
"in this clip, he decides to celebrate diversity day by having the employees engage in an exercise.",E decide to celebrate diversity day by having di employees engage for exercise.,Business study
he has written certain ethnicities and nationalities on index cards and taped them to employees' foreheads.,E don write certain ethnicities and nationalities on index card and tap dem to employees' foreheads.,Business study
the employee does not know what his or her card says and is supposed to figure it out through interactions with other employees.,Di employee no know what hin or her card says and dey suppose figure am out through interaction wit oda employees.,Business study
does your school or university celebrate in diversity celebrations?,Does your school or university celebrate inside diversity celebrations?,Business study
do you believe these celebrations are helpful or unhelpful in the workplace?,Di celebrations dey helpful or unhelpful for di workplace?,Business study
"for example, an employer policy to examine the credit background of employees might be suspect.","for example, an employer policy to examine di credit background of employees might be suspect.",Business study
"statistically, african americans have poorer credit than white americans do, so this policy will necessarily reduce the number of african americans who can qualify for the position.",Di policy go necessarily reduce di number of african americans wey dey qualify for di position.,Business study
"while a credit check maybe a business necessity for a job requiring ah igh level of trustworthiness, it is hardly necessary for all positions.","Di credit check no be business requirement for job requiring high level of trustworthiness, e dey hardly necessary for all positions.",Business study
"similarly, sickle -cell anemia is a blood disease that primarily affects african americans.",sickle-cell anemia dey blood disease wey primarily affect african americans.,Business study
an employer policy that excludes persons with sickle-cell anemia must be job related and a business necessity to be legal.,Di employer policy wey exclude persons wit sickle-cell anemia must be job related and a business need to be legal.,Business study
"a""no -beard""employment policy may also be problematic for african americans.","Di""no -beard""employment policy dey problematic for african americans.",Business study
"many african american men suffer from a medical skin condition that causes severe and painful bumps if they shave too closely, requiring them to kee pa beard.","Di many african american men suffer from medical skin condition wey cause severe and painful bumps if dem shave too closely, requiring dem to kee pa beard.",Business study
a no-beard policy will therefore have to be justified by business necessity.,Dino beard policy go dey justified by business necessity.,Business study
"for example, a firefighter maybe required to be beard-free if a beard interferes with the proper functioning of an oxygen mask, a critical piece of equipment when fighting fires.","for example, firefighter go need to be beard-free if a beard interfere wit di proper functioning of oxygen mask, critical piece of equipment wey fighting fires.",Business study
white persons can be victims of race or color discrimination aswell.,White persons fit be victims of race or color discrimination aswell.,Business study
"a tanning salon cannot refuse to hire avery light-skinned person of irish descent, for example, if its refusal is based on color appearance ofthe job candidate.","Di tanning salon no refuse to hire very light-skinned person of irish descent, for example, if im refusal dey based on color appearance of di job candidate.",Business study
"to correct past mistakes in treatment of women and minorities, many companies go beyond being equal opportunity employers by adopting affirmative action programs.","To correct past mistakes inside treatment of women plus minorities, boku companies go beyond being equal opportunity employers by adopting affirmative action programs.",Business study
"companies are not required to undertake affirmative action programs, but many do.","Companies no dey required to undertake affirmative action programs, but boku dey do am",Business study
"consistent with the wide ranging approaches characteristic of teaching and scholarship in writing across the curriculum, the series presents works that take divergent perspectives on working as a writer, teaching writing, administering writing programs, and studying writing in its various forms.","Di series present works wey dey consistent wit di wide ranging approaches wey dey characteristic of teaching and scholarship for writing across di curriculum, di series present works wey take di wide ranging approach wey dey characteristic of teaching and scholarship for writing across di curriculum, di series present work wey take di wide ranging approach wey dey characteristic of teaching and scholarship for writing across di curriculum, di series present work wey take di wide ranging approach wey dey characteristic of teaching and scholarship",English Language
"the series aims to examine writ- ing activities in 21st-century contexts, particularly how they are informed by globalization, national identity, social networking, and increased cross-cultural communication and awareness.","Di series wan check writing activities for 21st century context, especially how dem inform globalization, national identity, social networking, and increased cross-cultural communication and awareness.",English Language
"as such, the series strives to investigate how both the local and the international inform writing research and the facilitation of writing development.",Na why di series come strive to dey investigate how both dem local and international dey inform how person go write research and take facilitate writing development.,English Language
the wac clearinghouse and parlor press are collaborating so that these books will be widely available through free digital distribution and low-cost print edi - tions.,Di wac clearinghouse and parlor press dey collaborate so say these books go be widely available through free digital distribution and low-cost print edi -tions.,English Language
"the publishers and the series editors are teachers and researchers of writ- ing, committed to the principle that knowledge should freely circulate.","Di publishers and di series editor dey teachers and researchers of writ- ing, committed to di principle say knowledge go freely circulate.",English Language
we see the opportunities that new technologies have for further democratizing knowl -edge.,We dey see di opportunities wey new technology get for further democratizing knowledge.,English Language
"and we see that to share the power of writing is to share the means for all to articulate their needs, interest, and learning into the great experiment of literacy.","We see say to share di power of writing nato share di means for all to articulate dia needs, interest, and learning into di great experiment of literacy.",English Language
this book is available in digital format for free download at wac. colostate. edu.,Di book dey available for digital format for free download for wac. colostate. edu.,English Language
"first, you may notice that we've listed terry's name as first editor ofthe collection and michelle's name as first author ofthe introduction, and we want to explain this choice.","u go notice say we don list terry name as first editor of di collection and michelle name as first author of di introduction, and we want to explain dis choice.",English Language
"throughout this project and our previous project, editing a special issue of across the disciplines, ""wac and second language writing: cross-field research, theory, and program development""(2011, december), our collaboration has been rich, productive, and even joyful.","Di project and awa previous project, editing special issue of across di disciplines, ""wac and di oda language wey you learn writing: crossfield research, theory, and program development""(2011, december), awa collaboration don dey rich, productive, and even joyful.",English Language
"we have discovered that we make wonderful partners, matched in our work ethics and complementary in our strengths.","We don discover say we make wonderful partners, match for our work ethics and complementary for our strengths.",English Language
"in order to equally share credit for our collaborative work on both publications, in the atd issue, we listed michelle as first editor ofthe collection and terry as first author ofthe introduction.","To try share di credit for work wey dem gather do, in di atd issue, we bin list michelle as di numba one editor of di collection and terry as di first author of di introduction.",English Language
"second, terminology related to the students highlighted in this collection is a complicated matter.","Di second, terminology wey dem highlight for dis collection dey complicated matter.",English Language
"while we understand that this term is problematic, in that english maybe the third, fourth, etc,","We understand say dis term dey problematic, for say english go be di third, fourth, etc.",English Language
"language ofthe students we're referring to, we have chosen to use this designation to connect the workin this collection to the wider scholarship of second language writing studies(for a further rationale for using this designation, see matsuda, 2012).","We don choose use dis designation to connect di work for dis collection to di wider scholarship of di oda language wey you learn writing studies(for further rationale for using dis designation, see matsuda, 2012).",English Language
"as editors, however, we did not ask our authors to use the term l2.",We no ask awa authors to use di term l2,English Language
"some used multilingual learner (mll), some used non-native english speaker (nnes), and some used english language learner (ell).","Some don use multilingual learner (mll), some don use non-native English speaker (nnes), and some don use english language learner (ell).",English Language
"each term has its advantages and drawbacks, and each suggests disciplinary affiliations and/or implies a certain political stance.","Di term don advantage and drawbacks, and each suggest disciplinary affiliations and or implies certain political stance.",English Language
we invite our readers to engage in the conversation about terminology that is represented in this collection aswell as in the wider scholarship of second language writing and composition-rhetoric/wac.,We invite awa readers to engage for di conversation about terminology wey dey represent for dis collection aswell as for di wider scholarship of di oda language wey you learn writing and composition-rhetoric wac.,English Language
"at the risk of grossly oversimplifying, one might almost say that research on second language(l2) writing issues followed something of a developmental curve, with the earliest work emerging from k-12 studies on bilingual education and generation 1.5, then spreading to basic writing and the first-year composition level.","For di risk of grossly oversimplifying, one might almost say research on di oda language wey you learn(l2) writing issues follow something of developmental curve, wit di earliest work wey dey emergin from k-12 studies on bilingual education and generation 1.5, then spread to basic writing and di first-year composition level.",English Language
"the relation between wac and multilingual issues was forcefully raised in the 1990s to early 2000s by scholars such as paul kei matsuda, ann johns, and ilona leki.","Di relation wey dey between wac and multilingual issues dey use force take raise di 1990s to early 2000 by scholars like dem paul kei matsuda, ann johns, and ilona leki.",English Language
"in recent years, wac has been making a concerted effort to explore its own patch of l2 ground.","For recent years, wac don make concerted effort to explore its own patch of l2 ground",English Language
"subsequently, a panel at the 2012 iwac conference brought together several contributors for alive exchange on topics raised in the issue and directions for future research and wac/wid practice.",Di panel for di 2012 iwac conference bring together several contributors for live exchange on topics wey dey raised for di issue and directions for future research and wac wid practice.,English Language
"the panel, like the atd issue itself, advanced the argument that the concerns of multilingual writers are not in anyway peripheral to or unusual in the way that our profession will evolve, but rather are rapidly assuming a central position in discussions ofthe future of wac.","Di panel, like di atd issue itself, advanced di argument say di concern of multilingual writers no dey in anyway peripheral to or unusual for di way wey awa profession go evolve, but rather dey rapidly assumin central position for discussions of di future of wac.",English Language
"the present volume, with the same editors as the special issue, continues that argument, applying it to the specific audiences and administrative functions of a twenty-first century wac program.","Di present volume, wit di same editor as di special issue, dey continue di argument say, make dem apply am to di specific audience and administrative functions of a twenty-first century wac program.",English Language
"in this preface, i draw examples from that atd issue and the present collection to identify and discuss three axes in wac/wid research and practice on l1/l2 issues, polarities that maybe in tension, but are not incommensurable: hall6local and global, student experience and faculty expectations, and traditional wac pedagogy for all students and differentiated instruction for multilingual learners.","Di preface, i draw examples from dat issue and di present collection to identify and discuss three axes for wac wid research and practice on l1 l2 issues, polarities wey dey tension, but no dey incommensurable: hall6local and global, student experience and faculty expectations, and traditional wac pedagogy for all students and differentiated instruction for multilingual learners.",English Language
"these are, in many ways, the same conflicts and uncertainties that have been inherent in the wac/wid project from the very beginning, yet all of them take on new meaning and new dimensions in the age ofthe multilingual majority.","For many way, di same conflict and uncertainties wey dey inherent for di wac wid project from di verybeginning, yet all of dem take on new meaning and new dimensions for di age of di multilingual majority.",English Language
local and global historically wac has been both an international movement and an intensely local phenomenon.,Di international movement and di intensely local phenomenon wey be international movement and intensely local phenomenon.,English Language
"no two wac programs are exactly the same, though, and there has always been a tension between, on the one hand, an almost evangelical fervor, a feeling of wac as a universal and transformational pedagogy, and, on the other, an insistence on the localthis campus, this faculty, this student population, this course, this writer, this paper.","No two programs be di same, even though, tension dey everly dey between am, for one hand, almost evangelical fervor, a feeling wey be like wac dey as universal and transformational pedagogy, and, for di oda, an insistence on di local campus, dis faculty, dis student population, dis course, dis writer, dis paper.",English Language
"but in today's interconnected world, the relation between the global and the local takes on added complexity aswell as urgency.","For today's world wey dey interconnected, di relation between di global and di local take on added complexity aswell as urgency",English Language
"the very names ofthe institutions from which amy zenger, joan mullin, and carol peterson haviland (this volume)and lynn ronesi ( atd special issue)file their reports pose the global/local issue in all its contradictory complexity: the american university of beirut (aub) and the american university of sharjah (aus).",Di american university of beirut (aub) and di american university of sharjah (aus)file dia report pose di global local issue for all its contradictory complexity: di american university of beirut (aub) and di american university of sharjah (aus).,English Language
"the latter, with a faculty largely imported from abroad(not all from the us)and a student body representing 82 different nationalities, is a good example of an english as an international language (eil) context: an institution where english is the medium of academic instruction but not the dominant local language.","Di former, wit faculty largely imported from abroad(not all from di us)and student body represent 82 different nationalities, na good example of an english as international language (eil) context: institution wey dey where english dey di medium of academic instruction but no di dominant local language.",English Language
"as ronesi details her efforts to adapt aus-style writing fellows model to the needs of local students and faculty, she delineates the need tore-think even well-known and successful models in new contexts.","As Ronesi dey detail her efforts to adapt oyinbo writing style fellows model to di needs of di local students and faculty, she dey delineates di need tore-think even models wey everyone sabi and dey successful for contexts wey new.",English Language
"even more fundamentally, as zenger, mullin, and haviland suggest in their description of aub, such projects raise the question of what exactly we might we mean by""english"" in this context.","As Zenger, mullin, and haviland suggest for dia description of aub, such projects dey raise di question of what we go mean by""english"" for dis context.",English Language
"how, for example, are the various ""englishes"" present on a particular campus related to other languages that students might use both outside and inside the classroom?","for example, na di various ""englishes"" present on particular campus wey dey related to oda languages wey students go use both outside and inside di classroom?",English Language
"to what degree does the emphasis on""english"" especially within an""american"" university with us accreditation but outside ofthe us carry with it an inherent us/western cultural imperialism in its very structure, and to what extent are students able to strip out these cultural associations, regarding english as a pragmatic, straightforward language to be used in business and other transnational transactions?","Di degree does di emphasis on""english"" especially inside an""american"" university wit us accreditation but outside of di us carry wit dia inherent us western cultural imperialism for its very structure, and to what extent dey students able to strip out dis cultural associations, regarding English as a pragmatic, straightforward language wey dey use for business and oda transnational transaction?",English Language
"can they, as some of them desire, simply speak english without having english unconsciously speak them aswell?","Shey dem fit, as some of dem desire, talk english without knowing say na english dem dey unconsciously speak?",English Language
"these students come to the us with some literacy in their l1, but often not much familiarity with us academic procedures and little experience with writing in english.","Di students kom to di us wit some literacy for dia l1, but often no dey familiarity wit us academic procedure and little experience wit writing for english",English Language
"patton's article is particularly timely given the current trend, both at cash-strapped public institutions still reeling from large cuts in state funding and at financially struggling private colleges, of importing full-paying international students to boost enrollments.","Patton's article dey correct timing for di current trend, for both dem cash-strapped public institutions wey still dey reel from large cuts for state funding and for private colleges wey deir finances no reach, say make dem no import full-paying international students to dey boost enrollments.",English Language
"but these students cannot ethically be educated on the cheap: they often require support services of various kinds, as patton details while arguing for the value of conducting a systematic needs analysis at one's own institution.","Di students no need support services of different kinds, as patton details while arguing for di value of conducting systematic needs analysis for one's own institution.",English Language
"on english as an international language campuses, the need to accommodate wac practices to local culture is easily evident, while in domestic us cases, the imperative for adjusting to local conditions is likely to be more subtle, but nonetheless urgent.","Di need to accommodate wac practices to local culture dey easily evident, while for domestic us case, di imperative to accommodate wac practices to local culture dey easily evident, while for domestic us case, di imperative to accommodate wac practices to local culture dey more subtle, but nonetheless urgent.",English Language
most campuses are now aware that examinations of linguistic diversity need to go beyond international students to consider the complex language backgrounds of us-resident multilingual students.,For most campuses dey aware say examination of linguistic diversity need go beyond international students to consider di complex language background of us-resident multilingual students.,English Language
"the particular conglomeration of students(immigrants, ""generation 1.5,"" ""heritage learners,""etc.)","Di particular conglomeration of students(immigrants, ""generation 1.5,"" ""heritage learners,""etc.)",English Language
"in particular classrooms, with their various multilingualities and multicompetencies, requires our attention.","Di attention wey dey increase for particular classrooms, wit dia different multilingualities and multicompetencies, require awa attention",English Language
"in the us context, what are the cultural consequences ofthe decline ofthe subtractive model of language acquisition, i. e.","For di US context, wetin be di cultural consequences of di decline of di subtractive model of di language acquisition, i. e.",English Language
"the expectation that a student's second language will eventually replace the first(hall, 2009, pp.","Di expectation say student's di oda language wey you learn go replace di first(hall, 2009, pp.",English Language
"how will students who maintain multicompetence in a variety of languages which they use for particular purposes, which they mix and match casually and skillfully in their everyday lives, bring a different sensibility to their academic studies?","How go students wey dey maintain multicompetence for a variety of languages wey dem use for particular purposes, wey dem mix and match casually and skillfully for dia everyday lives, bring different sensibility to dia academic studies?",English Language
"how will they read differently and write differently, between multiple languages and across diverse cultures, moving among and synthesizing genres and ideas in ways that we cannot predict in advance, but will have to respond today after day in the present moment ofthe classroom?","Na how dem read differently and write differently, between multiple languages and across different cultures, moving among and synthesizing genres and ideas for ways wey we no predict for advance, but go get to respond today after day for di present moment of di classroom?",English Language
"the relation between the""global"" and the""local"" becomes yet more complex when interactions between instructor and studentor between student and academic support stafftake place neither on a us campus nor on a campus in another country but rather on a little bit of both and quite alot in the vast nowhere/everywhere of cyberspace.","Di relation between di""global"" and di""local"" dey more complex wen interaction between instructor and studentor between student and academic support stafftake place neither on campus for another kontri but rather on a little bit of both and quite alot for di vast nowhere everywhere of cyberspace.",English Language
"in the particular globally networked learning environment (gnle) described by jennifer craig in this volume, students work toward a master's degree in engineering at mit in a program which includes 1) a one semester residency on the us campus,2) continued coursework over synchronous video connecting mit faculty with students residing in singapore,3) a research internship in singapore, and 4)academic hall8support provided online by staff in the us during the thesis-writing process.","Di volume, students work toward master's degree for engineering for mit for di program wey include 1)one semester residency for di us campus,2) continued coursework over synchronous video connecting mit faculty wit students residin for singapore,3) research internship for singapore, and 4)academic hall8support provided online by staff for di us for di thesis-proses of puttin down tori for paper, from wen you dey plan am, draft am, edit am, till you finish am well.",English Language
"who is""at home""and who is in the""international"" position in such a scenario?",For such scenario?,English Language
"the comprehensive description by dana ferris and chris thaiss in the atd special issue ofthe various forms that l2 work takes on the university of california at davis campus emphasizes the complexity ofthe changes required, showing how serious attention to these issues goes well beyond the occasional faculty development workshop to impact nearly everything that we do on campus, from placement to first-year composition, to writing intensive courses, to curriculum within particular majors, to assessment, to writing centers and other academic support services.","Di comprehensive description by dana ferris and chris thais for di atd special issue of di various forms wey l2 work take on campus, from placement to first year composition, to write intensive courses, to curriculum within particular majors, to assessment, to write centers and oda areas, to assessment, to write centers and oda areas, to assessment, to write centers and oda areas, to assessment, to write centers and oda areas, to assessment, to write centers and od",English Language
"if we are truly to situate ourselves both critically and consciously in a global context and at the same time attend to the intensely local characteristics of a unique campus population, and ofthe various needs ofthe individuals within that population, a consciousness of linguistic diversity has to be a factor in all of wac's administrative and pedagogical decisions; it must be explicitly included, because otherwise we may easily fall back on our unspoken assumptions of monolingualism.","Di consciousness of linguistic diversity don be factor for all of wac's administrative and pedagogical decisions; e must be factor for all of wac's administrative and pedagogical decisions; e must be explicitly include, because odawise we go fall back on awa unspoken assumptions of monolingualism.",English Language
"student experience and faculty expectations students and faculty, though they intersect in the same physical space on campus, often seem to be speaking different languages.","wetin di student dey experience and faculty dey expect, though dem dey intersect for di same physical space for campus, and e be like dem dey talk different languages.",English Language
"once this was a metaphor, but nowadays it is often literal.","Di metaphor wey dey metaphor, but nowadays e dey often literal",English Language
"faculty may find themselves not fully understanding, especially on an experiential basis, either the challenges faced or the resources brought to the table by their multilingual students, while students, both l2 and l1, often regard faculty expectations as a guessing game, a process of figuring out what the idiosyncratic instructor wants, rather than as an example of discipline-specific rhetorical expectations.","Di faculty go find themselves no fully understanding, especially on experiential basis, either di challenges face or di resources wey dem dey bring to di table by dia multilingual students, while students, both l2 and l1, often regard faculty expectations as a guessing game, a process of figuring out what di idiosyncratic instructor want, no be as an example of discipline-specific rhetorical expectations.",English Language
faculty expectations for student writing are often complex and conflicted.,Di faculty expectations for student writing dey complex and conflicted.,English Language
"the studies by ives, leahy, leming, pierce,& schwartz, and zawacki and habib in this volume discuss this faculty ambivalence, finding that faculty""want to be fair and ethical in working with linguistically diverse students, but don't know how to do so while still sticking to the commonly held standards for writing in their disciplines and institutions""(ives et al.)","Di study by ives, leahy, leming, pierce,& schwartz, and zawacki and habib for dis volume discuss dis faculty ambivalence, finding say faculty""want to be fair and ethical for work wit linguistically diverse students, but no know how to do so while still to hold onto di commonly hold standards for writing for dia disciplines and institutions""(ives and al.)",English Language
"peggy lindsey and deborah crusan ( atd )show how assessments of student writing maybe affected by knowledge that faculty have about students' nationality and language background, but that this effect maybe in either direction, dependent, in part, on the method of assessment.","Wey peggy lindsey and deborah crusan show how assessment of student writing dey affect di knowledge wey faculty get about students nationality and language background, but say dis effect dey in part, on di method of assessment.",English Language
"thus issues of l2 literacy become entangled with broader debates about how best to assess student writing, not only at the college level but also k-12.","Di issue of l2 literacy dey entangled wit broader debates about how best to assess student writing, not only for di college level but also k-12.",English Language
"would it be fairer, as lindsey and crusan ask, to 9 forewordassess writing based on a reading of a student paper in which the instructor is unaware ofthe identity ofthe student, and therefore unaware ofthe students' language background, nationality, and other factors that might impact their writing?","As lindsey and crusan ask, to 9 forewordassess writing based on a reading of student paper wey di instructor dey unaware of di identity of di student, and therefore unaware of di students' language background, nationality, and oda factor wey might impact dia writing?",English Language
"many writing instructors want to know more rather than less about their student writers, integrating literacy narratives and language background information into their pedagogy and their assessment of student writing.","Plenti instructors wey dey write wan sabi moreno be less about deir student wey dey write, na to put literacy narratives and language background information into dia pedagogy and dia assessment of student writing.",English Language
"or should we, as some suggest, adopt a distinction between""content"" and""writing,"" exactly the sort of dubious dichotomy that much of composition research has laboriously debunked?","As some suggest, adopt distinction between""content"" and""writing"", exactly di sort of dubious dichotomy wey much of composition research don dey laboriously debunked?",English Language
the faculty in the ives et al.,Di faculty for di ives and al.,English Language
study sometimes characterized their assessment procedures as a no-win situation: feeling guilty if they applied the same standards to monolingual and multilingual students and also feeling guilty if they did not do so.,Di study sometimes characterize dia assessment procedures as no-win situation: feeling guilty if dem apply di same standards to monolingual and multilingual students and also feeling guilty if dem no do so.,English Language
"there are no easy answers to these assessment questions, which are made more urgent by the frequent demands, often coming from outside the classroom, for a universal standard of writing proficiency, which all too often becomes defined reductively.","E no easy answer to these assessment questions, wey dey make more urgent by di frequent demands, often kom from outside di classroom, for universal standard of writing proficiency, wey all too often become defined reductively.",English Language
"how can we insist on complexity, critical thinking, and subtle attention to the nuances of language while also opening ourselves upto new insights that may arise from translingual processes in student writing?","We go insist on complexity, kritikal tinin be say make we dey examine tori and ideas well, sabi wetin dey happen, and use am take make sense decision, and subtle attention to di nuances of language while also opening awaselves upto new insights wey dey arise from translingual process for student writing?",English Language
"how can we find ways for students to access what they knowand what they are able to doin terms of writing skillsin their other languages, and apply these knowledges and abilities to the new rhetorical situations they encounter in their writing tasks in us academic contexts?","We find way for students to access what dem know and how dem dey able to do for terms of writing skillsin dia oda languages, and apply dis knowledge and abilities to di new rhetorical situation wey dem dey encounter for dia writing tasks for us academic contexts?",English Language
"while we have become more aware ofthe multilinguality of our students, we have tended to overlook the equally complexand potentially relevant multilinguality of some of our faculty.",We don suppose overlook di equally complex and potentially relevant multilinguality of some of our faculty.,English Language
"anne ellen geller's survey( atd )focused on respondents who were teaching writing courses across the disciplines, and who also identified themselves as multilingual.","E dey focus on respondents wey dey teaching writing course across di disciplines, and wey dey identify themselves as multilingual.",English Language
"if multilingual students are often invisible, multilingual faculty maybe even more so, as they have adapted, in order to survive in us academia, to a norm of english-only in their professional publications and communications, and, often, as well, in their interactions with students, even those with whom they may share anon-english language.","Dem don adapt, for order to survive for us academia, to norm of English-only for dia professional publications and communications, and, often, as well, for dia interaction wit students, even those wit whom dem dey share non-english language.",English Language
"yet, as geller suggests, such faculty potentially constitute an under-utilized resource as we seek tore-invent wac/wid in the era of global englishes and translingual practices.","As Geller talk, that kain faculty fit dey constitute under-utilized resource as we dey seek tore-invent wac wid for di era of global Englishes and translingual practices.",English Language
"but these faculty sometimes need encouragement to step forward and bring their expertise to the wac/wid classroom, to participate in a program which they might otherwise perceive as dominated by unarticulated monolingualist assumptions.","Di faculty no need encouragement to step forward and bring dia expertise to di wac wid classroom, to participate for program wey dem dey dominated by unarticulated monolingualist assumptions.",English Language
"in addition, multilingual faculty are potentially a vital resource as we research the relationship between the process of entering a discourse communityoften described as analogous to learning anew language(what matsuda and jablonski call""the l2 metaphor"")and the process of learning to write in a completely new language code.","For addition, multilingual faculty dey potentially vital resource as we research di how two things dey related di process of entering discourse community wey described as analogous to learning new language(what matsuda and jablonski call""the l2 metaphor"")and di process of learning to write for completely new language code.",English Language
"these faculty have done hall10both, and often have complex insights to share about both processes and the relation between them, but we will only learn about these insights if we actively seek these faculty out and ask them.","Di faculty don done hall10both, and often get complex insights to share about both process and di relation between dem, but we go only learn about dis insights if we actively seek dem out and ask dem.",English Language
"traditional wac pedagogy for all students and differentiated instruction for multilingual learners thus far, wac/wid approaches to l2 issues have focused primarily and appropriatelyon changing faculty attitudes about multilinguality, and here i think we have been somewhat successful.","Di traditional wac pedagogy for all students and differentiated instruction for multilingual learners thus far, wac wid approaches to l2 issues don focus primarily and appropriately change faculty attitudes about multilinguality, and here i think we dey successful.",English Language
"the next step, though, is more difficult: persuading faculty to experiment with alternate pedagogical practices.","Di next step, though, dey difficult: e dey persuade di faculty to experiment wit alternate pedagogical practices.",English Language
"in order to do this we need to be able to answer, with a high degree of specificity, the perenial question:""what can i do differently in class on tuesday morning?""","We need to answer, wit high degree of specificity, di perenial question:""what fit i do differently for class for uesday morning?",English Language
"l2 students, like their l1 peers, need rigorous training and practice in academic writing, but some of our core wac practices, such as in-class spontaneous freewriting, may prove particularly difficult, and even potentially counter-productive, for students who usually produce english text slowly and only as part of a complex translingual process which involves their l1 aswell.","Di l2 students, like dia l1 peers, need rigorous training and practice for academic writing, but some of awa core wac practices, such as in-class spontaneous freewriting, dey prove particularly difficult, and even potentially counter-productive, for students wey dey produce english text slowly and only as part of a complex translingual process wey dey involves dia l1 aswell.",English Language
"vivian zamel (1995)suggests that esl students need: multiple opportunities to use language and write-to-learn, course work which draws on and values what students already know, classroom exchanges and assignments that promote the acquisition of unfamiliar language, concepts, and approaches to inquiry, evaluation that allows students to demonstrate genuine understandingis good pedagogy for everyone.","Di vivian zamel (1995)suggest say e need multiple opportunities to use language and write-to-learn, course work wey draw on and values wey students dey know, course work wey draw on and values wey students already know, classroom exchange and assignments wey dey promote di acquisition of unfamiliar language, concepts, and approaches to inquiry, evaluate wey dey promote di acquisition of unfamiliar language, concepts, and approaches to inquiry, evaluation wey allow students to demonstrate genuine",English Language
"the suggestion is that we are doing the right things, as we advocate for better implementation of these principles in courses across the disciplines, but we just need to make sure that faculty apply them in an even-handed way to l1/l2 students.","Di suggestion na say we dey do di right things, as we advocate for better implementation of dis principles for course across di disciplines, but we need make sure say faculty apply dem for even handed way to l1 l2 students.",English Language
"an opposing view, one first posed by ilona leki in reference to first-year composition, and extended to wac/wid by michelle cox in the atd issue, asks: is it possible that wac administrators and scholars, like our colleagues in l2 writing studies and first year composition,11 forewordplace the same overemphasis on writing?","E possible say wac administrators and scholars, like awa colleagues for l2 writing studies and first year composition,11 forewordplace di same overemphasis on writing?",English Language
have we paid more attention to the potential benefits of integrating writing into curricula than the possible costs to some students?,We dey pay more attention to di potential benefits of integrating writing into curricula than di possible cost to some students?,English Language
"in other words, is zamel right that wac is part ofthe pedagogical solution for l1/l2?",Na zamel right say wac dey part of di pedagogical solution for l1 l2?,English Language
or is leki right that our insistence on writing to learn may inadvertently be part ofthe problem?,Di insistence on writing to learn don inadvertently be part of di problem?,English Language
"one midpoint between these positions would be to find ways of incorporating theoretical insights, research methodologies, and pedagogical techniques from other disciplines into our wac/wid classroom practices.","Di position go be to find way of incorporating theoretical insights, research methodology, and pedagogical techniques from oda disciplines into awa wac wid classroom practices.",English Language
zak lancaster's article( atd )provides an illustration of both the potential benefits and the particular difficulties of this approach.,Di article (atd) dey provide illustration of both di potential benefit and di particular difficulties wey dey dis approach.,English Language
"drawing on the concept of stance from systemic functional linguistics (sfl), lancaster analyzes student writing from a particular course, and suggests potential pedagogical interventions.","Di concept of stance from systemic functional linguistics (sfl), lancaster analyze di student writing from one course, and talk say e get potential pedagogical interventions.",English Language
"the course instructor found these techniques useful, but he clearly would never have come across the sfl-based analysis on his own; the breakthrough was only possible after a rather labor-intensive study of a sample of student papers on the part of lancaster.","Di course instructor don find dis technique useful, but hin clearly go reach di sfl-based analysis on hin own; di breakthrough na only possible after a rather labor-intensive study of sample of student paper on di part of lancaster.",English Language
thus lancaster's project highlights both the potential gains of a situated interdisciplinary approach which examines the texts and practices of a particular pedagogical context using research-based toolsand also the difficulties inherent in exporting the hardwon findings of such a time-invested study in ways that ensure they will actually be used to help students in an upper-level disciplinary writing classroom.,Di project highlights both di potential gains of interdisciplinary approach wey dey investigate di text and practice of a particular pedagogical context wey dey using research-based tools and also di difficulties wey dey inherent for exporting di hardwon findings of such time-invested study for ways wey ensure dem go use to help students for upper level disciplinary writing classroom.,English Language
"how can we present our findings to faculty in away that is both useful and nonthreatening, and that is likely to filter through to the students?","How we present awa findings to faculty for way wey dey useful and nonthreatening, and we dey likely to filter through to di students?",English Language
"michelle cox's contribution to this volume addresses this question of professional development head on, describing specific workshop strategies for moving faculty gradually from a difference-as-deficit model to an interim differenceaccommodation procedure and ultimately toward a difference-as-resource consciousness which even advanced theoretical workin the area is only now in the process of fully articulating.","Dem tok say professional development head on, describing specific workshop strategies for moving faculty gradually from difference-as-deficit model to interim differenceaccommodation procedure and ultimately toward a difference-as-resource consciousness wey even advanced theoretical work for di area dey only now for di process of fully articulating.",English Language
sound wac pedagogy remains an indispensable prerequisite to the type of targeted differentiated instruction that a linguistically diverse student body demands.,Di sound wac pedagogy dey indispensable prerequisite to di type of target differentiated instruction wey a linguistically diverse student body demand.,English Language
"but we also need to incorporate new methods, models, and technologies which potentially offer previously unavailable means of implementing strategies tailored to l2 students while also serving the needs of l1 student writers.","We need to incorporate new methods, models, and technology wey potentially offer previously unavailable means of implementing strategies wey dey useful to l2 students while also serving di needs of l1 student writers.",English Language
we are still in the relatively early stages of developing wac-based multilingual-friendly instructional techniques that are suitable for a mixed population of students with a wide variety of linguistic backgrounds in the same classroom.,We still for di relatively early stage of develop wac-based multilingual-friendly instructional techniques wey dey suitable for mixed population of students wit wide variety of linguistic backgrounds for di same classroom.,English Language
"given the extensive variety of instructional situations that fall under the umbrella of wac/wid, we will require abroad palette of hall12approaches, some developed through painstaking situated studies in individual courses and classrooms, others incorporating more general principles ofcourse and assignment design developed through interdisciplinary cooperation.","Di extensive variety of instructional situation wey fall under di umbrella of wac wid, we go require abroad palette of hall12approaches, some develop through painstaking situated studies for individual courses and classrooms, odas incorporating more general principles ofcourse and assignment design develop through interdisciplinary cooperation.",English Language
"t raversing this pedagogical frontier is one ofthe most important challenges that we face as wac instructors, administrators, and researchers.","Di pedagogical frontier dey one of di most important challenge wey we face as wac instructors, administrators, and researchers.",English Language
"the future the future of wac/wid in pedagogy, administration, and research will be determined by how well we negotiate the polarities represented by these axes.","Di future of wac wid for pedagogy, administration, and research go be determined by how well we negotiate di polarities represented by dis axes.",English Language
"it would be easy to do more ofthe same in administration, without using local assessments to drive adaptations to the needs of specific populations, cultures, and conditions.","E go easy to dey do more of di same for administration, without using dem local assessments to drive adaptations to di needs of di specific populations, cultures, and conditions.",English Language
"it would be easy to repeat our traditional faculty development workshops on teaching effectively with writing in the discipline without adapting them for our new student populations, and without exploring ways of reaching these students directly using both emerging technology and new adaptations of traditional resources such as writing centers.",E go easy to repeat awa traditional faculty development workshops to teach wella wit writing for di discipline without exploring ways wey one fit reach di students gan with both dem emerging technology and new adaptations of di traditional resources like dem writing centers.,English Language
wac/wid can only maintain its viability as a twenty-first century pedagogical movement and academic discipline if it recognizes the ways that linguistic diversity is transforming our institutions.,Di wac wid don only maintain im viability as twenty-first century pedagogical movement and academic discipline if im recognize di way wey linguistic diversity dey transform awa institution.,English Language
"multilinguality across the curriculum is not a matter of adapting multilingual students to a monolingual english norm, but rather of helping faculty adapt to the reality that multilingual students are not going to check their other languages at the door; rather, the academy has to open up the door and listen to what is being said in the hallway, and bring that conversation inside, where it can be continued.","Di academy don to start di door and listen to what dey tok for di hallway, and bring say conversation inside, wey dey continued.",English Language
"we need to find ways, in other words, for students to use their other languages in academic contexts doing archival research in their home language(s), for example, as happens in the program thomas lavelle and alan shima describe in this volume, or providing linguistic or cultural commentary on assigned readings that are in english translation.","Di program thomas lavelle and alan shima describe for dis volume, or providing linguistic or cultural commentary on assigned readings wey dey in english translation.",English Language
"our classroom practice, our pedagogical theory, and our research all need to change and develop in order to meet the challenges ofthe new mainstream.","Awa wetin dey happen for class, awa pedagogical theory, and awa research all need change and develop so tey e go meet di challenges of di new mainstream.",English Language
"by building our pedagogy on a solid research base which combines global awareness with local specificity, we can adjust our college writing pedagogy in order to reach multilingual learners and help them to succeed at the highest academic levels.","We fit adjust our pedagogy on solid research base wey combin global awareness wit local specificity, we fit adjust our college writing pedagogy for order to reach multilingual learners and help dem succeed for di highest academic level.",English Language
that is: think globally.,Dem think globally,English Language
the articles in this volume area good place to continue that process and that journey.,Di articles for dis volume dey good place to continue dat process and dat journey.,English Language
"panel presented at the international writing across the curriculum conference, savannah georgia.","For di international writing across di curriculum conference, savannah georgia.",English Language
wac/wid in the next america: re-thinking professional identity in the age ofthe multilingual majority.,Na re-thinking professional identity for di age of di multilingual majority,English Language
"lessons for wac/wid from language learn- ing research: multicompetence, register acquisition, and the college writing student.","Di lessons for wac wid from di language learning research: Multicompetence, register acquisition, and di college writer student.",English Language
"""striking while the iron is hot.""",Strike am when di iron dey hot,English Language
a writing fellows program supporting lower-division courses at an american university in the uae.,One writing fellows program dey support dem lower-division courses for American university for di uae.,English Language
strangers in academia: the experiences of faculty and esl students across the curriculum.,Di experience of faculty and Esl students wey dey across di curriculum.,English Language
introduction to wac and second language writing.,Di introduction to wac and di oda language wey you learn writing,English Language
"a current movement among esl writing teachers is to argue that, beyond a certain level of proficiency in english writing, it is not the students' texts that need to change; rather it is the native-speaking readers and evaluators (particularly in educational institutions)that need to learn to read more broadly, with a more cosmopolitan, less parochial eye.","Di current movement wey dey among Esl writing teachers dey to argue say, beyond certain level of proficiency for English writing, e no be di student' texts wey need to change; rather e no dey di student' texts wey need to read more broadly, wit more parochial eye.",English Language
the infusion of life brought by these esl students' different perspectives on the world can only benefit a pluralistic society which is courageous enough truly to embrace its definition of itself.,Di infusion of life wey dey bring by dis Esl students different perspectives on di world don only benefit pluralistic society wey dey courageous enough truly to embrace dia definition of itself.,English Language
"the overarching goal that drives this collection is this: that wac theory, research, and practice must be expanded to include and""embrace,"" to echo leki, the differing perspectives, educational experiences, and written voices of second language writers.","But wac theory, research, and practice must expand to include and""embrace,"" to echo leki, di overarching goal wey dey drive di collection na dis: say wac theory, research, and practice must expand to include and""embrace,"" to echo leki, di plenty perspectives, educational experiences, and written voice of di oda language wey you learn writer.",English Language
"as we noted at the outset, this is not anew argument, and, for that reason, we think it's important to review the second language writing (slw) scholarship that has elaborated on this valuing-difference stance, a stance also endorsed by the authors in this collection.","For dat reason, we think e dey important to review di oda language wey you learn writing (slw) scholarship wey don elaborate on dis valuing-difference stance, a stance wey dey endorsed by di authors for dis collection.",English Language
"derived from the wac/wid literature, three key principles we see underlying wac/wid work are: writing is a powerful mode of learning and communication, with writ- ers' and teachers' goals for the writing calling for varied writing processes and teaching approaches.","Di three key principle wey we see underlying wac wid work dey: writing na powerful mode of learning and communication, wit writ- ers' and teachers' goal for di writing call for varied proses of puttin down tori for paper, from wen you dey plan am, draft am, edit am, till you finish am well and teaching approaches.",English Language
these differences need to be taught and respected(i. e.,them suppose teach and respect dese differences(i. e.,English Language
writing across the curriculum is not writing-as-anenglish-major across the curriculum).,Di curriculum no write-as-anenglish-major across di curriculum).,English Language
"when we consider these principles with an awareness of our students' mul - tilinguality, we ask, as many l2 writing practitioners have asked, whether the same writing-to-learn approaches are equally beneficial to students who use english as a first language(l1) and l2 students.","As many l2 writing practitioners don ask, whether di same writing-to-learn approaches dey beneficial to students wey use english as first language(l1) and l2 students.",English Language
how might the writing and revision processes of l1 and l2 students differ and how can these differences be supported pedagogically?,Na how might di writing and revision process of l1 and l2 students differ and how fit these differences be support pedagogically?,English Language
how might learned and culturally different rhetorical approaches be reflected in the academic writing l2 students produce?,How dem learn and culturally different rhetorical approaches fit dey show for di academic writing wey students produce?,English Language
how do we wac professionals and wid practitioners need to adjust our practices to make them more accessible to and inclusive of l2 writers?,How we wac professionals and wid practitioner fit adjust awa practice to make dem more accessible to and inclusive of l2 writers?,English Language
what language ac - quisition theories and research do we need to emphasize in our faculty develop- ment work?,Wetin be di language acquisition theories and research wey we gats need to emphasize for awa faculty develop-ment work?,English Language
"what information do faculty, even those versed in wac practices, need to be given to help them understand their l2 writers and work with their writing more effectively?","Di information do faculty, even those wey dey versed for wac practice, need to help dem understand dia l2 writers and work wit dia writing more effectively?",English Language
"regarding the latter, for example, terry and michelle have both worked with well-meaning faculty who focus predominantly on ed - iting when giving feedback to l2 students, something they do not do when responding to the same kinds of writing activities by l1 students.","Di former, for example, terry and michelle don work wit well-meaning faculty wey focus predominantly on ed - iting wen dem give feedback to l2 students, something dem no do when dem respond to di same kind of writing activities by l1 students.",English Language
"we suggest, then, that each ofthe principles we've set out above need to be expanded to include the following awarenesses and practices(which is by no means an ex - haustive list and which also reiterates principles articulated in the cccc state- ment on second language writing and writers[2009] and much ofthe slw literature): differences in englishes should be respected.","We suggest, then, say each of di principle wey we dey set out above need to include di following awareness and practices wey dey reiterate for di cccc state-ment on di oda language wey you learn writing and writers[2009] and much of di slw literature)",English Language
"these englishes include interlanguage (the language a language learner develops while learning a language), world englishes, dialects of english, and the varieties of english students develop through code-meshing.","Di englishes dey include interlanguage (the language wey learner develop while learning a language), world englishes, dialects of english, and di varieties of english students wey develop through code-meshing.",English Language
"as we noted, these principles are not original to us, but, in fact, have along history in slw scholarship, to which we now turn with our review ofthe literature organized according to the bulleted list above.","Di principles no dey original to us, but, for true, don get long history for slw scholarship, to we turn wit awa review of di literature organized according to di bulleted list above.",English Language
"differences in englishes should be respected in slw scholarship, it has long been recognized that l2 writing differs in salient ways from l1 writing(for a succinct review of literature that examines these differences, see silva,1993).","E don recognize say l2 writing differ for salient way from l1 writing(for a succinct review of literature wey dey evaluate dis differences, see silva,1993).",English Language
"how close these approximations ultimately become depends on a number of factors, but very few adult learners of second languagesresearchers estimate only 5%will develop a proficiency in the language that matches that of a native speaker, though ""many if not most will attain the ability to communicate relative to their needs""(silva, leki, &carson, 1997, p. 413).","Di approximations ultimately become depend on number of factors, but very few adult learners of second languagesresearchers estimate only 5%go develop proficiency for di language wey dey match say of native speaker, though ""many if no most go fit develop proficiency for di language wey dey match dia needs""(silva, leki, and carson,1997, p.413).",English Language
"as leki suggests in our opening quote, slw scholars have questioned the goal of l2 students writing like native speakers ofthe language.","As leki suggest for awa opening quote, slw scholars don question di goal of l2 students write like native speakers of di language",English Language
"in 1979, del hymes proposed the goal of ""communicative competence""for english language teaching (elt), a pedagogical theory that focused on communication in the target language appropriate for a particular use and rhetorical situation.","Di hymes propos di goal of ""communicative competence""for english language teaching (elt), pedagogical theory wey focus on communication for target language appropriate for particular use and rhetorical situation.",English Language
"while this theory shifted the emphasis away from perfection inform to effectiveness ofthe language used for communicating within a particular situation, it was critiqued for leading to pedagogies focused too narrowly on particular tasks and on the rules and conventions for communicating within particular domains.","Di theory shift di emphasis away from perfection for form to effectiveness of di language wey dey use for communicating within particular situation, e dey critique for leading to pedagogies focused too narrowly on particular tasks and on di rules and conventions for communicating within particular domains.",English Language
"bronwyn norton peirce (1989), for example, critiqued communicative competence pedagogies for seeking to assimilate students to the norms in particular arenas(such as academic writing)without giving them the means to query those norms, and for limiting students to narrow arenas of writing without giving them the means to write in other arenas(such as civic writing).","for example, critique communicative competence pedagogies for seeking to assimilate students to di norms for particular arenas(such as academic writing)without giving dem di means to query di norms, and for limiting students to narrow arenas of writing without giving dem di means to write for oda arenas(such as civic writing).",English Language
"he acknowledges, however, that those who teach from a communicative competence stance do so with students' best interests in mind.","Di acknowledge, however, say those wey teach from communicative competence stance do so wit students best interests for mind.",English Language
"to illustrate this stance, he quotes braj kachru (1986)who writes:""knowing english is like 19 introductionpossessing the fabled aladdin's lamp, which permits one to open, as it were, the linguistic gates of international business, technology, science, and travel.","Dem quote braj kachru (1986) wey write:""knowing english dey like 19 introductionpossessing di fabled aladdin lamp, wey dey allow one to open, as dem dey, di linguistic gates of international business, technology, science, and travel.",English Language
"in short, english provides linguistic power""(as quoted in peirce, 1989, p. 402).","Di quote for peirce, 1989, p. 402).",English Language
"but, he argues, english can be seen as a ""trojan horse""because, quoting david cooke(1988), it is a language of""cultural intrusion. [i]na very real way, english is the property of elites, expressing the interests ofthe dominant classes""(as quoted in peirce, 1989, p. 402).","Di quotin David cooke(1988), e dey a language of""cultural intrusion. [i]n very real way, english dey di property of elites, express di interest of di dominant class""(as quote for peirce, 1989, p. 402).",English Language
"in light of kachru and cooke's positions, peirce elaborates on the moral dilemma that faces english language teachers:""are we contributing to the demise of certain languages or linguistic communities?","For light of kachru and cooke's position, peirce elaborate on di moral dilemma wey face certain languages or linguistic community?",English Language
"does the teaching of esl or efl (english as a foreign language)serve to entrench the power of an elite, privileged group of people who may have little interest in the welfare ofthe majority ofthe people in the country?","Di teaching of Esl or efl (english as foreign language)serve to entrench di power of elite, privileged group of pipo wey no get interest for di welfare of di majority of di pipo for di kontri?",English Language
"do teachers of esl sometimes participate in[this] process?""(",Di process?,English Language
"it is this recognition of english language teaching as political, as endorsing a particular stance toward english and a particular variety of english, that has led to critical approaches to elt.","Na dis recognition of English language teaching as political, as e dey endorse a particular stance toward english and a particular variety of english, wey dey led to critical approaches to elt.",English Language
"echoing cooke and peirce, a. suresh canagarajah (1993)states that,""in practicing academic writing, students are acquiring not only a skill, certain cognitive processes, or communicative competence, but also the set of preferred values, discourses, and knowledge content ofthe academic community""(p. 303)and that, for l2 writers, the attempt to join the academic community may have detrimental consequences: apart from the identity crisis or rootlessness this encounter will create, the community allegiances of students will also be affected as they face the danger of being ostracized by either their native or the academic community.","For l2 writers, di attempt to join di academic community dey acquiring no only skill, certain cognitive process, or communicative competence, but also di set of preferred values, discourses, and knowledge content of di academic community.",English Language
"that is, if they insist on membership in their native community(and maintain the identities and values associated with it)they will be judged unfit for the academic community, or vice versa.","If dem insist on membership for dia native community(and maintain di identities and values wey dem dey associated wit am)dem go judge unfit for di academic community, or vice versa.",English Language
"even if they gain membership in the academic community, at whatever psychological or social costs, the chances are that they will be provided only negative subject positions by its discourse, such as being cognitively deficient, deviant, or even pathological.","Di chances dey say dem go provide only negative subject position by dia discourse, such as being cognitively deficient, deviant, or even pathological.",English Language
"cox and zawacki20slw scholars have also questioned the focus on standard written english (swe), a variety of english rooted in the us in anglo-american english, arguing that this focus devalues the many other varieties of englishes that l2 students use.","Di focus on standard written english (swe), a variety of english root for di us for anglo-american english, arguing say dis focus devalues di many oda varieties of english wey l2 students use.",English Language
"these englishes include varieties that have developed in other nations, such as nepali english (daniloff-merrill, 2010), and englishes created by l2 writers as they""code-mesh"" (canagarajah, 2011), drawing from their many linguistic, cultural, and rhetorical resources.","Di englishes include varieties wey dey develop for oda nation, such as nepali english (daniloff-merrill, 2010), and englishes wey dey create by l2 writers as dem""code-mesh"" (canagarajah, 2011), and englishes wey dem create by l2 writers as dem""code-mesh"" (canagarajah, 2011), drawing from dia many linguistic, cultural, and rhetorical resources.",English Language
slw scholars have also argued that teachers should pay attention to the needs and goals ofthe students for learning english.,Di slw scholars don argu say teachers go pay attention to di needs and goals of di students for learning english,English Language
"for instance, tony silva, ilona leki, and joan carson(1997) argue that we should acknowledge that those who are learning to write in a second language in an institutional setting maybe doing so only to satisfy the requirements ofthe institutional setting and may never again need to write, or perhaps even to read, a single word in their second language in the rest of their lifetimes, particularly if these learners return to their native countries.","Tony silva, ilona leki, and joan carson(1997) argue say we go acknowledge say those wey dey learn to write for di oda language wey you learn for institutional setting no need to satisfy di requirements of di institutional setting and no need to write, or perhaps even to read, single word for dia di oda language wey you learn for di rest of dia lifetimes, particularly if dia learners return to dia native kontri.",English Language
"(p.413) placing an emphasis on the formalities of academic american english for the writing of these students, they say, may lead to an""inappropriate negative evaluation of those who do not become particularly proficient""(p. 413).","Di emphasis on di formalities of academic american english for di writing of dis students, dem tok say, dey lead to negative evaluation of those wey no dey particularly proficient""(p. 413).",English Language
"indeed, in 1974, a position statement from the conference of college composition and communication, students' right to their own language, asserted that dialectic variations in student writing should be respected and honored.","For real, in 1974, di position statement from di conference of college composition and communication, say students' right to dia own language, assert say dialectic variations for student writing suppose dey respected and honored.",English Language
"mina shaughnessy (1979)helped composition scholars and teachers see differences in the writing of basic writers as windows into the mind ofthe writer, by showing the logic behind what would typically be seen only as errors.","Di mina shaughnessy (1979)help composition scholars and teachers see differences for di writing of basic writers as windows into di mind of di writer, by show di logic behind what would dey see only as errors.",English Language
"and, most recently, bruce horner, min-zhan lu, jackie royster, and john t rimbur (2011)have argued that""difference in language""should not be seen 21 introductionas ""a barrier to overcome or as a problem to manage, but as a resource for producing meaning in writing, speaking, reading, and listening""(p. 303-304).","Di most recently, bruce horner, min-zhan lu, jackie royster, and john t rimbur (2011)don argu say""difference for language no be seen 21 introduction as barrier to overcome or as a problem to manage, but as resource for producing meaning for writing, speaking, reading, and listening""(p. 303-304).",English Language
these views are in concert with the stance toward l2 writing that we propose wac endorse.,Di views dey concert wit distance toward l2 writing wey we propose wac endorse.,English Language
"linguistically and culturally inclusive writing programs, courses, assignments, activities, and assessments related to the second bullet point in our list of expanded wac/l2 principles, we turn now to another strand of research in slw that has focused on the writing experiences of l2 students as they write in courses and contexts across the curriculum.",We turn now to one strand of research for slw wey dey focus on di writing experience of l2 students as dem write for course and contexts wey dey across di curriculum.,English Language
"michelle cox's (2011)review of this longitudinal research revealed that second language writers often struggle due to writing assignments that""assume deep cultural and historical knowledge ofthe us""(para.","Sheelle cox's (2011)review of dis longitudinal research reveal say di oda language wey you learn writers dey struggle due to write assignments wey dey assume deep cultural and historical knowledge of di us""(para.",English Language
"there's also an abundance of slw literature on developing linguistically and culturally inclusive assignments and writing curricula, noting especially the contributions made by dana ferris on teaching l2 writing(2004, 2009)and, in wac contexts, leki's pedagogical recommendations in her extensive body of work on l2 writers across disciplines.","Di abundance of slw literature wey dey develop linguistically and culturally inclusive assignments and writing curricula, not especially di contributions wey dana ferris on teaching l2 writing(2004, 2009)and, for wac context, leki's pedagogical recommendations for her extensive bodi of work on l2 writers across disciplines.",English Language
"also related to wac contexts, joy reid and barbara kroll (1995)analyze eleven assignment descriptions from across the curriculum for accessibility and equity to l2 students, and then make recommendations for creating assignments that are more conducive for l2 student success.","For di wac context, Joy reid and barbara kroll (1995)analyze eleven assignment descriptions from across di curriculum for accessibility and equity to l2 students, and make recommendations wey create assignments wey dey conducive for di l2 student success.",English Language
assessments of l2 writing have also been given a great deal of attention in the slw literature considering the range of potentially detrimental effects of these assessments on l2 writers.,Di assessment of l2 writing don give great deal of attention for di slw literature considering di range of potentially detrimental effects of dis assessments on l2 writers.,English Language
another research area focuses on cox and zawacki22the ideological aspects of evaluation.,Di research area dey focus on cox and zawacki22the ideological aspect of evaluation.,English Language
"robert e. land, jr. and catherine whitley (1989), for example, argue that to evaluate an l2 student's essay according to the norms of swe and western rhetorical patterns not only disempowers the student, but ignores the realities of an increasingly pluralistic us culture and language and the rise of world englishes.","E. land, jr. and catherine whitley (1989), for example, dey argue say to evaluate an l2 student's essay according to di norms of swe and western rhetorical patterns no only dismpower di student, but dey ignore di realities of how di pluralistic us culture and language dey increase and di rise of world englishes.",English Language
"other slw scholars have argued that, given the additional cognitive load of reading and writing in a second language and the inevitability of what we may see as written accent in l2 writing (leki, 1992, p. 129), it should be fair to assess l2 students differently in comparison to their l1 peers, by extending deadlines, adjusting page-length requirements, and not being as particular about swe.","Di additional cognitive load of reading and writing for di oda language wey you learn and di inevitability of wey we go see as written accent for l2 writing (leki, 1992, p. 129), e go fair to assess l2 students differently for compare to dia l1 peers, by extending deadlines, adjust page-length requirements, and no be as particular about swe.",English Language
"transformative effect of multilingual and multicultural students on institutions of higher education our assertionthat multilingual multicultural students have the potential to transform academic writing and teaching practices across institutionscan also be traced to l2 writing professionals who have often placed advocacy for l2 writers at the center of their work by partnering with students in their efforts to negotiate with""institutions that refuse to accommodate diversity"" (leki, 2002, p. 59).","Di assertion say multilingual and multicultural students get di potential to transform academic writing and teaching practices wey dey across institutions dey higher education wey dey suppose to negotiate wit""institutions wey refuse to accommodate diversity"" (leki, 2002, p. 59).",English Language
"why is it that the student is seen as needing to change, but not the institution?","Di why be say di student dey see as need change, but no di institution?",English Language
"sarah benesch (1994), who is credited with bringing critical pedagogy to elt, questioned why it is seen as""unrealistic to expect the university to adopt itself to the cultures, world views, and languages of nonnative-speaking students""and ""realistic""for l2 students to adopt the cultures, world views, and language variety ofthe university(p. 711).","sarah benesch (1994), wey dey credit wit bring critical pedagogy to elt, question say why e dey realistic to expect di university to adopt di culture, world views, and languages of nonnative-speaking students""and ""realistic""for l2 students to adopt di culture, world views, and language variety of di university(p. 711).",English Language
"to combat this tendency, l2 writing teachers have proposed pedagogies that invite l2 students to investigate relationships among language, power, and privilege(for one particularly innovative example, see zamel, 2002), so that, as vivian zamel (2002)explains, the institutions themselves""can foster the language and critical thinking of students""and recognize""the ways in which these students, with their multicultures and their multivoices, can contribute to and transform the very institutions they inhabit and thereby enrich the lives of all of us who work there""(p. 339).","As vivian zamel (2002)explain, di institutions wey dey foster di language and kritikal tinin be say make we dey examine tori and ideas well, sabi wetin dey happen, and use am take make sense decision of students""and recognize""the way wey dem dey foster di language and kritikal tinin be say make we dey examine tori and ideas well, sabi wetin dey happen, and use am take make sense decision of students""so say, as vivian zamel (2002)explain, di institutions themselves""can foster di language and kritikal tinin be say make we dey examine tori and ideas well, sabi wetin dey happen, and use am take make sense decision of students""and recognize""the way wey dem dey inhabit and transform di very institutions wey dem dey inhabit and transform di very institutions wey dem dey inhabit and transform di",English Language
"along with the foreword by jonathan hall, the book closes with an afterword by christopher thaiss.","Di book close wit di foreword by jonathan hall, di book close wit afterword by christopher thaiss.",English Language
"in""adaptive transfer, writing across the curriculum, and second language writing: implications for research and teaching,""the authors provide an extensive review ofthe research on transfer and then goon to show how instructors can support l2 students' agency as writers by valuing the ways they maybe reshaping and transforming prior writing knowledge for their own linguistic and cultural purposes.",Di authors provide extensive review of di research on transfer and go show how instructors go support l2 students' agency as writers by valuing di way dem dey reshaping and transform prior writing knowledge for dia own linguistic and cultural purposes.,English Language
"addressing wac researchers who wish to investigate the kinds and processes of adaptive transfer, depalma and ringer provide lists of questions that can be asked of students to discover the adaptive strategies they use in wid contexts.","Di wac researchers wey wish to investigate di kind and process of adaptive transfer, depalma and ringer provide list of questions wey dey ask of students to discover di adaptive strategies wey dem use for wid context.",English Language
"such research and the adaptive transfer framework, they suggest, will help wac professionals and wid teachers complicate their expectations for the writing knowledge students should have transferred from prior courses.","Di research and di adaptive transfer framework, dem suggest, go help wac professionals and wid teachers complicate dia expectations for di writing knowledge students go transfer from prior course.",English Language
"in""resources for success: a case study of a multilingual graduate writer,"" talinn phillips presents a longitudinal case study of a multilingual graduate student to showcase the remarkable initiative he took to manage writing tasks successfully in his courses.",As talinn phillips present longitudinal Case study na di study of one example of a multilingual graduate student to showcase di remarkable initiative he tok to manage write tasks successfully for hin course.,English Language
"chozin, the student she follows, is, in many ways, an example ofthe kind of adaptative transfer depalma and ringer want readers and teachers to recognize.","Di student she follow, na, for many ways, one example of di kind of adaptative transfer depalma and ringer want readers and teachers to recognize.",English Language
"as with depalma and ringer, phillips uses leki's (1995)taxonomy of coping strategies as a pivotal point for her discussion, but she deepens leki's categories by showing how chozin benefitted by both positive and negative experiences around writing.","Di phillips try use leki's (1995)taxonomy of coping strategies as di pivotal point for her discussion, but she deepens leki's categories by show how chozin benefit both positive and negative experiences around writing.",English Language
"due to the strategies this student developed, however, not only did he graduate successfully from the program, but he did soon time and with an outstanding thesis prize in hand.","Di strategies wey di student develop, however, no only go graduate successfully from di program, but he don do soon time and wit outstanding thesis prize for hand.",English Language
"l2 student reading across the curriculum,""focuses on the strategies undergraduate l2 students develop to manage their heavy reading load, many of which are strikingly similar, as the authors note, to the coping strategies leki (1995)reported.","Di authors note, to di strategies undergraduate l2 students develop to manage dia heavy reading load, many of which dey strikingly similar, as di authors note, to di coping strategies leki (1995)reported.",English Language
"in an appendix, the authors provide a valuable inventory of reading practices useful as a guide for understanding the degree to which students write informally while reading, such as taking notes and marking and annotating passages they don't understand.","Di authors provide valuable inventory of reading practices wey dey useful as guide for understanding di degree wey students write informally while reading, such as taking notes and marking and annotating passages dem no understand.",English Language
"qian du's ""bridging the gap between esl composition programs and disciplinary writing: the teaching and learning of summarization skill""continues the focus on the reading-writing connection and the ability of l2 students to adapt their reading methods to learn the material, this time with research on one particular writing-to-read strategy: summary writing.","Qian du's ""bridging di gap between esl composition programs and disciplinary writing: Di teaching and learning of summarization skill""continue di focus on di reading-writing connection and di ability of l2 students to adapt dia reading methods to learn di material, dis time wit research on one particular writing-to-read strategy: summary writing.",English Language
"for l2 students in particular, as she shows, summary writing(in response to test questions, in reporting on their reading and research, and soon) is a particularly complex process, requiring an understanding of different levels of information in a wide range of texts(e. g.","As she show, summary writing(in response to test questions, for reporting on dia reading and research, and soon) na particularly complex process, wey dey require understanding of different level of information for wide range of texts(e. g.",English Language
"oral lectures or multimedia productions in addition 25 introductionto print), along with the ability to represent the original text accurately and concisely.","oral lectures or multimedia productions in addition 25 introduction to print), along wit di ability to represent di original text well.",English Language
"as such, the process of summary writing is a valuable learning tool; yet, as she argues, a summary is not a context-free genre and so must be taught by teachers in disciplines providing guidelines and support for the task.","As she argues, di process of summary writing dey valuable learning tool; yet, as she argues, di process of summary writing dey valuable learning tool; yet, as she argues, di process of summary writing no dey valuable learning tool; yet, as she argues, summary no be context-free genre and so must be taught by teachers for disciplines providing guidelines and support for di task.",English Language
"nielsen argues that there are still large l2 writing areas that are not being sufficiently addressed, specifically how the variables of race, class, and gender, combined with culture and language, may affect the way the student writer is respected by peers and evaluated by teachers.","Na still large l2 writing area wey no dey address, specifically how di variables of race, class, and gender, combined wit culture and language, dey affect di way di student writer dey respected by peers and evaluated by teachers.",English Language
"with her research on the perceptions of five underserved generation 1. 5 students from the dominican republic enrolled in a predominately white liberal arts college in the northeast, nielsen begins to address the areas of class and race as important variables in how some l2 students experience writing and writing-intensive(wi) classrooms.","Na 5 students from di dominican republic dey join for predominately white liberal arts college for di northeast, nielsen begin to address di areas of class and race as important variables for how some l2 students experience write and write-intensive(wi) classrooms.",English Language
"she shows how they have adapted to a classroom and campus climate that they perceive as less than supportive when it came to peer review, group work and collaborative assignments, teachers' evaluation practices, and, overall, the classroom dynamic.","She show how dem dey adapt to classroom and campus climate wey dem dey perceive as less than supportive wen dem kom to When other experts in a field check and judge a research paper before it gets published, group work and collaborative assignments, teachers' evaluation practices, and, overall, di classroom dynamic.",English Language
"in""negotiating 'errors' in l2 writing: faculty dispositions and language difference,""terry myers zawacki and anna habib investigate faculty reactions to perceived error in l2 student writing, particularly ""how they described the errors and why they seemed to be 'disturbed' by particular kinds of errors.""","Di myers zawacki and anna habib investigate faculty reactions to perceived error for l2 writing, particularly ""how dem described di errors and why dem dey disturbed by particular kinds of errors",English Language
"while zawacki and habib agree with the translingual approach that values difference in writing, they wanted to see how theory met practice, particularly the practices of faculty across the curriculum.","As zawacki and habib agree wit di translingual approach wey values difference for writing, dem go see how theory meet practice, particularly di practice of faculty across di curriculum.",English Language
"their analysis reveals many ofthe complexities in the interaction between faculty and l2 writing, including concerns about students' comprehension ofthe material and the fairness of assessing the work of l2 students by a different standard than that for l1 students.","Di analysis reveals many of di complexities for di interaction between faculty and l2 writing, including sum concerns about students' comprehension of di material and di fairness of assessing di work of l2 students by different standard than dat for l1 students.",English Language
"as zawacki and habib report, however, they also found that the faculty who seemed least willing to negotiate meaning in l2 writing were also often the faculty who were most willing to spend time working with l2 writers on their writing.",Diy also find say di faculty wey dey willing to negotiate meaning for l2 writing dey also often di faculty wey dey willing to spend time work wit l2 writers on dia writing.,English Language
"further, they show that, while some faculty exhibited little tolerance for written accents, the majority expressed uncertainty about how to respond to and evaluate the writing in ways that would be most beneficial to the l2 student.","Di faculty show say, while some faculty exhibit little tolerance for written accents, di majority express uncertainty about how to respond to and evaluate di writing for ways wey dey beneficial to di l2 student.",English Language
"while zawacki and habib's investigation occurred at a research university with a large international student population in the mid-atlantic region, ives et al.","As zawacki and habib's investigation don occur for research university wit di large international student population for di mid-atlantic region, ives and al.",English Language
"'s research is based in a state university and neighboring community college in the southwest, an area that is historically bilingual.","Di research dey based for state university and neighboring community college for southwest, an area wey dey historically bilingual.",English Language
"like the faculty in zawacki and habib's study, however, the faculty that participated in ives et al.","Di faculty for zawacki and habib's study, however, di faculty wey participat for ives and al.",English Language
's study expressed conflicted feelings in relation to l2 writing.,Di study don express conflicted feelings wey dey based on where you dey l2 writing.,English Language
"when presented with two sample pieces of student writingone by an l2 student that exhibited some depth of thought but many surface-level errors and one constructed by the research team that was error-free but lacked depthfaculty unanimously rated the passage written by the research team more highly, indicating that surface errors prevented faculty from appreciating content.","Di sample pieces of student writingone by l2 student wey dey exhibit some depth of thought but many surface-level errors and one constructed by di research team wey dey error-free but lacked depthfaculty unanimously rated di passage written by di research team more highly, indicating say surface errors prevent faculty from appreciating content.",English Language
"however, during interviews, faculty revealed that they expect that writing from l2 students will 27 introductionbe accented and assess accordingly and are open to and interested in faculty development related to l2 writing.","Di interview, faculty reveal say dem expect say write from l2 students go 27 introductionbe accent and assess accordingly and dey open to and interested for faculty development related to l2 writing.",English Language
"unlike so many disciplinary faculty in the us, however, these faculty do not say that students should have learned to write in someone else's course or earlier on in their student careers.",Di faculty no say students go learn to write for someone else course or earlier on for dia student careers.,English Language
"as wu dan explains, china has had a turbulent higher education history with little time or attention given to teaching and learning processes and no tradition of general education; at the same time, however, as she points out, there has always been a deep regard for good writing in chinese, giving her cause to be optimistic about the wac concepts and practices she's introducing to her chinese colleagues.","Di same time, as wu dan explain, china don get turbulent higher education history wit little time or attention wey she dey give to teaching and learning process and no tradition of general education; for di same time, as she points out, e don give her cause to be optimistic about di wac concepts and practices she dey introducin to her chinese colleagues.",English Language
"while the broader purpose of wu dan's study was to examine the perceptions of chinese faculty ofthe role of writing in learning and students' competence as writers in the disciplines at their chinese institutions, she is also deeply committed to helping us faculty understand the educational and writing backgrounds ofthe increasingly large numbers of chinese students who are coming to study at our institutions.","Di broader purpose of wu dan's study nato examine di perceptions of chinese faculty of di role of writing for learning and students' competence as writers for di disciplines for dia chinese institutions, she deeply committed to help us faculty understand di educational and writing background of di increasingly large numbers of chinese students wey dey kom study for awa institution.",English Language
"in""english is not a spectator sport: privileged second language learners and the for-profit esol classroom,""marino fernandes introduces another, very different, educational context for teaching writing to l2 writers.","no be spectator sport: dem privileged di oda language wey you learn learners and di for-profit esol classroom, marino fernandes dey introduce another, wey dey different, na educational context for teaching writing to l2 writers.",English Language
"his article describes the curriculum and typical student body of for-profit esol programs, which many international students attend in order to boost their toefl scores and english language fluency before either applying to or entering us colleges and universities.","Di article describe di curriculum and typical student body of for-profit esol programs, wey many international students attend for order to boost dia toefl scores and english language fluency before either apply to or enter us colleges and universities.",English Language
"while the for-profit curriculum is tightly regimented and focused on rote language learning, as fernandes describes it, he has found ways to deepen the learning experience ofthe students in his writing classes by adapting wac pedagogies, particularly critical reading and writing approaches and process pedagogies, to fit the cultural and educational backgrounds of his students.","E don find way to deepen di learning experience of di students for hin writing class by adapt wac pedagogies, particularly critical reading and writing approaches and process pedagogies, to fit di cultural and educational background of hin students.",English Language
"as an immigrant english-language learner himself, fernandes learned firsthand the difference between merely knowing how to speak in english and using english to achieve one's own educational dreams and aspirations.","As person wey be immigrant English-language learner, fernandes first learn di difference wey dey for make person sabi how to speak for english and use di english to achieve one own educational dreams and aspirations.",English Language
"now, as a master's student in language and linguistics, he is passionate about the need for even those students whom vandrick (2002)calls ""the global elite,""who tend to be the majority population at for-profit language schools, to be engaged and critical participants in their english language learning.","As master's student for language and linguistics, hin dey passionate about di need for even those students wey dem vandrick (2002)call ""the global elite"" wey dey for-profit language schools, to be engage and critical participants for dia english language learning.",English Language
"writing is a means of acquiring agency, he argues, not just an exercise in learning a language.","He argues, no just exercise for learning a language.",English Language
that this cox and zawacki28is the case for fernandes is exemplified by his being a recipient of a 2012 cccc scholars ofthe dream award.,Di cox and zawacki28is di case for fernandes dey exemplified by hin being recipient of 2012 cccc scholars of di dream award.,English Language
"in""making stance explicit for second language writers in the disciplines: what faculty need to know about the language of stancetaking,"" zak lancaster focuses on one rhetorical move that, when not done effectively, is often perceived as errorstance taking.","Di faculty need know about di language of stancetaking, zak lancaster focus on one rhetorical move wey, wen no dey done effectively, dey often perceived as errorstance take.",English Language
"l2 writers, in particular, he shows, are often judged as having problems with""thinking, understanding, or even effort""when they are unsuccessful in appropriating the stances and voices expected by their teachers.","Di l2 writer, for particular, hin show, dey judge as dem dey judge as dem dey having problems wit""thinking, understanding, or even effort""wen dem dey unsuccessful for appropriating distance and voice wey dem dey expected by dia teacher.",English Language
"his analysis ofthe linguistic intricacies of appropriate stance-taking draws our attention to the importance for faculty to be more aware of their discipline-embedded but largely implicit expectations for the stances student writers should take when they express a position, make claims, present evidence, or use their""own"" voice.","Di analysis of di linguistic intricacies of appropriate stance-taking draw awa attention to di importance for faculty to be more to know dia discipline-embedded but largely implicit expectations for distances student writers go take wen dem express position, make claim, present evidence, or use dia""own"" voice.",English Language
"faculty make judgments all the time about which students are""good"" writers at the sentence level and which are not, and yet most lack a nuanced vocabulary to explain how they arrive at this evaluation.","Di faculty make judgments all di time about which students dey good writers for di sentence level and which dey no, and yet most lack nuanced vocabulary to explain how dem arrive at dis evaluation.",English Language
lancaster shows us at the sentence and phrase level what makes some writers sound like they are in control ofthe language and others sound unsure or unsophisticated.,Di lancaster show us for di sentence and phrase level wey make some writers sound like dem dey control of di language and odas sound unsure or unsophisticated,English Language
"although most faculty may not have the time or inclination to do the kind of close linguistic analysis lancaster demonstrates, we think there is enormous value for our readers in understanding how to talk with faculty about the ways writers position themselves linguistically in their texts, and, by the stance-taking styles they choose, also position readers in certain ways.","We think enormous value for awa readers for understanding how to talk wit faculty about di way writers position themselves linguistically for dia texts, and, by distance-taking style wey dem choose, also position readers for certain way.",English Language
"one ofthe main stumbling blocks to offering faculty development on l2 writing, however, is that wac program directors often don't feel equipped to do so.","Di koko stumbling blocks nato offer faculty development on l2 writing, however, na say wac program directors don feel equipped to do so.",English Language
"to address this concern, cox describes approaches to collaborating with others on campus who advocate for l2 writers and where to gather information about these writers.",Dem describe approaches to collaborating wit odas on campus wey dey advocate for l2 writers and where to gather information about dis writers.,English Language
"megan siczek and shawna shapiro's ""developing writing-intensive courses for a globalized curriculum through wac-tesol collaborations""describes a model for a writing-intensive course designed by tesol specialists.",Dem describe model for writing-intensive course for globalized curriculum through wac-tesol collaborations.,English Language
"the authors describe two variations ofthe course, one taught at george washington university in washington, d. c. and open only to l2 students and the other taught at middlebury college in vermont and offered to both l1 and l2 students.","Di authors describe two variations of di course, one taught for george washington university for washington, d. c. and open only to l2 students and di oda taught for middlebury college for vermont and offer to both l2 students and di oda taught for middlebury college for vermont and offer to both l2 students.",English Language
"they discuss the benefits and drawbacks of each model, describe the types of writing projects and readings assigned in each, and draw from course evaluations to share student perspectives ofthe benefits ofthe courses.","Diy discuss di benefits and drawbacks of each model, describe di type of writing projects and readings assigned for each, and draw from course evaluations to share student perspective of di benefits of di course.",English Language
"but more than that, they also describe the obstacles that have prevented tesol practitioners from making valuable l2-informed contributions to wac programs and pedagogies.",Dem also describe di obstacles wey dey prevent tesol practitioners from make valuable l2-informed contributions to wac programs and pedagogies.,English Language
"as they argue, the ""persistent disciplinary segregation between wac and tesol"" means that institutions whose missions increasingly focus on internationalizing their campuses are overlooking the expertise that tesol faculty bring to conversations about cultivating global competence in their students.","Di""persistent disciplinary segregation between wac and tesol"" mean say institutions wey dey focus on internationalizing dia campuses dey overlooking di expertise wey tesol faculty bring to conversation about cultivating global competence for dia students.",English Language
"when tesol and wac program administrators and faculty collaborate, as they show, the resulting actions, such as the globally cox and zawacki30oriented courses they describe, can be educationally meaningful to all involved, perhaps most importantly to the students.","Dem show, di resulting actions, such as di globally cox and zawacki30oriented courses dem dey describe, fit be educationally meaningful to all involved, perhaps most importantly to di students.",English Language
"what is notable about this course, in addition to the mixed population it serves, is its flexibility.","Di flexibility wey dey notable about discourse, for addition to di mixed population wey dey serve, na its flexibility.",English Language
"in the first two weeks ofthe course, students develop a contract that determines their writing assignments and goals for the workshop, an approach to course design that highlights student agency; the course instructors also collaborate with the students' other teachers to offer instruction at the point of need.","Di course instructors develop contract wey determin dia writing assignment and goals for di workshop, an approach to course design wey highlights student agency; di course instructors collaborate wit di students' oda teachers to offer instruction for di point of need.",English Language
the authors report survey results from 26 graduate students who have taken the course on their perceptions ofthe effectiveness ofthe structural and pedagogical choices the authors made in designing and teaching the course.,Di authors report survey results from 26 graduate students wey don take di course on dia perceptions of di effectiveness of di structural and pedagogical choice wey dem make for designing and teaching di course.,English Language
"jennifer craig's ""teaching writing in a globally networked learning environment (gnle): diverse students at a distance""offers another model of graduate student writing support, but one that differs in salient ways from the one developed at utep.","Shenifer craig's ""teaching writing for globally networked learning environment (gnle) offers one model of graduate student writing support, but one wey differ for salient way from di one wey dey develop for utep.",English Language
"unlike utep's course, the course craig developed at mit was not mixed l1/l2/bilingual, but was created only for international students; was not multidisciplinary, but was offered only to students enrolled in the master of engineering program created in collaboration with universities in singapore; and was held not on campus but in a virtual learning space, a globally networked learning environment (gnle) that used synchronous and asynchronous technologies to interact with students.","Di course craig develop for mit no dey mixed l1 l2 bilingual, but dem dey offer only to students wey dey join for di master of engineering program wey dey create for collaboration wit universities for singapore; and dem dey offer only to students wey dey join for virtual learning space, a globally networked learning environment (gnle) wey use synchronous and asynchronous technology to interact wit students.",English Language
"language and writing are central to gnles, as craig points out, because the environment itself requires high levels of written interaction among the participants.","E dey central to gnles, as craig points out, because di environment wey dey require high level of written interaction among di participants.",English Language
"as she explains, her analysis was first motivated by the students' reticence during course meetings and conferences, a reticence that she had previously been able to counter in her face-to-face interactions with students through the use of wac pedagogical approaches.","As she explain, her analysis dey first motivate by di students' reticence during course meeting and conferences, a reticence wey she dey able to counter for her face-to-face interaction wit students through di use of wac pedagogical approaches.",English Language
"drawing on her own critical self-reflection and on a student survey that explored student backgrounds and which aspects ofthe course were effective for their learning, she uncovered the assumptions she had brought to the course, how her goals and her students' were sometimes at odds, and how the many""distances"" created by the technology affected not only writing instruction but also the classroom dynamic.","Di student survey wey dey explore student background and which aspects of di course dey effective for dia learning, she uncovered di assumptions she don brought to di course, how her goals and her students' dey sometimes at odds, and how di many""distances"" wey dey created by di technology affect di classroom dynamic.",English Language
"developed collaboratively by wac, composition, and esl/applied linguistics faculty, access offers heavily recruited international students who've been provisionally admitted to the university the opportunity to enroll in a team-taught(by composition and esl faculty)first-year writing course and introductory content courses, all of which include intensive language support and tutoring for students and faculty development for participating instructors.","wey dem wac gather develop, composition, and Esl faculty)first year writing course and introductory content courses, all of dem dey include intensive language support and tutoring for students and faculty development for participating instructors.",English Language
"drawing on survey and interview data, mallett and zgheib demonstrate that the program has benefitted both faculty and students involved, with students expressing satisfaction with the collaboration among writing and disciplinary teachers and faculty reporting an increased awareness of and sensitivity to the challenges faced by l2 writers, which, many said, carried over to the other courses they also regularly teach.","Di program don benefit both faculty and students involved, wit students express satisfaction wit di collaboration among writing and disciplinary teachers and faculty report an increased awareness of and sensitivity to di challenges wey dem dey face, wit students express satisfaction wit di collaboration among writing and disciplinary teachers and faculty report an increased awareness of and sensitivity to di challenge wey dem dey face.",English Language
"more than just developing awareness and sensitivity, however, all ofthe participating faculty said they modified their course curriculum and pedagogical approaches throughout the semester to fit the needs of their l2 students.",Di participatin faculty tok say dem modified dia course curriculum and pedagogical approaches throughout di semester to fit di needs of dia l2 students.,English Language
"because the participating faculty cox and zawacki32had numerous opportunities to talk together, through required workshops and planning meetings, they also shared their expectations for student writers with one another, and, in the process, these too were modified, a benefit that students also reported in focus groups and interviews.","Di participating faculty cox and zawacki32had numerous opportunities to talk together, through required workshops and planning meetings, dem also share dia expectations for student writers wit one another, and, for di process, dem also share dia expectations for student writers wit one another, and, for di process, dem also share dia expectations for student writers wit one another, and, for di process, dem also share dia expectations for student writers wit one another, and, for di process, dem also share dia expectations for student",English Language
"in ""reconstructing teacher roles through at ransnational lens: learning with/in the american university of beirut,""amy zenger, joan mullin, and carol peterson haviland discuss the challenges of designing a writing program that positively recognizes students' cultural and linguistic differences.","As amy Zenger, joan mullin, and carol peterson haviland discuss di challenge of designing a writing program wey positively recognize students' cultural and linguistic differences.",English Language
"in a setting where administrators and many faculty have conservative understandings of acceptable academic writing in english, the authors explain how they worked against this ""statusquo gatekeeping"" by actively engaging with institutional language policies in the revision of an academic writing course for graduate students and the curriculum ofthe undergraduate general education program.",Di authors explain how dem work against dis statusquo gatekeeping by actively engaging wit institutional language policy for di revision of academic writing course for graduate students and di curriculum of di undergraduate general education program.,English Language
"while the students come with rich language backgrounds, the traditional pedagogies employed in the academic writing course seemed to define them as linguistically ""deficient""by focusing on what the students lacked as writers in english.","Di traditional pedagogies wey dey employ for di academic writing course dey suppose define dem as linguistically ""deficient""by focus on what di students lacked as writers for english.",English Language
"to better understand the students' strengths, the authors surveyed students about their language backgrounds and how they feel when they write in english and their other languages in their disciplines, among other questions.","Di authors survey students about dia language background and how dem feel wen dem write for english and dia oda languages for dia discipline, among oda question.",English Language
"the survey data, along with the translingual theories and practices they endorse, informed the authors' reconceptualization ofthe academic writing course and their approach to infusing more writing into the general education curriculum, an approach that relies on the varied language expertise of faculty across the disciplines.","Di survey data, along wit di translingual diories and practices wey dem endorse, inform di authors' reconceptualization of di academic writing course and dia approach to infusin more writing into di general education curriculum, an approach wey dey reli on di varied language expertise of faculty across di disciplines.",English Language
"the authors' end goal for this widbased pedagogical approach, as they write, is for faculty and administrators""to construct knowledge about writers collaboratively, to conceive of multilingualism as an asset, and to think transnationally.""","Di authors' end goal for dis widbased pedagogical approach, as dem write, na for faculty and administrators""to construct knowledge about writers collaboratively, to conceive of multilingualism as asset, and to think transnationally",English Language
"this readerly mindset can beat least partly ascribed to the writing support offered to students and the faculty development and assessment activities lavelle and shima provide as""semi-embedded"" academic writing instructors.","Di readerly mindset don be partly ascribed to di writing support wey students and di faculty development and assessment activities lavelle and shima provide as""semi-embedded"" academic writing instructors.",English Language
"the interdisciplinary roads to democracy history program the authors describe is offered through a collaboration among uppsala university in sweden, coimbra university in portugal, and siegen university in germany.","Di interdisciplinary road to democracy history program wey dey offer through collaboration among uppsala university for sweden, coimbra university for portugal, and siegen university for germany.",English Language
"the fully international program, as they explain, enrolls students from over twenty different countries(though none from sweden)and shares some common on-line courses while requiring students to take atleast fifteen credits from two ofthe partner institutions although each institution grants its own degree.","Di fully international program, as dem explain, enrolls students from over twenty different kontri (though none from sweden)and shares some common on-line course while dem dey carry students take atleast fifteen credits from two of di partner institutions although each institution grants dia own degree.",English Language
"even modest changes to the pedagogy of a single course require time and energy on behalf of a faculty member, difficult to find in this period of increasing faculty workloads without corresponding increases in compensation.","Di period of increasing faculty workloads wey dey require time and energy on behalf of faculty member, difficult to find for dis period of increase faculty workloads without corresponding increase for compensation.",English Language
"changes at the curricular and programmatic level require strong administrative support and the time and energy of writing program administrators, all of which are in short supply in the face of cutbacks in funding, increasing course caps, and shortage of tenured positions for both composition studies and tesol professionals.","Di changes for di curricular and programmatic level require strong administrative support and di time and energy of writing program administrators, all of which dey short supply for di face of cutbacks for funding, increasing course caps, and shortage of tenured position for both composition studies and tesol professionals.",English Language
"the comprehensive access program for international students at george mason university, as described by karyn mallet and ghania zgheib, for example, requires enormous support from many levels of administration and faculty.","Di comprehensive access program for di international students for george mason university, wey Karyn Mallet and Ghania Zgheib don describe, for example, e require enormous support from plenti level of administration and faculty.",English Language
"however, given the multilingualism and multiculturalism of cox and zawacki34today's students, we believe that the vision of linguistically and culturally inclusive writing courses, curricula and programs is a worthy goal, no matter how incremental the steps are that can be taken in anyone classroom, college, or university at any given time.","We believe say division of linguistically and culturally inclusive writing courses, curricula and programs dey worthy goal, no matter how incremental di steps dey take for anyone classroom, college, or university for anytime.",English Language
"research into the ways in which l2 writers negotiate academic writing on us campuses, into us faculty expectations for and experiences with l2 writers across the curriculum, into approaches for faculty development in creating linguistically and culturally inclusive pedagogy, into the effects of particular approaches to structuring writing programs, and into the ways in which wac pedagogies and practices get translated into online teaching environments and in writing programs abroad, such as presented in this collection, help pave the way for making this goal a reality for more students at more institutions of higher education.","For di way wey l2 writers negotiate academic writing on us campuses, into approaches for faculty development for creating linguistically and culturally inclusive pedagogy, into di effects of particular approaches to structuring writing programs, and into di way wey wac pedagogies and practices get translated into online teaching environments and for writing programs abroad, and into di way wey wac pedagogies and practices get translate into online teaching environments and for writing programs abroad, and into di ways wey wac pedagogies and practices",English Language
"in closing, we return to the words from ilona leki with which we started:""the infusion of life brought by these esl students' different perspectives on the world can only benefit a pluralistic society which is courageous enough truly to embrace its definition of itself""(1992, p.133).","Di infusion of life wey dey bring by dis esl students different perspectives on di world don only benefit pluralistic society wey dey courageous enough truly to embrace dia definition of itself""(1992, p.133).",English Language
"we believe that wac is, indeed, courageous enough to be transformed by the multilingualism and multiculturalism of our students.","We believe say wac dey, indeed, courageous enough to transform di multilingualism and multiculturalism of awa students.",English Language
"how can we help them""activate multicompetence"" (hall& navarro,2011, n. p.)?","How we fit help dem""activate multicompetence"" (hall& navarro,2011, n. p.)?",English Language
how are they adapting this knowledge?,How dey adapt di knowledge?,English Language
how might they be using this knowl -edge to resist us conventions of writing and rhetoric?,How dem fit use dis knowl -edge to resist us conventions of writing and rhetoric?,English Language
"(see, for example, chris tardy, 2009, and much of mark james' work on transfer and l2 students.)","for example, chris tardy, 2009, and much of mark james don work on di transfer and l2 students.",English Language
"with increased populations of l2 students, do faculty reexamine their focus on swe and western rhetorical norms or tighten their grip on them?",Di faculty reexamine dia focus on swe and western rhetorical norms or tighten dia grip on dem?,English Language
"and, related to this, what are expectations for l2 writing in professional contexts, within and outside of academia?","Na expectations for l2 writing for professional contexts, inside and outside of academia?",English Language
"in comparison with l1 faculty, are l2 faculty more sym -pathetic to the challenges that l2 students face or do they push them harder?",Di faculty more sym -pathetic to di challenge wey l2 students face or do dem push dem harder?,English Language
what models and approaches have proven to be effective?,Di model and approaches don prove to be effective?,English Language
"are there models of pedagogies and programs that embrace lingua franca english as the norm(rather than, for example, swe) and that draw on l2 writers' resources and strengths?","Di model of pedagogies and programs wey dey embrace A common language wey pipo from different language backgrounds use to communicate with eachother English as di norm(no be, for example, swe) and dat draw on l2 writers resources and strengths?",English Language
"cox and zawacki36and, finally, in thinking about the implications ofthe collection as a whole: what research has been/is being carried out on wid and english l2 outside ofthe us?",For thinking about di implications of di collection as a whole: what research don dey carried out on wid and english l2 outside of di us?,English Language
"(the newly inaugurated series international exchanges on the study of writing, published by the wac clearinghouse and parlor press, is inviting book-length manuscripts that address worldwide per- spectives on writing, writers, teaching with writing, and scholarly writ- ing practices, specifically those that draw on scholarship across national and disciplinary borders to challenge parochial understandings of all ofthe above.)","Di newly inaugurated series international exchange on di study of writing, published by di wac clearinghouse and parlor press, don invit book-length manuscripts wey dey address worldwide perspectives on writing, writers, teaching wit writing, and scholarly writ- ing practices, specifically those wey draw on scholarship across national and disciplinary borders to challenge parochial understanding of all of di above.)",English Language
what collaborations between writing scholars are occurring/should be occurring and on what topics and across what disciplinary and national borders?,Di collaboration wey dey between writing scholars dey occur and wetin be di topics and disciplinary and national borders?,English Language
"throughout this project and our previous project, the special issue of across the disciplines, our collaboration has been rich, productive, and even joyful.","Di special issue of across di disciplines, wey dey rich, productive, and even joyful.",English Language
"in order to equally share credit for our collaborative work, in the atd issue, we decided to list michelle as first editor ofthe collection and terry as first author ofthe introduction.",We decide say we go list michelle as di first editor of di collection and terry as di first author of di introduction.,English Language
"with this project, we did the reverse, and listed terry as first editor ofthe collection and michelle as first author ofthe introduction.","For this project, we do di reverse, and list terry as di first editor of di collection and michelle as di first author of di introduction.",English Language
"we realize that the designator ""english as a second language""is problem- atic, in that english maybe the third, fourth, etc, language ofthe students we're referring to.","We realize say di designator ""english as di oda language wey you learn""dey problem- atic, for say english no be di third, fourth, etc, language of di students wey dey referring to",English Language
"we have chosen to use this designation, however, to con- nect the workin this collection to the wider scholarship of second language writing studies.","We don chosen to use dis designation, however, to con- nect di work for dis collection to di wider scholarship of di oda language wey you learn writing studies.",English Language
"comments on ann raimes' ""out ofthe woods: emerging traditions in the teaching of writing.""","Di comment on ann raimes' ""out of di woods: emerging traditions for di teaching of di writing",English Language
"the place of world englishes in composition: plu - ralization continued, college composition and communication,57 (4),586- 619.","Di place of world Englishes dey for composition: pluralization continue, college composition and communication,57 (4),586- 619.",English Language
"codemeshing in academic writing: identifying teachable strategies of translanguaging, the modern language journal, 95, 401-417.","I dey identify teachable strategies of translanguaging, di modern language journal, 95, 401-417",English Language
teaching college writing to diverse student populations.,E dey each college writing to diverse student populations.,English Language
wac/wid in the next america: redefining professional iden - tity in the age ofthe multilingual majority.,Dem dey redefine professional identity for di age of di multilingual majority,English Language
"lessons for wac/wid from language learn- ing research: multicompetence, register acquisition, and the college writing student.","Multicompetence, register acquisition, and di college writer student.",English Language
esl students and wac programs: varied populations and diverse needs.,Asl students and wac programs: varied population and diverse needs.,English Language
coping strategies of esl students in writing tasks across the curriculum.,Di curriculum dey coping strategies of Esl students for writing tasks across di curriculum.,English Language
how faculty attitudes and expectations to -ward student nationality affect writing assessment.,How faculty attitude and expectations dey be toward di student nationality affect write assessment.,English Language
teaching composition in the multilingual world: sec- ond language writing in composition studies.,Di multilingual world: sec- ond language writing for composition study,English Language
"toward a pedagogy of possibility in the teaching of eng- lish internationally: people's english in south africa, tesol quarterly,23(3), 401-420.","Di pipo wey dey english for south Africa, tesol quarterly,23(3), 401-420.",English Language
"designing and assessing effective classroom writing assignments for nes and esl students, journal of second language writing,4(1), 17-41.","Dem design and assess di effective classroom writing assignment for nes and Esl students, jdi ournal of di oda language wey you learn writing,4(1), 17-41.",English Language
"the impact of writer nationality on mainstream teachers' judgments of composition quality, journal of second language writing,6(2), 139-153.","Di impact of di writer nationality on mainstream teachers' judgments of composition quality, journal of di oda language wey you learn writing,6(2), 139-153.",English Language
"professors' reactions to the academic writing of non-native speaking students, tesol quarterly,22 (1),69-90.","Di professors reaction to di academic writing of non-native speaking students, tesol quarterly,22 (1),69-90",English Language
"broadening the perspective of main- stream composition studies: some thoughts from the disciplinary margins, written communication,14 (3), 398-428.","Some thoughts dey from di disciplinary margins, written communication,14 (3), 398-428.",English Language
do english and esl faculty differ in evaluating the essays of native english-speaking and esl students?,Di essays of native English-speaking and Esl students differ for evaluating di essays of native English-speaking and Esl students?,English Language
"drawing upon the shared insights on learning transfer in edu - cational psychology, education, and human resource development, we define adaptive transfer as the conscious or intuitive process of apply- ing or reshaping learned writing knowledge in new and potential- ly unfamiliar writing situations.",We define di adaptive transfer as di conscious or intuitive process wey we dey use apply or reshape learned writing knowledge for new and potentially unfamiliar writing situation.,English Language
we need to ask ourselves: how can wac/wid programs more effectively encourage multilingual learning across the curriculum?,We need ask awaselves: how fit wac wid programs more effectively encourage multilingual learning across di curriculum?,English Language
how can we find opportunities[.] to allow students to use those multilingual skills in an academic context?,How we go find opportunities wey go allow students use dose multilingual skills for academic context?,English Language
"prevailing theories and methods of measuring transfer work well for studying full blown expertise, but they represent too blunt an instrument for smaller changes in learning that lead to the development of expertise.","For di prevailing diories and methods of measuring transfer work well for studying full blown expertise, but dem represent too blunt instrument for smaller change for learning wey lead to di development of expertise.",English Language
"our goal in that article was to expand disciplinary discussions of transfer in l2 writing and composition studies by theorizing adaptive transfer, a construct forged from collective insights on transfer of learning in the fields of educational psychology, education, and human resource development.","We go expand di disciplinery discussions of transfer for l2 writing and composition studies by theorizing di adaptive transfer, construct forged from di collective insights on transfer of learning for di fields of di study of how pipo learn, education, and human resource development.",English Language
"it does so in response to an exigency that jonathan hall(2009) articulates: ""the new reality to which we must adjust in us higher education is that multilingual learners are part ofthe mainstream"" (p.37).","Di new reality wey we must adjust for us higher education na say multilingual learners dey part of di mainstream"" (p.37).",English Language
"as such, it is incumbent upon wac specialists to account for how multilingual writers negotiate the various rhetorical situations in which they find themselves.",E dey incumbent upon wac specialists to account for how multilingual writers negotiate di different rhetorical situation wey dem find themselves.,English Language
"following from the 2009 cccc statement on second language writing and writers, which calls wac specialists to account for multilingual writers in research initiatives and teaching practices, we focus our discussion on the following questions: research: in what ways might adaptive transfer inform research on multilingual writers across the curriculum?","Di 2009 cccc statement on di oda language wey you learn writing and writers, we call wac specialists to account for di multilingual writers for di research initiatives and teaching practices, we focus awa discussion on di following question: research: na which way adaptive transfer fit inform research on multilingual writers for research initiatives and teaching practices",English Language
teaching with writing in the disciplines (wid): how might adaptive transfer inform l2 writing instruction across the curriculum?,How di adaptive transfer fit inform l2 writing instruction across di curriculum?,English Language
"we then provide an overview of adaptive transfer, explaining how it is distinct from traditional transfer.","We then provide overview of adaptive transfer, explain howe dey distinct from traditional transfer.",English Language
"finally, we discuss the implications of adaptive transfer for wac research and teaching with wid, particularly in relation to multilingual writers.","We discuss di implications of di adaptive transfer for wac research and teaching wit wid, particularly for relation to multilingual writers.",English Language
attention to transfer among wac scholars has occurred primarily in the context of debates surrounding the efficacy of first-year writing (fyw) courses.,Di context of debates wey dey surround di efficacy of first-year writing (fyw) course don occur primarily for di context of debates wey dey surround di efficacy of first-year writing (fyw) course.,English Language
"in examining whether or not general writing skills instruction (gwsi) courses sufficiently prepare students to write in subsequent disciplinary and professional contexts, compositionists have aimed to determine the kinds of knowledge and skills that transfer when students transition from one writing context to another.",Di compositionists don aimed to determine di kinds of knowledge and skills wey dey transfer when students transition from one writing context to another.,English Language
"among l2 writing specialists, discussions of transfer have also been important, especially to research on contrastive rhetoric(cr) and english for academic purposes (eap).","Among di l2 writer specialists, discussion of transfer dey important, especially to di research on contrastive rhetoric(cr) and english for di academic purposes (eap).",English Language
"depalma and ringer46in surveying how transfer has been discussed in wac, composition, and l2 writing scholarship, we contend that scholars have focused primarily on the reuse of past learning and thus have not adequately accounted for the adaptation of learned writing knowledge in unfamiliar situations(see depalma &ringer, 2011 for a full critique of traditional notions of transfer).","Di depalma and ringer46in survey how transfer don discuss for wac, composition, and l2 writing scholarship, we contend say scholars don focus primarily on di reuse of past learning and thus no adequately account for di adaptation of learned writing knowledge for unfamiliar situation(see depalma and ringer,2011 for full critique of traditional notions of transfer).",English Language
"as we explain in our 2011 article, definitions of transfer have implied that transfer does not occur unless skills learned in one context are consistently applied in other settings.","As we explain for our 2011 article, definition of transfer don implied say transfer no occur unless skills learned for one context dey consistently applied for oda settings.",English Language
such emphasis on application limits transfer to the reuse of writing skills and prevents researchers from acknowledging what does happen when students encounter novel rhetorical situations.,Na such emphasis on application limit transfer to di reuse of writing skills and prevent researchers from acknowledging what dey happen wen students dey encounter novel rhetorical situation.,English Language
"narrow conceptualizations of transfer also ignore the agency of writers; assume the initial and target writing contexts are stable; reduce readers to decoders; deflect attention away from the moves students make to reshape and reform learned writing skills to fit new tasks; and neglect other important forms of transfer, such as lateral, vertical, near, far, literal, or figural transfer(see haskell,1998 and royer, mestre, & dufresne, 2005 for discussions of various types of transfer).","For haskell,1998 and royer, mestre, and dufresne, 2005 for discussion of different forms of transfer; deflect attention away from di moves students make to reshape and reform learned writing skills to fit new tasks; and neglect oda important form of transfer, such as lateral, vertical, near, far, literal, or figural transfer(see haskell,1998 and royer, mestre, and dufresne, 2005 for discussion of different types of transfer).",English Language
"as an alternative to traditional notions of transfer, we thus offer the construct of adaptive transfer.",We dey offer di construct of adaptive transfer.,English Language
"specifically, adaptive transfer is dynamic, because it is premised on the notion that writing practices learned in one context maybe reused or reshaped in another, thus allowing space for change and fluidity (lobato, 2003; matsuda, 1997; parks, 2001).","E dey premise on di notion say writing practices learn for one context go dey reused or reshaped for another, thus allow space for change and fluidity (lobato, 2003; matsuda, 1997; parks, 2001).",English Language
"processes of adaptive transfer are also idiosyncratic in that they are particular to individual learners and influenced by factors such as language repertoire, race, class, gender, educational history, social setting, genre knowledge, and so forth (lobato, 2003).","Di process of adaptive transfer dey idiosyncratic for say dem dey particular to individual learners and influence by factors such as language repertoire, race, class, gender, educational history, social setting, genre knowledge, and so forth (lobato, 2003).",English Language
"adaptive transfer is also cross-contextual, occurring when learners recognize a resemblance between a familiar writing situation in which a skill was learned and an unfamiliar writing situation in which rhetorical production is required (lobato, 2003; pierce, duncan, gholson, ray,& kamhi, 1993, p. 67).","Di adaptive transfer dey cross-contextual, occurring wen learners recognize resemblance between familiar writing situation wey a skill dey learn and unfamiliar writing situation wey rhetorical production dey required (lobato, 2003; pierce, duncan, gholson, ray,& kamhi, 1993, p. 67).",English Language
"likewise, adaptive transfer is rhetorical, meaning that it takes place when a writer understands that the context, audience, and purpose of a text influence what is suitable; furthermore, adaptive transfer makes space for the possibility that differences in students' texts are""matters of design""(lu, 2004, p. 26)or the result of a""strategic and creative choice by the author to attain his or her rhetorical objectives"" (canagarajah, 47 adaptive t ransfer2006b, p.591).","Di adaptive transfer make space for di possibility say differences for students' text dey""matters of design""(lu, 2004, p. 26)or di result of a""strategic and creative choice by di author to attain hin or her rhetorical objectives"" (canagarajah, 47 adaptive transfer) or di result of a""strategic and creative choice by di author to attain hin or her rhetorical objectives"" (canagarajah, 47 adaptive transfer) or di result of",English Language
"related to this, adaptive transfer is multilingual in that it views all language and varieties of language as fluid and in process, and it recognizes the agency of writers to draw from among a variety of discourses and languages in order to influence contexts of writing (canagarajah, 2006a; horner& lu,2007; horner&t rimbur, 2002; lu, 2006; matsuda, 2002).","Di adaptive transfer dey multilingual for say e dey views all language and varieties of language as fluid and in process, and e dey recognize di agency of writers to draw from them plenty discourses and languages for order to influence context of writing (canagarajah, 2006a; horner& lu,2007; horner&t rimbur, 2002; lu, 2006; matsuda, 2002).",English Language
"finally, adaptive transfer is transformative.",Adaptive transfer dey transformative.,English Language
"it recognizes that writers shape and are shaped by rhetorical practice, and, as such, it allows for the possibility that newcomers working with a genre might act as a brokers who introduce new ways of seeing, doing, or knowing into writing practice(beech, 1999; wenger, 1998).","E recognize say writers shape and dey shape by rhetorical practice, and, because of dat, e allow for di possibility say newcomers work wit a genre go act as a broker wey dey introduce new way of seeing, doing, doing, or knowing into writing practice(beech, 1999; wenger, 1998).",English Language
"given these characteristics, we argue that adaptive transfer offers wac specialists a theoretical construct that will help reveal the complex ways in which multilingual writers learn to write across disciplines.",We argue say adaptive transfer offers wac specialists a theoretical construct wey go help reveal di complex way wey multilingual writers learn to write across disciplines.,English Language
"it does so by emphasizing the agency of individual writers""the processes by which learners form personal relations of similarities across situations, whether or not those connections are correct or normative"" (lobato, 2003, p. 20).","E dey do as e dey emphasize di agency of individual writers""the process wey learners fit take form personal relations of similarities across di situations, whether or no those connections dey correct or normative"" (lobato, 2003, p. 20).",English Language
adaptive transfer thus provides a terministic screen that names what does happen when students traverse rhetorical contexts.,Di adaptive transfer wey dey provide terministic screen wey dey name wen students dey travers rhetorical contexts.,English Language
"one empirical study that illustrates adaptive transfer is susan parks'(2001) ""moving from school to the workplace.""","Di empirical study wey dey illustrate adaptive transfer na susan park'(2001) ""moving from school to di workplace.",English Language
"in her study of eleven francophone nurses transitioning from their respective french-speaking universities in quebec, canada to an english-speaking hospital in montreal, canada, parks(2001) describes the ways these nurses adapted their prior writing knowledge to fit anew context.","Di study of eleven francophone nurses wey dey transition from dia respective french-speaking universities for quebec, Canada to an english-speaking hospital for montreal, canada, park(2001) describe di way dem dey adapt dia prior writing knowledge to fit new context.",English Language
the locus of adaptive transfer in parks'(2001) study is a genre known as care plans.,Di locus of adaptive transfer for parks'(2001) study dey known as care plans.,English Language
"as university students, the nurses viewed care plans as simply a school-based genre that would be of little use in the workplace.",Di nurses viewed care plans as simply school-based genre wey go be of little use for di workplace.,English Language
"as these nurses shifted from an academic to a workplace setting, however, they started to see the significance ofthe genre to their professional work and""began to perceive differences between the way they had done care plans while at university and those which they had begun to do on the units""(p. 415).","Di nurses shift from academic to workplace setting, dem start to see di significance of di genre to dia professional work and""began to perceive differences between di way dem don done care plans while for university and those wey dem go do on di unit""(p. 415).",English Language
one ofthe key differences the nurses recognized between the genre knowledge they acquired in school and the writing of care plans in a hospital setting was the level of detail required and the structure ofthe care plans.,Di key difference wey dem recognize between di genre knowledge wey dem acquired for school and di writing of care plans for hospital setting na di level of detail required and di structure of di care plans.,English Language
"in their university coursework, the nurses had been taught to construct a detailed three-part care plan, outlining a patient's diagnosis, cause of illness, and symptoms.","Di nurses don learn to construct detailed three-part care plan, outlining patient diagnosis, cause of illness, and symptoms.",English Language
"when writing the care plans, they were also instructed to steer away from the language of medical diagnosis.",Di care plans dey also instruct dem to steer away from di language of medical diagnosis.,English Language
"through their interactions with colleagues and the genre ofthe care plan in a hospital setting, however, they recognized that the care plan did not often take the detailed three-part structure that they had been taught to use in school, and they realized that the language of medical diagnosis was encouraged in the writing of care plans depalma and ringer48in their professional context.","Di recognize say di care plan no fit take di detailed three-part structure wey dem dey use for school, and dem realize say di language of medical diagnosis depalma and ringer48in dia professional context.",English Language
recognizing these crucial differences led to the simplification of their care plansa reshaping which might at first glance appear to indicate linguistic incompetence or a lack of genre knowledge.,Di crucial differences wey dey led to di simplification of dia care plansa reshaping wey dey reshaping wey suppose indicate linguistic incompetence or lack of genre knowledge.,English Language
"as parks(2001) explains, however, ""the francophone nurses were simplifying the way they wrote care plans, not because they lacked language per se, but in response to the influence of peers""(pp.","Di francophone nurses dey simplifying di way dem write care plans, no because dem lacked language per se, but for response to di influence of peers",English Language
"in other words, the nurses were adapting a school-based genre to their socio-rhetorical situation; their use of""more simplified rhetorical structures emerged as a result of intersubjective functioning""(p. 417).","Di nurses dey adapt school-based genre to dia socio-rhetorical situation; dia use of""more simplified rhetorical structure emerge as result of intersubjective functioning""(p. 417).",English Language
"moreover, parks (2001)explains that the ways the individual nurses engaged with this genre were influenced by their perceptions ofthe genre and the motives or purposes they associated with itdispositions which were informed by their beliefs and personal histories(p. 408).",Di ways di individual nurses engage wit dis genre dey influence by dia perceptions of di genre and di motive or purpose wey dem dey informed by dia beliefs and personal histories(p. 408).,English Language
"in sum, the reshaping ofthe nurses' prior writing knowledge was not only a response to the demands of their new context, but was also adapted on the basis of their socio-rhetorical situation and each nurse's perceptions of and interactions with the genre.","Di reshaping of di nurses' prior writing knowledge no only response to di demand of dia new context, but dey also adapted on di basis of dia socio-rhetorical situation and each nurse's perceptions of and interaction wit di genre.",English Language
they adapted what they knew to fit anew context.,Dem adapt how dem fit new context.,English Language
another study that highlights adaptive transfer comes from a. suresh canagarajah (2006b).,Di study wey highlights adaptive transfer kom from a. suresh canagarajah (2006b).,English Language
"in his discussion of a tamil scholar's construction of his introduction for three different research articlesone in his native language for a sri lankan publication, one in english for a sri lankan publication, and one in english for a european publicationcanagarajah (2006b) details how k. sivatamby imports rhetorical patterns from his native culture into his academic writing for a western audience.","Di discussion of a tamil scholar's construction of hin introduction for three different research articlesone for hindi first language wey you learn for a sri lankan publication, one for english for a european publicationcanagarajah (2006b) details how k. sivatamby import rhetorical patterns from hin native culture into hin academic writing for western audience.",English Language
"sivatamby is, in our terms, adapting a rhetorical form related to his tamil background for western academics.","Di sivatamby dey, for our terms, adapt rhetorical form wey dey related to hin tamil background for western academics.",English Language
"in the process, he creates a ""multivocal discourse that merges the strengths of[sri lankan]scholarly discourse with the dominant conventions of mainstream academic discourse"" (canagarajah, 2006b, p.598).","Di process, hin create multivocal discourse wey merge di strength of[sri lankan]scholarly discourse wit di dominant convention of mainstream academic discourse"" (canagarajah, 2006b, p.598).",English Language
"in the paper written for a western academic audience, for instance, sivatamby adopts the same narrative structure he uses in the papers written for the sri lankan audience.","Di paper wey dey write for western academic audience, for example, sivatamby adopt di same narrative structure wey dem use for di paper wey dey write for di sri lankan audience.",English Language
"he does so, though, by couching his narrative analysis in rhetorical moves that would be familiar to western readers, namely a statement of academic significance, explicit identification ofthe problem he is addressing, and a forecasting statement regarding his argument.","Di narrative analysis for rhetorical moves wey dey familiar to western readers, namely statement of academic significance, explicit identification of di problem wey dem address, and forecasting statement regarding hin argument.",English Language
"in short, sivatamby invents what canagarajah (2006b) calls a""hybrid text,""one wherein he adapts writing knowledge from one cultural, linguistic context to fit another.","Di sivatamby invent say canagarajah (2006b) call a hybrid text, one wey dem dey call""hybrid text"", one wey dey wey he dey adapt to write knowledge from one cultural, linguistic context to fit another.",English Language
we recognize that sivatamby is a scholar and not a student in wac courses.,We recognize say sivatamby dey scholar and no student for wac course.,English Language
"(for an example of a multilingual graduate student ""reshaping"" writing ashe 49 adaptive t ransferwrites across a multidisciplinary ma program, see phillips in this collection.)","One example a di multilingual graduate student wey dey ""reshape"" writing ashe 49 adaptive t ransferwrites across multidisciplinary ma program, see phillips for dis collection.",English Language
and yet canagarajah (2006b) uses this example to argue for the need to recognize that multilingual students' native languages and cultures should be treated as resources instead of as problems.,But canagarajah (2006b) use dis example to argue for di need to recognize say multilingual students' native languages and cultures go dey dem take am as resources forstead of problems.,English Language
"adaptive transfer similarly recognizes multilingual students' diverse backgrounds as resources, though it does not assume every instance of reshaping will be intentional or appropriate.","Di adaptive transfer dey recognize multilingual students' diverse background as dem resources, though e no assume every instance wey go reshape fit dey intentional or appropriate.",English Language
"what it does do is provide a set of terms for understanding the complexity of learning to write across contexts, complexity that canagarajah (2006b) and parks(2001) illustrate.","E provide di set of terms for understanding di complexity of learning to write across context, complexity wey canagarajah (2006b) and parks(2001) illustrate.",English Language
"specifically, their examples call attention to the dynamic nature of writing knowledge, rhetorical contexts, and genres of writing; highlight the idiosyncratic ways individuals perceive and interact with genres; emphasize the shift from one context to another; and acknowledge the rhetorical manner in which individuals envision how to reshape what they know to fit anew context.","Di examples call attention to di dynamic nature of writing knowledge, rhetorical contexts, and genres of writing; highlight di idiosyncratic way individuals dey perceive and interact wit genres; highlight di idiosyncratic way individuals make dem fit new context.",English Language
"though not about multilingual writers, lobato's (2003)study of highschool algebra students and brent's (2012)case studies of undergraduates in writing co-ops also provide useful examples ofthe kinds of reshaping that the framework of adaptive transfer allows writing specialists to identify.","E dey not about multilingual writers, lobato's (2003)study of highschool algebra students and brent's (2012)Case study na di study of one example of undergraduates for writing co-ops also provide useful examples of di kinds of reshaping say di framework of adaptive transfer allow writer specialists identify.",English Language
we suggest how adaptive transfer can help reframe questions about multilingual writers across the curriculum by informing wac research and teaching with wid.,We suggest how di adaptive transfer fit help reframe di questions about multilingual writers across di curriculum by informing wac research and teaching wit wid.,English Language
"research we see adaptive transfer as a lens through which wac research can be problematized and extended, particularly in regard to how multilingual writers navigate diverse writing demands across the curriculum.","We see adaptive transfer as a lens through wey wac research dey problem and extended, particularly for regard to how multilingual writers dey navigate diverse writing demands wey dey across di curriculum.",English Language
adaptive transfer invites wac scholars to reframe the questions they ask when researching multilingual writers in wac programs and to adopt multilayered methodological approaches similar to the ones employed by parks(2001) and lobato (2003).,Di adaptive transfer invites wac scholars to reframe di questions wey dem ask wen dem research multilingual writers for wac programs and to adopt multilayered methodological approaches similar to di ones wey dey employ by parks(2001) and lobato (2003).,English Language
"specifically, the framework of adaptive transfer significantly shapes the kinds of questions wac scholars ask about how multilingual and native english speaking(nes) students learn to write across the disciplines.",Di framework of di adaptive transfer dey significantly shape di kinds of questions wey wac scholars dey ask about how multilingual and native English speaking(nes) students fit learn to dey write across di disciplines.,English Language
we then discuss two methods that can help researchers identify and understand the diverse ways in which nes and multilingual students navigate unfamiliar writing situationsfocus groups and classroom-based reflective writing.,"We come discuss di two methods wey go help researchers identify and understand di diverse way wey nes and multilingual students dey navigate unfamiliar writing situations one kind meeting wey dem dey call to yarn about somethin, wey dem go take am discuss, wey one person go lead, make dem hear pipo tori, sabi wetin dem like, wetin dem no like and classroom-based reflective writing.",English Language
"lamenting the fact that little research existed about esl experiences in writing courses across the curriculum, leki's (1995)purpose in her study was""to develop insights into the academic literacy experiences across the curriculum""of multilingual writers.","Leki's (1995)purpose for her study na""to develop insights into di academic literacy experiences across di curriculum""of multilingual writers.",English Language
"specifically, she sought to learn""about how esl students acquire forms and attitudes specific to various disciplinary discourses [and]how their experiences in disciplinary courses shape their understandings of appropriate and inappropriate discourse within those disciplines""(p. 237).","She sought learn""about how Esl students acquire form and attitudes specific to different disciplinary discourses [and]how dia experiences for disciplinary course shape dia understanding of appropriate and inappropriate discourse within di disciplines""(p. 237).",English Language
"leki (1995)interviewed five esl students, three graduate students and two undergraduates, whose majors included business, political science, speech, and education.","Leki (1995)interview five Esl students, three students don graduate two students bi undergraduates, wey dey include business, political science, speech, and education.",English Language
"t woof the students were from china and one each was from taiwan, france, and finland.","Di students dey from china and one each dey from taiwan, france, and finland.",English Language
"leki (1995)interviewed each student on a weekly basis, observed several classes, analyzed the students' writings, and interviewed their instructors.","Di leki (1995)interview each student on weekly basis, observe several classes, analyze di student' writing, and interview dia instructors.",English Language
"based on the data gathered, leki (1995)identified recurring themes and developed ten categories as a coding scheme.",Leki (1995)don identify DI recurring themes and don develop ten categories as coding scheme.,English Language
"ofthe ten coping strategies leki (1995)identified, two speak directly to questions of transfer:""relying on past writing experiences""and ""using current or past esl writing training""(p. 240).","From di ten coping strategies wey leki (1995)identify, two dey speak directly to di question of transfer:""dey rely on past writing experiences""and ""dey use di current or past esl writing training""(p. 240).",English Language
"leki's (1995)overall summary of her findings points toward a key aspect of adaptive transfer:""although different students in this study used strategies to varying degrees, they all also displayed the flexibility necessary to shift among strategies as needed""(p. 241).","Di students for dis study use strategies to varying degrees, dem also show di flexibility wey dem need to shift among strategies as needed",English Language
"while clearly aimed at flexibility in terms of shifting from one strategy to another, this statement nonetheless points toward several ofthe key characteristics of adaptive transfer, namely that it is idiosyncratic, rhetorical, and cross-contextual.","Di statement no dey point toward several of di key characteristics of adaptive transfer, namely say e dey idiosyncratic, rhetorical, and cross-contextual",English Language
"as leki (1995)shows, such flexibility results from each student's individual background and particular rhetorical situation.",Leki (1995)show say dat kain flexibility results from each student's individual background and particular rhetorical situation.,English Language
one student leki (1995)discusses is particularly relevant to adaptive transfer.,Na one student leki (1995)discuss adaptive transfer.,English Language
"julie, an undergraduate business major from france, is described by leki (1995)as ""probably the most successful""student ofthe five(p. 242).","Di undergraduate business major from France, na him leki (1995)describe as""probably di most successful""student for di five(p. 242).",English Language
"much ofthe reason why she was so successful centered on the fact that she""came equipped with a clear, conscious approach to her work""that involved""strategies. for using past writing experiences"" (leki, 1995, p. 242).","Di reason wey she dey successful centered on di fact say she""came equipped wit clear, conscious approach to her work"" wey dey involved""strategies. for using past writing experiences"" (leki, 1995, p. 242).",English Language
"julie had been carefully trained in the french rhetorical style and said that if she felt 51 adaptive t ransferdisorganized, she could always fall back on the three-part framing strategy for writing essays, namely thesis/antithesis/synthesislook at a topic and develop a position, a counter position, and a synthesizing position.","julie don dey carefully trained in di french rhetorical style and talk say if she felt 51 adaptive transfer disorganized, she fit always fall back on di three-part framing strategy for writing essays, wey him name go be thesis antithesis synthesislook for a topic and develop di position, di counter position, and di synthesizing position.",English Language
"though leki (1995)admits that""the rigidity ofthe structure hemmed [julie]in and constrained the expansive style she preferred""(p. 242), she does not discuss how julie might(not) have adapted this strategy in later assignments.","Leki (1995)admit say di rigidity of di structure wey dey hemmed [julie]for and dey constrained di expansive style she dey preferred""(p. 242), she no discuss how julie might(not) dey adapt di strategy for later assignments.",English Language
"she does note, however, that in a later assignment, julie resisted her teacher's guidelines and abandoned the organizational structure that had served her so well.","Di later assignment, julie resist her teacher's guidelines and abandon di organizational structure wey dey served her so well.",English Language
"as leki (1995)puts it, julie ""rewr[ote] the terms ofthe assignment to suit what she thought she could do best""(p. 242).","As leki (1995)put am, julie ""rewr[ote] di terms of di assignment to suit wen she think say she go do best""(p. 242).",English Language
leki's discussion of julie offers helpful ways to understand the differences between the kinds of questions traditional transfer would prompt versus the questions that adaptive transfer would raise.,Leki's discussion of julie offers helpful way to understand di difference between di kinds of question wey traditional transfer go prompt versus di questions wey adaptive transfer go raise.,English Language
"encountering julie, traditional transfer theorists might have asked questions like the following: what discursive features ofthe tripartite french rhetorical style, if any, did julie transfer to her history term paper?","Di discursive feature of di tripartite french rhetorical style, if any dey, e go julie transfer to her history term paper?",English Language
"if so, what is that relationship?","If so, what dey relationship?",English Language
"while such questions could lead to productive insights regarding transfer, they could also limit researchers in terms of identifying a fuller range ofthe complexity associated with students learning to write across disciplines, genres, and contexts.","Di question go lead to productive insights regarding transfer, dem go also limit researchers for terms of identifying full range of di complexity wey dey associated wit students learning to write across disciplines, genres, and contexts.",English Language
"questions derived from the framework of adaptive transfer, on the other hand, would allow researchers to account for a broader range of phenomena: how might julie's background as a native speaker of french allow her to negotiate the novel rhetorical demands of writing the term paper for her history course?",How julie's background as native speaker of french fit allow her to dey negotiate di novel rhetorical demands of writing di term paper for her history course?,English Language
"in other words, how might the theory of adaptive transfer reveal ways in which julie didn't fully abandon that structure but rather reshaped and repur -posed key elements of it?",How might di theory of adaptive transfer reveal ways wey julie no abandon say structure but rather reshaped and repur -pose key elements of am?,English Language
"our purpose here is not to critique leki (1995)but rather to show how adaptive transfer could help wac scholars identify the complex, idiosyncratic ways in which multilingual writers such as julie might be reshaping prior writing knowledge to fit new contexts.","Di purpose wey dey no to critique leki (1995)but rather to show how adaptive transfer go help wac scholars identify di complex, idiosyncratic way wey multilingual writers such as julie dey reshaping prior writing knowledge to fit new contexts.",English Language
"adaptive transfer offers a lens, in other words, that can help wac researchers acknowledge the complexity associated with multilingual writers writing across the curriculum.","Di adaptive transfer offers lens, for oda words, wey fit help wac researchers acknowledge di complexity wey dey associated wit multilingual writers writing across di curriculum.",English Language
"as russell(2001) notes in his review essay of naturalistic studies in wac/wid, ""qualitative studies point faculty and program directors beyond the research for universal or autonomous approaches toward much more messyand humanfactors"" (p.261).","russell(2001) notes for hin review of naturalistic studies for wac wid, ""qualitative studies point faculty and program directors beyond di research for universal or autonomous approaches toward much more messy and humanfactors"" (p.261).",English Language
"adaptive transfer, we contend, offers researcher away to""see"" this messiness more fully than traditional notions of transfer allow.","We dey contend, dey offer researcher way to see dis messiness more fully than how traditional notions of transfer dey allow.",English Language
"while leki's (1995)intention was not to explore transfer or adaptive transfer, her study does provide insight into how wac scholars might go about researching how multilingual writers learn to write across the curriculum.",Di study don provide insight into how wac scholars go about researching how multilingual writers learn to write across di curriculum.,English Language
"it also points to the benefit of designing multilayered methodologies that employ textual analysis, interviews, observations, rhetorical analysis, and genre analysis to explore adaptive transfer(see also canagarajah, 2006b; lobato, 2003; parks, 2001).","Di benefit of di design multilayered methodology wey employ textual analysis, di interviews, di observations, di rhetorical analysis, and di genre analysis to explore di adaptive transfer(see also canagarajah, 2006b; lobato, 2003; parks, 2001).",English Language
"recent wac research that reflects this emphasis on multifaceted methodologies could also provide wac scholars with a fuller understanding of how multilingual and native english speakers learn to write across disciplines, genres, and contexts.","Di recent wac research wey reflect dis emphasis on multifaceted methodology go also provide wac scholars wit fuller understanding of how multilingual and native English speakers learn to write across disciplines, genres, and contexts.",English Language
one example is stitt-bergh and hilgers's (2009)recent discussion of wac assessment at the university of hawai'i at manoa (uhm)an example that is particularly relevant to our discussion given that hawai'i recognizes hawaiian as an official language.,Di example dey stitt-bergh and hilgers's (2009)recent discussion of wac assessment for di university of hawai'i for manoa (uhm)one example wey dey relevant to awa discussion given say hawai'i recognize hawaiian as official language.,English Language
"in their article, stitt-bergh and hilgers (2009)name a variety of methods that, if reconceived through the lens of adaptive transfer, could help expand wac scholarship in productive ways.","Di article, stitt-bergh and hilgers (2009)name a variety of methods wey, if reconceived through di lens of adaptive transfer, go help expand wac scholarship for productive way.",English Language
"some ofthe methods they name, such as interviews and text analysis, parallel those that leki (1995)employed.","Di methods wey dem name, such as interview and text analysis, parallel those wey leki (1995)employ.",English Language
"but they also name several additional methodologies that could be useful, including ethnography, focus groups, and surveys.","Dem name several additional methodology wey dey useful, including ethnography, one kind meeting wey dem dey call to yarn about somethin, wey dem go take am discuss, wey one person go lead, make dem hear pipo tori, sabi wetin dem like, wetin dem no like, and surveys.",English Language
"given their interactional nature, focus groups might be ideally suited to helping wac researchers identify instances of adaptive transfer, whether with alumni or current students.","Di one kind meeting wey dem dey call to yarn about somethin, wey dem go take am discuss, wey one person go lead, make dem hear pipo tori, sabi wetin dem like, wetin dem no like dey ideally suite to help wac researchers help identify di instances of di adaptive transfer, whether wit alumni or dem current students.",English Language
focus groups might be particularly useful to help wac researchers understand how recent graduates reshape prior writing knowledge learned in academic contexts to professional ones.,"Di one kind meeting wey dem dey call to yarn about somethin, wey dem go take am discuss, wey one person go lead, make dem hear pipo tori, sabi wetin dem like, wetin dem no like dey particularly useful to help wac researchers understand how recent graduates reshape prior writing knowledge wey dey learn for academic contexts to professional ones.",English Language
"specifically, focus groups comprised of recent graduates could provide insight into how students transitioned from course to course in university writing contexts and from academic writing contexts to professional writing contexts.","E dey specifically, one kind meeting wey dem dey call to yarn about somethin, wey dem go take am discuss, wey one person go lead, make dem hear pipo tori, sabi wetin dem like, wetin dem no like wey be recent graduates go provide insight into how students transition from course to course for university writing contexts and from academic writing contexts to professional writing contexts.",English Language
"because participants in a focus group might be able to name instances of adaptive transfer more easily when they hear others do so, this approach could be particularly effective for multilingual writers.",Di approach go dey effective for multilingual writers.,English Language
"that said, focus group participants would need to be selected carefully.",Dem tok say focus group participants go need to be selected carefully,English Language
"participants, whether native english speakers or multilingual students, would need to have an awareness of and language for talking about how they negotiate the demands of shifting from one context to another.","Di participants, whether native English speakers or multilingual students, go need to get awareness of and language for talking about how dem negotiate di demand of shift from one context to another.",English Language
our assumption is that advanced students or recent graduates would have a better-developed awareness and language than less experienced students.,Di assumption na say advanced students or recent graduates go get better-developed awareness and language than less experienced students.,English Language
"to once again demonstrate how the theory of adaptive transfer could inform such research, we provide sample questions that researchers might ask in such focus groups.","We provide sample questions wey researchers go ask for such research, we provide sample questions wey researchers go ask for such one kind meeting wey dem dey call to yarn about somethin, wey dem go take am discuss, wey one person go lead, make dem hear pipo tori, sabi wetin dem like, wetin dem no like.",English Language
"from the vantage of traditional transfer, such questions might include the following: think about the writing you learned to doin college.",Di question go include di following: think about di writing you learn to do for college.,English Language
how has it(not) prepared you to do the writing you're now doing in your profession?,I no dey prepared you to do di writing wey dey do for your profession?,English Language
how did that background help or hinder your writing indifferent classes in col- lege?,Di background dey help or hinder your writing for di different class for college?,English Language
how has it helped or hindered your workplace writing?,How dey help or hinder your workplace writing?,English Language
how did the writing that you learned to doin earlier classes(not) prepare you to do the writing you did in later classes?,Di writing wey you learn to do for earlier class(not) prepare you to do di writing wey you learn for later class,English Language
"again, while such questions would certainly provide valuable data, questions reframed using the theory of adaptive transfer could lead to even richer insights: think back on the different classes you took that included significant writing.","Di question go dey provide valuable data, questions reframed using di theory of di adaptive transfer wey go lead to even richer insights.",English Language
describe your process of working through new or unfamiliar writing tasks.,Di process of work dey go through new or unfamiliar writing tasks.,English Language
describe your process of working through new or unfamiliar writing tasks.,Di process of work through di new or unfamiliar writing tasks.,English Language
in what ways have you had to reshape what you learned in school to fit what you need to do at work?,Di ways wey you go get to reshape what you learn for school to fit wetin you need do for work?,English Language
"in any of these moments, did you feel like what you did was really a different way of writing that you felt was valuable, useful, and/or original?","Di moments, don you feel like what you dey write, useful, and or original?",English Language
"depalma and ringer54using focus groups as means of studying instances of adaptive transfer has the potential to highlight the diverse linguistic resources of alumni, particularly in terms ofthe rhetorical patterns multilingual writers might draw onto negotiate unfamiliar writing contexts.","Di diversity linguistic resources of alumni, particularly for terms of di rhetorical patterns multilingual writers go draw onto negotiate unfamiliar writing contexts.",English Language
"put otherwise, by using the lens of adaptive transfer to analyze the ways multilingual and nes alumni discuss their processes of reshaping in a focus group setting, wac researchers could learn much about the ways writers adapt writing knowledge learned in one context to suit their rhetorical purposes in another.","Di lens of adaptive transfer to analyze di ways multilingual and nes alumni discuss dia process of reshaping for focus group setting, wac researchers go learn much about di way writers adapt write knowledge learn for one context to suit dia rhetorical purposes for another.",English Language
"to get at these adaptations in analyzing focus group transcripts, wac research might ask the following questions: in describing their processes of carrying out writing tasks, what kinds of linguistic resources, rhetorical knowledge, and writing experience do focus group participants discuss?","For describing dia process of carry out di writing tasks, which kind linguistic resources, rhetorical knowledge, and writing experience dem focus group participants dey discuss?",English Language
"finally, adaptive transfer could also inform classroom-based research.",Adaptive transfer go also dey inform classroom-based research.,English Language
reflective writing assignments are common in wac and could be revised to help faculty account for students' processes of adaptive transfer; such writing could also provide datasets that wac researchers could analyze with the aim of understanding the ways students adapt to new writing tasks.,Di write could also provide datasets wey wac researchers go analyze wit di aim of understanding di way students adapt to new writing tasks.,English Language
"thaiss and zawacki (2006), for example, offer a range of practices that faculty across the disciplines might employ, one of which includes,""give students opportunities for reflecting on their own growth as writers and rhetors, in the academy and as related to the workplaces they will enter"" (p.152).","for example, offer range of practices wey faculty across di disciplines go employ, one of which include,""give students opportunities for reflecting on dia own growth as writers and rhetors, for di academy and as related to di workplaces dem go enter"" (p.152).",English Language
"central to our concerns, such assignments could help students, instructors, and wac researchers identify how and when adaptive transfer might be occurring.","Di assignments go dey help students, instructors, and wac researchers to identify how and when di adaptive transfer go occur.",English Language
"many ofthe reflective assignments they suggest(e. g, literacy narratives, journals, blogs, or eportfolios) could help faculty and wac researchers understand how students might be drawing on their""history as writers""and on their multilingual backgroundsto navigate novel rhetorical tasks.","Di reflective assignment wey dem suggest(e. g, literacy narratives, journals, blogs, or eportfolio) go help faculty and wac researchers understand how students go draw on dia""history as writers""and on dia multilingual background to navigate novel rhetorical tasks.",English Language
"from the vantage of adaptive transfer, such assignments could also invite multilingual students to analyze current rhetorical tasks in light of a number of other factors, including their linguistic backgrounds and the resemblances they perceive between one writing context and another (lobato, 2003).","Dem also invite multilingual students to analyze current rhetorical tasks for light of a number of oda factors, including dia linguistic background and di resemblance wey dem perceive between one writing context and another (lobato, 2003).",English Language
"specifically, such assignments could prompt students to identify and describe the rhetorical patterns or linguistic features of their native languages or dialects and then consider how they might use or reshape those patterns to help them complete a current writing task.",Di assignment go prompt students to identify and describe di rhetorical patterns or linguistic features of dia native languages or dialects and then consider how dem go use or reshape dia pattern to help dem complete a current writing task.,English Language
teachers might use questions like the following to help their students frame a reflective writing assignment: how does this writing task compare with those you have encountered in the past?,Di teachers go use questions like di following to help dia students frame reflective writing assignment: how does dis writing task compare wit di following to help dia students frame reflective writing assignment: how does dis writing task compare wit di following to help dia students frame reflective writing assignment,English Language
"for wac researchers, such writing could point to evidence of when and how students reshape or reuse prior writing knowledge in new contexts.","For wac researchers, that writing go point to di evidence of wen and how students dey reshape or reuse prior writing knowledge for di new contexts.",English Language
"to help them analyze these texts, researchers might use questions like the following: what resemblances across rhetorical contexts do students perceive?",Di researchers go use questions like di following: what resemblances wey dey across rhetorical contexts do students perceive?,English Language
"what do these resemblances suggest about the potential malleability and fluidity of genres, discourses, or rhetorical forms?","We dey suggest about di potential malleability and fluidity of genres, discourses, or rhetorical forms?",English Language
what do their comments regarding their idiosyncratic processes of adaptation tell us about the nature of adaptive transfer in general?,Di idiosyncratic process of adaptation tell us about di nature of adaptive transfer for general?,English Language
what do their comments suggest about learning to write?,Di comment wey dem suggest about learning to write?,English Language
what do such perceptions tell researchers about the fluidity of languages and contexts of writing?,We do dose perceptions to tell researchers about di fluidity of languages and di contexts of writing?,English Language
"what evidence, if any, suggests that students are intentionally altering discourses as the result of a""strategic and creative choice by the author to attain his or her rhetorical objectives"" (canagarajah, 2006b, p.591)?","Di evidence, if any dey, suggest say students dey intentionally alter discourses as di result of""strategic and creative choice by di author to attain hin or her rhetorical objectives"" (canagarajah, 2006b, p.591)?",English Language
"overall, the purposes of such measures would be to expand wac researchers' conceptions of what happens when students write across contexts by identifying depalma and ringer56the diverse ways in which nes and multilingual students navigate unfamiliar writing situations.",Di purpose of such measures go expand wac researchers' conceptions of what dey happen wen students write across contexts by identifying depalma and ringer56the diverse way wey nes and multilingual students dey navigate unfamiliar writing situation.,English Language
"it would do so by highlighting the complexity of learning to write, particularly in terms of how individuals reuse or reshape prior rhetorical and linguistic knowledge in new contexts.","Di complexity of learning to write, particularly for di terms of how individuals dey reuse or reshape prior rhetorical and linguistic knowledge for di new contexts.",English Language
understanding how these reshapings occur may help wac researchers and administrators develop programs that take advantage of multilingual and nes students' diverse resources.,Di reshapings go help wac researchers and administrators dey develop programs wey dey take advantage of multilingual and nes students' diverse resources.,English Language
"as a result, the insights gained from such research would likely have significant implications for faculty who teach with writing in the disciplines.",Di insights gain from such research go likely have significant implications for faculty wey teach wit writing for di disciplines.,English Language
"teaching with writing in the disciplines along with helping wac researchers understand how students navigate novel writing situations, adaptive transfer also has significant implications for the pedagogical practices that wac professionals promote as they guide faculty to teach with wid.",Di pedagogical practice wey wac professionals promote as dem guide faculty to teach wit wid.,English Language
"more specifically, wac specialists might offer the lens of adaptive transfer as means by which to reinvigorate how faculty teaching with wid view language and language change; student writers and texts; contexts of writing; and the aims of writing instruction.",Di wac specialists go offer di lens of adaptive transfer as means wey go reinvigorate how faculty teach wit wid view language and language change; student writers and texts; context of writing; and di aims of writing instruction.,English Language
"in using the lens of adaptive transfer to reshape how faculty understand the nature of learning to write and the aims of teaching with wid, wac specialists will have an opportunity to address faculty expectations regarding the transfer of writing knowledge.","Di lens of di adaptive transfer to reshape how di faculty take understand di nature of learning to write and di aims of teaching wit wid, wac specialists go get opportunity to address faculty expectations regarding di transfer of writing knowledge.",English Language
they will also be able to influence the kinds of assignments and evaluation methods that faculty employ in their courses.,Di faculty go also dey able to influence di kind of assignment and evaluation methods wey faculty employ for dia course.,English Language
"the aims of learning to write across the curriculum are often premised on traditional notions of transfer, as is evident in condon's (2001)articulation ofthe responsibilities of wac faculty: teacherswac faculty in particularneed to know what they can reasonably expect students to be able to do with and in writing, and they need to match those expectations with the level of expectations that are implicit in the teachers' own course objectives, objectives which, in turn, are determined by their location within the curriculum.","Di responsibilities of wac faculty for particularneed to know how dem fit do wit and in writing, and dem need to match those expectations wit di level of expectations wey dem dey implicit for di teachers' own course objectives, objectives wey dem dey determined by dia location.",English Language
teachers need to know how to build more effective assignments knowledge that involves both information about the writing students will do after taking a particular course(in careers or in subsequent courses)and information about the writing students have done to that point in the university's curriculum.,Di teachers need know how to build more effective assignments knowledge wey dey involves both information about di writing students go do after taking particular course(in careers or in subsequent course)and information about di writing students go do to dat point for di university curriculum.,English Language
"(p.31) 57 adaptive t ransferthough he does not mention transfer specifically, condon (2001)is alluding to the possibility that students will be able to apply what they learned in prior courses when they encounter writing tasks in later courses or careers.","E no mention transfer specifically, condon (2001)dey alluding to di possibility say students go fit apply what dem learn for prior courses wen dem dey encounter writing tasks for later courses or careers.",English Language
"as such, the implicit view of learning to write is that it occurs with a degree of predictability in terms of what students will learn, how they will learn it, and their ability to transfer such learning.","Di implicit view of learning to write na say e occur wit degree of predictability for terms of what students go learn, how dem learn am, and dia ability to transfer such learning.",English Language
"while we certainly agree that it is important for faculty across the disciplines to understand where their course fits into the wider curriculum, we also contend that premising such discussions on traditional notions of transfer will likely result in unrealistic expectations: faculty will expect students to carry over generic, disciplinary, or rhetorical knowledge and will grow frustrated when this does not occura frustration that so often motivates criticisms leveled at first-year writing courses from faculty across the disciplines who complain that students""don't know how to write.""","Di certainly agree say e dey important for faculty across di disciplines to understand where dia course fit into di wider curriculum, we also contend say e no dey always motivate criticism level for first year writing courses from faculty across di disciplines wey complain say students dey carry over generic, disciplinary, or rhetorical knowledge and go grow frustrated when dis no dey result in unrealistic expectations.",English Language
"in drawing upon the framework of adaptive transfer to guide faculty teaching with wid, however, wac professionals can promote a different picture of learning to write.","Di framework of di adaptive transfer to guide faculty teaching wit wid, however, wac professionals go promote di different picture of learning to write.",English Language
"specifically, wac specialists could use adaptive transfer to complicate faculty expectations regarding what students have learned prior to entering their courses and what they will do with that knowledge following those courses.",Di specialists go use adaptive transfer to complicate faculty expectations regarding what students don learn prior to entering dia course and how dem go do wit dat knowledge wey dem follow di course.,English Language
"regarding multilingual students in particular, wac professionals could offer adaptive transfer as a means by which to help faculty teaching with wid envision students not as passive recipients of writing knowledge, but as individuals with unique educational and linguistic backgrounds who may appropriate and transform prior or new writing knowledge for their own purposes (canagarajah 2006b).","Di professionals go offer adaptive transfer as means wey go help faculty teaching wit wid envision students no as passive recipients of writing knowledge, but as individuals wit unique educational and linguistic background wey dey appropriate and transform prior or new writing knowledge for dia own purposes (canagarajah 2006b).",English Language
"this is not to say that every multilingual student will consciously reshape prior writing knowledge for his/her own ends, but it does provide space for this possibility.","Dem no say every multilingual student go consciously reshape prior writing knowledge for hin own ends, but e no provide space for dis possibility.",English Language
"likewise, wac specialists might encourage faculty teaching with wid to consider the kinds of intuitive reshaping that may occur as students shift between writing contexts.",Di wac specialists go encourage faculty teaching wit wid to consider di kind of intuitive reshaping wey dey occur as students shift between writing contexts.,English Language
"in short, adaptive transfer might be productively used by wac specialists to reinvigorate how faculty teaching with wid view language change, student texts, contexts of writing, and the purpose of writing instruction.","Di adaptive transfer fit dey productively use by wac specialists to reinvigorate how di faculty teach wit wid view language change, student texts, contexts of writing, and di purpose of writing instruction.",English Language
"language adaptive transfer highlights the ways in which languages and language varieties are""always in process, located in and subject to ongoing and varying material practice""(horner &t rimbur, 2002, p. 596).","Di way wey languages and language varieties dey always in process, located for and subject to ongoing and varying material practice""(horner &t rimbur, 2002, p. 596).",English Language
"in recent years, specialists in second language(l2) writing have demonstrated the dynamic nature of language and the multiplicity of language uses (canagarajah, 2002; canagarajah, 2006a; canagarajah, 2006b; lu,2004; lu,2006; matsuda, 1997; matsuda, depalma and ringer582002).","Di specialists for di oda language wey you learn(l2) writing don demonstrat di dynamic nature of language and di multiplicity of language use (canagarajah, 2002; canagarajah, 2006b; canagarajah, 2006b; lu,2004; lu,2006; matsuda, 1997; matsuda, depalma and ringer582002).",English Language
"these discussions have not only called attention to the need to alter views about language, but have also indicated the extent to which assumptions about writing and writing instruction must change if we are to adequately prepare nes and multilingual writers for the varied tasks they face as students and professionals.","Di discussion don call attention to di need to alter views about language, but don also indicated di extent to which assumptions about writing and writing instruction must change if we dey adequately prepare nes and multilingual writers for di varied tasks wey dem face as students and professionals.",English Language
"to this point, horner and t rimbur (2002)argue, ""if we grant that definitions of academic discourse and competence in it are arbitrary, then the notion of leading students through a fixed developmental sequence of stages to mastery of that language has to be rethought"" (p.620).","For dis point, horner and t rimbur (2002)argue, ""if we grant say definition of academic discourse and competence wey dey arbitrary, then di notion of leading students through fixed developmental sequence of stage to mastery of dat language don dey rethought"" (p.620).",English Language
"recognizing""the heterogeneity and fluctuating nature of writing"" necessitates rethinking""how [instructors]design both individual writing courses and curricular programs""(horner &t rimbur, 2002, p. 620).","Di heterogeneity and fluctuating nature of writing""dey necessitate rethinking of how[instructors] go design both individual writing courses and di curricular programs""(horner &t rimbur, 2002, p. 620).",English Language
the framework of adaptive transfer helps to foreground the view that all language is invariably influx.,Di framework of adaptive transfer help to foreground di view say all language dey invariably for flux.,English Language
"as such, adaptive transfer has the potential to help faculty across the curriculum rethink the ways that writing is taught in both l1 and l2 writing contexts.","because of dat, adaptive transfer don di potential to help faculty across di curriculum rethink di way wey dey write for both l1 and l2 writing contexts.",English Language
"the lens of adaptive transfer, that is, might encourage faculty teaching with wid to adopt the kinds of culturally and linguistically inclusive approaches to writing instruction that l2 specialists have called for.","Di lens of adaptive transfer, wey dey, might encourage faculty teaching wit wid to adopt di kind of culturally and linguistically inclusive approach to write instruction wey l2 specialists don call for.",English Language
"student texts by encouraging progressive views of language use through the framework of adaptive transfer, wac specialists can also help faculty teaching with wid consider how native english speakers and multilingual students might reshape writing skills they've learned in prior contexts to fit new ones.",Di specialists go help faculty teaching wit wid consider how native English speakers and multilingual students go reshape write skills wey dem learn for prior contexts to fit new ones.,English Language
"working from an adaptive transfer perspective, that is, faculty teaching with wid might be less apt to claim that transfer did not occur when students' texts disrupt their expectations.","E dey, faculty teaching wit wid go dey apt to claim say transfer no occur when students texts disrupt dia expectations.",English Language
"instead, faculty might ask how students have attempted to adapt writing skills learned in other settings to their current rhetorical situation.","Forstead, faculty go ask how students go adapt writing skills learn for oda settings to dia current rhetorical situation.",English Language
"further, if students defy a disciplinary convention, faculty might be more likely to ask students why they made the rhetorical choices they did instead of dismissing those choices assigns of error.","If students defy disciplinary convention, faculty go be more likely to ask students why dem make di rhetorical choices wey dem don make forstead of dismissing dia choice assigns of error.",English Language
"the view of language encouraged by the framework of adaptive transfer, in other words, might help broaden faculty perceptions of student texts.","Di view of language wey dey encourage by di framework of adaptive transfer, in oda words, go help broaden faculty perceptions of student texts.",English Language
"rather than approaching student writing with preconceived notions about what student texts should look like, adaptive 59 adaptive t ransfertransfer encourages faculty to recognize when students attempt to reshape prior knowledge to suit both the demands ofthe rhetorical situation and students' own objectives.",Di adaptive 59 adaptive t ransfertransfer encourage faculty to recognize wen students dey try reshape prior knowledge to suit both di demands of di rhetorical situation and students own objectives.,English Language
such a reconception of student writers and texts could certainly inform teachers' processes of evaluation.,Di reconception of student writers and text dey certainly inform teachers' process of evaluation.,English Language
"for example, faculty working from the perspective of adaptive transfer might ask student writers to complete the kind of reflective writing we discussed earlier.","for example, faculty work from di perspective of adaptive transfer go ask student writers to complete di kind of reflective writing wey we discuss earlier.",English Language
"asking students to""analyze current rhetorical tasks in the context of relevant challenges ofthe writer's past"" (thaiss & zawacki, 2006, p. 153)could lead to productive insights for faculty regarding students' writing knowledge, processes, histories, and challenges.","Dem ask students to""dey analyze current rhetorical tasks for di context of relevant challenges of di writer past"" (thaiss & zawacki, 2006, p.153) go lead to productive insights for di faculty regarding students' writing knowledge, di processes, di histories, and di challenges.",English Language
"by prompting students as thaiss and zawacki (2006)suggest, faculty teaching with wid are apt to learn valuable information about the assumptions guiding each writer's rhetorical and linguistic choices.",Di faculty teaching wit wid dey apt to learn valuable information about di assumptions wey dey guiding each writer's rhetorical and linguistic choices.,English Language
"for example, if leki's (1995)student julie had been provided an opportunity to reflect on the rhetorical choices she was making while composing her history paper, her teacher may have gained important insights into julie's reasons for""rewriting the terms ofthe assignment to suit what she thought she could do best"" (leki, 1995, p. 243).","for example, if leki's (1995)student julie don provide opportunity to reflect on di rhetorical choice she dey make while composing her history paper, her teacher go gain important insights into julie's reasons for""rewriting di terms of di assignment to suit wen she go fit do best"" (leki, 1995, p. 243).",English Language
such information would have been valuable in evaluating julie's written work because it would have highlighted her rhetorical processes of adaptive transfer.,E go dey valuable for evaluating julie's written work because e go highlight her rhetorical process of adaptive transfer.,English Language
"specifically, it would have underscored that julie's resistance resulted from a""strategic and creative choice[.] to attain[.] her rhetorical objectives"" (canagarajah, 2006b, p.591).","E go underscore say julie's resistance dey result from a""strategic and creative choice to attain her rhetorical objectives"" (canagarajah, 2006b, p.591).",English Language
such reflective writing could play an even more significant role for students who similarly rewrite assignments but do not fare aswell as julie.,Di reflective writing go play even more significant role for students wey similarly rewrite assignment but no dey fare as julie.,English Language
"in such cases, faculty teaching with wid who know why students chose to write an assignment differently would be able to take such motives into account when evaluating written work.","Di cases, faculty teaching wit wid wey know why students go write assignment differently go fit take such motives into account wen evaluate written work.",English Language
"using this kind of reflective writing as part of teachers' processes of evaluating student texts might also allow faculty teaching with wid to see how factors such as race, class, gender, socioeconomic status, educational history, genre knowledge, and language repertoire shape how individuals encounter new writing situations (depalma &ringer, 2011; zamel & spack, 2006).","Di kind of reflective writing as part of teachers' process of evaluating student texts go allow faculty teaching wit wid to see how factors such as race, class, gender, Person's level in society based on how much money dem make, their education and job, educational history, genre knowledge, and language repertoire shape how individuals dey encounter new writing situations (depalma &ringer, 2011; zamel & spack, 2006).",English Language
"finally, such reflective writing will likely encourage faculty to more readily account for the highly diverse ways in which students will learn to write in new genres, disciplines, and contexts.","Di reflective writing go likely encourage faculty to more readily account for di highly diverse way wey students go learn to write for new genres, disciplines, and contexts.",English Language
"contexts of writing along with informing how faculty teaching with wid interact with students' texts, adaptive transfer might also encourage faculty to embrace a dynamic theory of writing, which has implications for both native english speakers depalma and ringer60and multilingual writers.","Di dynamic theory of writing along wit informing how faculty teach wit wid interact wit students text, adaptive transfer might also encourage faculty to embrace dynamic theory of writing, wey dey implications for both native English speakers depalma and ringer60and multilingual writers.",English Language
"in the dynamic model of multilingual writing that matsuda (1997)proposes, both the writer's and the reader's backgrounds are included in the context of writing.","Di dynamic model of multilingual writing wey matsuda (1997) propos, both di writer and di reader's background dey include for di context of writing.",English Language
"matsuda (1997)defines this space as""the dynamic environment that surrounds the meeting ofthe writer and the reader through the text in a particular writing situation""(p. 248).","Di space as di dynamic environment wey dey surround di meeting of di writer and di reader through di text for particular writing situation""(p. 248).",English Language
"because adaptive transfer stems from a dynamic view of writing that views contexts for writing as shared, negotiated, and constantly influx, adaptive transfer has the potential to alter faculty members' views of and attitudes toward nes and multilingual writers across the curriculum.","Di adaptive transfer stem from dynamic view of writing wey dey shared, negotiated, and constantly for flux, adaptive transfer don dey potential to alter faculty members' views of and attitudes toward nes and multilingual writers across di curriculum.",English Language
"rather than viewing students solely as novice writers with little to contribute to the discourse communities they are seeking to enter, adaptive transfer encourages faculty to see students as agents who possess a range of valuable language resources and knowledge that might shape their writing in productive ways.","Di adaptive transfer encourage faculty to see students solely as novice writers wit little to contribute to di discourse community wey dem dey seeking to enter, adaptive transfer encourage faculty to see students as agents wey possess valuable language resources and knowledge wey fit shape dia writing for productive way.",English Language
students are thus reconceived of as potential contributors to an ever-changing rhetorical context rather than as repositories of genre knowledge and conventions.,Di students dey recognise as potential contributors to di ever-changing rhetorical context no be as repositories of genre knowledge and conventions.,English Language
"they are, in other words, transformers rather than transferers of writing knowledge and writing contexts(brent, 2012).","For oda words, transformers wey dey transferers of writing knowledge and writing contexts(brent, 2012).",English Language
"when thinking in terms of adaptive transfer, that is, faculty would be more likely to ask how students' texts might influence contexts of writing.","For when thinking for terms of adaptive transfer, na, faculty go ask how students texts go influence context of writing.",English Language
"aims of writing instruction in addition to influencing the ways faculty across the curriculum approach student texts and view student writers, adaptive transfer also has significant implications for how faculty teaching with wid understand the aims of writing instruction.","Di aims of writing instruction for addition to influence di way faculty across di curriculum approach student texts and view student writers, adaptive transfer also don significant implications for how faculty teaching wit wid understand di aims of writing instruction.",English Language
"rather than seeing the goal of writing instruction as teaching students to master discourses of power, adaptive transfer foregrounds a pedagogy that allows students to question writing conventions at the same time that they are being taught to practice them.","Di goal of writing instruction as teaching students to master discourses of power, adaptive transfer foregrounds a pedagogy wey dey allow students to question writing conventions for di same time say dem dey taught to practice dem.",English Language
"because of this, adaptive transfer might encourage faculty to adopt an alternative discourses approach, such as that noted by thaiss and zawacki (2006).","Na because of dis, adaptive transfer go encourage faculty to adopt alternative discourses approach, such assay wey dey note by thaiss and zawacki (2006).",English Language
"whereas traditional pedagogies assume that all students desire to learn dominant discourses, an alternative discourses approach that informs adaptive transfer might help faculty acknowledge that students have different reasons for learning to write, one of which may include the desire to change contexts of writing.","Di traditional pedagogies assume say all students go learn dominant discourses, alternative discourses approach wey inform adaptive transfer go help faculty acknowledge say students go learn different reasons for learning to write, one of which go include di desire to change context of writing.",English Language
"thaiss and zawacki (2006), for instance, note that the faculty they interviewed recognized""the dynamism of disciplines,""such that""a teacher preparing students for academic writing would be hard pressed to label any discursive practice always unacceptable""(p. 137).","Di faculty dem interview dem recognize di dynamism of disciplines, such say""a teacher preparing students for academic writing go dey hard pressed to label any discursive practice always unacceptable""(p. 137).",English Language
"thus, rather than only using the expectations ofthe instructor's academic discourse community as a basis for determining instructional aims, adaptive transfer might urge faculty 61 adaptive t ransferto also view students' strategic design to create new discourses as a legitimate goal of writing instruction in the disciplines.","Di expectation of di instructor's academic discourse community as a basis for determining di instructional aims, di adaptive transfer fit urge faculty 61 adaptive transfer to also view di students' strategic design to create di new discourses as di legitimate goal of writing instruction for di disciplines.",English Language
"while we would be remiss to argue that multilingual students' various reshapings are always conscious and strategic, we would be equally remiss to argue that they never are (canagarajah, 2006b).","We go be remis to argue say multilingual students dey various reshapings dey always conscious and strategic, we go be equally remis to argue say dem no dey (canagarajah, 2006b).",English Language
"in some cases, the decision to depart from disciplinary conventions is purposeful, and the framework of adaptive transfer helps us to recognize this kind of intentional reshaping.","Di decision to depart from di disciplinary conventions wey dey purposeful, and di framework of adaptive transfer dey help us to recognize dis kind of intentional reshaping.",English Language
"when considering adaptive transfer as a guide in structuring curricular goals, faculty members' ideas about how to encourage students to reshape and reform learned writing skills to fit new tasks are liable to shift.","E dey consider di adaptive transfer as di guide for structuring curricular goals, faculty members' ideas about how to encourage di students to reshape and reform learned writing skills to fit new tasks dey liable to shift.",English Language
"instead of setting the reuse of disciplinary conventions as the primary goal of instruction, the framework of adaptive transfer might prompt faculty members to adopt a multilingual approach that takes full advantage of students' diverse rhetorical and linguistic resources.","Forstead of setting di reuse of disciplinary convention as di primary goal of instruction, di framework of adaptive transfer go prompt faculty members to adopt multilingual approach wey dey take full advantage of students' diverse rhetorical and linguistic resources.",English Language
conclusion adaptive transfer has significant implications for multilingual and nes writers across the curriculum and for the wac programs that support them.,Di conclusion adaptive transfer don significant implications for multilingual and nes writers across di curriculum and for di wac programs wey support dem.,English Language
it thus serves as a framework that can help wac scholars and faculty adjust their practices in ways that effectively serve the growing population of multilingual learners in us higher education.,Di framework wey fit help wac scholars and faculty adjust dia practices for way wey dey effectively serve di growing population of multilingual learners for us higher education.,English Language
"as we continue to realize the""new america""in which we livean america, as hall(2009) writes, wherein multilingualism is now more common than monolingualismit is imperative that wac scholars account for the complex ways in which all students learn to write across the curriculum.","As we continue to realize di new America wey we livean America, as hall(2009) write, wherein multilingualism dey more common than monolingualismit dey imperative say wac scholars account for di complex way wey all students learn to write across di curriculum.",English Language
"in doing so, it is our hope that wac scholars and faculty will be able to recognize multilingual writers' rhetorical and linguistic backgrounds as resources and not liabilities (canagarajah, 2006b).","Di hope say wac scholars and faculty go recognize di multilingual writers' rhetorical and linguistic background as di resources and no liabilities (canagarajah, 2006b).",English Language
"we hope that the framework of adaptive transfer will help achieve such ends, so that wac researchers and faculty across the disciplines can ethically and effectively help students learn to writeand value students' multilingual, idiosyncratic ways of writing and knowing as part of that enterprise.","We hope say di framework of adaptive transfer go help achieve such ends, so say wac researchers and faculty across di disciplines fit ethically and effectively help students learn to write and value students' multilingual, idiosyncratic way of write and know as part of dat enterprise.",English Language
connecting wac and esl?,Dem connect wac and Esl?,English Language
transferable skills: promoting student research.,E dey promote student research.,English Language
"toward a theory of adaptive transfer: expanding disciplinary discussions of""transfer"" in second-language writing and composition studies.","Di theory of di adaptive transfer: expand disciplinery discussions of di""transfer"" for di second-language writing and di composition studies.",English Language
worlds apart: acting and writing in academic and workplace contexts.,Di world apart: dey act and write for academic and workplace contexts,English Language
"transforming transfer: unruly children, contrary texts, and the persistence of pedagogical order.","Unruly children, di contrary text, and di persistence of pedagogical order",English Language
wac/wid in the next america: redefining professional iden - tity in the age ofthe multilingual majority.,Dem redefining professional iden - tity for di age of di multilingual majority,English Language
"inductive, deductive, quasi-inductive: expository writing in japanese, korean, chinese, and thai.","Di expository writing for japanese, korean, chinese, and thai.",English Language
"resisting monolingualism in""english"": reading and writing the politics of language.",E dey reading and write di politics of language,English Language
teaching classroom and authentic genres: initiating stu- dents into academic cultures and discourses.,E dey initiate students into academic culture and discourses,English Language
"text, role, and context: developing academic literacies.",Di academic literacies wey dey develop academic literacies,English Language
contrastive rhetoric and second language learning: notes towards a theory of contrastive rhetoric.,Na notes towards theory of contrastive rhetoric and di oda language wey you learn learning: notes towards theory of contrastive rhetoric and di oda language wey you learn learning: notes towards theory of contrastive rhetoric and di oda language wey you learn learning: notes towards theory of contrastive rhetoric.,English Language
an investigation of l1-l2 transfer in writing among japa - nese university students: implications for contrastive rhetoric.,Di investigation of l1-l2 transfer for writing among dem japanese university students: di implications for di contrastive rhetoric,English Language
"cognition in practice: mind, mathematics, and culture in every- day life.","Di cognition for practice: mind, mathematics, and culture for everyday life",English Language
situated learning: legitimate peripheral participa - tion.,Na legitimate peripheral participa - tion,English Language
undergraduates in a second language: challenges and complexities of academic literacy development.,Di challenge and di complexities of academic literacy development.,English Language
"""completely different worlds"": eap and the writing experiences of esl students in university courses.",Eap and di writing experience of Esl students for university courses.,English Language
how design experiments can inform a rethinking of transfer and vice versa.,How di design experiments dey inform a rethinking of transfer and oda way round,English Language
an essay on the work of composition: composing english against the order of fast capitalism.,Di work of composition: composing english against di order of fast capitalism,English Language
contributions of academic and dialogic journals to writing about literature.,Di contributions of dem academic and dialogic journals to write about di literature,English Language
a stranger in strange lands: a college student writing across the curriculum.,Di college student write across di curriculum.,English Language
cross-cultural differences in rhetorical patterning: a study of japanese and english.,E get cross-cultural differences in di rhetorical patterning: Di study of japanese and english.,English Language
"moving from school to the workplace: disciplinary innova - tion, border crossings, and the reshaping of a written genre.","Di disciplinary innovation, di border crossings, and di reshaping of a written genre.",English Language
"reconceiving writing, rethinking writing instruction.","E dey rethinking writing, rethinking writing instruction",English Language
"cognitive load, schema acquisition, and procedural adaptation in noniso - morhpic analogical transfer.","Di cognitive load, di schema acquisition, and di procedural adaptation for noniso - morhpic analogical transfer.",English Language
writing/disciplinarity: a sociohistoric account of literate activ - ity in the academy.,Di sociohistoric account of literate activ - ity for di academy,English Language
acquiring disciplinary literacy: a social-cognitive analysis of text production and learning among iranian graduate students of education.,Di social-cognitive analysis of di text production and learning among di iranian graduate students of education.,English Language
topical structure analysis of academic paragraphs in english and spanish.,Di topical structure analysis of di academic paragraphs for english and spanish.,English Language
initiating esl students into the academic discourse commu - nity: how far should we go?,try initiate esl students into di academic discourse community: how far we go?,English Language
the acquisition of academic literacy in a second language: a longitudinal case study.,Di acquisition of di academic literacy for di oda language wey you learn: longitudinal Case study na di study of one example,English Language
"program assessment: pro- cesses, propagation, and culture change.","Di program assessment: pro- cesses, propagation, and culture change",English Language
"[special issue of writing across the curriculum and assessment]across the disciplines,6.","Di special issue of writing across di curriculum and assessment]across di disciplines,6.",English Language
engaged writers and dynamic disciplines: research on the academic writing life.,Na research on di academic writing life,English Language
"portsmouth, nh: boynton/cook heinemann.",Dem boynton cook heinemann,English Language
developing a culture of writing at virginia state university: anew writing emphasis.,To develop di new culture of writing for virginia state university: new writing emphasis,English Language
thinking and writing in college: a naturalistic study of students in four disciplines.,Di naturalistic study of di students for four disciplines,English Language
"understanding""transfer"" from fyc: preliminary results of a longitudinal study.","Understanding""transfer"" from fyc: Di preliminary results of di Research wey follow the same group of pipo over long period of time to see how things change.",English Language
"college composition and communication,60(4), 765-89.","Di college composition and communication,60(4), 765-89.",English Language
"communities of practice: learning, meaning, and identity.","Di community of practice: learning, meaning, and identity",English Language
crossing the curriculum: multilingual learners in college classrooms.,Crossing di curriculum: multilingual learners for college classrooms.,English Language
chozin's story deepens our understanding ofthe strategies multilingual graduate writers use to navigate their programs of study.,Di chozin's story deepens awa understanding of di strategies wey multilingual graduate writers dey use to navigate dia programs of study,English Language
"chozin (koh-zeen) was a bright, engaging indonesian graduate student who participated in my research project on how international multilingual graduate writers learn to write for their fields.","Di chozin (koh-zeen) be bright, engaging indonesian graduate student wey participate for my research project on how international multilingual graduate writers learn to write for dia field",English Language
"initially avery poor writer in english, chozin managed to overcome the low expectations of his advisor(and this researcher)to become a highly successful graduate student in his interdisciplinary program and a much-improved writer.",Dem manage to overcome di low expectations of hin advisor(and dis researcher)to become highly successful graduate student for hin interdisciplinary program and a much-improved writer.,English Language
chozin was avery unlikely success story; thus his experience highlights the resourcefulness that multilingual writers may bring to their writing development.,Di experience highlights di resourcefulness wey multilingual writers go bring to dia writing development.,English Language
chozin's particular resourcefulness also deepens our understanding ofthe strategies multilingual learners use when they encounter writing assignments in the us academy.,Di particular resourcefulness also deepens awa understanding of di strategies multilingual learners use wen dem dey encounter writing assignments for di us academy.,English Language
chozin's story reminds us too ofthe value of having a support network and of receiving feedback as we write.,Di chozin's story dey remind us too of di value to dey support network and dey receive feedback as we dey write.,English Language
"finally, his story provides a compelling example of what it means for a multilingual graduate student to write across multiple, largely unfamiliar, disciplines and ofthe value of wac to international students who may not be well prepared for the demands of writing in graduate school.","Di story provide compelling example of what e means for multilingual graduate student to write across multiple, largely unfamiliar, disciplines and of di value of wac to international students wey no be well prepared for di demands of writing for graduate school.",English Language
"phillips70i begin by describing the larger study that chozin was part of and then introduce readers to chozin and his primary professor, dr. g. before moving to a discussion of some ofthe key strategies that chozin developed in order to succeedstrategies for receiving useful feedback, for collaborating successfully on group projects, for managing the data collection process for his papers, and for improving his overall literacy.","Di larger study wey chozin dey part of and then introduce readers to chozin and hin primary professor, dr. g. before moving to discussion of some of di key strategies wey chozin develop for order to succeedstrategies for receiving useful feedback, for collaborating successfully on group projects, for managing di data collection process for hin paper, and for improving hin overall literacy.",English Language
international graduate students' development as writers chozin's eventual success was largely the result of his own diligence and resourcefulness; he was quick to develop successful strategies to overcome his writing challenges and developed a number of these strategies throughout his graduate career.,Dem quick to develop successful strategies to overcome hin writing challenge and develop successful strategies to overcome hin writing challenge and develop a number of dis strategies throughout hin graduate career.,English Language
"chozin's case study adds to a growing body of research on international graduate students, including well-known studies by casanave and leki.","Di chozin Case study na di study of one example dey add to di growing bodi of research on international graduate students, wey include di well-known studies by casanave and leki.",English Language
research by casanave (2002)and a research collection by casanave and li(2008) examine international graduate students' development as writers in great detail.,Di research collection by casanave (2002)and research collection by casanave and li(2008) don examine di international graduate students development as writers for great detail.,English Language
"casanave and li's (2008)edited collection, for example, provides an unusual yet useful way of understanding how graduate students learn to write.","Di collection, for example, dey provide unusual yet useful way wey dey us understand how graduate students dey learn write",English Language
"casanave's aim is""to look closely at students' experiences with and attitudes toward writing and to discover any changes overtime in how the students viewed themselves and their field""(p. 93).","Di aim dey""to look closely at students experience wit and attitudes toward writing and to discover any change overtime for how di students viewed themselves and dia field""(p. 93).",English Language
"casanave employs the metaphor of""writing games""as she focuses on the writers' shifting identities and on how the matesol program functions as a community of practice.","Di casanave don employ di metaphor of""writing games""as she don focus on di writers' shift identities and on how di matesol program function as community of practice.",English Language
"explaining her choice of""game"" to describe such a serious topic, casanave writes that the notion of writing games seems to depict people's sense that academic writing consists of ruleand strategy-based practices, done in interaction with others for some kind of personal and professional gain, and that it is learned through repeated practice rather than just from a guidebook of how to play.","Di notion of writing games dey depict pipo sense say academic writing dey consist of ruleand strategy-based practices, done for interaction wit oda for some kind personal and professional gain, and say e dey learn through repeated practice wey dey learn through guidebook of how to play.",English Language
"(p.3) 71 developing resources for successas i'll show, chozin learned to play the""writing game,""not only through repeated writing experiences but also through the strategy-based practices he developed.","To dey develop resources for success as I go show, chozin learn to play di""writing game""no only through repeated writing experience but also through di strategy-based practices he develop.",English Language
(also see depalma &ringer [this volume]for an examination of how l2 writers can and do become effective agents of their own learning as they develop strategies to cope with unfamiliar writing demands and expectations through the process of adaptive transfer).,Dem see depalma &ringer [this volume]for examination of how l2 writers fit and do become effective agents of dia own learning as dem develop strategies to cope wit unfamiliar writing demand and expectations through di process of adaptive transfer).,English Language
chozin's story provides an example of how one graduate student adapted his practices to carry outand sometimes resistthe writing tasks assigned across his courses.,For chozin's story provide example of how one graduate student dey adapt hin practice to carry outand sometimes resist di writing tasks wey dey across hin course.,English Language
"leki's (1995)study ""coping strategies of esl students in writing tasks across the curriculum""was the first to attempt to research and catalogue the strategies that multilingual writers employed when they encountered writing assignments.","Leki's (1995)study ""coping strategies of Esl students for writing tasks across di curriculum""na di first to attempt to research and catalogue di strategies wey multilingual writers employ when dem dey encounter write assignments.",English Language
"leki followed five students(three graduates and two undergraduates)through a semester of courses and catalogued their strategic moves, grouping them as follows: clarifying strategies, focusing strategies, relying on past writing experiences, taking advantage of first language/culture, using current experience or feedback, looking for models, using current or past esl writing training, accommodating teachers' demands, resisting teachers' demands and managing competing demands(1995, p.240).","For di clarifying strategies, dem focusing strategies, and relying on di past writing experience, taking advantage of di first language culture, using di current experience or feedback, looking for di models, using di current or past esl writing training, accommodating dem teachers' demands and managing di competing demands(1995, p.240).",English Language
"as i will discuss, leki's categories provide a good context for analyzing chozin's resourcefulness at the same time that his experiences also problematize some of leki's (to be fair, preliminary) categories and suggest new or broader ones.","I go discuss, leki's categories provide good context for analyzing chozin resourcefulness for di same time say hin experience dey problematize some of leki's (to be fair, preliminary) categories and suggest new or broader ones.",English Language
"for example, whereas leki's participants relied on past successful writing experiences for positive transfer to other writing tasks, one of chozin's most effective strategies was to learn from failure, i. e.","Di participants dey reli on past successful writing experience for positive transfer to oda writing tasks, one of chozin's most effective strategies dey learn from failure, i. e.",English Language
to take negative writing experiences and craft a plan to avoid the same outcome in the future.,Dem take negative writing experience and craft plan to avoid di same outcome for di future.,English Language
"though chozin is only one writer, newkirk (1992)argues that although qualitative approaches like the case study have no internal mechanism for generalization(such as a large, representative sample size), these approaches instead allow readers to perform the act of generalization; readers determine whether the case study looks like their own students or classrooms and therefore whether it should inform, alter, or trigger an overhaul of their own theories and pedagogies.","Dem argu say although qualitative approach like di Case study na di study of one example no internal mechanism for generalization(such as large, representative sample size), dem dey allow readers to perform di act of generalization; readers determine whether di Case study na di study of one example look like dia own students or classrooms and therefore whether dem go inform, alter, or trigger an overhaul of dia own diories and pedagogies.",English Language
"further, newkirk argues that""the case study gains generalizability through particularity phillips72through the density of detail, the selection of incidents, the narrative skill ofthe researcher""(1992, p.130).","Di Case study na di study of one example dey gain generalizability through particularity phillips72through di density of detail, di selection of incidents, di narrative skill of di researcher""(1992, p.130).",English Language
"the case study thus functions as a heuristic, offering possible explanations and possible solutions to its readers.","Di Case study na di study of one example dey function as heuristic, offering possible explanations and possible solution to its readers.",English Language
"the reader is then prompted to engage in the analytical act of assessing which features ofthe case study might best be generalized to his/her own situation and which are irrelevant, perhaps because of differences in contexts.","Di reader dey prompt to engage for di analytical act of assessing which feature of di Case study na di study of one example might best be generalized to hin her own situation and wey dey irrelevant, perhaps because of differences for context.",English Language
chozin and other participants were recruited through campus flyers and email messages to various international student organizations.,Di participants dey recruit through campus flyers and email messages to different international student organization.,English Language
"t wo participants were chinese, one was sudanese, and two were indonesian, one of whom was chozin.","Di participants dey chinese, one dey sudanese, and two dey indonesian, one of whom dey chozin",English Language
both chozin and the other indonesian participant were in the southeast asian studies program.,Di southeast Asian studies program dey for southeast Asian studies program.,English Language
"the remaining students were in linguistics, environmental studies, and communication studies.","Di remaining students dey for linguistics, environmental studies, and communication studies.",English Language
"for chozin, i analyzed six seminar papers, two conference papers, three drafts of his thesis, four short projects for blogs and local newspapers, and nearly two dozen focus/response papers and other short assignments.","I analyze six seminar paper, two conference paper, three drafts of hin thesis, four short projects for blogs and local newspapers, and nearly two dozen focus response paper and oda short assignments.",English Language
"he provided me with papers from his anthropology, political science, biological sciences, geography, and graduate writing classes.","Dem provide me wit paper from hin anthropology, political science, biological science, geography, and graduate writing class.",English Language
"participating in writing tutoring was not a requirement for participation in the study, however.","E no dey requirement for participation for di study, however.",English Language
"although i was interested in how participants used the writing center, i was far more interested in the resources that they chose for themselves so that i could see the full range of resources they chose to employ as they developed as writers and scholars.","I dey interested for how participants use di writing center, i dey interested for how participants use di writing center, so say i fit see di full range of resources wey dem use for themselves so e fit see di full range of resources wey dem use as dem develop as writers and scholars",English Language
"after the data collection was complete, the interviews were transcribed, read repeatedly and analyzed to understand the resources the writers used to support their writing development.","Di interview dey transcribed, read repeatedly and analyze to understand di resources wey dem use support dia writing development.",English Language
"bishop(1999), among others, argues that the validity of qualitative results is strengthened through data triangulation, investigator triangulation, and methodological triangulation, or in other words, by collecting multiple types of data from multiple sources and by multiple means.","Di validity of qualitative results dey strengthened through data triangulation, investigator triangulation, and methodological triangulation, or in oda words, by collect multiple types of data from multiple sources and by multiple means.",English Language
"this study used three groups of""investigators,"" these being myself, the writing center staff, and the student writers' teachers, as well as multiple types of data.","Di study use three groups of""investigators"", e dey myself, di writing center staff, and di student writers' teacher, as well as multiple types of data.",English Language
"however, i was the only person who coded the data.",I dey di only person wey coded di data,English Language
chozin completed his thesis quite quickly and with little problem by the middle of his second year.,Di chozin completed hin thesis quickly and wit little problem by di middle of hin second year.,English Language
at the beginning of my study his english was very weak.,Di beginning of my study hin english na very weak,English Language
"he had one ofthe lowest proficiency levels i'd encountered in over five years of tutoring our campus's multilingual graduate students.1 moreover, i knew some of his fall quarter professors, and i knew how much writing they required of their students.","I know some of hin fall quarter professors, and i know how much writing dem need of dia students.",English Language
"having tutored a number of students in the southeast asian studies program, my initial assessment was that chozin wouldn't be able to complete it.",Di initial assessment na say chozin no fit complete am.,English Language
introducing chozin chozin's undergraduate degree was from a bahasa-medium institution in indonesia where he had studied marine biology.,Di undergraduate degree dey from bahasa-medium institution for indonesia wey dey study marine biology.,English Language
"he had just arrived at our university from coordinating tsunami relief work near aceh, indonesia, and had contacted me via email after learning about my study during international student orientation and from the international student association.","Di university don coordinating tsunami relief work near aceh, indonesia, and don contact me via email afta learning about my study during international student orientation and from di international student association.",English Language
we arranged an initial meeting so that chozin could learn more about the requirements ofthe study and so that i could assess his suitability as a participant.,We arrange an initial meeting so say chozin go learn more about di requirements of di study and so say i go assess hin suitability as participant.,English Language
"after chozin had formally enrolled in the study, we began meeting every week or two.","After Chozin don formally enrol for di study, we began di meeting every week or two.",English Language
"from the beginning, chozin was friendly and easy to talk with.","Di beginning, chozin dey friendly and easy to talk wit",English Language
"he was quite willing to share his own struggles and as his language proficiency grew, so did his willingness to talk.","He dey quite willing to share hin own struggles and as hin language proficiency grew, so make hin willingness to talk.",English Language
"in our early interviews, i would struggle to understand him, and we would spend a fair amount of time negotiating meaning and clarifying phillips74what he had to say.","I go struggle to understand am, and we go spend fair amount of time negotiating meaning and clarifying phillips74how he tok say.",English Language
"by the end ofthe study, he required very little prompting from mein order to talk for long stretches about his writing and research.",E dey require very little prompting from me wey go allow me talk for long stretches about hin writing and research.,English Language
"chozin seemed to develop a reflective habit of mind over the course of his graduate career, and as that habit of reflection developed, he became more and more willing to share what he was learning about himself as a writer.","Di chozin seem to develop reflective habit of mind over di course of hin graduate career, and as dat habit of reflection develop, hin be more and more willing to share what he dey learn about himself as writer.",English Language
"in our initial interview, chozin reported that he had struggled through his undergraduate work, that he had not graduated on time, and that he had often been behind on his work.","Di initial interview, chozin report say hin no struggled through hin undergraduate work, say hin no graduate on time, and say hin no dey behind on hin work.",English Language
"he was now entering a master's program""centered on interdisciplinary curricula that combine the traditional foundations in the social sciences and humanities, components within the natural sciences, and the professions""(center for international studies, para.","E don enter master's program""centered on interdisciplinary curricula wey combine di traditional foundations for social sciences and humanities, component wey dey inside di natural sciences, and di professions""(center for international studies, para.",English Language
"in this program, students take a standard core of courses which are themselves interdisciplinary(educational research, geography, anthropology), and they then have wide latitude to specialize in a particular aspect of southeast asian culture; chozin chose to specialize in maritime studies.","Di program, students take standard core of courses wey dem dey interdisciplinary(educational research, geography, anthropology), and dem don get wide latitude to specialize for maritime studies.",English Language
"given chozin's undergraduate struggles, he was now entering a challenging master's program that would require him to take courses in multiple disciplines, to engage in regular field research and intensive writing, and to do all of this in a second language, without having had prior writing instruction in english, javanese, or bahasa.","For chozin's undergraduate struggles, hin don enter challenging master program wey go require him take courses for multiple disciplines, to engage for regular field research and intensive writing, and to do all of dis for di oda language wey you learn, without having prior writing instruction for English, javanese, or bahasa.",English Language
"russell and foster remind us that chozin's lack of writing instruction before entering the us academy is more likely to be the rule than the exception among multilingual writers, making their task of succeeding in the academyand doing so at the graduate leveleven more difficult.2 chozin readily acknowledged that he struggled with writing.","Di russell and foster remind us say chozin's lack of writing instruction before entering di us academy dey more likely to be di rule than di exception among multilingual writers, make dia task of succeeding for di academy even more difficult.",English Language
"his other english language skills were weak aswell, and these weaknesses were highlighted by the nature of research in his program.",Di weaknesses dey highlight by di nature of research for hin program.,English Language
"over the course of his first year, chozin's assorted writing projects required him to interview farmers at the local farmers' market, caucasian american-born muslims, a southeast asian, a person who had given him a gift, university food service personnel, and indonesian blast fishers.","For di course of hin first year, chozin's assorted writing projects make him interview farmers for di local farmers market, caucasian american-born muslims, a southeast Asian, a person wey get gift, university food service personnel, and indonesia blast fishers.",English Language
each of these interviews constituted the primary source for different writing projects and formed the bulk ofthe content for his respective papers.,Di each of dis interview constitute di primary source for different writing projects and form di bulk of di content for hinrespective paper.,English Language
the necessity of conducting all these interviews to complete so many different papers made his language difficulties all the more obvious.,Di necessity of conduct all dis interview to complete so many different paper make hin language difficulties all di more obvious.,English Language
"it also meant that he struggled with the entire writing process, not just with composing, but also with comprehending the input needed to produce even a rough draft.","E also meant say hin struggled wit di entire proses of puttin down tori for paper, from wen you dey plan am, draft am, edit am, till you finish am well, no just wit composing, but also wit comprehending di input wey dey need to produce even rough draft",English Language
"it's maybe for my friend, when we have assignment two page, she already just need one hours but for me, need four hours to do that.","maybe for my friend, wen we get assignment two page, she no need one hours but for me, she go need four hours to do dat",English Language
"""3 chozin's experience is consistent with research in second language studies that has shown that multilingual writers need more time to compose(silva, 1993, pp.","Di 3 chozin experience dey consistent wit research for di oda language wey you learn studies wey don show say multilingual writers need more time to compose(silva, 1993, pp.",English Language
"in addition to struggling to understand the language input of his interviewees, chozin did indeed have problems with organization, as my own assessment of his work confirmed, along with development and with integrating secondary sources.","For addition to struggling to understand di language input of hin interviewees, chozin don dey always get problems wit organization, as my own assessment of hin work confirm, as my own assessment of hin work confirm, along wit development and wit integrating secondary source.",English Language
chozin did make marked improvement in composing fluency and in writing style over the course of his program.,Di chozin don make improvement for composing fluency and for writing style over di course of hin program.,English Language
"he was less successful at improving his organization, development, and source use and, in fact, never gave any indication that he recognized these problems.","E no dey successful for improving hin organization, development, and source use and, for true, no give any indication say hin recognize dis problems.",English Language
"rather, he focused on increasing his fluency and building his vocabulary and on developing strategies to manage other problems that he encountered during his program.",He focus on increasing hin fluency and building hin vocabulary and on developing strategies to manage oda problems wey he dey during hin program.,English Language
dr. g. was interested in writing studies and had become a convert to writing-to-learn theory through a series of wac workshops.,Di dr. g. dey interest for writing studies and dey become convert to write-to-learn theory through series of wac workshops.,English Language
the wac program at this institution was fairly new and was growing quickly at that time.,Di wac program for dis institution dey fairly new and dey grow quickly for dat time.,English Language
"john bean's (2001)engaging ideas, particularly his extensive use of writing-to-learn activities, had been a focal point in the wac program's faculty development seminars.","Di John bean's (2001)engaging ideas, particularly hin extensive use of writing-to-learn activities, don be di focal point for di wac program's faculty development seminars.",English Language
"chozin took one course with dr. g. each quarter of his first year, and each of those courses utilized writing-to-learn activities extensively, typically in the form of weekly""focus papers.""","Di chozin tok one course wit dr. g. each quarter of hin first year, and each of dia course utilize write-to-learn activities extensively, typically for di form of weekly""focus paper.",English Language
these were 1-2 page response papers that sometimes became dialogue journals as described by carter and gradin (2001).,E dey 1-2 page response paper wey dey dialogue journal as described by carter and gradin (2001).,English Language
the papers did not have specific prompts; instead the topics were studentdriven based on their reaction to the readings.,Di paper no get specific prompts; instead di topics dey studentdriven based on dia reaction to di readings.,English Language
in some cases the papers were simply submitted as response papers.,Di paper dey simply submit as response papers.,English Language
at other times students would be asked to trade papers during class and engage in written dialogue about the ideas in the paper.,For oda times students go ask to trade paper during class and engage in written dialogue about di ideas for di paper.,English Language
"the papers were treated as informal writing projects, with comments focused on students' ideas and grades based on engagement.","Di paper dey treat as informal writing projects, wit comments wey dey focus on students' ideas and grades wey dey based on engagement.",English Language
g. therefore provided me with vital insight into chozin's development as a student and a writer.,Dem provide me wit vital insight into chozin development as student and writer,English Language
"as chozin's advisor, he was also a key player in that development since chozin's thesis was an extension of dr. g.'s research.",Dem also key player for dat development since chozin's thesis dey extension of dr. g.'s research,English Language
chozin had actually been directly recruited by dr. g. while dr. g. was doing field research in indonesia.,Dr. g. don do field research for indonesia,English Language
dr. g.'s insight was also important because he was the only one of chozin's professors who agreed to be interviewed.4 chozin was clearly fond of dr. g. and respected him.,E dey clearly fond of dr. g. and respect him,English Language
"he had formed this relationship before even arriving at the university, and he continued to cultivate it throughout his program and beyond.","Di relationship before even arrive for di university, and hin continue to cultivate am throughout hin program and beyond.",English Language
developing strategies to succeed during his first year chozin developed a number of strategies to manage the writing process and to improve his writing.,"Di first year chozin develop strategies to manage di proses of puttin down tori for paper, from wen you dey plan am, draft am, edit am, till you finish am well and to improve hin writing",English Language
"chozin never mentioned engaging in some ofthe strategies leki identifies and he complicates others, as i discuss below.","Di chozin never mention engaging for some of di strategies leki identify and hin complicate odas, as i discuss below.",English Language
"chozin also developed several other strategies not mentioned by leki's participants, as i noted earlier, including seeking feedback, developing a personalized course, and managing the data collection process.","Di chozin also develop several strategies wey leki dey mention earlier, including seeking feedback, developing personalized course, and managing di data collection process",English Language
"an etwork of editors chozin sought feedback throughout his program from teachers, professional editors, and from a carefully developed network of peers that i term his ""editorfriends.""","Di network of di editors wey chozin sought feedback throughout hin program from teachers, professional editors, and from develop network of peers wey dey careful and he come term them as hin ""editorfriends""",English Language
"initially these friends were other indonesians, but after his first quarter chozin began seeking out native-english-speaking(nes) students in his courses and asking them for help.",Di first quarter chozin began seeking out native-english-speaking(nes) students for hin course and ask dem for help,English Language
"he preferred to work with nes students who were also studying bahasa, thus enabling him to""trade"" writing tutoring for language tutoring.","Di preferred to work wit nes students wey dey also study bahasa, thus enabling him to""trade"" writing tutoring for language tutoring.",English Language
being able to provide help in return seemed to make chozin feel better about asking for assistance and thus allowed him to develop a more equitable relationship with his editor-friends.,Di chozin wey dey able to provide help for return seem to make chozin feel better about asking for help and thus allowed him develop more equitable relationship within editor-friends.,English Language
"it was obvious from our conversations that these editor-friends provided chozin with a measure of moral support, but i found no evidence that they helped him engage in the kind of substantive revision that, based on my own assessment, his papers needed.","Di editor-friends don provide chozin wit measure of moral support, but i find no evidence say dem help him engage for di kind of substantive revision wey, based on my own assessment, hin paper need.",English Language
"when i compared first drafts, edited drafts, and final drafts, only sentence-level changes and corrections were evident yet there were often significant problems with development and organization.","I compare di first drafts, edited drafts, and di final drafts, only di sentence level dey change and di corrections dey evident yet significant problems dey wit development and organization.",English Language
"in some 77 developing resources for successcases i could not identify a purpose and, in several others, basic requirements of a genre were missing(e. g.","I no identify a purpose and, for several odas, basic requirements of a genre dey missing(e. g.",English Language
"a conclusion), a problem two of his teachers noted in their final paper comments.",Di problem two of hin teachers wey dey note for dia final paper comments.,English Language
"it is possible that chozin was unable or unwilling to enact more substantive revision based on conversations with his editor-friends, but their written comments were focused almost exclusively on sentence-level issues, not on development, organization, genre, or other global issues.","E dey possible say chozin dey unable or unwilling to enact more substantive revision based on conversation within editor-friends, but dia written comments dey focus almost exclusively on sentence-level issues, not on development, organization, genre, or oda global issues.",English Language
"to chozin, though, these corrections were apparently adequate, even though professors continued to lower his grades because of his writing.","Di corrections dey apparently adequate, even though professors continue to lower hin grades because of hin writing.",English Language
he often identified nes students in his classes who were also studying javanese and asked them to read his writing.,He often identified nes students for hin class wey dey study javanese and asked dem to read hin writing,English Language
"chozin identified these students and then sought to""trade"" writing tutoring for language tutoring.","Di chozin don identify dis students and then sought to""trade"" writing tutoring for di language tutoring.",English Language
"finally, although i(and, one might argue, chozin's professors)found the feedback provided by chozin's editor-friends to be lacking, chozin was proactively seeking writing support.","I(and, one might argue, chozin's professors)find di feedback wey chozin dey provided by chozin editor-friends to dey lacking, chozin dey proactively seeking writing support.",English Language
"from his first quarter of graduate school, chozin developed the valuable habit of seeking out feedback on his work.","For hin first quarter of graduate school, chozin develop di valuable habit of seeking out feedback on hin work",English Language
"during his program he also transitioned to working with more professionalized ""editor-friends.""","Di program hin also transition to work wit more professionalized ""editor-friends""",English Language
"chozin began working regularly with his graduate writing teacher in spring quarter of his first year, which proved much more successful, as i discuss below.","Di chozin began work regularly within graduate writer teacher for spring quarter of hin first year, wey proved much more successful, as i discuss below.",English Language
he also began working with a semi-professional editor in the community who had been recommended by a professor.,E also began work wit semi-professional editor for di community wey dey recommended by Professor.,English Language
"it's difficult to imagine that chozin received no benefit from so much editing and so many conversations about his writing, even if we can also imagine how he could have benefited more from a reader who challenged him to improve his organization, develop his ideas, and use secondary sources more effectively.","E dey difficult to imagine say chozin receive no benefit from so much editing and so many conversations about hin writing, even if we fit imagine how he fit benefit more from a reader wey challenge him to improve hin organization, develop hin ideas, and use secondary sources more effectively.",English Language
"developing a personalized course chozin developed a number of new strategies in winter quarter, beginning by enrolling in a graduate writing course to""accommodate his professor,""a strategy described in leki's (1995)taxonomy.",Di strategy wey be leki's (1995)taxonomy.,English Language
"during fall quarter, dr. g. deemed chozin's writing so poor that he told chozin to enroll in a graduate writing class for winter quarter.",Dr. g. tok say chozin's writing so poor say hin tell chozin to enroll for graduate writing class for winter quarter.,English Language
"in my meeting with dr. g, he had noted that chozin had significant problems with organization and described his english skills as""among the worst""he had ever seen in the program.","Di meeting wit dr. g, hin tok say chozin don significant problems wit organization and described hin english skills as""among di worst"" wey dem see for di program.",English Language
"he described chozin as being""in that category that i kind of dread because they know enough english to pass the test,5 but not enough to write a clear paper by himself.""","Dem described chozin as being""in dat category wey i kind of dread because dem know enough english to pass di test,5 but no enough to write clear paper by himself",English Language
"chozin took dr. g.'s advice this time, enrolling in the second of a sequence of three cross-disciplinary graduate writing courses that were designed for international multilingual writers and which were taught by faculty from the tesol program.",For di second of three cross-disciplinary graduate writing courses wey dey design for international multilingual writers and wey dey taught by faculty from di tesol program.,English Language
"the courses were introduction to graduate writing, phillips78advanced graduate writing, and thesis/dissertation writing.","Dem courses na introduction to graduate writing, phillips78advanced graduate writing, and thesis dissertation writing",English Language
"although the courses were designed as a sequence, there were no prerequisites; therefore, students could take any course at any point.","Di course dey design as sequence, no dey prerequisites; therefore, students go take any course for any point.",English Language
"during the winter quarter, chozin took the middle course, advanced graduate writing.","For di winter quarter, chozin do di middle course, advanced graduate writing.",English Language
in this course students completed a variety of summaries and critiques that were sometimes based on texts he was reading in his disciplinary classes.,Di course students dey complete variety of summaries and critiques wey dey sometimes based on text wey dem read for hin disciplinary class.,English Language
"chozin seemed to benefit minimally from this course, however.","Di chozin dey benefit minimally from discourse, however.",English Language
"he received little positive feedback from his teacher, and the feedback he did receive seemed overly critical.6 she identified problems like""lang.","Him get a little positive feedback from him teacher, and di feedback he get dey very critical, For 6 she don identify di problems like""lang.",English Language
"is non-idiomatic"" and""sentence structure""but rarely offered chozin alternative language.","Na non-idiomatic"" and""sentence structure""but reno dey offer chozin alternative language.",English Language
"her final comments on his first paper, a critique of two articles, identified problems but did not seem to offer any particularly constructive comments towards revision or future writing projects.","Di final comment on her first paper, a critique of two articles, dey identify di problems but no seem to dey offer any comments wey constructivw towards revision or future writing projects.",English Language
she wrote: you are clearly confused in this assignment.,Di assignment dey clearly confused for dis assignment,English Language
throughout the quarter her comments suggested that he did not understand the assignments he was given.,Hin comment suggest say hin no understand di assignment wey dem give.,English Language
"he never mentioned any specific benefits from the class and also seemed slightly frustrated that the course did not include""grammar instruction,""something that he believed he needed.","He no mention any specific benefits from di class and also dey frustrated say di course no include""grammar instruction""something wey he believe him need.",English Language
chozin was most enthusiastic about the class when discussing the individual conferences he'd had with his teacher.,Di chozin dey most enthusiastic about di class wen dey discuss di individual conference wey dem get within teacher.,English Language
"after one conference, chozin said,""she give me comments and she give me, like, tips or strategies how to write it, how to compose the paragraph, how to arrange the whole writing with some paragraphs.","For one conference, chozin tok say, she give me comments and she give me, like, tips or strategies on how to write am, how I fit compose the paragraph, and how to arrange di whole writing wit some paragraphs.",English Language
"she give me alot of lessons.""",She dey give me alot of lessons.,English Language
"when chozin took the graduate writing course a second time, as i describe in the next paragraph, his teacher worked with him to create a more individualized experience.","I describe for next paragraph, hin teacher work within to create more individualized experience.",English Language
"in the spring term chozin attempted to signup for the third writing class, thesis/dissertation writing, so that he could work on his thesis proposal; however the course was full.","Di spring term chozin dey try signup for di third writing class, thesis dissertation writing, so say hin go work on hin thesis proposal; however di course dey full.",English Language
"instead, he registered for advanced graduate writing again, but this time with a different teacher.","Dem register for advanced graduate writing again, but dis time wit different teacher",English Language
"at the teacher's suggestion, he worked with her to develop what was essentially a personalized syllabus so that he could still benefit from repeating the class.7 the spring course primarily consisted of one-on-one tutoring with the instructor as chozin wrote his thesis proposal.",Di spring course primarily serve of one-on-one tutoring wit di instructor as chozin write hin thesis proposal.,English Language
"(this iteration ofthe course is similar to the graduate writing seminar described by fredericksen & mangelsdorf [this volume], which 79 developing resources for successrequires students to create individual learning contracts based on writing tasks assigned in other coursework.)","Di iteration of di course dey similar to di graduate writing seminar described by fredericksen & mangelsdorf [this volume], wey 79 developing resources for success require students to create individual learning contracts based on writing tasks assigned for oda coursework.)",English Language
he was able to develop a positive relationship with this new teacher and found this course much more beneficial.,E dey able to develop positive relationship wit dis new teacher and find discourse much more beneficial,English Language
"in a sense, chozin added his graduate writing teacher to his network of editor-friends.",Dem add hin graduate writer teacher to hin network of editor-friends.,English Language
she provided frequent proofreading and feedback as chozin wrote his thesis proposal during spring quarter.,She provide frequent proofreading and feedback as chozin write hin thesis proposal for spring quarter.,English Language
"yet again, chozin had taken a writing struggle and developed a strategy to succeed.",Di chozin don take write struggle and develop strategy to succeed,English Language
finding the right collaborators for group projects one ofthe greatest challenges chozin faced during his program was devising a strategy for completing group projects.,Di greatest challenge wey dey face during hin program dey devising strategy for complete group projects one of di greatest challenge wey dey face during hin program devising strategy for complete group projects.,English Language
"on the surface, chozin had been quite successful in his first quarter and had earned strong grades.","For di surface, chozin don quite successful for hin first quarter and don earned strong grades.",English Language
but it turned out that chozin hadinvoluntarilyplayed avery minimal role in writing a group paper that comprised a large portion ofthe grade in his geography class.,Di turnout say chozin don play very minimal role for writing group paper wey dey compris large portion of di grade for hin geography class.,English Language
chozin's group experience in this class was a major site of frustration for him.,Di group experience for dis class na major site of frustration for him.,English Language
"we make, like, report for my project for people in my group, and actually, i didn'ti didn't write much because all my group know that i'm not english speaking, so they write.","I make, like, report for my project for pipo for my group, and actually, i no write much because all my group know say i no dey english speaking, so dem write.",English Language
"so the report is not mine, actually; it's not my writing.","Di report no dey mine, actually; e no dey my writing",English Language
[it's]my friends'[members ofthe group]writing.,I's]my friends'[members of di group]write,English Language
"talinn (t): so did you feel. like, did it bother you at all that everybody else did the writing for that project?","So do you feel. like, don dey bother you for all dat everybody else do di writing for dat project?",English Language
"c: uh, actually, just once doing the writing.","U, actually, just once do di writing",English Language
c: in the group?,For di group?,English Language
in the group i feel like i didn't enjoy in the phillips80group.,I feel like i no enjoy for di phillips80group,English Language
"in the class i enjoy, but in the group i didn't enjoy because, uh, because everybody is, um, native speaker but i amin the group.","Everybody dey, um, native speaker but i dey for di group.",English Language
andi just waiting.,I just wait.,English Language
"one day they give me ""youyou do this one""and i doin my home and then give it to him.","Na one day dem give me""you do dis one""and i do for my home and then give am to him",English Language
but the groupthey make a decision about my work.,Di group dem make decision about my work,English Language
"they do more work than me, actually, but actually, i need to do more but i cannot do that because i have limited language to communicate with them.",I need to do more but e no fit do dat because i no get limited language to communicate wit dem,English Language
"and also the study, the report area, is cincinnati.","Di report area, dey cincinnati",English Language
they decided everything[because i didn't know anything about the cincinnati area].,I no know anything about di cincinati area,English Language
t: so would you have rather done somethingwritten your own paper?,So would you go do somethingwritten your own paper?,English Language
"because if i had my own paper i can, i mean, i can express mymy opinion in my paper and then i also can, uh, get advice from other people.","I mean, if i get my own paper i fit, i mean, i fit express my opinion for my paper and then i also fit get advice from oda pipo",English Language
"and maybe, yeah, because i'm not native speaking, so some of my group think that you are not expert in this area so they do everything.","I no dey native speaking, so some of my group think say you no dey expert for dis area so dem do all.",English Language
they help me alot so that i can't do everything.,Diy help me alot so say i no fit do things,English Language
"because they do everything in the group, so i don't feel involved.",I no feel involved,English Language
"t: so did they do everything because they didn't think you could do the work, or because you didn't think you could do the work?","So don dey do all because dem no think you go do di work, or because you no think you go do di work, or because you no think you go do di work?",English Language
c[forcefully]: i can work.,I fit work,English Language
t: so maybe they didn't really give you a chance to do the work?,So maybe dem no get chance to do di work?,English Language
"t: they just kind of decided,""we'll give him something that's easy""?","Di dem just kind of decide,""we go give him something wey dey easy""?",English Language
"when they have meeting, i want to come.",I want to kom.,English Language
t: so they weren't contacting you about the meetings?,So dem no contact you about di meetings?,English Language
c: yeah the one.,yeah di one,English Language
"once they had announcement the meeting and then they never send me email again, so i always contact them,""when we meeting?""","I always contact dem,""when we meet?""",English Language
"and""when can i do the meeting?",If i do di meeting?,English Language
and what can i do?,Na i do?,English Language
"what my role in this group?""","Di role for dis group?""",English Language
c: yeah i just follow their order.,E just follow dia order,English Language
"many of us have watched or been part of groups where one student was clearly taking advantage ofthe rest ofthe group, but chozin's group seems, at some point in the project, to have chosen to exclude one of its members.","Na many of us don watch or dey part of groups wey one student dey clearly take advantage of di rest of di group, but chozin group seem, at some point for di project, make dem choose to exclude one of its members.",English Language
"as the only multilingual writer and the only person who knew nothing about the city of cincinnati, chozin was at a double disadvantage before this project ever started and, presumably, his group thought he had nothing to contribute to their success.","As di only multilingual writer and di only person wey knew nothing about di city of cincinnati, chozin dey double disadvantage before dis project ever start and, presumably, hin group tok say hin group tok say hin don contribute to dia success.",English Language
"although they probably knew relatively little about environmental hazards, they were""authorities,"" to some degree, on cincinnatiat least when compared with chozin.","Dem probably know relatively little about environmental hazards, dem dey authorities, to some degree, on cincinnatiat least wen dem compare wit chozin.",English Language
he had no other source of authority to counterbalance whatever knowledge they had of cincinnati and their belief that his poor english skills were a liability.,Di source of authority to counterbalance whatever knowledge wey dem get of cincinnati and dia belief say hin poor english skills dey liability.,English Language
"thus, instead of including him in the project, they chose to exclude him.",Di project dey choose to exclude am,English Language
this kind of exclusion is certainly not unheard of among multilingual writers.,Di kind of exclusion no dey unheard of among multilingual writers.,English Language
"leki (2001)reports on the negative""collaborative"" experiences of ling and yang.","Leki (2001)report on di negative""collaborative experience of ling andyang.",English Language
"ling's group was dominated by two other members and thus ling""was not allowed to bring in her particular expertise; nor was she able to benefit from the expertise ofthe [native-english-speaking]group members""(p. 55).","Di group dey dominated by two oda members and thus ling""not allowed to bring in her particular expertise; nor dey she able to benefit from di expertise of di[native-english-speaking group members""(p. 55).",English Language
"yang had a much better personal relationship with her group members, but her weak oral skills in english still meant that she""was also constructed as something of a burden or a problem to be fixed""(p. 55).","Di weak oral skills for english still meant say she dey construct as something of burden or problem to be fixed""(p. 55).",English Language
"but i do best i can'"" (leki, 2001, p. 55).","Dileki, 2001, p. 55).",English Language
cox(2010) reports a similar case with min.,Di cox(2010) report similar case wit min,English Language
"though not described as being actively excluded by her peers, those peers do not seek out min's obvious expertise either.","Di peers no dey described as being actively exclude her peers, those peers no seek out min obvious expertise either.",English Language
"further, cox reports that while other students saw themselves phillips82as learning from eachother, min""did not seem to be part of this network""(p. 86).","Dem report say while oda students dey see phillips82as learning from each oda, min no seem to be part of dis network""(p.86)",English Language
"whereas yang, in leki's (2001)study, seems to blame herself for her weak speaking skills, and min, in cox's (2010)study, seems unaware of(or atleast unconcerned with)her exclusion, chozin was both conscious of his exclusion and upset with his group members as a result.","Dem, for leki's (2001)study, dey unaware of(or atleast unconcerned wit)her exclusion, chozin dey conscious of hin exclusion and upset within group members as result.",English Language
"when winter quarter began, chozin discovered that he was again required to participate in a group paper.","Di winter quarter began, chozin discover say he dey need participate for group paper.",English Language
"not surprisingly, he was concerned that he might be excluded from another group; however, when i checked in with him several weeks into the quarter, he gave me a glowing report of his successful strategy.","He dey concerned say hin go exclude from one group; however, wen i check for wit him several weeks into di quarter, hin give me glowing report of hin successful strategy.",English Language
chozin [excitedly]: very different from group last term was bad experience.,Di group last term dey bad experience,English Language
"when we become closer we can, like, make joking eachother.",We dey closer we fit make joking each oda.,English Language
that's a good thing with learning english so it means that i can catch up some expression in english.,E dey good thing wit learning english so e mean say i fit catch up some expression for english,English Language
"she's an undergraduate, not a graduate because there were only two graduate students in the class.","She dey undergraduate, no graduate because e dey only two graduate students for di class.",English Language
"my writing, my language, but i'm trying to get better.",I dey try to get better,English Language
"when the teacher asked us to workin pairs to do research, my research was at the farmers market.","Di teacher ask us to work for pairs to do research, my research na for di farmer market.",English Language
"so my strategy was,""i have idea so i have to speak to some of my classmates, and anyone who wants to follow my topic, then he or she will be my partner.""","I get idea so i go speak to some of my classmates, and anyone wey want follow my topic, then hin or she go be my partner",English Language
one of my friends wants to join me.,Na one of my friends want join me,English Language
"it was good experience because we worked, like, equally.","E dey good experience because we work, like, equally",English Language
even if i have limit with my languagewith my writingbut she understand me and so she always give me chance to work.,Even if I get limit wit my language wit my writing but she don understand me and so she dey give me chance make I work,English Language
"and after i writing, she read it and she edit it so it's like, we 83 developing resources for successwork equally.","and after I write, she read am and she edit am so e be like, we 83 dey develop resources for successwork equally.",English Language
we always go together to interview.,We dey gather go di interview,English Language
before interview i always write my question and give it to her.,"Before interview, I dey always write my question and give am to her",English Language
"if i have problem with my language when i ask question, she will understand my objective, what i want to say; she can explain.","She go understand my objective, wey i want say; she go understand my objective, wey i want say; she go understand my objective, wey i want say; she go understand my objective, wey i want say; she go understand my objective, wey i want say; she go understand my objective, wey i want say; she go understand my objective, wey i want say; she go understand my objective, wey i want say; she go understand my objective, wey i want say; she",English Language
it's very helpful.,E dey helpful,English Language
he really seemed to have taken responsibility for his own learning and had shown great resourcefulness.,Di really seem to take responsibility for hin own learning and don show great resourcefulness.,English Language
"in contrast to leki's informant yang, who sadly reported,""just hate myself, i can't get good english""(2001, p.57), chozin says,""i don't care whether they[my group members]understand my language or not""; he is determined to press ahead with his learning.","Di informant wey dey tok say,""just hate myself, i no fit get good english""(2001, p.57), chozin tok say,""i no care whether dem[my group members]understand my language or no; hin dey determined to press ahead within learning",English Language
"when he entered the class, he recognized that there could easily be a repeat of last term's problems if he weren't proactive.",He tok say e fit easily be repeat of last term's problems if hin no dey proactive.,English Language
"in a class where there was only one other graduate student and no other multilingual writers, chozin knew he was positioned to be excluded from another group project.","For class wey dey class wey dey class wey dey only one graduate student and no oda multilingual writers, chozin tok say hin dey position to exclude from one group project.",English Language
"but he also recognized that his past research could work to his advantage if he developed a topic quickly and presented potential partners with a fully formed idea, thereby saving them the bother of coming up with one on their own.","He also recogniz say hin past research go work to hin advantage if hin develop topic quickly and presented potential partners wit fully formed idea, thereby saving dem di bother of coming up wit one on dia own.",English Language
chozin successfully thought of a topic for the paperone that he had already studied during fall.,Di chozin successfully thought of topic for di paperone wey he don studie during fall.,English Language
his prior experience gave him added marketability to potential partners.,Di prior experience don give am add marketability to di potential partners.,English Language
"choosing the topicone that he was familiar with and interested inalso gave chozin a level of control and authority that was never possible in his other group when they were asked to write about the culturally-bound topic of environmental hazards in cincinnati, ohioan area completely unfamiliar to chozin.","Di topicone wey he dey familiar wit and interested inalso give chozin level of control and authority wey dey never possible for hin oda group wen dem dey ask to write about di culturally-bound topic of environmental hazards for cincinnati, ohioan area completely unfamiliar to chozin.",English Language
"however, in winter quarter, chozin was able to barter his initiative in choosing a topic and his prior research on the farmers' market when finding a partner.","Di winter quarter, chozin dey able to barter hin initiative for choosing topic and hin prior research on di farmer market wen finding partner.",English Language
he was then able to use that authority to balance his lack of authority as an english speaker.,E dey able to use dat authority to balance hin lack of authority as an english speaker.,English Language
this created a much more equitable dynamic in chozin's group and a better learning environment for him.,Di create a much more equitable dynamic for chozin group and a better learning environment for him,English Language
developing strategies to find the right collaborators was a highly effective move on chozin's part.,Di developing strategies to find di right collaborators dey highly effective move on chozin part.,English Language
"not only did he feel better about himself after participating in the second group, but this time he actually got some practice with writing, a feature missing from his earlier experience.","Di time hin get some practice wit writing, a feature wey dey missing from hin earlier experience.",English Language
"here, chozin seems to be complicating the categories leki (1995) developedor perhaps introducing anew one.",Dem dey complicatin di categories leki (1995) developor perhaps introducin new one,English Language
"she reports that her participants ""rel[ied] on past writing experiences""and ""us[ed]current experience or feedback to adjust strategies""(p. 248).","She report say her participants dey""rely on past writing experiences""and ""us[ed]current experience or di feedback to adjust strategies""(p. 248).",English Language
"for example, she writes that her participant t ula ""had done a great deal of essay exam writing in finland and so felt relatively unconcerned about the demands of essay writing here""(p. 248).","She write say her participant t ula ""don do great deal of essay exam writing for finland and so e dey feel relatively unconcerned about di demand of essay writing here""(p. 248).",English Language
t ula had been successful in the past and used that experience as a roadmap for current writing phillips84projects.,For di past and use say experience as roadmap for current writing phillips84projects.,English Language
"likewise, leki writes that her participants used current feedback on early assignments to shape their future work.",Leki write say her participants dey use di current feedback on early assignments to shape dia future work.,English Language
"while leki implies that t ula relied on past successful writing experiences, chozin wasn't able to do that.","Diki implies say t ula relied on past successful writing experience, chozin no fit do dat.",English Language
"instead, he took a moment of failure, analyzed the decisions that led to it, and mapped out a plan to avoid that same failure again.","He take moment of failure, analyze di decision wey led to am, and make out plan to avoid say same failure again.",English Language
managing data collection during winter quarter chozin also developed anew strategy for managing the data collection process.,Di new strategy for managing data collection process for winter quarter chozin develop new strategy for managing di data collection process.,English Language
"not only did chozin's weak english skills mean that some of his classmates didn't trust him, but they also meant that he struggled in interview situations.","But no only say chozin's weak English skills mean say some of hin classmates no trust him, but dem also meant say some of hin classmates no trust him, but dem also meant say hin struggled for interview situation.",English Language
"he recognized that his english was sometimes difficult to understand, so he developed additional strategies to bridge the gap.","He tok say hin english dey difficult to understand, so he develop additional strategies to bridge di gap.",English Language
chozin: when i went to interview i always ask my american friends to accompany.,"Chozin: when I go interview, i dey always ask my american friends to follow me go.",English Language
"so because the problem is, when i interview by myself, sometimessometimes i'm asking that something that he already answered.","Di problem dey, wen i interview by myself, sometimes i ask say something wey he already answer",English Language
"because i interviewed and he was talking alot, alot, and talking much, anda lot of information.","I interview and e dey talk alot, alot, and e dey talk much, and e dey talk much, dia lot of information.",English Language
"andi hearing, hearing and then when he finish the talking, i asking[the same]questions again.","I hear, hear and then when hin finish di talking, i ask[the same]questions again",English Language
but[the interview failed because i[already] asking[him that]thing.,I[already] ask[him say]thing,English Language
"if[i] interview students, it's easy for me to understand because they're speaking, maybe, formally[at the university], but people on the street are using slang or maybe something they understand.","E easy for me to understand because dem dey speaking, maybe, formally[at di university], but pipo wey dey using slang or maybe something wey dem understand.",English Language
also i have strategy to always bring my recorder.,I get strategy to always bring my recorder,English Language
"once again, chozin had learned from failure.",Di chozin don learn from failure,English Language
he had actually devised a number of strategies to help him bridge from his current listening and speaking abilities to the point of writing a successful paper built on primary sources.,E don devis a number of strategies to help him bridge from hin current listening and speaking abilities to di point of writing successful paper wey dey build on primary source.,English Language
he drafted his interview questions beforehand and asked a native-english speaker to check them to ensure clarity.,"E draft hin kwestions wey dem dey ask for interview, wey be say dem wan know if person fit do de work or no beforehand and ask native-english speaker to check dem to ensure clarity",English Language
"he then interviewed his participants in tandem with a native-english speaker so that his partner could clarify, either for chozin or for the interviewee.","E then interview hin participants for tandem wit native-english speaker so say hin partner go clarify, either for chozin or for di interviewee.",English Language
"finally, he recorded all ofthe interviews to further improve his comprehension.",E record all of di interview to improve hin comprehension.,English Language
"in order to do all this, chozin had to demonstrate a remarkable amount of planning and coordinationand all this was just to gather the primary sources for his papers.",Di chozin don demonstrate remarkable amount of planning and coordination and all dis na just to gather di primary source for hin paper.,English Language
"he sought feedback on most papers, he accommodated his professor by taking graduate writing classes and worked to make those courses useful for him, and he learned from failure by developing strategies to manage group writing projects aswell as writing projects that required him to engage in oral interviews for source material.","He sought feedback on most paper, hin accommodate hin professor by taking graduate writing classes and work to make those courses useful for him, and hin learn from failure by developing strategies to manage group writing projects aswell as writing projects wey dem fit engage for source material.",English Language
"though i had observed chozin developing these strategies to address specific challenges, in the spring of his first year it became clear that chozin was also taking a broader, holistic approach to improve his writing.","I don observe chozin develop strategies to address specific challenges, for di spring of hin first year e dey clear say chozin don take a broader, holistic approach to improve hin writing.",English Language
"he had been developing several tactics to improve his vocabulary, fluency, and style and had begun engaging in a number of additional literacy tasks in english like journaling, online chatting, and extra-curricular reading.","E don develop several tactics to improve hin vocabulary, fluency, and style and don dey engage for numero of additional literacy tasks for English like journaling, online chatting, and extra-curricular reading",English Language
"reporting on his progress, chozin said: yeah, i feel i start to get my writing style i think, because when i writing i feel like""oh, i have to use this word.","Dem tok say yeah, i feel i start to get my writing style i think, because when i write i feel like""oh, i go use dis word",English Language
so i think i've increased my capability with writing because i feel my style now.,I think i dey reduce my capability wit writing because i feel my style now.,English Language
"because when i read, like, three or four paragraph i feel tired, exhausted even though i still have many ideaseven in indonesian, so i tend to write poems to express my mind.","Because when I read, like three or four paragraphs I dey feel tired, exhausted even though i still get many ideas even for indonesian, so I tend to write di poems to express my mind.",English Language
but i cannot do this in english because i cannot write poetry in english.,I no do dis for english because i no write poetry for english but i no write poetry for english,English Language
"chozin then continued to list his tactics to improve: andi took graduate writing class, and i read more because, yeah, i knowi knowi believe as more i read, as more i get new words, so it will enrich my words to use in writing and so i read more.","I tok graduate writing class, and i read more because, yeah, i knowi know say more i read, as more i get new words, so e fit enrich my words to use for writing and so i read more",English Language
"phillips86by this point in his first year, chozin seemed to be demonstrating recognition that all of his discreet literacy activities were interrelated and mutually supportive.","Di point for hin first year, chozin dey demonstrate recognition say all of hin discreet literacy activities dey interrelated and mutually supportive.",English Language
"he didn't view his personal writing or even his writing in javanese and bahasa as separate from his academic writing in english, and he didn't view vocabulary development as divorced from his speaking fluency.","E no dey view hin personal writing or even hin writing for javanese and bahasa as separate from hin academic writing for english, and hin no dey view vocabulary development as divorce from hin speaking fluency.",English Language
"instead, he recognized that all of his language experiencesin javanese, bahasa, and englishand all of their component partsreading, writing, speaking, listeningwere vitally connected to one another.","Di recognize say all of hin language experiencesin javanese, bahasa, and englishand all of dia component partsreading, writing, speaking, listening, listening dey vitallyconnected to one another.",English Language
"he understood that to improve one part affects all ofthe others, improving the whole.","He tok say to improve one part affect all of di odas, improve di whole.",English Language
"realizing the investment at the end of his first year chozin's writing remained quite weak in many ways, but it was improving noticeably and he was increasingly proactive in addressing those weaknesses.","Di investment for di end of hin first year chozin's writing remain quite weak for many ways, but e dey improve noticeably and he dey increasingly proactive for address di weaknesses.",English Language
his writing had actually appeared to get worse instead of better during winter quarter.,Di writing don actually appear to get worse forstead of better for winter quarter.,English Language
"he had continued to rely on friends to provide him with editing, but his winter paper load was high and his editorfriends were very busy, so they were less able to help him.","Di winter paper load dey high and hin editor friends dey very busy, so dem dey less able to help am",English Language
he received writing feedback that was almost exclusively negative and his grades suffered.,E receive write feedback wey dey almost exclusively negative and hin grades suffered.,English Language
it appeared as though he were stagnating or even sliding backwards.,Di appear as though hin dey stagnating or even sliding backwards.,English Language
"chozin seemed to bein the middle of a""u-shaped learning curve,""a common feature of writing development in which the cognitive overload of learning so much new material results in temporary setbacks in areas that writers seemed to have already mastered (feldman& benjamin,2004; perrault, 2011).","For di middle of a""u-shaped learning curve"", a common feature of writing development wey di cognitive overload of learning so much new material results for temporary setbacks for areas wey writers dey already master(feldman &benjamin, 2004; perrault, 2011).",English Language
"feldman and benjamin(2004) argue that these""essential backward movements. prepare the way for positive advances""(p. 98).","Di""essential backward movement wey dey prepare di way for positive advances""(p.98)",English Language
this backward action to pave the way forward is exactly what chozin seemed to be experiencing in winter quarter.,Di backward action to pave di way forward na exactly what chozin dey experience for winter quarter.,English Language
he had been busy developing strategies that would bring significant rewards during the rest of his program and the tremendous number of writing-to-learn assignments dr. g. asked him to complete had begun to payoff.,he say he dey busy to dey develop strategies wey go bring di significant rewards for di rest of di program and di tremendous numba of writing-to-learn assignments wey dr. g. ask am say make e complete don dey payoff.,English Language
"it wasn't obvious at the time, but chozin was beginning to make large strides in fluency and composing speed.","For di time, chozin start to make large strides for fluency and composing speed",English Language
"at the end of 87 developing resources for successhis first year, he described the impact of his strategies and the last six months of intensive writing in various courses.",E described di impact of hin strategies and di last six months of intensive writing for different course.,English Language
"this is my last focus paper and, yeah, once a week, two pages is not hard anymore.","Na my last focus paper be dis and, yeah, na once in a week, two pages no dey hard anymore.",English Language
"it's like before that it's hard for me to write it, but now it'si don't have any problem to write two pages every week.","E dey like before say e hard for me write am, but now e don get any problem to write two pages every week.",English Language
a few weeks earlier he had been caught off-guard by the due date of a focus paper assignment.,Di due date of focus paper assignment dey a few weeks earlier hin don caught off-guard by di due date of focus paper assignment,English Language
he surprised himself by successfully writing the paper in the hour before class began.,He surprise himself by successfully write di paper for di hour before class began.,English Language
"and by the end of chozin's two-year program, he had successfully defended both his thesis proposal and his thesis ahead of most of his classmates.","Di end of chozin two year program, hin don successfully defend both hin thesis proposal and hin thesis ahead of most of hin classmates.",English Language
"the case of chozin therefore stands in contrast to some ofthe more recent research on multilingual writers and wac, which has suggested that multilingual writers may receive little benefit or even be harmed by wac pedagogies that encourage the intensive use of writing in courses, particularly if that writing does not have some relevancy to the writer's future field (leki, 2003b) or if that writing occurs in the form of high-stakes assessment(cox, 2011).","Di case of chozin therefore stands for contrast to some of di more recent research on multilingual writers and wac, wey don suggest say multilingual writers no get any benefit or even dey harmed by wac pedagogies wey dey encourage di intensive use of writing for course, particularly if dat writing no get some relevancy to di writer's future field (leki, 2003b) or if dat writing no get some relevancy to di writer's future field (leki, 2003b) or if dat writing no get some relevancy to di writer",English Language
"in cox's (2011)recent review article, she argues that""literature emerging from second language writing studies. reveals wac as a program that can close doors for l2 students""if teachers are encouraged to assign more writing without also being offered professional development to help them work effectively with multilingual writers(para.","She argu say""literature wey dey emerg from di oda language wey you learn writing studies, reveal wac as a program wey fit close doors for l2 students""if teachers dey encourage to assign more writing wit professional development to help dem work effectively wit multilingual writers(para.",English Language
"leki (2003a) goes so far as to ask,""is writing overrated?""(","Di leki (2003a) go far come ask say, ""shey writing dey overrated?",English Language
"in critiquing sternglass's study on the benefits of writing for students, leki writes,""my l2 students found their writing requirements occasionally satisfying and sometimes frustrating, but most often they regarded writing assignments as necessary evils they would have preferred to avoid""(p. 317).","Di sternglass study on di benefits of writing for students, leki write,""my l2 students find dia writing requirements occasionally satisfying and sometimes frustrating, but most often dem regard dia writing requirement as necessary evils dem go avoid""(p. 317).",English Language
"in remarkable contrast, chozin neither complained about nor reported feeling disadvantaged by the heavy writing requirements in his courses.","For remarkable contrast, chozin no complain about nor reported feeling disadvantaged by di heavy writing requirements for hin course.",English Language
"on the contrary, those assignments provided chozin with a vivid indicator of how much his writing fluency had increased.",Di assignments dey provide chozin wit a vivid indicator of how much hin writing fluency don increased.,English Language
"conclusion after examining chozin's thesis and other writing projects from late in his master's program, i still placed him in the bottom half to one-third of graduate writers i had worked with as a tutor.","Di conclusion afta examining chozin's thesis and oda writing projects from late for hin master program, i still place am for top half to one-third of graduate writers wey dey work wit as tutor.",English Language
yet he managed to be highly successful phillips88as a graduate student and much of that success was signified by some kind of writing achievement.,Dem manage to be highly successful phillips88as graduate student and much of dat success dey signified by some kind of writing achievement.,English Language
"as i mentioned earlier, his conference papers were solicited for journals, he received grants to support his research, and his thesis won the department's award and was later published.","I mention earlier, hin conference paper dey solicit for journals, hin receive grants to support hin research, and hin thesis won di department award.",English Language
"at the end of chozin's first year, dr. g. said,""i think he's done really well.","Dr. g. tok say,""i think he dey done well.",English Language
"he's not fluent, but he's come along way.","E no dey fluent, but he dey kom long way.",English Language
"as far as his academic work, he's doing fine.""","Di academic work, he dey do fine",English Language
"ultimately, i concluded that chozin's success did not really hinge on his writing ability.",I conclude say chozin success no dey hinge on hin writing ability.,English Language
"it seemed much more connected to his resourcefulness, leadership, and to his knowledge of his field.","Di resourcefulness, leadership, and to hin knowledge of hin field",English Language
"further, chozin also drew upon his lived experience as a southeast asian, doing so explicitly in several classes and again in his thesis; he was no doubt a stronger student as a result.","Di further, chozin also drew upon hin lived experience as southeast Asian, do so explicitly for several classes and again for hin thesis; hin without question a stronger student as result.",English Language
"particularly when compared to a monolingual caucasian american who entered graduate school immediately after completing an undergraduate degree, chozin had some marked advantages in his program.","Dem compare to monolingual caucasian american wey dey enter graduate school immediately afta complete undergraduate degree, chozin get some advantages for hin program.",English Language
yet his lived experience was certainly not the only resource that chozin brought to his graduate work.,Di lived experience no dey di only resource wey chozin bring to hin graduate work.,English Language
interviews gave repeated indications that chozin's research area was of great interest to his colleagues.,Di interview give repeat indications say chozin research area dey of great interest to hin colleagues.,English Language
it was also clear that chozin was a leader in his class and had deep knowledge of his field.,Dem clear say chozin dey leader for hin class and get deep knowledge of hin field,English Language
the best conclusion i could reach when trying to reconcile the mismatch between his writing ability and achievements was that people valued chozin's other abilities and his research so highly that they were willing to overlook chozin's writing challenges.,Di best conclusion wey i go reach wen try to reconcile di mismatch between hin writing ability and achievements na say pipo value chozin's oda abilities and hin research so highly say dem dey willing to overlook chozin's writing challenge.,English Language
"chozin brought valuable experience to his graduate program and those experiences encouraged his success, but he then also developed many new resources to solve writing problems.","Di chozin don bring valuable experience to hin graduate program and those experiences don encourage hin success, but hin also develop many new resources to solve writing problems.",English Language
he thus offers an example of a successful multilingual student who developed as both a professional and as a writer.,He don offer example of successful multilingual student wey dey develop as both professional and as writer.,English Language
"the strategies that he developed were all quite personal, yet most have broad applicability.","Di strategies wey hin develop na all quite personal, yet most don get broad applicability.",English Language
"using chozin's choices as examples, teachers of multilingual writers might recommend that their students map out concrete plans for how they will manage an interview, or consider how they can position themselves as valued members of a group project.","Di teacher of multilingual writers go recommend say dia students map out concrete plans for how dem go manage interview, or consider how dem fit position themselves as value members of group project.",English Language
"as teachers, we might even explicitly build such moments of planning into our courses in order to encourage a deeper learning experience.","as teachers, we fit even explicitly build dat kain moments wey go plan into awa course to encourage one deeper learning experience",English Language
"further, chozin's strategy of learning from failure offers discouraged writers a means of productive response.","further, chozin's strategy wey dey learn from failure dey discourage writers from getting a productive response.",English Language
chozin struggled with writing throughout his graduate career.,Di chozin struggled wit writing throughout hin graduate career,English Language
"instead of simply being discouraged or defined by his failures, however, he seemed to focus on the path that led to the problems he experienced and tried to identify ways that he could shift that path the next time.",He dey focus on di path wey led to di problem wey hin experience and tried to identify ways wey he go shift dat path di next time.,English Language
"chozin's experience also highlights the importance, at least for some writers, of feedback and human connection through the sometimes difficult process of 89 developing resources for successcomposing.","Chozin's experience dey highlugh di importance, at least, for sum writers, of feedback and di human connection through di sometimes difficult process wey 89 dey develop di resources for success composing.",English Language
chozin deeply wanted to bein relationship with others and to talk about his writing.,Di chozin deeply wanted to be for relationship wit odas and to talk about hin writing,English Language
"in consequence, he carefully cultivated relationships with his classmates, with his teachers, with other indonesian students, and even with me.","He carefully cultivated relationship within classmates, wit hin teachers, wit oda indonesian students, and even wit me.",English Language
chozin's story reiterates the value of creating multiple feedback opportunities for our students.,Chozin's story dey reiterate say di value to dey create multiple feedback opportunities for awa students,English Language
"although chozin was clearly quite motivated to seek feedback, dr. g. was deeply tied to many ofthe feedback experiences chozin had.","Dem deeply motivate to seek feedback, dr. g. deeply tied to many of di feedback experiences chozin don.",English Language
"finally, chozin offers other students a rich example of a writer who seemed to understand that all of his languages and literacies were parts ofthe same whole and that the time spent engaging in each literacy act had positive implications in a range of other contexts.","For finally, chozin offers oda students rich example of writer wey dey understand say all of hin languages and literacies dey parts of di same whole and say di time wey dey spend engaging for each literacy act dey positive implications for different contexts.",English Language
"instead of compartmentalizing his english academic literacy away from the other aspects of his life and from his home language, chozin recognized that his personal and professional literacies were intertwined and worked to improve both.",Dem recognize say hin personal and professional literacy dey intertwined and work to improve both.,English Language
chozin was an unlikely success story and that makes what he accomplished all the more impressive and potentially encouraging to other struggling multilingual writers.,Di chozin dey unlike success story and wey make dem accomplished all di more impressive and potentially encouraging to oda struggling multilingual writers,English Language
"his case study offers us yet another model for considering the complex, integrated process by which second language graduate students acquire the competence to write successfully in their chosen fields.","Him Case study na di study of one example dey offer anoda model wey go consider di complex, di integrated process wey di oda language wey you learn graduate students take acquire di competence to write successfully for dia chosen fields.",English Language
"my work with graduate students as a writing tutor was one of my motiva - tions for the project, but i was not a tutor during the study.","Di work wit graduate students as a writing tutor dey one of my motiva - tions for di project, but i no dey tutor for di study.",English Language
during the second year ofthe study i was the interim writing center coordinator but i did not tutor or respond to the writers' papers.,Di second year of di study i no dey tutor or respond to di writers' paper.,English Language
(2007)for additional stories of non-native-speakers'(lack of)writing instruction in their home languages and the challenges they faced in understanding american academic genres.,For additional stories of non-native-speakers'(lack of)writing instruction for dia home languages and di challenge wey dem face for understanding american academic genres.,English Language
"these were direct quotes from oral interviews and therefore are full ofthe pause fillers, false starts, and repetitions that are part of oral speech.","Na dem direct quote from di oral interview and therefore dey full of di pause fillers, di false starts, and di repetitions wey dey part of oral speech.",English Language
"reporting oral speech verbatim often makes the speaker sound inarticulate at best, but i wanted to preserve chozin's real speech at this point in his language learning and felt that editing out the ""ums"" and ""uhs"" would create an inaccurate repre - sentation.","I go preserve chozin's real speech for dis point for hin language learning and felt say editing out di ""ums"" and ""uhs"" go create inaccurate repre - sentation.",English Language
preserving his actual speech also makes his gains in vocabulary and fluency all the more evident as his story progresses.,Na hin gains for vocabulary and fluency all di more evident as hin story progress.,English Language
chozin's other professors did not explicitly decline to be interviewed; they simply did not respond to repeated email requests to discuss chozin's work.,Dem no respond to repeat email requests to discuss chozin work; dem no respond to repeat email requests to discuss chozin's work.,English Language
"dr. g. is referring to meeting the qualifications for admission, not to any particular assessment tool.","Di dr. g. dey to talk about meeting di qualification for admission, no to any particular assessment tool.",English Language
chozin's teacher did not respond to requests for an interview.,Di chozin teacher no respond to request for interview,English Language
"because chozin's second teacher also did not respond to requests for an interview, it was unclear whether chozin was unique in being offered this""per - sonalized course""or whether this was common practice.","Dem no clear whether chozin dey unique for being offer dis""per - sonalized course""or whether dis dey common practice.",English Language
"however, i do know from other students that the third writing class focuses exclusively on drafting and revising a thesis/dissertation; significant portions of class time are devoted to writing and conferencing with the teacher.",I know from oda students say di third writing class focus exclusively on drafting and revising a thesis dissertation; significant portion of class time dey devoted to write and conferencing wit di teacher.,English Language
"chozin's report of his modified""advanced course""seemed comparable to reports ofthe content in the thesis/dissertation course.","Di chozin report of hin modified""advanced course""dey similar to report of di content for di thesis dissertation course.",English Language
readers may note several moments in this excerpt where i seem to ask chozin very leading questions.,Di readers go note several moments for dis excerpt wey i seem to ask chozin very leading questions,English Language
during this conversation i was following chozin's tone and nonverbal cues in addition to his speech; both suggested that there was a more serious problem than the spoken language ofthe transcript reveals.,Di conversation i dey follow chozin tone and nonverbal cues for addition to hin speech; both suggest say na more serious problem than di spoken language of di transcript reveal.,English Language
"spe - cifically, i had the impression that chozin was quite upset by what had hap- pened in the group and yet that he was also trying to avoid disparaging other group members.",I tok say chozin dey upset by what hap- pened for di group and yet say hin dey try to avoid disparaging oda group members.,English Language
"instead of trying to infer what had happened in the group, i chose to ask chozin clarifying questions and give him the opportunity to cor- rect my understanding of events.",I go ask chozin to clarify him questions and give him di opportunity to correct my understanding of events.,English Language
"instead, chozin's words, tone, and nonverbal cues confirmed my preliminary understanding of what had happened.","Instead, chozin's words, tone, and nonverbal cues don confirm my preliminary understanding for wetin don happen",English Language
"engaging ideas: the professor's guide to integrating writing, critical thinking, and active learning in the classroom.","Di professor guide to integrating writing, kritikal tinin be say make we dey examine tori and ideas well, sabi wetin dey happen, and use am take make sense decision, and one kind teaching method wey dey make students dey active for class, dem no just dey sit down dey listen, dem dey engage with wetin dem dey learn, dem dey find solution to hard problem, dem no just dey recall tori wey dem don teach dem for di classroom",English Language
"ethnographic writing research: writing it down, writing it up, reading it.","Di ethnographic writing research: write am down, writing am up, reading am",English Language
writing as reflective action: a reader.,Di reader dey write as reflective action,English Language
writing games: multicultural case studies of academic literacy practices in higher education.,Multicultural study of one or few examples of academic literacy practices wey dey for higher education,English Language
a challenge to second language writing professionals: is writ- ing overrated?,Di challenge to di oda language wey you learn writer professionals: shey writ- ing dey overrated?,English Language
"writing process, readers' expectations, and grammar anxiety.","Di proses of puttin down tori for paper, from wen you dey plan am, draft am, edit am, till you finish am well, di readers' expectations, and di grammar anxiety",English Language
"valuing written accents: non-native students talk about identity, academic writing, and meeting teachers' expectations(2nd ed.).","Dem talk about identity, academic writing, and meeting teachers' expectations(2nd ed.).",English Language
the study focuses on the expectations for student reading in courses across the curriculum and the strategies that these students developed for responding to those expectations.,Di study focus on di expectations for student reading for course across di curriculum and di strategies wey dem develop for respond to those expectations.,English Language
"our findings suggest that second language students learn to prioritize as - signments; approach their instructors for clarification, help, and/or modifications with assignments; and limit the number of courses with high reading and writing demands that they enroll in each semester.","Di findings suggest say di oda language wey you learn students learn to prioritize as - signments; approach dia instructors for clarification, help, and or modifications wit assignments; and limit di number ofcourse wit high reading and writing demands say dem enroll for each semester.",English Language
"instructors in all disciplines can help all students become stronger read- ers by assigning reading for which students are held accountable, by providing a context and guidelines for reading, and by making use of writing-to-read activities.","Di instructors for all disciplines don help all students become strong read- ers by assign reading for which students dey hold accountable, by providing context and guidelines for reading, and by to use writing-to-read activities.",English Language
this study investigates the experiences first and second year second language(l2) college students have with reading across the curriculum.,Di study dey investigate di experiences wey first and second year di oda language wey you learn(l2) college students get wit reading across di curriculum.,English Language
"as our small, private, four-year college plans for an increase in the international student population, we, as composition specialists, sought to learn more about l2 students' abilities and needs as academic readers and writers.","We, as di composition specialists, sought to learn more about di l2 students' abilities and needs as academic readers and writer.",English Language
"agreeing with horning (2007)in her across the disciplines article,""reading across the curriculum as the key to student success,""that ""reading and writing must go hand-in-hand""(para.","Dem agree wit horning (2007)for her across di disciplines article,""reading and writing must go hand-in hand""(para.",English Language
"hedgcock & ferris's (2009)claim that""it has been well established in l1 and l2 research that, although successful readers may not necessarily be effective writers, it is virtually impossible to find successful writers who are not also good readers""(p. 215), confirms our consistent observation as teachers of both l1 and l2 students center and niestepski 94that less able readers are less able writers, and, conversely, the best writers in our classes also read with facility and insight.","Di consistent observation as teachers of both l1 and l2 students center and niestepski 94 say less able readers dey less able writers, and, conversely, di best writers for awa class no dey successful writers, and, conversely, di best writers for awa class no dey good readers.",English Language
"like many college instructors, we are concerned that so many of our students, both l1 and l2, lack the ability and/or willingness to read assigned texts closely and critically.","We dey concerned say so many of awa students, both l1 and l2, lack di ability and or willingness to read assigned text closely and critically.",English Language
"whether prompted by inability or unwillingness, their failure to read assigned texts in-depth limits their access to writing proficiency.",Di failure to read assigned texts in-depth limit dia access to writing proficiency.,English Language
"this concern has led us to focus on reading across the curriculum, exploring the expectations for reading in courses in other disciplines.","Di concern don led us focus on reading across di curriculum, exploring di expectations for reading for courses for oda disciplines.",English Language
"we believe that to understand the challenges that reading assignments present for many students, we need to understand the contexts and purposes for reading in all their classes (hedgcock &ferris, 2009, p. 50).","We believe say to understand di challenges wey reading assignments present for many students, we need to understand di context and purpose wey dey reading for all dia class (hedgcock &ferris, 2009, p. 50).",English Language
"in focusing on the subgroup of l2 students, we have collected information from student interviews, syllabi, students' reading diaries and writing samples, and inventories of student reading strategies to form a picture ofthe texts, contexts, and purposes for which they read in all their classes.","We collect information from student interview, syllabi, students' reading diaries and writing samples, and inventories of student reading strategies to form picture of di text, context, and purposes wey dem read for all dia class.",English Language
we came to focus specifically on l2 students' reading after investigating the frequently-voiced alarm that today's college students in general are less able readers.,We kom focus specifically on l2 students' reading afta investigate di frequently-voice alarm say today's college students for general dey less able readers,English Language
"as horning (2007)puts it, if one""asks teachers about the problems students have with reading, they will invariably say that students can't read and don't read""and that contemporary students are unable""to read complex texts with full understanding""(para.","If one""asks teachers about di problem students get wit reading, dem go invariably say students no read and no read""and say contemporary students no dey unable""to read complex text wit full understanding""(para.",English Language
"similarly, a survey by sanoff (2006), reported in the chronicle of higher education, found that only one-tenth ofthe college faculty surveyed thought that entering students were well-prepared for reading assignments.","Di survey by sanoff (2006), reported for di chronicle of higher education, found say only one-tenth of di college faculty wey dey survey say entering students dey well-prepared for reading assignments.",English Language
"in addition to these reports of students' deficits in reading ability, jolliffe and harl (2008), in a study of student reading at the university of arkansas, reported detailed evidence of students' unwillingness to read for their courses, finding that""many ofthe participants rushed through their required reading simply to get it done""(p. 612), which was not surprising as the students reported that the assigned reading was ""uninspiring, dull, and painfully required""(p. 611).","Di reports of students' deficit for reading ability, jolliffe and harl (2008), for study of student reading for di university of arkansas, reported detailed evidence of students' deficit for reading ability, jolliffe and harl (2008), for study of student reading for di university of arkansas, wey dey report say di assigned reading na ""uninspiring, dull, and painfully required""(p. 611).",English Language
"as incoming students' preparation for the demands of assigned reading decreases, college teachers across the disciplines are forced to pay more attention to the ways that we can help students to read and write about complex, college-level texts.","As incoming students' preparation for di demand of assigned reading decrease, college teachers dey force to pay more attention to di way wey we fit help students to read and write about complex, college level texts.",English Language
"if reading is such a burden for so many l1 students, how, we wondered, do l2 students cope with the greater burden that the demands for reading in their courses across the curriculum place on them and what can their teachers do to help?","We wonder, do l2 students cope wit di greater burden wey di demand for reading for dia course across di curriculum place on demand how dem go help?",English Language
"as hedgcock and ferris(2009) note,""all l2 students struggle with academic reading""due to the more sophisticated and often specialized vocabulary in academic texts and the greater amount of reading expected(p. 55)as well as the differences in the writing system and its linguistic and textual structures that these readers may encounter in the l2(p. 106).","As hedgcock and ferris(2009) note,""all l2 students struggle wit academic reading""due to di more sophisticated and often specialized vocabulary for academic texts and di greater amount of reading wey dem dey expected(p. 55)as well as di differences for di writing system and its linguistic and textual structure wey dem dey encounter for di l2(p. 106).",English Language
"the focal student,95 reading across the curriculumyuko, in spack's 2004 case study provides poignant testimony of this struggle:""i used to open some reading and the printed words used to scare me""(p. 31).","Di focal student,95 reading across di curriculumyuko, for spack's 2004 Case study na di study of one example provide poignant testimony of dis struggle:""i use open some reading and di printed words wey dey scare me""(p. 31).",English Language
"with considerable variation between categories of l2 students and among individuals within these categories, many l2 students lack the advantage of years of oral language exposure, which allow l1 learners to come to reading with extensive vocabulary and knowledge ofthe way words and sentences are put together (hedgcock &ferris, 2009, p. 50).","Di advantage of years of oral language exposure, wey allow l2 learners to come to reading wit extensive vocabulary and knowledge of di way words and sentences dey put together (hedgcock &ferris, 2009, p. 50).",English Language
"these issues tend to manifest differently for international and immigrant students, with international students typically having the advantage of being experienced l1 readers with a foundation of grammar and vocabulary instruction in the l2, but experiencing disadvantages when it comes to genre knowledge and cultural background.","Di issue dey manifest differently for international and immigrant students, wit international students typically having di advantage of being experience l1 readers wit foundation of grammar and vocabulary instruction for di l2, but dey experience disadvantages wey dem kom to genre knowledge and cultural background.",English Language
"immigrant students, on the other hand, may not be experienced readers in their l1 or their l2, depending on their educational and immigration circumstances, but will usually have more knowledge of text genres and more cultural familiarity (hedgcock &ferris, 2009, pp.","Di oda hand, no dey experience readers for dia l1 or dia l2, based on dia educational and immigration circumstances, but dem no get more knowledge of text genres and more cultural familiarity (hedgcock &ferris, 2009, pp.",English Language
"as hedgcock and ferris(2009) comment, it is rarely possible for an l2 language learner, who is an international student or a recent immigrant, to putin the years of study or exposure to the l2 that would give the learner the equivalent preparation for reading in the new language that a l1 reader acquires(p. 59).","Di l2 language learner, wey dey international student or recent immigrant, to put for di years of study or exposure to di new language wey a l1 reader acquires(p. 59).",English Language
"reid(2006) points out that many international students are, in her terms,""eye readers""who have studied l2 vocabulary and linguistic rules, often extensively, but who maybe weaker listeners and speakers than they are readers(p. 79).","Di reid(2006) points out say many international students dey, for her terms,""eye readers"" wey dey study l2 vocabulary and linguistic rules, often extensively, but wey dey weaker listeners and speakers than dem dey readers(p. 79).",English Language
"nevertheless, international l2 readers often lack confidence in their reading.",Di international l2 readers dey lack confidence for dia reading,English Language
"reid(2006) characterizes immigrant l2 students as""ear learners,""who, having taken in american culture for a number of years, are often fluent speakers and listeners, but whose reading skills maybe weaker than they acknowledge or than teachers anticipate(p. 77).","Di reid(2006) characterize immigrant l2 students as""ear learners,"" wey dey take for american culture for a number of years, dey often fluent speakers and listeners, but wey dey often fluent speakers and listeners, but whose reading skills dey weaker than teachers anticipate(p. 77).",English Language
"in addition to these potential issues of competence, l2 students may experience a""confidence gap,""which predisposes them to reading behaviors, such as word-by-word translation, that interfere with their l2 reading (hedgcock &ferris, 2009, p. 61).","Di potential issues of competence, l2 students go experience confidence gap, wey dey predispos dem to reading behaviors, such as word-by-word translation, wey dey influence wit dia l2 reading (hedgcock &ferris, 2009, p. 61).",English Language
"we saw this confidence gap inaction when one of our international participants, a second year student, initially refused to be interviewed because she felt that her english language skills were not upto having the conversation.","We see dis confidence gap for action wen one of awa international participants, second year student, initially refused to interview because she felt say her english language skills no dey upto having di conversation",English Language
"in an email to us she explained,""i actually do not have confidence to help the research(because of my english skills), so i am not be able to help it.","I no get confidence to help di research(because of my english skills), so i no fit help am",English Language
"as spack reports in her case study, l2 students may find that an increase in confidence is the most beneficial outcome of persisting with academic reading in the l2 because, as yuko concludes, it ""is not the improvement in the vocabulary(or background knowledge)""as much as the ""confidence/boldness not to be bothered by what i didn't understand""that leads to her academic success(as center and niestepski 96quoted in spack, 2004, p. 43).","As yuko concludes, di increase in confidence no dey bothered by what i no understand"" wey dey lead to her academic success(as center and niestepski 96quoted for spack, 2004, p. 43).",English Language
"often such boldness will be seen when students are able to move from word-based reading, in which they may read word-forword, read too slowly, translate, and/or overuse the dictionary (hedgcock &ferris, 2009, p. 219), to a more fluent reading in which they are able to read for the gist of a text without understanding every word (auerbach &paxton, 1997, p. 244; leki, 1993, p. 9).","For often such boldness dey seen wen students dey able to move from word-based reading, for which dem dey read word-forword, read too slowly, translate, and or overuse di dictionary (hedgcock &ferris, 2009, p. 219), to a more fluent reading wey dem go read for word-forword, read too slowly, translate, and or overuse di dictionary (hedgcock &ferris, 2009, p. 219).",English Language
"until they are ready to take this step, l2 readers remain, as paxton eloquently describes,""prisoners ofthe unknown words"" (auerbach &paxton, 1997, p. 253).","Until dem ready to carry di step, l2 readers go remain, as paxton eloquently describe,""prisoners of di unknown words"" (auerbach &paxton, 1997, p. 253).",English Language
both reading competence and confidence can be boosted by instruction and practice in a combination of intensive and extensive reading.,Di combination of reading competence and confidence go dey boost instruction and practice for combination of intensive and extensive reading.,English Language
"when reading intensively, readers use before, during, and after reading strategies to engage closely with a text.","when reading don become intensive, readers go use before, during, and after di reading strategies to engage closely wit di text",English Language
"extensive readinggeneral, self-selected reading for information and pleasurecan compensate to some extent for l2 readers' lack of exposure to the patterns of language in the l2 (hedgcock &ferris, 2009, p. 214).","Di extensive reading general, self-selected reading for di information and pleasure don compensate for some extent for l2 readers' wey lack di exposure to di pattern of language for di l2 (hedgcock &ferris, 2009, p. 214.",English Language
all writers benefit from reading as they accrue tacit knowledge ofthe genres and conventions of written language and are exposed to ideas and data that spur their thinking.,Di all writers benefit from reading as dem dey accrue tacit knowledge of di genre and conventions of written language and dem dey exposed to ideas and data wey dey spur dia thinking.,English Language
"in the considerable body of research into the readingwriting connection for l2 students hedgcock and ferris(2009) cite fourteen articles that review research on reading-writing interaction(p. 215)the strong correlation between reading proficiency and writing ability found in studies of l1 students, while sometimes evident, is not as consistent as in l2 research(ferris & hedgcock, 1998, p. 31).",For fourteen articles wey review research on reading-writing connection for l2 students hedgcock and ferris(2009) cite fourteen articles wey review research on reading-writing connection for l2 students hedgcock and ferris(2009) cite fourteen articles wey review research on reading-writing connection for l2 students hedgcock and ferris(2009) cite fourteen articles wey review research on reading-writing connection for l2 students hedgcock and ferris(2009) cite fourteen articles wey review research on reading-writing connection for,English Language
"ferris and hedgcock (1998)suggest that""we cannot assume reading-writing relationships to be as clear or predictable for esl students as they might be for their nes counterparts""due to some l2 students' underdeveloped knowledge ofthe l2 and ofthe writing skills measured in empirical studies(p. 31).","Di ferris and hedgcock (1998)suggest say""we no assume reading-writing relationships to be clear or predictable for Esl students as dem dey for dia nes counterparts""due to some l2 students' underdeveloped knowledge of di l2 and of di writing skills wey dey measure for tori wey dem take action or observation kom get, no be tori wey dem just dey yan or imagine, dem dey use am find proof or evidence about something(p. 31).",English Language
"one cannot assume that a good reader will necessarily be a good writer and vice versa (flahive &bailey, 1993, p. 133; grabe, 2004, p. 30), nevertheless, scholars agree that for l2 students as for l1 students, reading and writing are mutually reinforcing activities because""reading facilitates the development of writing skills""just as writing experiences help to improve reading(ferris & hedgcock, 1998, p. 43).","Di scholars agree say for l2 students as for l1 students, reading and writing dey mutually reinforcing activities because""reading help to improve reading(ferris & hedgcock, 1999, p. 33; grabe, 2004, p. 30).",English Language
"as composition specialists, our interest in students' attitudes and approaches to their assigned reading stems from this reading/writing connection.",We dey interest for students' attitude and approach to dia assigned reading stem from dis reading writing connection.,English Language
"participants our research site is a small college, which, like many us colleges, is actively recruiting international students.","Na small college, wey, like many us colleges, dey actively recruit international students.",English Language
"we sought our research participants from 97 reading across the curriculumenglish 101 for esl students, a credit-bearing, first-year writing class for l2 students, recruiting four first-year students, all of whom happened to be either immigrant students or, in the case of a student from guam, a multilingual us citizen.","We sought awa research participants from 97 reading across di curriculumenglish 101 for Esl students, a credit-bearing, first-year writing class for l2 students, wey dey recruit four first-year students, wey dey recruit four first-year students, wey dey recruit four first-year students, wey dey recruit four first-year students, wey dey recruit four first-year students, wey dey recruit four first-year students, wey dey recruit four first-year students, wey dey recruit four first-",English Language
"to balance the number of immigrant and international students, we then recruited three international students: two sophomores who had completed the first-year writing courses during their freshmen year and a sophomore transfer student new to the college(see table 3.1).",We then recruit three international students: two sophomores wey dey completed di first year writing courses for dia freshmen year and sophomore transfer student new to di college(see table 3.2).,English Language
the students volunteered to participate and received a small stipend.,Di students don volunteer to participate and receive small stipend.,English Language
we met with six ofthe seven students twice for thirty-minute recorded interviews.,We meet dem six of di seven students twice for di thirty minute record interviews.,English Language
"the exception was martin, whose first interview could not be scheduled until almost the end ofthe semester; consequently, we did not interview him a second time.","Di exception na martin, wey dey first interview no dey schedule until almost di end of di semester; consequently, we no dey interview am second time.",English Language
"the first interviews focused on the reading demands students faced in their courses across the curriculum and their ways of meeting those demands; the second, follow-up interview focused mainly on the writing assignment the students selected for our examination.","Di first interview wey dey focus on di reading demands students face for dia course across di curriculum and dia way of meeting those demands; di second, follow-up interview focus on di reading demands wey dey face for awa examination.",English Language
"while all ofthe second-year students were international students and all ofthe immigrant students were first-year students, we found little difference in the attitudes and strategies that students brought to their reading assignment between students in either ofthe two groups: international/immigrant or first-year/second year.",We find little difference for di attitude and strategies wey students dey bring to dia reading assignment between students for either of di two groups: international immigrant or first-year second year.,English Language
"students across both groupings used strategies for accommodating and managing teachers' demands around reading that are strikingly similar to the strategic moves that ilona leki found in her study of l2 students dealing with writing assignments,""coping strategies of esl students in writing tasks across the curriculum""(1995).","Di strategic move wey ilona leki found for her study of l2 students dealing wit writing assignments,""coping strategies of Esl students for writing tasks across di curriculum""(1995).",English Language
"and while we assumed the sophomores would have more reading demands because they were taking more 200-level courses, in fact, the majority(5/6) of courses with the highest reading demands were 100-level courses.","We assum di sophomores go get more reading demands bikos dem dey take more 200 level courses, for true, di majority(5 6)of courses wit di highest reading demands dey 100-level courses.",English Language
the students' test scores indicated weaknesses in english proficiency with low toefl scores or low critical reading and writing test scores on the sat despite the fact that all ofthe immigrant students had attended atleast some years of highschool in the us and the international students had studied english for several years.,Di student test scores dey show weaknesses for English proficiency wit low toefl scores or low critical reading and writing test scores for di sat despite di fact say all of di immigrant students don attend atleast some years of highschool for di us and di international students don study english for several years.,English Language
"in addition, each ofthe international students had had some additional classes in english before entering our college; these experiences ranged from an english language school in the us to community college classes.","For addition, each of di international students don get some additional classes for english before entering our college; dis experience range from di english language school for di us to community college class.",English Language
"coming from guam, martin had all of his schooling in english.",Dem get all of hin schooling for english,English Language
some ofthe immigrant students had a year of esl instruction in highschool and/or special language tutoring in a public school.,Some of di immigrant students don a year of Esl instruction for highschool and or special language tutoring for public school.,English Language
the international students reported that little of their english instruction involved reading.,Di international students report say little of dia english instruction involved reading,English Language
the courses the students were taking during the fall semester 2010 are shown in table 3.2.,Di course wey students dey take during di fall semester 2010 show in table 3.2.,English Language
"reading demands as we expected, our interviewees told us that their reading and writing assignments in college were more demanding than those they had faced in highschool, whether in their native country or in the us.","Di interviewees tell us say dia reading and writing assignments for college dey more demanding than those dem face for highschool, whether for dia native kontri or for di us.",English Language
"however, they made it clear that the reading demands varied considerably from course to course, with humanities courses, social science courses, and one ofthe first-year seminar 99 reading across the curriculumcourses presenting the most demand for reading.","Dem make dem clear say di reading demand vari considerably from course to course, wit humanities course, social science course, and one of di first-year seminar 99 reading across di curriculumcourses present di most demand for reading.",English Language
"most students reported that in one or more of their courses, no reading of a textbook or other whole text was required.","Dem report say for one or more of dia course, no reading of textbook or oda whole text dey required.",English Language
"for example, rina volunteered,""we really don't read""for all three of her 200-level courses and added,""i actually bought the book for this class but we never used that""for two of her three courses.","Di yarn volunteer,""we no read""for all three of her 200 level course and add,""i no use dat""for two of her three course.",English Language
"when we examined syllabi for the classes in which the students were enrolled, we found reading assignments listed in most.","We find syllabi for di class wey di students dey enrolled, we find reading assignments wey dey list for most.",English Language
"in a few cases, the course schedule in the syllabi listed topics without a reference to a particular reading, so it was difficult to determine whether those topics were merely covered in class or if they corresponded to reading assignments.","Di course schedule for di syllabi listed topics without reference to a particular reading, so e dey difficult to determine whether dem dey covered for class or if dem correspond to reading assignments.",English Language
all ofthe syllabi listed atleast one required textbook.,Di syllabi wey dey list atleast one required textbook.,English Language
"in the specific cases where students told us that there was no reading assigned during the semester, the syllabi did list weekly reading assignments.","For di specific case wey students tell us say no reading assigned for di semester, di syllabi don list weekly reading assignments.",English Language
"what was clear from the interviews is that often professors would lecture about the material in the textbook and/or make their powerpoint notes available on the course website, and, in some cases, students found that there was therefore no reason to do the reading even if it was assigned.","Di interviews dey say often professors go lecture about di material for di textbook and or make dia powerpoint notes available on di course website, and, for some case, students find say e no go do di reading even if e dey assigned.",English Language
"reading the teacher's notes is, of course, still reading, but such reading does not make the same demands as reading a book.","Di teacher's notes dey, of course, still reading, but such reading no make di same demand as reading book",English Language
"one textbook even came with an instructional dvd, obviating the need for martin to rely on his reading skills alone.",Di need for martin to rely on hin reading skills alone.,English Language
"however, it was not always the case that lectures or online power points meant that the students did not do the reading, as aya reported that she always did the reading for her 200-level psychology course and then depended on the lectures to explain things she did not understand when reading on her own, having found that both were necessary to fully understand the material.","E no dey always di case say lecture or online power points meant say di students no do di reading, as aya reported say she no do di reading for her 200 level psychology course and then depend on di lectures to explain things she no understand when reading on her own, having found say both dey necessary to fully understand di material.",English Language
"similarly, felix read the textbook for his fashion design course, clothing construction, because he found that it reinforced what the teacher conveyed in class.","As felix read di textbook for hin fashion design course, clothing construction, because hin find say e reinforce what di teacher convey for class.",English Language
"the students did report a number of assignments that required shorter readings, such as the assignment in economics 101 to locate an article from the wall street journal or another business-oriented newspaper or magazine online and then write about it or report on it to the class.","Di students don report a number of assignments wey dey required shorter readings, such as di assignment for economics 101 to locate article from wall street journal or magazine online and then write about am to di class.",English Language
"such reading, according to chase, is ""easy.""","As chase, dey easy",English Language
the fact that reading is not necessary in all courses is consistent with reports that typical l1 students can do well in their courses and receive good grades without doing much of their assigned reading.,Di fact say reading no necessary for all courses dey consistent wit reports say typical l1 students go do well for dia course and receive good grades without do much of dia assigned reading.,English Language
"ofthe thirty-three courses in which the seven students were enrolled, they identified six as posing high reading demands: felix's first-year seminar, an introductory history course that aya and rina took together, teddy's introductory sociology course, maria's introductory legal studies course, and rina's psychology course, the only 200-level course so identified.","Di first-year seminar, one introductory history course wey aya and rina take together, teddy's introductory legal studies course, and rina's psychology course, di only 200 level course wey dem identified.",English Language
"the difficulties these courses posed included the amount of required reading, the unfamiliar content ofthe reading, and the lack ofthe cultural background that would have provided scaffolding for the readings.","Di difficulties wey discourse pose include di amount of required reading, di unfamiliar content of di reading, and di lack of di cultural background wey go provide scaffolding for di readings.",English Language
these difficulties in unfamiliar language and content are consistent with the challenges that reading assignments pose 101 reading across the curriculumfor l2 students described in the literature.,Di difficulties wey dey unfamiliar language and content dey consistent wit di challenge wey reading assignment pose 101 reading across di curriculumfor l2 students described for di literature.,English Language
"in addition, the interviews revealed that issues outside ofthe linguistic demands of reading in the l2 can also make reading difficult.",Di interview reveal say issues outside of di linguistic demand of reading for di l2 go make reading difficult,English Language
"these additional difficulties include limitations on students' time for reading and writing posed by the requirements of other kinds of assigned work, student activities, and team sports; the difficulty of performing critical thinking tasks; and the challenge of sustaining the concentration required for reading when the subject is not among one's interests.","Di additional difficulties include limitations on students' time for reading and writing posed by di requirements of oda kinds of assigned work, student activities, and team sports; di difficulty of performing kritikal tinin be say make we dey examine tori and ideas well, sabi wetin dey happen, and use am take make sense decision tasks; and di challenge of sustaining di concentration wey di subject no dey among one interest.",English Language
"in the history course, aya and rina experienced the kind of difficulties that the literature describes as typical for international students, finding that the amount of reading, the vocabulary, and their lack of background knowledge all presented challenges.","Di history course, aya and rina experience di kind of difficulties wey di literature describe as typical for international students, finding say di amount of reading, di vocabulary, and dia lack of background knowledge all dey present challenge.",English Language
"aya said that her history and psychology courses presented the most difficulty, partly because she isn't interested in history, but more so because the vocabulary is difficult:""i kind of understand but for some few sentences the wordings are difficult that i sometimes get stuck with it.""","aya tok say her history and psychology course dey present di most difficulty, partly because she no dey interest for history, but more so because di vocabulary dey difficult.",English Language
rina reported that she needed considerable translation to understand the words in the history textbook.,Dem report say she need considerable translation to understand di words for history textbook.,English Language
"for both the textbook and an additional book, my battle of algiers (morgan,2005), rina and aya noted their lack of background knowledge.","For both di battle of algiers (morgan,2005), rina and aya note dia lack of background knowledge.",English Language
"for example, aya said that she had no context in which to understand topics such as the mughal empire or islam and world trade.",Di aya tok say she no dey understand topics such as di mughal empire or islam and world trade.,English Language
"although rina and aya felt at a disadvantage in comparison to the l1 students, their instructor commented that the l1 students did not know much, if anything, about these subjects either.","Di instructor comment say di l1 students no know much, if anything, about dis subjects either.",English Language
"maria reported that the reading load and the technical language in her legal studies reading assignments presented difficulty, particularly at the beginning ofthe semester.","Maria report dat di reading dey load and di technical language for her legal studies reading assignments come dey difficul, particularly for di beginning of di semester.",English Language
the reading was longer and more complex than any she had encountered before.,Di reading dey longer and more complex than any she dey encounter before,English Language
"according to the department chair, most students in this class find the terminology difficult and benefit from creating a glossary.","According di department chair, most students for dis class find di terminology difficult and benefit from create glossary.",English Language
maria probably experienced no more difficulty than the native speakers in her class.,Di native speakers for her class probably experience no more difficulty than di native speakers for her class,English Language
"in fact, research in second language writing has found that faculty consider l2 students more adept than l1 students at learning the vocabulary in a discipline that is new to them, which maybe attributed to the l2 students' experience in acquiring new vocabulary while learning new languages (leki, 2006, p. 143).","Di research for di oda language wey you learn writing don find say faculty consider l2 students more adept than l1 students for learning di vocabulary for discipline wey dey new to dem, wey dey attributed to di l2 students experience for acquiring new vocabulary while learning new languages (leki, 2006, p. 143).",English Language
"it is clear that maria, according to herself-report, spends more time studying than most u. s. college students do, as she reports spending five hours a night, seven days a week while the national survey of student engagement found the majority of college students spend fewer than sixteen hours per seven-day week (jolliffe & harl, 2008, p. 601).","E dey clear say maria, according to herself-report, dey spend more time to dey study than most u. s. college students do, as she don report to dey spend five hours a night, seven days a week while di national survey of student engagement find di majority of college students spend fewer than sixteen hours per seven day week (jolliffe & harl, 2008, p. 601).",English Language
"the first-year seminar courses, which all the first year students and teddy, the transfer student, were taking, are theme-based courses designed to engage students in a specific area of interest while providing support for making a center and niestepski 102smooth transition to the college community.","Di first year seminar courses, wey all di first year students and teddy, di transfer student, dey take, dey theme-based course wey dey designed to engage students for specific area of interest while provid support for make center and niestepski 102smooth transition to di college community.",English Language
the courses vary widely in terms of their reading demands.,Di course dey widely for terms of dia reading demands.,English Language
"felix's first-year-seminar was the most demanding, as his instructor required students to read four novels and write three analytic papers, a requirement that he found he could not meet partly because, as he candidly reported, he could only spend about forty-five minutes a day reading one ofthe assigned novels before he became too bored to continue.","E candidly reported, hin instructor don require students to read four novels and write three analytic paper, a requirement wey hin find say he no fit meet partly because, as hin instructor dey require students to read four novels and write three analytic paper, a requirement wey hin find say he no fit meet partly because, as hin suppose fit meet partly because, as hin instructor don require students to read four novels and write three analytic paper, a requirement wey hin find he no fit meet partly because",English Language
"although he knew this was not enough time to keep up with his reading assignments, he found it impossible to continue reading past that point.","E no know dis no enough time to keep up within reading assignments, hin find am impossible to continue reading past dat point.",English Language
"while teddy had little difficulty with vocabulary in reading his sociology textbook, he found it difficult to read and understand the case studies that were also weekly reading.","Di teddy get little difficulty wit vocabulary for reading hin sociology textbook, hin find am difficult to read and understand di study of one or few examples wey dey also weekly reading.",English Language
"while lack of shared cultural background made it hard for teddy to grasp the nuances in the american situations the case studies described, his bigger difficulty was in thinking critically in the ways the writing assignments required.",Di bigger difficulty dey in thinking critically for di way di writing assignment required.,English Language
"when asked to apply the general sociological concepts he had read about in the textbook to the case studies, teddy felt that his lack of experience in critical thinking made this quite challenging: maybe it's because i wasn't born here that i don't have that skill[critical thinking]that everyone has.","Dem tok say hin lack of experience for kritikal tinin be say make we dey examine tori and ideas well, sabi wetin dey happen, and use am take make sense decision make e quite challenging: maybe na because i no get experience for kritikal tinin be say make we dey examine tori and ideas well, sabi wetin dey happen, and use am take make sense decision wey e don read about for di textbook to di study of one or few examples, teddy felt say hin lack of experience for kritikal tinin be say make we dey examine tori and ideas well, sabi wetin dey happen, and use am take make sense decision make dis quite challenging.",English Language
everybody in my class doing so well but not for me.,Everybody for my class dey do so well but no for me,English Language
"teddy made clear in subsequent interviews that during his schooling in vietnam, students were expected to memorize, not to express ideas or apply concepts.","Di teddy make clear for subsequent interview say during hin schooling for vietnam, students dey expect to memorize, no to express ideas or apply concepts.",English Language
"in this, he is like some ofthe student informants in zawacki and habib's 2010 study, such as sri, who reported that in india,""you learn it by memory and put it back on the page word for word.","Di student informants for zawacki and habib's 2010 study, such as sri, wey report say for India, you learn am by memory and put am back on di page word for word",English Language
"your own expression was not really accepted, unlike here where there's alot of emphasis on your thoughts and expression""(p. 61).","Di own expression no dey accept, unlike here wey dey where e dey lot of emphasis on your thoughts and expression""(p. 61).",English Language
"meeting the demands: reading strategies to explore the students' use ofthe reading strategies that the literature de - scribes as typical practices of experienced readers, we asked each ofthe six stu- dents to complete an inventory listing multiple strategies based on a reading inventory developed by auerbach and paxton(1997).","We ask each of di six students to complete inventory listing multiple strategies wey di literature dey scribe as typical practice of experienced readers, we ask each of di six students to complete inventory listing multiple strategies wey dey based on reading inventory wey dey developed by auerbach and paxton(1997).",English Language
"in table 3.3, we list the 103 reading across the curriculumstrategies employed before, during, and after the reading that three or more students reported using regularly.","We list di 103 reading wey dey across di curriculumstrategies employ before, during, and after di reading wey three or more students reported using regularly.",English Language
"even though only four ofthe participants reported using a dictionary when they came across unknown words, during the interviews all ofthe students said they look up unknown words to varying degrees.",Di interview all of di participants tok say dem look up unknown words to varying degrees.,English Language
"rina, who had little focus on reading in her english studies in a japanese highschool and never reads for pleasure in her l1 or l2, and teddy, who had considerable experience reading in english both in his community college and on his own, represent opposite ends ofthe continuum between hesitant, word-for-word reading and more con- fident, fluent reading.","Di rina, wey dey little focus on reading for her english studies for a highschool and no dey read for pleasure for her l1 or l2, and teddy, wey dey always read for pleasure for her l1 or l2, and teddy, wey dey considerable experience reading for English both for hin community college and on hin own, represent opposite ends of di continuum between hesitant, word-for-word reading and more con- fident, fluent reading.",English Language
"while rina remains heavily dependent on translation and electronic translators, teddy reported that he used to use a translator but table 33 student reading strategies before you start reading, what (if anything)do you typically do?","Di teddy report say hin use translator but table 33 student reading strategies before you start reading, what (if anything)do you typically do?",English Language
"responses(out of 6)glance at the whole text first, checking length or other text features 4 skim the whole article 4 read the title and think about what might becoming 4 while you are reading, what goes on in your mind?","For 6)glance at di whole text first, check length or oda text feature wey dey skim di whole article, check length or oda text feature wey dey skim di whole article",English Language
what are you doing?,We dey do?,English Language
"taking notes, marking the text 5 asking questions 4 writing 4 skimming or skipping parts 3 going back and forth between parts 3 making predictions 3 what do you do when you come to unknown words or passages you don't understand?","We dey take notes, marking di text 5 asking questions 4 writing 4 skimming or skipping parts 3 go back and forth between parts 3 make predictions 3 what do you do when you kom to unknown words or passages you don understand?",English Language
"guess 4 use the dictionary 4 re-read 3 mark the word/passage and comeback to it 3 after you finish reading, what do you do?","Di guess 4 use di dictionary 4 re-read 3 mark di word passage and kom back to it 3 after you don finish to read, wetin you go do?",English Language
"go back andre-read specific parts 4 re-read the article 3 stop and turn immediately to the assignment 3 go back andre-read specific parts 4 center and niestepski 104found it""expensive and very annoying""to spend so much time looking up words.",Di assignment 3 go back andre-read di specific parts 4 re-read di article 3 stop and dey turn immediately to di assignment 3 go back andre-read di specific parts 4 re-read di article 3 stop and turn immediately to di assignment 3 go back andre-read specific parts 4,English Language
he made the transition from word-based to meaning-based reading in his international highschool.,Di transition from word-based to meaning-based reading for hin international highschool.,English Language
"teddy has developed a higher tolerance for not understanding every word and more facility in guessing meaning from context:""there's alot of words i'm not sure about but based from my experience, i just read the whole thing andi just guess.","Teddy don develop a higher tolerance for those wey no understand evri word and more facility to dey guess the meaning deom di context: Di lot of words i no sure about but based from my experience, i just dey read di whole thing andi go just guess.",English Language
"that usually does help, and it saves me alot of time. reading without a dictionary, i can enjoy the content of a story; reading with a dictionary, it just makes the reading really boring.""","I fit enjoy di content of a story; reading wit a dictionary, e just make di reading really boring",English Language
"rina, in contrast, translates continually, even translating some ofthe words in the history syllabus she showed us; she worries that""sometimes i check everytime the same word,""meaning that she isn't adding the words that she translates to her vocabulary.","She worries say sometimes i check everytime di same word, meaning say she no add di words wey she translate to her vocabulary.",English Language
"overall, the results indicate that these l2 students make use of many ofthe strategies emphasized in intensive approaches to reading.",Di results indicate say dis students make use many of di strategies wey dey emphasize for intensive approaches to reading,English Language
what is equally interesting are the practices that the students did not report making use of.,Di practice wey di students no report making use of.,English Language
"for example, only one student said that while reading he thought of something from his own experience or thought about other articles/courses.","for example, only one student tok say while reading hin thought of something from hin own experience or thought about oda articles courses.",English Language
the students we interviewed seemed to focus solely on understanding the text and were notable to use experiences outside ofthe text to help them understand it.,Di students wey interview don focus solely on understanding di text and no dey able to use experience outside of di text to help dem understand am,English Language
"meeting the demands: coping strategies in her study of l2 students dealing with writing assignments,""coping strategies of esl students in writing tasks across the curriculum,"" leki (1995)found that students employed a number of strategic moves to deal with the writing tasks assigned.","Dem dey coping strategies for her study of l2 students dealing wit writing assignments,""coping strategies of Esl students for writing tasks across di curriculum, leki (1995)find say students employ numero of strategic moves to deal wit di writing tasks assigned.",English Language
the students in this study used similar strategic moves in response to the reading demands they faced.,Di students for dis study use similar strategic moves for response to di reading demands dem face.,English Language
"like leki's participants, they took advantage of their first language and culture, approached their professors and, in some cases, peers, for clarification and help, managed competing demands by choosing the number of courses and the type of courses they enrolled in each semester with reading and writing demands in mind, managed their workload by setting limits on their investment in particular courses or assignments, and regulated their cognitive load by strategically using reading to reinforce what they had heard in class.","For some cases, peers, for clarification and help, manage dia workload by setting limits on dia investment for particular courses or assignments, and regulated dia cognitive load by strategically using reading and writing demands for mind, manage dia workload by setting limits on dia investment for particular courses or assignments, and regulated dia cognitive load by strategically using reading to reinforce what dem hear",English Language
"(a number of these moves are similar to those employed by chozin, the graduate student who is the subject of phillips' case study[this volume]; he too learned to take the initiative in managing his learning and writing environment in order to complete his assignments successfully.)","Di number of dis moves dey similar to those employed by chozin, di graduate student wey dey di subject of phillips Case study na di study of one example[this volume]; hin learn to take di initiative for managing hin learning and writing environment for order to complete hin assignments successfully.",English Language
"some ofthe students' strategies for managing their reading tasks involved taking advantage of their first language by doing""outside research""in the 105 reading across the curriculuml1 in order to understand texts and lectures.","For some of di students' strategies wey dey managing dia reading tasks involved taking advantage of dia first language by do""outside research""for di 105 reading across di curriculuml1 for order to understand text and lectures.",English Language
most often this took the form of looking up background information on the internet about the topic.,Di form of looking up background information on di internet about di topic.,English Language
"for example, aya reports that in her history class,""on the syllabus it says like the title of what she's going to talk about today, so i like goon the internet and look up kind of like an overview or background information in japanese and kinda get the idea andi goto the class.""","aya report talk say for her history class,""on di syllabus e tok like di title of wetin she go talk about today, so i like goon di internet and look up the almost like overview or background information for japanese and kinda get idea andi goto di class.",English Language
"both aya and rina talked about looking online for information in japanese about the battle of algiers in order to help them understand my battle of algiers (morgan,2005).","Di two aya and rina talk about di battle of algiers for order to help dem understand my battle of algiers (morgan,2005).",English Language
"similarly, chase found his economics instructor's notes hard to understand, so he would read material on google until he was able to understand the concepts and complete his homework.","chase found hin economics instructor notes hard to understand, so he go read material on google until hin able to understand di concepts and complete hin homework.",English Language
rina reported that at the beginning ofthe semester she had her mother send her japanese books on business to help with her business courses.,Di beginning of di semester she don send her japanese books on business to help wither business courses.,English Language
teddy was the most assertive ofthe students we interviewed in asking for adaptations of assignments so that he could take advantage of this first culture.,Di most assertive of di students wey interview for asking for adaptations of assignments so say he go take advantage of dis first culture.,English Language
"he negotiated adaptations in his introductory sociology class by asking the instructor to let him use his knowledge of his own background, vietnamese culture, rather than examples from us culture, an accommodation that the professor allowed for a group presentation and an exam.","Di instructor dey negotiate adaptations for hin introductory sociology class by ask di instructor to use hin knowledge of hin own background, vietnamese culture, no be examples from us culture, an accommodation wey di professor allowed for group presentation and exam.",English Language
"for the exam, instead of writing about a subculture in the us(which he did not clearly grasp), his instructor allowed him to write about a subculture in vietnam.","Di instructor dey allow him write about subculture for di us(which hin no clearly grasp), hin instructor allowed him write about subculture for vietnam.",English Language
"by allowing him to examine the subculture in vietnam, his instructor was able to gauge how well he understood the sociological theories he was learning without penalizing him for his lack of understanding of american subcultures.","Di instructor dey allow him to examine di subculture for vietnam, hin instructor dey able to gauge how well hin understand di sociological diories he dey learn without penalizing him for hin lack of understanding of american subcultures.",English Language
"(like chozin with his writing assignments, as described by phillips[this volume], aya, rina, chase, and teddy show l2 students drawing on knowledge from their l1 to complete reading and writing-about-reading assignments.","Di volume], aya, rina, chase, and teddy show l2 students dey draw di knowledge from dia l1 to complete di reading and writing-about-reading assignments.",English Language
"as depalma and ringer argue[this volume], when we consider what writing knowledge l2 students might be transferring across cultural, linguistic, and academic contexts, many of which are unfamiliar to them, we need to recognize how they are reusing, and in many cases, reshaping concepts and information from their l1.)","Di volume, wen we consider say write knowledge l2 students go transfer across cultural, linguistic, and academic contexts, many of which dey unfamiliar to dem, we need to recognize how dem dey reusing, and for many cases, reshaping concepts and information from dia l1.)",English Language
"another approach students used when struggling with the readings was to ask someone, typically a classmate or the instructor, for help.","Di approach wey students use when struggling wit di readings nato ask someone, typically classmate or di instructor, for help.",English Language
"students indicated that oftentimes they did not feel comfortable asking the instructor questions about the text during class, but would instead wait until after class to talk with the instructor or they would email him or her.","Dem tok say oftentimes dem no feel comfortable asking di instructor questions about di text during class, but dem go wait until after class to talk wit di instructor or dem go email him or her.",English Language
"martin indicated that if he still didn't understand after rereading, ""i'll like ask another athletic training major,'hey, did you get that?'","Di martin dey tok say if hin no understand afta rereading, ""i go like ask one athletic training major,'hey, go get dat?'",English Language
"and if they don't know, we'll just look it up and kind of discuss.""","If dem no know, we go just look am up and kind of discuss",English Language
chase also reported working with his classmates to complete the homework problems that were assigned in his economics class.,Di chase also report work within classmates to complete di homework problems wey dey assigned for hin economics class.,English Language
center and niestepski 106aya and rina managed the high reading demands that they expected to find in their history course by taking the course together and by limiting their course load to four 3-credit courses instead ofthe usual five that semester.,Di center and niestepski 106aya and rina manage di high reading demand wey dem expected to find for dia history course by taking di course together and by limit dia course load to four 3-credit courses forstead of di usual five dat semester.,English Language
(we recently learned that chase and teddy are currently following the same strategy of taking their history course together.),We recently learn say chase and teddy dey currently follow di same strategy of taking dia history course together.,English Language
"in our follow-up interviews with five ofthe seven participants during the 2011-2012 academic year, most readily acknowledged that, when they plan their schedules each semester, they seek a balance between courses with high demands for reading and writing and courses with less demands.","Di follow-up interview wit five of di seven participants for di 2011-2012 academic year, most readily acknowledg say, wen dem plan dia schedule each semester, dem seek balance between course wit high demand for reading and writing and course wit less demand.",English Language
"for teddy and chase, for example, math-based courses are much less onerous, so they balance reading/writing-intensive courses with those that are more math-based.","for example, math-based courses dey less onerous, so dem balance reading writing-intensive courses wit those wey dey more math-based.",English Language
teddy averred that he could handle a 50-50 balance while chase said that he preferred a 70-30 balance in favor of math-based courses.,Di teddy averred say hin go handle 50-50 balance while chase tok say hin prefer 70-30 balance for favor of math-based course.,English Language
"the content ofthe reading makes a significant difference, however, as reading in the student's major, such as rina's reading about restaurant and hotel management, was seen as much more manageable than reading in a discipline outside the major.","As reading for di student major, such as rina's reading about restaurant and hotel management, dey seen as much more manageable than reading for discipline outside di major.",English Language
"similarly, felix finds his fashion textbooks useful and readable and does not sell them back to the bookstore, keeping them to use for future reference.","Di similarly, felix find hin fashion textbooks useful and readable and no sell dem back to di bookstore, keeping dem use for future reference.",English Language
"in leki's study(1995), students made conscious choices to limit their investment in particular assignments, courses, and in academic work overall, choosing, for example, not to reread because it took too much time away from other assignments or to participate in college activities, socialize or travel rather than to study in order""to get a more well-rounded educational experience""(p. 251).","for example, students make conscious choices to limit dia investment for particular assignments, courses, and for academic work overall, choosing, for example, no to reread because dem take too much time away from oda assignments or to participate for college activities, socialize or travel no be to study for order""to get more well-rounded educational experience""(p. 251).",English Language
"similarly, in our study, some students prioritized the hands-on work assigned in classes, such as felix's fashion design courses, and their student activities over completing their reading assignments.","Di study, some students prioritize di hands-on work assigned for class, such as felix's fashion design course, and dia student activities wey dey complete dia reading assignments.",English Language
"for example, felix was part ofthe student government association and martin, as a soccer player, had daily practices and frequent games during the season.","Di example, felix dey part of di student government association and martin, as soccer player, get daily practice and frequent games during di season.",English Language
"interestingly, they are the two students who were most forthright about the choices they made to limit the amount of time they devoted to reading in areas outside their careeroriented majors because the reading became too boring to tolerate.",Di two students wey dey forthright about di choice wey dem make to limit di amount of time wey dem devote to reading for areas outside dia careeroriented majors because di reading dey too boring to tolerate.,English Language
aya used strikingly similar stratagies.,Di aya use strikingly similar stratagies.,English Language
"following the design ofthe course in the syllabus, she prepared for the topic to be discussed by reading in her l1 on the internet, providing her own scaffolding for the upcoming lecture, then focused on listening in class, and finally read the textbook after the lecture to reinforce and clarify what she heard.","She don prepare for di topic wey dem go discuss by reading for her l1 on di internet, wey dey provide her own scaffolding for di upcoming lecture, and finally read di textbook before di lecture to reinforce and clarify what she hear.",English Language
the follow-up interview revealed that aya is continuing to regulate her cognitive load in her upper-level psychology courses.,Di follow-up interview reveal say aya continue to regulate her cognitive load for her upper level psychology course.,English Language
teddy follows a similar routine of reading the textbook before class to provide scaffolding for the lectures.,Di teddy dey follow di similar routine of reading di textbook before class to dey provide scaffolding for di lectures.,English Language
"he reported that he depends heavily on the textbook for his learning, particularly when the professor is not an effective lecturer.","He report say hin depend heavily on di textbook for hin learning, particularly wen di professor no dey effective lecturer.",English Language
"teddy observed that""i don't want to put myself in the situation that i rely on the professor too much. so i develop a style of studying rely mostly on the book.""",I no want to put myself for di situation wey i rely on di professor too much. so i develop style of studying rely mostly on di book,English Language
"conclusions and recommendations the interviews revealed that, in most cases, these l2 students coped well with the demands for reading in their courses.","Di interview reveal say, for most cases, dem cop well wit di demands for reading for dia course.",English Language
only one student mentioned resorting to spark notes when the reading was too time-consuming.,Na only one student mention say resort to spark notes wen di reading dey too time-consuming.,English Language
"in addition to the students' self-reports, the writing samples students brought to their second interviews, all graded as a's or b's, showed evidence of atleast rudimentary skills in selecting and integrating information from readings into the writing.","Di student' self-reports, di writing samples students don bring to dia second interview, all grade as a's or b's, show evidence of atleast rudimentary skills for selecting and integrating information from readings into di writing.",English Language
"the students were aided by their own strategies and the help of instructors, who spoke to students after class, during office hours, and on email to answer questions about the readings; modified assignments to allow students to use their own cultural experiences; made accommodations for students who needed to translate during exams; and used visual modalities to convey information to students.","Di students dey aid by dia own strategies and di help of instructors, wey dey spoke to students before class, during office hours, and on email to answer questions about di readings; make dem use visual modalities to convey information to students.",English Language
students consistently mentioned how helpful it is if instructors are available to meet with students after class and during office hours.,Di students consistently mention how helpful e dey if instructors dey available to meet wit students after class and during office hours.,English Language
"from the students' comments, it is very clear that they usually do not feel comfortable asking questions in class and are at times quite self-conscious.",E dey clear say dem no feel comfortable asking questions for class and dey at times quite self-conscious.,English Language
"in cases where the students were notable to meet face to face with their instructors after class, they found it helpful to be able to email the instructor.","Di students no dey able to meet face to face wit dia instructors after class, dem find am helpful to be able to email di instructor",English Language
"during maria's second interview, she explained that only one of her instructors knew she was not born center and niestepski 108in the united states and that she did not want to be treated differently from the other students as it was already hard to bein college.",She tok say only one of her instructors know she no born center and niestepski 108in di united state and say she no want to be for college.,English Language
"however, she too discussed how helpful it was to be able to email an instructor for clarification on one of her assignments.",She too discuss how di helpful e dey to email an instructor for di clarification on one of her assignments.,English Language
"in general, an opportunity for a visual component is helpful for l2 students.",Di opportunity for visual component dey helpful for l2 students.,English Language
both aya and rina talked about an assignment from history class in which they were asked to respond to a review of a book.,Di two aya and rina talk about assignment from history class wey dem ask to respond to review of a book.,English Language
"instead of a written review, students were given the link to a youtube video interview ofthe person reviewing the book.",Di student dey give di link to youtube video interview of di person review di book.,English Language
they found it helpful to be able to watch the video repeatedly.,Dem find dem helpful to watch di video repeatedly.,English Language
"based on what we learned from our study and from second language reading pedagogy, there are several additional practices that could aid students and promote reading across the curriculum that did not appear to be widely used, such as providing a context for assigned readings in advance and making greater use of writing-to-read activities.","Di additional practice wey go aid students and promote reading across di curriculum wey no dey widely use, such as providing context for assigned readings for advance and make great use of writing-to-read activities.",English Language
several students discussed how helpful it would be if instructors would provide a context for the readings beforehand.,Di several students discuss how helpful e go be if instructors go provide context for di reading beforehand.,English Language
"for example, aya and rina struggled with reading my battle of algiers because they had no context for it.",aya and rina dey struggled wit reading my battle of algiers because dem no dey context for am,English Language
"felix struggled with the dialect in zora neale hurston's their eyes were watching god(1937/2006) and stated,""for me, it wasn't english.","Di felix dey struggled wit di dialect for zora neale hurston's eyes dey watch god(1937 2006)and tok say,""for me, e no dey english",English Language
"it was greek.""",E dey greek,English Language
"if instructors are able to give students an overview of what the reading material will be about, the time period or key persons involved, or ways to decipher the dialect, this might go along way in helping students to understand the reading.","If instructors dey able to give students overview of what di reading material go about, di time period or key persons involved, or way to decipher di dialect, dis go long way for help students to understand di reading.",English Language
"in addition, instructors across the disciplines should help students to become aware of how they read, so that they begin to recognize the practices that inhibit the development of fluency.","For addition, instructors wey dey across di disciplines go help students to recognize how dem read, so say dem begin to recognize di practice wey dey inhibit di development of fluency.",English Language
"instructors can then""encourage students to read first for overall meaning without trying to understand every single word"" (spack, 1993, p. 189).","Di instructors go encourage students to first read for di overall meaning and make dem no try understand every single word"" (spack, 1993, p. 189).",English Language
"while many ofthe students used notetaking, glossing, and annotating when they read, they did not mention using other writing-to-read strategies either on their own time or in their classes.","As many of di students use notetaking, glossing, and annotating wen dem read, dem no mention using oda writing-to-read strategies either on dia own time or for dia class.",English Language
"hirvela (2004)discusses three writing-toread strategies that help students to understand the material they are reading: summary, synthesis, and response papers.","Hinvela (2004)discuss three writing-toread strategies wey help students understand di material wey dem read: summary, synthesis, and response paper.",English Language
"hirvela (2004)draws on previous studies that have found""more complex writing tasks involving some degree of composing(e. g, analytic and response-based essays)have a greater impact on students' learning than do less demanding activities such as notetaking and answering study questions""(p. 84).","E. g, analytic and response-based essays)don great impact on students' learning than do less demanding activities such as notetaking and answering kwestions wey dem dey ask for skul wey pesin suppose answer or solve as dem dey learn""(p. 84).",English Language
"while study questions may guide students to important places in a text, when students are asked to write a summary, they are forced to decide what information in the text is ofthe most importance.","Di kwestions wey dem dey ask for skul wey pesin suppose answer or solve as dem dey learn dey guide students to important places for text, wen students dey ask to write summary, dem force to decide what information for di text dey of di most importance.",English Language
"according to hirvela (2004),""in situations where we have reasons to expect our students to encounter difficulties while reading, adding a writing component such as summarizing might be the best reading gift we can give them""(p. 109 reading across the curriculum91).","Di situation wey we get reason to expect awa students to encounter difficulties while reading, add a writing component such as summarizing might be di best reading gift wey we fit give dem",English Language
just write apart from what they learn.,E just write part from what dem learn,English Language
"let's say you read two pages, and you ask yourself what you read.","She tok say you read two pages, and you ask say you read two pages, and you ask say you read",English Language
sometimes you read and your mind is somewhere else you don't understand.,As you read and your mind dey somewhere else you no understand,English Language
"summarize it in your own words, just to get in the habit of doing it""(p. 18).","Di habit of doing am, just to get in di habit of do am",English Language
(qian du[this volume]describes the benefits of summary writing for l2 students.,Dis volume]describes di benefit of summary writing for l2 students.,English Language
"another written component is synthesizing, which allows students to move beyond summarizing one text to summarizing and describing the relationship among multiple texts.","Di written component dey synthesizing, wey allow students move beyond summarizing one text to summarizing and describing di relationship among multiple texts.",English Language
"given that when our interviewees described their reading strategies, only one student mentioned thinking about another text, synthesis assignments might be a useful technique for instructors to use to help students see the connections among texts.","Di interviewees don describe dia reading strategies, only one student dey talk say make dem think about one text, synthesis assignment fit be useful technique for di instructors to use to help di students see di connection among di text.",English Language
"a third type of writing-to-read activity is the response assignment, which can take a variety of forms ranging from pre-reading writing in which students are asked to write about the topic ofthe text to post-reading writing in which students describe their reactions to the texts.","Di second type of writing-to-read activity dey di response assignment, wey fit take variety of forms wey dey from pre-reading writing for which students dey ask to write about di topic of di text to post-reading writing for which students dey describe dia reactions to di text.",English Language
many instructors assign journals in which students respond to the texts.,Di many instructors assign journals wey students respond to di texts.,English Language
"like the summaries, response assignments can give instructors insight into the challenges students are facing with the texts assigned and can easily be incorporated into classes from all disciplines.","Di summaries, response assignments go give instructor insight into di challenges students dey face wit di text assigned and easily be incorporated into classes from all disciplines.",English Language
"yet, other than in the writing courses, we found no evidence that instructors assigned summaries, syntheses, or response assignments so that students were able to write in response to readings.","We find no evidence say instructors dey assign summaries, syntheses, or response assignments so say students dey able to write for response to readings.",English Language
perhaps the use of writing-to-read assignments is one ofthe reasons that the students taking writing courses reported that they read the assigned readings from their composition readers easily.,Di use of writing-to-read assignments dey one of di reason wey di students take write courses report say dem read di assigned reading from dia composition readers easily.,English Language
"ultimately, instructors in all disciplines can help all students become stronger readers by assigning reading for which students are held accountable, so that they continuously practice reading.","Di ultimately, instructors for all disciplines don help all students become stronger readers by assign reading for which students dey hold accountable, so say dem continuously practice reading.",English Language
"as noted previously, l2 students may benefit even more than l1 students do from extensive reading practice because frequent reading can build tacit knowledge ofthe l2 and prompt more fluent reading.",Na l2 students go benefit even more than dem l1 students go do from di extensive reading practice because di frequent reading fit build tacit knowledge of di l2 and prompt more fluent reading.,English Language
"additionally, instructors across the disciplines can design writing activities and assignments that invite students to go beyond comprehension and the accumulation of information to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate what they read.","Di instructors wey dey across di discipline fit design write activities and assignments wey dey invite students to go beyond comprehension and di accumulation of information to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate what dem read.",English Language
"as carson(1993) notes,""language is always used to do something; it is center and niestepski 110not meaningful in and of itself""(p. 99).","As carson(1993) notes,""language dey always use to do something; e dey center and niestepski 110not meaningful for and of imself"" (p.99).",English Language
"reading is meaningful when students think about the content of their reading and do something with it, composing their thoughts in response to the language on the page or screen.","Di reading dey meaningful wen students think about di content of dia reading and do something wit am, composin dia thoughts for response to di language on di page or screen.",English Language
exploring reading/writing relationships in adult second language learners.,E dey explore reading writing relationship for adult di oda language wey you learn learners.,English Language
connecting reading and writing in second language writing instruction.,E dey connect reading and writing for di oda language wey you learn writing instruction,English Language
"studying the""reading transition""from highschool to college: what are our students reading and why?","We dey study di""reading transition""from highschool to college: wetin awa students dey read and why?",English Language
reciprocal themes in esl reading and writing.,E dey reciprocal themes for esl reading and writing,English Language
negotiating socioacademic relations: english learners' reception by and reaction to college faculty.,To dey negotiate socioacademic relations: English learners' reception by and reaction to di college faculty.,English Language
eye learners and ear learners: identifying the language needs of international students and us resident writers.,"Dey identify di language needs of di international students and us, dem resident writers",English Language
"student meets text, text meets students: finding away into academic discourse.","students jam text, text jam students: dey find way into di academic discourse",English Language
"the acquisition of academic literacy in a second language: a longitudinal case study, updated.",Di acquisition of di academic literacy for di oda language wey you learn: one longitudinal Case study na di study of one example.,English Language
"""will our stories help teachers under- stand?"":",Dem help teachers under- stand?,English Language
"multilingual students talk about identity, voice, and expectations across academic communities.","Dem talk about identity, voice, and expectations wey dey across academic community.",English Language
"valuing written accents: non-native students talk about identity, academic writing, and meeting teachers' expectations.","Na non-native students dey talk about identity, academic writing, and di meeting teachers' expectations",English Language
"to fill in this gap, this qualitative study examined the summary writing experiences and practices of a group of international undergraduate students as they navigate across different disciplinary courses.",Di qualitative study examin di summary writing experience and di practices of group of international undergraduate students as dem navigate across di different disciplinary course.,English Language
"the major findings ofthe study will be discussed in this chap- ter, and pedagogical implications outlined.","Di major findings of di study go dey discuss for dis chap- ter, and pedagogical implications wey dey outline.",English Language
"in anglophone universities, reading-based writing tasks are commonly assigned (bridgeman &carlson, 1984; hale et al,","For anglophone universities, reading-based writing tasks dey commonly assigned (bridgeman &carlson, 1984; hale and al.",English Language
"ofthe major sourcebased assignments, summary writing has long been perceived as a core academic literacy skill necessary for students studying in american universities to achieve academic success.","Di major sourcebased assignments, summary writing don dey perceived as core academic literacy skill wey dey necessary for students studying for american universities to achieve academic success.",English Language
"because of this, esl writing programs, which are designed to socialize second language writers into the target academic community, often incorporate summary writing as an important component ofthe curriculum.","Dis, Esl writing programs, wey dey designed to socialize di oda language wey you learn writers into di target academic community, often incorporate summary writing as important component of di curriculum.",English Language
esl students enrolled in such courses are provided with ample opportunities to practice summarization skill based on the readings selected by the writing teachers.,El students wey dey join for such course dey provide wit opportunity to practice summarization skill wey dey based on di readings selected by di writer teachers.,English Language
"despite this central focus on the teaching of summarization, however, esl writing courses often do not seem to take into consideration l2 writers' actual uses of summarization in disciplinary courses.","Di central focus on di teaching of summarization, despite dis central focus on di teaching of summarization, however, despite dis central focus on di teaching of summarization, however, l2 writers' actual use of summarization for disciplinary course no dey take into consideration l2 writers' actual use of summarization for disciplinary course.",English Language
"in esl writing courses, qian du114the readings chosen for summary writing are usually unrelated to students' academic backgrounds, and the criteria used for the evaluation of summaries are largely a result ofthe writing teachers' own understanding ofthe genre.","Di readings wey dey chosen for summary writing dey usually unrelated to students' academic background, and di criteria wey dey use for di evaluation of summaries dey largely result of di writing teachers' own understanding of di genre.",English Language
"in other words, summary writing is often taught as a""context-free"" skill in esl writing programs.","For oda words, summary writing dey often taught as""context-free"" skill for Esl writing programs.",English Language
recent research on second language writing has started to explore the relationship between esl writing programs and l2 writers' literacy experiences in their chosen disciplines(e. g.,Di recent research on di oda language wey you learn writing don start to explore di how two things dey related Esl writing programs and l2 writers' literacy experience for dia chosen disciplines(e. g.,English Language
"nevertheless, few studies have examined the discrepancies in the teaching and learning of specific academic writing skills.",Di studies don examin di discrepancies for di teaching and learning of specific academic writing skills.,English Language
"to fill in the gap, this study examines summary writing experiences of a group of international undergraduate students in various disciplinary courses.",Di study examines summary writing experience of group of international undergraduate students for different disciplinary course.,English Language
"by documenting the focal participants' summarization practices across the curriculum, this qualitative study seeks to unveil the connections(or disconnections) between esl composition programs and content classes in terms of summary writing, hoping to shed light on how summarization could be more effectively taught in second language writing courses.","Di qualitative study seeks to unveil di connections(or disconnections) wey dey between Esl composition programs and content classes for di terms of di summary writing, hoping to shed light on how di summarization go dey more effectively taught for di oda language wey you learn writing courses.",English Language
"next, i will present major findings in relation to international undergraduate students' summary writing experiences across the disciplines, and outline pedagogical implications accordingly.","I go present di major findings wey dey based on where you dey di international undergraduate students' summary writing experiences wey dey across di disciplines, and outline di pedagogical implications accordingly.",English Language
"review ofthe research the importance of summary writing in higher education has been emphasized by a number of second language writing researchers(kirkland &saunders, 1991; yang &shi, 2003).","Di research di importance of summary writing for higher education don dey emphasize by number of di oda language wey you learn writing researchers(kirkland &saunders, 1991; dan &shi, 2003).",English Language
"as is generally agreed by university writing instructors, summary writing constitutes as""a gateway skill""(frey, fisher& hernandez,2003, p.48) for undergraduate aswell as graduate students to complete various types of source-based writing assignments in university settings.","Di summary writing constitute as""gateway skill""(frey, fisher& hernandez,2003, p.48 for undergraduate students to complete different type of source-based writing assignments for university settings.",English Language
"conceptualizing summarization as an important literacy skill in english academic writing, writing researchers have examined novice writers' summary writing practices from different perspectives.","Di researchers don conceptualize summarization as important literacy skill for english academic writing, writing researchers don examin novice writers' summary writing practices from different perspectives.",English Language
the complexities of this particular reading-based writing task have drawn 115 bridging the gapfocused attention from researchers.,Di complexities of dis particular reading-based writing task don draw 115 bridging di gapfocused attention from researchers.,English Language
"in order to produce quality summaries, students need to interact with the source texts recursively, constantly reflecting on the reading materials and making decisions regarding the level of importance of information(kim, 2001; rinehart &thomas, 1993).","Di student go need to dey interact wit di source texts recursively, constantly reflect on di reading materials and go make decisions regarding di level of importance of di information(kim, 2001; rinehart &thomas, 1993).",English Language
"in other words, writers need to develop an accurate comprehension ofthe source texts and distinguish between the main substance and trivial details to produce a good summary.",Di writer go need develop di accurate comprehension of di source text and distinguish between di main substance and trivial details to produce di good summary,English Language
"in addition, students are also expected to explain key points ofthe source texts in concise language, which is particularly challenging for second language learners with developing english proficiency.","Di students dey expect to explain tori wey dey important pass, wey go help you make his decision of di source text for concise language, wey dey particularly challenging for di oda language wey you learn learners wit developing english proficiency.",English Language
"as hill(1991) explains,""[t]he process of learning to write summaries is along one, accomplished in stages as text-related variables interact with the developing writer""(p. 539).","As hill(1991) explain,""[t]he process of learning to write summaries dey long one, accomplished for stage as text-related variables interact wit di developing writer""(p. 539).",English Language
"acknowledging the complexities of summarization, second language writing researchers have investigated major difficulties and challenges that novice academic writers encounter while working on such tasks.","Di complexities of summarization, di oda language wey you learn writer researchers don investigate major difficulties and challenges wey novice academic writer dey encounter while work on such tasks.",English Language
"johns and mayes (1990), for instance, examined the processes of summarization by comparing the summaries produced by writers with high and low english proficiency.",Di process of di summarization by comparing di summaries produced by di writers wit high and low english proficiency.,English Language
"their findings showed that although students with a lower level of english proficiency were more likely to rely on the original wording ofthe source text, both groups of writers struggled with generating main ideas in a condensed manner based on the text.","Di findings show say students wit lower level of English proficiency dey more likely to rely on di original wording of di source text, both groups of writers dey struggled wit generating main ideas for condensed manner based on di text.",English Language
"another study by johns(1985) also demonstrated that although less proficient english writers were more inclined to focus on sentence-level information and infrequently combined idea units at a macro level, both novice and more experienced college writers distorted the ideas ofthe source text to a certain level and included personal comments in their summaries, the practices of which were inconsistent with the general expectations of academic summaries.","Di study by Johns(1985) also demonstrate say although less proficient English writers dey more inclined to focus on sentence-level information and infrequently combined idea unit for macro level, both novice and more experienced college writers distorte di idea of di source text to certain level and include personal comments for dia summaries, di practice of which dey inconsistent wit di general expectations of academic summaries.",English Language
kim(2001) explored korean university students' summary writing practices in english.,Dem explore korean university students' summary writing practices for english,English Language
"according to kim, the participants most frequently utilized deletion as a strategy to generate a condensed version ofthe source text, and the efl learners found it challenging to generalize andre-organize information to present main ideas.","Di participants most frequently utilize deletion as strategy to generate condensed version of di source text, and di efl learners find im difficult to generalize andre-organize information to present main ideas.",English Language
"also looking into summary writing processes, yang and shi(2003) investigated how six first-year mba students(three chinese esl learners and three native english speakers)approached a disciplinary summary task that involved the reading and critical examination of a company case.",Hin and shi(2003) investigate how six first yearmba students(three chinese Esl learners and three native English speakers)approach a disciplinary summary task wey dey involved di reading and critical examination of company case.,English Language
"their findings suggested that the participants employed a wide range of composing strategies while working on the task, and students' previous learning experiences influenced their summarization performances.","Di findings suggest say di participants employ wide range of composing strategies while work on task, and students' previous learning experience influence dia summarization performance.",English Language
"according to yang and shi(2003), among the six participants, those who had background knowledge in the content area and previous experience writing about topics within the discipline were in general more confident of and skilled in completing the task, qian du116whereas those who were relatively new to the field found the summarization task to be difficult.","Di six participants, those wey dey background knowledge for di content area and previous experience writing about topics wey dey within di discipline dey relatively new to di field find di summarization task to difficult.",English Language
"as graduate students have already chosen an area of study to pursue and are commonly expected to demonstrate their competence of providing meaningful discussions about disciplinary specific topics, content knowledge thus becomes an important variable that determines the level of success of disciplinary summarization.","As graduate students don already chosen area of study to pursue and dey commonly expected to demonstrate dia competence of providing meaningful discussions about disciplinary specific topics, content knowledge don become important variable wey dey determines di level of success of disciplinary summarization.",English Language
another challenge that novice academic writers often experience while completing summarization tasks involves using their own words to explain the meaning in written form.,Di challenge wey novice academic writers dey experience while complete summarization tasks involves using dia own words to explain di meaning for written form.,English Language
"keck (2006), for example, explored students' paraphrasing practices for summary writing.","Keck (2006), for example, don explore di students' paraphrasing practices for summary writing.",English Language
"by comparing the paraphrasing behaviors of native-english speaking students and esl writers, keck (2006)showed that esl writers relied on the original wording ofthe source texts more than their american counterparts, highlighting the role that language proficiency plays in influencing writers' summary writing abilities.","Eck (2006)show say native-english speaking students and Esl writers dey reli on di original wording of di source text more than dia american counterparts, highlight di role say language proficiency play for influence writers' summary writing abilities.",English Language
"also looking into the relationship between language competence and summary writing, baba (2009)examined one particular aspect of lexical proficiency and how it affected l2 writers' summarizing abilities.","Baba(2009) look into di how two things dey related language competence and summary writing, baba (2009)look into one particular aspect of lexical proficiency and how dem affect l2 writers' summarizing abilities.",English Language
"according to baba(2009), the participants' competence of defining words and manipulating synonyms played a critical role in determining the quality of their summaries.",Di participants' competence of defining words and manipulating synonyms play critical role for determining di quality of dia summaries.,English Language
"comparing original source texts and students' summaries, basham and rounds(1984) found out that writers seemed to have difficulties maintaining the original tones ofthe authors through appropriate manipulation of verb tenses, adverbs and modal verbs.","Dem to know say writers dey need difficulties maintain di original tones of di authors through appropriate manipulation of verb tenses, adverbs and modal verbs.",English Language
"also exploring wording and meaning changes, hood (2008)analyzed the processes of summarization based on brief notes taken along the source text.",Di hood(2008) analyze di process of summarization based on brief notes wey dem take along di source text.,English Language
"the researcher showed how the seemingly straightforward process is in fact a complex one, where writers needed to attend to subtle meaning implications of changed wordings while using their own words to express meanings.","Di researcher show how di seemingly straightforward process dey complex one, wey writers need attend to subtle meaning implications of change wordings while using dia own words to express meaning.",English Language
these studies have all demonstrated multifaceted factors that may influence the quality ofthe final write-up of a summary.,Di studies don demonstrat multifaceted factors wey dey influence di quality of di final write-up of summary.,English Language
"as kirkland and saunders(1991) aptly point out in their article, both internal constraints(e. g.","As kirkland and saunders(1991) don talk for dia article, both internal constraints(e. g",English Language
"language proficiency ofthe writers, knowledge about the content ofthe readings, cognitive and metacognitive skills to distinguish between important and trivial information and to control the processes of summary writing)and external constraints(e. g.","Language proficiency of di writers, knowledge about di content of di readings, cognitive and metacognitive skills to dey distinguish between information wey dey important and di one wey dey trivial and to dey control di process of summary writing)and di external constraints(e. g.",English Language
"the types of materials being summarized, the nature ofthe assignments, time limit, the target audience ofthe summaries)affect how the writers approach various summarization assignments.","Di types of materials wey dey summarized, di nature of di assignment, time limit, di target audience of di summaries)affect how di writers approach different summarization assignments.",English Language
"moreover, these internal and external constraints""are all interactive"" (kirkland& saunders,1991, p.114), which further complicates summary writing processes.","Di internal and external constraints dey all interactive"" (kirkland& saunders,1991, p.114), wey further complicate summary proses of puttin down tori for paper, from wen you dey plan am, draft am, edit am, till you finish am well.",English Language
"considering the challenges that college students experience while working on summarization tasks, writing researchers have also examined potential teaching 117 bridging the gapstrategies that can help learners to develop an adequate ability of summary writing.","Di challenges wey college students experience while work on summarization tasks, writing researchers don examin potential teaching 117 bridging di gapstrategies wey fit help learners develop adequate ability of summary writing.",English Language
"day(1986) contended that when dealing with challenging tasks such as summarization, writers would benefit from explicit instruction of specific writing strategies integrated with self-regulatory skills that help to monitor their own performances(e. g.","Di day(1986) tok say when dealing wit challenging tasks such as summarization, writers go benefit from explicit instruction of specific writing strategies wey dey integrat wit self-regulatory skills wey help to monitor dia own performances(e. g.",English Language
checking and paying attention).,Di checking and pay attention).,English Language
friend(2001) conducted a study to examine how explicit instruction on reading strategies may help novice writers to develop the ability of differentiating between main ideas and details in source texts.,Di friend(2001) conduct one study wey examine how explicit instruction for reading strategies go help novice writers develop di ability of differentiating between di main ideas and details for source text.,English Language
"the participants ofthe study included three groups of college writers: one group was taught the strategy of argument repetition, a second group learned the strategy of generalization, and a third group(the control group)was asked to rely on their personal reactions to the texts while identifying main ideas.","One group dey learn di strategy of argument repetition, a second group learn di strategy of generalization, and third group dey ask say dem rely on dia personal reactions to di text while identifying main ideas.",English Language
the results suggested that both experimental groups outperformed the control group in terms ofthe ability to distinguish between different levels of information.,Di results dey suggest say both di experimental groups dey outperform di control group for terms of di ability to dey distinguish between di different level of information,English Language
"based on the findings, friend (2001)pointed out that explicit instruction on generalizing information of source texts is crucial in helping novice academic writers to develop the ability of going beyond the exact wording and understand the gist.","Di findings, friend (2001) tok say explicit instruction on generalizing information of source text dey crucial for helping novice academic writers to develop di ability of going beyond di exact wording and understand di gist.",English Language
"also advocating for explicit instruction, casazza (1993)emphasizes the importance of directly showing students how to interact with texts and engage in meaning construction when summarizing.",Di importance of directly show students how to interact wit text and engage for meaning construction wey dey summarizing.,English Language
"cox, bobrowski, and maher(2003) also support explicit instruction on summary writing by sharing their experiences about how to teach business majors to critically evaluate source texts and identify key claims and ideas.","Cox, bobrowski, and maher(2003) support di explicit instruction on summary writing by sharing dia experience about how one fit teach di business majors to evaluate source text well and identify di key claim and ideas.",English Language
"kirkland and saunders(1991) maintain that when teaching summarization, teachers may need to first attend to the instruction of essential study skills such as note taking in order to help learners to keep track ofthe different levels of information presented in the texts.","Di kirkland and saunders(1991) maintain say when teaching summarization, teachers need to first attend to di instruction of essential study skills such as note take for order to help learners to keep track of di different level of information wey dey present for di text.",English Language
ko(2009) investigated the effectiveness of a module used to teach summary writing.,Di effectiveness of a module wey dey use to teach summary writing,English Language
"the quantitative and qualitative findings showed that the korean university students who participated in the study improved in terms of their ability to distinguish between different levels of information, and developed a more positive attitude towards their own ability of summary writing and the importance of learning to summarize effectively.","Di quantitative and qualitative finding show say di korean university students wey participate for di study improve using dia ability to distinguish between different level of information, and develop more positive attitude towards dia own ability of summary writing and di importance of learning to summarize effectively.",English Language
radmacher and latosi-sawin (1995)explained that engaging students in meaningful comparisons of summaries of different qualities would help learners to develop a clearer understanding ofthe criteria often used to evaluate summaries.,Di radmacher and latosi-sawin (1995)explain say engaging students for meaningful comparison of summaries of different qualities go help learners develop clearer understanding of di criteria wey dey use to evaluate summaries.,English Language
the authors also advocated for the use of disciplinary reading materials as source texts for summarization tasks in order to expose students to authentic writing contexts that they are likely to encounter indifferent courses.,Di authors also advocate for di use of disciplinary reading materials as source text for summarization tasks for order to expose students to authentic writing contexts wey dem dey likely to encounter for different courses.,English Language
"although the extant literature has generated insights about the challenges that novice academic writers(esl students in particular)encounter when working on summarization tasks and how writing courses could help learners qian du118to develop the ability to summarize, many ofthe studies are based on specially designed summary tasks in writing programs, with insufficient attention directed to the actual types of summarization assignments that students are expected to complete in disciplinary courses.","Di extant literature don generate insights about di challenge wey novice academic writer(esl students for particular)encounter wen dey work on summarization tasks and how write courses go help learners qian du118 to develop di ability to summarize, many of di studies dey based on specially designed summary tasks for writing programs, wit insufficient attention direct to di actual types of summarization assignments wey students dey expected to complete for disciplinary course.",English Language
"to fill in the gap, the study reported here examined the summarization practices of a group of esl undergraduate students studying in various disciplines at a us university.",Di study report here investigate di summarization practices of group of Esl undergraduate students studying for different disciplines for us university.,English Language
"methods to shed light on esl undergraduate writers' summarization experiences across disciplinary courses, this qualitative-oriented study tracked six focal participants pursuing undergraduate degrees at a comprehensive mid-western us university.",Di qualitative-oriented study track six focal participants wey dey pursuing undergraduate degrees for di comprehensive mid-western us university.,English Language
the following research questions guided data collection and analysis.,Di following research questions dey guide di data collection and analysis.,English Language
what expectations are commonly associated with such tasks?,Di expectations dey commonly associated wit such tasks?,English Language
"the study took place in amid-western us university, which features a large international student population from asian countries, china and south korea in particular.","Di study take place for mid-western us university, wey feature large international student population from Asian countries, china and south korea for particular.",English Language
the university offers a three-course sequence of esl writing program that aims to help these international students develop an adequate understanding of academic writing so that they can successfully handle writing tasks commonly assigned in disciplinary courses.,Di university offer three-course sequence of Esl writing program wey aims to help these international students develop adequate understanding of academic writing so say dem fit successfully handle write tasks commonly assigned for disciplinary course.,English Language
all incoming international undergraduates are required to take a placement test at the beginning of their studies and are then placed into one ofthe three courses according to their writing proficiency reflected by the test.,Di all incoming international undergraduates dey required to take placement test for di beginning of dia studies and dem place one of di three courses according to dia writing proficiency reflected by di test.,English Language
"although there area number of students who need to take the lowest-level course, the majority of international undergraduates are able to skip it because of their quality performance in the placement test and directly start with the latter two courses in the sequence.","Di majority of international undergraduates dey able to take di lowest level course, di majority of international undergraduates dey able to skip am bikos of dia quality performance for di placement test and directly start wit di former two courses for di sequence.",English Language
"both of these courses focus on source-based writing, with summary writing constituting a major component ofthe curricula, although in the most advanced course, summarization is often taught in relation to research paper writing.","Dem focus on source-based writing, wit summary writing constitute major component of di curricula, although for di most advanced course, summarization dey often taught for relation to research paper writing.",English Language
the participants for this study were all students who took one or two required esl composition courses with mein the past year.,Di participants for dis study dey all students wey take one or two required Esl composition course wit me for di past year.,English Language
"altogether, six core participantsyvonne, lee, carla, leslie, gloria, cherry(all pseudonyms)completed the whole project with me.","Togeda, di six core participantsyvonne, lee, carla, leslie, gloria, cherry(all pseudonyms) don complete di whole project wit me.",English Language
"lee was originally from korea, whereas the rest ofthe participants were from china.","Di rest of di participants dey from Korea, whereas di rest of di participants dey from china.",English Language
"ofthe participating students, yvonne and lee were studying accounting, carla was a finance major, leslie was double majoring in mathematics and economics, and gloria and cherry were both studying in the architecture program.","Di participating students, yvonne and lee dey study accounting, carla na finance major, gloria and cherry dey study for di architecture program.",English Language
all the participants were international students who were relatively unfamiliar with english academic writing in general and summarization in particular before taking the esl composition course.,Di participants dey international students wey dey relatively unfamiliar wit english academic writing for general and summarization for particular before taking di Esl composition course.,English Language
"after recruiting the participants, i conducted semi-structured interviews with them, seeking information about the types of summarization assignments they were required to complete in various disciplinary courses and asking the participants to explain in detail the purposes and nature ofthe summarization tasks.","I conduct semi-structured interview wit dem, wey dey seeking information about di type of summarization assignment wey dem need complete for different disciplinary course and ask di participants to explain in detail di purpose and nature of di summarization tasks.",English Language
"in addition, i examined the course syllabi ofthe esl writing courses regarding the teaching of summary writing, aiming to identify connections and disconnections between what participants did in the writing program and indifferent content courses.","I dey examin di course syllabi of di Esl writing courses regarding di teaching of summary writing, aiming to identify connections and disconnections between wey participants do for di writing program and for different content courses.",English Language
"for data analysis, i adopted the commonly used""thematic analysis"" (glesne, 2006, p. 147), and continuously created and refined codes and categories based on my research questions.","I adopt di commonly used""thematic analysis"" (glesne, 2006, p. 147), and continuously create and refined codes and categories wey dey based on my research question.",English Language
"summarization as a prerequisite skill for source-based writing assignments as reported by the participants, summarization constitutes a threshold skill that they are expected to master in order to complete such larger writing tasks as article critiques, reading responses, and analysis papers commonly assigned in qian du120general education courses.","For di participants, di summarization don constitute prerequisite skill for source based writing tasks like di article critiques, reading responses, and analysis paper commonly assigned for qian du120general education course.",English Language
"as one participant, leslie, said in the interview:""you just have to know how to summarize, because it's the beginning of almost every writing assignment.""","As one participant, leslie tok say for di interview:""you just know how to summarize, bikos e dey di beginning of almost every writing assignment",English Language
leslie had abundant experiences with summary writing in a variety of courses that she took across the curriculum.,Lelie don abundant experience wit summary writing for variety ofcourse wey she take across di curriculum.,English Language
"in the introduction to design course that she took as an elective, for example, she was asked to read extensively on chosen topics according to the syllabus, and respond to the readings.","Di introduction to design course wey she take as elective, for example, she dey ask to read extensively on chosen topics according to di syllabus, and respond to di readings.",English Language
"in one week, she was asked to look for information about several designers, choose one to introduce his/her life and work, and then discuss how the person influences her thinking about design.","She dey ask to look for di information about di several designers, choose one to introduce hin life and work, and then discuss how di person influence her thinking about design.",English Language
"the following guidelines were provided in the syllabus outlining the expectations ofthe assignment:. choose one of those three designers and write an in-depth essay about their life, work, contributions, etc.",Di following guidelines dey available for di syllabus wey dey outlining di expectation of di assignment:,English Language
"also include your own thoughts about their life, work, contributions, etc.","E also don include your own thoughts about dia life, work, contributions, etc",English Language
"length is at your discretion, but remember you are in college now.","Di length dey for your discretion, but remember you dey college now",English Language
"as the requirements show, this particular assignment features a mixture of summary writing and the expression of one's own ideas based on source information.",Di particular assignment feature mixture of summary writing and di expression of one own ideas wey dey based on source information.,English Language
"in order to discuss how a particular designer's life and work impacted her, leslie needed to know about the person first and introduce him/her.","E go need to dey discuss how one particular designer's life and work don impact her, leslie gats sabi di person first and try introduce dem.",English Language
"in the theater course that she took to fulfill the general education requirement, she was also required to explain her reactions, but this time based on show performances that she was expected to watch.","Di theater course wey she take to fulfill di general education requirement, she no need to explain her reactions, but dis time wey she dey based on show performance wey she dey expected to watch.",English Language
"to contextualize her own thoughts, she would always present a short summary paragraph in the beginning that briefly described the content ofthe performances, even though the theater teacher did not provide explicit requirements regarding the necessity of a summary paragraph.","Di theater teacher no provide explicit requirements regarding di content of di performance, even though di theater teacher no provide explicit requirements regarding di necessity of summary paragraph.",English Language
"according to leslie, even though the teacher did not specify this, she believed that a short summary ofthe performances at the beginning ofthe response paper was indispensable, since it would help readers who were not familiar with the performances to understand her later discussions.","Di teacher no specify dis, she believe say short summary of di performances for di beginning of di response paper na indispensable, since e go help readers wey dey familiar wit di performances to understand her later discussions.",English Language
leslie's experiences with summary writing across the curriculum were quite representative of those of other participants who took different courses than she did(e. g.,Lelie's experience wit summary writing across di curriculum dey representative of those of oda participants wey dey take different course wey she do(e. g.,English Language
"biology, food science and technology, history, economics, women's studies, architecture many of which serve to fulfill the general education requirement).","For biology, food science and technology, history, economics, women's studies, architecture many of dem dey serve to fulfill di general education requirement).",English Language
"in these courses, students were frequently asked to read about certain topics in relation to the content ofthe courses, and discuss their ideas and perspectives accordingly.","Di courses, students dey frequently ask to read about certain topics for relation to di content of di course, and discuss dia ideas and perspectives accordingly.",English Language
"due to the different focuses ofthe courses, these assignments often took on different forms.",Di assignments dey take on different forms.,English Language
"in her biology class, for 121 bridging the gapexample, yvonne was asked to evaluate new york times articles that introduced current developments in biological research and related controversies.",E dey ask to evaluate new york times articles wey dey introduced current development for biological research and related controversies.,English Language
"in one assignment, she read an article about whether pregnant women in labor should follow a restricted diet, and then expressed her understanding of this issue from a chinese perspective.","For one assignment, She read one article about whether pregnant women for labor go follow restricted diet, and then talk say her understanding of dis issue na from chinese perspective.",English Language
(see hirsch[this volume]for examples of writing projects in wid courses that include summary writing.),Di volume]for examples of writing projects for wid courses wey include summary writing.,English Language
"despite the various formats ofthe assignments, the essential task is quite similar, that is, to express one's informed opinions about certain topics based on source texts.","Di essential task dey similar, na, to express one informed opinions about certain topics wey dey based on source texts.",English Language
"because ofthe central role reading plays in most ofthe disciplinary courses, summarization, which entails adequate reading comprehension, has become a tacit need for source-based assignments, although very few instructors directly explained this to the participants ofthe study.","Di central role reading play for most of di disciplinary course, summarization, wey dey entails adequate reading comprehension, don become tacit need for source-based assignments, although few instructors directly explain dis to di participants of di study.",English Language
"although the ability to understand the given source texts seems to be assumed across the disciplines, l2 learners, who are quite unfamiliar with the content ofthe materials and are still developing their english language proficiency, often struggle with reading comprehension when being asked to complete summarization tasks.","Di ability to understand di source texts dey assumed across di disciplines, l2 learners, wey dey quite unfamiliar wit di content of di materials and dey still develop dia english language proficiency, often struggle wit reading comprehension wen dem asked to complete summarization tasks.",English Language
"as the participants explained, they tended to spend along time reading the assigned texts in order to make sure that their comprehension was accurate.","As di participants explain, dem go spend longtime reading di assigned texts for order to make sure say dia comprehension dey accurate.",English Language
"(for a longer discussion ofthe challenges l2 students face when completing readings assigned in undergraduate us courses aswell as strategies they develop to negotiate these challenges, see center& niestepski [this volume]).","For longer discussion of di challenges wey l2 students face wen complete readings assigned for undergraduate us course aswell as strategies wey dem develop to negotiate dis challenges, see center& Niestepski [this volume]).",English Language
"sometimes, even after they tried to read the materials multiple times, they still felt uncertain about what the texts were discussing.","As dem try read di materials multiple times, dem still felt uncertain about what di text dey discuss.",English Language
"as a result, the participants had to rely on guessing to some extent while working on their summaries, which inevitably influences the accuracy ofthe final write-ups.","Di participants don rely on guessing to some extent while work on dia summaries, wey dey influence di accuracy of di final write-ups.",English Language
"when asked whether what they had learned in the esl writing courses about summary writing was helpful for them to complete disciplinary writing tasks, the participants agreed that the content covered in the writing courses enabled them to understand the genre of summary in english, which was relatively unfamiliar to them.","Di participants agree say di content wey dem learn for di Esl writing courses about summary writing dey helpful for dem to complete disciplinary writing tasks, di participant agree say di content wey dem dey covered for di writing courses about summary in english, wey dey relatively unfamiliar to dem.",English Language
"leslie and gloria, for example, were completely new to the concept of summarization before they took the esl writing courses.","for example, dem completely new to di concept of summarization before dem take di Esl writing course.",English Language
"as both of them explained in the interviews, they had never been asked to complete a summary task in their native chinese language and had no previous knowledge about how to write a good summary.","As both of dem explain for di interview, dem no dey asked to complete summary task for dia native chinese language and no dey previous knowledge about how to write good summary",English Language
"in this sense, the esl writing courses provided basic information about summarization that functioned as building blocks for the l2 writers to deal with various disciplinary summarization tasks.",Di Esl writing course don provide basic information about summarization wey dey function as building blocks for di l2 writers to deal wit different disciplinary summarization tasks.,English Language
"despite the general satisfaction with the content covered in the esl writing courses, all participants also explained that they would have liked the writing classes to focus more on how to generate key ideas from long texts instead ofthe writing conventions associated with summary writing(e. g.",Di participants also explain say dem go like di writing class to focus more on how to generate key ideas from long texts forstead of di writing conventions wey dey associated wit summary writing(e. g.,English Language
"as the participants described in the interviews, when evaluating the summary assignments, the disciplinary course instructors usually emphasized the accuracy ofthe information and often did not pay too much attention to their language style in which the summaries were written(see zawacki & habib and ives, leahy, leming, pierce,& schwartz[this volume]for further discussion of faculty expectations for l2 writers).","As di participants described for di interview, wen dey evaluate di summary assignments, di disciplinary course instructors dey emphasize di accuracy of di information and often no pay too much attention to dia language style wey dem dey written(see zawacki & habib and ives, leahy, leming, pierce,& schwartz[this volume]for further discussion of faculty expectations for l2 writers).",English Language
diverse formats of source texts the important role of summarization in disciplinary courses is probably not news to writing instructors; yet what is quite unexpected is the wide range of source texts that students are expected to work with across the curriculum.,Di important role of summarization for disciplinary courses no dey news to write instructors; yet what dey quite unexpected na di wide range of source text wey students dey expected to work wit across di curriculum.,English Language
"although students are always expected to submit their summaries in written form, the source texts assigned for the summary tasks are not necessarily printed articles or books.",Di source text wey dey signed for di summary tasks dey no necessarily printed articles or books.,English Language
"instead, students are often asked to summarize a variety of sources, including guest lectures, movies, video clips, paintings, and architectural models.","Di students dey often ask to dey summarize deir many sources, wey include di guest lectures, movies, video clips, paintings, and architectural models.",English Language
"one ofthe participants, gloria, who majored in architecture, was asked to summarize guest lectures given by invited architects aswell asher major learning from the talks.","Di participants, gloria, wey major for architecture, dey ask to summarize guest lectures wey invited architects aswell asher major learning from di talks.",English Language
"in such situations, what she needed to do was to listen to the lectures carefully, identify important points covered by the guest speakers, note them down in succinct manners, and write them up after the lectures.","Di guest speakers need to listen to di lecture carefully, identify important points wey di guest speakers, note dem down for succinct manners, and write dem up for di lectures.",English Language
"according to gloria, such tasks were challenging in that she had to attend to both listening and note taking at the same time.","according to gloria, such tasks dey challenging for say she don attend to both listening and note taking for di same time.",English Language
"as she explained in the interview, although she had studied in the united states for quite sometime, she still encountered trouble listening to native-speaking professors and lecturers, and often had to spend extra time in her head to decode and digest the information from lectures.","Di interview, although she don studie for di united states for quite sometime, she still encounter trouble listening to native-speaking professors and lecturers, and often don spend extra time for her head to decode and digest di information from lectures.",English Language
"oftentimes, new vocabulary, discipline-specific terminologies, and cultural jokes that frequently appeared in the guest lectures caused her additional difficulties to understand the information.","Di new vocabulary, discipline-specific terminologies, and cultural jokes wey dey frequently appear for di guest lectures dey cause her additional difficulties to understand di information.",English Language
"consequently, she found it hard to keep up with the fast speed and unfamiliar content ofthe lectures.",She find am hard to keep up wit di fast speed and unfamiliar content of di lectures.,English Language
"also, since each ofthe lectures lasted for an hour, gloria found it extremely demanding to keep track ofthe gist and distinguish between different levels of information.","Di lectures dey last for an hour, gloria find am extremely demanding to keep track of di gist and distinguish between di different level of information.",English Language
"as she vividly described,""the lectures are long, and my mind begins exploding, and i just cannot tell which is the gist, which is the detail.""(","As she vividly described,""the lectures dey long, and my mind begin exploding, and i no tell wich dey di gist, wey dey detail",English Language
see center& niestepski [this volume]for ways in which l2 students use reading to better understand course lectures.),Di volume]for way wey l2 students use reading to better understand course lectures.,English Language
"because of these major challenges, gloria had to make the best use of what she was capable of doing when working on the summarization tasks: she only selected points that she was relatively confident of to include in the final writeup.",She only selected points wey she dey relatively confident of to include for di final writeup.,English Language
"as adamson (1990)points out, note taking is a cognitively and linguistically 123 bridging the gapchallenging task for most esl students, since learners need to comprehend the information obtained from lectures, differentiate between the gist and details, identify certain logic that guides the presentation ofthe information and then concisely write down the most important points.","As adamson (1990)points out, note taking na cognitively and linguistically 123 bridging di gapchallenging task for most Esl students, since learners need to comprehend di information wey dey collect from lectures, differentiate between di gist and details, identify certain logic wey dey guide di presentation of di information and then concisely write down di most important points.",English Language
"esl students, whose english proficiency is still developing, will naturally confront major difficulties in trying to understand the terminology-heavy lectures aswell as finding the most effective language to note down important information.","El students, wey dey still develop, go naturally confront major difficulties for trying to understand di terminology-heavy lectures aswell as finding di most effective language to note down important information.",English Language
"as adamson (1990)aptly explains, faced with the challenges of note taking, esl learners often""had to make a trade off between understanding what the teacher was saying and taking notes""(p. 71), which inevitably led to partial comprehension ofthe lectures.","As adamson (1990)aptly explain, face wit di challenge of note taking, Esl learners often""had make trade off between understanding what di teacher tok and take notes""(p. 71), wey dey led to partial comprehension of di lectures.",English Language
leslie also had the experience of working with multimedia source texts in her elective dance and design classes.,Di experience of di work wit multimedia source texts for her elective dance and design classes.,English Language
"in her dance class, she was asked to watch short video clips that demonstrated key movements of certain styles of dancing, and describe them in a written summary.","She ask her watch short video clips wey demonstrat key movement of certain styles of dancing, and describe dem for a written summary.",English Language
"as leslie explained, the content ofthe video was not particularly challenging, since the information presented in a visual manner was straightforward enough for her to understand.","As leslie explain, di content of di video no dey challenging, since di information wey dey present for visual manner dey straightforward enough for her to understand.",English Language
"also, since the key movements demonstrated by the dancers were quite obvious, she did not experience much trouble identifying the major movements that characterize a particular dance style.","Di key movements wey di dancers dey quite obvious, she no experience much trouble identifying di major movements wey characterize a particular dance style.",English Language
"yet, she still found the task quite demanding in that it was difficult for her to transform the visual information that she obtained from the video clips into written english.",She still find di task quite demanding for say e dey difficult for her to transform di visual information wey she get from di video clips into written english.,English Language
"as she said in the interview,""i can easily describe all the movements in speaking, but when you ask me to write them down, everything is different.""","I fit easily describe all di movements for speaking, but wen you ask me to write dem down, e dey different",English Language
"according to leslie, she always had trouble finding vivid words and phrases to describe the artistic dancing movements that she saw in the video clips.","Di according to leslie, she no dey trouble finding vivid words and phrases to describe di artistic dancing movement wey she saw for video clips.",English Language
"although she got full grades for all the reports, leslie believed that her summaries were inadequate in capturing the stylistic dancing gestures.","As she get full grades for all di report, leslie tok say her summaries dey inadequate for capturing di stylistic dancing gestures",English Language
"as an esl writer who had taken several academic writing courses, leslie was still not confident of her ability to complete such summarization tasks.","As Esl writer wey dey take several academic writing course, leslie no dey confident of her ability to complete such summarization tasks.",English Language
"for second language learners who are developing their english language proficiency, the summarization task itself is already challenging enough; yet, what these writers are expected to doin various disciplinary courses is often more demanding.","Di writers dey expect to do for di oda language wey you learn learners wey dey develop dia English language proficiency, di summarization task wey dey already challenging enough; yet, what dem dey expected to do for different disciplinary course dey always demand; yet, what dem dey expected to do for different disciplinary course dey always demand; yet, what dem dey expected to do for various disciplinary course dey always demand; yet, what dem dey need to do for di oda language wey you learn learners wey dey develop dia English language proficiency",English Language
"although these participants were fairly satisfied with what they had learned in the esl writing program about summarization, they all discussed how the information introduced in the writing courses is, as gloria puts it,""a little bookish,"" and does not transfer easily as they tackle disciplinary summarization tasks based on a wide range of multimedia source texts.","Di participants dey fairly satisfied wit how di information wey dem learn for di writing courses dey, as gloria put am,""a little bookish,"" and dem no transfer easily as dem tackle disciplinary summarization tasks wey dem tackle disciplinery summarization tasks wey dem tackle on wide range of multimedia source texts.",English Language
"with the increasing use of multimedia sources in disciplinary courses, the traditional text-based summarization strategies commonly taught in esl composition qian du124courses, such as underlining key points, paraphrasing topic sentences, selecting and omitting words from source texts, seem rather insufficient in helping l2 writers to achieve success in summarization tasks across the curriculum.","Di traditional text-based summarization strategies wey dey taught for Esl composition qian du124courses, such as underlining tori wey dey important pass, wey go help you make his decision, paraphrasing topic sentences, selecting and omitting words from source texts, e dey insufficient for helping l2 writers to achieve success for summarization tasks across di curriculum.",English Language
"extensive use of summarization as a learning tool apart from relying on summarization skill to complete various sourcebased writing assignments, the participants also used it extensively in their studies as an effective way to organize information.","Di participants also use di extensive use of summarization as learning tool apart from relying on summarization skill to complete various sourcebased writing assignments, di participants also use am extensively for dia study as effective way to organize information.",English Language
"although the students were majoring indifferent disciplines, they all had to read widely on diverse topics in most courses.","Di students dey major for different disciplines, dem all go read widely on diverse topics for most course.",English Language
"yvonne, for example, was asked to read six books throughout a quarter for her general education women's studies class.","for example, dem ask Yvonne make she read six books for one ova four of her general education women's studies class.",English Language
"lee, who was an accounting major, often had to read thick textbooks in her major accounting courses.","Lee, wey be accounting major, often dey read thick textbooks for her major accounting course.",English Language
"cherry, an architecture major, was expected to read theoretical articles that explained the rationales behind the design of certain buildings.",Dem expect to read theoretical articles wey dey explain di rationales wey dey behind di design of certain buildings.,English Language
"for them, summarization became an indispensable tool to keep track of all the information obtained from the heavy readings.","For dem, summarization be indispensable tool to keep track of all di information wey dem dey collect from di heavy readings.",English Language
"according to the participants, they were expected to differentiate between the main ideas and less important details in most ofthe courses that they took.",Di participants dey expect to differentiate between di main ideas and less important details for most of di course wey dem take.,English Language
"although the professors might not explicitly ask them to summarize the texts, quizzes were regularly used to assess whether the students had read the required materials and understood the most important points presented in them.","Di professors no explicitly ask dem to summarize di texts, quizzes dey regularly use to assess whether di students read di required materials and understand di most important points wey dem dey presented for dem.",English Language
"because of this implicit expectation, the participants consciously employed summarization as a study aid to help themselves distinguish between different levels of information.",Di participants dey consciously employ summarization as study aid to help themselves distinguish between different level of information,English Language
"lee, for example, would take notes while reading her thick textbooks.","Lee, for example, dey take notes as she dey read her thick textbooks.",English Language
"after reading a page or so, she would write down in her notebook what she considered as key points.","She go write down for her notebook wey she consider as tori wey dey important pass, wey go help you make his decision.",English Language
"to save time, she chose not to compose paragraphs of summaries; rather, she used bullet points to list the most important concepts introduced in the books.","She no compose paragraphs of summaries; rather, she use bullet points to list di most important concepts wey dey introduced for di books",English Language
"as she explained in the interview,""in this way, i get to remember the knowledge better, and i don't have to go back to the whole book when i need to look up something.""","Di way, i get to remember di knowledge better, and i no to go back to di whole book wen i need to look up something",English Language
"according to her, the summary notes were particularly helpful for exam preparation, since she normally did not have sufficient time to go through the thick textbooks again towards the end of a quarter when assignments and tests started to pile up.","Di summary notes dey particularly helpful for exam preparation, since she normally no get time to go through di thick textbooks again towards di end of quarter wen assignment and tests start to pile up.",English Language
"similarly, another participant, carla, also actively used summarization in her reading to take notes; yet, unlike lee, carla chose to write her notes down on the margins ofthe texts.","Di participant, carla, dey also actively use di summarization for her reading so she fit take notes; yet, unlike lee, carla decide say she go write her notes down on di margin of di text.",English Language
"when she was preparing for the discussion sessions of her human resources class, she wrote brief notes(both in english and her native chinese language)on the margins ofthe articles that she was assigned to read.",She write brief notes(both for english and her native chinese language)on di margin of di articles wey she dey read.,English Language
she also printed out discussion questions that were provided by the 125 bridging the gapinstructors and wrote down her short responses based on her summary notes.,She also to print discussion questions wey dey provided by di 125 bridging di gapinstructors and write down her short responses based on her summary notes.,English Language
"for example, when answering the question""what policies could the firm or the nation implement if they wanted women to lessen their specialization in home production?""","for example, wen answer di question""what policy could di firm or di nation implement if dem wanted women to lessen dia specialization for home production?",English Language
"she jotted down several points(""provide same or more wages than men; regulate their working time"")based on her reading notes.","She write down several points(""provide di same or more wages than men; regulate dia work time"")as per her reading notes.",English Language
"as carla said in the interview,""i can understand the academic articles more clearly if i use my own words to express the information.",I fit understand di academic article more clearly if i use my own words to express di information,English Language
"if i don't do this, i feel that i don't really get what the authors want to say.""","I feel say i don do dis, i feel say i no get what di authors want say",English Language
"as the cases ofthe participants demonstrate, the skill of summarization permeates their undergraduate studies because ofthe large amount of reading in which they are expected to engage.","Di case of di participants demonstrate, di skill of summarization permeates dia undergraduate studies because of di large amount of reading wey dem dey expected to engage.",English Language
"even though course instructors may not require them to summarize all the texts, the participants still did so in their own ways in order to grasp the most important points discussed in the texts.","Na even though course instructors no require dem to summarize all di texts, di participants no dey require dem to summarize all di texts, di participants still don do so for dia own way for order to grasp di most important points wey dem dey discuss for di texts.",English Language
"gloria vividly explained her understanding ofthe role that summarization plays in her disciplinary courses,""we always do summarizing in various cases, but sometimes we do not even realize that.""","Di gloria vividly explain her understanding of di role wey summarization play for her disciplinary course,""we always do summarization for different cases, but sometimes we no realize say",English Language
"discussion and conclusion based on the findings generated by this qualitative study, it is not unreasonable to conclude that summarization skill does play an essential role in l2 undergraduate students' academic literacy experiences across the disciplines.",Di qualitative study no dey unreasonable to conclude say summarization skill don play essential role for l2 undergraduate students' academic literacy experiences across di disciplines.,English Language
"since most courses require students to work with source texts, summarization is indispensable for learners to distinguish between the gist and less important details.","Di courses dey require students make dem work wit di source text, di summarization wey dey indispensable for learners to distinguish between di gist and less important details.",English Language
"as the study has shown, summarization functioned as a prerequisite skill for these esl students to complete source-based assignments, such as article critiques and reading responses.","As di study don show, di summarization don function as one prerequisite skill for dis esl students to complete source-based assignments, like dem article critiques and reading responses.",English Language
"in a variety of courses, students were also expected to work with non-traditional multimedia source texts and express their ideas and perspectives accordingly.",Di students dey expect to work wit non-traditional multimedia source text and express dia ideas and perspectives accordingly.,English Language
"in addition, due to the large amount of reading in which they were required to engage, the participants also used summarization as a learning strategy that helped them to organize information obtained from reading materials.",Di participants also use summarization as a learning strategy wey dem help dem organize information wey dem get from reading materials.,English Language
"in esl writing courses, summary writing is often taught as a separate and well defined genre: students are asked to read an article and produce a coherent paragraph of summary.",Di student dey ask to read article and produce coherent paragraph of summary.,English Language
"because it is considered primarily a writing task, esl composition courses tend to focus more on the final product ofthe summaries, highlighting the importance for writers to adopt an expected academic style in their write-ups.","E dey consider primarily a writing task, Esl composition course go focus more on di final product of di summaries, highlight di importance for writers to adopt academic style for dia write-ups.",English Language
"in disciplinary courses, however, the emphasis of summarization is placed on comprehension, and learners are expected to display an accurate understanding of source texts.","Di emphasis of summarization dey place on comprehension, and learners dey expect to display accurate understanding of source texts.",English Language
"accordingly, disciplinary course instructors qian du126often do not pay much attention to the style in which the summaries were written.",Di disciplinary course instructors qian du126 no pay much attention to di style wey di summaries dey written.,English Language
such a discrepancy in the emphasis of summarization in writing and disciplinary courses may serve to explain why esl students who have learned about summary writing in composition courses still experience difficulties while summarizing disciplinary texts.,Di discrepancy for di emphasis of summarization for composition courses dey serve to explain why Esl students wey dey learn about summary writing for composition courses still experience difficulties while summarizing disciplinary texts.,English Language
"although general knowledge covered in writing courses helps l2 writers, who are often unfamiliar with summarization conventions in english(moore, 1997), to develop some understanding ofthe task, it seems inadequate for the learners to deal with the often more complex expectations in disciplinary courses regarding summarization.","Di general knowledge wey dey covered for writing courses help l2 writers, wey dey often unfamiliar wit summarization conventions for english(moore, 1997), to develop some understanding of di task, e dey inadequate for di learners to deal wit di often more complex expectations for disciplinary courses regarding summarization.",English Language
"in order to best help esl writers to cope with the diverse summarization tasks in disciplinary courses, writing programs need to re-conceptualize summarization as an essential literacy skill apart from teaching it as an important genre.","So person fit best help Esl writers to cope wit di diverse summarization tasks wey dey disciplinary course, writing programs go need to re-conceptualize summarization as di essential literacy skill apart from teaching am as one important genre.",English Language
"considering the challenges that l2 writers encounter while reading source texts, esl writing courses need to place more emphasis on how to interact with texts effectively.","Di challenge wey l2 writers encounter while reading source texts, Esl writing course need place more emphasis on how to interact wit text effectively.",English Language
"to prepare l2 learners for the large amount of reading on various topics expected in disciplinary courses, l2 writing courses also need to take into consideration the range of topics while choosing source texts for summarization tasks.","E need to prepare l2 learners for di large amount of reading on various topics wey dey expected for disciplinary course, l2 writing course dey need to take into consideration di range of topics wey dey expected for disciplinary course, l2 writing course dey need to take into consideration di range of topics wey dey expected for disciplinary course, l2 writing course need to take into consideration di range of topics while choosing source text for summarization tasks.",English Language
"stories, newspaper articles)as the only type of source texts, writing courses could incorporate multimedia sources and assist l2 writers to work with them.","Di only type of source text, writing course go incorporate multimedia sources and assist l2 writers to work wit dem",English Language
"for example, esl writing courses could introduce note taking as a particular type of summarization (kirkland& saunders,1991), and help familiarize learners with the situations where they are expected to shuttle between different skills, such as listening and writing, or reading and writing.","for example, Esl writing courses go introduce note taking as particular type of summarization (kirkland& saunders,1991), and help familiarize learners wit di situation wey dem dey expected to shuttle between different skills, such as listening and writing, or reading and writing.",English Language
"in addition, writing instructors may need to spend more time teaching embedded summarization to better prepare students for larger source-based assignments that require them to express their opinions based on the summaries.","For addition, writing instructors need spend more time teaching embedded summarization to better prepare students for small source-based assignments wey require dem express dia opinions based on di summaries.",English Language
"as for instructors across the disciplines, it is important to develop the awareness that esl writers, who are still developing their language proficiency in english and who are generally unfamiliar with disciplinary expectations in the anglophone academic context, often encounter major challenges and difficulties as they work on summarization tasks.","E dey important to develop di awareness say Esl writers, wey dey still develop dia language proficiency for english and wey dey generally unfamiliar wit disciplinary expectations for di anglophone academic context, often encounter major challenges and difficulties as dem work on summarization tasks.",English Language
"instead of assuming that l2 learners have already developed sufficient reading skills to comprehend source texts and a linguistic repertoire to explain the main points and substance ofthe material, disciplinary instructors need to provide more specific guidance as they assign summarization tasks.","Di learners don develop sufficient reading skills to comprehend source text and linguistic repertoire to explain di main points and substance of di material, disciplinary instructor need provide more specific guidance as dem assign summarization tasks.",English Language
"for example, course instructors could provide brief reading guides that outline the general organization ofthe reading materials to help l2 learners cope with the large amount of reading filled with disciplinary terminologies and background knowledge.","for example, course instructors go provide brief reading guide wey outline di general organization of di reading materials to help l2 learners cope wit di large amount of reading filled wit disciplinary terminologies and background knowledge.",English Language
"also, worksheets that contain key disciplinary vocabulary would also be beneficial for l2 writers to complete the 127 bridging the gapwrite-up ofthe summaries.",Di worksheets wey contain key disciplinary vocabulary go also beneficial for l2 writers to complete di 127 bridging di gapwrite-up of di summaries.,English Language
"although the focus of most disciplinary courses is not on writing, explicit instruction about how to approach major writing tasks is still needed to facilitate novice academic writers, l2 learners in particular, to cope with varied disciplinary expectations across the curriculum.","Di focus of most disciplinary courses no dey on writing, explicit instruction about how to approach major writing tasks dey need to facilitate novice academic writers, l2 learners for particular, to cope wit varied disciplinary expectations across di curriculum.",English Language
"references adamson, h. d.(1990).","Demson, h. d.(1990).",English Language
esl students' use of academic skills in content courses.,El students' use of academic skills for content course.,English Language
teaching first-year business students to summarize: abstract writing assignment.,E dey teach first year business students to summarize: abstract writing assignment,English Language
effects of writing summaries as a generative learning activity during note taking.,Di effect say dem dey write summaries as generative learning activity when dem dey take note.,English Language
teaching summarization skills: influences of student ability level and strategy difficulty.,Di teaching summarization skills: di influence of student ability level and strategy difficulty,English Language
writing summaries promotes thinking and learning across the curriculum-but why are they so difficult to write?,Di writing summaries dey promote how person suppose think and learn across di curriculum-but why dem dey difficult to write?,English Language
"the study found that despite being valued for their diversity of thought and experience, these multilingual students experienced discrimination both inside and out- side the classroom.","Di study find say despite say value dey for dia diversity of thought and experience, dem multilingual students dey experience discrimination for inside and out- side di classroom.",English Language
"it is argued in this essay that in order to create and maintain inclusive classrooms, instructors must also take into consid - eration attitudes pertaining to the socioeconomic, racial, and linguistic climate of their institution.","E dey argued for dis essay sayin order to create and maintain inclusive classrooms, instructors must take into consid - eration attitudes wey dey pertaining to di socioeconomic, racial, and linguistic climate of dia institution.",English Language
"diversity must be couched within a context of institutional engagement, be driven by transformational leadership, be valued by the faculty community, and be experienced by all students as a core component of their educational experience.","Di diversity gats dey within di context of institutional engagement, dey driven by transformational leadership, and get valued by di faculty community, and come turn di experience of all di students as major part of dia educational experience.",English Language
"this surge of academic inquiry acknowledges that we are living in times where technology and global migration patterns are changing the identities of nielsen130neighborhoods, universities and workplaces.","Di surge of academic inquiry acknowledg say we dey living for times wey technology and global migration pattern dey change di identities of nielsen130neighborhoods, universities and workplaces.",English Language
"in higher education, teachers are working to meet the needs of differing student populations in composition and writing-in-the-disciplines classrooms with varying pedagogical approaches and degrees of institutional support.",Di teacher dey work to meet di needs of di student populations for composition and writing-in-disciplines classroom wit varying pedagogical approaches and degree of institutional support.,English Language
"for small colleges whose demographic makeup has been predominantly white, monolingual, and monocultural, these demographic changes present both opportunities and challenges.","For small colleges wey demographic makeup don dey white, monolingual, and monocultural, dis demographic change present both opportunities and challenge.",English Language
"such is the case at my home institution, a small liberal arts college in the northeastern us, where the goals and objectives of an equity program evolved from serving french-speaking canadian hockey players to identifying, admitting, and supporting talented bilingual students from the greater surrounding community who are facing educational and financial difficulties.","Di case for my home institution, small liberal arts college for di northeastern us, wey di goal and objective of equity program evolved from serving french-speaking canadian hockey players to identify, admitting, and support talented bilingual students from di greater surrounding community wey dey face educational and financial difficulties.",English Language
"recognizing the needs of a neighboring immigrant city struggling to provide services for its growing latino immigrant population, my institution created a pathway for local generation 1. 5 students to gain admission and scholarships to the school.","Say person recognize di needs of a nearby immigrant city wey no fit provide services for him latino immigrant population wey dey increase, my institution don create a pathway for deir local generation 1. Na 5 students come gain admission and scholarships to enta di school.",English Language
"the admission of resident, immigrant multilingual, multicultural newcomers resulted in increased need for support services across institutional contexts, as well as highlighted the need for faculty development around writing and teaching.","Di admission of di resident, immigrant wey dey multilingual, newcomers wey dey multicultural don result for increased need for support services for di institutional contexts, as well as highlight di need for faculty development wey dey around writing and teaching.",English Language
"in an effort to help us better understand the writing needs of generation 1. 5 students across the curriculum and to better support the faculty who teach them, my research invokes the voices of five multilingual, multicultural students from the dominican republic.","Say he wan help person get beta understanding of di writing needs of generation 1. 5 students wey dey di curriculum and to beta support di faculty wey dey teach dem, my research dey call the voices of five students wey dey multilingual, multicultural and come from di dominican republic.",English Language
"the perceptions discussed in this study represent the participants' initiation into living, learning, and writing as a minority subculture within a predominantly white, affluent, monolingual campus culture.","Di perceptions wey dey discuss for dis study represent di participants' initiation into living, learning, and writing as minority subculture within a predominantly white, affluent, monolingual campus culture.",English Language
"this irb-approved, action research study was designed to explore multilingual writing experiences across the disciplines for the purposes of assisting composition and wac faculty in the context of my institution.","Di irb-approved, one book name study dey designed to explore multilingual writing experiences across di disciplines for di purpose of assistin composition and wac faculty for di context of my institution.",English Language
"pointedly, the results are not designed to be prescriptive; rather, they are intended to help frame some ofthe issues that must be addressed in order to achieve well-adapted, inclusive writing environments.","Di results no dey designed to be prescriptive; rather, dem dey intended to help frame some of di issues wey dey address for order to achieve well-adapted, inclusive writing environments.",English Language
"because generation 1. 5 students arrive with vastly different educational, political, social and economic histories, it becomes imperative that researchers and instructors broaden and deepen their understanding of their students'131 supporting generation 1. 5 writersacademic realities (roberge, 2009).","E dey imperative say researchers and instructors dey broaden and deepen dia understanding of dia students'131 supporting generation 1. 5 writersacademic realities (roberge, 2009).",English Language
generation 1. 5 learners in higher education maybe traditionally-aged students between the ages of 18 and 22 or they may draw from non-traditionally aged demographics.,Di learners wey dey higher education go be traditionally-aged students between di ages of 18 and 22 or dem go draw from non-traditional demographics.,English Language
"generation 1. 5 students are highly differentiated in socioeconomic aswell as documentation status(citizen, residentdocumented or undocumented, and refugee).","Di students dey highly differentiated for socioeconomic aswell as documentation status(citizen, resident documented or undocumented, and refugee).",English Language
"while it is difficult to secure accurate numbers for undocumented immigrant populations, the sending countries have typically been mexico, el salvador, and guatemala(louie, 2009).","Dem dey difficult to secure accurate numbers for undocumented immigrant populations, di sending countries don typically be mexico, el salvador, and guatemala(louie,2009).",English Language
"it is worth noting that contemporary immigration populations draw from all socio-economic levels from unskilled to highly skilled labor; however, there is a correlation between socioeconomic status and country of origin, specifically: immigrants from""low ses [socioeconomic status]""tend to be from the sending nations ofthe dominican republic, el salvador, guatemala, honduras, haiti, laos, and cambodia.","Person suppose note say di contemporary immigration populations dey drw from all di socio-economic levels from unskilled to highly skilled labor; altgough, one correlation between Person's level in society based on how much money dem make, their education and job and kontri of origin suppose, specifically: immigrants wey come from di dominican republic, el salvador, guatemala, honduras, hinti, laos, and cambodia.",English Language
"at the other end ofthe immigrant spectrum are""high ses groups""from many asian, african, european, and south american nations.","For di oda end of di immigrant spectrum, dem ""high ses groups""from many Asian, african, european, and south american nations dey.",English Language
"(louie,2009, p.38) according to a report by the migration policy institute(2004), 82%of the immigrant dominican population resides in the northeast where this study was conducted; correspondingly, dominican generation 1. 5 students comprise a majority of enrollment in area colleges' equity programs.","Di migration policy institute(2004), 82%of di immigrant dominican population reside for di northeast where dis study dey conduct; correspondingly, dominican generation 1. 5 students dey comprise majority of enrollment for area colleges' equity programs.",English Language
"the resulting factors of low socioeconomic status such as underfunded schools, poverty, and crime, as well as family and employment responsibilities can affect student success and retention rates; as such, ses becomes an important consideration for wac educators and researchers trying to reconceptualize writing pedagogies for immigrant learners in higher education inquiry into understanding cultural and linguistic minority students' experience with college and the subject of inclusion in higher education, in particular, continues to proliferate across disciplinary boundaries(hale, 2004; sheared, johnson-bailey, colin, peterson, brookfield &associates, 2010;; sheared & sissel, 2001; watson et al,","Dem dey important consideration for wac educators and researchers try to reconceptualize writing pedagogies for immigrant learners for higher education inquiry into understanding cultural and linguistic minority students experience wit college and di subject of inclusion for higher education, as well as family and employment responsibilities dey affect student success and retention rate.",English Language
"(2002)contend that the work of educating multilingual, multicultural minorities while expanding white student and faculty cultural awareness and competence remains a challenging one.","(2002)dey argue say di work of educating minories wey be multilingual, multicultural while e dey expand white student and dem faculty cultural awareness and competence na one hard work.",English Language
"however, in the fields of second language writing and wac, research on class, race, relations of power, and other equity issues remains scant.","Di field of di oda language wey you learn writing and wac, research on class, race, relations of power, and oda equity issues dey scant.",English Language
"in a study on the dynamic nature of identity formation among l2 writers in a secondary context, ortmeier-hooper (2010)reveals how class and peer dynamics influence the complex and difficult moves multilingual students make nielsen132in order to gain acceptance among peers and in group settings.","For one study on di dynamic nature of Di process wey person go through to develop a clear sense of who dem be and what they value among l2 writers wey dey secondary context, ortmeier-hooper (2010)show say how di class and peer dynamics dey influence di complex and difficult moves for students wey dey multilingual make nielsen132 so e fit gain acceptance for him peers and for di group settings.",English Language
"researching the social class identity of three privileged second language writers whom the author labels as""the new global elite,"" vandrick (2010)examines how privilege appears to mediate the effects ofthe deficit model, an attitude""so commonly applied(consciously or unconsciously)to second language writers""(p. 258).","Di new global elite, vandrick (2010)investigate how privilege appear to mediate di effects of di deficit model, an attitude""so commonly applied(consciously or unconsciously)to di oda language wey you learn writers""(p. 258).",English Language
(see fernandes' argument[this volume]for the need to rethink the curricula of for-profit language schools who serve this population.),Di fernandes argument[this volume]for di need to rethink di curricula of for-profit language school wey serve dis population.),English Language
"kubota (2003) corroborates the observation that the categories of race, class, and gender are commonly overlooked in the field of second language writing, especially as they apply to issues concerning positionality.","Di observation say di categories of race, class, and gender dey commonly overlooked for di field of di oda language wey you learn writing, especially as dem apply to issues concerning positionality.",English Language
"in her article, kubota highlights the need for new, interdisciplinary approaches to race, class, and gender in second language writing that move beyond locating rhetorical and linguistic differences associated with second language writers and toward understanding the politics behind inequality in specific contexts.","Di need for new, interdisciplinary approach to race, class, and gender for di oda language wey you learn writing wey move beyond locating rhetorical and linguistic differences wey dey associated wit di oda language wey you learn writers and toward understanding di politics behind inequality for specific contexts.",English Language
"in this regard, roberge (2009)recognizes that multilingual, immigrant students who arrive and live in the us with lower socioeconomic status and whose""histories, experiences, and individual needs don't match traditional institutional profiles""(p. 4)may face additional challenges in terms of adaptation, identity formation, and marginalization.","Di regard, roberge (2009)recognize say multilingual, immigrant students wey dey live for di us wit lower Person's level in society based on how much money dem make, their education and job and whose""histories, experiences, and individual needs don match traditional institutional profile""(p. 4)dey face additional challenge for terms of adaptation, Di process wey person go through to develop a clear sense of who dem be and what they value, and marginalization.",English Language
this recognition resonates well with this study.,Di recognition resonates well wit dis study.,English Language
"as diversification trends continue to evolve across campuses nationwide, researchers are beginning to openly discuss the politics behind the scholarly and institutional silence on race and diversity that affects multilingual and multicultural writers.",Di researchers start to openly discuss di politics wey dey behind di scholarly and institutional silence on race and diversity wey affect multilingual and multicultural writers.,English Language
"pointedly, anson (2012)asserts that wac scholars have remained notably silent on issues concerning racial and ethnic diversity, particularly as they apply to assessment practices.","Dison (2012)assert say wac scholars no dey silent on issues concerning racial and ethnic diversity, particularly as dem apply to assessment practices.",English Language
"in a comprehensive literature review focused on race and ethnicity, anson broadens his claim to state that wac scholars either""skirt issues of race or ignore them entirely""(p. 18).","Di comprehensive literature review wey dey focus on race and ethnicity, anson broadens hin claim to state say wac scholars either""skirt issues of race or ignore dem entirely""(p. 18).",English Language
"but it is precisely there, in the assumptions, forces, and barriers that underlie the silence surrounding class, race, ethnicity, and linguistic inequality that the conversation must begin.","Di assumptions, forces, and barriers wey dey underlie di silence surround class, race, ethnicity, and linguistic inequality wey di conversation must begin.",English Language
"it is my sense that hall(2009) is speaking to the issue of inequality when he challenges wac/wid faculty who often self-identify as institutional change agents to work toward developing""differentiated instruction methods so that both monolingual, english speakers and multilingual learners simultaneously have a rich and satisfying classroom experience in the same writing classroom""(emphasis in the original, p. 42).","E dey my sense say hall(2009) dey speaking to di issue of inequality wen hin challenge wac wid faculty wey always self-identify as institutional change agents to work toward develop""differentiated instruction methods so say both monolingual, english speakers and multilingual learners get rich and satisfying classroom experience for di same writing classroom""(emphasis for di original, p. 42).",English Language
"we must explore local diversification trends, hall asserts, as we begin to""rethink everything that we do to meet the new realities that we face on our campuses and in our classrooms""(2009, p.42).","As we begin to explore local diversification trends, hall assert, as we begin to""rethink all wey we go meet di new realities wey we face on our campuses and for our classrooms""(2009, p.42).",English Language
"anson (2012)speaks plainly about the thorniness and unease ofthe work ahead, as the journey involves addressing issues that commonly induce 133 supporting generation 1. 5 writersdiscomfort and illustrate our under preparedness, especially in predominantly white, monolingual writing classrooms and campus environments.","Nason (2012)speak plainly about di thorniness and unease of di work ahead, as di journey involves address issues wey commonly induce 133 supporting generation 1. 5 writers discomfort and illustrate awa under preparedness, especially for predominantly white, monolingual writing classrooms and campus environments.",English Language
this study describes the early stages of one faculty member's attempt to answer hall's call to action.,Di study dey describe di early stage of how one faculty member's dey attempt to answer hall call to action.,English Language
"by beginning a dialogue with immigrant multilingual writers on a campus where their demographic status places them as a decided socioeconomic and racial minority, i hope to better understand student perceptions of wac and writing faculty, their interactions with white, native english speaking peers in the classroom, and to hear ideas from them about ways to create more inclusive writing practices and environments across the disciplines.","I hope to better understand student perceptions of wac and writing faculty, dia interaction wit white, native English speaking peers for di classroom, and to hear ideas from dem about way to create more inclusive writing practices and environments across di disciplines.",English Language
"my research examines participant responses to a central question: how do generation 1. 5 students describe their writing experiences in the context of a predominantly white, monolingual college?",My research dey investigate wey participant use respond to di central question: how generation 1. 5 students dey describe dia writing experience for di context of a college wey dey monolingual and na white full am?,English Language
"during the interview process, which i'll describe shortly, the five dominican participants were asked to de -scribe their experiences as writers in the introduction to college writing(cw) course and writing-intensive(wi) courses, with attention being paid to work- ing with faculty and working with their peers.","Di five dominican participants dey ask to dey scribe dia experience as writers for di introduction to college writing(cw) course and writing-intensive(wi) course, wit attention wey dem pay to work wit faculty and work wit dia peers.",English Language
"other open-ended questions included: with regard to improving your writing skills, what helped or hin - dered you in your cw and wi courses?","wit regard to improving your writing skills, wey help or hin - dered you for your cw and wi course?",English Language
what did you find the most rewarding?,Di most rewarding wey be di most rewarding?,English Language
what did you find the most challenging?,We dey find di most challenging?,English Language
"given the lack of faculty development and diversity training at the research institution, i was particularly interested in hearing how these generation 1. 5 students were faring.","Di lack of faculty development and Training programme designed to help pipo understand and respect differences among pipo for di research institution, i dey particularly interest for hear how dis generation 1. 5 students dey faring.",English Language
"methods setting the institution where this research occurred is situated on the grounds of two affluent, predominantly white, suburban communities in the northeast; the institution also borders an urban city that has been the home of immi -grants since the twentieth century and continues to be so today with 30. 6%of the population being foreign-born and where 28. 2%of the population are naturalized citizens.1 further, the city is the""street"" site for the majority ofthe community projects that the college sponsors.","Di institution dey di""street"" site for di majority of di community projects wey di college sponsors.",English Language
demographic statistics highlight several marked differences among these neighboring cities.,Di demographic statistics dey highlight di several marked differences among di neighboring cities.,English Language
"according tore -cent census data for the immigrant city, the hispanic or latino population is 59. 7%of its overall population and 34. 3%of all households living below the poverty line.","Di immigrant city, di hispanic or latino population dey 59. 7%of its overall population and 34. 3%of all households wey dey inside di poverty line.",English Language
compare these statistics to the college's city census data where the population is 93. 7%white and 2.1% ofthe overall population live below the poverty line.,For di college's city census data wey di population dey 93.7% white and 2.1% of di overall population live below di poverty line.,English Language
"the college comprises mainly self-selected students who resonate nielsen134with the mission to""enlighten minds, engage hearts, and empower lives.""","Di college get mainly self-selected students wey resonate nielsen134 wey get mission say dem wan""enlighten minds, engage hearts, and empower lives",English Language
the demographics ofthe student population also reflect those who can manage the high cost of a small private college.,Di demographics of di student population also reflect those wey go manage di high cost of small private college.,English Language
(see cox[this volume]on the importance of understand- ing local demographic contexts and student populations when planning wac faculty development and outreach around second-language writing across the disciplines.),Di volume]on di importance of understand- ing local demographic contexts and student populations wey dey plan wac faculty development and outreach around second-language writing across di disciplines.,English Language
"participants utilizing roberge's (2009)of generation 1. 5 students as those who ""immi -grate as young children and have life experiences that span two or more coun -tries, cultures, and language""(p. 4), i contacted the academic counselor for in - ternational and intercultural students in order to generate as comprehensive list of candidates as possible for the study.",I contact di academic counselor wey dey for di in -ternational and intercultural students for order to generate di comprehensive list of candidates as possible for di study.,English Language
"in this project, a homogeneous sampling was chosen in order to describe a particular subgroup of learners and instruc - tors in depth(patton, 2002).","Di project, a homogeneous sampling dey chosen for order to describe a particular subgroup of learners and instructors for depth(patton, 2002).",English Language
"in consultation with the academic counselor,39 students were identified based on roberge's definition and subsequently invited to participate in this study.","After dem follow di academic counselor talk, na 39 students dem identify based on roberge definition and subsequently invited to dey part for dis study.",English Language
"sixteen students responded with interest; however, only seven met the criteria i'd set for the study, which included enrollment in the equity program, arrival time to the us, and completion of both introduc - tion to college writing and a writing intensive(wi) course in the disciplines, which all students must take as an institutional requirement.","Di criteria wey dem set for di study, wey include enrollment for di equity program, arrival time to di us, and completion of both introduc - tion to college writing and a writing intensive(wi) course for di disciplines, wey all students must take as institutional requirement.",English Language
"introduction to college writing(cw) is typically taken in a student's first or second semester of freshman year; and a writing course in the disciplines with a writing intensive(wi) designation, can be taken at any point prior to graduation.2 the seven students who met these qualifications were invited to participate in the study; five accepted the invitation.","Di seven students wey dey met college writing(cw) dey typically take for student first or second semester of freshman year; and a writing course for di discipline wit a writing intensive(wi) designation, go take at any point prior to graduation.",English Language
"the five participants in this study are traditionally aged, male and female, generation 1. 5 students between the ages of 19 and 22 who emigrated from the dominican republic to the us between the seventh and eighth grades.","Di five participants for dis study dey traditionally aged, male and female, generation 1. 5 students between di ages of 19 and 22 wey emigrate from di dominican republic to di us between di seventh and eighth grade.",English Language
"in middle school, they were placed in an immersion program that included bilingual classrooms, as well as in esl courses focused on english language development.","For middle school, dem place di immersion program wey include bilingual classrooms, as well as for Esl course wey dey focus on english how language dey grow.",English Language
"it is relevant to note that the institution's equity program partners primarily with one neighboring highschool; as such, the participants are drawn from the same secondary institution, which has a predominantly hispanic, immigrant student population.","Di institution's equity program partners primarily wit one neighboring highschool; because of dat, di participants dey draw from di same secondary institution, wey get predominantly hispanic, immigrant student population.",English Language
"specifically, participants attended a public high 135 supporting generation 1. 5 writersschool where the student population was 88. 2%hispanic (largely dominican and puerto rican), and resided in a city showing a median household income of$25, 983.","Di student population dey 88. 2%hispanic (largely dominican and puerto rican), and reside for city show a median household income of $25,983.",English Language
"their success in highschool was recognized by their acceptance to an equity scholarship program at my institution where the city median household income is$116, 723.","Di success for highschool don recognise by dia acceptance to equity scholarship program for my institution wey di city median household income dey $116, 723.",English Language
"as hispanics, they would represent 3%of the college's student population.","As hispanics, dem go represent 3%of di college student population.",English Language
"all participants were enrolled as full-time, matriculated students who were taking four, four-credit courses each semester.","Di participants dey enrolled as full-time, matriculate students wey dey take four, four-credit course each semester.",English Language
all five participants worked part-time jobs.,Di five participants dey work part-time jobs.,English Language
"instruments using standardized, open-ended questions, i conducted two in-depth, taped and transcribed interviews with each ofthe participants.","I conduct two in-depth, taped and transcribed interview wit each of di participants.",English Language
"(centered on the participant's back- ground including immigration history, culture, prior education, family, and language acquisition.","As per di participant's back- ground wey include immigration history, di culture, dem prior education, family, and language acquisition",English Language
students filled out and submitted their respons - es to a questionnaire tome ahead ofthe first interview.,Di students dey fill out and submit dia respons - Es to one questionnaire tome ahead of di first interview.,English Language
(follow-up centered on present experiences in first-year writing and writing across the disciplines.),Di follow-up centered on di present experience for di first year writing and writing across di disciplines.,English Language
during the interviews i noted that the participants seemed to struggle to arrive at specific suggestions for improvements faculty could make in their teaching and classroom management.,Di participants dey struggle to arrive at certain advice for improvements faculty go make for dia teaching and classroom management.,English Language
"as a result, i wrote individually to the students via email and revisited the question:""what could writing and writing intensive instructors do to improve your experience as a multilingual writer and student?""","Onto this, I write individually to di students via email and come revisit di question say: ""wetin writing and writing intensive instructors go do to improve your experience as writer and student wey dey multilingual?",English Language
four ofthe five students responded.,Na four for di five students respond.,English Language
"as i moved closely through the data, i noted emerging themes in the margins that related to the central research question and reflected on these in my research journal.","As i move closely through di data, i note emerging themes for di margins wey dey related to di central research question and reflect on dis for my research journal.",English Language
"for a second analytic, i utilized a general accounting scheme for codes that were not content specific, but instead pointed to categories for which codes could be inductively developed(miles & huberman, 1994).","I utilize general accounting scheme for codes wey no dey content specific, but instead pointed to categories for which code go dey inductively develop(miles & huberman, 1994).",English Language
"the remainder ofthe coding process during data analysis followed creswell's (2008)six-step process where codes changed, decayed, were eliminated, and reduced.","Di remainder of di coding process during to study numbers follow creswell's (2008)six step process wey codes change, decay, and reduced.",English Language
"following that format, two main themes emerged in their responses.","Di format, two main themes emerge for dia response.",English Language
"the second theme presents participants' perceptions of working with white, native english nielsen136speakers (nes)in the writing classroom.",Di second theme dey present participants' perceptions of working wit Oyinbo nielsen136speakers (nes)for di writing classroom.,English Language
"findings for these two themes include participants feeling valued for their diversity of thought and experience in the classroom by their writing and writing intensive instructors; the pedagogical practices that signaled inclusive attitudes from their instructors and which served to better support their writing and learning, and, conversely, discriminatory behaviors and practices from instructors and peers that served to distance them from their writing and campus learning experiences.","Dis two themes include participants wey dey value for dia diversity of thought and experience for di classroom by dia writing and writing intensive instructors; di pedagogical practices wey dey signal inclusive attitudes from dia instructors and peers wey dey served to better support dia writing and learning, and, conversely, discriminatory behaviors and practices from instructors and peers wey dey served to distance dem from dia writing and learning experiences.",English Language
"participant perceptions of faculty attitudes based on a two-year study of generation 1. 5 writing experiences, goensalter, porter, and vandommelen (2009)concluded that it is critical for writing instructors to inquire about students' educational backgrounds and literacy and language experiences, as well to provide opportunities for students to comfortably describe them.","E dey critical for writing instructors to inquire about students' educational background and literacy and language experiences, as well to provide opportunities for students to fit describe dem",English Language
"while their study focused primarily on esl and first year composition courses, this conclusion is just as relevant to wac instructors as can be seen in the student responses to my question about how students felt faculty perceived their cultural and linguistic backgrounds.",Di conclusion dey relevant to wac instructors as dey see for di student response to my question about how students felt faculty perceived dia cultural and linguistic backgrounds.,English Language
all five participants in my study expressed feeling as though they brought a different perspective to cw and wi courses across the disciplines that was recognized and appreciated by faculty.,Di five participants for my study express feeling as though dem bring different perspective to cw and wi course across di disciplines wey dey recognized and appreciate by faculty.,English Language
"the students stated that, when choosing topics to research, offering peer feedback, and participating in classroom activities, they brought diverse interests and perspectives to the experience that were valued by the faculty.","Di students tok say, wen choosing topics to research, offering peer feedback, and participatin for classroom activities, dem bring diverse interest and perspectives to di experience wey dey value by di faculty.",English Language
"one participant said,""i think the teacher likes reading my papers because they are different from white students, because most ofthe time i write about my culture.""","I think di teacher like reading my paper bikos dem dey different from white students, because most of di time i write about my culture",English Language
"another offered,""i feel like my life experiences have been different than the typical[culturally and linguistically dominant]student.","Anoda one say,""I feel say my life experience dey different from di norma[culturally and linguistically dominant]student.",English Language
"she continued with the following example: i have been doing research about immigration because that is what i know the most about from my personal experience and from my research on the topic, often times i am able to offer/add an insightful idea about the subject.","I don do research about immigration because say na what i know di most about from my personal experience and from my research on di topic, often times i go offer add insightful idea about di subject.",English Language
"continuously, i lead towards topics that interest me and that i amin most interaction with daily.",I lead towards topics wey interest me and say i dey in most interaction wit daily.,English Language
"my classmates are not exposed to the things i am exposed to as a bilingual, minority student here; therefore, we do not write about the same things.","Di classmates no dey exposed to di things wey I don dey exposed to as student wey be minority but dey bilingual; na why, we no dey write about di same things",English Language
"another described her passion for writing, her love of reading, and how hard she is willing to work as real strengths that her teachers recognized.","Dem described her passion for writing, her love of reading, and how hard she fit work as real strengths wey her teachers recognize.",English Language
"all five participants said that it was their grammar that caused them the most difficulty with writing, not their ideas.","Di five participants tok say e dey their grammar wey dey caus dem di most difficulty wit writing, no dia ideas.",English Language
one participant stated: my instructor did not know my literacy history.,One participant say my instructor no sabi my literacy history,English Language
she might have noticed because of my grammatical errors.,Di grammatical errors don dey notice because of my grammatical errors.,English Language
my writing might be accented.,My writing fit dey accented.,English Language
my writing is different from other[student] writings that i have read.,Di writing dey different from oda[student] writings wey i don read,English Language
"another participant said,""if it weren't for my accent, i think i'd be okay.""","I tok say if e no dey for my accent, i think i'd be okay",English Language
"another smiled before alluding to her wi professor's knowing that she was not a member ofthe dominant student population:""i mean when i speak i don't sound like a white girl's[speech].","another one smile before him agree say her professor sabi say she no be member of di dominant student population:""Be like when i talk i no dey sound like Oyibo girl dey talk.",English Language
"the same student added,""at first i was not comfortable doing presentations because i was self-conscious of my accent.""",For first i no fit do presentations because i dey self-conscious of my accent,English Language
"another participant discussed how an incident that occurred out ofthe classroom affected her sense of confidence in the classroom: i had a bad experience but that started out of class, you know.",I don discuss how incident wey dey occur out of di classroom affect her sense of confidence for di classroom.,English Language
it was on facebook and everywhere.,E dey facebook and everywhere,English Language
they said that i couldn't speak english.,Di dem tok say i no fit speak english,English Language
"it's the accent, you know,[it] makes it hard to be confident in class and to share your words.","Na di accent, you know, e dey make am hard make person dey confident for class and make him share your words",English Language
everyone was just staring at you when you speak like they understood nothing.,E dey just star at you wen you speak like dem understand nothing,English Language
the white kids are more confident in class.,Di white kids dey more confident for class,English Language
"nielsen138while no interview question discussed""writing with an accent""or specified the words""accent,"" ""ethnicity,""or ""race,""three ofthe five students perceived one or more ofthe latter as identifying markers of being a linguistic, cultural minority in the wi classroom.","Na interview question wey dey discuss""writing wit accent""or specific di words""ethnicity,"" or""race,"" three of di five students dey perceived one or more of di latter as identifying markers of being linguistic, cultural minority for di wi classroom.",English Language
"when discussing their writing experiences, all five participants indicated that cw and wi faculty were willing to make accommodations for them, such as giving them opportunities for additional individualized meetings and modifying assignments in order to address their specific writing needs.","Di five participants dey tok say cw and wi faculty dey willing to make accommodations for dem, such as giving dem opportunity for additional individualized meetings and modifying assignments for order to address dia specific writing needs.",English Language
"(in this volume, zawacki & habib also share findings that indicate that faculty are often willing to make accommodations for l2 students, and hirsch demonstrates that the scaffolding inherent in writing-intensive pedagogy can also work to provide similar support.)","Di volume, zawacki & habib share findings say faculty dey willing to make accommodation for l2 students, and hirsch demonstrate say di scaffolding inherent for writing-intensive pedagogy fit work to provide similar support.",English Language
"pointedly, all participants cited one-to-one contact time with their instructors as critical to their success.",Di participants don cite one-to-one contact time wit dia instructors say e dey critical to dia success.,English Language
"individual conferencing has been established as a core pedagogical approach to meeting the needs of linguistically diverse writers, although it can place considerable demands on the instructor(reynolds, bae,& wilson,2009).","Di individual conferencing don establish as core pedagogical approach to meeting di needs of linguistically diverse writers, although e fit place considerable demand for di instructor(reynolds, bae,& wilson,2009).",English Language
"in addition to benefiting the writing process in general, watson et al.","Di proses of puttin down tori for paper, from wen you dey plan am, draft am, edit am, till you finish am well for general, watson and al.",English Language
"(2002)cite that for minority students on predominantly white campuses, faculty/student relationships remain""one ofthe most effective predictors of student outcomes""(p. 79).","Di(2002) cite say for minority students wey dey white campuses, faculty student relationships remain one of di most effective predictors of student outcomes""(p. 79).",English Language
"during the interviews, the students reported that both their cw and wi instructors made time or were willing to meet with them individually to discuss their writing, which they valued; all participants agreed that conferencing with faculty helped them to understand the assignments better and to improve their writing.","Di students report say both dia cw and wi instructors make time or dey willing to meet wit dem individually to discuss dia writing, wey dem value; all participants agree say conferencing wit faculty help dem understand di assignments better and to improve dia writing.",English Language
"one participant explained that her wi instructor""worked with me one-on-one for every paper i wrote.","Di wi instructor""work wit me one-on-one for every paper wey i write.",English Language
"she worked with me directly, so i got alot better in that class, and i learned how to write better.""","I learn how to write better, and i learn how to write better",English Language
another participant described one way that his(wi) math instructor worked to individualize a reflective writing assignment: i had to write two papers for my math class.,Di participant described one way say hin (wi)math instructor work to individualize reflective writing assignment:,English Language
she gave us theories.,She give us diories,English Language
it was abstract math.,E dey abstract math,English Language
"we had to think of problem solving math, not normal number problems and we would write and it was really long, really extensive andi thought,""i can't do this.""","I go think of problem solving math, no normal number problems and we go write and e dey long, really extensive andi thought,""i fit do dis",English Language
"so the professor said if you draw me a picture of what the writing was, i'll give you that grade.","Di professor tok say if you draw me picture of what di writing na, i go give you dat grade.",English Language
she was showing people the picture.,She show pipo di picture,English Language
"it wasn't a research paper; it was a reflective paper, like a page.","Di research paper no dey research paper; e dey reflective paper, like page",English Language
writing the paper wasn't that bad.,Di paper no dey bad,English Language
putting it together was the problem.,Di problem.,English Language
she told me she was going to do that.,She tell me she go do dat,English Language
"while it's unclear whether this accommodation fit into the wi course objectives or the purpose ofthe writing assignment in particular, the modification did serve to reduce this student's anxiety.",Di modification don serve to reduce dis student's anxiety.,English Language
"during the interview, the participant's response and demeanor demonstrated a felt connection to his learning experience.","For di interview, di participant's response and demeanor don demonstrate di felt connection to hin learning experience.",English Language
"this connection instilled a sense of confidence that he had not only met the assignment goals, but that his work was valued and respected by his instructor.","Di connection instille sense of confidence say hin no only meet di assignment goals, but say hin work dey value and respected by hin instructor.",English Language
"in terms of working with faculty, all respondents cited not fully understanding the assessment practices of their instructors, which they felt was an added challenge to them as cultural and linguistic minorities.","Di respondents cited no fully understanding di assessment practices of dia instructors, wey dem felt as cultural and linguistic minorities.",English Language
participants differed in how they described these assessment practices.,Di participants differed for how dem described dis assessment practices.,English Language
"despite meeting with their professors and despite expressing feeling that their writing was improving, all participants shared frustration at seldom earning a higher grade than ab on most assignments.","Di participants despite meeting wit dia professors and despite express feeling say dia writing dey improve, all participants share frustration for seldom earning higher grade than b for most assignments.",English Language
"one student offered that in her cw course she could""never get an a on a paper.","One student offer say for her cw course she go""never get one on paper.",English Language
i'd have to rewrite it alot.,I don get to rewrite am alot,English Language
"she recalled an incident that occurred in her wi psychology course when, after turning in her paper, she was called to meet with the instructor.","She recalled incident wey dey occur for her wi psychology course wen, afta turn in her paper, she call to meet wit di instructor.",English Language
"the instructor informed her that the writing that she turned in was""too good.""","Di instructor inform her say di writing wey she turn for na""too good""",English Language
"the participant interpreted this to mean that the instructor was calling her a cheater, although plagiarism was not specifically mentioned in their meeting.","Di participant interpret dis to mean say di instructor dey call her cheater, although plagiarism no dey mention for dia meeting",English Language
"she went onto explain that she had worked extensively on the paper over the course ofthe semester; in fact, the paper was an extension of a shorter paper that she had started in another course and was a topic that she'd been interested in pursuing in-depth.",She goon to explain say she work extensively on di paper over di course of di semester and na topic wey she dey interest for pursuing in-depth.,English Language
she explained that this professor had only seen one other piece of her writing at the beginning ofthe semestera brief reflection paper.,Di professor don only see one piece of her writing for di beginning of di semestera brief reflection paper.,English Language
"as a result, the participant concluded that she had been judged inappropriately, especially in light ofthe professor's limited knowledge of her writing.","Di participant conclude say she don judge inappropriately, especially for light of di professor's limited knowledge of her writing",English Language
"working with culturally and linguistically dominant peers in questioning participants about experiences involving group, collaborative, and peer review writing activities in their cw and wi courses, participants nielsen140were asked about their perceptions and levels of comfort in working with linguistically and culturally dominant english l1 peers.","Di participants nielsen140 dey ask about experience wey dey involving group, collaborative, and When other experts in a field check and judge a research paper before it gets published writing activities for dia cw and wi course, participants nielsen140 dey question participants about experience wey dey involve group, collaborative, and When other experts in a field check and judge a research paper before it gets published writing activities for dia cw and wi course, participants nielsen140 dey question about dia perceptions and level of comfort for work wit linguistically and culturally dominant peers.",English Language
"in the majority of responses, participants referred to their cw course where peer review occurred regularly throughout the semester.","Di majority of responses, participants referred to dia cw course wey When other experts in a field check and judge a research paper before it gets published occur regularly throughout di semester.",English Language
"while peer review mayor may not be pedagogically central to wi courses, the participant's experiences offer insights for wi faculty who choose to assign collaborative activities or use peer review.",Di participant's experience dey offer insights for wi faculty wey choose to assign collaborative activities or use When other experts in a field check and judge a research paper before it gets published.,English Language
"participants regularly measured their language skills in relation to their white, english l1 peers and viewed the classroom as a competitive environment.","Di participants dey regularly try measure dia language skills for relation to dia white, english l1 peers and dey view di classroom as one competitive environment.",English Language
"for example, one participant mentioned competition explicitly: i want to compete with the other students in the class.",I want to compete wit di oda students for di class.,English Language
"not so much for the teacher, i mean i know what the teachers like, but i would like to be much better than my classmate than for my teacher to like it.","I mean i know what di teacher like, but i go like to be much better than my classmate than for my teacher to like am",English Language
it has to do with me having to struggle in highschool to learn english.,I don do wit me having to struggle for highschool to learn english,English Language
it's nice to get a great grade.,E dey nice to get great grade,English Language
or better would be good.,Dem dey good,English Language
it's just me trying to prove myself.,Na just me wey dey try prove myself,English Language
it only started when i came here.,Na when I come here he start,English Language
"another participant concurred, ""you're competing to gain approval.","Di participant dey concurred, ""you dey compete to gain approval",English Language
"you feel you have to standout.""",I feel you go get to standout,English Language
"one participant reported that her lived experience as a bilingual minority directly informed the topics she commonly researched, which placed her""in a position of advantage.""","Di one participant report say her lived experience as bilingual minority directly inform di topics she commonly research, wey dey place her position of advantage.",English Language
"she added,""and that reduces my reader's critical point of view when reading my work.""(","She add say,""and na wetin reduce my reader's critical point of view when I dey read my work.""",English Language
see also phillips[this volume]for a graduate student's perspective on how writing about knowledge gained from living in multiple nations and cultures gave him an advantage when seeking peers for a group project.),Di volume for di graduate student perspective on how writing about knowledge don help am gain from living for plenti nations and cultures and kom give am advantage wen e dey seek peers for group project.,English Language
t wo participants expressed feeling comfortable during peer review even when they were the only multilingual writer in the class.,Di participants express feeling comfortable during When other experts in a field check and judge a research paper before it gets published even wen dem dey only multilingual writer for di class.,English Language
one specifically preferred working with dominant students: i prefer to work with a native english speaker[during peer review].,I prefer make I work wit di native English speaker[for When other experts in a field check and judge a research paper before it gets published].,English Language
nothing like me.,Na nothing like me,English Language
so i don't think he would mind[working with anon-native writer].,I no think say he go mind[as e dey work wit writer wey be non-native].,English Language
but we would talk about our papers all the time in the beginning.,We go talk about awa paper all di time for di beginning,English Language
"the same participant expressed feeling discouraged, however, when seeing how many grammatical errors were present in his writing in comparison to other students' writing: my college writing was really, i mean sometimes i felt kinda weird because my writings had alot of grammatical errors.","My college writing na really, i mean sometimes i feel kinda weird because my writings don get lot of grammatical errors wey dey present for hin writing for compare to oda students' writing",English Language
other people writing was like perfect.,E dey like perfect,English Language
"we had to put an x on sentences that had grammatical errors, and the paper that i got back were full of xs.","We don put x on sentences wey dey grammatical errors, and di paper wey i get back dey full of xs",English Language
"others was almost perfect or with one x. i would definitely know how to fix the x, but it was discouraging.","I go definitely know how to fix dix, but na discouraging.",English Language
"one participant expressed frustration with working with a white, nes, student whose lack of response to the content of her writing left her feeling confused and distanced: i remember one time i was reading this guy's paper, and we were talking about the same thing. something about an event in your life. something that changed you.","I remember one time i dey reading dis guy paper, and we dey talk about di same thing, something about event for your life",English Language
it was a true story.,Di true story dey true,English Language
and he was writing about when his grandfather died and how his father was going through that pain.,E dey write about wen hin grandfather die and how hin father go through dat pain.,English Language
"so we were writing about the same thing, but we read our papers, and there was nothing there, and i got no feedback from him.","So we dey write about di same thing, but we read awa paper, and e get no feedback from hin",English Language
"no reaction, really dry.","Nano reaction, really dry",English Language
"maybe we needed more time, but for me it was one of those or maybe it could be something we worked together and feed eachother ideas, but no response.","We need more time, but for me na one of those or maybe e fit be something we work together and feed each oda ideas, but no response.",English Language
"in their responses, participants recalled tacitly comparing their writing to that of their nes peers during peer review.",Di participants recalled tacitly comparing dia writing to dat of dia nes peers during When other experts in a field check and judge a research paper before it gets published.,English Language
"during one peer review session when a dominant student did not offer any response to one participant's writing, the participant indicated feeling that the dominant student was likely judging her:""[maybe] he thought my paper wasn't as good.","Di participant dey tok say di dominant student no offer any response to one participant's writing, di participant dey tok say di dominant student no get any response to one participant's writing, di participant dey tok say di dominant student dey likely judging her.",English Language
"he was thinking, how can this nielsen142girl bein this writing course with me?",Di nielsen142girl be for dis writing course wit me?,English Language
there is no comparison level.,Di comparison level no dey comparison level,English Language
one participant reported on collaborative experiences with majority students that left him feeling marginalized: i had to deal with some students that were afraid that i could bring their grades down or that i would not be able to carry my load during a group presentation or lab projects.,I don deal wit some students wey dey afraid say i fit bring dia grade down or say i no fit carry my load during group presentation or lab projects.,English Language
"sometimes students will ask me to take the easiest part or give me the least amount of time to present, which i was always against.","Di students go ask me to take di easiest part or give me di least amount of time to present, wey i dey always against.",English Language
how can you change this?,How fit you change dis?,English Language
(phillips[this volume]reports on a graduate student's similar experiences of being marginalized by english l1 group members when they worked on a collaborative project.,Di volume report on graduate student similar experience of being marginalized by english l1 group members wen dem work on collaborative project.,English Language
see cox[this volume]for advice for faculty on structuring peer review that avoids some ofthe problems described by the l2 students here.),Di volume]for advice for faculty on structuring When other experts in a field check and judge a research paper before it gets published wey dey avoid some of di problems wey di l2 students here.,English Language
all participants made connections between their classroom experiences with writing and the attitudes of majority students inside and outside the classroom.,Di participants make connections between dia classroom experience wit writing and di attitude of majority students inside and outside di classroom.,English Language
they have told me that the numbers have gone up for diversity.,Di numbers don go up for diversity,English Language
it's not that bad.,E no dey bad,English Language
i've heard alot of stories about people treating other people bad because of their ethnicity in the classroom.,I hear alot of stories about pipo treat oda pipo bad because of dia ethnicity for di classroom.,English Language
"not by the teacher, but by other students.","Di teacher, but by oda students.",English Language
"um, i think it's more the attitude ofthe students.",I think na more di attitude of di students,English Language
"one of my friends was speaking spanish in my writing class to another person and another person said,""shut up.","One of my friends dey speaking spanish for my writing class to another person and another person tok say,""shut up",English Language
"don't talk spanish in front of me because it's disrespectful.""",Dem don talk spanish for front of me because im disrespectful,English Language
it was before the class started.,Dem start before di class start,English Language
it wasn't during class time.,E no dey during class time,English Language
it was about disrespect to the other student.,E dey about disrespect to di oda student,English Language
it's an attitude thing.,E dey attitude thing,English Language
the participant shook his head while telling this story.,Di participant shook hin head while telling dis story,English Language
"he posited: i would say that some ofthe stories affect me, but i try to not have any feelings like that during classroom.","I go say some of di stories affect me, but i try to no get any feeling like dat during classroom.",English Language
like if i'm here and there's a white girl here and a white guy here that she would prefer to talk to him in class discussion because they're more comfortable.,If i dey for different places's white girl here and white guy here say she go prefer to talk to hin for class discussion bikos dem dey more comfortable.,English Language
that happens in the classroom.,Di classroom dey happen for di classroom,English Language
one participant offered the following example of an interaction with majority students outside the classroom that affected her sense of self-worth and negatively affected her learning: one day last semester i was having lunch with an administrator and other students who were part of a leadership training.,one day last semester i get lunch wit administrator and oda students wey dey part of leadership training.,English Language
one student asked the vp what were they going to do with the academic levels ofthe incoming students.,One student ask di vp wey dem go do wit di academic level of di incoming students.,English Language
"the student went on saying that when sitting in class some of these classmates asked questions that makes him think,""how can this kid bein class with me?""","Di student goon say when sitting for class some of those classmates ask questions wey make dem think,""how fit dis kid be for class wit me?""",English Language
"apparently, he feels some of his classmates are not smart enough to bein class with him.",He feel some of hin classmates no dey smart enough to be for class within,English Language
"the ban was not repealed until 1943(us english foundation,2014).",Di ban no dey repealed until 1943.,Social studies
"this was implemented in an effort to discourage""inferior"" immigrants from applying(w eissbrodt & danielson, 2011).",Dem implement am for effort to discourage 'inferior' immigrants from applying.,Social studies
"they also added a literacy test for naturalization and banned immigrants with""perceived mental inferiority"", which included homosexuality (dunton, 2012).","Dem also add literacy test for naturalization and ban immigrants wit 'perceived mental inferiority', which include homosexuality.",Social studies
"theunited states was again inarecession, andcitizens feared thatimmigrants could reduce employment opportunities.","U. S. dey again for recession, and citizens fear say immigrants fit reduce employment opportunities.",Social studies
immigration policy now instituted quotas to restrict immigration.,Immigration policy now institute quotas to restrict immigration.,Social studies
"for example, immigrants from each european country could not exceed 3%of the national census of people from that country currently living in the united states.","for example, immigrants from each European country no fit exceed 3%of di national census of pipo from dat country wey currently dey live for U. S.",Social studies
"quotas favored western and northern europeans, and most asian countries continued to be excluded(us english foundation,2014).","Quotas favor western and northern Europeans, and most Asian countries continue to dey excluded.",Social studies
"the system favored southern and eastern european immigrants, and immigrants from most asian countries were prohibited(us english foundation,2014).","Di system favor southern and eastern European immigrants, and immigrants from most Asian countries dey prohibited.",Social studies
"it opened immigration for many countries, establishing quotas for all countries(us english foundation,2014).","E open immigration for many countries, establishing quotas for all countries.",Social studies
"it also established a quota for immigrants whose skills were needed in the labor force(fix & passel, 1994).",E also establish quota for immigrants whose skills dey needed for di labor force.,Social studies
"withsuch apolicy wecanturn theworld, andourown past, with clean hands and aclear conscience."")","Wit such policy we fit turn di world, and our own past, wit clean hands and clear conscience.'",Social studies
"immigration policy began to eliminate racial, national, and ethnic biases(fix & passel, 1994).","Immigration policy begin to eliminate racial, national and ethnic biases.",Social studies
"in this act, the national ethnicity quotas were repealed.","For dis act, di national ethnicity quotas dey repealed.",Social studies
"instead, a cap was set for each hemisphere.","Instead, cap dey set for each hemisphere.",Social studies
priority was given to family reunification and employment skills.,Priority dey given to family reunification and employment skills.,Social studies
"this shifted away from a priority on european immigration(fix & passel, 2004), and led to a substantial increase in documented immigration(peterson institute for international economics,2005).","Dis shift away from priority on European immigration, and lead to substantial increase for documented immigration.",Social studies
"this act also expanded the original four admission preferences to seven, adding: (5)siblings of united states citizens;(6) workers, skilled and unskilled, in occupations for which labor was in short supply in the united states; and (7)refugees from communist-dominated countries or those affected by natural disasters.","Dis act also expand di original four admission preferences to seven, adding: (5)siblings of U. S. citizens;(6) workers, skilled and unskilled, for occupations wey labor dey for short supply for U. S.; and (7)refugees from communist-dominated countries or those affected by natural disasters.",Social studies
"it also created a diversity immigrant visa program, known as the""green card lottery,"" increasing the focus on diversity in admissions.","E also create diversity immigrant visa program, known as di 'Di card wey show say person get permanent legal right to live and work for USA lottery', increasing di focus on diversity for admissions.",Social studies
"each year, the attorney general issues visas through this program to regions that sent few immigrants to the united states.","Each year, di attorney general dey issue visas through dis program to regions wey send few immigrants to U. S.",Social studies
"while this bill has not been signed into law, the obama administration has created renewable two-year work permits for those who meet these standards.","While dis bill no don sign into law, di Obama administration don create renewable two-year work permits for those wey meet these standards.",Social studies
"the immigration actof1891 introduced undocumented immigration policy byestablishing the bureau ofimmigration, responsible fordeportation ofundocumented immigrants.","Di Immigration Act of 1891 introduce undocumented immigration policy by establishing di Bureau of Immigration, responsible for deportation of undocumented immigrants.",Social studies
"in1940, thealien registration actallowed forallpreviously undocumented immigrants toobtain legal recognition.","For 1940, di Alien Registration Act allow for all previously undocumented immigrants to obtain legal recognition.",Social studies
allresidents who were not uscitizens were required toregister with thegovernment.,All residents wey no be U. S. citizens dey required to register wit di government.,Social studies
they were given areceipt card(ar-3) asproof of compliance.,Dem dey given receipt card(AR-3) as proof of compliance.,Social studies
"after world warii, thisbecame partoftheimmigration procedure.","After Wahala wey happen for 1939 reach 1945, wey all kontri for world join bodi, dem form two group, one dey call dem Allies, anoda one dey call dem Axis, na im be di big fight wey everybody sabi, dis become part of di immigration procedure.",Social studies
"immigrants were now given a visitors form, temporary foreign laborer card, orapermanent resident card(""green card""; usenglish foundation,2014).","Immigrants now dey given visitors form, temporary foreign laborer card, or Person from another country wey get legal right to stay permanently but no be citizen yet card('Di card wey show say person get permanent legal right to live and work for USA').",Social studies
policies became much more stringent beginning inthemid-1900s.,Policies become much more stringent beginning for di mid-1900s.,Social studies
immigration rates dropped during thegreat depression resulting inalabor shortage.,"Immigration rates drop during di Great Depression, resulting for labor shortage.",Social studies
the government established thebracero program in1942 toactively recruit temporary agricultural laborers from mexico.,Di government establish di Old US programme wey bring Mexican workers to do farming work temporarily for 1942 to actively recruit temporary agricultural laborers from Mexico.,Social studies
"over 4million mexican laborers were recruited over thenext twenty years (mandeel, 2014).",Over 4 million Mexican laborers dey recruited over di next twenty years.,Social studies
"through thisprogram, mexican immigrants began toestablish homes andsocial networks intheunited states, andinturn, helped friends andfamily tocome totheunited states both legally and illegally.","Through dis program, Mexican immigrants begin to establish homes and netwok of pipo wey dey connect through tori, especially dem wey dey use intanet, like facebook, wey pipo dey share tori, foto, and vidio for U. S, and in turn, help friends and family to come to U. S. both legally and illegally.",Social studies
there was controversy over thebracero program.,There dey controversy over di Old US programme wey bring Mexican workers to do farming work temporarily.,Social studies
"asaresult, theins implemented""operation wetback"" that targeted anddeported mexican immigrants between 1954 and1964.","as result, di INS implement 'Operation Wetback' wey target and deport Mexican immigrants between 1954 and 1964.",Social studies
"when thebracero program ended in1964, there wasaninflux inundocumented immigration (mandeel, 2014; nadadur,2009).","Wen di Old US programme wey bring Mexican workers to do farming work temporarily end for 1964, there dey influx for undocumented immigration.",Social studies
legislation after thispoint has aimed to reduce undocumented immigration.,Legislation after dis point dey aim to reduce undocumented immigration.,Social studies
"the act made it illegal to hire undocumented workers, and created sanctions.","Di act make am illegal to hire undocumented workers, and create sanctions.",Social studies
"it required that states verify immigration status of applicants for welfare(fix & passel, 1994).",E require say states must verify Person's legal classification— whether dem have permission to bein a country and under what conditions of applicants for welfare.,Social studies
"it expanded border enforcement(peterson institute for international economics,2005; fix& passel, 1994).",E expand border enforcement.,Social studies
"these provisions were meant to reduce enticements to immigrate without documentation, and to enforce immigration policy.","These provisions dey meant to reduce enticements to immigrate without documentation, and to enforce immigration policy.",Social studies
"however, it also granted amnesty to all people living without documents prior to 1982, and to their immediate families in other countries(us english foundation,2014).","However, e also grant amnesty to all pipo living without documents prior to 1982, and to their immediate families for other countries.",Social studies
"this led to the legalization of more than one percent ofthe united states population(fix & passel, 1994).",Dis lead to di legalization of more than one percent of di U. S. population.,Social studies
"in order to reduce financial burdens of this declaration of amnesty, the act also provided funds for states to provide healthcare, public assistance, and english education (meissner, meyers, papademetriou &fix, 2006), but barred most26 immigrant and refugee families previously undocumented immigrants from receiving federal public welfare assistance for five years (weissbrodt & danielson, 2011).","For order to reduce financial burdens of dis amnesty declaration, di act also provide funds for states to provide healthcare, Financial support wey government give to pipo wey need help— like welfare payments and English education, but bar most previously undocumented immigrants from receiving federal public welfare assistance for five years.",Social studies
"it reduced benefits for legal immigrants, such as food stamps and welfare.","E reduce benefits for legal immigrants, such as Government vouchers or benefits wey pipo use to buy food when dem no get enough money and welfare.",Social studies
"it increased border control and expedited deportation of undocumented immigrants and increased required documentation for employment(us english foundation,2014).",E increase border control and expedite deportation of undocumented immigrants and increase required documentation for employment.,Social studies
"the felony bar remains today and is an important determinant of immigrants being deported, even if they arrived in the united states legally.","Di felony bar remain today and na important determinant of immigrants getting deported, even if dem arrive for U. S. legally.",Social studies
the department of homeland security(dhs) was formed in 2002 and absorbed immigration and naturalization services(ins).,Di Department of Homeland Security(DHS) form for 2002 and absorb Immigration and Naturalization Services(INS).,Social studies
this act created two other agencies: immigration and customs enforcement(ice) and citizenship and immigration services(cis).,Dis act create two other agencies: Immigration and Customs Enforcement(ICE) and Citizenship and Immigration Services(CIS).,Social studies
"this act also enhanced immigration enforcement, and barred immigrants with potential terrorist links(us english foundation,2014).","Dis act also enhance immigration enforcement, and bar immigrants wit potential terrorist links.",Social studies
"ihadfour children, each ayear apart, ithink theoldest wasfour.","I get four children, each a year apart, I think di oldest na four.",Social studies
"ever since thehmong started tofleethevillages, ifthecommunists found people inthevillages they would killthem, sowehidinjungles most ofthetime. ididnothave time tobe afraid.","Since wen di Hmong start to flee di villages, if di communists find pipo for di villages dem go kill dem, so we dey hide for jungles most of di time. I no dey have time to dey afraid.",Social studies
"ofcourse, iwasscaredthecommunists might findus, butithought tomyself thatitdidnotreally matter ifiwasafraid ornot.","Ofcourse, I dey scared say di communists fit find us, but I tell myself say e no really matter if I dey afraid or not.",Social studies
ileftituptofatewhat wastobecome ofus.,I leave am to fate wetin go become of us.,Social studies
"therewasnoonetohelp us, andnosafe place wecould runtowher eweknew therewould behelp ifwearrived, sowejustkept running andhiding, all the while trying to decide if we should flee to thailand.""","There no dey anyone to help us, and no safe place we fit run to where we know there go dey help if we arrive, so we just keep running and hiding, all di while trying to decide if we should flee to Thailand.",Social studies
"asmai vangthao' sstory demonstrates, these families face daily threats ofviolence and struggle toprovide basic security orresources fortheir children.","As Asmai Vangthao story dey demonstrate, these families dey face daily threats of violence and dey struggle to provide basic security or resources for their children.",Social studies
"families seek physical safety forthemselves and their children byfleeing toanew country. theunited states, which hasbeen thefinal destination formany of these families who have been forced toflee, canofferthem refugee orasylee status asaprotection.","Families dey seek physical safety for themselves and their children by fleeing to new country. U. S, wey don be di final destination for many of these families wey dey forced to flee, fit offer dem refugee or asylee status as protection.",Social studies
"refugee or asylee families canliveintheunited states, with temporary assistance togetsettled andtobegin providing for themselves and their families.","Refugee or asylee families fit live for U. S, wit temporary assistance to get settled and to begin providing for themselves and their families.",Social studies
"arefugee issomeone who was persecuted orfears persecution (onthebasis ofrace, religion, nationality, membership inaparticular social group, orpolitical opinion), hasfledtoanother country, andhasnotparticipated inpersecuting others.","Refugee na someone wey dey persecuted or fear persecution(on di basis of race, religion, nationality, membership for particular social group, or political opinion), don flee to another country, and no don participate for persecuting others.",Social studies
there isaspecial subcategory ofrefugees called asylum seekers: refugees andasylum seekers aredifferent only intheprocess ofrelocation.,There dey special subcategory of refugees called asylum seekers: refugees and asylum seekers dey different only for di process of relocation.,Social studies
refugees have applied forandbeen granted refugee status before they leave fortheunited states.,Refugees don apply for and get granted refugee status before dem leave for U. S.,Social studies
asylum seekers meet allthecriteria forrefugee status buthave already reached theunited states.,Asylum seekers meet all di criteria for refugee status but don already reach U. S.,Social studies
"although theprocess ofarrival isdifferent, theterm refugee willbeused inthistextto refer to refugees and asylees unless otherwise noted.","Although di process of arrival dey different, di term 'refugee' go dey used for dis text to talk about refugees and asylees unless otherwise noted.",Social studies
"wewillcontinue tofollow inmai vangthao' sfootsteps toseeonestory thatdemonstrates thesteps offleeing persecution, family separation, admittance to the united states, and becoming accustomed to the new home.","We go continue to follow Asmai Vangthao footsteps to see one story wey dey demonstrate di steps of fleeing persecution, family separation, admittance to U. S, and becoming accustomed to di new home.",Social studies
"such experiences might include systematic discrimination andintimidation, civil war, ongoing military conflicts, forceful government expulsion from thecountry, ethnic cleansing, andeven genocide.","Such experiences fit include systematic discrimination and intimidation, Armed fighting wey happen inside one country between different groups of its own pipo, ongoing military conflicts, forceful government expulsion from di country, When one group forcefully remove or kill another group because of their tribe or religion, and even genocide.",Social studies
"families living inthese contexts often experience violence, orthey hear about itintheir communities andhave reason to fearit.","Families wey dey live for these contexts often dey experience violence, or dem dey hear about e for their communities and get reason to fear am.",Social studies
"families' toppriority istofindsafety. however, even after they relocate, some families willexperience the long-term effects from the traumatic stress they have experienced.","Families top priority nato find safety. However, even after dem relocate, some families go experience di long-term effects from di Mental and emotional pain wey person get after going through terrible experience dem don experience.",Social studies
kosovar refugees fleeing their homeland.,Kosovar refugees wey dey flee their homeland.,Social studies
"[blace area, the former yugoslav republic of macedonia]united nations photo kosovo refugees cc by-nc-nd 2. 0.",United Nations Photo— Kosovo Refugees CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.,Social studies
"""[the childr en'sfather] washardlywith us.",Di children father dey hardly dey wit us.',Social studies
hewent offwith themen andleftushiding inthejungles.,He go off wit di men and leave us hiding for di jungles.,Social studies
"infact hehadpreparedthatintheevent thatwecould nolonger stay, hewould leave tothailand, andthechildr en andi, ifcaptur edbythecommunists, would staybehind since thecommunist soldiers would notkillusbecause wear e only women and children.""","For fact, he don prepare say if we no fit stay anymore, he go leave to Thailand, and di children andI, if di communists capture us, go stay behind since di communist soldiers no go kill us because we na only women and children.",Social studies
"families can become separated inthemidst ofaconflict orduring theprocess offleeing ormigrating (families canalso be separated during theresettlement process, seebelow).","Families fit become separated for di midst of conflict or during di process of fleeing or migrating(families fit also dey separated during di resettlement process, see below).",Social studies
"even ifparents andchildren arekept together through this arduous process, resettlement ofanentire family unit (inmany cultures, thefamily unit includes grandparents, aunts and uncles and their families)would rarely occur.","Even if parents and children dey kept together through dis arduous process, resettlement of entire family unit(for many cultures, di family unit include grandparents, aunts, uncles and their families)go rarely occur.",Social studies
"separation from family members canbeasource ofguilt, loss, andadded pressure.","Separation from family members fit be source of guilt, loss and added pressure.",Social studies
"these losses offamily tiesand community support canoften becharacterized asambiguous (boss,2006).",These losses of family ties and community support fit often dey characterized as ambiguous.,Social studies
"when afamily member dies, thelossis concrete, andthefamily canmourn.","Wen family member die, di loss dey concrete, and di family fit mourn.",Social studies
"when family members areseparated, there canbegreat ambiguity. separated loved ones arephysically absent butvery present intheminds oftheir family members.","Wen family members dey separated, there fit be great ambiguity. Separated loved ones dey physically absent but very present for di minds of their family members.",Social studies
"families have difficulty determining who isinthefamily, andwhat roles they play.","Families dey get difficulty determining who dey for di family, and wetin roles dem dey play.",Social studies
this ambiguity canaddtothestress ofanalready stressful migration.,Dis ambiguity fit add to distress of already stressful migration.,Social studies
"forexample, youth separated from their parents during civil warwondered iftheir families hadsurvived thefighting orhaddied.","for example, youth wey dey separated from their parents during Armed fighting wey happen inside one country between different groups of its own pipo dey wonder if their families survive di fighting or don die.",Social studies
they described feelings ofloneliness andintense depression.,Dem describe feelings of loneliness and intense depression.,Social studies
"one child described,""the kids were most thinking arethey alive orarethey notalive?"" (",One child describe say 'di kids dey most think— are dem alive or dem no alive?',Social studies
"luster, qin, bates, johnson, &rana, 2008, p. 449).","Luster, Qin, Bates, Johnson, &Rana, 2008, p. 449.",Social studies
"wondering whether certain family members arealive ordead cancause individuals andfamilies tobecome stuck with mixed feelings ofhope, loss, guilt, andgrief.","Wondering whether certain family members dey alive or dead fit cause individuals and families to become stuck wit mixed feelings of hope, loss, guilt and grief.",Social studies
these ambiguous losses compound theconcrete losses ofhomes andfamily members.,These ambiguous losses dey compound di concrete losses of homes and family members.,Social studies
theimpact oflossandtraumatic events canbeseen atboth theindividual andfamily level.,Di impact of loss and traumatic events fit dey seen at both di individual and family level.,Social studies
"infact, onestudy found thatthestatistical relationships between traumatic events, grief, depression, andptsd arestronger atthefamily level than they areattheindividual level (nickerson etal.","For fact, one study find say di statistical relationships between traumatic events, grief, depression and PTSD dey stronger at di family level than dem dey at di individual level.",Social studies
ididnothave anycontrol over it.,I no dey get any control over am.,Social studies
ijustthink iwish itdidnothappen.,I just think say I wish e no happen.,Social studies
"butitdidandicould notdo anything about it"" (luster et al,",But e happen andI no fit do anything about am.,Social studies
"when refugees areable toremain with close family members, itcanease thestrains ofrelocation andcoping with thetraumas experienced inthehome country. inastudy ofrefugees innorway, lie, lavik, andlaake (2001)found thatthepresence ofclose family innorway hadapositive impact onmental health symptoms, especially forthose with higher exposure totraumatic events.","Wen refugees dey able to remain wit close family members, e fit ease di strains of relocation and coping wit di traumas dem experience for di home country. For study of refugees for Norway, Lie, Lavik and Laake (2001)find say di presence of close family for Norway get positive impact on mental health symptoms, especially for those wit higher exposure to traumatic events.",Social studies
"mcmichael, gifford, andcorrea-v elez(2011)similarly found that family connection is particularly important for youth early in the resettlement process.30 immigrant and refugee families 2. 2t ravel to t empor ary refuge travel to t empor ary refuge""when itbecame sounsafe wecould notstay anymore. some ofthemen who hadreturned [fromthailand] weremyuncles, andthey said thatifwewanted togowith them tothailand they would help usout, sothat iswhy wedecided toleave forthailand. istillremember lotsofthings about living incamp, such asthe sicknesses, notenough water todrink, thevery hotweather, andnotenough food. everything about itwas bad.","McMichael, Gifford and Correa-Velez (2011)similarly find say family connection dey particularly important for youth early for di resettlement process.",Social studies
"wewereliving onthethai people' sland, sothey treated usanyway they wanted.","Wen e become so unsafe we no fit stay anymore. Some of di men wey don return from Thailand na my uncles, and dem say if we wan go wit dem to Thailand dem go help us out, so na why we decide to leave for Thailand. I still remember plenty things about living for camp, like di sicknesses, not enough water to drink, di very hot weather, and not enough food. everything about am dey bad.'",Social studies
"when thehmong went to the flea market, they were beaten.""","We dey living on di Thai pipo land, so dem treat us anyhow dem want. Wen di Hmong goto di flea market, dem dey beat dem.",Social studies
families generally cross theborder into another country where they have heard that some aidisavailable.,Families generally dey cross di border into another country where dem don hearsay some aid dey available.,Social studies
"charity or government organizations will setup refugee camps, which provide some shelter, medical care, and food.","Charity or government organizations go setup refugee camps, wey dey provide some shelter, medical care and food.",Social studies
refugee camps aresetupinresponse toasudden andgreat need.,Refugee camps dey setup in response to sudden and great need.,Social studies
"consequently, there arerarely enough resources forallofthefamilies.","Consequently, there rarely dey enough resources for all of di families.",Social studies
women areparticularly atriskafter adisaster. they may struggle tocompete with men for resources (viswanath etal.,Women dey particularly at risk after disaster. Dem fit struggle to compete wit men for resources.,Social studies
"post-disaster resources tend tohave little sensitivity toneeds ofwomen, such assanitary towels, diapers, orprivacy orprotection near restroom facilities (viswanath etal.","Post-disaster resources tend to get little sensitivity to needs of women, such as sanitary towels, diapers, or privacy or protection near restroom facilities.",Social studies
"women experience increased sexual violence anddomestic abuse following adisaster (luft, 2008; neumayer & plumper,2007; anastario, larrance, & lawry,2008; v iswanath et al,",Women dey experience increased sexual violence and domestic abuse following disaster.,Social studies
families cansometimes beseparated during thisstage ofrelocation.,Families fit sometimes dey separated during dis stage of relocation.,Social studies
"forexample, children aresometimes sent ahead toanother camp thatisthought tobesafer, leading toseparation from their parents (luster, qin, bates, johnson, &rana, 2008).","for example, children sometimes dey sent ahead to another camp wey dey thought to be safer, leading to separation from their parents.",Social studies
this can lead to both vulnerability and feelings of loss.,Dis fit lead to both vulnerability and feelings of loss.,Social studies
"al jazeera english refugee camp cc by-sa 2. 0. 32 immigrant and refugee families 2. 3 family admittance to the united states family admittance to the united states once refugees have entered anew country, they canbegin theroad torefugee orasylee status intheunited states.","Al Jazeera English— Temporary place wey dem build to house pipo wey run from their country CC BY-SA 2.0. Family admittance to U. S.— once refugees don enter new country, dem fit begin di road to refugee or asylee status for U. S.",Social studies
this process canbearduous andoften takes over ayear.,Dis process fit dey stressful and e dey pass one year.,Social studies
"thefirststepisarefugee status determination, orrsd.","Di first step na refugee status determination, or RSD.",Social studies
"anauthorized official from theunited nations high commissioner forrefugees willdetermine ifanindividual isconsidered arefugee under international, regional, ornational law.","An authorized official from di United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees go determine if individual dey considered refugee under international, regional or national law.",Social studies
"theofficial willthen determine iftheperson should return totheir home country, resettle intheneighboring country, orresettle inathird country(such asthe united states).","Di official go then determine if di person should return to their home country, resettle for di neighboring country, or resettle for third country(such as U. S.).",Social studies
"less than 1%of refugees worldwide are ever resettled in a third country (unhcr, 2015).",Less than 1%of refugees worldwide ever dey resettled for third country.,Social studies
"how do y ou define""refugee ""?",How you dey define 'refugee'?,Social studies
"unhcr: the unhcr held acouncil in1951 onthestatus ofrefugees, andthey created adefinition ofrefugee.","UNHCR: di UNHCR hold council for 1951 on di status of refugees, and dem create definition of refugee.",Social studies
government comes from theunhcr definition.,Government dey come from di UNHCR definition.,Social studies
united states policies about refugee admittance theunhcr oranauthorized ngo canrefer arefugee foradmission totheunited states.,U. S. policies about refugee admittance — di UNHCR or authorized NGO fit refer refugee for admission to U. S.,Social studies
"each year, theunited states prioritizes particular groups to be eligible for refugee status.","Each year, U. S. dey prioritize particular groups to be eligible for refugee status.",Social studies
"the current priorities are: priority 1: cases that are identified and referred to the program by the united nations high commissioner for refugees (unhcr), a united states embassy, or a designated non-governmental organization(ngo).","Di current priorities dey: Priority 1: cases wey dey identified and referred to di program by di United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), U. S. Embassy, or designated non-governmental organization(NGO).",Social studies
the united states president setsarefugee ceiling each year thatidentifies thenumber ofrefugees who canbe granted refuge inthecountry (see theappendix forabrief history ofunited states refugee policy).,Di U. S. President dey set Di highest number of refugees wey one country set as limit to accept per year each year wey identify di number of refugees wey fit dey granted refuge for di country.,Social studies
limits for refugees allowed from particular world regions arealsoset.,Limits for refugees allowed from particular world regions dey also set.,Social studies
asylees arenotincluded inthisnumber. these limits canbeinfluenced bynational security threats andpolitical will.,"Asylees no dey included for dis number. These limits fit dey influenced by Di way wey dem take dey protect di kontri, di pipo wey dey di kontri, and di tins wey important for di kontri from bad tins wey fit happen from outside or inside, including make sure say terrorist no go cause trouble, or say anoder kontri no go spy on dem threats and political will.",Social studies
"asanexample, thenumber ofadmitted refugees across allrefugee groups dropped from 68, 925 to26, 788 following theterrorist attacks onseptember 11th,2001 (refugee council,2012).","As example, di number of admitted refugees across all refugee groups drop from 68,925 to 26,788 following di terrorist attacks on September 11th,2001.",Social studies
"inrecent years, theceiling hasbeen setat70, 000-80, 000.","For recent years, di ceiling don dey set at 70,000–80,000.",Social studies
"in2012 therefugee ceiling wassetat76, 000 andatotal 58, 179 refugees came totheunited states(burt &batalova, 2014).","For 2012 di highest number of refugees wey one country set as limit to accept per year dey set at 76,000 and total 58,179 refugees come to U. S.",Social studies
they then areinterviewed byanofficer from theunited states citizen andimmigration services.,Dem then dey interviewed by officer from U. S. Citizen and Immigration Services.,Social studies
"applying isfree andapplications caninclude aspouse, unmarried children, andoccasionally other family members.","Applying dey free and applications fit include spouse, unmarried children, and occasionally other family members.",Social studies
"allindividuals approved asrefugees aremedically screened forinfectious diseases, which could prevent entry to the united states.","All individuals approved as refugees dey medically screened for infectious diseases, wey fit prevent entry to U. S.",Social studies
"for a case example of this process, please see ester 's story.","For case example of dis process, please see Ester's story.",Social studies
"incontrast, asylum seekers apply forasylum ataport ofentry totheunited states orapply within oneyear ofarriving intheunited states.","For contrast, asylum seekers dey apply for asylum at port of entry to U. S. or apply within one year of arriving for U. S.",Social studies
there aretwo methods ofseeking asylum: affirmative anddefensive.,There dey two methods of seeking asylum: affirmative and defensive.,Social studies
"inthe affirmative asylum process, individuals fileanapplication forasylum totheunited states citizenship and immigration services (uscis).","For di When person apply for asylum on their own before any government removal process starts process, individuals dey file application for asylum to U. S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS).",Social studies
these individuals arefreetoliveintheunited states while their case isprocessed.,These individuals dey free to live for U. S. while their case dey processed.,Social studies
"inthispast, adecision wasrequired tobemade within 180days.","For dis past, decision dey required to dey made within 180 days.",Social studies
"however, duetoexpanding case loads, uscis iscurrently unable topredict how long theprocess will take (uscis, 2015).","However, due to expanding case loads, USCIS currently no fit predict how long di process go take.",Social studies
"during theapplication processing time orthefirst 180days after filing theapplication (whichever isshorter), these individuals arenotauthorized towork.","During di application processing time or di first 180 days after filing di application(whichever dey shorter), these individuals no dey authorized to work.",Social studies
"inthedefensive asylum process, animmigrant who isintheprocess ofbeing removed from theunited states may request asylum asaform ofrelief.","For di When person request asylum because dem dey trying to remove dem from the country process, immigrant wey dey in di process of being removed from U. S. fit request asylum as form of relief.",Social studies
this process canhappen when animmigrant 1)wasapprehended inorentering theunited states without documentation or2)wasdenied asylum after applying touscis asylum officers.,Dis process fit happen wen immigrant(1) dey apprehended for or entering U. S. without documentation or(2) dey denied asylum after applying to USCIS asylum officers.,Social studies
"ifanimmigrant requests asylum asadefense against removal from theunited states, they conduct removal proceedings intheimmigrant court with theexcutive officeforimmigration review. animmigration judge hears these cases andmakes afinal decision about eligibility forasylum (united states immigration,2011).","If immigrant request asylum as defense against removal from U. S, dem go conduct removal proceedings for di immigrant court wit di Executive Office for Immigration Review. Government official wey dey court to decide immigration cases dey hear these cases and dey make final decision about eligibility for asylum.",Social studies
many defensive asylum seekers areheld injails ordetainment centers until they areparoled oradecision ismade about asylum.,Many When person request asylum because dem dey trying to remove dem from the country seekers dey held for jails or detainment centers until dem dey paroled or decision dey made about asylum.,Social studies
"they typically wear prison uniforms andareseparated from opposite gendered family. this practice hasbeen discouraged bytheunhcr andcriticized byhuman rights first(human rights first,2012).",Dem typically dey wear prison uniforms and dey separated from opposite gendered family. Dis practice don dey discouraged by UNHCR and criticized by Human Rights First.,Social studies
"after anasylee declares adesire forasylum, heorsheisinterviewed todetermine thecredibility ofthedanger threat intheir home country. ifofficials determine thatthere isacredible threat, there isstillaprocess thatmust be followed before they are granted asylee status.34 immigrant and refugee families 2. 4 entering the united states entering the united states ""inmyopinion thiscountry iseven hardertoadjust to, hardertoliveinbecause. because therearelotsof rules andlaws thatbind ushere.","After asylee declare desire for asylum, dem dey interviewed to determine di credibility of di danger threat for their home country. If officials determine say there dey credible threat, there dey still process wey must be followed before dem dey granted asylee status.'For my opinion dis country even dey harder to adjust to, harder to live in because. because there dey lots of rules and laws wey dey bind us here.'",Social studies
"itismuch hardertodothings inthiscountry. icame atanoldagealready, and learning english does not come easy.","E dey much harder to do things for dis country. I come at old age already, and learning English no dey come easy.",Social studies
"everything is much harder for me.""",Everything dey much harder for me.,Social studies
the international organization for migration provides aloan torefugees tocover their airplane ticket expenses from theunited states government; they must repay this loan once they are resettled in the country.,Di International Organization for Migration dey provide loan to refugees to cover their airplane ticket expenses from U. S. government; dem must repay dis loan once dem dey resettled for di country.,Social studies
"once they arrive, theofficeofrefugee resettlement assigns avoluntary agency (volag) toofferthem help(see ""key organizations inrefugee admissions andintegration"" forafulldescription ofagencies involved inrefugee resettlement andpolicy).","Once dem arrive, di Office of Refugee Resettlement dey assign voluntary agency (VOLAG) to offer dem help.",Social studies
these volags often meet therefugee attheairport andarrange forhousing andbasic furnishings.,These VOLAGs often dey meet di refugee at di airport and arrange for housing and basic furnishings.,Social studies
"they teach therefugees how topurchase groceries andusetransportation, andconnect them with resources foremployment andeducation.","Dem dey teach di refugees how to purchase groceries and use transportation, and dey connect dem wit resources for employment and education.",Social studies
these services areonly available for30-90 days.,These services dey only available for 30–90 days.,Social studies
"across organizations andacross states, there isnoconsistent process forthese relocation/integration services, andavailability ofand applications forresources may vary.","Across organizations and across states, there no dey consistent process for these relocation integration services, and availability of and applications for resources fit vary.",Social studies
"insome states, refugees arealso eligible forcash assistance ormedical assistance beyond this 90 day period(refugee council usa,2014).","For some states, refugees also dey eligible for cash assistance or medical assistance beyond dis 90-day period.",Social studies
"key organizations in refugee admissions and integration the following organizations enforce refugee policy and/or help with refugee integration: bureau of population, refugees, and migration (prm): prm is a bureau under the u. s. department of state, and it works internationally to develop human solutions to displacement.","Key organizations for refugee admissions and integration— di following organizations dey enforce refugee policy and or dey help wit refugee integration: Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration (PRM): PRM na bureau under U. S. Department of State, and e dey work internationally to develop human solutions to displacement.",Social studies
they provide funding to and work with international organizations such as the u. n. that operate refugee camps.,Dem dey provide funding to and work wit international organizations such as di U. N. wey dey operate refugee camps.,Social studies
the director of prm also serves as the u. s.,Di director of PRM also dey serve as U. S.,Social studies
"coordinator for refugee affairs, and is responsible to the president to help develop policy relating to refugees, including admission ceilings and priorities.","Coordinator for Refugee Affairs, and dey responsible to di President to help develop policy relating to refugees, including admission ceilings and priorities.",Social studies
it works with state governments and provides funding for voluntary agencies to facilitate economic and social support to refugees.,E dey work wit state governments and dey provide funding for voluntary agencies to facilitate economic and social support to refugees.,Social studies
"citizenship and immigration services (uscis) and customs and border protections (cbp): uscis evaluates applications for refugee status, and the cbp screens refugees when they arrive.","Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) and Customs and Border Protections (CBP): USCIS dey evaluate applications for refugee status, and di CBP dey screen refugees wen dem arrive.",Social studies
"voluntary agencies, such as catholic charities and lutheran immigrations and refugee services, have agreements with the state department to provide reception and placement services for refugees.","Voluntary agencies, such as Catholic Charities and Lutheran Immigrations and Refugee Services, get agreements wit di State Department to provide reception and placement services for refugees.",Social studies
"these agencies are funded through the state department's bureau of population, refugees, and migration.","These agencies dey funded through di State Department Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration.",Social studies
volags often contract with the orr to provide resettlement-related services.,VOLAGs often dey contract wit di ORR to provide resettlement-related services.,Social studies
"the volag works with sponsoring relatives when applicable, andwill sometimes find anindividual, church, orother private group thatcanassist with sponsorship ifthere isnosponsoring relative(refugee council usa,2014).","Di VOLAG dey work wit sponsoring relatives wen applicable, and go sometimes find individual, church or other private group wey fit assist wit sponsorship if there no dey sponsoring relative.",Social studies
"refugees areeligible forallwelfare benefits offered tocitizens, such astemporary assistance forneedy families and medicaid.","Refugees dey eligible for all Money and services wey government give to pipo wey need help offered to citizens, such as temporary assistance for needy families and Medicaid.",Social studies
congolese family being met at the airport by their case worker.,Congolese family dey met at di airport by their case worker.,Social studies
world relief spokane welcome to spokane cc by-nc-nd 2. 0.,World Relief Spokane— Welcome to Spokane CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.,Social studies
"an overwhelming transition imagine waking up, andfinding thateverything inyour lifehaschanged.",An overwhelming transition— imagine waking up and finding say everything for your life don change.,Social studies
"yourbedisadifferent size, shared with adifferent number ofpeople, andinadifferent location.","Your bed na different size, shared wit different number of pipo, and for different location.",Social studies
"youwake uptoanew sound, anditisadifferent temperature than youexpect.","You wake upto new sound, and e dey different temperature than you expect.",Social studies
"yougetup, andfind thattheonly foods available areforeign toyou.",you go get up and find say di only foods available dey foreign to you.,Social studies
"youtrytogo shopping, butyoudonotknow how tonavigate thetransportation system.","You try to go shopping, but you no know how to navigate di transportation system.",Social studies
"when yougetthere, thefood allseem unfamiliar. youdonotknow how topayforyour food thecurrency seems odd, andyoualso have a""money36 immigrant and refugee families card"" thatyoudon'tunderstand how touse.","Wen you go get there, di food all dey unfamiliar. You no know how to pay for your food— di currency dey seem odd, and you also get 'money card' wey you no understand how to use.",Social studies
youcannot talktoanyone well.,You no fit talk well to anyone.,Social studies
"youcome home andsomeone has put apiece of paper on the door, which you cannot read and do not know how to have translated.","You come home and someone don put piece of paper on di door, wey you no fit read and you no know how to get am translated.",Social studies
"after relocation, families must navigate anew completely new culture.","After relocation, families must navigate completely new culture.",Social studies
"often, afamily faces changes inevery aspect oflife.","Often, family dey face changes for every aspect of life.",Social studies
"betancourt, abdi, ito, lilienthal, agalab, &ellis(2014) documented major shifts in the experiences of somali refugee families in boston, including: these somali families lost resources during the flight from their home country, and arrived to the united states in poverty regardless of their previous status.","Betancourt, Abdi, Ito, Lilienthal, Agalab &Ellis (2014)document major shifts for di experiences of Somali refugee families for Boston, including: these Somali families lose resources during di flight from their home country, and arrive to U. S. for poverty regardless of their previous status.",Social studies
children who were more fluent in english withheld information about their situations at school.,Children wey more fluent for English dey withhold information about their situations at school.,Social studies
"families were separated from extended support (betancourt et al,",Families dey separated from extended support.,Social studies
"these changes, combined with encountering acompletely new culture, would shake anyfamily' scoping skills.","These changes, combined wit encountering completely new culture, go shake any family coping skills.",Social studies
"unfortunately, thesocial supports available torefugees aredifficult toaccess.","Unfortunately, di social supports available to refugees dey difficult to access.",Social studies
"parents lack knowledge ofhow to navigate school systems andthehealth care system, andarefurther isolated from services bylack oftransportation and financial resources (isik-ercan, 2012; navuluri etal.","Parents no get knowledge of how to navigate school systems and di healthcare system, and dey further isolated from services by lack of transportation and financial resources.",Social studies
"mental health services arefrequently not culturally sensitive or geared towards refugees(shannon et al,",Mental health services frequently no dey culturally sensitive or geared towards refugees.,Social studies
"after arriving intheunited states, many states require orrecommend thatrefugees receive aphysical screening.","After arriving for U. S, many states dey require or recommend say refugees receive physical screening.",Social studies
"inspite oftheinherent exposure topotentially traumatic events, nostates currently require mental health screenings.","Despite di inherent exposure to potentially traumatic events, no states currently dey require mental health screenings.",Social studies
"""healthcare providers might require more training about how work collaboratively with new populations of refugees to assess the mental health effects of war""(2014, p.13).",Healthcare providers fit require more training about how to work collaboratively wit new populations of refugees to assess di mental health effects of war.',Social studies
"""understanding and healing thesymptoms ofpolitical oppression starts intheinitial assessment with validating theways that political trauma hasrender edrefugees 'voiceless.'",Understanding and healing di symptoms of political oppression dey start for di initial assessment wit validating di ways wey political trauma don render refugees voiceless.',Social studies
"listening, documenting, and witnessing individual andcommunity stories ofexposur etohuman rights violations iscredited asanessential component of restoring human dignity.""","Listening, documenting, and witnessing individual and community stories of exposure to human rights violations dey credited as essential component of restoring Di special worth and value wey every human being get just by being human.'",Social studies
"after thattime, refugees arerequired toapply tobecome apermanent resident alien, which provides them with thecommonly known 'green card'(refugee council,2014).","After dat time, refugees dey required to apply to become Person from another country wey get legal right to stay permanently but no be citizen yet alien, wey provide dem wit di commonly known 'Di card wey show say person get permanent legal right to live and work for USA'.",Social studies
"asylees arealso eligible toapply forpermanent resident alien status, although itisnotrequired.","Asylees also dey eligible to apply for Person from another country wey get legal right to stay permanently but no be citizen yet alien status, although e no dey required.",Social studies
"apermanent resident alien isentitled tomany ofthesame supports ascitizens, including freepublic education, authorization towork intheunited states, andtravel documents toleave andreturn totheunited states(refugee council usa,2014).","A Person from another country wey get legal right to stay permanently but no be citizen yet alien dey entitled to many of di same supports as citizens, including free public education, authorization to work for U. S, and travel documents to leave and return to U. S.",Social studies
"however, permanent resident aliens remain citizens oftheir home country, must maintain residence intheunited states inorder tomaintain their status, must renew their status every 10years, andcannot vote infederal elections (uscis, 2015).","However, Person from another country wey get legal right to stay permanently but no be citizen yet aliens remain citizens of their home country, must maintain residence for U. S. to maintain their status, must renew their status every 10 years, and no fit vote for federal elections.",Social studies
"after being apermanent resident forfive years, refugees andasylees canapply forcitizenship (prm, 2013).","After being Person from another country wey get legal right to stay permanently but no be citizen yet for five years, refugees and asylees fit apply for citizenship.",Social studies
"family reunification once resettled, refugees areable toapply tobring certain family members tojointhem intheunited states ifthey were notable tocome together. inorder tobring additional family members totheunited states, refugees must apply within twoyears ofbeing granted refugee orasylee status.","Family reunification— once resettled, refugees dey able to apply to bring certain family members to join dem for U. S. if dem no dey able to come together. For order to bring additional family members to U. S, refugees must apply within two years of being granted refugee or asylee status.",Social studies
"refugees areable toapply tobring aspouse orchildren who areunmarried, under 21years old, andconceived before leaving.","Refugees dey able to apply to bring spouse or children wey dey unmarried, under 21 years old, and conceived before leaving.",Social studies
"only anchor or""principal applicant""refugees areallowed toapply tobring family members.",Only anchor or 'Di main person whose name di immigration application dey under' refugees dey allowed to apply to bring family members.,Social studies
aprincipal applicant isgenerally thefirst refugee from afamily toarrive intheunited states.,A Di main person whose name di immigration application dey under na generally di first refugee from family to arrive for U. S.,Social studies
these principal applicants then apply tobring their immediate family members.,These principal applicants then dey apply to bring their immediate family members.,Social studies
"however, thefamily members coming tojoin aprinciple refugee will notbeable toapply to bring additional family members(refugee council usa,2014).","However, di family members coming to join principle refugee no go dey able to apply to bring additional family members.",Social studies
"forexample, arefugee could apply tobring his/ herparents, his/herwife, andtheir children totheunited states.","for example, refugee fit apply to bring his her parents, his her wife and their children to U. S.",Social studies
"after they arrive, thewife/ husband isnoteligible toapply tobring her/hisparents.","After dem arrive, di wife husband no dey eligible to apply to bring her his parents.",Social studies
this means thatsome refugees willcontinue tofeelseparated andisolated from loved ones.,Dis mean say some refugees go continue to feel separated and isolated from loved ones.,Social studies
theprocess forfamily reunification isonerous.,Di process for family reunification dey onerous.,Social studies
refugees currently residing intheir host country andtheir family members awaiting permission tojoin them must both work through cumbersome systems intheir respective countries.,Refugees currently residing for their Di country wey receive and give a home to immigrants or refugees and their family members wey dey awaiting permission to join dem must both work through cumbersome systems for their respective countries.,Social studies
"theanchor orprincipal applicant intheunited states must fileanapplication with uscis, andmust provide proof oftheir relationship tothefamily members(through birth ormarriage certificates, receipts of remittances sent home, photographs, etc.).","Di anchor or Di main person whose name di immigration application dey under for U. S. must file application wit USCIS, and must provide proof of their relationship to di family members(through birth or marriage certificates, receipts of remittances sent home, photographs, etc.).",Social studies
"the family members inthehome country must then complete visa interviews, medical examination, security background checks, and dna testing(in the case of children).","Di family members for di home country must then complete visa interviews, medical examination, security background checks and DNA testing(for di case of children).",Social studies
"atanystage along thisprocess, theofficial candeny theapplication ifthey suspect fraud.","At any stage along dis process, di official fit deny di application if dem suspect fraud.",Social studies
"ifanadjudicator suspects fraud intheanchor refugee' sapplication, they canrequest stronger evidence oftherelationship.","If adjudicator suspect fraud for di first person from one family wey reach US as refugee and can apply for others to follow application, dem fit request stronger evidence of di relationship.",Social studies
"ifthey remain unconvinced thattherefugee istelling thetruth, they candeny theapplication.","If dem remain unconvinced say di refugee dey tell di truth, dem fit deny di application.",Social studies
"ifofficers suspect fraud during thevisa interview process, they will decline theissue thevisa.","If officers suspect fraud during di visa wetin dey happen when pesin dey ask you question and you dey answer, like tori wey dem dey collect from you, dem go decline to issue di visa.",Social studies
"they may also decline visas forhealth reasons orforpast criminal behavior. there arewaivers available, butnotallpotential refugees areaware of thewaivers.","Dem fit also decline visas for health reasons or for past criminal behavior. There dey waivers available, but not all potential refugees dey to know di waivers.",Social studies
"denials require awritten rebuttal, theprocessing ofwhich cantake many months.","Denials dey require written rebuttal, di processing of which fit take many months.",Social studies
"iftherebuttal is approved, thefamily members inthehome country must complete theinterviews again.","If di rebuttal dey approved, di family members for di home country must complete di interviews again.",Social studies
many lack theeducation ortheresources totackle these processes.,Many no get di education or di resources to tackle these processes.,Social studies
"refugees may noteven beaware thatthey areeligible forreunification, 38 immigrant and refugee families asthere isnosystematic way ofinforming them.","Refugees fit not even dey aware say dem dey eligible for reunification, as there no dey systematic way of informing dem.",Social studies
"currently itisnotclear how many family members eligible for reunification are able to complete the process and submit a full application (haile, 2015).",Currently e no dey clear how many family members wey eligible for reunification dey able to complete di process and submit full application.,Social studies
there aresupports available tohelp refugees through this process.,There dey supports available to help refugees through dis process.,Social studies
the volags who assist with refugee resettlement generally have services available toassist inapplications forfamily reunification.,Di VOLAGs wey assist wit refugee resettlement generally get services available to assist for applications for family reunification.,Social studies
local community organizations often also offerservices tohelp prepare andcomplete applications.,Local community organizations often also dey offer services to help prepare and complete applications.,Social studies
"inminnesota, forexample, the minnesota council ofchurches hosts weekly information sessions about family reunification eligibility andthe application process.","For Minnesota, for example, di Minnesota Council of Churches dey host weekly information sessions about family reunification eligibility and di application process.",Social studies
"support from afar incases where families cannot beorchoose nottobereunited, refugees stillfind ways toprovide support toone another. refugees may support family andfriends through remittances ormay spend time andmoney trying to locate andbring family members totheunited states.","Support from afar— for cases where families no fit or choose not to dey reunited, refugees still dey find ways to provide support to one another. Refugees fit support family and friends through remittances or fit spend time and money trying to locate and bring family members to U. S.",Social studies
"inother cases, some may forgolong terms gains, such asjob training orcollege, tobeable toimmediately help others (betancourt etal.","For other cases, some fit forgo long-term gains, such as job training or college, to be able to immediately help others.",Social studies
"while thismay cause emotional distress forsome, itcanalso bethesource ofmotivation tomake themost oftheir opportunities.","While dis fit cause emotional distress for some, e fit also be di source of motivation to make di most of their opportunities.",Social studies
"transnational family connections help refugees retain a sense of identity within their culture and family(lim, 2009).",Family wey get members living indifferent countries at the same time connections dey help refugees retain sense of identity within their culture and family.,Social studies
resilience refugees areinherently survivors.,Resilience— refugees dey inherently survivors.,Social studies
they have experienced loss andtraumatic events buthave found ways to survive.,Dem don experience loss and traumatic events but don find ways to survive.,Social studies
"forexample, somali refugee families inboston used religious faith, healthy family communication, support networks, andpeer talks tomake new lives forthemselves (betancourt etal.","for example, Somali refugee families for Boston use religious faith, healthy family communication, support networks and peer talks to make new lives for themselves.",Social studies
"refugee youth take onnew responsibilities after migration, including interpreting, providing financial support, andhelping parents navigate services (hynie, guruge, &shakya, 2012).","Refugee youth dey take on new responsibilities after migration, including interpreting, providing financial support, and helping parents navigate services.",Social studies
"the ways refugee individuals, families, andcommunities find andcreate support differgreatly. they draw onfamily andcommunity resilience tofind ways tocontinue to survive and, in many cases, thrive.","Di ways refugee individuals, families and communities dey find and create support dey differ greatly. Dem dey draw on family and Di strength of a whole community to recover and bounce back together from difficulty to find ways to continue to survive and, for many cases, thrive.",Social studies
refugee resilience isseen when they rebuild community networks inthecities towhich they relocate.,Refugee resilience dey seen wen dem dey rebuild community networks for di cities to which dem relocate.,Social studies
"others have formed organizations to protect and lobby for their communities, and others have been elected to public offices. 2. 4 entering the united states 39 keith ellison congressman ellison with minnesota state senator mee moua cc by 2. 0.","Others don form organizations to protect and lobby for their communities, and others don dey elected to public offices.",Social studies
mee moua: senator mee moua isthefirsthmong american woman tobecome aminnesota state senator. moua came totheu. s.,Mee Moua: Senator Mee Moua na di first Hmong American woman to become Minnesota state senator. Moua come to U. S.,Social studies
"with herfamily in1978 andhassince worked herway upfrom thepublic housing projects ofappleton, wisconsin tothestate capitol inst.","Wither family for 1978 and since then don work her way up from di public housing projects of Appleton, Wisconsin to di state capitol.",Social studies
"moua is also an accomplished attorney who lives with her mother, her husband, and their two children.","Moua also na accomplished attorney wey dey live wither mother, her husband and their two children.",Social studies
"""the issue is not whether the asian american politicians ar e ready, it's really whether america is ready.""","Di issue no be whether di Asian American politicians dey ready, na really whether America dey ready.'",Social studies
"for a complete interview about her path to the u. s, goto:. pbs. org/searching/aap mmoua. html. 40 immigrant and refugee families 2. 5f uture directions in policy and refugee family support future directions in policy and refugee family support theunited states istaking steps forward initssupport ofrefugee families.","For complete interview about her path to U. S, go to: pbs. org searching aap mmoua. html. Future directions for policy and refugee family support— U. S. dey taking steps forward for its support of refugee families.",Social studies
"forexample, there previously hasbeen nounified approach torelocating andsupporting refugees.","for example, there previously no dey unified approach to relocating and supporting refugees.",Social studies
procedures vary bystate andbyvolag.,Procedures dey vary by state and by VOLAG.,Social studies
"however, president obama recently created thewhite house taskforce onnew americans specifically tocreate unified plans to""create welcoming communities and fully integrating immigrants and refugees""(white house,2014).","However, President Obama recently create di WhiteHouse Task Force on New Americans specifically to create unified plans to 'create welcoming communities and fully integrate immigrants and refugees'.",Social studies
"however, there aremore steps lefttotake.","However, there dey more steps left to take.",Social studies
one international concern isthelack ofprotection forinternally displaced persons.,One international concern na di lack of protection for internally displaced persons.,Social studies
those seeking areferral forrefugee status complete theprocess from within thecountry to which they have fled.,Those seeking referral for refugee status dey complete di process from within di country to which dem don flee.,Social studies
internally displaced persons arenoteligible forrefugee status unless specifically identified bythepresident tobeapproved forrefugee status.,Internally displaced persons no dey eligible for refugee status unless specifically identified by di President to be approved for refugee status.,Social studies
"additional steps may benecessary toprotect those who face persecution but cannot, for whatever reason, flee to another country.","Additional steps fit be necessary to protect those wey face persecution but no fit, for whatever reason, flee to another country.",Social studies
"inorder tohave a complete picture, itisimportant toseehow these policies andprocesses impact therealfamilies who experience them.","For order to get complete picture, e important to see how these policies and processes dey impact di real families wey dey experience dem.",Social studies
"case study""ester, arefugee from thedemocratic republic ofthecongo, wasforcibly separated from fiveofherchildren during civil conflict intheearly 2000s.","Case study na di study of one example— 'Ester, refugee from di Democratic Republic of Congo, forcibly separate from five of her children during civil conflict for di early 2000s.'",Social studies
shespent years inarefugee camp andwaseventually resettled tonorth carolina without herchildren.,She spend years for Temporary place wey dem build to house pipo wey run from their country and eventually get resettled to North Carolina without her children.,Social studies
"upon arrival intheunited states, shepetitioned theuscis tobring herchildren here.","Upon arrival for U. S, she petition USCIS to bring her children here.",Social studies
"uscis required that esther provide birth certificates toprove herrelationship toherchildren, allminors, butthese documents didnotexist.","USCIS require say Esther provide paper wey show say dem born you to prove her relationship to her children, all minors, but these documents no dey exist.",Social studies
"incurring months ofextra delay, esther contacted relatives inthecongo who procured retroactive documentation ofthe relationship.","Incurring months of extra delay, Esther contact relatives for Congo wey procure retroactive documentation of di relationship.",Social studies
"uscis then approved thepetition andtransferred thefiletotheunited states embassy inkinshasa, congo' s capital.","USCIS then approve di petition and transfer di file to di U. S. Embassy for Kinshasa, Congo's capital.",Social studies
"inorder tocontinue processing, thechildren hadtotravel tokinshasa forvisa interviews.","For order to continue processing, di children must travel to Kinshasa for visa interviews.",Social studies
"butthechildren lived ontheother side ofthecountry, hundreds ofmiles away, andthejourney tokinshasa wasextremely dangerous.","But di children dey live on di other side of di country, hundreds of miles away, and di journey to Kinshasa dey extremely dangerous.",Social studies
"esther hadnochoice, however, andraised money from herchurch toflythem tothecapital inasmall plane.","Esther no get choice, however, and raise money from her church to fly dem to di capital for small plane.",Social studies
"ontheday oftheir interview, they were turned away from theembassy because they lacked therequisite paperwork, which wasin theunited states with esther. rescheduling theinterview took months.","On di day of their interview, dem turn dem away from di embassy because dem no get di requisite paperwork, wey dey for U. S. wit Esther. Rescheduling di interview take months.",Social studies
"during thistime, theyoungest child, florence, went missing.","During dis time, di youngest child, Florence, go missing.",Social studies
"sheispresumed kidnapped ordead, anddidnotaccompany hersiblings totheunited states tobereunited with their mother. when theremaining four children received anew interview.","She dey presumed kidnapped or dead, and she no accompany her siblings to U. S. to reunite wit their mother. Wen di remaining four children receive new interview.",Social studies
"their visas were approved nearly two years after esther filed the petition.""",Their visas get approved nearly two years after Esther file di petition.,Social studies
discussion questions 1. imagine you and your family were suddenly unsafe in the united states and feared for your life.,Discussion questions— 1. Imagine you and your family suddenly dey unsafe for U. S. and you dey fear for your life.,Social studies
what would you do?,Wetin you go do?,Social studies
"if you would leave the country, where would you go?","If you go leave di country, where you go?",Social studies
how would you get there?,How you go get there?,Social studies
how would you provide for your family in the meantime?,How you go provide for your family for di meantime?,Social studies
how do you think you would be received there?,How you think dem go receive you there?,Social studies
what is your reaction to the story's ending?,Wetin be your reaction to di story's ending?,Social studies
"they have stories from asian indian, filipino, hmong, khmer, latino, somali and tibetan refugees and immigrants.","Dem get stories from Asian Indian, Filipino, Hmong, Khmer, Latino, Somali and Tibetan refugees and immigrants.",Social studies
unhcr website. unhcr. org/ this is the website ofthe un refugee agency.,UNHCR Website: unhcr. org —dis na di website of di UN refugee agency.,Social studies
"it has up-to-date news on refugee crises, needs, and resources.","E get up-to-date news on refugee crises, needs and resources.",Social studies
using mental health indicators toidentify postdisaster gender- based violence among women displaced by hurricane katrina.,Using mental health indicators to identify post-disaster gender-based violence among women displaced by Hurricane Katrina.,Social studies
"journal of women' s health,17(9), 14371444.","Journal of Women's Health,17(9), 1437-1444.",Social studies
"betancourt, t. s, abdi, s, ito, b. s, lilienthal, g. m,&agalab, n.(2014).","Betancourt, T. S, Abdi, S, Ito, B. S, Lilienthal, G. M,& Agalab, N.(2014).",Social studies
"weleftonewar andcame to another: resource loss, acculturative stress, andcaregiver -child relationships insomali refugee families.","We leave one war and come to another: resource loss, Di mental and emotional pressure wey person feel when dem dey adjust to living in anew culture and caregiver-child relationships for Somali refugee families.",Social studies
"cultural diversity and ethnic minority psychology, 21(1),1 14-125.","Cultural Diversity and A group of pipo wey different in ethnicity from the majority of pipo in a country Psychology,21(1), 114-125.",Social studies
"doi:10. 1037/a0037538 bureau ofpopulation, refugees, andmigration (prm).","DOI: 10.1037 a0037538 Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration (PRM).",Social studies
u. s. refugee admissions program faqs.,U. S. Refugee Admissions Program FAQs.,Social studies
proposed refugee admissions forfiscal year 2015.,Proposed refugee admissions for fiscal year 2015.,Social studies
"retrieved from:. state. gov/j/prm/releases/docsforcongress/231817. htm boss, p.","Retrieved from: state. gov j prm releases docsforcongress 231817. htm Boss, P.",Social studies
"loss, t rauma, and resilience.","Loss, Trauma, and Resilience.",Social studies
new york: w. w.,New York: W. W.,Social studies
"burt, l.&batalova, j.(2014).","Burt, L. & Batalova, J.(2014).",Social studies
refugees andasylees intheunited states.,Refugees and asylees for U. S.,Social studies
migration policy institute.,Migration Policy Institute.,Social studies
violence against women andnatural disasters: findings from post-tsunami srilanka.,Violence against women and natural disasters: findings from post-tsunami Sri Lanka.,Social studies
"violence against women, 16(8), 902-918.","Violence Against Women,16(8), 902-918.",Social studies
"doi:10. 1 177/1077801210377649 fix, m. e.&passel, j. s.(1994).","DOI: 10.1177 1077801210377649 Fix, M. E. & Passel, J. S.(1994).",Social studies
immigration and immigrants: setting and recordstraight.,Immigration and immigrants: setting di record straight.,Social studies
"retrieved from:. urban. or g/publications/305184. html#ii haile, a.(2015).","Retrieved from: urban. org publications 305184. html Haile, A.(2015).",Social studies
thescandal ofrefugee family reunification.,Di scandal of refugee family reunification.,Social studies
a history of refugees in america.,A history of refugees for America.,Social studies
"west hartford, ct: kumarian press.","West Hartford, CT: Kumarian Press.",Social studies
human rights first.,Human Rights First.,Social studies
how torepair theu. s.,How to repair di U. S.,Social studies
asylum andrefugee resettlement systems.,Asylum and refugee resettlement systems.,Social studies
"family relationships ofafghan, karen andsudanese refugee youth.","Family relationships of Afghan, Karen and Sudanese refugee youth.",Social studies
"canadian ethnic studies,44(3), 11-28.","Canadian Ethnic Studies,44(3), 11-28.",Social studies
"inpursuit ofanew perspective intheeducation ofchildren oftherefugees: advocacy for the""family"".",In pursuit of new perspective for di education of children of di refugees: advocacy for di 'family'.,Social studies
"educational sciences: theory& practice,12, 3025-3038.","Educational Sciences: Theory& Practice,12, 3025-3038.",Social studies
"doi:10. 1 111/. 00286 lie, b, lavik, n. j,&laake, p.(2001).","DOI: 10.1111.00286 Lie, B, Lavik, N. J, & Laake, P.(2001).",Social studies
"traumatic events andpsychological symptoms inanon-clinical refugee population in norway. journal of refugee studies,14 (3),276-294.","Traumatic events and psychological symptoms for non-clinical refugee population for Norway. Journal of Refugee Studies,14(3), 276-294.",Social studies
"doi:10. 1093/jrs/14. 3. 276 lim, s.(2009).","DOI: 10.1093 jrs 14.3.276 Lim, S. (2009).",Social studies
loss ofconnections isdeath: transnational family tiesamong sudanese refugee families resettling in the united states.,Loss of connections na death: Family wey get members living indifferent countries at the same time ties among Sudanese refugee families resettling for U. S.,Social studies
"journal of cross-cultural psychology, 40(6).","Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,40(6).",Social studies
"doi:10. 1 177/0022022109346955 luft, r. e.(2008).","DOI: 10.1177 0022022109346955 Luft, R. E.(2008).",Social studies
looking forcommon ground: relief work inpost-katrina new orleans asanamerican parable of race and gender violence.,Looking for common ground: relief work for post-Katrina New Orleans as American parable of race and gender violence.,Social studies
"feminist formations,20 (3),531.","Feminist Formations,20(3), 531.",Social studies
"luster, t. qin, d. b, bates, l, johnson, d. j, rana, m.(2008).","Luster, T, Qin, D. B, Bates, L, Johnson, D. J, Rana, M. (2008).",Social studies
"thelostboys ofsudan: ambiguous loss, search for family, and reestablishing relationships with family members.","Di lost boys of Sudan: A loss wey no be clear or final— like when person dey missing but you no know if dem dey alive, to find family, and reestablishing relationships wit family members.",Social studies
"family relations,57, 444-456.","Family Relations,57, 444-456.",Social studies
"mcmichael, c, gifford, s, m,&correa-v elez, i.","McMichael, C, Gifford, S. M,& Correa-Velez, I.",Social studies
"(2011). negotiating family, navigating resettlement: family connectedness among resettled youth with refugee backgrounds living inmelbourne, australia.","(2011). Negotiating family, navigating resettlement: family connectedness among resettled youth wit refugee backgrounds living for Melbourne, Australia.",Social studies
"journal ofyouth studies,14 (2),179-195.","Journal of Youth Studies,14(2), 179-195.",Social studies
doi:10. 1080/. 2010. 506529 minnesota historical society.,DOI: 10.1080 2010.506529 Minnesota Historical Society.,Social studies
hmong women' saction team oral history project: interview with mai v. thao.,Hmong Women's Action Team Oral History Project: Interview wit Mai V. Thao.,Social studies
"assessing barriers tohealthcare access among refugees living insanantonio, texas.","Assessing barriers to healthcare access among refugees living for San Antonio, Texas.",Social studies
"texas public health journal,66(3), 5-9.","Texas Di science and practice of keeping whole communities and populations healthy Journal,66(3), 5-9.",Social studies
"neumayer, e,&plumper, t.(2007).","Neumayer, E,& Plumper, T.(2007).",Social studies
"thegendered nature ofnatural disasters: theimpact ofcatastrophic events onthegender gapinlifeexpectancy, 19812002.","Di gendered nature of natural disasters: di impact of catastrophic events on di gender gap for life expectancy,1981-2002.",Social studies
"annals oftheassociation ofamerican geographers, 97(3), 551566.","Annals of di Association of American Geographers, 97(3), 551-566.",Social studies
"nickerson, a, bryant, r, brooks, r. t, steel, z, silove, d,&chen, j.","Nickerson, A, Bryant, R, Brooks, R. T, Steel, Z, Silove, D,& Chen, J.",Social studies
(2011). thefamilial influence ofloss andtrauma onrefugee mental health: amultilevel path analysis.,(2011). Di familial influence of loss and trauma on refugee mental health: multilevel path analysis.,Social studies
"journal oftraumatic stress,24(1), 25-33.","Journal of Mental and emotional pain wey person get after going through terrible experience,24(1), 25-33.",Social studies
doi:10. 1002/jts. 20608 refugee council usa.,DOI: 10.1002 jts.20608 Refugee Council USA.,Social studies
refugee admissions figures.,Refugee admissions figures.,Social studies
retrieved from:. rcusa. or g/refugeeadmissions-figures refugee council usa.,Retrieved from: rcusa. org refugee-admissions-figures Refugee Council USA.,Social studies
post arrival assistance and benefits.,Post arrival assistance and benefits.,Social studies
exploring themental health effects ofpolitical trauma with newly arrived refugees.,Exploring di mental health effects of political trauma wit newly arrived refugees.,Social studies
"qualitative health research, 1-15.","Qualitative Health Research,1-15.",Social studies
"doi:10. 1 17/104973231454975 us english foundation, inc. (2014).","DOI: 10.1177 104973231454975 US English Foundation, Inc. (2014).",Social studies
worldwide displacement hitsall-time high as war and persecution increase.,Worldwide displacement hit all-time high as war and persecution dey increase.,Social studies
retrieved from:. unhcr. org/558193896. html united states immigration.,Retrieved from: unhcr. org 558193896. html United States Immigration.,Social studies
the united states asylum program.,Di U. S. asylum program.,Social studies
gender differences inthepsychological impact oftsunami.,Gender differences for di psychological impact of tsunami.,Social studies
"international journal ofsocial psychiatry, 59(2),130-136.","International Journal of Social Psychiatry,59(2), 130-136.",Social studies
"doi:10. 1 177/002076401 weine, s. m.","DOI: 10.1177 002076401 Weine, S. M.",Social studies
developing preventive mental health interventions for refugee families in resettlement.,Developing preventive mental health interventions for refugee families for resettlement.,Social studies
"family process, 50(3), 410-430.","Family Process,50(3), 410-430.",Social studies
doi:10. 1 111/j.201 1. 01366. x whitehouse.,DOI: 10.1111 j.2011.01366. x WhiteHouse.,Social studies
presidential memorandum: creating welcoming communities and fully integrating immigrants andrefugees.,Presidential memorandum: creating welcoming communities and fully integrating immigrants and refugees.,Social studies
"allimmigrants admitted, including refugees, needed tofallwithin theestablished quotas.","All immigrants admitted, including refugees, need to fall within di established quotas.",Social studies
"during world warii, thegovernment began making shifts in order to provide haven for those in need(us english foundation,2014).","During Wahala wey happen for 1939 reach 1945, wey all kontri for world join bodi, dem form two group, one dey call dem Allies, anoda one dey call dem Axis, na im be di big fight wey everybody sabi, di government begin making shifts for order to provide haven for those wey dey in need.",Social studies
"it allowed europeans to enter the u. s, establishing a quota for the number of persons fleeing persecution after world w ar ii who would be permitted to enter(us english foundation,2014).","E allow Europeans to enter U. S, establishing quota for di number of persons fleeing persecution after Wahala wey happen for 1939 reach 1945, wey all kontri for world join bodi, dem form two group, one dey call dem Allies, anoda one dey call dem Axis, na im be di big fight wey everybody sabi wey go dey permitted to enter.",Social studies
"in 1951, the office ofthe united nations high commissioner for refugees (unhcr) held the conventional relating to the status of refugees, creating the definition of refugee in t extbox 1.","For 1951, di Office of di United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) hold di Convention Relating to di Status of Refugees, creating di definition of refugee.",Social studies
it was amended later with the 1967 protocol.,E dey amended later wit di 1967 Protocol.,Social studies
the 1967 protocol was ratified by the united states in 1968.,Di 1967 Protocol dey ratified by U. S. for 1968.,Social studies
"this ratification began to move u. s. policy on refugees from individual legislative decisions about whether or not to provide refuge to a particular group, to developing a more comprehensive plan inline with the unhcr (unhcr, 2014).","Dis ratification begin to move U. S. policy on refugees from individual legislative decisions about whether or not to provide refuge to particular group, to developing more A thorough and detailed plan wey cover all parts of a situation or problem inline wit di UNHCR.",Social studies
these acts repealed the exclusionary national ethnicity quotas.,These acts repeal di exclusionary national ethnicity quotas.,Social studies
"it introduced the current process of setting refugee admittance ceilings each year(center for immigration studies,1995).",E introduce di current process of setting refugee admittance ceilings each year.,Social studies
"it also created the office of refugee resettlement and established a process of resettlement, including providing economic, medical, and social support(fix & passel, 1994).","E also create di Office of Refugee Resettlement and establish process of resettlement, including providing economic, medical and social support.",Social studies
department ofstate hasbeen both thefabricator ofpaper walls toexclude refugees andthelocus ofintense efforts tomove them quickly intotheunited states.,Di Department of State don be both di fabricator of paper walls to exclude refugees and di locus of intense efforts to move dem quickly into U. S.,Social studies
religious andsecular voluntary agencies have been lauded fortheir efforts onbehalf ofrefugees andchided forproviding inconsistent services.,Religious and secular voluntary agencies don dey lauded for their efforts on behalf of refugees and criticized for providing inconsistent services.,Social studies
"refugees themselves have been characterized astrue american success stories andcriticized asoverly dependent on public welfare. the american people, inturn, have often been impressively gener ousintheir welcome of refugees but at other times neglectful, disinter ested, and sometimes hostile.","Refugees themselves don dey characterized as true American success stories and criticized as overly dependent on public welfare. Di American pipo, in turn, don often dey impressively generous for their welcome of refugees but for other times neglectful, disinterested, and sometimes hostile.",Social studies
"david haines, in safe haven?","David Haines, for 'Safe Haven?'",Social studies
they had been onthebusfromnew yorkfortwowhole days: ithad been very hardchanging thebaby' sdiapers inthetinybusbathr oom thatwastheir only option.,Dem don dey on di bus from New York for two whole days: e don dey very hard changing di baby's diapers for di tiny bus bathroom wey na their only option.,Social studies
"though fatima hadproper passports fromtheafrican nation they hadfled, shetoldimmigration officials thatshewasactually fleeing aneighboring country, since therewascivil warraging andshethought they would bemorelikely toletherandherfamily intocanada.","Though Fatima get proper passports from di African nation dem don flee, she tell immigration officials say she na actually fleeing neighboring country, since there dey Armed fighting wey happen inside one country between different groups of its own pipo raging and she think dem go be more likely to let her and her family into Canada.",Social studies
"butsince thepassports didnotmatch herstory, united states officials confiscated alloftheir identity documents andsent herandthegirls back tonew york.","But since di passports no match her story, U. S. officials confiscate all of their identity documents and send her and di girls back to New York.",Social studies
"penniless andalone, thelittle family made their way tochicago, wher efatima had heardthey weremoregener oustorefugees likeherself.","Penniless and alone, di small family make their way to Chicago, where Fatima don hearsay dem dey more generous to refugees like herself.",Social studies
what wasshefleeing with herthreelittle girls?,Wetin she dey flee from wither three small girls?,Social studies
"theprospect of their having tounder gothesame female genital mutilation procedur ethatshehadendur edattheageof9. though their futur ewasextremely unsure, fatima knew thatshehaddone theonly thing shecould toprotect hergirls.","Di prospect of dem having to undergo di same female yansh mutilation procedure wey she don endure at di age of 9. Though their future dey extremely unsure, Fatima know say she don do di only thing she fit do to protect her girls.",Social studies
"""inmycountry they circumcise theboys inthehospital under anesthesia,"" shetoldhertherapist atthefreeclinic.","For my country dem dey circumcise di boys for hospital under anesthesia,'she tell her therapist at di free clinic.",Social studies
"""but thegirls no thegirls arecircumcised inthebush with rusty razors andnoanesthetic atall.",But di girls— no — di girls dey circumcised for di bush wit rusty razors and no anesthetic at all.',Social studies
"this iswhat thegirls get.""",Dis na wetin di girls dey get.',Social studies
forfatima therewasnoother choice forherbuttofleeandtake thegirls with her.,For Fatima there dey no other choice but to flee and take di girls wither.,Social studies
"even herhusband agreed, though hehadstayed behind intheir home country totrytokeep sending them money andsupport.","Even her husband agree, though he don stay behind for their home country to try to keep sending dem money and support.",Social studies
"andso, fatima wasalone with herchildr en inaforeign land, hoping forhelp andguidance with navigating thenew language, customs, cultur eandrealities ofthe united states.","And so, Fatima dey alone wither children for foreign land, hoping for help and guidance wit navigating di new language, customs, culture and realities of U. S.",Social studies
"background there arecurrently anestimated 263, 000 refugees and84, 300 asylum seekers residing intheunited states (unhcr; united nations high commissioner forrefugees, 2013).","Background— there dey currently estimated 263,000 refugees and 84,300 asylum seekers residing for U. S.",Social studies
these estimates arestaggering butwill continue toincrease inthesubsequent years asaresult ofongoing-armed conflict andpolitical unrest around the world.,These estimates dey staggering but go continue to increase for di subsequent years as result of ongoing armed conflict and political unrest around di world.,Social studies
"ifitwere notforthesignificant andongoing international human rights violations, thenumber ofdisplaced families both immigrants andrefugees would beconsiderably smaller. families fleetheir home countries for arange ofreasons; from escaping oppressive regimes, asisthecase insyria andiraq, toattempting tobetter their economic situations, asisthecase inmexico andmuch oflatin america.","If e no be for di significant and ongoing international human rights violations, di number of displaced families— both immigrants and refugees— go be considerably smaller. Families dey flee their home countries for range of reasons; from escaping oppressive regimes, as e dey di case for Syria and Iraq, to attempting to better their economic situations, as e dey di case for Mexico and much of Latin America.",Social studies
"theunited states, amongst other western countries, regularly sees influxes ofimmigrant andrefugee families from around theworld depending on thesociopolitical andhistorical context ofthetime.","U. S, amongst other western countries, regularly dey see influxes of immigrant and refugee families from around di world based on di sociopolitical and historical context of di time.",Social studies
"some ofthese families areintact, butthevast majority are scattered and separated around the world.","Some of these families dey intact, but di most part dey scattered and separated around di world.",Social studies
"according tothemigration policy institute (mpi, 2015), thetopfivecountries oforigin forresettlement inthe united states areiraq, burma, bhutan, somalia, andcuba.","According to di Migration Policy Institute (MPI, 2015), di top five countries of origin for resettlement for U. S. na Iraq, Burma, Bhutan, Somalia and Cuba.",Social studies
"united states president obama' srecent authorization toincrease thenumber ofsyrian refugees being re-settled from 350 to10, 000 annually will change these demographics somewhat(dos; united states department ofstate, 2014).","U. S. President Obama recent authorization to increase di number of Syrian refugees being re-settled from 350 to 10,000 annually go change these demographics somewhat.",Social studies
"thefearfollowing theparis attacks of november, 2015, however, prompted governors of31states torefuse admitting syrian refugees; although they donothave thepower control nationality laws (barajas &frazee, 2015).","Di fear following di Paris attacks of November 2015, however, prompt governors of 31 states to refuse admitting Syrian refugees; although dem no get di power to control nationality laws.",Social studies
"still, thecontroversy over admitting refugees intotheunited states from thispartoftheworld continues torage unabated inthemainstream press and online.","Still, di controversy over admitting refugees into U. S. from dis part of di world continue to rage unabated for di mainstream press and online.",Social studies
"asofjanuary 2016, thedos (2015)stated thatin2016, ""the administration remains committed toits goal of resettling atleast 10, 000 syrian refugees in the united states.""","As of January 2016, di DOS(2015) state say for 2016,'di administration remain committed to its goal of resettling atleast 10,000 Syrian refugees for U. S.'",Social studies
"wewill present thehistory andgeneral theories ofhuman rights law, aswell asexplore how various issues pertaining to thecurrent relationship between international human rights lawanddomestic sovereignty arebeing dealt within theunited states.","We go present di history and general theories of human rights law, as well as explore how various issues pertaining to di current how two things dey related international human rights law and domestic sovereignty dey being dealt wit for U. S.",Social studies
"additionally, wewillexamine how specific human rights issues impact refugee andimmigrant families intheunited states.","Additionally, we go examine how specific human rights issues dey impact refugee and immigrant families for U. S.",Social studies
what are human rights?,Wetin be human rights?,Social studies
"antonio guterres, theunited nations high commissioner forhuman rights (unhcr), wrote that the"". unhcr hasnever hadtoaddress somuch human misery inits64-year history""(project syndicate,2015).","Antonio Guterres, di United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNHCR), write say di 'UNHCR never don address so much human misery for its 64-year history'.",Social studies
this maxim guides theimportance ofunderstanding and exploring theintricacies ofhuman rights.,Dis maxim dey guide di importance of understanding and exploring di intricacies of human rights.,Social studies
"the foundational definition ofhuman rights, according totheunhcr, encompasses"". inherent rights toallhuman beings, whatever thenationality, place ofresidence, sex, national orethnic origin, color, religion, language, or anyother status.""","Di foundational definition of human rights, according to di UNHCR, dey encompass'. inherent rights to all human beings, whatever di nationality, place of residence, sex, national or ethnic origin, color, religion, language, or any other status.'",Social studies
this definition iscritical tounderstanding how andwhy theinternational community endeavors todefine andprotect these rights.,Dis definition dey critical to sabi how and why di international community dey endeavor to define and protect these rights.,Social studies
"acomplete understanding ofhuman rights includes moral values, ethical and philosophical norms such asautonomy, justice, beneficence andnon-maleficence.","A complete understanding of human rights include moral values, ethical and philosophical norms such as autonomy, justice, beneficence and non-maleficence.",Social studies
allofthese characteristics factor intothecreation ofaparticular paradigm ofrights forhuman beings thathasbeen specifically andgradually shaped into international law since the united nations was founded in 1945.,All of these characteristics dey factor into di creation of particular paradigm of rights for human beings wey don dey specifically and gradually shaped into Rules and agreements wey control how countries relate and deal with eachother since U. N. dey founded for 1945.,Social studies
"while human rights arebased onmoral values, itisimportant torecognize thatvalues arefundamentally different from rights.","While human rights dey based on moral values, e important to recognize say values dey fundamentally different from rights.",Social studies
the concept ofvalues addresses what isimportant whereas human rights address social practices thatseek toempower human beings.,Di concept of values dey address wetin dey important whereas human rights dey address social practices wey dey seek to empower human beings.,Social studies
"aright isnotmerely abenefit, since having aright also gives aperson a significant legitimacy within thesystem ofgovernmental authority. according todonnelly (2003),"". a human rights conception ofhuman dignity andpolitical legitimacy rests onthefactthathuman beings have anessential, irreducible moral worth anddignity irrespective ofthesocial groups towhich they belong""(p. 27).","A right no be merely benefit, since having right also dey give person significant legitimacy within di system of tori wey dey come from ogbonge pipul for govment, wey dem dey use am take kontrol or komand. According to Donnelly(2003), '. a human rights conception of Di special worth and value wey every human being get just by being human and political legitimacy dey rest on di fact say human beings get essential, irreducible moral worth and dignity irrespective of di social groups to which dem belong.'",Social studies
"this means thatuniversal human rights, forthepurpose ofthisdiscussion, arerights thathave been codified (i. e, incorporated into a legal code)by the international community.","Dis mean say universal human rights, for di purpose of dis discussion, na rights wey don dey codified (i. e, incorporated into legal code)by di international community.",Social studies
early version ofthe universal declaration of human rights.,Early version of di Universal Declaration of Human Rights.,Social studies
united nations photo by greg kinch public domain.,United Nations Photo by Greg Kinch —Public Domain.,Social studies
"while human rights arebased onanideal, they alsoprovide asocial means ofensuring thatnation-states grant to allhuman beings theopportunity tolead alifeofhuman dignity; alifeworthy forahuman being.","While human rights dey based on ideal, dem also dey provide social means of ensuring say nation-states dey grant to all human beings di opportunity to lead life of Di special worth and value wey every human being get just by being human; life wey dey worthy for human being.",Social studies
"thespecifics of exactly what human rights should entail have been enshrined indocuments such astheuniversal declaration of human rights (udhr, 1993), which conceptualizes theidea ofhuman rights asa""self-fulfilling moral prophecy""(donnelly,2003, p15). theudhr hasledtoseveral international treaties, such astheinternational covenant on civil andpolitical rights andtheinternational covenant oneconomic social, andcultural rights.","Di specifics of exactly wetin human rights should entail don dey enshrined for documents such as di Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR, 1993), wey dey conceptualize di idea of human rights as 'self-fulfilling moral prophecy'. Di UDHR don lead to several international treaties, such as di International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and di International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights.",Social studies
these statutes andtreaties arecreated bysocieties coming together inorder tocodify global requirements forthekind ofhuman behavior thatwillsupport thethriving ofall.,These statutes and treaties dey created by societies coming together for order to codify global requirements for di kind of human behavior wey go support di thriving of all.,Social studies
"thus thenotion ofhuman rights asasocial practice isintegral tothe process of understanding the impact on immigrant and refugee families.52 immigrant and refugee families 3. 2 the universal declaration of human rights the universal declaration of human rights inresponse tothegross human rights violations following thesecond world war, theudhr waschartered by theunited nations inanattempt toprevent such atrocities from being committed again.","Thus di notion of human rights as social practice dey integral to di process of understanding di impact on immigrant and refugee families. In response to di gross human rights violations following di Second World War, di UDHR dey chartered by di United Nations for attempt to prevent such atrocities from being committed again.",Social studies
"theudhr' spreamble states unequivocally""recognition oftheinherent dignity andoftheequal andinalienable rights ofallmembers ofthehuman family isthefoundation offreedom, justice andpeace intheworld"" (ohchr; officeofthehigh commissioner forhuman rights,1948).","Di UDHR preamble dey state unequivocally say 'recognition of di inherent dignity and of di equal and Rights wey nobody fit take from you— dem belong to you by nature of being human of all members of di human family na di foundation of freedom, justice and peace for di world'.",Social studies
"following thepreamble are30articles, which layoutindetail the specific rights towhich allhuman beings should beentitled.","Following di preamble dey 30 articles, wey dey layout for detail di specific rights to which all human beings should dey entitled.",Social studies
"according totheunhcr, there are389different translations of this document.","According to di UNHCR, there dey 389 different translations of dis document.",Social studies
"poster depicting the universal declaration of human rights, english version.","Poster depicting di Universal Declaration of Human Rights, English version.",Social studies
united nations photo public domain.,United Nations Photo— Public Domain.,Social studies
"theudhr encompasses both negative(i. e, theright tonotbetortured, imprisoned without cause, orenslaved) aswell aspositive (i. e, theright toown property, theright tofreedom ofthought, andtheright tomarry) rights.","Di UDHR dey encompass both negative(i. e, di right not to be tortured, imprisoned without cause, or enslaved)as well as positive(i. e, di right to own property, di right to freedom of thought, and di right to marry)rights.",Social studies
"italsoenumerates, forthefirsttime, thecore principles ofhuman rights, which are: universality, interdependence andindivisibility, equality andnon-discrimination.","E also enumerate, for di first time, di core principles of human rights, which dey: universality, interdependence and indivisibility, equality and non-discrimination.",Social studies
"the udhr states further thathuman rights arenotmerely anentitlement, they also include rights andobligations.","Di UDHR dey state further say human rights no be merely entitlement, dem also include rights and obligations.",Social studies
"inother words, having aright brings with itaparticular obligation aswell.","For other words, having right dey bring wit am particular obligation aswell.",Social studies
"ifwearetoenjoy ourrights ashumans, then weneed torespect these same rights for others.","If we wan enjoy our rights as humans, then we need to respect these same rights for others.",Social studies
"these concepts have been reiterated inmany subsequent international human rights treaties, declarations, andconventions.","These concepts don dey reiterated for many subsequent international human rights treaties, declarations and conventions.",Social studies
"this document (udhr), along with theinternational covenant oncivil andpolitical rights (iccpr) andtheinternational covenant oneconomic, social, andcultural rights (icescr), areconsidered to bethefoundational pillars ofinternational human rights lawandthelegal basis forallsubsequent human right norms, standards, and rules.54 immigrant and refugee families 3. 3 the status of human in the united states the status of human rights in the united states while human rights have inlargepartbeen internationalized, they have tobeimplemented atthedomestic level.","Dis document (UDHR), along wit di International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and di International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), dey considered to be di foundational pillars of international human rights law and di legal basis for all subsequent human right norms, standards and rules.",Social studies
"according todonnelly (2003), thisdichotomy permits countries tofulfill dual andseemingly incompatible roles: essential protector andprinciple violator. intheunited states, thisduality canbeseen inthedifference between the laws upon which the country was founded and the implementation of these laws in an equitable fashion.","According to Donnelly(2003), dis dichotomy dey permit countries to fulfill dual and seemingly incompatible roles: essential protector and principle violator. For U. S, dis duality fit dey seen for di difference between di laws upon which di country dey founded and di implementation of these laws for equitable fashion.",Social studies
"thebillofrights, ascodified intheunited states constitution, laysoutspecific human rights thatparallel those towhich themajority ofinternational human rights regimes adhere.","Di Bill of Rights, as codified for di U. S. Constitution, dey layout specific human rights wey dey parallel those to which di majority of international human rights regimes dey adhere.",Social studies
"thus, thefounding myths ofthiscountry are grounded inthecentral place ofhuman rights(donnelly,2003).","Thus, di founding myths of dis country dey grounded for di central place of human rights.",Social studies
"infact, many ifnotmost liberal democracies share these constitutive principles.","For fact, many if not most liberal democracies dey share these constitutive principles.",Social studies
"askoopmans (2012)points out,""internal constitutive principles such astheright toexercise one'sreligion. imply thatthegranting ofrights toindividuals andgroups willbemore similar across democracies than itwillbebetween them andnon-democracies"" (p25).","As Koopmans (2012)dey to show,'internal constitutive principles such as di right to exercise one's religion. imply say di granting of rights to individuals and groups go be more similar across democracies than e go be between demand non-democracies.'",Social studies
"and yet, there remain significant areas where united states domestic policy canbeseen toviolate various rights ofvarious portions ofthepopulation at any given time.","And yet, there remain significant areas where U. S. domestic policy fit dey seen to violate various rights of various portions of di population at any given time.",Social studies
"original bill of rights, united states.","Original Bill of Rights, U. S.",Social studies
archives. or g public domain.,Archives. org —Public Domain.,Social studies
political issues the most pressing human rights issues intheunited states revolve around immigrant andrefugee families.,Political issues— di most pressing human rights issues for U. S. dey revolve around immigrant and refugee families.,Social studies
"secretary-general ofthe united nations, ban ki-moon, meets president ofthe united states, barack obama.","Secretary-General of di United Nations, Ban Ki-moon, dey meet President of U. S, Barack Obama.",Social studies
un. or g public domain.,un. org —Public Domain.,Social studies
"the united states voted infavor oftheudhr butitdidnotratify (i. e, sign) thedocument.","U. S. vote in favor of di UDHR but e no ratify (i. e, sign) di document.",Social studies
"while various theories attempt toexplain relevant reasons, numerous rights enshrined intheudhr areintheconstitution and billofrights (ahr; advocates forhuman rights, n. d.)","While various theories dey attempt to explain relevant reasons, numerous rights enshrined for di UDHR dey for di Constitution and Bill of Rights.",Social studies
the united states' apparent sense ofexceptionalism tointernational standards andnorms hasbeen evidenced overtime intwomain ways: theongoing torture of guantanamo baydetainees andtherevelation thatamerican social scientists were involved inreverse engineering torture techniques forthegovernment.,Di U. S. apparent sense of exceptionalism to international standards and norms don dey evidenced overtime for two main ways: di ongoing torture of Guantanamo Bay detainees and di revelation say American social scientists dey involved for reverse engineering torture techniques for di government.,Social studies
"astheunchr notes,""national andlocal politicians have sought tomobilize electoral support bypromoting xenophobic sentiments, exaggerating thenegative impact ofhosting refugees while ignoring thefactthatrefugees canactually attract international assistance andinvestment toanarea, creating new jobs andtrading opportunities""(2006, p32). inthisway therefugee situation hasoften been used asapolitical football inunited states political culture.56 immigrant and refugee families legal issues thecurrent legal climate intheunited states isnegatively skewed against international human rights, particularly asitpertains tothelegal status ofdisplaced persons(persons who areforced toleave their home country due towar, persecution ornatural disasters).","As di UNHCR dey note,'national and local politicians don seek to mobilize electoral support by promoting xenophobic sentiments, exaggerating di negative impact of hosting refugees while ignoring di fact say refugees fit actually attract international assistance and investment to an area, creating new jobs and trading opportunities.'For dis way di refugee situation don often dey used as political football for U. S. political culture.",Social studies
"there aremany reasons tobepessimistic about successfully using international human rights arguments asaway ofadvancing displaced person' srights intheunited states (chilton, 2014; cole, 2006; ichr; international council onhuman rights,2008).",There dey many reasons to be pessimistic about successfully using international human rights arguments as way of advancing displaced person rights for U. S.,Social studies
"according tocole (2006), in spite ofitshistory asanation ofimmigrants, theunited states remains deeply nationalist andquite parochial; thelawreflects that parochialism.","According to Cole(2006), in spite of its history as nation of immigrants, U. S. remain deeply nationalist and quite parochial; di law dey reflect dat parochialism.",Social studies
"furthermore,""international human rights arguments areoften seen asthe advocates' last refuge pulled out only when there is no other authority to cite""(cole, 2006, p. 628).","Furthermore,'international human rights arguments often dey seen as di advocates' last refuge pulled out only wen there no dey other authority to cite.'",Social studies
"poster entitled,""it is our right to seek and enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution.""","Poster entitled,'E na our right to seek and enjoy for other countries asylum from persecution.'",Social studies
un photo public domain.,UN Photo— Public Domain.,Social studies
"however, thistrend seems tobemoving thenational towards thetransnational interms ofhow human rights law isperceived andimplemented inthelegal system andculture oftheunited states.","However, dis trend dey seem to be moving di national towards di transnational for terms of how human rights law dey perceived and implemented for di legal system and culture of U. S.",Social studies
this means thatincreased globalization andinterdependence hashadtheeffectofstrengthening theinfluence ofinternational human rights standards intheunited states.,Dis mean say increased globalization and interdependence don get di effect of strengthening di influence of international human rights standards for U. S.,Social studies
"the hope isthatthese standards may""command greater respect from ourown domestic institutions""(cole, 2006, p643).",Di hope na say these standards fit 'command greater respect from our own domestic institutions'.,Social studies
"cole further posits thattheparadigm shift intheunited states from national totransnational, merging thenational andtheinternational, parallels theshift intheunited states from state tofederal power thatoccurred with theadvent ofthenew deal inthe1930s.","Cole further dey posit say di paradigm shift for U. S. from national to transnational, merging di national and di international, dey parallel di shift for U. S. from state to federal power wey occur wit di advent of di New Deal for di 1930s.",Social studies
"inother words, there isreason tohope thatgradual change iscoming within thelegal system intheunited states with regards toitsacceptance ofthe international human rights regimes norms and standards.","For other words, there dey reason to hope say gradual change dey coming within di legal system for U. S. wit regards to its acceptance of di international human rights regimes norms and standards.",Social studies
refugee families and asylum seekers.,Refugee families and asylum seekers.,Social studies
"theterms ofrefugee andasylum seeker areoften used interchangeably, 3. 3 the status ofhuman inthe united states 57 butthere areimportant legal differences between them.","Di terms refugee and Person wey run from their country and dey wait for another country to decide if dem go protect am often dey used interchangeably, but there dey important legal differences between dem.",Social studies
"these differences notonly determine which resources they are eligible for once arriving in the united states, but also in which phase ofthe legal process they are currently.","These differences no only determine which resources dem dey eligible for once dem arrive for U. S, but also for which phase of di legal process dem currently dey.",Social studies
"refugees and displaced persons in south-east asia; cambodia, vietnam, and laos.","Refugees and displaced persons for South-East Asia; Cambodia, Vietnam, and Laos.",Social studies
united nations photo coping with disaster cc by-nc-nd 2. 0.,United Nations Photo— Coping with Disaster CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.,Social studies
"anestimated 51. 2 million people were displaced since 2013 asadirect result ofpersecution, war, violence, andhuman rights atrocities (unhcr, 2013).","An estimated 51.2 million pipo dey displaced since 2013 as direct result of persecution, war, violence and human rights atrocities.",Social studies
"in2013, theunited states department ofjustice (doj,2014) received 36, 674 asylum applications butonly approved 9, 993.","For 2013, di U. S. Department of Justice receive 36,674 asylum applications but only approve 9,993.",Social studies
"theremaining applications were abandoned(1, 439), withdrawn (6, 400), orsimply unaccounted for(11, 391).","Di remaining applications dey throw away (1,439), withdrawn (6,400), or simply unaccounted for (11,391).",Social studies
"being thattherecent united states population estimate is318million people, refugees make uplessthan 1%ofthepopulation.","Being say di recent U. S. population estimate na 318 million pipo, refugees makeup less than 1%of di population.",Social studies
the families seeking asylum from their home countries often have significant traumatic histories andthus canloom largerinthepublic sphere than other types ofimmigrants.,Di families seeking asylum from their home countries often get significant traumatic histories and thus fit loom larger for di public sphere than other types of immigrants.,Social studies
"most ofthese families arefleeing extreme injustices intheir home country, such as war, political instability, genocide andsevere oppression.","Most of these families dey flee extreme injustices for their home country, such as war, political instability, genocide and severe oppression.",Social studies
"because oftheuncertainty oftheir original situation, it remains quite difficult forthedepartment ofhomeland security(dhs) todetermine who islegitimately eligible for asylum.","Because of di uncertainty of their original situation, e remain quite difficult for di Department of Homeland Security(DHS) to determine who dey legitimately eligible for asylum.",Social studies
afurther complication forgovernment agencies liesintrying todetermine when andhow to return rejected asylum seekers totheir home countries (koser 2007).,A further complication for government agencies dey for trying to determine wen and how to return rejected asylum seekers to their home countries.,Social studies
within thedomain ofinternational migration studies there hasbeen traditionally adifferentiation made between refugees(involuntary migration) andlabor seekers(voluntary migration).,Within di domain of international migration studies there don traditionally dey differentiation made between refugees(involuntary migration)and labor seekers(When person choose to move to another country on their own— not forced).,Social studies
"while theformer group represents thepolitical outcome ofglobal systems and interactions andthelatter group represents theeconomic outcome, nonetheless, itisquite clear thatpeople migrate forawhole complex series ofreasons, including social ones (koser,2007).","While di former group dey represent di political outcome of global systems and interactions and di latter group dey represent di economic outcome, nonetheless, e dey quite clear say pipo dey migrate for whole complex series of reasons, including social ones.",Social studies
"ifanasylum-seeker 'sclaim forasylum isdenied, they areplaced indeportation proceedings.","If asylum-seeker's claim for asylum dey denied, dem dey placed for Di official legal process to decide whether to send person out of a country.",Social studies
"during thisprocess, animmigration judge (ij)works with theasylum-seekers' attorney todetermine theremoval process.","During dis process, Government official wey dey court to decide immigration cases (IJ) dey work wit di asylum-seekers' attorney to determine di removal process.",Social studies
"itisimportant tonote thatdisplaced persons are rarely detained and/or immediately placed on the next flight to their country of origin.58 immigrant and refugee families women and children's rights the unhcr has, within thelastdecade, specifically recognized gender asafundamental human rights issue.","E important to note say displaced persons rarely dey detained and or immediately placed on di next flight to their Di country where person was born or originally come from. Women and children's rights— di UNHCR don, within di last decade, specifically recognize gender as fundamental human rights issue.",Social studies
"the policy onrefugee women isbased ontherecognition that becoming arefugee affects men andwomen differently:"". even where there isnoarmed conflict, women andchildren continue tobesubject toserious human rights violations resulting from discrimination and/orviolence against them duetotheir gender."" (zeiss stange, oyster,&sloan, 2012).","Di policy on refugee women dey based on di recognition say becoming refugee dey affect men and women differently:'. even where there no dey armed conflict, women and children continue to be subject to serious human rights violations resulting from discrimination and or violence against dem due to their gender.'",Social studies
many ofthehuman rights issues thatinvolve women andchildren obviously impact families inavery deep way.,Many of di human rights issues wey dey involve women and children obviously dey impact families for very deep way.,Social studies
"this category ofviolation stems from historical perceptions ofwomen and children as property or ""chattel.""",Dis category of violation dey stem from historical perceptions of women and children as property or 'chattel'.,Social studies
international women' s day march for gender equality and women' s rights.,International Women's Day march for gender equality and women's rights.,Social studies
"theissue ofdomestic violence, forexample, isonethatdisproportionately affects women and children.","Di issue of Violence and abuse wey happen between pipo wey live together or are intimate partners, for example, na one wey disproportionately dey affect women and children.",Social studies
"inimmigrant families from more patriarchal societies, thehome isstillconsidered thewoman' sdomain whereas earning isconsidered theman' s, even when both work forpayoutside thehome.","For immigrant families from more patriarchal societies, di home dey still considered di woman's domain whereas earning dey considered di man's, even wen both dey work for pay outside di home.",Social studies
"this particular division oflabor canincrease thepower imbalance inthese relationships, which cancreate asetting within which domestic violence may bemore likely tooccur (perilla, 1999).","Dis particular division of labor fit increase di power imbalance for these relationships, which fit create setting within which Violence and abuse wey happen between pipo wey live together or are intimate partners fit be more likely to occur.",Social studies
this imbalance canbecome particularly problematic when thepower hierarchy between parents andchildren isinverted once they arrive totheunited states.,Dis imbalance fit become particularly problematic wen di power hierarchy between parents and children dey inverted once dem arrive to U. S.,Social studies
"since wageearning immigrant women often gain autonomy andgreater gender equity, while men tend tolose ground, this adds further threats tomale self-esteem thatisalready being eroded byclassism, racism andlegal status (mahler & pessar,2006).","Since wage-earning immigrant women often dey gain autonomy and greater Fair treatment of men and women— recognising their different needs and giving equal respect, while men tend to lose ground, dis dey add further threats to male self-esteem wey already dey eroded by classism, racism and legal status.",Social studies
children aredisproportionately impacted inother ways aswell.,Children dey disproportionately impacted for other ways aswell.,Social studies
"children ofdisplaced families, asylum-seekers inparticular, aremore likely tobewithout health insurance and have less access topublic programs across nationalities (blewett, johnson,&mach, 2010).","Children of displaced families, asylum-seekers especially, dey more likely to be without Agreement wey pay for person's medical bills and healthcare costs and get less access to public programs across nationalities.",Social studies
"this isduetotheir legal designation ofbeing persons who areineligible forpublic services(i. e, health insurance).","Dis dey due to their An official category or label wey law assign to a person or situation of being persons wey dey ineligible for public services(i. e, Agreement wey pay for person's medical bills and healthcare costs).",Social studies
theliterature suggests thattraumatic events impact each family member regardless ofwhether they were directly orindirectly exposed.,Di literature dey suggest say traumatic events dey impact each family member regardless of whether dem dey directly or indirectly exposed.,Social studies
"this isimportant because traumatic stress, lossandgrief extend beyond individual family members andinfluence theentire family3. 3 the status ofhuman inthe united states 59 (nickerson, bryant, brooks, silove, steel,&chen, 2011). detention anddeportation inparticular pullfamilies apart andmake itmuch more difficult forparents andother caregivers toaccess necessary resources fortheir children.","Dis dey important because Mental and emotional pain wey person get after going through terrible experience, loss and grief dey extend beyond individual family members and dey influence di entire family. Detention and deportation for particular dey pull families apart and dey make am much more difficult for parents and other caregivers to access necessary resources for their children.",Social studies
"this istrueformany immigrant families because there aremany different legal statuses within families dueto, forexample, children being born toundocumented parents intheunited states.","Dis dey true for many immigrant families because there dey many different legal statuses within families due to, for example, children being born to undocumented parents for U. S.",Social studies
thus thetendency isfor these families tobemore careful andanxious about seeking outservices thatthey might qualify forbecause ofthe fear of being reported to immigration authorities.,Thus di tendency na for these families to be more careful and anxious about seeking out services wey dem fit qualify for because of di fear of being reported to immigration authorities.,Social studies
female genital mutilation.,Female yansh mutilation.,Social studies
"female genital mutilation (fgm), also known asfemale genital cutting, isahuman rights issue ofgrowing importance duetotheincreasing number ofrefugees arriving intheunited states from east andwestafrica.","Female yansh mutilation (FGM), also known as female yansh cutting, na human rights issue of growing importance due to di increasing number of refugees arriving for U. S. from East and West Africa.",Social studies
"this practice, sometimes also known asfemale circumcision, isalong-standing cultural tradition insome communities.","Dis practice, sometimes also known as female circumcision, na long-standing cultural tradition for some communities.",Social studies
"although fgm isgenerally practiced inmuslim communities, there isnoactual religious mandate forit(cook, dickens, &fathalla, 2002).","Although FGM dey generally practiced for Muslim communities, there no dey actual religious mandate for am.",Social studies
"while thepractice isdeeply cultural, itisillegal in many african nations.","While di practice dey deeply cultural, e dey illegal for many African nations.",Social studies
"however, regardless oflegality, thepractice iswidespread.","However, regardless of legality, di practice dey widespread.",Social studies
"fatima, forexample, from the opening story, told thefirst author,""the president' sdaughter hasbeen circumcised how will heenforce this law?","Fatima, for example, from di opening story, tell di first author,'Di president's daughter don dey circumcised —how he go enforce dis law?'",Social studies
are they going to put him in jail?,Dem go put am for jail?',Social studies
"personal communication,201 1).","Personal communication,2011.",Social studies
angelique kidio and concer sponsors brief on efforts to end fgm.,Angelique Kidio and CONCER sponsors brief on efforts to end FGM.,Social studies
"according tomather and feldman-jacobs(2015), over 500, 000 girls and women have undergone genital mutilation intheunited states.","According to Mather and Feldman-Jacobs(2015), over 500,000 girls and women don undergo yansh mutilation for U. S.",Social studies
fgm isregarded asahuman rights issue forwomen because itcancause severe health sequelae.,FGM dey regarded as human rights issue for women because e fit cause severe health sequelae.,Social studies
"even though thefamily ofthechild may consent totheprocedure, thisdoes notmake italegal practice asconsenting toaphysical mutilation cannever belegal (cook, etal.","Even though di family of di child fit consent to di procedure, dis no make am legal practice as consenting to physical mutilation no fit ever be legal.",Social studies
"this practice remains illegal intheunited states, which may have theeffectofpushing those refugees wishing topractice thiseven further underground.","Dis practice remain illegal for U. S, which fit get di effect of pushing those refugees wey wish to practice dis even further underground.",Social studies
"inother words, shame andstigma often accompany fgm.","For other words, shame and stigma often dey accompany FGM.",Social studies
"and though itcanbepresented asaconvincing claim forasylum intheunited states, many women donot feelcomfortable doing soandinstead pursue other means (uscis; united states citizenship andimmigration services,2015).","And though e fit dey presented as convincing claim for asylum for U. S, many women no dey feel comfortable doing so and instead dey pursue other means.",Social studies
"in2012, theunited nations issued aninteragency resolution calling fortheelimination offgm worldwide.","For 2012, di United Nations issue interagency resolution calling for di elimination of FGM worldwide.",Social studies
"theresolution states unequivocally that""seen from ahuman rights perspective, thepractice reflects deep-rooted inequality between thesexes, andconstitutes anextreme form ofdiscrimination against women""(who; world health organization, n. d.).","Di resolution dey state unequivocally say 'seen from human rights perspective, di practice dey reflect deep-rooted inequality between di sexes, and dey constitute extreme form of discrimination against women'.",Social studies
the hope isthatthisbanwill speed theprocess ofeliminating thisdangerous and painful practice worldwide.,Di hope na say dis ban go speed di process of eliminating dis dangerous and painful practice worldwide.,Social studies
"sex trafficking and human trafficking the united nations protocol toprevent, suppress, andpunish trafficking inpersons, especially women and children, defines trafficking asthe"". recruitment, transfer, harboring orreceipt ofpersons, byanymeans of threat orforce. for thepurpose ofexploitation.""","Forcing pipo, especially women and children, into prostitution against their will and human trafficking— di United Nations protocol to prevent, suppress and punish trafficking for persons, especially women and children, dey define trafficking as di'. recruitment, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons, by any means of threat or force. for di purpose of exploitation.'",Social studies
this crime isglobally categorized aseither sextrafficking or labor trafficking.,"Dis crime dey globally categorized as either Forcing pipo, especially women and children, into prostitution against their will or labor trafficking.",Social studies
"according tothedoj (2006), there have been anestimated 100, 000 to150, 000 sextrafficking victims intheunited states since 2001.","According to di DOJ(2006), there don dey estimated 100,000 to 150,000 Forcing pipo, especially women and children, into prostitution against their will victims for U. S. since 2001.",Social studies
"furthermore, estimates ofpersons currently insituations offorced labor or sexual servitude in the united states range from 40, 000 to 50, 000.","Furthermore, estimates of persons currently for situations of forced labor or sexual servitude for U. S. dey range from 40,000 to 50,000.",Social studies
"theleading countries oforigin forforeign victims infiscal year(fy) 2011were mexico, philippines, thailand, guatemala, honduras, andindia (doj,2012).","Di leading countries of origin for foreign victims for fiscal year(FY) 2011 na Mexico, Philippines, Thailand, Guatemala, Honduras and India.",Social studies
"in2011,""notable prosecutions included those ofsexandlabor traffickers who used threats ofdeportation, violence, andsexual abuse tocompel young, undocumented central american women andgirls intohostess jobs andforced prostitution inbars andnightclubs onlong island, new york""(dos, 2012).","For 2011,'notable prosecutions include those of sex and labor traffickers wey use threats of deportation, violence and yamayama wey doctor dey do patient wey no sabi or no gree, wey be say doctor dey use im power take advantage of patient to compel young, undocumented Central American women and girls into hostess jobs and forced prostitution for bars and nightclubs for Long Island, New York.'",Social studies
"according totheinternational labor organization (ilo, 2016), globally anestimated 4. 5 million women, men, andchildren aresexually exploited.","According to di International Labor Organization (ILO, 2016), globally estimated 4.5 million women, men and children dey sexually exploited.",Social studies
while there issome legal benefit (aself-petitioned visa intheunited states) inplace forthose who cooperate inprosecuting their traffickers; with thisvisa victims can receive four years oflegal status.,While there dey some legal benefit(self-petitioned visa for U. S.)for those wey dey cooperate for prosecuting their traffickers; wit dis visa victims fit receive four years of legal status.,Social studies
"unfortunately, farfewer receive immigration aidthan areidentified asvictims of sex trafficking, (dos,2012).","Unfortunately, far fewer dey receive immigration aid than dey identified as victims of Forcing pipo, especially women and children, into prostitution against their will.",Social studies
human trafficking isanother area where issues ofphysical safety andsexual exploitation ofimmigrant and refugee women andchildren come totheforefront asahuman rights issue.,Human trafficking na another area where issues of physical safety and sexual exploitation of immigrant and refugee women and children dey come to di forefront as human rights issue.,Social studies
"contrary topopular thought, sex trafficking isanongoing andinsidious activity thatalso includes young boys, andtheprevalence ofhuman and sextrafficking intheunited states disproportionately affects themore vulnerable, under -resourced populations such as immigrant and refugee families(dos, 2012).","Contrary to popular thought, Forcing pipo, especially women and children, into prostitution against their will na ongoing and insidious activity wey also include young boys, and di prevalence of human and Forcing pipo, especially women and children, into prostitution against their will for U. S. disproportionately dey affect di more vulnerable, under-resourced populations such as immigrant and refugee families.",Social studies
"mixed status(deportation) and separation of families one ofthemost pressing human rights issues fordisplaced persons intheunited states today isthemixed-status families(i. e, documented andundocumented).","Mixed status(deportation) and separation of families— one of di most pressing human rights issues for displaced persons for U. S. today na di mixed-status families(i. e, documented and undocumented).",Social studies
"these arefamilies whose members hold different levels oflegal status inthecountry. some members ofthefamily may bedocumented persons(such asasylum-seeker, permanent resident orcitizen) while others have undocumented status.","These na families whose members hold different groups of legal status for di country. Some members of di family fit be documented persons(such as asylum-seeker, Person from another country wey get legal right to stay permanently but no be citizen yet or citizen)while others get undocumented status.",Social studies
"though thechildren born toundocumented migrants3. 3 the status ofhuman inthe united states 61 typically receive citizenship bybirth, thisdoes notchange their parents' legal status.","Though di children born to undocumented migrants typically receive citizenship by birth, dis no change their parents' legal status.",Social studies
"the exception, however, iswhen undocumented parents return totheir country oforigin andwait until thatchild is18years ofage; at thatpoint theyoung adult child cansponsor them inbecoming united states citizens.","Di exception, however, na wen undocumented parents return to their Di country where person was born or originally come from and wait until dat child reach 18 years of age; at dat point di young adult child fit sponsor dem to become U. S. citizens.",Social studies
"when families consist of members whose legal status isdocumented aswell asundocumented, thisuncertain distal context cansetthestage for significant vulnerabilities within the family.","Wen families consist of members whose legal status na documented aswell as undocumented, dis uncertain distal context fit set di stage for significant vulnerabilities within di family.",Social studies
"brabeck and xu(2010), who studied oftheeffects ofdetention and deportation onchildren oflatino/ a immigrants, found that thelegal vulnerability oflatino/ aparents, asmeasured byimmigration status and detention anddeportation experience, predicted child well-being.","Brabeck and Xu(2010), wey study di effects of detention and deportation on children of Latino a immigrants, find say di legal vulnerability of Latino a parents, as measured by Person's legal classification— whether dem have permission to bein a country and under what conditions and detention and deportation experience, predict child well-being.",Social studies
"inother words, thechildren sufferwhen they cannot besure whether their parents willbeable tostayandlivewith them inunited states onaday-to-day basis.","For other words, di children dey suffer wen dem no fit be sure whether their parents go be able to stay and live wit dem for U. S. on day-to-day basis.",Social studies
"kanstroom (2010)writes thatalthough ""international lawrecognizes thepower ofthestate todeport noncitizens, international human rights lawhasalso long recognized theimportance ofprocedural regularity, family unity, andproportionality. when such norms areviolated thestate may well beobligated toprovide aremedy"" (p.222).","Kanstroom (2010)write say although 'Rules and agreements wey control how countries relate and deal with eachother dey recognize di power of di state to deport non-citizens, international human rights law don also long recognize di importance of procedural regularity, family unity and proportionality. Wen such norms dey violated di state fit well dey obligated to provide remedy'.",Social studies
once again theparadox ofinternational human rights norms conflicting with theactual social andpolitical practices ofthe united states; as of this writing the issue remains a political football in the united states.,one more time di paradox of international human rights norms conflicting wit di actual social and political practices of U. S.; as of dis writing di issue remain political football for U. S.,Social studies
"detention without trial in2011, united states congress passed thenational defense authorization act(ndaa) thatcodified, forthe first time since themccarthy era, indefinite detention without chargeortrial.","Detention without trial— for 2011, U. S. Congress pass di National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) wey codify, for di first time since di McCarthy era, Keeping person locked up for unlimited time without giving dem a court trial without charge or trial.",Social studies
subjecting refugees todetention induces unnecessary psychological fearandharm.,Subjecting refugees to detention dey induce unnecessary psychological fear and harm.,Social studies
"furthermore, itdoes notuphold thefundamental human rights principles setoutintheiccpr preamble (prasow,2012).","Furthermore, e no dey uphold di fundamental human rights principles set out for di ICCPR preamble.",Social studies
"thenotion thatpeople, whether citizens, documented orundocumented immigrants, could beheld bythegovernment indefinitely without access totheprotections enshrined intheunited states constitution isaclear violation ofinternational human rights lawandanathema tohuman rights andcivil liberties groups.","Di notion say pipo, whether citizens, documented or undocumented immigrants, fit dey held by di government indefinitely without access to di protections enshrined for di U. S. Constitution na clear violation of international human rights law and anathema to human rights and Di basic freedoms and rights wey law protect every person from government interference groups.",Social studies
"asoflate2012, members ofcongress proposed tohave itrepealed oramended.","As of late 2012, members of Congress propose to have am repealed or amended.",Social studies
"asnoted bysenator dianne feinstein ofcalifornia, ""just think ofit.","As Senator Dianne Feinstein of California note,'Just think of am.'",Social studies
"ifsomeone isofthewrong race andthey areinaplace where there isaterrorist attack, they could bepicked up, they could beheld without chargeortrialformonth after month, year after year.","If someone na di wrong race and dem dey for place where there dey terrorist attack, dem fit pick dem up, dem fit hold dem without charge or trial for month after month, year after year.'",Social studies
"that iswrong"" (prasow,2012).",Dat one dey wrong.',Social studies
"theamendment thatsenator feinstein proposed, however, would protect only citizens andlawful residents; undocumented immigrants would still be subject to this odious practice.62 immigrant and refugee families 3. 4 emerging directions emerging directions while there isalack ofhuman rights literature that specifically deals with orinvolves thefamily unit, the united nations recognizes that"". family isthebasic unitofsociety"" (un, n. d.).","Di amendment wey Senator Feinstein propose, however, go protect only citizens and lawful residents; undocumented immigrants go still be subject to dis odious practice. Emerging directions— while there dey lack of human rights literature wey specifically dey deal wit or involve di family unit, di United Nations dey recognize say'. family na di basic unit of society'.",Social studies
"assuch, there isanundeniable connection between thestatus ofimmigrant andrefugee families andhow theunited states deals with their human rights inavariety ofways.","because of dat, there dey undeniable connection between di status of immigrant and refugee families and how U. S. dey deal wit their human rights for variety of ways.",Social studies
"issues such asfgm, deportation ofundocumented immigrants thatsplits thefamily between those with andwithout citizenship ordocuments, longtime detention offamily members, sextrafficking, andother pressing human rights issues allhave significant deleterious effects onfamilies inthiscountry. while much oftheconversation revolves around rights andobligations fortheindividual aswell asforthecommunity, there is very little in the way of specific family references in the human rights literature.","Issues such as FGM, deportation of undocumented immigrants wey dey split di family between those wit and without citizenship or documents, long-time detention of family members, Forcing pipo, especially women and children, into prostitution against their will and other pressing human rights issues all get significant deleterious effects on families for dis country. While much of di conversation dey revolve around rights and obligations for di individual aswell as for di community, there dey very little for di way of specific family references for di human rights literature.",Social studies
"given thattheudhr focuses onindividual andstate actors, itisunderstandable thatthere isthisgapinthe research regarding how human rights issues specifically affectfamilies.","Given say di UDHR dey focus on individual and state actors, e dey understandable say there dey dis gap for di research regarding how human rights issues specifically dey affect families.",Social studies
"however, there needs tobeasignificantly deeper understanding ofthese issues ifwearetobeable totruly support immigrant andrefugee families tothrive andflourish intheunited states.","However, there dey need to be significantly deeper understanding of these issues if we go be able to truly support immigrant and refugee families to thrive and flourish for U. S.",Social studies
some questions thatneed tobeanswered are: how dofamilies have aunique lens ontheir situations?,Some questions wey need to dey answered na: how families get unique lens on their situations?,Social studies
does thefamily structur eprovide aprotective factor foritsmembers?,Does di family structure provide Something wey reduce the risk of bad things happening— it protect person from harm for its members?,Social studies
how dowomen' s andchildr en'sissues play outinthisarena?,How women's and children's issues dey play out for dis arena?,Social studies
perhaps themost pressing need forfurther research concerns the issue ofhow mixed-status immigrant families cope with theuncertainty regarding living with different levels of documentation and legal status within the same family.,Perhaps di most pressing need for further research dey concern di issue of how mixed-status immigrant families dey cope wit di uncertainty regarding living wit different groups of documentation and legal status within di same family.,Social studies
herapparent crime was thatsome months before shehadledamarch forwomen' srights atthecollege sheattended.,Her apparent crime na say some months before she don lead march for women's rights at di college she attend.,Social studies
"members of theguerilla group broke upthemarch andthen beat theyoung women andmen, many ofwhom need hospitalization.","Members of di guerilla group breakup di march and then beat di young women and men, many of whom need hospitalization.",Social studies
anna wasamong them andwashospitalized forfivedays oftreatment.,Anna dey among demand dey hospitalized for five days of treatment.,Social studies
"several months later, three members ofthisgroup surprised anna athome; they terrorized, raped, andthreatened hernumerous times with death before eventually leaving with further threats if she dared to protest publicly again for women.","Several months later, three members of dis group surprise Anna at home; dem terrorize, rape and threaten her numerous times wit death before eventually leaving wit further threats if she dare to protest publicly again for women.",Social studies
"after thislastincident, anna fledherhome country andcame totheunited states through acircuitous route.","After dis last incident, Anna flee her home country and come to U. S. through circuitous route.",Social studies
"shehadno option buttousesmugglers formuch ofthejourney. shehadhadtoleave soabruptly andhadsofewresources thatshe leftherthree-year oldsonbehind with hergrandmother. grandmother sends anna pictures ofherlittle boyregularly via textmessage, butanna isdevastated everytime shethinks ofhim.","She get no option but to use smugglers for much of di journey. She don have to leave so abruptly and get so few resources say she leave her three-year-old son behind wither grandmother. Grandmother dey send Anna pictures of her small boy regularly via text message, but Anna dey devastated everytime she think of him.",Social studies
"inorder togetthrough herday, shetries toputhim outofhermind.","For order to get through her day, she dey try to put am out of her mind.",Social studies
itisclear thatthiseffortandthelossthatshefeels forhersonisserious.,E dey clear say dis effort and di loss wey she dey feel for her son na serious.,Social studies
"sheiscurrently seeking asylum inthiscountry and, because sheneeds tosupport herself though shehasnodocuments yet, isworking asanightclub dancer. shedoes notfeelhopeful about herasylum application because sheisworried thatnoonewillbelieve herstory.","She dey currently seeking asylum for dis country and, because she need to support herself though she no get documents yet, she dey working as nightclub dancer. She no dey feel hopeful about her Official request wey person make to government asking for protection from danger in their country because she dey worried say noone go believe her story.",Social studies
"furthermore, shedespairs over ever being able tobring heryoung sontotheunited states since shefears thatthey will jail him at the border.","Furthermore, she dey despair over ever being able to bring her young son to U. S. since she dey fear say dem go jail am at di border.",Social studies
discussion questions 1. what sort of information do you need that would help you understand anna' s case better?,Discussion questions— 1. Wetin sort of information you need wey go help you understand Anna's case better?,Social studies
how might professionals working with immigrant and refugee populations emphasize positive adaptive skills/resilience that focus on individual and family strengths?,How professionals wey dey work wit immigrant and refugee populations fit emphasize positive adaptive skills resilience wey dey focus on individual and family strengths?,Social studies
"human rights and the u. s. retrieved from www. theadvocatesforhumanrights. org/human rights and the united states barajas, j.&frazee, g.(2015).","Human rights and U. S.— retrieved from theadvocatesforhumanrights. org human rights and the united states Barajas, J. & Frazee, G.(2015).",Social studies
which states aresaying notosyrian refugees?,Which states dey say no to Syrian refugees?,Social studies
immigrant children's access to healthcare: differences byglobal region ofbirth.,Immigrant children's access to healthcare: differences by global region of birth.,Social studies
"journal ofhealth careforthepoor and underserved, 21(2),13-31.","Journal of HealthCare for the Poor and Underserved, 21(2),13-31.",Social studies
"doi:10. 1353/hpu. 0. 0315 brabeck, k.&xu, q.(2010).","DOI: 10.1353 hpu.0.0315 Brabeck, K. &Xu, Q.(2010).",Social studies
the impact ofdetention and deportation onlatino immigrant children and families: aquantitative exploration.,Di impact of detention and deportation on Latino immigrant children and families: quantitative exploration.,Social studies
"hispanic journal ofbehavioral sciences,32(3), 341-361.","Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences,32(3), 341-361.",Social studies
"doi:10. 1 177/ 0739986310374053 chilton, a. s.(2014).","DOI: 10.1177 0739986310374053 Chilton, A. S.(2014).",Social studies
influence of international human rights agreements on public opinion.,Influence of international human rights agreements on public opinion.,Social studies
"the chicago journal of international law, 15(1),1 10-137.","Di Chicago Journal of Rules and agreements wey control how countries relate and deal with eachother, 15(1),110-137.",Social studies
the idea ofhumanity: human rights andimmigrants' rights.,Di idea of humanity: human rights and immigrants' rights.,Social studies
"columbia human rights law review, 37(3), 627-658.","Columbia Human Rights Law Review,37(3), 627-658.",Social studies
"cook, r. j, dickens, b. m,& fathalla, m. f.","Cook, R. J, Dickens, B. M,& Fathalla, M. F.",Social studies
female genital cutting(mutilation/ circumcision): ethical and legal dimensions.,Female yansh cutting(mutilation circumcision): ethical and legal dimensions.,Social studies
"international journal ofofgynecology &obstetrics,79(3), 281-287.","International Journal of Gynecology &Obstetrics, 79(3),281-287.",Social studies
"doi:10. 1016/s0020-7292(02)00277-1 donnelly, j.","DOI: 10.1016 s0020-7292(02)00277-1 Donnelly, J.",Social studies
universal human rights in theory and practice(2nd ed.).,Universal human rights for theory and practice(2nd ed.).,Social studies
"ithaca, ny: cornell university press.","Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.",Social studies
international council onhuman rights.,International Council on Human Rights.,Social studies
climate change and human rights: arough guide.,"klimet chenj, wey be say di earth dey hot pass before, sake of say human activities like dey burn fossil fuel dey release bad tins for air, wey dey cause di earth temperature to rise, wey dey give us wahala like flood, drought, and oda environmental problems and human rights: rough guide.",Social studies
retrieved from www. ohchr. org/documents/issues/climatechange/submissions/136 report. pdf international labor organization.,Retrieved from ohchr. org documents issues climatechange submissions 136 report. pdf International Labor Organization.,Social studies
statistics and indicators onforced labor and sextrafficking.,"Statistics and indicators on forced labor and Forcing pipo, especially women and children, into prostitution against their will.",Social studies
"deportation nation: outsiders in american history. cambridge, ma: harvard university press.","Deportation Nation: Outsiders for American History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.",Social studies
"koopmans, r.(2012).","Koopmans, R.(2012).",Social studies
the post-naturalization of immigrant rights: a theory in search of evidence.,Di post-naturalization of immigrant rights: theory for search of evidence.,Social studies
"the british journal of sociology, 63(1),22-30.","Di British Journal of Sociology,63(1), 22-30.",Social studies
"doi:10. 1 111/j.201 1. 01401. x koser, k.(2007).","DOI: 10.1111 j.2011.01401. x Koser, K.(2007).",Social studies
"refugees, transnationalism andthestate.","Refugees, transnationalism and di state.",Social studies
"journal ofethnic and migration studies,33(2), 233-254.","Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies,33(2), 233-254.",Social studies
"doi:10. 1080/ 154195 mahler, s. j.&pessar, p. r.(2006).","DOI: 10.1080 154195 Mahler, S. J. & Pessar, P. R.(2006).",Social studies
gender matters: ethnographers bring gender from theperiphery toward the core of migration studies.,Gender matters: ethnographers bring gender from di periphery towards di core of migration studies.,Social studies
"international migration review, 40(1),27-63.","International Migration Review,40(1), 27-63.",Social studies
"doi:10. 1 111/j.2006. 00002. x mather, m.&feldman-jacobs, c.(2015).","DOI: 10.1111 j.2006.00002. x Mather, M. &Feldman-Jacobs, C.(2015).",Social studies
women andgirls atriskoffemale genital mutilation/cutting inthe united states.,Women and girls at risk of female yansh mutilation cutting for U. S.,Social studies
population reference bureau.,Population Reference Bureau.,Social studies
retrieved from www. prb. or g/publications/articles/2015/us-fgmc. aspx migration policy institute.,Retrieved from prb. org publications articles 2015 us-fgmc. aspx Migration Policy Institute.,Social studies
refugees and asylees inthe united states.,Refugees and asylees for U. S.,Social studies
"retrieved from www. migrationpolicy. org/article/refugees-and-asylees-united-states nickerson, a, bryant, r. a, brooks, r, steel, z, silove, d,&chen, j.","Retrieved from migrationpolicy. org article refugees-and-asylees-united-states Nickerson, A, Bryant, R. A, Brooks, R, Steel, Z, Silove, D,& Chen, J.",Social studies
(2011). the familial influence of lossandtrauma onrefugee mental health: amultilevel path analysis.,(2011). Di familial influence of loss and trauma on refugee mental health: multilevel path analysis.,Social studies
"journal oftraumatic stress,24(1), 2533.","Journal of Mental and emotional pain wey person get after going through terrible experience,24(1), 25-33.",Social studies
doi:10. 1002/jts. 20608 officeofthehigh commissioner forhuman rights.,DOI: 10.1002 jts.20608 Office of di High Commissioner for Human Rights.,Social studies
theuniversal declaration ofhuman rights.,Di Universal Declaration of Human Rights.,Social studies
"retrieved from www. ohchr. org/en/udhr/documents/udhr translations/eng. pdf perilla, j. l.(1999).","Retrieved from ohchr. org en udhr documents udhr translations eng. pdf Perilla, J. L.(1999).",Social studies
domestic violence asahuman rights issue: thecase ofimmigrant latinos.,Violence and abuse wey happen between pipo wey live together or are intimate partners as human rights issue: di case of immigrant Latinos.,Social studies
"hispanic journal of behavioral sciences,21 (2),107-133.","Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences,21(2), 107-133.",Social studies
"doi:10. 1 177/0739986399212001 prasow, a.","DOI: 10.1177 0739986399212001 Prasow, A.",Social studies
"(2012, november 29).","(2012, November 29).",Social studies
"indefinite detention isalready bad, don'tadddiscrimination.","Keeping person locked up for unlimited time without giving dem a court trial already dey bad, no add discrimination.",Social studies
retrieved from www project syndicate.,Retrieved from Project Syndicate.,Social studies
"(2015, january 22).","(2015, January 22).",Social studies
project syndicate: theworld'sopinion page.,Project Syndicate: di world's opinion page.,Social studies
the state oftheworld' srefugees 2006: human displacement in the new millennium.,Di state of di world's refugees 2006: human displacement for di new millennium.,Social studies
retrieved from. unhrc. or g/4a4dc1a89. html.,Retrieved from unhrc. org 4a4dc1a89. html.,Social studies
united nations high commissioner for refugees.,United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.,Social studies
war's human cost: unhcr global trends 2013.,War's human cost: UNHCR Global Trends 2013.,Social studies
retrieved from www. unhcr. org/5399a14f9. html united nations high commissioner forrefugees.,Retrieved from unhcr. org 5399a14f9. html United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.,Social studies
world atwar: unhcr global trends forced displacement in 2014.,World at War: UNHCR Global Trends Forced Displacement for 2014.,Social studies
retrieved from www. unhcr. org/556525e. html united nations.,Retrieved from unhcr. org 556525e. html United Nations.,Social studies
universal declaration ofhuman rights.,Universal Declaration of Human Rights.,Social studies
retrieved from:. un. or g/en/universaldeclaration-human-rights/.,Retrieved from: un. org en universal-declaration-human-rights.,Social studies
family. retrieved from www. un. or g/en/globalissues/family/ united nations.,Family. Retrieved from un. org en globalissues family United Nations.,Social studies
protect human rights.,Protect human rights.,Social studies
lesson plan overview: female asylum applicants andgender -related claims.,Lesson plan overview: female asylum applicants and gender-related claims.,Social studies
asylum officer basic training.,Asylum officer basic training.,Social studies
proposed refugee admissions forfiscal year 2014: report tothe congress.,Proposed refugee admissions for fiscal year 2014: report to di Congress.,Social studies
retrieved from www. state. gov/documents/organization/ 219137. pdf united states department ofstate.,Retrieved from state. gov documents organization 219137. pdf United States Department of State.,Social studies
(dos;2015) myths and facts: resettling syrian refugees.,(DOS;2015) Myths and facts: resettling Syrian refugees.,Social studies
pressrelease november 2015.,Press release November 2015.,Social studies
retrieved from www. state. gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2015/1 1/250005. htm united states department ofstate.,Retrieved from state. gov r pa prs ps 2015 11 250005. htm United States Department of State.,Social studies
trafficking inpersons report 2012.,Trafficking for persons report 2012.,Social studies
retrieved from www. state. gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/2012/192368. htm united states department of justice.,Retrieved from state. gov j tip rls tiprpt 2012 192368. htm United States Department of Justice.,Social studies
fy 2013 statistics yearbook.,FY 2013 statistics yearbook.,Social studies
retrieved from www. justice. gov/sites/default/files/eoir/legacy/2014/04/16/fy13syb. pdf united states department of justice.,Retrieved from justice. gov sites default files eoir legacy 2014 04 16 fy13syb. pdf United States Department of Justice.,Social studies
trafficking in persons report.,Trafficking for persons report.,Social studies
retrieved from www. state. gov/documents/or ganization/66086. pdf world health organization.,Retrieved from state. gov documents organization 66086. pdf World Health Organization.,Social studies
retrieved from www. who. int/ hac/techguidance/ health of migrants/en/world health organization.,Retrieved from who. int hac techguidance health of migrants en World Health Organization.,Social studies
classification of female genital mutilation.,Classification of female yansh mutilation.,Social studies
sexual and reproductive health.,Sexual and reproductive health.,Social studies
"retrieved from www. who. int/reproductivehealth/topics/fgm/overview/en/ zeiss stange, m, osyer, c. k,& sloan, j. e.","Retrieved from who. int reproductivehealth topics fgm overview en Zeiss Stange, M, Oyster, C. K,& Sloan, J. E.",Social studies
"in m. zeiss stange, c. k.","ForM. Zeiss Stange, C. K.",Social studies
"oyster, & j. e.","Oyster,& J. E.",Social studies
immigrant andrefugee families aretypically starting over economically; they arrive with fewornofinancial resources andareunfamiliar with thefinancial system in thehost counties.,Immigrant and refugee families dey typically starting over economically; dem dey arrive wit few or no financial resources and dem no dey familiar wit di financial system for di host countries.,Social studies
"others were able tosupport their families, buthadtoleave everything behind totravel tosafety after conflict ornatural disasters.","Others dey able to support their families, but don have to leave everything behind to travel to safety after conflict or natural disasters.",Social studies
"while there aresome high-income immigrants who arerecruited internationally by companies, thisisaminority ofimmigration cases(u. s.","While there dey some high-income immigrants wey dey recruited internationally by companies, dis na minority of immigration cases.",Social studies
the majority ofimmigrants come with hopes of economic change for their families.,Di majority of immigrants dey come wit hopes of economic change for their families.,Social studies
iraqi refugee children preparing for relocation.,Iraqi refugee children dey preparing for relocation.,Social studies
dfid uk department for international development iraqi refugee children at newroz camp cc by 2. 0.,DFID UK Department for International Development— Iraqi refugee children at Newroz Camp CC BY 2.0.,Social studies
"although immigrants may arrive fullofhope, their path toeconomic well-being canbelong andchallenging, making their dream seem farfrom reality. economic systems differbetween countries and cultures, and immigrants must learn new systems ofpayment andsaving.","Although immigrants fit arrive full of hope, their path to economic well-being fit dey long and challenging, making their dream dey seem far from reality. Economic systems dey differ between countries and cultures, and immigrants must learn new systems of payment and saving.",Social studies
"they must also learn how tomanage their finances inavirtual world ofcredit, debit, andonline transactions afarcryfrom mostly local cash-based markets in their home countries.","Dem must also learn how to manage their finances for virtual world of credit, debit and online transactions—a far cry from mostly local cash-based markets for their home countries.",Social studies
"additionally, jobskills andeducation donotalways transfer across countries.","Additionally, job skills and education no always dey transfer across countries.",Social studies
immigrants who were well-qualified forjobs inanother country often find themselves under-qualified after resettlement.,Immigrants wey dey well-qualified for jobs for another country often find themselves under-qualified after resettlement.,Social studies
"finally, many immigrants face discrimination as they apply for jobs and as they access services such as healthcare.","Finally, many immigrants dey face discrimination as dem dey apply for jobs and as dem dey access services such as healthcare.",Social studies
"only limited research hasidentified thechallenges andsupports available toimmigrants ontheir economic journey; themajority of information isdrawn from analysis ofgovernment reports ofemployment, income, housing, andhealthcare usage.","Only limited research don identify di challenges and supports available to immigrants on their economic journey; di majority of information dey drawn from analysis of government reports of employment, income, housing and healthcare usage.",Social studies
"economic well-being economic well-being isanindividual' sability tobuythenecessities oflifeforthemselves andtheir families, andhave resources to pursue goals that improve their quality of life.","Economic well-being na individual's ability to buy di necessities of life for themselves and their families, and get resources to pursue goals wey dey improve their quality of life.",Social studies
"immigrants account for more than 17% oftheunited states workforce, although they make uponly 13% ofthepopulation (mpi, 2013).","Immigrants account for more than 17%of U. S. workforce, although dem makeup only 13%of di population.",Social studies
"the unemployment rate forforeign-born persons iscurrently 5.6%, while itis6. 3% fornative-born persons(bureau oflabor statistics,2015).","Di odds of pipo wey fit work but no get work, wey dem dey count for kontri for foreign-born persons na currently 5.6%, while e na 6.3%for native-born persons.",Social studies
"although immigrants have relatively high rates oflabor force participation, theopportunities andbenefits thatareavailable tothem depend onthelevel ofemployment they canobtain.","Although immigrants get relatively high rates of labor force participation, di opportunities and benefits wey dey available to dem dey depend on di level of employment dem fit obtain.",Social studies
we will address each in turn.,We go address each for turn.,Social studies
low-skill labor force.,Low-skill labor force.,Social studies
"immigrants make uphalf ofthelow-skill labor force intheunited states(bureau of labor statistics,2011). in2005, itwasestimated thatundocumented immigrants make up23% ofthelow-skill labor force (capps, fortuny,&fix,2007).","Immigrants makeup half of di low-skill labor force for U. S. For 2005, e dey estimated say undocumented immigrants makeup 23%of di low-skill labor force.",Social studies
"low-skilled immigrant workers tend tobeoverrepresented incertain industries, particularly those with lower wages.","Low-skilled immigrant workers tend to dey overrepresented for certain industries, particularly those wit lower wages.",Social studies
table 1 displays the foreign-born workforce by occupation.,Table 1 dey display di foreign-born workforce by occupation.,Social studies
"approximately 20% ofimmigrant workers areemployed inconstruction, food service, andagriculture (singer, 2012).","Approximately 20%of immigrant workers dey employed for construction, food service and agriculture.",Social studies
"more than half ofallworkers employed inprivate households areimmigrants and immigrants also represent athird oftheworkers inthehospitality industry (newbuger &gryn, 2009).",More than half of all workers employed for private households na immigrants and immigrants also represent third of di workers for di hospitality industry.,Social studies
themajority ofthepositions in these industries are low-wage jobs.,Di majority of di positions for these industries na low-wage jobs.,Social studies
"south central farm in los angeles, one ofthe largest urban gardens in the united states.","South Central Farm for Los Angeles, one of di largest urban gardens for U. S.",Social studies
wikimedia commons cc by 2.5.,Wikimedia Commons CC BY 2.5.,Social studies
middleand high-skill labor force.,Middle and high-skill labor force.,Social studies
"more educated andskilled immigrant workers canobtain jobs thatarehigh paying andofferjobstability such asthose inhealthcare, high-technology manufacturing, information technology, andlifesciences.","More educated and skilled immigrant workers fit obtain jobs wey dey high paying and offer job stability such as those for healthcare, high-technology manufacturing, Information Technology na one kind thing wey involve use of komputa and other electronic tins to manage, process and store tori, and e dey refer to department or field wey dey handle dis kain tin for organization and life sciences.",Social studies
"immigrant workers arekeeping pace with thenative-born workforce inthese high skill industries(singer,2012).",Immigrant workers dey keeping pace wit di native-born workforce for these high skill industries.,Social studies
"immigrants hold bachelors andgraduate degrees atsimilar rates totheir native-born peers(30% and 11%, respectively; singer,2012).","Immigrants dey hold bachelors and graduate degrees at similar rates to their native-born peers(30% and 11%, respectively).",Social studies
barriers tobetter employment.,Barriers to better employment.,Social studies
"the largest barriers tohigher -paying employment forimmigrants arealack ofeducation andenglish-speaking ability. approximately 29% ofimmigrant workers donothold ahigh school diploma compared toonly 7%oftheir native-born peers(singer,2012).",Di largest barriers to higher-paying employment for immigrants na lack of education and English-speaking ability. Approximately 29%of immigrant workers no hold highschool diploma compared to only 7%of their native-born peers.,Social studies
"moreover, about 46% ofimmigrant workers would classify themselves aslimited english proficient speakers (capps, fix, passel, ost,&perez-lopez, 2003).","Moreover, about 46%of immigrant workers go classify themselves as limited English proficient speakers.",Social studies
"more than 62% ofimmigrant workers inlow-wage jobs arelimited english language speakers compared toonly 2%ofnative-born workers inlow-wage jobs (capps, fix, passel, ost,&perez-lopez, 2003).",More than 62%of immigrant workers for low-wage jobs na limited English language speakers compared to only 2%of native-born workers for low-wage jobs.,Social studies
"astudy conducted bytherobert woodjohnson foundation(garrett, 2006)found thatitisextremely difficult forrefugees tomove from low-paying tobetter paying jobs after they have adjusted toliving intheunited states because many lack english language skills andeducation.","Study conducted by di Robert Wood Johnson Foundation(Garrett, 2006)find say e dey extremely difficult for refugees to move from low-paying to better paying jobs after dem don adjust to living for U. S. because many lack English language skills and education.",Social studies
"itisdifficult forimmigrants toseek more education ortraining, duetothepressing need towork toprovide fortheir families.","E dey difficult for immigrants to seek more education or training, due to di pressing need to work to provide for their families.",Social studies
leaving theworkforce totrain may leave them financial vulnerable.,Leaving di workforce to train fit leave dem financially vulnerable.,Social studies
immigrant workers who aremiddle-wage earners arestilldisadvantaged.,Immigrant workers wey na middle-wage earners dey still disadvantaged.,Social studies
"incomparison totheir native-born peers who earn amedian income of$820 weekly, afull-time salary immigrant worker earns $664 weekly(bureau of labor statistics,2015).","for compare to their native-born peers wey dey earn Di middle-level income where half of pipo earn more and half earn less of $820 weekly, full-time salary immigrant worker dey earn$664 weekly.",Social studies
"moreover, these workers earn 12% lessinhourly wage than their native-born counterparts;4. 1 employment 71 thiswage gapis26% incalifornia, astate with thelargestimmigrant workforce(immigrants make up37% ofthe workforce in california; bohn & schiff, 2011).","Moreover, these workers dey earn 12%less for hourly wage than their native-born counterparts; dis wage gap na 26%for California, state wit di largest immigrant workforce.",Social studies
these wage disadvantages arepartially duetoemployer discrimination.,These wage disadvantages dey partially due to employer discrimination.,Social studies
"in1996, theillegal immigration reform and immigrant responsibility act (irca) implemented additional restrictions onemployment eligibility verification, including sanctions foremployers who hired undocumented immigrants.","For 1996, di Illegal Changes made to immigration laws to improve or update how they work and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IRCA) implement additional restrictions on employment eligibility verification, including sanctions for employers wey hire undocumented immigrants.",Social studies
"although itisillegal for anemployer todiscriminate based onnational origin orcitizenship status, many employers chose toavoid hiring individuals who appeared foreign, inorder toavoid sanctions.","Although e dey illegal for employer to discriminate based on national origin or citizenship status, many employers choose to avoid hiring individuals wey appear foreign, for order to avoid sanctions.",Social studies
"ageneral accounting officesurvey found that19% ofemployers (approximately 891, 000 employers)admitted todiscriminating against people based on language, accent, appearance, or citizenship status because of fear of violating irca.","General Accounting Office survey find say 19%of employers(approximately 891,000 employers)admit to discriminating against pipo based on language, accent, appearance or citizenship status because of fear of violating IRCA.",Social studies
immigrant workers alsoface high rates ofwage andworkplace violations.,Immigrant workers also dey face high rates of wage and workplace violations.,Social studies
"astudy looking atworkplace violations inthree largemetropolitan cities intheunited states(chicago, losangeles, andnew yorkcity) found that immigrant workers were twice aslikely toexperience aminimum wage violation than their native-born peers (bernhardt etal.","Study looking at workplace violations for three large metropolitan cities for U. S.(Chicago, Los Angeles and New York City)find say immigrant workers dey twice as likely to experience Di lowest amount of money that law say employer must pay worker per hour violation than their native-born peers.",Social studies
"another study conducted byorrenius andzavodny (2009) alsofound thatimmigrants are more likely tobeemployed indangerous industries than their native-born peers, andexperience more workplace injuries andfatalities.","Another study conducted by Orrenius and Zavodny (2009)also find say immigrants dey more likely to be employed for dangerous industries than their native-born peers, and dey experience more workplace injuries and fatalities.",Social studies
"inthese injuries, limited english skills areacontributing factor. these workers maybe afraid tospeak forthemselves with their livelihood atstake andareleftatthemercy ofothers.","For these injuries, limited English skills na contributing factor. These workers fit be afraid to speak for themselves wit their livelihood at stake and dey left at di mercy of others.",Social studies
"immigrant workers areindire need ofrepresentation, butinfrequently have access toit.","Immigrant workers dey in dire need of representation, but infrequently get access to am.",Social studies
"only 10% oftheimmigrant workforce is represented by unions in contrast to 14 percent the native-born workforce (batalova, 2011).",Only 10%of di immigrant workforce dey represented by unions for contrast to 14%of di native-born workforce.,Social studies
supports for employment: the unique case of refugees refugees areaunique group ofimmigrants inthatthere aresupport systems inplace tohelp with resettlement upon their arrival intheunited states.,Supports for employment: di unique case of refugees— refugees na unique group of immigrants in dat there dey support systems in place to help wit resettlement upon their arrival for U. S.,Social studies
"government agencies andvoluntary agencies (volags) provide initial supports tohelp families resettle intheir new home, including social services, food support, cash assistance, healthcare, andemployment services.","Government agencies and voluntary agencies (VOLAGs) dey provide initial supports to help families resettle for their new home, including social services, food support, cash assistance, healthcare and employment services.",Social studies
great emphasis intherefugee resettlement process isplaced onfinding a jobsothatrefugees canbecome financially self-sufficient without thesupport ofthegovernment.,Great emphasis for di refugee resettlement process dey placed on finding job so dat refugees fit become financially self-sufficient without di support of di government.,Social studies
"theofficeof refugee resettlement (orr)provides twoprograms tosupport volags infinding employment contracts for refugees: early employment services: in this program, orr provides funding for a staff member(s)to act as an employment specialist to prepare the refugees for work and for finding employment.","Di Office of Refugee Resettlement (ORR) dey provide two programs to support VOLAGs for finding employment contracts for refugees: early employment services— for dis program, ORR dey provide funding for staff member(s)to act as employment specialist to prepare di refugees for work and for finding employment.",Social studies
"volags are given anywhere from 18-24 months to help refugees secure jobs through the early employment services program (darrow,2015); the time period varies by state.",VOLAGs dey given anywhere from 18-24 months to help refugees secure jobs through di early employment services program; di time period dey vary by state.,Social studies
"the goal of this program is to help refugees attain economic self-sufficiency within the first four-six months upon arrival in the u. s. while declining public cash assistance(of fice of refugee resettlement,2016).",Di goal of dis program nato help refugees attain Di ability to take care of yourself financially without needing government help within di first four to six months upon arrival for U. S. while declining public cash assistance.,Social studies
refugees selected for the v amc program receive more intense job services and individual case management for six months and receive more generous cash and housing assistance for four months in comparison to those who are part ofthe early employment services program.,Refugees selected for di VAMC program dey receive more intense job services and individual case management for six months and dey receive more generous cash and housing assistance for four months for compare to those wey dey part of di early employment services program.,Social studies
"problems in the v amc program thevamc provides extra training andbenefits forrefugees, with thegoal ofeconomic self-sufficiency within thefirst few months ofarrival.","Problems for di VAMC program— di VAMC dey provide extra training and benefits for refugees, wit di goal of Di ability to take care of yourself financially without needing government help within di first few months of arrival.",Social studies
"however, recent research suggests there aredownsides.","However, recent research dey suggest there dey downsides.",Social studies
"funding forvolags inthevamc program incontingent upon meeting performance measures such ashow many refugees entered employment andhow many were self-sufficient at 120 and 180 days(of fice of refugee resettlement,2016).",Funding for VOLAGs for di VAMC program dey contingent upon meeting performance measures such as how many refugees enter employment and how many dey self-sufficient at 120 and 180 days.,Social studies
many ofthejobs that areavailable quickly payonly $8. 25 hourly andrequire over anhour intravel time.,Many of di jobs wey dey available quickly dey pay only $8.25 hourly and dey require over an hour for travel time.,Social studies
"earlier employment means lesstime forjobtraining andenglish language classes, which arefactors thatwould impact thelongterm economic well-being of refugees.4. 1 employment 734. 2 access to necessities immigrants face barriers intheir access toadequate income, particularly because they tend tobeemployed inlowskills jobs andface discrimination intheir work environments.","Earlier employment mean less time for job training and English language classes, which na factors wey go impact di long-term economic well-being of refugees. Access to necessities— immigrants dey face barriers for their access to adequate income, particularly because dem tend to be employed for low-skills jobs and dey face discrimination for their work environments.",Social studies
"poverty rates ofchildren ofimmigrants are50% higher than children ofnative-born citizens (vanhook, 2003).",Poverty rates of children of immigrants dey 50%higher than children of native-born citizens.,Social studies
"this limits their access toadequate housing, food, and healthcare.","Dis dey limit their access to adequate housing, food and healthcare.",Social studies
housing and food access toshelter andfood arebasic lifenecessities.,Housing and food— access to shelter and food na basic life necessities.,Social studies
"immigration hasapositive impact ontherentandhousing values fortheir communities, butimmigrants themselves face barriers toaccessing adequate housing.","Immigration get positive impact on di rent and housing values for their communities, but immigrants themselves dey face barriers to accessing adequate housing.",Social studies
"when immigrants enter anew area, rent andhousing values inthatarea increase (saiz, 2007).","Wen immigrants dey enter new area, rent and housing values for dat area dey increase.",Social studies
"inmetropolitan areas, immigrant inflow of1%ofthecity'spopulation istiedtoincreases inhousing values of1%(saiz, 2007).","For metropolitan areas, immigrant inflow of 1%of di city's population dey tied to increases for housing values of 1%.",Social studies
"despite thisbenefit tothecommunity atlarge, immigrants areface barriers toachieving safeandaffordable housing.","Despite dis benefit to di community at large, immigrants dey face barriers to achieving safe and affordable housing.",Social studies
"they arelesslikely than native-born individuals toown ahome andaremore likely toliveinovercrowded conditions (asmeasured bythenumber ofpeople perroom; painter&yu, 2010).",Dem dey less likely than native-born individuals to own home and dey more likely to live for overcrowded conditions.,Social studies
immigrant homeownership increases and overcrowding decreases thelonger theimmigrant lives intheunited states.,Immigrant homeownership dey increase and overcrowding dey decrease di longer di immigrant dey live for U. S.,Social studies
"however, they stilllagbehind nativeborn citizens inhome ownership andovercrowding even after living intheunited states for20years (painter& yu,2010).","However, dem still dey lag behind native-born citizens for home ownership and overcrowding even after living for U. S. for 20 years.",Social studies
housing conditions areinfluenced bytheimmigrant' sdocumentation status and english language abilities.,Housing conditions dey influenced by di immigrant's documentation status and English language abilities.,Social studies
"immigrants who spent sometime without documentation areless likely than documented immigrants toown ahome, even ifthey now have documentation(mcconnell &akresh, 2008).","Immigrants wey spend sometime without documentation dey less likely than documented immigrants to own home, even if dem now get documentation.",Social studies
documentation likely influences access tohigh-paying jobs and tohome loans.,Documentation likely dey influence access to high-paying jobs and to money wey you borrow for house.,Social studies
"similarly, english proficiency increases thechances ofan individual becoming ahome-owner, because english proficiency increases theability toaccess labor andcredit markets(painter &yu, 2010).","Similarly, English proficiency dey increase di chances of individual becoming home-owner, because English proficiency dey increase di ability to access labor and credit markets.",Social studies
"new york t enement museum 4. 2 access tonecessities 75 in the 19th and 20th centuries, a 350 square foot aparment here housed six recent immigrants.","New York Tenement Museum— for di 19th and 20th centuries,350 square foot apartment here dey house six recent immigrants.",Social studies
"michael sean gallagher 94 orchard street, lower east side, new york cc by-sa 2. 0.","Michael Sean Gallagher— 94 Orchard Street, Lower East Side, New York CC BY-SA 2.0.",Social studies
"additionally, housing access isinfluenced bydiscriminatory practices.","Additionally, housing access dey influenced by discriminatory practices.",Social studies
"intheunited states 42cities andcounties have passed anti-illegal immigration laws thatprohibit landlords from allowing undocumented immigrants touse or rent their property (oliveri, 2009).","For U. S,42 cities and counties don pass anti-illegal immigration laws wey dey prohibit landlords from allowing undocumented immigrants to use or rent their property.",Social studies
although thefederal fairhousing actprohibits discrimination onthebasis ofnational origin(110. 42u. s. c.,Although di federal Fair Housing Act dey prohibit discrimination on di basis of national origin.,Social studies
"due tothese discriminatory practices, immigrants' housing options becomes even more limited.","Due to these discriminatory practices, immigrants' housing options dey become even more limited.",Social studies
"immigrant households areatasubstantially higher riskoffood insecurity, oralack ofadequate food foreveryone inthehousehold, than native-born households (chilton, 2009).","Immigrant households dey at substantially higher risk of When person or family no get sure access to enough food regularly, or lack of adequate food for everyone for di household, than native-born households.",Social studies
"newly arrived immigrants face thegreatest risk (chilton, 2009), perhaps duetoalack ofenglish skills oreducation.","Newly arrived immigrants dey face di greatest risk, perhaps due to lack of English skills or education.",Social studies
"this lack ofaccess toadequate food has significant consequences: household food insecurity significantly increases theriskofchildren inthehousehold having only fairorpoor health (chilton, 2009).",Dis lack of access to adequate food get significant consequences: household When person or family no get sure access to enough food regularly significantly dey increase di risk of children for di household having only fair or poor health.,Social studies
itcanbedifficult forimmigrant families toaccess food-related resources.,E fit be difficult for immigrant families to access food-related resources.,Social studies
"among families thathave trouble paying forfood, those headed byimmigrants arelesslikely than families headed bynative-born individuals toreceive food stamps (reardon-anderson, capps, &fix,2002).","Among families wey get trouble paying for food, those headed by immigrants dey less likely than families headed by native-born individuals to receive Government vouchers or benefits wey pipo use to buy food when dem no get enough money.",Social studies
those who do receive food assistance through food shelves may find that the food offered is unfamiliar.,Those wey do receive food assistance through food shelves fit find say di food offered dey unfamiliar.,Social studies
"healthcare although immigrants have high rates oflabor force participation, they arelesslikely than native-born peers to have health insurance (derose, bahney, lurie, &escarce, 2009).","Healthcare— although immigrants get high rates of labor force participation, dem dey less likely than native-born peers to get Agreement wey pay for person's medical bills and healthcare costs.",Social studies
"there arefewservices intheunited states that areascrucial andcomplex asthehealthcare system, which continues tobeamajor indicator ofsocio-economic success.","There dey few services for U. S. wey dey as crucial and complex as di healthcare system, wey continue to be major indicator of socio-economic success.",Social studies
"aperson' sinability toaccess andutilize healthcare services gives astrong indication ofcritical unmet needs andbarriers thatimpede theability ofsuccessful integration andparticipation insociety. immigrants face substantial barriers tohealthcare access, including restricted access togovernment based healthcare services, language difficulties, and cultural differences. 76 immigrant and refugee families air force doctor provides services through an interpreter.","Person's inability to access and utilize healthcare services dey give strong indication of critical unmet needs and barriers wey dey impede di ability of successful integration and participation for society. Immigrants dey face substantial barriers to healthcare access, including restricted access to government-based healthcare services, language difficulties and cultural differences.",Social studies
wikimedia commons public domain.,Wikimedia Commons— Public Domain.,Social studies
"reduced useofhealthcar e. totalhealth care expenditures arelower forimmigrant adults than fortheir nativeborn peers (derose, bahney, lurie, &escarce, 2009).",Reduced use of healthcare— total healthcare expenditures dey lower for immigrant adults than for their native-born peers.,Social studies
"additionally, immigrants arelesslikely toreport aregular source orprovider forhealth care, andreport lower healthcare usethan native-born peers (derose, bahney, lurie, &escarce, 2009).","Additionally, immigrants dey less likely to report regular source or provider for healthcare, and dey report lower healthcare use than native-born peers.",Social studies
"this means thatoverall, immigrants have lessaccess tohealthcare andlesshealthcare usethan do most native-born individuals.","Dis mean say overall, immigrants get less access to healthcare and less healthcare use than most native-born individuals.",Social studies
"undocumented immigrants have particularly low rates ofhealth insurance andhealth care use(ortega etal,",Undocumented immigrants get particularly low rates of Agreement wey pay for person's medical bills and healthcare costs and healthcare use.,Social studies
"undocumented latinos/ ashave fewer physician visits annually than native born latinos/ as(ortega etal,",Undocumented Latinos as get fewer physician visits annually than native-born Latinos as.,Social studies
"undocumented immigrants aremore likely than documented immigrants ornative-born individuals tostate thatthey have difficulty understanding their physicians orthink they would getbetter care ifthey were adifferent race orethnicity. despite their lowrates ofuse, immigrants areinneed ofhealthcare.","Undocumented immigrants dey more likely than documented immigrants or native-born individuals to state say dem get difficulty understanding their physicians or dem think dem go get better care if dem be different race or ethnicity. Despite their low rates of use, immigrants dey in need of healthcare.",Social studies
"children ofimmigrants are also more than twice aslikely aschildren ofnatives tobein""fair"" or""poor""health (reardon-anderson, capps, &fix, 2002).",Children of immigrants also dey more than twice as likely as children of natives to be for 'fair' or 'poor' health.,Social studies
legal status restricts healthcar ebenefit eligibility. immigration status isanimportant legal criterion that may hinder access tohealthcare benefits.,Legal status dey restrict healthcare benefit eligibility. Person's legal classification— whether dem have permission to bein a country and under what conditions na important legal criterion wey fit hinder access to healthcare benefits.,Social studies
"the personal responsibility andworkopportunity reconciliation act(prwora), established in1996, restricted medicaid eligibility ofimmigrants.","Di Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (PRWORA), established for 1996, restrict Medicaid eligibility of immigrants.",Social studies
"immigrants cannot receive coverage, except incases ofmedical emergencies, during their first fiveyears inthecountry. states canchoose togrant aidoutoftheir own funds, butnofederal welfare funds may beused forimmigrant healthcare.","Immigrants no fit receive coverage, except for cases of medical emergencies, during their first five years for di country. States fit choose to grant aid out of their own funds, but no federal welfare funds fit be used for immigrant healthcare.",Social studies
"the reform also stated that theeligibility ofanimmigrant forpublic services would bedependent ontheincome oftheimmigrant' ssponsor, who could beheld financially liable forpublic benefits used bytheimmigrant.","Di reform also state say di eligibility of immigrant for public services go depend on di income of di immigrant's sponsor, wey fit dey held financially liable for public benefits used by di immigrant.",Social studies
"finally, theactrequired thatstates orlocal governments who fund benefits forundocumented immigrants take4. 2 access tonecessities 77 steps toidentify their eligibility (derose, escarce, &lurie, 2007).","Finally, di act require say states or local governments wey dey fund benefits for undocumented immigrants take steps to identify their eligibility.",Social studies
"hence, health benefits andinsurance formost immigrants are highly dependent on eligibility through employment.","Hence, health benefits and insurance for most immigrants dey highly dependent on eligibility through employment.",Social studies
immigrant contributions to medicare immigrants contribute substantial amounts tomedicare.,Immigrant contributions to Medicare— immigrants dey contribute substantial amounts to Medicare.,Social studies
"infact, immigrants contribute billions more tomedicare through payroll taxes than they useinmedical services (zallman, woolhandler, himmelstein, bor &mccormick,2013).","For fact, immigrants dey contribute billions more to Medicare through payroll taxes than dem dey use for medical services.",Social studies
"undocumented immigrants contribute more than 12billion dollars annually tosocial security andmedicare through taxes under borrowed social security numbers, yet are ineligible for benefits through these systems (goss et al,","Undocumented immigrants dey contribute more than$12 billion dollars annually to US government programme wey provide financial support to old, disabled and unemployed pipo and Medicare through taxes under borrowed US government programme wey provide financial support to old, disabled and unemployed pipo numbers, yet dem dey ineligible for benefits through these systems.",Social studies
theaffordable care act(aca; pub.,Di Affordable Care Act(ACA).,Social studies
"law no.111-148 and111-152), established in2010, updated some ofthese policies.","Law No.111-148 and 111-152, established for 2010, update some of these policies.",Social studies
this actensured thatlegal permanent residents with incomes upto400percent below thefederal poverty level could qualify forsubsidized healthcare coverage.,Dis act ensure say legal permanent residents wit incomes upto 400 percent below di federal Di income level wey government set as the minimum— anyone below am dey considered poor fit qualify for subsidized healthcare coverage.,Social studies
"medicaid andother health benefits stillrequire a5-year waiting period, however, states have theoption toremove the5-year waiting period andcover lawfully residing children and/orpregnant women inmedicaid orchildren' shealth insurance program(chip).","Medicaid and other health benefits still dey require 5-year waiting period, however, states get di option to remove di 5-year waiting period and cover lawfully residing children and or pregnant women for Medicaid or Children's Agreement wey pay for person's medical bills and healthcare costs Program(CHIP).",Social studies
undocumented immigrants receive nofederal support under theaca.,Undocumented immigrants dey receive no federal support under di ACA.,Social studies
"under theaca, refugees who areadmitted totheunited states andmeet theimmigration status eligibility have immediate access tomedicaid, chip andhealth coverage options.","Under di ACA, refugees wey dey admitted to U. S. and meet di Person's legal classification— whether dem have permission to bein a country and under what conditions eligibility get immediate access to Medicaid, CHIP and health coverage options.",Social studies
"language difficulties, including limited english language proficiency andpoor english literacy skills, areoneofthemost formidable barriers forimmigrant access tohealthcare.","Language difficulties, including limited English language proficiency and poor English literacy skills, na one of di most formidable barriers for immigrant access to healthcare.",Social studies
"language ability affects alllevels ofaccessing thehealthcare system, including making appointments, filling outofpaperwork, the ability tolocate healthcare facilities, direct communication with healthcare professionals, understanding written materials, filling outprescriptions, understanding oftreatment options andgeneral decision making.","Language ability dey affect all levels of accessing di healthcare system, including making appointments, filling out paperwork, di ability to locate healthcare facilities, direct communication wit healthcare professionals, understanding written materials, filling out prescriptions, understanding of treatment options and general Di proses to chuze di best tin to do, as dem don gada tori and sabi wetin dey suppose do, den dem go yuz am take decide.",Social studies
"among children, forexample, those from non-english primary language households were four times aslikely tolack health insurance andtwice aslikely tolack access toamedical home(yu&singh, 2009).","Among children, for example, those from non-English primary language households dey four times as likely to lack Agreement wey pay for person's medical bills and healthcare costs and twice as likely to lack access to medical home.",Social studies
"similarly, spanishspeaking latinos/ aswere twice aslikely asenglish-speaking latinos/ astobeuninsured, andtwice aslikely tobe without a personal doctor, and received less preventative care (dubard & gizlice, 2008).","Similarly, Spanish-speaking Latinos as dey twice as likely as English-speaking Latinos as to be uninsured, and twice as likely to be without personal doctor, and dem dey receive less Healthcare actions wey dem do before person get sick— to stop sickness from coming.",Social studies
these difficulties impede thefacilitation ofpatient autonomy inmaking healthcare decisions.,These difficulties dey impede di facilitation of patient autonomy for making healthcare decisions.,Social studies
this isespecially relevant inthetransmission ofcomplicated medical jargon andlimits in-depth conversations about treatment options between thehealthcare provider andimmigrant patients.,Dis dey especially relevant for di transmission of complicated medical jargon and limits in-depth conversations about treatment options between di healthcare provider and immigrant patients.,Social studies
patients with language-discordant providers receive lesshealth education thatpatients with aprovider orinterpreter who speaks their language (ngo-metzger etal.,Patients wit language-discordant providers dey receive less health education than patients wit provider or interpreter wey dey speak their language.,Social studies
"among hispanics, forexample, those who speak alanguage other than english athome areless likely to receive all the healthcare services for which they are eligible(cheng, chen,& cunningham,2007).","Among Hispanics, for example, those wey dey speak language other than English at home dey less likely to receive all di healthcare services for which dem dey eligible.",Social studies
"insome cases, miscommunication and misinterpretation canhave significant consequences.","For some cases, miscommunication and misinterpretation fit have significant consequences.",Social studies
"attimes, ifan immigrant cancommunicate inenglish, providers may assume thatthelevel ofunderstanding oftheimmigrant patient ishigher than what theimmigrant patient can actually understand(flores, 2006).","At times, if immigrant fit communicate for English, providers fit assume say di level of understanding of di immigrant patient dey higher than wetin di immigrant patient fit actually understand.",Social studies
"this causes misinterpretations and miscommunications that leave immigrants feeling frustrated, which may result inthe avoidance of healthcare use unless it is critical.","Dis dey cause misinterpretations and miscommunications wey dey leave immigrants feeling frustrated, which fit result for di avoidance of healthcare use unless e dey critical.",Social studies
"toovercome thelanguage gap, immigrants often utilize friends andfamily members asinterpreters inmedical78 immigrant and refugee families settings(diamond, wilson-stronks, &jacobs,2010).","To overcome di language gap, immigrants often dey utilize friends and family members as interpreters for medical settings.",Social studies
"children inimmigrant families often speak, read and understand english better than their parents doand, assuch, areoften burdened with theduty ofbeing the family translator and interpreter when dealing with thehealthcare system(kim &keefe, 2010).","Children for immigrant families often dey speak, read and understand English better than their parents, and because of dat, dem often dey burdened wit di duty of being di family translator and interpreter wen dem dey deal wit di healthcare system.",Social studies
"this role reversal may cause conflicts within thefamily, asthechild must take ontheresponsibility ofcommunicating complex anddifficult information.","Dis When child take on responsibilities wey normally belong to adults— like becoming the family translator fit cause conflicts within di family, as di child must take on di responsibility of communicating complex and difficult information.",Social studies
"additionally, theutilization offamily andfriends asinterpreters isoften ineffective asfamily andfriends may notbeaccurately able totranslate complex medical information andensure accurate understanding ofcomplex medical language, treatments, interventions oroutcomes thatarenecessary in healthcare decision making(flores, 2006).","Additionally, di utilization of family and friends as interpreters dey often ineffective as family and friends fit not be accurately able to translate complex medical information and ensure accurate understanding of complex medical language, treatments, interventions or outcomes wey dey necessary for healthcare Di proses to chuze di best tin to do, as dem don gada tori and sabi wetin dey suppose do, den dem go yuz am take decide.",Social studies
"theuseoffamily members, friends oreven community members as interpreters alsohasgreat concerns intheensuring ofconfidentiality ofsensitive health information ofimmigrant patients, as they are not trained inappropriate confidentiality procedures.","Di use of family members, friends or even community members as interpreters also get great concerns for di ensuring of confidentiality of sensitive health information of immigrant patients, as dem no dey trained for appropriate confidentiality procedures.",Social studies
healthcare centers thatofferprofessional interpreters orwho have multi-lingual medical providers cangreatly alleviate these stressors.,Healthcare centers wey dey offer professional interpreters or wey get multi-lingual medical providers fit greatly alleviate these stressors.,Social studies
"the civil rights actof1964 requires thatmedical providers receiving federal funds provide language services forclients with limited english, andmany states have similar guidelines(jacobs, chen, karliner, agger -gapta, &mutha, 2006).","Di Civil Rights Act of 1964 require say medical providers wey dey receive federal funds provide language services for clients wit limited English, and many states get similar guidelines.",Social studies
"however, resource allocation isasignificant issue intheactual implementation ofinterpreter services inhealthcare facilities.","However, resource allocation na significant issue for di actual implementation of interpreter services for healthcare facilities.",Social studies
"many healthcare providers find itdifficult to provide adequate language services, asthey may beunderstaf fed, underfunded, andoften unable toprovide service duetoother demands ofthejob(morris etal.","Many healthcare providers find am difficult to provide adequate language services, as dem fit be understaffed, underfunded, and often no fit provide service due to other demands of di job.",Social studies
"forexample, though hospitals inform clients of their right toreceive language services, many dosoonly inenglish (diamond, wilson-stronks, &jacobs,2010).","for example, though hospitals dey inform clients of their right to receive language services, many dey do so only for English.",Social studies
"the majority ofhospitals report providing language assistance inatimely manner only inthemost commonly requested language (themost commonly requested languages varied byhospital area, butmost frequently included spanish, american sign language, andvietnamese) (diamond, wilson-stronks, &jacobs,2010).","Di majority of hospitals dey report providing language assistance for timely manner only for di most commonly requested language(di most commonly requested languages dey vary by hospital area, but most frequently include Spanish, American Sign Language and Vietnamese).",Social studies
there isalsoa lack ofminority andmultilingual health professionals inthefield.,There dey also lack of minority and multilingual health professionals for di field.,Social studies
"most immigrants willchoose tousehealthcare resources intheir native language orproviders who arerepresentative oftheir native culture, even atthecost of quality(morris etal.","Most immigrants go choose to use healthcare resources for their di first language wey you learn or providers wey dey representative of their native culture, even at di cost of quality.",Social studies
"inorder toprovide immigrants with effective healthcare services, great consideration andsupport must bemade toensure thediversification ofthehealthcare workforce.","For order to provide immigrants wit effective healthcare services, great consideration and support must dey made to ensure di diversification of di healthcare workforce.",Social studies
"this canbeachieved through theprovision ofeducational andvocational pathways forminority students toenter academic programs andhealth care careers (fernandez-pena, 2012).",Dis fit dey achieved through di provision of educational and vocational pathways for minority students to enter academic programs and healthcare careers.,Social studies
"theefforts toimprove linguistically relevant health services isimportant as it increases provider cultural competence, cultural humility and language access for immigrants.","Di efforts to improve linguistically relevant health services dey important as e dey increase provider Di ability to understand and work effectively with pipo from different cultures, Di ongoing willingness to learn about and respect cultures different from your own and language access for immigrants.",Social studies
"culture. culture isanimportant aspect toconsider inhealthcare access forimmigrants asitdetermines the perceptions and values placed onsystems and providers, willingness toutilize these services and ability to successfully navigate the system.","Culture— culture na important aspect to consider for healthcare access for immigrants as e dey determine di perceptions and values placed on systems and providers, willingness to utilize these services and ability to successfully navigate di system.",Social studies
"for some immigrants, the idea of preventative care, such as annual medical, vision, and dental exams are not normative.","For some immigrants, di idea of Healthcare actions wey dem do before person get sick— to stop sickness from coming, such as annual medical, vision and dental exams no dey normative.",Social studies
this maybe due to lack of economic circumstances in the country or origin where healthcare was inaccessible to the majority ofthe population or only utilized in times of extreme need such as serious health issues or emergencies.,Dis fit be due to lack of economic circumstances for di country where person was born or originally come from where healthcare dey inaccessible to di majority of di population or only utilized for times of extreme need such as serious health issues or emergencies.,Social studies
"for example, v ietnamese generally do not recognize the concept of preventative medicine, and will not seek treatment unless symptoms are present and will sometimes discontinue medication when symptoms abate (cdc, 2008a).","for example, Vietnamese generally no dey recognize di concept of preventative medicine, and go not seek treatment unless symptoms dey present and go sometimes discontinue medication wen symptoms dey abate.",Social studies
many immigrants may place a higher value in homeopathic treatment and spiritual healers.,Many immigrants fit place higher value for Alternative medicine approach wey use very small amounts of substances to treat symptoms and spiritual healers.,Social studies
this was noted especially in latino immigrants where a strong belief in faith based and alternative healing practices lead the usage of religious or ganizations4. 2 access tonecessities 79 for help in mental disorders.,Dis dey noted especially for Latino immigrants where strong belief for faith-based and alternative healing practices lead di usage of religious organizations for help for mental disorders.,Social studies
"for example, recent latina immigrants reported using alternative or complementary medicine first, and then sought medical help only if these methods were ineffective (garces, scarinci, &harrison, 2006).","for example, recent Latina immigrants report using alternative or complementary medicine first, and then seek medical help only if these methods no dey effective.",Social studies
koguis shaman in columbia.,Koguis shaman for Colombia.,Social studies
"wikimedia commons cc by-sa 3. 0. 80 immigrant and refugee families the hmong traditionally view illness as the result of a curse, violation of taboos, or a soul separating from its body, in addition to natural causes such as infectious disease(cdc, 2014).","Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0. Di Hmong traditionally dey view illness as di result of curse, violation of taboos, or soul separating from its body, for addition to natural causes such as Sickness caused by germs wey fit spread from one person to another.",Social studies
"these values are contrary to eurocentric models, which are predominant in the united states healthcare systems (rastogi, massey-hastings,&w ieling, 2012).","These values dey contrary to Eurocentric models, wey dey predominant for U. S. healthcare systems.",Social studies
"in some cultures, a healthcare professional is expected to cure the illness versus manage it.","For some cultures, healthcare professional dey expected to cure di illness versus manage am.",Social studies
a strong expectation is then placed in immediate improvement of illness after meeting or seeing healthcare providers.,Strong expectation den dey placed for immediate improvement of illness after meeting or seeing healthcare providers.,Social studies
this unmet expectation can cause a great sense of disappointment for immigrants and increase their reluctance in using healthcare services.,Dis unmet expectation fit cause great sense of disappointment for immigrants and increase their reluctance for using healthcare services.,Social studies
in some cases cultural and religious values impose strict regulations on gender roles and expectations which affects with whom an immigrant can interact and under what circumstances.,For some cases cultural and religious values dey impose strict regulations on gender roles and expectations wey dey affect wit whom immigrant fit interact and under wetin circumstances.,Social studies
"for example, somali individuals following an islamic tradition that men and women should not touch(cdc, 2008b), which may lead to strong preferences for female immigrants to see female practitioners and male immigrants to see male practitioners.","for example, Somali individuals wey dey follow Islamic tradition say men and women should not touch, which fit lead to strong preferences for female immigrants to see female practitioners and male immigrants to see male practitioners.",Social studies
this could limit access to care.,Dis fit limit access to care.,Social studies
it adds unique challenges for healthcare practitioners to communicate across genders effectively and provide comfortable and respectful services for their immigrant patients.,E dey add unique challenges for healthcare practitioners to communicate across genders effectively and provide comfortable and respectful services for their immigrant patients.,Social studies
cultural values and beliefs have a strong impact on the perceptions of certain health issues or diseases.,"kulture belif wey dey important for one set of pipo, wey dey affect dem behavior, attitude, and how dem dey live, like wetin dem sabi, wetin dem like, and wetin dem no like and beliefs get strong impact on di perceptions of certain health issues or diseases.",Social studies
"among the somali, for example, there is a strong stigma against those who have tuberculosis(cdc, 2008b).","Among di Somali, for example, there dey strong stigma against those wey get tuberculosis.",Social studies
"individuals avoid talking about having tuberculosis or seeking treatment, in order to avoid stigma(cdc, 2008b).","Individuals dey avoid talking about having tuberculosis or seeking treatment, for order to avoid stigma.",Social studies
"in other cultures, mental illness may suggest that an individual has a weak will or personality.","For other cultures, mental illness fit suggest say individual get weak will or personality.",Social studies
individuals feel shame and work to hide these issues rather than seeking help.,Individuals dey feel shame and dey work to hide these issues no be seeking help.,Social studies
"there is a great need for more culturally and linguistically appropriate health services(diamond, w ilson-stronks, &jacobs, 2010; shannon, mccleary, wieling, im, becher, & o'fallon, 2015).",There dey great need for more culturally and linguistically appropriate health services.,Social studies
"access to supports the personal responsibility and workopportunity reconciliation act (prwora) restricts access tofood stamps, medicaid, andhousing assistance formost non-citizens with lessthan 5years ofunited states residency(van hook& balisteri, 2006).","Access to supports— di Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (PRWORA) dey restrict access to Government vouchers or benefits wey pipo use to buy food when dem no get enough money, Medicaid and housing assistance for most non-citizens wit less than 5 years of U. S. residency.",Social studies
"states, however, can decide to offer assistance for immigrants.","States, however, fit decide to offer assistance for immigrants.",Social studies
"many children ofimmigrants arenative-born citizens, andconsequently areeligible forpublic benefits including food stamps, housing assistance andhealth insurance.","Many children of immigrants na native-born citizens, and consequently dey eligible for public benefits including Government vouchers or benefits wey pipo use to buy food when dem no get enough money, housing assistance and Agreement wey pay for person's medical bills and healthcare costs.",Social studies
"however, many immigrant parents fear thatattempts to access these benefits may interfere with their process ofbecoming citizens ormay result indeportation and separation of parents and other families' members who are undocumented (perreira et al,","However, many immigrant parents dey fear say attempts to access these benefits fit interfere wit their process of becoming citizens or fit result for deportation and separation of parents and other family members wey dey undocumented.",Social studies
child welfare systems need tobeprepared torespond tothenumerous challenges ofimmigrant children and families who come totheattention ofthesystem.,Child welfare systems need to be prepared to respond to di numerous challenges of immigrant children and families wey dey come to di attention of di system.,Social studies
child welfare haslargely been unaware ofthese challenges and response tocases with thisparticular group may beslow orimpeded.,Child welfare don largely be unaware of these challenges and response to cases wit dis particular group fit be slow or impeded.,Social studies
"this heralds theneed forthedevelopment oftools, approaches, practices andpolicy improvements within thechild welfare system toeffectively address the needs of immigrant children and their families.4. 2 access tonecessities 81 4. 3 financial problems when immigrants come totheunited states, they frequently must learn how tonavigate new financial systems.","Dis dey herald di need for di development of tools, approaches, practices and policy improvements within di government agencies and services wey protect children from abuse and neglect to effectively address di needs of immigrant children and their families. Financial problems— wen immigrants come to U. S, dem frequently must learn how to navigate new financial systems.",Social studies
"some immigrants come from countries where banks areboth trusted andcommon, some have only experienced weak orcorrupt banks, andothers have interacted primarily with cash-based markets.","Some immigrants dey come from countries where banks dey both trusted and common, some don only experience weak or corrupt banks, and others don interact primarily wit cash-based markets.",Social studies
they must learn tonavigate new financial institutions and products.,Dem must learn to navigate new financial institutions and products.,Social studies
immigrants face unique barriers toaccessing financial institutions andproducts.,Immigrants dey face unique barriers to accessing financial institutions and products.,Social studies
"first, immigrants whose native countries have weak orcorrupt financial instructions may distrust banks.","First, immigrants whose native countries get weak or corrupt financial institutions fit distrust banks.",Social studies
"immigrants from countries with weak financial institutions(those thatdonoteffectively protect private property orofferincentives forinvestment) are lesslikely toparticipate inunited states financial markets (osili &paulson, 2008).",Immigrants from countries wit weak financial institutions dey less likely to participate for U. S. financial markets.,Social studies
"additionally, immigrants may face language andcultural barriers inaccessing financial products.","Additionally, immigrants fit face language and cultural barriers for accessing financial products.",Social studies
banks may nothave employees who speak the immigrant' s native language or who are familiar with specific cultural customs surrounding finances.,Banks fit not get employees wey dey speak di immigrant's di first language wey you learn or wey dey familiar wit specific cultural customs surrounding finances.,Social studies
banking one ofthefirst steps toestablishing financial security istheability toutilize financial products andservices available toboth protect andincrease one'sassets.,Banking— one of di first steps to establishing financial security na di ability to utilize financial products and services available to both protect and increase one's assets.,Social studies
the most important andbasic ofthese financial tools are checking andsavings accounts.,Di most important and basic of these financial tools na checking and savings accounts.,Social studies
"having checking andsavings accounts allow individuals tokeep their money safe, dramatically reduce thefeesassociated with financial transactions(e. g, cashing paychecks), efficiently and safely pay bills and other obligations, and establish credit worthiness (rhine& greene,2006).","Having checking and savings accounts dey allow individuals to keep their money safe, dramatically reduce di fees associated wit financial transactions(e. g, cashing paychecks), efficiently and safely pay bills and other obligations, and establish How reliable person be when it comes to paying back money dem owe.",Social studies
"immigrants aremuch more likely than native-born peers tobe""unbanked,"" orhave nobank accounts ofany kind.","Immigrants dey much more likely than native-born peers to be 'unbanked,' or get no bank accounts of any kind.",Social studies
"theincidence ofbeing unbanked inimmigrant communities is13% higher than thenative born population (bohn &pearlman, 2013).",Di incidence of being unbanked for immigrant communities na 13%higher than di native-born population.,Social studies
"among immigrant communities innew york, asmuch as57% ofmexican immigrants and35% ofecuadorian were unbanked (department ofconsumer affairs,2013).","Among immigrant communities for New York, as much as 57%of Mexican immigrants and 35%of Ecuadorian immigrants dey unbanked.",Social studies
immigrants who create bank accounts areable toaccess financial benefits.,Immigrants wey create bank accounts dey able to access financial benefits.,Social studies
"forexample, immigrants with bank accounts intheunited states aremore likely toown than torentorliveforfree, suggesting thatthisisanimportant correlate ofhomeownership (mcconnell& akresh, 2008).","for example, immigrants wit bank accounts for U. S. dey more likely to own than to rent or live for free, suggesting say dis na important correlate of homeownership.",Social studies
"research investigating thedifferences between banked andunbanked immigrants found unbaked immigrants tended toliveinenclaves (bohn &pearlman, 2013), arrived intheunited states atalater age, andhave less education, lower english proficiency, lower income level, andlargerfamilies (paulson, singer, newber ger,&smith, 2006; rhine &greene,2006).","Research investigating di differences between banked and unbanked immigrants find say unbanked immigrants tend to live for enclaves, arrive for U. S. at later age, and get less education, lower English proficiency, lower income level and larger families.",Social studies
"immigrants who areunsure about thelength ofstay intheunited states alsomore likely tobeunbanked (department ofconsumer affairs,2013).",Immigrants wey no dey sure about di length of stay for U. S. also dey more likely to be unbanked.,Social studies
"furthermore, those who areunbanked experience more structural barriers such asunderstanding thebanking system, documents, andprocess.","Furthermore, those wey dey unbanked dey experience more structural barriers such as understanding di banking system, documents and process.",Social studies
"having direct, physical control over cash rather than keeping itinabank wasfound todeter hispanic consumers from using financial products and services(federal reserve bank of kansas city, 2010).","Having direct, physical control over cash no be keeping am for bank dey found to deter Hispanic consumers from using financial products and services.",Social studies
"savings immigrants arelesslikely than native-born citizens tohave asavings account, even after accounting forsocioeconomic status (paulson, singer, newber ger,&smith,2006).","Savings— immigrants dey less likely than native-born citizens to get Bank account wey designed for saving money safely and sometimes earning small interest, even after accounting for Person's level in society based on how much money dem make, their education and job.",Social studies
"however, many immigrants aresaving money, using both savings accounts andlessformal methods.","However, many immigrants dey saving money, using both savings accounts and less formal methods.",Social studies
"inastudy ofsoutheast asian refugees incanada, johnson(1999) found that80% oftheparticipants were saving money. astudy oflater-age, low-income asian immigrants intheunited states found much lower rates; only 15%saved regularly(nam, lee, huang, &kim,2015).","For study of Southeast Asian refugees for Canada, Johnson (1999)find say 80%of di participants dey saving money. Study of later-age, low-income Asian immigrants for U. S. find much lower rates; only 15%dey save regularly.",Social studies
"the most common reasons quoted forsaving money include emergencies (johnson,1999; solheim &yang,2010), children's education, and home purchases(johnson, 1999).","Di most common reasons quoted for saving money include emergencies, children's education and home purchases.",Social studies
credit immigrants who aremore acculturated tend tobemore open tousing credit cards.,Credit— immigrants wey dey more acculturated tend to be more open to using credit cards.,Social studies
"likewise, individuals who areyounger, employed, higher-income, andhave greater english proficiency aremore likely tousecredit cards(johnson, 2007; solheim &yang,2010).","Likewise, individuals wey dey younger, employed, higher-income and get greater English proficiency dey more likely to use credit cards.",Social studies
the reasons forusing credit cards range from everyday purchases(e. g.,Di reasons for using credit cards dey range from everyday purchases(e. g.,Social studies
"eating out, buying clothes, buying furniture orappliances, etc.)","Eating out, buying clothes, buying furniture or appliances, etc.)",Social studies
"(johnson,2007), toemer gencies (johnson,2007; solheim &yang,2010), tobuilding credit (solheim &yang,2010).","To emergencies, to building credit.",Social studies
itisworthwhile tonote thatalthough individuals that areless acculturated (e. g.,E dey worthwhile to note say although individuals wey dey less acculturated (e. g.,Social studies
"first generation hmong parents)tended toprefer tousecash for purchases rather than credit card, these individuals also recognized theimportance ofbuilding credit.","First generation Hmong parents)tend to prefer to use cash for purchases no be credit card, these individuals also dey recognize di importance of building credit.",Social studies
"this recognition motivates older, less acculturated individuals to use credit cards (solheim &yang, 2010).","Dis recognition dey motivate older, less acculturated individuals to use credit cards.",Social studies
"remittances remittances aremoney sentbymigrants tospouses, children, parents, orother relatives intheir country oforigin.","Remittances — remittances na money wey migrants dey send to spouses, children, parents or other relatives for their Di country where person was born or originally come from.",Social studies
these funds aretypically sent through money transfer agencies(e. g.,These funds dey typically sent through money transfer agencies(e. g.,Social studies
"moneygram, western union) forafee, through banks, orviafriends orrelatives visiting thecountry oforigin.","MoneyGram, Western Union)for fee, through banks, or via friends or relatives wey dey visiting di country where person was born or originally come from.",Social studies
"according totheworld bank, in2013 international migrants sent$404 billion inremittances totheir counties oforigin (tuck-primdahl &chand, 2014).","According to di An international organisation wey give loans and aid to developing countries for projects, for 2013 international migrants send$404 billion for remittances to their counties of origin.",Social studies
approximately aquarter ofthese funds originated from theunited states.,Approximately quarter of these funds originate from U. S.,Social studies
remittances have asignificant impact toboth individuals andfamilies.,Remittances get significant impact to both individuals and families.,Social studies
"remittances make itpossible tomeet basic needs such aspurchasing food andclothing, andpaying forrentandutilities.","Remittances make am possible to meet basic needs such as purchasing food and clothing, and paying for rent and utilities.",Social studies
"furthermore, remittances allow families topaydown (orpayoff)debt aswell asprovide family members access tohealthcare (solheim, rojasgarcia, olson,& zuiker,2012).","Furthermore, remittances dey allow families to pay down(or payoff) debt aswell as provide family members access to healthcare.",Social studies
"forimmigrants intheunited states, theobligation tosend money home cancreate stress andhardship.","For immigrants for U. S, di obligation to send money home fit create stress and hardship.",Social studies
theurgent need forfinancial support adds pressure togain employment.,Di urgent need for financial support dey add pressure to gain employment.,Social studies
itcanbedifficult tomake enough money tomeet theindividual' spersonal financial obligations(e. g.,E fit be difficult to make enough money to meet di individual's personal financial obligations(e. g.,Social studies
"payforrent, food, utilities, etc.)","Pay for rent, food, utilities, etc.)",Social studies
andtosend money home.,And to send money home.,Social studies
"insome cases, theneed totake care ofthefinancial obligations associated with thetriptothenew country(e. g.","For some cases, di need to take care of di financial obligations associated wit di trip to di new country(e. g.",Social studies
"paying back borrowed money needed toforshelter andfood upon first arrival)drains thefinance somuch that4. 3 financial problems 83 itisdifficult tosend money home (martone, munoz, lahey, yonder,&gurewitz, 2011). formany immigrants, theknowledge that oneiscontributing totheimproved living standard ofone'sfamily makes thehardship worthwhile.","Paying back borrowed money needed for shelter and food upon first arrival)dey drain di finances so much say e dey difficult to send money home. For many immigrants, di knowledge say one dey contributing to di improved living standard of one's family dey make di hardship worthwhile.",Social studies
"culturally appropriate services inorder tomeet thefinancial needs ofimmigrants, some community-based organizations areoffering financial services thatareculturally tailored.","Culturally appropriate services— for order to meet di financial needs of immigrants, some community-based organizations dey offer financial services wey dey culturally tailored.",Social studies
"inresearch among asian americans, receiving financial services from other asian americans ledtobetter financial outcomes; theclients were more likely toobtain loans andtosave more andlonger (zonta, 2004).","For research among Asian Americans, receiving financial services from other Asian Americans lead to better financial outcomes; di clients dey more likely to obtain loans and to save more and longer.",Social studies
"this may bebecause there isgreater trust andfewer language barriers (zonta, 2004).","Dis fit be because there dey greater trust and fewer wetin dey stop pipo to tok wella becuz dem no sabi same language, na him dey cause problem for communication.",Social studies
culturally competent financial service providers canframe their materials andproducts inappropriate ways.,Culturally competent financial service providers fit frame their materials and products for appropriate ways.,Social studies
"for example, onebank offered loan counseling tailored tovietnamese clients.","for example, one bank offer loan counseling tailored to Vietnamese clients.",Social studies
"todeal with clients' fears oflosing face overtaking outaloan, theloan counselors stressed thattheir information andapplication was confidential and would notbeshared with anyone inthecommunity. thecounselors alsoexplained why they needed information, saying thattheinstitution needed tovouch fortheclient infront oftheir loan committee (patraporn, pfeif fer,& ong,2010).","To deal wit clients' fears of losing face overtaking out loan, di loan counselors stress say their information and application dey confidential and no go be shared wit anyone for di community. Di counselors also explain why dem need di information, saying say di institution need to vouch for di client for front of their loan committee.",Social studies
such adaptations can increase accessibility and usability of financial services for immigrants.84 immigrant and refugee families 4. 4f uture directions immigrants face significant and complex challenges inachieving economic well-being.,Such adaptations fit increase accessibility and usability of financial services for immigrants. Future directions— immigrants dey face significant and complex challenges for achieving economic well-being.,Social studies
"legislation such as theprwora and irca currently limit immigrants' access toemployment, housing, and health services.","Legislation such as di PRWORA and IRCA currently dey limit immigrants' access to employment, housing and health services.",Social studies
"the implementation ofthese restrictive policies isoften fueled bymisconceptions oftheeconomic impact of immigrants inthegreater society, especially theperception thatundocumented immigrants place aneconomic burden onourhealth care system.","Di implementation of these restrictive policies dey often fueled by misconceptions of di economic impact of immigrants for di greater society, especially di perception say undocumented immigrants dey place economic burden on our healthcare system.",Social studies
"federal policies thatfacilitate more effective access toemployment, housing, and healthcare and financial services are needed.","Federal policies wey dey facilitate more effective access to employment, housing, healthcare and financial services dey needed.",Social studies
healthcare andfinancial systems canimprove theprovision ofculturally andlinguistically appropriate services forimmigrants.,Healthcare and financial systems fit improve di provision of culturally and linguistically appropriate services for immigrants.,Social studies
"this canbesupported bythediversification ofprofessionals inthese industries through the promotion ofminority individuals infinancial andmedical careers, thepromotion ofinterpretation services in healthcare facilities and financial institutions, and the recruitment and training of culturally sensitive staff. research isneeded tomore deeply understand thevalues, needs, andstressors inimmigrant andrefugee families asthey transition toanew economic environment.","Dis fit dey supported by di diversification of professionals for these industries through di promotion of minority individuals for financial and medical careers, di promotion of interpretation services for healthcare facilities and financial institutions, and di recruitment and training of culturally sensitive staff. Research dey needed to more deeply understand di values, needs and stressors for immigrant and refugee families as dem dey transition to new economic environment.",Social studies
worry about supporting their families creates stress which can ledtomental health issues.,Worry about supporting their families dey create stress wey fit lead to mental health issues.,Social studies
"weneed tounderstand theconnections between financial worry andmental health in these families, and find ways to support them.","We need to understand di connections between financial worry and mental health for these families, and find ways to support dem.",Social studies
research hasshown financial education andinterventions thataretimely andrelevant arethemost effective.,Research don show say financial education and interventions wey dey timely and relevant na di most effective.,Social studies
"forimmigrant andrefugee families, what does thatsupport entail andatwhat critical transition points isitbest provided?","For immigrant and refugee families, wetin dat support dey entail and at wetin critical transition points e dey best provided?",Social studies
"forexample, inrefugee resettlement, thetransition from reliance oninitial government assistance to reliance onearned wages isamajor shift.","for example, for refugee resettlement, di transition from reliance on initial government assistance to reliance on earned wages na major shift.",Social studies
when would anintervention have themost impact andwhat support do they need at that time?,Wen would intervention get di most impact and wetin support dem need at dat time?,Social studies
"itisimportant tounderstand thestrengths thatimmigrant andrefugee families bring tothese tasks, particularly thestrategies they've learned overtime thathave helped them tosurvive inharsh living situations.","E important to understand di strengths wey immigrant and refugee families dey bring to these tasks, particularly di strategies dem don learn overtime wey don help dem to survive for harsh living situations.",Social studies
wecanbuild onthose strengths andhonor their root culture values from their root cultures aswecreate culturally-appropriate education and intervention programs.,We fit build on those strengths and honor their root culture values from their root cultures as we dey create culturally-appropriate education and intervention programs.,Social studies
"finally, wemention 'transition' often when wethink about theresettlement process.","Finally, we dey mention 'transition' often wen we dey think about di resettlement process.",Social studies
this suggests thataone-time intervention will not beef fective.,Dis dey suggest say one-time intervention no go be effective.,Social studies
testing the benefits of a financial coaching model overtime.,Testing di benefits of financial coaching model overtime.,Social studies
"like many hmong inlaos, hisparents were nomadic farmers.","Like many Hmong for Laos, his parents na nomadic farmers.",Social studies
"their only bills were to purchase food orclothing, andthey paid forthese goods with cash ortraded goods forthem.","Their only bills nato purchase food or clothing, and dem pay for these goods wit cash or trade goods for dem.",Social studies
seng watched hisparents keep their money safe bystoring itinsilver bars under their mattress.,Seng dey watch his parents keep their money safe by storing am for silver bars under their mattress.,Social studies
they took thismoney outonly topaythebride price when he married bao.,Dem take dis money out only to pay di bride price wen he marry Bao.,Social studies
"seng andbao expected tobefarmers aswell, butthey became increasingly threatened bypersecution from thelao government.","Seng and Bao expect to be farmers aswell, but dem become increasingly threatened by persecution from di Lao government.",Social studies
"their focus wasonday-to-day survival, never onsaving forthefuture.","Their focus na on day-to-day survival, never on saving for di future.",Social studies
"ultimately, they decided tofleetoa refugee camp inthailand.","Ultimately, dem decide to flee to Temporary place wey dem build to house pipo wey run from their country for Thailand.",Social studies
"while there, they were notallowed tohold formal employment, butthey volunteered towork inexchange forfood andsmall goods.","While there, dem no dey allowed to hold formal employment, but dem volunteer to workin exchange for food and small goods.",Social studies
"seng andbao hadthree children while intherefugee camp, andthey hoped fora better life for these children.","Seng and Bao get three children while for di Temporary place wey dem build to house pipo wey run from their country, and dem hope for better life for these children.",Social studies
they decided to move to the united states.,Dem decide to move to U. S.,Social studies
"when they arrived intheunited states, seng andbao hadonly limited english skills.","Wen dem arrive for U. S, Seng and Bao get only limited English skills.",Social studies
"bao was able togetwork as apersonal care attendant, andseng began working inameat packing factory. each jobpaid very little.","Bao dey able to get work as personal care attendant, and Seng begin working for meat packing factory. Each job dey pay very little.",Social studies
itwas very important toseng andbao tosave fortheir children' sfuture andalso tosend money totheir brothers andsisters stillin therefugee camps.,E dey very important to Seng and Bao to save for their children's future and also to send money to their brothers and sisters still for di refugee camps.,Social studies
"their sponsor found them asmall, two-bedroom apartment, andthey furnished itwith used beds, two couches, atable, andatv. neither jobprovided anyhealth care benefits.","Their sponsor find dem small, two-bedroom apartment, and dem furnish am wit used beds, two couches, table and TV. Neither job dey provide any healthcare benefits.",Social studies
"when anyone inthefamily wasinjured orsick, seng and bao would talk with the elders in their community and treat the illness as best they could on their own.","Wen anyone for di family dey injured or sick, Seng and Bao go talk wit di elders for their community and treat di illness as best dem fit on their own.",Social studies
"they purchased only necessities, andsetaside allother money under their mattress orshipped ittotheir families inlaos.","Dem purchase only necessities, and set aside all other money under their mattress or ship am to their families for Laos.",Social studies
neither seng norbao hadanyexperience tracking money orbudgeting forthings inthefuture; they simply spent little and tried to save or share the rest.,Neither Seng nor Bao get any experience tracking money or budgeting for things for di future; dem simply spend little and try to save or share di rest.,Social studies
"they both distrusted banks, and preferred to use cash for all exchanges.","Dem both distrust banks, and prefer to use cash for all exchanges.",Social studies
"astheir children gotolder, they wanted tobuymore entertainment items.","As their children get older, dem want to buy more entertainment items.",Social studies
"itwasdifficult forseng andbaotodecide what items topurchase fortheir children, wanting them tohave agood life, andwhich items tosaynoto.","E dey difficult for Seng and Bao to decide wetin items to purchase for their children, wanting dem to get good life, and which items to say no to.",Social studies
"their oldest daughter started talking tothem about building credit, butthisseemed likeavery risky situation.","Their oldest daughter start talking to dem about building credit, but dis dey seem like very risky situation.",Social studies
"bao hadafriend whose identity hadbeen stolen when shestarted abank account, andbao andseng knew thatwhen youborrow money from thebank, youhave topayback some interest.","Bao get friend whose identity don dey stolen wen she start bank account, and Bao and Seng know say wen you dey borrow money from di bank, you go get to payback some interest.",Social studies
"they knew they could borrow money from another sibling intheunited states if they needed to, and having any kind of credit card or loan seemed unnecessary.","Dem know say dem fit borrow money from another sibling for U. S. if dem need to, and having any kind of credit card or loan dey seem unnecessary.",Social studies
discussion questions 1. think back on your own family history.,Discussion questions— 1. Think back on your own family history.,Social studies
"what did you learn from your parents about banking, saving, credit, and financial obligations to family?","Wetin you learn from your parents about banking, saving, credit and financial obligations to family?",Social studies
how might that have been influenced by your cultural background?,How dat fit dey influenced by your cultural background?,Social studies
what about healthcare in another language?,Wetin about healthcare for another language?,Social studies
"helpful links learning the language of money this resource from the minnesota department of employment and economic development provides the moneysmart curriculum through the cultural perspective of hmong, latino/a, and somali people.","Helpful links— Learning di language of money— dis resource from di Minnesota Department of Employment and Economic Development dey provide di MoneySmart curriculum through di cultural perspective of Hmong, Latino a and Somali pipo.",Social studies
it describes the historical and cultural influences on money management and gives tips for financial educators working with these populations.,E dey describe di historical and cultural influences on money management and dey give tips for financial educators wey dey work wit these populations.,Social studies
(2011). foreign-born wage and salary workers intheu. s.,(2011). Foreign-born wage and salary workers for U. S.,Social studies
labor forceand unions.,Labor force and unions.,Social studies
"bernhardt, a, milkman, r, theodore, n, heckathorn, d, auer, m, defilippis, j, gonzalez, a. z, narro, v, perelshteyn, j, polson, d,&spiller, m.(2009) broken laws, unprotected workers.","Bernhardt, A, Milkman, R, Theodore, N, Heckathorn, D, Auer, M, DeFilippis, J, Gonzalez, A. Z, Narro, V, Perelshteyn, J, Polson, D,& Spiller, M.(2009) Broken Laws, Unprotected Workers.",Social studies
national employment law project.,National Employment Law Project.,Social studies
retrieved from:. unprotectedworkers. org/index. php/broken laws/index.,Retrieved from: unprotectedworkers. org index. php broken laws index.,Social studies
"bohn, s,&schiff, e.","Bohn, S,& Schiff, E.",Social studies
(2011). immigrants andthelabor market.,(2011). Immigrants and di labor market.,Social studies
public policy institute ofcalifornia.,Public Policy Institute of California.,Social studies
retrieved from:. ppic. org/main/publication show. asp? i=823.,Retrieved from: ppic. org main publication show. asp? i=823.,Social studies
"bohn, s,&pearlman, s.(2013).","Bohn, S,& Pearlman, S.(2013).",Social studies
ethnic concentration and bank useinimmigrant communities.,Ethnic concentration and bank use for immigrant communities.,Social studies
"southern economic journal, 79(4), 864-885.","Southern Economic Journal,79(4), 864-885.",Social studies
doi:10. 4284/0038-4038-2010. 245 bureau oflabor statistics(2015).,DOI: 10.4284 0038-4038-2010.245 Bureau of Labor Statistics(2015).,Social studies
foreign-born workers labor forcecharacteristics.,Foreign-born workers labor force characteristics.,Social studies
retrieved from. bls. gov/news. release/forbrn. nr0. htm.,Retrieved from bls. gov news. release forbrn. nr0. htm.,Social studies
bureau oflabor statistics.,Bureau of Labor Statistics.,Social studies
national occupational employment and wage estimates united states.,National occupational employment and wage estimates— U. S.,Social studies
retrieved from:. bls. gov/oes/2013/may/oes nat. htm.,Retrieved from: bls. gov oes 2013 may oes nat. htm.,Social studies
"capps, r, fix, m, passel, j. s, ost, j,&perez-lopez, d.(2003).","Capps, R, Fix, M, Passel, J. S, Ost, J,& Perez-Lopez, D. (2003).",Social studies
immigrant families andworkers: aprofile ofthelow-wage immigrant workforce.,Immigrant families and workers: profile of di low-wage immigrant workforce.,Social studies
"urban institute,4, 1-8.","Urban Institute,4, 1-8.",Social studies
centers fordisease control andprevention.,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.,Social studies
promoting cultural sensitivity: apractical guide for tuberculosis programs that provide services topersons fromvietnam.,Promoting Being aware and respectful ofthe differences between pipo's cultures and backgrounds: practical guide for tuberculosis programs wey dey provide services to persons from Vietnam.,Social studies
"atlanta, ga: u. s. department ofhealth and human services.","Atlanta, GA: U. S. Department of Health and Human Services.",Social studies
promoting cultural sensitivity: apractical guide for tuberculosis programs that provide services topersons fromsomalia.,Promoting Being aware and respectful ofthe differences between pipo's cultures and backgrounds: practical guide for tuberculosis programs wey dey provide services to persons from Somalia.,Social studies
centers fordisease control and prevention.,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.,Social studies
promoting cultural sensitivity: apractical guide for tuberculosis programs that provide services topersons fromlaos.,Promoting Being aware and respectful ofthe differences between pipo's cultures and backgrounds: practical guide for tuberculosis programs wey dey provide services to persons from Laos.,Social studies
"cheng, e. m, chen, a,&cunningham, w.(2007).","Cheng, E. M, Chen, A,& Cunningham, W. (2007).",Social studies
primary language andreceipt ofrecommended healthcare among hispanics in the united states.,Primary language and receipt of recommended healthcare among Hispanics for U. S.,Social studies
"journal of general internal medicine,22 (2),283-288.","Journal of General Internal Medicine,22(2), 283-288.",Social studies
"chilton, m, black, m. m, berkowitz, c, casey, p. h, cook, j, cutts, d, jacobs, r. r, heeren, t, ettinger decuba, s, coleman, s, meyers, a.&frank, d. a.(2009).","Chilton, M, Black, M. M, Berkowitz, C, Casey, P. H, Cook, J, Cutts, D, Jacobs, R. R, Heeren, T, Ettinger de Cuba, S, Coleman, S, Meyers, A. &Frank, D. A.(2009).",Social studies
food insecurity and risk ofpoor health among us-born children ofimmigrants.,When person or family no get sure access to enough food regularly and risk of poor health among US-born children of immigrants.,Social studies
"american journal ofpublic health,99(3), 556-562.","American Journal of Di science and practice of keeping whole communities and populations healthy,99(3), 556-562.",Social studies
"doi:10. 2105/ ajph. 2008. 144394 darrow, j. h.(2015).","DOI: 10.2105 ajph.2008.144394 Darrow, J. H.(2015).",Social studies
"getting refugees towork: astreet-level perspective ofrefugee resettlement policy. refugee survey quarterly, 1-29.","Getting refugees to work: street-level perspective of refugee resettlement policy. Refugee Survey Quarterly,1-29.",Social studies
"doi:10. 1093/rsq/hdv002 derose, k. p, escarce, j. j,&lurie, n.(2007).","DOI: 10.1093 rsq hdv002 DeRose, K. P, Escarce, J. J, & Lurie, N.(2007).",Social studies
"immigrants andhealth care: sources ofvulnerability. health affairs,26 (5).","Immigrants and healthcare: sources of vulnerability. Health Affairs,26(5).",Social studies
"doi:10. 1377/hlthaf f.26. 5. 1258 derose, k. p, bahney, b. w, lurie, n,&escarce, j. j.(2009).","DOI: 10.1377 hlthaff.26.5.1258 DeRose, K. P, Bahney, B. W, Lurie, N,& Escarce, J. J. (2009).",Social studies
"immigrants andhealth care access, quality, and cost.","Immigrants and healthcare access, quality and cost.",Social studies
"medical care research and review, 66(4), 355-408.","Medical Care Research and Review,66(4), 355-408.",Social studies
"doi:10. 1 177/1077558708330425 diamond, l, wilson-stronks, a,&jacobs, e. a.(2010).","DOI: 10.1177 1077558708330425 Diamond, L, Wilson-Stronks, A,& Jacobs, E. A.(2010).",Social studies
dohospitals measure uptothenational culturally and linguistically appropriate services standards?,Do hospitals measure upto di national culturally and linguistically appropriate services standards?,Social studies
"medical care,48(12).","Medical Care,48(12).",Social studies
"doi:10. 1097/ mlr. 0b013e3181f380bc dubard, c. a,&gizlice, z.(2008).","DOI: 10.1097 mlr.0b013e3181f380bc Dubard, C. A,& Gizlice, Z.(2008).",Social studies
"language spoken anddifferences inhealth status, access tocare, and receipt of preventive services among us hispanics.","Language spoken and differences for health status, access to care and receipt of preventive services among U. S. Hispanics.",Social studies
"american journal of public health,98 (11),2021-2028.","American Journal of Di science and practice of keeping whole communities and populations healthy,98(11), 2021-2028.",Social studies
federal reserve bank ofkansas city(2010).,Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City(2010).,Social studies
astudy oftheunbanked &underbanked consumer inthetenth federal reserve district.,Study of di unbanked & underbanked consumer for di Tenth Federal Reserve District.,Social studies
language barriers tohealth care intheunited states.,"wetin dey stop pipo to tok wella becuz dem no sabi same language, na him dey cause problem for communication to healthcare for U. S.",Social studies
"thenew england journal ofmedicine, 355, 229-231.","Di New England Journal of Medicine,355, 229-231.",Social studies
"doi:10. 1056/nejmp058316 garces, i. c, scarinci, i. c, harrison, l.(2006).","DOI: 10.1056 nejmp058316 Garces, I. C, Scarinci, I. C, Harrison, L.(2006).",Social studies
anexamination ofsociocultural factors associated with health and healthcare seeking among latina immigrants.,Examination of sociocultural factors associated wit health and healthcare seeking among Latina immigrants.,Social studies
"journal of immigrant and minority health,8 (4),377-385.","Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health,8(4), 377-385.",Social studies
living inamerican: challenges facing newimmigrants andrefugees.,Living for America: challenges wey dey face new immigrants and refugees.,Social studies
robert woodjohnson foundation.,Robert Wood Johnson Foundation.,Social studies
"goss, s, wade, a, skirvin, j. p, morris, m, bye, k. m,&huston, d.(2013).","Goss, S, Wade, A, Skirvin, J. P, Morris, M, Bye, K. M,& Huston, D.(2013).",Social studies
effects ofunauthorized immigration ontheactuarial status ofthesocial security trustfunds: actuarial note no.151.,"Effects of unauthorized immigration on di actuarial status of di US government programme wey provide financial support to old, disabled and unemployed pipo trust funds: Actuarial Note No.151.",Social studies
"social security administration, office ofthechief actuary. retrieved from:. ssa. gov/ oact/ notes/pdf notes/ note151. pdf.","US government programme wey provide financial support to old, disabled and unemployed pipo Administration, Office of di Chief Actuary. Retrieved from: ssa. gov oact notes pdf notes note151. pdf.",Social studies
"jacobs, e, chen, a. h, karliner, l. s, agger -gupta, n,&mutha, s.(2006)the need formore research on language barriers in healthcare: a proposed research agenda.","Jacobs, E, Chen, A. H, Karliner, L. S, Agger-Gupta, N,& Mutha, S.(2006) — di need for more research on wetin dey stop pipo to tok wella becuz dem no sabi same language, na him dey cause problem for communication for healthcare: proposed research agenda.",Social studies
"milbank, 84(1), 111-133.","Milbank, 84(1),111-133.",Social studies
saving practices ofnew canadians from vietnam andlaos.,Saving practices of new Canadians from Vietnam and Laos.,Social studies
"journal ofconsumer affairs,33(1), 48-75.","Journal of Consumer Affairs,33(1), 48-75.",Social studies
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credit card practices ofvietnamese and laotian newcomers tocanada: a10-year longitudinal perspective.,Credit card practices of Vietnamese and Laotian newcomers to Canada:10-year longitudinal perspective.,Social studies
"journal of family economic issues,28 (2),227-246.","Journal of Family Economic Issues,28(2), 227-246.",Social studies
"doi:10. 1007/s10834--9 martone, j, munoz, l, lahey, r, yoder, l,&gurewitz, s.(2011). theimpact ofremittances ontransnational families.","DOI: 10.1007 s10834--9 Martone, J, Munoz, L, Lahey, R, Yoder, L,& Gurewitz, S.(2011). Di impact of remittances on transnational families.",Social studies
"journal of poverty, 15(4), 444-464.","Journal of Poverty,15(4), 444-464.",Social studies
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through thefront door: the housing outcomes ofnew lawful immigrants.,Through di front door: di housing outcomes of new lawful immigrants.,Social studies
"international migration review, 42(1),134-162.","International Migration Review,42(1), 134-162.",Social studies
doi:10. 1 111/j.2007. 001 16. x migration policy institute.,DOI: 10.1111 j.2007.00116. x Migration Policy Institute.,Social studies
"population and civilian labor force,1980-pr esent.","Population and civilian labor force,1980-present.",Social studies
"nam, y, lee, e. j, huang, j,&kim, j.(2015).","Nam, Y, Lee, E. J, Huang, J,& Kim, J. (2015).",Social studies
"financial capability, asset ownership, and later-age immigration: evidence from asample oflow-income older asian immigrants.","Di practical ability to manage one's money and make good financial decisions, asset ownership and later-age immigration: evidence from sample of low-income older Asian immigrants.",Social studies
"journal ofgerontological social work,58 (2),1 14-127 14p.","Journal of Gerontological Social Work,58(2), 114-127.",Social studies
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foreign-born labor forcein2007. uscensus bureau. retrieved from www. census. gov/prod/2009pubs/acs-10. pdf.,Foreign-born labor force for 2007. U. S. Census Bureau. Retrieved from census. gov prod 2009pubs acs-10. pdf.,Social studies
new yorkdepartment ofconsumer affairs.,New York Department of Consumer Affairs.,Social studies
"ngo-metzker, q, sorkin, d. h, phillips, r. s, greenfield, s, massagli, m. p, clarridge, b,&kaplan, s. h.(2007).","Ngo-Metzker, Q, Sorkin, D. H, Phillips, R. S, Greenfield, S, Massagli, M. P, Clarridge, B,& Kaplan, S. H.(2007).",Social studies
providing high-quality care forlimited english proficient patients: the importance oflanguage concordance and interpreter use.,Providing high-quality care for limited English proficient patients: di importance of language concordance and interpreter use.,Social studies
"journal of general internal medicine,22 (2),324-330.","Journal of General Internal Medicine,22(2), 324-330.",Social studies
"oecd framework forstatistics onthedistribution ofhousehold income, consumption and wealth.","OECD framework for statistics on di distribution of household income, consumption and wealth.",Social studies
office ofrefugee resettlement.,Office of Refugee Resettlement.,Social studies
matching grant program.,Matching grant program.,Social studies
retrieved from:. acf. hhs. gov/programs/orr/programs/matching-grants.,Retrieved from: acf. hhs. gov programs orr programs matching-grants.,Social studies
"between arock andahard place: landlords, latinos, anti-illegal immigrant ordinances, and housing discrimination.","Between rock and hard place: landlords, Latinos, anti-illegal immigrant ordinances and housing discrimination.",Social studies
"vanderbilt law review, 62(55).","Vanderbilt Law Review,62(55).",Social studies
"orrenius, p. m,&zavodny, m.(2009).","Orrenius, P. M, & Zavodny, M.(2009).",Social studies
doimmigrants work inriskier jobs?,Do immigrants dey work for riskier jobs?,Social studies
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"healthcare access, useofservices, andexperiences among undocumented mexicans andother latinos.","Healthcare access, use of services and experiences among undocumented Mexicans and other Latinos.",Social studies
"archives of internal medicine,167 (21), 2354. 90 immigrant and refugee families osili, u. o,&paulson, a.(2008).","Archives of Internal Medicine,167(21), 2354.",Social studies
institutions andfinancial development: evidence from international migrants in the united states.,Institutions and financial development: evidence from international migrants for U. S.,Social studies
"review of economics and statistics,90, 498517.","Review of Economics and Statistics,90, 498-517.",Social studies
"(2010), immigrants andhousing markets inmid-size metropolitan areas.","(2010), immigrants and housing markets for mid-size metropolitan areas.",Social studies
"international migration review, 44, 442476.","International Migration Review,44, 442-476.",Social studies
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building bridges tothemiddle class: the role ofcommunitybased organizations in asian american wealth accumulation.,Building bridges to di middle class: di role of community-based organizations for Asian American Di process of gradually building up money and financial assets overtime.,Social studies
"economic development quarterly, 24, 288303.","Economic Development Quarterly,24, 288-303.",Social studies
"paulson, a, singer, a, newber ger, r,&smith, j.(2006).","Paulson, A, Singer, A, Newburger, R,& Smith, J. (2006).",Social studies
financial access forimmigrants: lessons from diverse perspectives.,Financial access for immigrants: lessons from diverse perspectives.,Social studies
"chicago, il: federal reserve bank of chicago and the brookings institution.","Chicago, IL: Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago and di Brookings Institution.",Social studies
"perreira, k. m, crosnoe, r, fortuny, k, pedroza, j, ulvestad, k, weiland, c, yoshikawa, h,&chaudry, a.(2012).","Perreira, K. M, Crosnoe, R, Fortuny, K, Pedroza, J, Ulvestad, K, Weiland, C, Yoshikawa, H,& Chaudry, A.(2012).",Social studies
aspe issue brief: barriers toimmigrants' access tohealth and human services.,ASPE issue brief: barriers to immigrants' access to health and human services.,Social studies
usdepartment ofhealth and human services.,U. S. Department of Health and Human Services.,Social studies
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immigrant america: aportrait (3rd ed.).,Immigrant America: portrait(3rd ed.).,Social studies
berkeley: university ofcalifornia press.,Berkeley: University of California Press.,Social studies
"reardon-anderson, j, capps, r,&fix, m. e.(2002).","Reardon-Anderson, J, Capps, R,& Fix, M. E.(2002).",Social studies
the health and well-being ofchildr eninimmigrant families.,Di health and well-being of children for immigrant families.,Social studies
"the urban institute: washington, dc.","Di Urban Institute: Washington, DC.",Social studies
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"rhine, s. l,&greene, w. h.(2006).","Rhine, S. L,& Greene, W. H.(2006).",Social studies
the determinants ofbeing unbanked foru. s.,Di determinants of being unbanked for U. S.,Social studies
"journal of consumer affairs,40 (1),21-40.","Journal of Consumer Affairs,40(1), 21-40.",Social studies
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immigration andhousing rents inamerican cities.,Immigration and housing rents for American cities.,Social studies
"journal ofurban economics,61(2), 345-371.","Journal of Urban Economics,61(2), 345-371.",Social studies
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"doi:10. 1 17/104973231454975 singer, a.","DOI: 10.1177 104973231454975 Singer, A.",Social studies
immigrant workers in the u. s. labor force.,Immigrant workers for U. S. labor force.,Social studies
"washington dc, brookings institute.","Washington DC, Brookings Institute.",Social studies
"solheim, c. a, rojas-garcia, g, olson, p. d,&zuiker, v. s.(2012).","Solheim, C. A, Rojas-Garcia, G, Olson, P. D,& Zuiker, V. S.(2012).",Social studies
"family influences ongoals, remittance use, andsettlement ofmexican immigrant agricultural workers inminnesota.","Family influences on goals, remittance use and settlement of Mexican immigrant agricultural workers for Minnesota.",Social studies
"journal ofcomparative family studies,43(2), 237-259.","Journal of Comparative Family Studies,43(2), 237-259.",Social studies
"solheim, c. a,&yang, p. n.(2010).","Solheim, C. A,& Yang, P. N.(2010).",Social studies
understanding generational differences infinancial literacy inhmong immigrant families.,Understanding generational differences for Having knowledge and skills to understand and manage money well for Hmong immigrant families.,Social studies
"family and consumer sciences resear chjournal, 38(4), 435-454.","Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal,38(4), 435-454.",Social studies
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migration and remittances.,Migration and remittances.,Social studies
united nation high commissioner forrefugees (unhcr).,United Nation High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR).,Social studies
"(2015, june 18).","(2015, June 18).",Social studies
worldwide displacement hitsalltime high as war and persecution increase.,Worldwide displacement hit all-time high as war and persecution dey increase.,Social studies
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u. s. general accounting office.,U. S. General Accounting Office.,Social studies
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"(2003, dec. 1). poverty growsamong childr enofimmigrants inu. s.","(2003, Dec. 1). Poverty dey grow among children of immigrants for U. S.",Social studies
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"vanhook, j,&ballistreri, k. s.(2006).","VanHook, J,& Ballistreri, K. S.(2006).",Social studies
"ineligible parents, eligible children: food stamps receipt, allotments, and food insecurity among children ofimmigrants.","Ineligible parents, eligible children: Government vouchers or benefits wey pipo use to buy food when dem no get enough money receipt, allotments and When person or family no get sure access to enough food regularly among children of immigrants.",Social studies
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"household language useandhealth care access, unmet need, andfamily impact among cshcn.","Household language use and healthcare access, unmet need and family impact among CSHCN.",Social studies
"pediatrics,124 (4).","Pediatrics,124(4).",Social studies
"zallman, l, woolhandler, s, himmelstein, d, bor, d,&mccormick, d.(2013).","Zallman, L, Woolhandler, S, Himmelstein, D, Bor, D,& McCormick, D. (2013).",Social studies
immigrants contributed an estimated$115. 2 billion more tothemedicare trust fund than they took outin2002-2009.,Immigrants contribute estimated $115.2 billion more to di Medicare trust fund than dem take out for 2002-2009.,Social studies
"health affairs,32(6), 1153-1 160.","Health Affairs,32(6), 1153-1160.",Social studies
"doi:10. 1377/hlthaf f.2012. 1223 zonta, m.(2004).","DOI: 10.1377 hlthaff.2012.1223 Zonta, M.(2004).",Social studies
the role ofethnic banks intheresidential patterns ofasian americans: the case oflos angeles(unpublished doctoral dissertation).,Di role of ethnic banks for di residential patterns of Asian Americans: di case of Los Angeles(unpublished doctoral dissertation).,Social studies
"liz wieling (family social science, univ ersity of minnesota)introduction ""after all, when astone isdropped intoapond, thewater continues quivering even after thestone hassunk to the bottom.""","Liz Wieling (Family Social Science, University of Minnesota)— Introduction:'After all, wen stone dey dropped into pond, di water dey continue quivering even after di stone don sink to di bottom.'",Social studies
"immigrant andrefugee journeys areoften idealized inliterature, art, andhistorical accounts.","Immigrant and refugee journeys often dey idealized for literature, art and historical accounts.",Social studies
their experiences arerepeatedly distilled intotales ofextreme adventure where rugged courage andtheintense desire forabetter lifeovershadow allother experiences.,Their experiences dey repeatedly distilled into tales of extreme adventure where rugged courage and di intense desire for better life dey overshadow all other experiences.,Social studies
"individuals andfamilies become characters inlargerthan lifestories, archetypes ofhuman heroism anddetermination.","Individuals and families dey become characters for larger-than-life stories, archetypes of human heroism and determination.",Social studies
"asobservers, weareoften drawn inbytherich stories of survival, pain, andloss where people flee oppression andsacrifice tofind unparalleled freedom andendless opportunity. these arethestories thatincite respect, shock, andawe.","As observers, we often dey drawn in by di rich stories of survival, pain and loss where pipo dey flee oppression and sacrifice to find unparalleled freedom and endless opportunity. These na di stories wey dey incite respect, shock and awe.",Social studies
"however, immigrants andrefugees aremore than stories, more than theromanticized inspiring tales.","However, immigrants and refugees dey more than stories, more than di romanticized inspiring tales.",Social studies
"they arerealpeople who have suffered thelossofloved ones, homes, andcommunities.","Dem na real pipo wey don suffer di loss of loved ones, homes and communities.",Social studies
themultilayered impact ofdisplacement isfrequently manifest inone'smental health and felt for multiple generations.,Di multilayered impact of displacement dey frequently manifest for one's mental health and dey felt for multiple generations.,Social studies
"leaving home, bychoice orbyforce, isadisorienting experience.","Leaving home, by choice or by force, na disorienting experience.",Social studies
"through migration orviadisplacement and resettlement, immigrants andrefuges areoften confronted with anew world, new language, andnew social norms.","Through migration or via displacement and resettlement, immigrants and refugees often dey confronted wit new world, new language and new social norms.",Social studies
they face culture shock ineveryday lifeevents experienced asforeign.,Dem dey face culture shock for everyday life events experienced as foreign.,Social studies
"immigrants andrefugees experience disruption intheir sense ofself, often having togive upprevious occupations, privilege, and social status.","Immigrants and refugees dey experience disruption for their sense of self, often having to give up previous occupations, privilege and social status.",Social studies
they lose community andestablished systems ofsocial support.,Dem dey lose community and established systems of social support.,Social studies
"inaddition toexpected adjustment difficulties, immigrants andrefugees may face additional challenges wrought bypoor physical andmental heath resulting from exposure tomultiple traumatic events andextensive histories ofloss.","for addition to expected adjustment difficulties, immigrants and refugees fit face additional challenges brought by poor physical and mental health resulting from exposure to multiple traumatic events and extensive histories of loss.",Social studies
"they may experience severe and long-lasting psychological struggles including depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress symptoms, andadjustment problems.","Dem fit experience severe and long-lasting psychological struggles including depression, anxiety, post-Mental and emotional pain wey person get after going through terrible experience symptoms and adjustment problems.",Social studies
"compounding these difficulties canbelogistical complexities such asalackofjobs, affordable housing, culturally andlinguistically appropriate health andmental health services, financial resources, andsocial support.","Compounding these difficulties fit be logistical complexities such as lack of jobs, affordable housing, culturally and linguistically appropriate health and mental health services, financial resources and social support.",Social studies
"inspite ofthemyriad ofobstacles, struggles, anddaily stressors, most immigrants andrefugees demonstrate tremendous resilience asthey persist infinding ways towork around, cope with, orovercome displacement related challenges.","In spite of di myriad of obstacles, struggles and daily stressors, most immigrants and refugees dey demonstrate tremendous resilience as dem persist for finding ways to work around, cope wit, or overcome displacement-related challenges.",Social studies
"some, especially highly skilled immigrants with means, might notexperience agreat deal of negative stress.","Some, especially highly skilled immigrants wit means, fit not experience great deal of negative stress.",Social studies
"unfortunately, thisrepresents asmall segment ofthetotal immigrant population.","Unfortunately, dis dey represent small segment of di total immigrant population.",Social studies
"refugees and undocumented immigrants come with inherent riskfactors andmany other immigrants share experiences ofloss and traumatic stress, including multiple exposures to traumatic events.","Refugees and undocumented immigrants dey come wit inherent risk factors and many other immigrants dey share experiences of loss and Mental and emotional pain wey person get after going through terrible experience, including multiple exposures to traumatic events.",Social studies
"mental health treatments andemer ging directions forfuture prevention andintervention research arealso discussed.94 immigrant and refugee families 5. 1 different shared experiences""while every refugee' sstory isdiffer entand their anguish personal, they allshareacommon thread of uncommon courage the courage not only to survive, but to persever e and rebuild their shattered lives.""","Mental health treatments and emerging directions for future prevention and intervention research dey also discussed. Different shared experiences— 'While every refugee's story dey different and their anguish personal, dem all dey share common thread of uncommon courage— di courage not only to survive, but to persevere and rebuild their shattered lives.'",Social studies
families immigrate totheunited states forvarious reasons.,Families dey immigrate to U. S. for various reasons.,Social studies
"some voluntary immigrants may choose toleave their country oforigin insearch ofbetter opportunities, while others areforced toflee duetowar, political oppression, orsafety issues.","Some voluntary immigrants fit choose to leave their Di country where person was born or originally come from for search of better opportunities, while others dey forced to flee due to war, political oppression or safety issues.",Social studies
"some families manage tostaytogether over thecourse oftheir journey, butmany are divided orseparated through themigration process.","Some families manage to stay together over di course of their journey, but many dey divided or separated through di migration process.",Social studies
"this isparticularly trueofrefugee families whose migration isinvoluntary, hasty, andtraumatic innature (rousseau, mekki-berrada, &moreau, 2001).","Dis dey particularly true of refugee families whose migration dey involuntary, hasty and traumatic for nature.",Social studies
"refugees inparticular may have survived traumatic events andviolence including war, torture, multiple relocations, andtemporary resettlements inrefugee camps (glick, 2010; jamil, hakim-larson, farrag, kafaji, &jamil, 2002; keys &kane,2004; steel etal.","Refugees for particular fit have survived traumatic events and violence including war, torture, multiple relocations and temporary resettlements for refugee camps.",Social studies
"thedestructive nature ofwar""involves anentire reorganization offamily andsociety around along-lasting traumatic situation"" (rousseau, drapeau,&platt,1999, p. 1264) andindividuals and families may continue toexperience traumatic stress related tofamily leftbehind andstressful living conditions long after they have resettled.",Di destructive nature of war 'dey involve entire reorganization of family and society around long-lasting traumatic situation' and individuals and families fit continue to experience Mental and emotional pain wey person get after going through terrible experience related to family left behind and stressful living conditions long after dem don resettled.,Social studies
"when itcomes tomental andphysical health, refugees areapartofanespecially vulnerable population.","Wen e come to mental and physical health, refugees na part of especially vulnerable population.",Social studies
"while some adjust tolifeintheunited states without significant problems, studies have documented thenegative impact ofatrauma history onthepsychological wellbeing ofrefugees (keller etal.","While some dey adjust to life for U. S. without significant problems, studies don document di negative impact of trauma history on di psychological wellbeing of refugees.",Social studies
"pre-migration experiences may precipitate refugee mental health concerns, particularly intheearly stages of resettlement (beiser,2006; birman &tran,2008).","Pre-migration experiences fit precipitate refugee mental health concerns, particularly for di early stages of resettlement.",Social studies
"these experiences may include witnessing andexperiencing violence, fleeing from afamily home located inacityorvillage thatisbeing destroyed, andwalking tofindrefuge andsafety fordays orweeks with limited food, water, andresources.","These experiences fit include witnessing and experiencing violence, fleeing from family home located for city or village wey dey being destroyed, and walking to find refuge and safety for days or weeks wit limited food, water and resources.",Social studies
"post-migration conditions, such asadapting toliving inanovercrowded refugee camp ortrying torebuild lifeinaforeign country, aswell asstructural stressors, such asgoing through thelegal process ofobtaining asylum orlegal documentation, may alsoprecipitate acascade ofindividual mental health andfamily relational issues.","Post-migration conditions, such as adapting to living for overcrowded Temporary place wey dem build to house pipo wey run from their country or trying to rebuild life for foreign country, as well as structural stressors, such as going through di legal process of obtaining asylum or legal documentation, fit also precipitate cascade of individual mental health and family relational issues.",Social studies
"thepreandpost-migration experiences and stressors ofrefugees may compound andcreate a""cumulative effectontheir ability tocope"" (lacroix &sabbah, 2011). spending weeks, months, oreven years managing stressful andtraumatic experiences may weaken an individual or family's ability to cope with continued change and the multiple stressors of resettlement.","Di pre-and post-migration experiences and stressors of refugees fit compound and create 'cumulative effect on their ability to cope'. Spending weeks, months or even years managing stressful and traumatic experiences fit weaken individual or family's ability to cope wit continued change and di multiple stressors of resettlement.",Social studies
"however, when working with immigrants andrefugees, itisimportant toremember thatone cannot assume thatallmembers ofanaffected population arepsychologically traumatized andwillhave thesame mental health symptoms(shannon, wieling, simmelink, &becher,2014; silove, 1999).","However, wen working wit immigrants and refugees, e important to remember say one no fit assume say all members of affected population dey psychologically traumatized and go get di same mental health symptoms.",Social studies
"further, mental health symptomatology isexpressed inavariety ofculturally sanctioned ways.","Further, mental health symptomatology dey expressed for variety of culturally sanctioned ways.",Social studies
"forexample, somatic complaints such asheadaches, dizziness, palpitations, andfatigue might beaway toavoid stigma andshame often associated admitting to mental health problems(shannon, w ieling, im, becher, & simmelink, 2014).","for example, somatic complaints such as headaches, dizziness, palpitations and fatigue fit be way to avoid stigma and shame often associated wit admitting to mental health problems.",Social studies
weknow thatthemental health ofanindividual does notexist inisolation; theexperiences ofoneperson in afamily orcommunity affectothers.,We know say di mental health of individual no dey exist for isolation; di experiences of one person for family or community dey affect others.,Social studies
"unfortunately, themajority oftheliterature about immigrant andrefugee mental health focuses onmental health asanindividual process; thesystemic ramifications areunderstudied and underrepresented in academic literature (landau, mittal, &w ieling, 2008; nickerson et al,","Unfortunately, di majority of di literature about immigrant and refugee mental health dey focus on mental health as individual process; di systemic ramifications dey understudied and underrepresented for academic literature.",Social studies
"much oftheliterature onimmigrant and refugee mental health focuses onloss and trauma, aswell asthe depression andanxiety thatfrequently accompanies them.","Much of di literature on immigrant and refugee mental health dey focus on loss and trauma, as well as di depression and anxiety wey frequently dey accompany dem.",Social studies
"theinterconnectedness ofloss, trauma, depression, and anxiety canmake itdifficult todistinguish what isthepresenting problem.","Di interconnectedness of loss, trauma, depression and anxiety fit make am difficult to distinguish wetin na di presenting problem.",Social studies
"when looking atone, others arelikely tobepresent.","Wen you dey make we look one, others likely dey present.",Social studies
"those who work with immigrants andrefugees must beaware ofhow loss, trauma, depression, and anxiety may each affect an immigrant or refugee' s mental health aswell as family health and functioning.","Those wey dey work wit immigrants and refugees must be to know how loss, trauma, depression and anxiety fit each affect immigrant or refugee's mental health aswell as family health and functioning.",Social studies
"loss inevery story ofimmigration orrefugee resettlement, acommon thread ofloss ispresent.","Loss— for every story of immigration or refugee resettlement, common thread of loss dey present.",Social studies
"some losses are obvious, likethelossofhome andcommunity ortheseverance from family andfriends who have been leftbehind orkilled.","Some losses dey obvious, like di loss of home and community or di severance from family and friends wey don dey left behind or killed.",Social studies
"loss does notendwith resettlement; new losses areexperienced andrevealed overtime, some ofwhich can be obscure, like the loss of identity, social status, language, and cultural norms and values.","Loss no dey end wit resettlement; new losses dey experienced and revealed overtime, some of which fit be obscure, like di loss of identity, social status, language and Di unwritten rules and expectations wey guide how pipo behave in a particular culture and values.",Social studies
"the grief response that comes with loss canmanifest asphysical, emotional, and psychological responses including crying, anger, numbness, confusion, anxiety, agitation, fatigue, andguilt.","Di grief response wey dey come wit loss fit manifest as physical, emotional and psychological responses including crying, anger, numbness, confusion, anxiety, agitation, fatigue and guilt.",Social studies
"the loss ofsurroundings, possessions, ideas, andbeliefs such asthose experienced byimmigrants andrefugees cantrigger agrief response similar to those experienced with the death of someone close (casado, hong,& harrington,2010).","Di loss of surroundings, possessions, ideas and beliefs such as those experienced by immigrants and refugees fit trigger grief response similar to those experienced wit di death of someone close.",Social studies
some losses andtheaccompanying grief areconsidered normative inunited states culture.,Some losses and di accompanying grief dey considered normative for U. S. culture.,Social studies
"forinstance, thedeath ofaloved oneorchild isarecognized lossandthemanifestations ofgrief associated with thattype oflossare understood bymost people.","for example, di death of loved one or child na recognized loss and di manifestations of grief associated wit dat type of loss dey understood by most pipo.",Social studies
"however, some losses andtheaccompanying grief aredisenfranchised, meaning that grief occurs when aloss isexperienced butisnotrecognized byothers asloss.","However, some losses and di accompanying grief dey disenfranchised, meaning say grief dey occur wen loss dey experienced but e no dey recognized by others as loss.",Social studies
"forexample, kurdish families who resettled intheunited states while saadam hussein waspresident may have found thatpeople intheunited states didnotunderstand why they would miss living iniraq.","for example, Kurdish families wey resettle for U. S. while Saddam Hussein na president fit have found say pipo for U. S. no understand why dem go miss living for Iraq.",Social studies
migratory grief isconsidered adisenfranchised grief (casado etal.,Migratory grief dey considered Grief over a loss wey others no recognise or accept as a real loss.,Social studies
"asaresult, people with disenfranchised grief areunable toexpress feelings, andgrief-related emotions arenotrecognized or accepted by others.","as result, pipo wit Grief over a loss wey others no recognise or accept as a real loss no dey able to express feelings, and grief-related emotions no dey recognized or accepted by others.",Social studies
another way tothink about grief andlossexperienced byimmigrants andrefugees istounderstand theambiguous nature oftheir loss experiences.,Another way to think about grief and loss experienced by immigrants and refugees nato understand di ambiguous nature of their loss experiences.,Social studies
"there aretwotypes ofambiguous loss(boss, 2004).",There dey two types of A loss wey no be clear or final— like when person dey missing but you no know if dem dey alive.,Social studies
the first occurs when a loved oneisphysically absent butemotionally present because there isnoproof ofdeath.,Di first dey occur wen loved one dey physically absent but emotionally present because there no dey proof of death.,Social studies
"akidnapped child, soldiers missing inaction, family separation during war, deportation, andnatural disasters canallresult inthis type ofambiguous loss.","Kidnapped child, soldiers missing for action, family separation during war, deportation and natural disasters fit all result for dis type of A loss wey no be clear or final— like when person dey missing but you no know if dem dey alive.",Social studies
the second type ofambiguous loss occurs when aloved oneisphysically present but emotionally absent.,Di second type of A loss wey no be clear or final— like when person dey missing but you no know if dem dey alive dey occur wen loved one dey physically present but emotionally absent.,Social studies
"dementia, brain injuries, depression, ptsd, andhomesickness canallresult inindividuals being physically present butemotionally orcognitively they have""gone toanother place and time""(boss, 2004, p238).","Dementia, brain injuries, depression, PTSD and homesickness fit all result for individuals being physically present but emotionally or cognitively dem don 'goto another place and time'.",Social studies
"family members who experience ambiguous loss describe physical andmental pain asaresult (robins,2010).",Family members wey dey experience A loss wey no be clear or final— like when person dey missing but you no know if dem dey alive dey describe physical and mental pain as result.,Social studies
the lack ofclarity associated with ambiguous loss canlead toboundary ambiguity expressed inconflict andambivalence inthenew roles family members take after resettlement.,Di lack of clarity associated wit A loss wey no be clear or final— like when person dey missing but you no know if dem dey alive fit lead to Confusion about who dey inside the family and who no dey— who count as family expressed for conflict and ambivalence for di new roles family members dey take after resettlement.,Social studies
"ambiguous loss isalso often characterized byfrozen grief, represented bytheimmobilization ofindividuals andrelational systems stuck between theoldandnew worlds(boss, 2004).","A loss wey no be clear or final— like when person dey missing but you no know if dem dey alive also dey often characterized by frozen grief, represented by di immobilization of individuals and relational systems stuck between di old and new worlds.",Social studies
"although ambiguous lossisacommon experience forimmigrants and refugees, limited research hasbeen conducted with this population (rousseau, rufagari, bagilishya, & measham, 2004).","Although A loss wey no be clear or final— like when person dey missing but you no know if dem dey alive na common experience for immigrants and refugees, limited research don dey conducted wit dis population.",Social studies
most people experience grief reactions toamild ormoderate degree and then return topre-loss levels of functioning without theneed forclinical intervention.,Most pipo dey experience grief reactions to mild or moderate degree and then dey return to pre-loss levels of functioning without di need for clinical intervention.,Social studies
"however, some sufferamore complicated grief reaction (bonanno etal.","However, some dey suffer more When grief no go away but instead become long and very disabling— interfering with daily life reaction.",Social studies
complicated grief occurs when acute grief becomes achronic debilitating condition(shear etal.,When grief no go away but instead become long and very disabling— interfering with daily life dey occur wen acute grief dey become chronic debilitating condition.,Social studies
"however, research indicates that complicated grief isdistinguishable from depression and other trauma-related psychological disorders.","However, research dey indicate say When grief no go away but instead become long and very disabling— interfering with daily life dey distinguishable from depression and other trauma-related psychological disorders.",Social studies
"intense longing fortheobject ofloss, preoccupation with sorrow, extreme focus ontheloss, and problems accepting thedeath orloss areallsymptoms ofcomplicated grief.","Intense longing for di object of loss, preoccupation wit sorrow, extreme focus on di loss, and problems accepting di death or loss na all symptoms of When grief no go away but instead become long and very disabling— interfering with daily life.",Social studies
"complicated grief canexacerbate psychiatric disorders and influence therelationship between loss, symptoms ofposttraumatic stress and depression (nickerson etal.","When grief no go away but instead become long and very disabling— interfering with daily life fit exacerbate psychiatric disorders and influence di how two things dey related loss, symptoms of post-Mental and emotional pain wey person get after going through terrible experience and depression.",Social studies
anxiety and depression theliterature onimmigrants' andrefugees' experiences with anxiety anddepression isoften intermingled with thatofloss andtrauma.,Anxiety and depression— di literature on immigrants' and refugees' experiences wit anxiety and depression dey often intermingled wit dat of loss and trauma.,Social studies
comorbidity canmake itdifficult tomeasure andseparate onesymptom cluster from theother butthetwocomprise different psychological diagnoses.,Comorbidity fit make am difficult to measure and separate one symptom cluster from di other but di two dey comprise different psychological diagnoses.,Social studies
"anxiety ischaracterized asanormal human emotion thatweallexperience atonetime oranother. symptoms include feelings offearandpanic, uncontrollable andobsessive thoughts, problems sleeping, shortness ofbreath, andaninability tobestillandclam.","Anxiety dey characterized as normal human emotion wey we all dey experience at one time or another. Symptoms include feelings of fear and panic, uncontrollable and obsessive thoughts, problems sleeping, shortness of breath and inability to be still and calm.",Social studies
anxiety disorders areserious andsufferers areoften burdened byconstant fearandworry further exacerbating comorbidity ofptsd symptoms.,"Anxiety disorders dey serious and sufferers often dey burdened by constant fear and worry, further exacerbating comorbidity of PTSD symptoms.",Social studies
the literature onanxiety prevalence ofimmigrant andrefugee populations islimited but expected tobehighly correlated with thatofptsd anddepression.,Di literature on anxiety prevalence of immigrant and refugee populations dey limited but expected to be highly correlated wit dat of PTSD and depression.,Social studies
"depression, described asfeelings ofsadness, unhappiness, orfeeling down, isanormative reaction andcanbefeltinvarying degrees.","Depression, described as feelings of sadness, unhappiness or feeling down, na normative reaction and fit dey felt for varying degrees.",Social studies
"however, clinical depression isamood disorder inwhich thefeelings ofsadness interfere with everyday lifeforweeks orlonger.","However, clinical depression na mood disorder for which di feelings of sadness dey interfere wit everyday life for weeks or longer.",Social studies
"immigrants andrefugees areathigh riskforclinical depression duetotheir extensive histories ofloss, potential trauma, andresettlement.","Immigrants and refugees dey at high risk for clinical depression due to their extensive histories of loss, potential trauma and resettlement.",Social studies
studies have also shown thatdepression among immigrants isrelated totheprocess of adapting tothehost culture (roosa etal.,Studies also don show say depression among immigrants dey related to di process of adapting to di host culture.,Social studies
"depression isknown tocause long-term psychosocial dysfunction inrefugees who have experienced violence andloss(such asinbosnian refugees resettled inaustralia; momartin etal, 2004).",Depression dey known to cause long-term When mental health problems affect person's ability to function socially and emotionally for refugees wey don experience violence and loss.,Social studies
"itshould notbeseen asamarginal issue when compared toptsd andother trauma related diagnoses (weine, henderson, &kuc, 2005).",E no should be seen as marginal issue wen compared to PTSD and other trauma-related diagnoses.,Social studies
depression isacommon clinical problem with successful available treatments.,Depression na common clinical problem wit successful available treatments.,Social studies
"(2008) arguethatitshould beatargetofintervention andfocus ofhealth education with immigrant and refugee populations.98 immigrant and refugee families traumatic stress many immigrants andmost refugees have experienced orbeen exposed totraumatic events such aswitnessing orexperiencing violence, torture, loss, orseparation.","(2008)dey argue say e should be target of intervention and focus of health education wit immigrant and refugee populations. Mental and emotional pain wey person get after going through terrible experience— many immigrants and most refugees don experience or dey exposed to traumatic events such as witnessing or experiencing violence, torture, loss or separation.",Social studies
psychological trauma ismost often notlimited toasingle traumatic event butincludes direct andindirect events over thecourse ofaperson' slife(jamil etal.,Psychological trauma most often no dey limited to single traumatic event but dey include direct and indirect events over di course of person's life.,Social studies
"traumatic stress affects how people seetheworld, how they find meaning intheir lives, daily functioning and family relationships.","Mental and emotional pain wey person get after going through terrible experience dey affect how pipo dey see di world, how dem dey find meaning for their lives, daily functioning and family relationships.",Social studies
several studies have documented theeffects oftraumatic stress related towarviolence on refugee health.,Several studies don document di effects of Mental and emotional pain wey person get after going through terrible experience related to war violence on refugee health.,Social studies
"(2009)conducted ameta-analysis with over 80, 000 refugees andreported aweighted prevalence rateofptsd ranging between 13% and25%.","(2009)conduct meta-analysis wit over 80,000 refugees and report weighted Di percentage or number of pipo in a group wey get a particular condition at anytime of PTSD ranging between 13%and 25%.",Social studies
"inonecritical review, torture andcumulative exposure to traumatic events were thestrongest factors associated with ptsd, with some refugee communities experiencing ptsd prevalence rates ashigh as86% (hollifield etal.","For one critical review, torture and cumulative exposure to traumatic events na di strongest factors associated wit PTSD, wit some refugee communities experiencing PTSD prevalence rates as high as 86%.",Social studies
"astudy ofsymptom severity ofptsd and depression with 688refugees inthenetherlands supported these findings, reporting thatalack ofrefugee status andaccumulation oftraumatic events were associated with ptsd anddepression (knipscheer, sleijpen, mooren, terheide, &vanderaa, 2015).","Study of symptom severity of PTSD and depression wit 688 refugees for di Netherlands support these findings, reporting say lack of refugee status and accumulation of traumatic events dey associated wit PTSD and depression.",Social studies
"studies have also established theenduring effects ofpre-migration traumatic stress even years after resettlement(marshall, schell, elliott, berthold, &chun,2005) aswell asthelong-term physical health effects ofrefugee trauma, including hypertension, vascular disease, coronary, metabolic syndrome, and diabetes(crosby,2013).","Studies also don establish di enduring effects of pre-migration Mental and emotional pain wey person get after going through terrible experience even years after resettlement aswell as di long-term physical health effects of refugee trauma, including hypertension, vascular disease, coronary, metabolic syndrome and diabetes.",Social studies
"forimmigrants andrefugees, itispossible thatentire families willhave been exposed tosimilar traumatic events andlosses thatdisrupt family andsocial networks (nickerson etal.","For immigrants and refugees, e dey possible say entire families go have been exposed to similar traumatic events and losses wey dey disrupt family and netwok of pipo wey dey connect through tori, especially dem wey dey use intanet, like facebook, wey pipo dey share tori, foto, and vidio.",Social studies
"warischaracterized asanattack oncivilian populations where citizens aretargeted, dislocated, anddisplaced (lacroix &sabbath,2011). according tosideris (2003), war unravels thesocial fabric ofacommunity asthe""social arrangements andrelationships which provide people with inner security, asense ofstability, andhuman dignity arebroken down""(p. 715).","War dey characterized as attack on civilian populations where citizens dey targeted, dislocated and displaced. According to Sideris (2003), war dey unravel di social fabric of community as di 'social arrangements and relationships wey dey provide pipo wit inner security, sense of stability and Di special worth and value wey every human being get just by being human dey broken down'.",Social studies
"forinstance, people may experience asense ofhelplessness, damaged trust, shame, and/orhumiliation associated with traumatic experiences such asrape, physical violence, witnessing death, being forced toviolently turn ononeanother, and having to flee homes.","for example, pipo fit experience sense of helplessness, damaged trust, shame and or humiliation associated wit traumatic experiences such as rape, physical violence, witnessing death, being forced to violently turn on one another, and having to flee homes.",Social studies
theharmful effects oftraumatic stress onmental health andfunctioning have been well documented inrefugee populations (dejong etal.,Di harmful effects of Mental and emotional pain wey person get after going through terrible experience on mental health and functioning don dey well documented for refugee populations.,Social studies
"according tothediagnostic and statistical manual ofmental disorders(dsm-v), ptsd andasd correspond toasituation inwhich aperson experiences orwitnesses threatened or actual death, serious injury, orsexual violence andcontinues tobear themark oftheexperience after theevent hasceased.","According to di Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders(DSM-V), PTSD and ASD dey correspond to situation for which person dey experience or witness threatened or actual death, serious injury or sexual violence and dey continue to bear di mark of di experience after di event don ceased.",Social studies
"ptsd andasd arecharacterized byacluster ofsymptoms that cause symptom-related stress or functional impairment(e. g, difficulty inwork orhome life).","PTSD and ASD dey characterized by cluster of symptoms wey dey cause symptom-related stress or functional impairment(e. g, difficulty for work or home life).",Social studies
"symptoms thatarepresent between three days and onemonth after thetraumatic event areclassified asasd, symptoms thatlastmore than onemonth areclassified asptsd.",Symptoms wey dey present between three days and one month after di traumatic event dey classified as ASD; symptoms wey dey last more than one month dey classified as PTSD.,Social studies
both adults andchildren canhave ptsd andasd.,Both adults and children fit have PTSD and ASD.,Social studies
"traumatic stress and family relationships family consequences ofexposure totraumatic stress include financial strain, abuse, neglect, poverty, chronic illness, andincreased family stress (weine etal.","Mental and emotional pain wey person get after going through terrible experience and family relationships— family consequences of exposure to Mental and emotional pain wey person get after going through terrible experience include financial strain, abuse, neglect, poverty, chronic illness and increased family stress.",Social studies
"individuals with ptsd, forexample, arelikely tobemore reactive, more violent, andmore withdrawn inrelationships with aspouse orchildren (gewirtz, polusny, degarmo, khaylis, &erbes, 2010; nickerson et al.","Individuals wit PTSD, for example, dey likely to be more reactive, more violent and more withdrawn for relationships wit spouse or children.",Social studies
floods in sahrawi refugee camps in southwest algeria.,Floods for Sahrawi refugee camps for southwest Algeria.,Social studies
wikimedia commons cc by-sa 2. 0.,Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 2.0.,Social studies
"the literature shows that family attachment and support can have aprotective effect onthose who have experienced traumatic stress, while separation from family canexacerbate symptoms (rousseau etal.","Di literature dey show say family attachment and support fit have When something reduce the chance of bad outcomes— it protect person from harmon those wey don experience Mental and emotional pain wey person get after going through terrible experience, while separation from family fit exacerbate symptoms.",Social studies
"this makes family mental health andfunctioning particularly important when there hasbeen lossandexposure to traumatic stress (nickerson et al,",Dis dey make family mental health and functioning particularly important wen there don dey loss and exposure to Mental and emotional pain wey person get after going through terrible experience.,Social studies
research shows that parental ptsd cansignificantly affect theparent-child relationship.,Research dey show say parental PTSD fit significantly affect di parent-child relationship.,Social studies
"arecent study innorthern uganda also found that exposure totrauma wasassociated with family violence (saile, neuner, ertl, &catani, 2013).",Recent study for northern Uganda also find say exposure to trauma dey associated wit family violence.,Social studies
"inthesame study, children reported thattheir worst traumatic experiences were related tofamily violence, notexposure towarviolence.","For di same study, children report say their worst traumatic experiences dey related to family violence, not exposure to war violence.",Social studies
"similarly, catani, jacob, schauer, kohila, andneuner (2008)found thatfollowing warandthetsunami insrilanka, 14%of children reported anexperience offamily violence asthemost distressing experience oftheir lives.","Similarly, Catani, Jacob, Schauer, Kohila and Neuner (2008)find say following war and di tsunami for Sri Lanka,14% of children report experience of family violence as di most distressing experience of their lives.",Social studies
"alater study with bythesame research group (sriskandarajah, neuner,&catani, 2015)found thatchildren listed their worst experiences offamily violence immediately after warexperiences, butreported thatparental care significantly moderated therelationship between mass trauma andinternalizing behavior problems.","Later study by di same research group find say children list their worst experiences of family violence immediately after war experiences, but report say parental care significantly moderate di how two things dey related mass trauma and internalizing behavior problems.",Social studies
"this literature documents theubiquitous impact oftraumatic stress onfamily relationships andunderscores theneed forprevention and intervention treatment modalities targeting individual andrelational family systems forpopulations commonly exposed to multiple traumatic events (catani, 2010).",Dis literature dey document di ubiquitous impact of Mental and emotional pain wey person get after going through terrible experience on family relationships and dey underscore di need for prevention and intervention treatment modalities targeting individual and relational family systems for populations commonly exposed to multiple traumatic events.,Social studies
child mental health children arenotimmune tothedeleterious effects oftheimmigrant and refugee experience.,Child mental health— children no dey immune to di deleterious effects of di immigrant and refugee experience.,Social studies
"children who fleeadversity toseek refuge inaforeign land often endure physical andmental challenges during aturbulent anduncertain journey (fazel, reed, panter -brick,&stein, 2012).",Children wey dey flee adversity to seek refuge for foreign land often dey endure physical and mental challenges during turbulent and uncertain journey.,Social studies
"they may experience traumatic experiences intheir homelands (war, torture, terrorism, natural disasters, famine), lose orbecome separated from family and caregivers, and endure traumatic journeys toahost country(crossing rivers and largebodies ofwater, experiencing hunger, lacking shelter; pumariega, rothe, &pumariega, 2005).","Dem fit experience traumatic experiences for their homelands (war, torture, terrorism, natural disasters, famine), lose or become separated from family and caregivers, and endure traumatic journeys to Di country wey receive and give a home to immigrants or refugees.",Social studies
"children may feelrelief once they resettle, butresettlement canbring additional challenges including financial stressors, difficulties finding adequate housing andemployment, alack ofcommunity support, new family roles andresponsibilities thatoften transcend developmental age, acculturation stressors such asgenerational conflict between children andparents, anda struggle to form a cultural identity in the resettled country. 5. 2 mental health challenges 101 abed (15)fled syria to escape the war and was separated from his parents along the way.","Children fit feel relief once dem resettle, but resettlement fit bring additional challenges including financial stressors, difficulties finding adequate housing and employment, lack of community support, new family roles and responsibilities wey often dey transcend developmental age, acculturation stressors such as Disagreement and conflict between different generations— especially parents and children between children and parents, and struggle to form cultural identity for di resettled country.",Social studies
trocaire dsc 1009 cc by 2. 0.,Trocaire DSC 1009 CC BY 2.0.,Social studies
"the cumulative effects ofbeing exposed totraumatic events and/orstressors preand post-migration may overwhelm thecoping ability andresilience ofchildren, leading toanaccumulation ofstressors thatmay have profound and lasting effects onchildren' sability tomeet developmental milestones and optimally function onaday-to-day basis.","Di cumulative effects of being exposed to traumatic events and or stressors pre-and post-migration fit overwhelm di coping ability and resilience of children, leading to accumulation of stressors wey fit have profound and lasting effects on children's ability to meet developmental milestones and optimally function on day-to-day basis.",Social studies
"this isespecially true forchildren who experience post-migration detention orenter a host country unaccompanied (hodes, jagdev, chandra, &cunnif f,2008; rijneveld, boer, bean, &korfker,2005).",Dis dey especially true for children wey experience post-migration detention or enter Di country wey receive and give a home to immigrants or refugees unaccompanied.,Social studies
"immigrant andrefugee children may continue tosufferfrom similar conditions asadults, such asanxiety disorders, depression, and ptsd(fox, burns, popovich, belknap, &frank-strombor g,2004).","Immigrant and refugee children fit continue to suffer from similar conditions as adults, such as anxiety disorders, depression and PTSD.",Social studies
"studies have shown that theprevalence ofptsd anddepression among resettled refugee children intheunited states is significantly higher than forchildren inthegeneral population (bronstein &montgomery, 2011; merikangas et al.",Studies don show say di prevalence of PTSD and depression among resettled refugee children for U. S. dey significantly higher than for children for di general population.,Social studies
"acommunity-based participatory study conducted bybetancourt, frounfelker, mishra, hussein, and falzarano, (2015)with somali bantu andbhutanese youth intheunited states found thatthese communities also identified areas of distress corresponding to western concepts of conduct disorders, depression, and anxiety.","Community-based participatory study conducted by Betancourt, Frounfelker, Mishra, Hussein and Falzarano (2015)wit Somali Bantu and Bhutanese youth for U. S. find say these communities also identify areas of distress corresponding to Western concepts of conduct disorders, depression and anxiety.",Social studies
"kelley harrell, gift ofthe dreamtime: awakening to the divinity of trauma, reader 's companion(2014).","Kelley Harrell, Gift ofthe Dreamtime: Awakening to the Divinity of Trauma, Reader's Companion(2014).",Social studies
addressing themental health needs ofimmigrants and refugees canbeacomplex challenge forproviders.,Addressing di mental health needs of immigrants and refugees fit be complex challenge for providers.,Social studies
research hasshown thatimmigrants andrefugees underutilize mental health services.,Research don show say immigrants and refugees dey underutilize mental health services.,Social studies
"this canbeforavariety ofreasons including thestigma associated with mental health inmany cultures, theinability toproperly diagnose because ofcultural andlinguistic barriers, lessaccess tohealth insurance, lack offinancial resources, andthe propensity toseek help from traditional healers orproviders before seeking western mental health services (betancourt et al,","Dis fit be for variety of reasons including di stigma associated wit mental health for many cultures, di inability to properly diagnose because of cultural and linguistic barriers, less access to Agreement wey pay for person's medical bills and healthcare costs, lack of financial resources, and di propensity to seek help from traditional healers or providers before seeking western mental health services.",Social studies
treating immigrants andrefugees within theunited states offersunique opportunities andchallenges.,Treating immigrants and refugees within U. S. dey offer unique opportunities and challenges.,Social studies
"therefugee experience should beconsidered multidimensional andmultifaceted, andthetherapeutic perspective should be sensitive toeach family member 'sexperience (lacroix &sabbath,2011). however, many westernized treatments and interventions donotaccommodate forsuch complexities.","Di refugee experience should be considered multidimensional and multifaceted, and di therapeutic perspective should be sensitive to each family member's experience. However, many westernized treatments and interventions no dey accommodate for such complexities.",Social studies
using westernized treatments without proper cultural tailoring andtesting may notbeideal oreven ethical forthose who come from other countries.,Using westernized treatments without proper cultural tailoring and testing fit not be ideal or even ethical for those wey dey come from other countries.,Social studies
many immigrants andrefugees come from collectivistic cultures thatprioritize interpersonal relationships andsocial networks above theneeds oftheindividual.,"Many immigrants and refugees dey come from collectivistic cultures wey dey prioritize interpersonal relationships and netwok of pipo wey dey connect through tori, especially dem wey dey use intanet, like facebook, wey pipo dey share tori, foto, and vidio above di needs of di individual.",Social studies
"thewestern concept ofpsychotherapy asanindividualized treatment modality that involves talking with astranger might notfitwith their more collectivist worldview. many of thenative cultures ofimmigrants andrefugees take aholistic approach tomental health andarelikely toseek assistance from religious leaders, community elders, orfamily members (akinsulure-smith, 2009; bemak &chung, 2008; fabri, 2001).","Di Western concept of psychotherapy as individualized A specific method or type of treatment wey dem use in health or therapy settings wey dey involve talking wit stranger fit not fit wit their more collectivist worldview. Many of di native cultures of immigrants and refugees dey take holistic approach to mental health and dey likely to seek assistance from religious leaders, community elders or family members.",Social studies
"inanew country, they may beseparated from family andindigenous leaders andmay not know where to turn for help.","For new country, dem fit be separated from family and indigenous leaders and fit not know where to turn for help.",Social studies
another challenge istheinadequacy ofwestern psychiatric categories' ability todescribe refugees' problems(adams etal.,Another challenge na di inadequacy of Western psychiatric categories' ability to describe refugees' problems.,Social studies
"some critics question thevalidity ofapplying western-based trauma models todiverse cultures and societies and believe that theptsd diagnosis may notfully capture thecomplexities ofthe psychological responses that arise from individuals who have experienced human rights violations (marsela, 2010; silove, 1999).",Some critics dey question di validity of applying Western-based trauma models to diverse cultures and societies and dey believe say di PTSD diagnosis fit not fully capture di complexities of di psychological responses wey dey arise from individuals wey don experience human rights violations.,Social studies
available treatments may also belimited intheir abilities totreat immigrants and refugees.,Available treatments fit also be limited for their abilities to treat immigrants and refugees.,Social studies
"many western treatments areindividually based, which may beappropriate forptsd andother intrapsychic diagnoses but have notproven effective orsufficient toaddress therelational and systemic consequences oftrauma and displacement-related stressors.","Many Western treatments dey individually based, which fit be appropriate for PTSD and other intrapsychic diagnoses but no don prove effective or sufficient to address di relational and systemic consequences of trauma and displacement-related stressors.",Social studies
"incontrast, community connections offerprotective factors thatcanbuffermental health andrelational functioning ofimmigrants andrefugees.","For contrast, community connections dey offer protective factors wey fit buffer mental health and relational functioning of immigrants and refugees.",Social studies
"studies show thatliving incommunities high in same-ethnic neighbors may contribute tolower levels ofdepression amongst immigrants andrefugees (ostir, eshbach, markides, &goodwin,2003).",Studies dey show say living for communities high for same-ethnic neighbors fit contribute to lower levels of depression amongst immigrants and refugees.,Social studies
practitioners canincorporate thepositive influence ofcommunity support intreatment approaches.,Practitioners fit incorporate di positive influence of community support for treatment approaches.,Social studies
"traditional healers canbeused tohelp immigrants andrefugees inculturally relevant andacceptable ways, andfamily-level interventions canimprove psychological symptoms andaccess toservices (weine etal.","Traditional healers fit be used to help immigrants and refugees for culturally relevant and acceptable ways, and family-level interventions fit improve psychological symptoms and access to services.",Social studies
"families bring with them knowledge, competence, andvalues thatcanbeused during the intervention process to facilitate healing and foster resilience (lacroix &sabbath, 2011).","Families dey bring wit dem knowledge, competence and values wey fit be used during di intervention process to facilitate healing and foster resilience.",Social studies
"inmental health treatment forchildren, itisparticularly important toengage thechild' ssupport system.","For mental health treatment for children, e particularly important to engage di child's support system.",Social studies
"studies suggest thathigher levels offamily, community, andschool support arerelated tofewer psychological symptoms among children who have experienced war(betancourt &khan,2008).","Studies dey suggest say higher levels of family, community and school support dey related to fewer psychological symptoms among children wey don experience war.",Social studies
"family-based interventions may target improving theemotional functioning ofthefamily, identifying family patterns ofcoping, andmaking meaning ofthefamily' sexperience.","Family-based interventions fit target improving di emotional functioning of di family, identifying family patterns of coping, and making meaning of di family's experience.",Social studies
"schools offerasecure andpredictable environment inwhich immigrant andrefugee children struggling with anxiety, depression, and ptsd can be identified and receive supportive services.","Schools dey offer secure and predictable environment for which immigrant and refugee children wey dey struggling wit anxiety, depression and PTSD fit be identified and receive supportive services.",Social studies
"despite theprotective factors associated with community andfamily connections, caution must betaken to acknowledge thepotential complexities ofaparticular cultural community andtodevelop adeep understanding ofcontextual andrelational dynamics ofthegroup.","Despite di protective factors associated wit community and family connections, caution must be taken to acknowledge di potential complexities of particular cultural community and to develop deep understanding of contextual and relational dynamics of di group.",Social studies
many refugee communities share acomplex history involving conflict between groups from similar orsame ethnic backgrounds thatcanproblematize healing andcommunity building.,Many refugee communities dey share complex history involving conflict between groups from similar or same ethnic backgrounds wey fit problematize healing and community building.,Social studies
ptsd treatments avariety ofwestern therapies have demonstrated efficacy and/oreffectiveness fortreating ptsd inchildren andadults.,PTSD treatments— variety of Western therapies don demonstrate efficacy and or effectiveness for treating PTSD for children and adults.,Social studies
"net (schauer, neuner,&elbert, 2011) istheonly model specifically developed fortreating immigrant andrefugee populations inpost-conflict, lowincome contexts andhasbeen extensively researched with refugee populations (robjant &fazel, 2010; crumlish &o'rourke, 2010).","NET (Schauer, Neuner, & Elbert, 2011)na di only model specifically developed for treating immigrant and refugee populations for post-conflict, low-income contexts and don dey extensively researched wit refugee populations.",Social studies
"net integrates elements ofcognitive behavior therapy andtestimony therapy andisspecially targeted forindividuals who have been exposed tomultiple traumatic events intheir lifetime (seeschauer, neuner, &elbert, 2011forafulldescription ofthetreatment model).",NET dey integrate elements of cognitive behavior therapy and testimony therapy and dey specially targeted for individuals wey don dey exposed to multiple traumatic events for their lifetime.,Social studies
"arecent study conducted byslobodin andde jong (2015a) reviewed theliterature ontheefficacy oftreatments forasylum seekers andrefugees, including trauma focused interventions, group therapies, multidisciplinary interventions andpharmacological treatments.","Recent study conducted by Slobodin and de Jong (2015a) review di literature on di efficacy of treatments for asylum seekers and refugees, including trauma-focused interventions, group therapies, multidisciplinary interventions and pharmacological treatments.",Social studies
they reported thatthemajority ofstudies hadpositive outcomes forreducing trauma-related symptoms.,Dem report say di majority of studies get positive outcomes for reducing trauma-related symptoms.,Social studies
"however, the evidence mostly supports net and cbt as the recommended treatment modalities for refugees.","However, di evidence mostly dey support NET and CBT as di recommended treatment modalities for refugees.",Social studies
"parenting and family interventions fort raumaaffected immigrants and refugees the effects oftraumatic stress related towar, violence, and subsequent displacement have far-reaching implications forparent-child relationships.","Parenting and family interventions for trauma-affected immigrants and refugees— di effects of Mental and emotional pain wey person get after going through terrible experience related to war, violence and subsequent displacement get far-reaching implications for parent-child relationships.",Social studies
"there isasmall butdeveloping literature documenting theimportance ofparenting interventions forpopulations affected bytraumatic stress, asparents arethemost proximal resources toeffectively intervene andaffectchild outcomes (gewirtz etal.","There dey small but developing literature wey dey document di importance of parenting interventions for populations affected by Mental and emotional pain wey person get after going through terrible experience, as parents na di most proximal resources to effectively intervene and affect child outcomes.",Social studies
persistent intergenerational104 immigrant and refugee families transmission offamily violence accompanied byharsh parenting practices andlowpositive involvement between parents andchildren isonedimension ofacomplex setofconsequences related totraumatic stress thataffect family andcommunity functioning.,"Persistent When parents' experiences, traumas or behaviours pass down to their children and grandchildren of family violence accompanied by harsh parenting practices and low positive involvement between parents and children na one dimension of complex set of consequences related to Mental and emotional pain wey person get after going through terrible experience wey dey affect family and community functioning.",Social studies
"although resilience isreadily seen indisplaced communities, thelasting negative effects oftraumatic stress onindividual andfamily health isubiquitous across multiple generations.","Although resilience dey readily seen for displaced communities, di lasting negative effects of Mental and emotional pain wey person get after going through terrible experience on individual and family health dey ubiquitous across multiple generations.",Social studies
"thesequelae ofmaladaptive coping thatoften includes mental health disturbances, substance abuse andintimate partner violence, arefurther exacerbated bypoverty andsocial disparities thatplace these families onadelicate faultline.","Di sequelae of maladaptive coping wey often dey include mental health disturbances, The harmful use of alcohol, drugs or other substances in ways wey hurt the person and intimate partner violence, dey further exacerbated by poverty and social disparities wey dey place these families on delicate fault line.",Social studies
there arecurrently noevidence-based parent orfamily-level treatments fortraumatic stress.,There dey currently no evidence-based parent or family-level treatments for Mental and emotional pain wey person get after going through terrible experience.,Social studies
"areview oftheliterature onfamily-based interventions fortraumatized immigrants andrefugees conducted byslobodin anddejong (2015b) found only sixexperimental studies, four school-based andtwomultifamily support groups.","Review of di literature on family-based interventions for traumatized immigrants and refugees conducted by Slobodin and de Jong (2015b) find only six experimental studies, four school-based and two multifamily support groups.",Social studies
they validated thattheshortage ofresearch inthisarea currently does notallow foreffectiveness claims tobe made about family-based interventions with these populations.,Dem validate say di shortage of research for dis area currently no dey allow for effectiveness claims to be made about family-based interventions wit these populations.,Social studies
"however, asmall number ofresearchers worldwide have been advancing systemic treatments with promise.","However, small number of researchers worldwide don been advancing systemic treatments wit promise.",Social studies
"one such team iscomprised ofvivo international(vivo; www. vivo. org)researchers who have collaborated with postconflict communities forover adecade, primarily providing treatment forptsd.","One such team dey comprised of vivo international(vivo; vivo. org) researchers wey don collaborated wit post-conflict communities for over a decade, primarily providing treatment for PTSD.",Social studies
"one ofthese communities isin northern uganda, thesetting ofabrutal civil warthatlasted nearly twodecades through 2006.","One of these communities dey for northern Uganda, di setting of brutal Armed fighting wey happen inside one country between different groups of its own pipo wey last nearly two decades through 2006.",Social studies
involvement in thiscommunity revealed acritical need forparent andfamily-level interventions inaddition toptsd treatment.,Involvement for dis community reveal critical need for parent and family-level interventions for addition to PTSD treatment.,Social studies
"wieling andcolleagues adapted anevidence-based intervention called parent management training, oregon model (pmt o; patterson, 2005)which includes core components ofencouragement, positive involvement, setting limits, monitoring, andproblem solving tothecontext oftraumatic stress.","Wieling and colleagues adapt evidence-based intervention called Parent Management Training, Oregon Model (PMTO; Patterson,2005) wey include core components of encouragement, positive involvement, setting limits, monitoring and problem solving to di context of Mental and emotional pain wey person get after going through terrible experience.",Social studies
"additional content areas included the individual andrelational effects oftraumatic stress, intergenerational transmission ofviolence, substance abuse, andother risk-taking behaviors.","Additional content areas include di individual and relational effects of Mental and emotional pain wey person get after going through terrible experience, When parents' experiences, traumas or behaviours pass down to their children and grandchildren of violence, The harmful use of alcohol, drugs or other substances in ways wey hurt the person and other risk-taking behaviors.",Social studies
multi-method data collection approaches andtheparenting intervention were carefully tailored tofitthecultural characteristics ofnorthern uganda andthemodels was successfully tested forfeasibility ofimplementation in2012 with much promise(see wieling etal.,Multi-method data collection approaches and di parenting intervention dey carefully tailored to fit di cultural characteristics of northern Uganda and di model successfully test for feasibility of implementation for 2012 wit much promise.,Social studies
the research team iscurrently adapting andtesting asimilar model with thekaren refugee community intheunited states andhope tofurther testandimplement itwith other immigrant andrefugee groups intheunited states.,Di research team dey currently adapt and test similar model wit di Karen refugee community for U. S. and hope to further test and implement am wit other immigrant and refugee groups for U. S.,Social studies
"another approach that specifically targets thefamily and broader community level torebuild societies after conflict orresettlement iscalled thelinking human systems orlink approach (landau, mittal, &wieling, 2008).",Another approach wey specifically dey target di family and broader community level to rebuild societies after conflict or resettlement dey called di Linking Human Systems or LINK approach.,Social studies
"link isaspecific method ofengaging with individuals, families, andcommunities after trauma anddisaster. it suggests thatclinicians assess 1)individual, family, andcommunity resources,2)how resources balance against stressors, and 3)strengths and themes ofresilience, including connection tostories ofresilience within the family andcommunity facing past adversities.","LINK na specific method of engaging wit individuals, families and communities after trauma and disaster. E dey suggest say clinicians dey assess 1)individual, family and community resources,2) how resources dey balance against stressors, and 3)strengths and themes of resilience, including connection to stories of resilience within di family and community facing past adversities.",Social studies
"the link approach identifies specific intervention strategies to targettheindividual, family, andcommunity levels.","Di LINK approach dey identify specific intervention strategies to target di individual, family and community levels.",Social studies
"ateach level, service providers work collaboratively with theindividual, family, orcommunity toidentify goals andmobilize resources.","At each level, service providers dey work collaboratively wit di individual, family or community to identify goals and mobilize resources.",Social studies
"this approach demonstrates an ecologically based, culturally informed, andmultilevel intervention thatholds promise forimmigrant andrefugee groups affected by trauma and disaster. 5. 3 mental health treatments 105 5. 4 emerging directions thechallenges ofworking with immigrant andrefugee families aremany andtheneed toimprove ourtheoretical andmethodological approaches iscritical.","Dis approach dey demonstrate ecologically based, culturally informed and multilevel intervention wey dey hold promise for immigrant and refugee groups affected by trauma and disaster. Emerging directions— di challenges of working wit immigrant and refugee families dey many and di need to improve our theoretical and methodological approaches dey critical.",Social studies
"first, there isaneed formore in-depth andclinically-based research with families.","First, there dey need for more in-depth and clinically-based research wit families.",Social studies
"while thebody ofknowledge about individuals isvast, family interventions remain understudied.","While di body of knowledge about individuals dey vast, family interventions remain understudied.",Social studies
there isalso aneed formore culturally sensitive research methods andinterventions that gobeyond typical westernized ideas andmethods andthatmove toincorporate indigenous strengths andcultural-specific practices.,There dey also need for more culturally sensitive ways to do research and interventions wey dey go beyond typical westernized ideas and methods and wey dey move to incorporate indigenous strengths and culture-specific practices.,Social studies
"third, weneed trained, culturally sensitive practitioners who arewilling tograpple with thecomplexities of working with immigrants andrefugees toeffectively intervene andachieve positive outcomes.","Third, we need trained, culturally sensitive practitioners wey dey willing to grapple wit di complexities of working wit immigrants and refugees to effectively intervene and achieve positive outcomes.",Social studies
"last, weneed an appropriate resettlement infrastructure(e. g, school, medical, legal, economic, political) tosupport thehealthy transition and integration ofimmigrant and refugee communities.","Last, we need appropriate resettlement infrastructure(e. g, school, medical, legal, economic, political)to support di healthy transition and integration of immigrant and refugee communities.",Social studies
"asthenumber ofrefugees intheworld continues togrow, weneed stronger andproactive policies andprograms tosupport their resettlement process.","As di number of refugees for di world continue to grow, we need stronger and proactive policies and programs to support their resettlement process.",Social studies
"forexample, amore comprehensive infrastructure forpromoting successful refugee resettlement would involve screening andassessing formental health, inaddition totherequired physical health examinations conducted within months ofarrival, andbuilding provider capacity across resettlement states fortreating individual and relational levels ofmental health functioning.","for example, more comprehensive infrastructure for promoting successful refugee resettlement go involve screening and assessing for mental health, for addition to di required physical health examinations conducted within months of arrival, and building provider capacity across resettlement states for treating individual and relational levels of mental health functioning.",Social studies
"atabroader level, ahost oflegal, human rights and policy level changes will need tobeachieved nationally andglobally toreduce thepunitive stressors associated with undocumented immigrant status, which impact the daily lives of millions in this country.","At broader level, host of legal, human rights and policy level changes go need to be achieved nationally and globally to reduce di punitive stressors associated wit undocumented immigrant status, which dey impact di daily lives of millions for dis country.",Social studies
"ariwas abright-eyed, precocious child with bigbrown eyes.","Ari na bright-eyed, precocious child wit big brown eyes.",Social studies
attheyoung ageof5hewas fullofcreative ideas and imaginative scenarios.,At di young age of 5 he dey full of creative ideas and imaginative scenarios.,Social studies
"""i'm stronger than superman!""",I stronger pass Superman!',Social studies
hesaid with unbending confidence while whizzing around the living room of his family's first floor apartment.,He tok wit unbending confidence while dey whizz around di living room of his family's first floor apartment.,Social studies
"""he is obsessed with superheroes,""his older brother amed responded.","He dey obsessed wit superheroes,'his older brother Amed respond.",Social studies
"ariclimbed ontheback ofthecouch, puthisfisted hands onhiships, puffedouthischest andwith asteely smile ripped open hisbuttoned shirt revealing ablue t-shirt with theiconic superman semblazoned across thechest.","Ari climb on di back of di couch, put his fisted hands on his hips, puff out his chest and wit steely smile rip open his buttoned shirt revealing blue T-shirt wit di iconic Superman emblazoned across di chest.",Social studies
"""iam stronger than superman!""",I stronger pass Superman!',Social studies
heyelled ashethrew onearmintheairandjumped offthecouch.,He yell ashe throw one arm for di air and jump off di couch.,Social studies
"hecontinued to run around the room, making whooshing noises and stopping every few seconds to flex his tiny arm muscles.","He continue to run around di room, making whooshing noises and stopping every few seconds to flex his tiny arm muscles.",Social studies
"""we didn't have superheroes in kurdistan,"" amed said.","We no get superheroes for Kurdistan,' Amed tok.",Social studies
"""atleast i don't remember them.""",Atleast I no dey remember dem.',Social studies
"""how old were you when you left kurdistan?""",How old you dey wen you leave Kurdistan?',Social studies
"""i was 7, ari was 3.""","I dey 7, Ari dey 3.'",Social studies
"""and how long have you been in the united states?""",And how long you don dey for U. S?',Social studies
"""a little over a year,"" he replied.","Small over a year,'he reply.",Social studies
at that moment ari and amed' s mom entered the room with a large warm disk of flatbread wrapped in towel.,At dat moment Ari and Amed's mom enter di room wit large warm disk of flatbread wrapped for towel.,Social studies
"""for you,""she said, handing me the bread.","For you,'she tok, handing me di bread.",Social studies
ari rushed over to grab apiece but was swatted away by his mother's hand.,Ari rush over to grab piece but his mother's hand swat am away.,Social studies
she began talking to him in arabic.,She begin talking to am for Arabic.,Social studies
"""she is telling him to act like a good boy and to stop running around,""ahmed translated.","She dey tell am to act like good boy and to stop running around,'Ahmed translate.",Social studies
"ahmed was9. hewastallforhisage, slender, andvery softspoken.","Ahmed na 9. He dey tall for his age, slender and very soft-spoken.",Social studies
heandhisfather were theonly twointhehouse who spoke english fluently. this meant ahmed wasoften tasked with translating forthefamily. sometimes heappeared to enjoy this.,He and his father na di only two for di house wey dey speak English fluently. Dis mean say Ahmed often dey tasked wit translating for di family. Sometimes he dey appear to enjoy dis.,Social studies
at other times he looked burdened.,for other times he dey look burdened.,Social studies
"""little boys are full of energy,"" i said while watching ari flex his muscles at his mother.","Small boys dey full of energy,'I tok while watching Ari flex his muscles at his mother.",Social studies
"atthatmoment theloud grumbling sound ofthegarbage truck came inthrough theopen window. theheavy machine wheeled infront ofthehouse, itshydraulics letoutaviolent gush ofairasitthrust itsiron teeth intothelargedumpster.","At dat moment di loud grumbling sound of di garbage truck come in through di open window. Di heavy machine wheel for front of di house, its hydraulics let out violent gush of air as e thrust its iron teeth into di large dumpster.",Social studies
"thedumpster waseffortlessly thrown upintheair, itscontent dumping intotheback ofthetruck.","Di dumpster dey effortlessly thrown up for di air, its content dumping into di back of di truck.",Social studies
henwith awhoosh and a gush it was slammed back down to earth with aloud bang.,Then wit whoosh and gush e dey slammed back down to earth wit loud bang.,Social studies
the rigidness inhisbody was instantaneous.,Di rigidness for his body dey instantaneous.,Social studies
allsuper hero powers melted away. hiseyes grew largeand glazed over.,All superhero powers melt away. His eyes grow large and glaze over.,Social studies
"hisface contorted intothatofhorror. hescreamed uncontrollably. thegregarious little boywasgone, and in his place the embodiment of terror.","His face contort into that of horror. He scream uncontrollably. Di gregarious small boy don gone, and for his place na di embodiment of terror.",Social studies
"""what is wrong?""",Wetin dey wrong?',Social studies
his mother grabbed him.,His mother grab am.,Social studies
she pulled his head into her chest and started singing.,She pull his head into her chest and start singing.,Social studies
"""big trucks remind him ofthe tanks,""ahmed said nonchalantly.","Big trucks dey remind am of di tanks,'Ahmed tok nonchalantly.",Social studies
"""he was on the playground back home when the tanks came.",He dey for di playground back home wen di tanks come.',Social studies
"the soldiers shot his friends.""",Di soldiers shoot his friends.',Social studies
"unsure of how to respond, a quiet""oh"" slipped from my lips.","Unsure of how to respond, quiet 'oh' slip from my lips.",Social studies
"""they shot his friends?""",Dem shoot his friends?',Social studies
"""yes, they shot everyone.","Yes, dem shoot everybody.'",Social studies
they didn' tcare.,Dem no dey care.',Social studies
they killed children.,Dem kill children.',Social studies
ahmed spoke with authority but without emotion.,Ahmed speak wit authority but without emotion.,Social studies
aricontinued screaming forseveral more minutes ashismother sang androcked him.,Ari continue screaming for several more minutes as his mother sing and rock am.,Social studies
the garbage truck finished emptying thedumpsters anddrove away. itsloud hum resonating throughout thecomplex asitleft.,Di garbage truck finish emptying di dumpsters and drive away. Its loud hum dey resonate throughout di complex as e leave.,Social studies
after itwasgone and the usual sounds ofthe apartment complex returned ari slowly calmed down.,"After e don go and di usual sounds of di apartment complex return, Ari slowly calm down.",Social studies
his mother smiled and motioned tome and the bread she had handed me minutes before.,His mother smile and motion tome and di bread she don hand me minutes before.,Social studies
"""she wants you to eat the bread,""ahmed said.","She dey want you to eat di bread,'Ahmed tok.",Social studies
ilooked down atmyhands.,I look down at my hands.,Social studies
myeyes moved toari.,My eyes move to Ari.,Social studies
theboystronger than superman slowly crept back tolife.,Di boy wey stronger pass Superman slowly creep back to life.,Social studies
"heyawned, andhismother kissed thetopofhishead.","He yawn, and his mother kiss di top of his head.",Social studies
helooked down athischest andthen instinctively flexed histinyarm in a show of power before shyly burying his head in his mother's arm.,He look down at his chest and then instinctively flex his tiny arm for show of power before shyly burying his head for his mother's arm.,Social studies
discussion questions 1. what are some mental health challenges that may arise in this family?,Discussion questions— 1. Wetin some mental health challenges wey fit arise for dis family?,Social studies
"how might an educator, social worker, therapist, religious/spiritual leader, employer, etc.","How educator, social worker, therapist, religious spiritual leader, employer, etc. fit respond?",Social studies
"helpful links the national child traumatic stress network (nctsn). nctsn. org/ nctsn' s mission is to raise the standard of care and improve access to services for traumatized children, their families and communities throughout the united states.","Helpful links— Di National Child Mental and emotional pain wey person get after going through terrible experience Network (NCTSN): nctsn. org — NCTSN mission nato raise di standard of care and improve access to services for traumatized children, their families and communities throughout U. S.",Social studies
"their website contains information for parents and caregivers, school personnel, and professionals.","Their website dey contain information for parents and caregivers, school personnel and professionals.",Social studies
"the center for victims of t ortur e (cvt). cvt. or g/resources#sthash. myqihj8t. dpuf cvt believes in the exchange of knowledge, ideas and creative strategies to heal torture survivors and inspire effective action to end torture worldwide.","Di Center for Victims of Torture (CVT): cvt. org — CVT dey believe for di exchange of knowledge, ideas and creative strategies to heal torture survivors and inspire effective action to end torture worldwide.",Social studies
bridging refugee youth and children's services(br ycs). brycs. or g108 immigrant and refugee families brycs maintains the nation's largest online collection of resources related to refugee immigrant children and families.,Bridging Refugee Youth and Children's Services (BRYCS): brycs. org — BRYCS dey maintain di nation's largest online collection of resources related to refugee immigrant children and families.,Social studies
healthcare challenges from thedeveloping world: postimmigration refugee medicine.,Healthcare challenges from di developing world: post-immigration refugee medicine.,Social studies
"also, children who witness ipv aremore likely toexperience anxiety, depression, ptsd, andaggression than children with no exposure toipv (kitzmann, gaylord, holt,&kenny,2003; wolfe, crooks, lee, &mcintyre-smith,2003).","Also, children wey witness IPV dey more likely to experience anxiety, depression, PTSD and aggression than children wit no exposure to IPV.",Social studies
ipv canalso befatal.,IPV fit also be fatal.,Social studies
"studies show thatimmigrant women aremore likely than united states-born women todie from ipv (frye, hosein, waltermaurer, blaney,&wilt,2005).",Studies dey show say immigrant women dey more likely than U. S.-born women to die from IPV.,Social studies
"ipv isparticularly threatening forundocumented immigrants astheir access topolice andsocial services islimited andaccusations ofabuse inthepresence ofa child can lead to both deportation and alternative custody arrangements (rogerson, 2012).",IPV dey particularly threatening for undocumented immigrants as their access to police and social services dey limited and accusations of abuse for di presence of child fit lead to both deportation and alternative custody arrangements.,Social studies
the unhasacampaign toendviolence against women acrosstheglobe.,Di UN get campaign to end violence against women across di globe.,Social studies
"for 2weeks in2013, activists and celebrities wore orange to raise awareness of violence against women.","For 2 weeks for 2013, activists and celebrities wear orange to raise awareness of violence against women.",Social studies
un women orange your world in 16 days cc by-nc-nd 2. 0.,UN Women— Orange Your World for 16 Days CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.,Social studies
"wewill explore ipv-related riskandprotective factors, andalso discuss how survivors cope with ipv. finally, wewill suggest how future research andinterventions might address ipv among immigrants and refugees.","We go explore IPV-related risk and protective factors, and also discuss how survivors dey cope wit IPV. Finally, we go suggest how future research and interventions fit address IPV among immigrants and refugees.",Social studies
which term to use?,Which term to use?,Social studies
"there iscontroversy over whether tocallpeople who have experience ipv ""victims""or""survivors.""",There dey controversy over whether to call pipo wey don experience IPV 'victims' or 'survivors'.,Social studies
"immigrants, refugees, andunited states-born citizens come from diverse cultures, ideologies, religions, and philosophies, each ofwhich canimpact perceptions ofipv. even within thesame culture orreligion, family traditions andnorms might greatly influence perceptions ofipv. recognizing thedifferent perspectives onipv around theworld willhelp toidentify points ofideological tension inorder tobetter understand thefactors that initiate and sustain ipv in immigrant and refugee populations.","Immigrants, refugees and U. S.-born citizens dey come from diverse cultures, ideologies, religions and philosophies, each of which fit impact perceptions of IPV. Even within di same culture or religion, family traditions and norms fit greatly influence perceptions of IPV. Recognizing di different perspectives on IPV around di world go help to identify points of ideological tension for order to better understand di factors wey dey initiate and sustain IPV for immigrant and refugee populations.",Social studies
"cultural variation in perceptions of ipv theworld health organization(who), which isaunited nations recognized agency, defines ipv as""behavior byanintimate partner orex-partner that causes physical, sexual orpsychological harm, including physical aggression, sexual coercion, psychological abuse andcontrolling behaviors""(2016).","Cultural variation for perceptions of IPV — di World Health Organization(WHO), which na United Nations recognized agency, dey define IPV as 'behavior by intimate partner or ex-partner wey dey cause physical, sexual or psychological harm, including physical aggression, When person use pressure or threats to force another person into sexual acts they no want, When person use words, threats or controlling behaviour to damage another person's mind and feelings and controlling behaviors'.",Social studies
"while who provides us with astandard definition ofipv, past and present contexts ofdifferent countries inform their ipv-focused laws andalso shape individuals' andfamilies' thoughts, feelings, andbehaviors regarding ipv. ineach culture, different implicit and explicit messages areendorsed through social, political, religious, educational, and economic institutions.","While WHO dey provide us wit standard definition of IPV, past and present contexts of different countries dey inform their IPV-focused laws and also dey shape individuals' and families' thoughts, feelings and behaviors regarding IPV. For each culture, different implicit and explicit messages dey endorsed through social, political, religious, educational and economic institutions.",Social studies
thefollowing examples highlight thevariance inipv across countries.,Di ones wey go follow dey highlight di variance for IPV across countries.,Social studies
"ineach case, the legal definition ofipv issimilar tothewho definition(including physical, sexual, psychological abuse and controlling behaviors), but there is wide variation in the perceptions of ipv.","For each case, di legal definition of IPV dey similar to di WHO definition(including physical, sexual, When person use words, threats or controlling behaviour to damage another person's mind and feelings and controlling behaviors), but there dey wide variation for di perceptions of IPV.",Social studies
"women report notfeeling permitted tostand uptoorrefuse male directives, which may reduce anyattempts tointerrupt violence orleave therelationship.","Women dey report not feeling permitted to stand upto or refuse male directives, which fit reduce any attempts to interrupt violence or leave di relationship.",Social studies
this isfurther exacerbated bythefactthatmen typically hold financial control intherelationship.,Dis dey further exacerbated by di fact say men typically dey hold financial control for di relationship.,Social studies
"patriarchal hegemony seems toreinforce tolerance forviolent, neglectful actions ofmen, while more mild actsbywomen (i. e, notcoming home ontime) areconsidered abusive tomen (abramzon, 2004).","Patriarchal hegemony dey seem to reinforce tolerance for violent, neglectful actions of men, while more mild acts by women(i. e, not coming home on time)dey considered abusive to men.",Social studies
"agovernment survey found themajority (64%) ofpeople reported thatifthey were faced with acase ofipv, they would encourage thepartners to reconcile, and a large majority(81%) was unaware that there are laws against ipv (segura, 2015).","Government survey find say di majority(64%) of pipo report say if dem face case of IPV, dem go encourage di partners to reconcile, and large majority(81%) no dey aware say there dey laws against IPV.",Social studies
zimbabwean women's relationship behaviors are also shaped by their religious and cultural beliefs.,Zimbabwean women's relationship behaviors also dey shaped by their religious and cultural beliefs.,Social studies
"a study by makahamadze, isacco, and chireshe (2012)found that many women opposed legislation intended to reduce ipv because they believed it went against their religious teachings.","Study by Makahamadze, Isacco and Chireshe (2012)find say many women oppose legislation intended to reduce IPV because dem believe e go against their religious teachings.",Social studies
"asseen inthese examples, thecultural context informs how people andcountries perceive andrespond toipv. itis important tobeaware oftheways thatnational contexts andcultures canshape theinterpretation andrecognition of ipv.","As seen for these examples, di cultural context dey inform how pipo and countries dey perceive and respond to IPV. E important to be to know di ways wey national contexts and cultures fit shape di interpretation and recognition of IPV.",Social studies
"definition of ipv in the united states theunited states government promotes oneunderstanding ofipv andexpects those living within itsborders to actinresponse tothatunderstanding, albeit thisview may notbeshared bythose from other countries-of-origin.","Definition of IPV for U. S.— di U. S. government dey promote one understanding of IPV and dey expect those living within its borders to act for response to dat understanding, albeit dis view fit not be shared by those from other countries of origin.",Social studies
"there are four primary types of ipv as defined by the centers for disease control(cdc; breiding et al,",There dey four primary types of IPV as defined by di Centers for Disease Control(CDC).,Social studies
"this is""the intentional use of physical force with the potential for causing death, disability, injury, or harm"" (breiding et al,","Dis na 'di intentional use of physical force wit di potential for causing death, disability, injury or harm'.",Social studies
this includes both forcefully convincing a person into sexual acts against his/her wishes and any abusive sexual contact.,Dis dey include both forcefully convincing person into sexual acts against his her wishes and any abusive sexual contact.,Social studies
manipulating vulnerable individuals into sexual acts when they may lack the capacity to fully understand the nature of such acts is also termed sexual violence.,Manipulating vulnerable individuals into sexual acts wen dem fit lack di capacity to fully understand di nature of such acts also dey termed sexual violence.,Social studies
"this includes""a pattern of repeated, unwanted, attention and contact that causes fear or concern of one's safety or the safety of someone else""(e. g, the safety of a family member or close friend) (breiding et al,","Dis dey include 'pattern of repeated, unwanted, attention and contact wey dey cause fear or concern of one's safety or di safety of someone else'(e. g, di safety of family member or close friend).",Social studies
"this includes the""use of verbal and non-verbal communication with the intent to a)harm another person mentally or emotionally; and/or b) exerting control over someone"" (brieiding et al,",Dis dey include di'use of verbal and non-verbal communication wit di intent to a)harm another person mentally or emotionally; and orb) exerting control over someone'.,Social studies
asingle episode ofviolence caninclude onetype orallfour types; these categories arenotmutually exclusive.,"Single episode of violence fit include one type or all four types; these categories no dey dem no fit dey together, becos dem be like water and oil, wey no dey mix, or like person wey no fit be husband and wife at de same time, na contradiction dem be.",Social studies
"ipv canoccur inarange ofrelationships including current spouses, current non-marital partners, former marital partners, and former non-marital partners.","IPV fit occur for range of relationships including current spouses, current non-marital partners, former marital partners and former non-marital partners.",Social studies
are y ou experiencing partner violence?,You dey experience partner violence?,Social studies
everyone deserves tobephysically safeandrespected intheir relationships.,Everyone deserve to be physically safe and respected for their relationships.,Social studies
youcancallthenational domestic violence hotline at800-799-safe (7233) or800- (tdd) anytime ofnight orday.,You fit call di National Violence and abuse wey happen between pipo wey live together or are intimate partners Hotline at 800-799-SAFE (7233) or 800-787-3224 (TDD) anytime of night or day.,Social studies
"staffspeak many languages, and they can give you the phone numbers of local shelters and other resources.120 immigrant and refugee families 6. 2 ipv among immigrants and refugees ipv among immigrants and refugees current literature onipv inimmigrant andrefugee populations ismostly organized byeither countryorby continentof-origin.","Staff dey speak many languages, and dem fit give you di phone numbers of local shelters and other resources. IPV among immigrants and refugees— current literature on IPV for immigrant and refugee populations mostly dey organized by either country or by continent of origin.",Social studies
there ismerit tothispractice.,There dey merit to dis practice.,Social studies
"itallows forthepossible identification ofsimilarities anddifferences among individuals, couples, andfamilies from comparable regional, cultural, and ethnic backgrounds.","E dey allow for di possible identification of similarities and differences among individuals, couples and families from comparable regional, cultural and ethnic backgrounds.",Social studies
"furthermore, there isample evidence that perspectives ofipv arevaried throughout theworld (malley-morrison, 2004), andthatseparating theliterature bythese boundaries allows usto group people with potentially similar worldviews.","Furthermore, there dey ample evidence say perspectives of IPV dey varied throughout di world, and say separating di literature by these boundaries dey allow us to group pipo wit potentially similar worldviews.",Social studies
"however, wewillnotbeusing geographical demarcations toorganize ourreview oftheliterature.","However, we no go be using geographical demarcations to organize our review of di literature.",Social studies
"inourreview, wewill highlight shared experiences across groups ofimmigrants, andalso note experiences thataremarkedly different.","For our review, we go highlight shared experiences across groups of immigrants, and also note experiences wey dey markedly different.",Social studies
both theshared anddiver gent experiences ofindividuals from similar anddiffering immigrant and refugee groups willbehighlighted.,Both di shared and divergent experiences of individuals from similar and differing immigrant and refugee groups go be highlighted.,Social studies
wewillpayclose attention willbegiven tofindings thatexpose atypical or unusual trends.,We go pay close attention to findings wey dey expose atypical or unusual trends.,Social studies
"ipv hasserious consequences foreveryone; however, there areafewunique features ofipv among immigrants and refugees.","IPV get serious consequences for everyone; however, there dey few unique features of IPV among immigrants and refugees.",Social studies
"specifically, anabusive partner ofanimmigrant/ refugee hasadditional methods ofcontrol compared tounited states-born couples.","Specifically, Person wey dey use violence, cruelty or control against their romantic partner of immigrant refugee get additional methods of control compared to U. S.-born couples.",Social studies
"thepartner may limit contact with families inthecountry-of-origin or refuse toallow them tolearn english(raj &silverman,2002).",Di partner fit limit contact wit families for di country where person was born or originally come from or refuse to allow dem to learn English.,Social studies
both ofthese methods cutoffsocial support and access totangible resources.,Both of these methods dey cutoff social support and access to tangible resources.,Social studies
"additionally, abusive partners may trytocontrol undocumented partners bythreats relating totheir immigration status (erez etal.","Additionally, abusive partners fit try to control undocumented partners by threats relating to their Person's legal classification— whether dem have permission to bein a country and under what conditions.",Social studies
"they might threaten toreport thepartner orherchildren toimmigration officials, refuse tofilepapers toobtain legal status, threaten towithdraw papers filed for legal status, or restrict access to documents needed to file for legal status.","Dem fit threaten to report di partner or her children to immigration officials, refuse to file papers to obtain legal status, threaten to withdraw papers filed for legal status, or restrict access to documents needed to file for legal status.",Social studies
"experiencing trauma inadulthood increases riskofperpetration ofipv: men who have been exposed topolitical violence orimprisonment aretwice aslikely toperpetrate ipvasthose who have not(gupta, acevedogarcia, &hemenway,2009; shiu-thornton, senturia, &sullivan,2005).",Experiencing trauma for adulthood dey increase risk of perpetration of IPV: men wey don dey exposed to political violence or imprisonment dey twice as likely to perpetrate IPV as those wey no don.,Social studies
"social isolation, poverty, and neighborhood crime arealsoassociated with increased risk(koenig, stephenson, ahmen, jejeeboy,&campbell,2006; zarza et al,","When person cutoff from friends, family and community— no social connection, poverty and neighborhood crime also dey associated wit increased risk.",Social studies
"inaddition tothese shared factors, there aremany riskfactors ofexperiencing ipvspecific toimmigrants, aswell as a key protective factor.","for addition to these shared factors, there dey many risk factors of experiencing IPV specific to immigrants, as well as key Something wey reduce the risk of bad things happening— it protect person from harm.",Social studies
each of these will be addressed in detail here.,Each of these go be addressed for detail here.,Social studies
"changes in social status during resettlement ipv ismore likely tooccur when anindividual' ssocial status changes duetoimmigration (lau, takeuchi, & alegria, 2006).",Changes for social status during resettlement— IPV dey more likely to occur wen individual's social status dey change due to immigration.,Social studies
"during resettlement, many men loseprevious occupational status andarenolonger able tobethe sole provider fortheir families.","During resettlement, many men dey lose previous occupational status and no longer dey able to be di sole provider for their families.",Social studies
they may also experience adecrease indecision-making power relative totheir partners.,Dem fit also experience decrease for decision-making power relative to their partners.,Social studies
this kind of major change can lead to a loss of identity and purpose.,Dis kind of major change fit lead to loss of identity and purpose.,Social studies
"shifts insocial status areassociated with greater riskofipv. forexample, inastudy ofkorean immigrant men, abuse toward wives wasmore common infamilies where thehusband hadgreater difficulties adjusting tolifein theunited states (rhee, 1997).","Shifts for social status dey associated wit greater risk of IPV. for example, for study of Korean immigrant men, abuse toward wives dey more common for families where di husband get greater difficulties adjusting to life for U. S.",Social studies
"inastudy ofchinese immigrant men, those who feltthey hadlostpower were more likely to have tolerant attitudes toward ipv (jin& keat, 2010).","For study of Chinese immigrant men, those wey feel say dem don lose power dey more likely to get tolerant attitudes toward IPV.",Social studies
time in the united states and accultur ation greater time intheunited states isassociated with greater family conflict andipv (cook etal.,Time for U. S. and acculturation —greater time for U. S. dey associated wit greater family conflict and IPV.,Social studies
"studies find thatrecent immigrants generally report lower ipv than individuals inthehome country, united states-born citizens inthedestination country, or immigrants who have been inthedestination country foralong time (hazen &soriano, 2007; gupta etal.","Studies find say recent immigrants generally dey report lower IPV than individuals for di home country, U. S.-born citizens for di destination country, or immigrants wey don dey for di destination country for longtime.",Social studies
"itmay bethattheprocess ofimmigration requires anintact family, andthatfamilies who cansuccessfully migrate totheunited states have strong coping andfunctionality skills (sabina etal.","E fit be say di process of immigration dey require intact family, and say families wey fit successfully migrate to U. S. get strong coping and functionality skills.",Social studies
"however, overtime, ongoing stresses contribute to an increase in ipv.","However, over time, ongoing stresses dey contribute to increase for IPV.",Social studies
"studies have shown that when anindividual hasgreater levels ofacculturation tounited states andgreater experience ofacculturation stress, they face greater conflict, ipv, andtolerance ofipv intheir relationships (caetano, ramisetty-mikler, vaeth, &harris,2007; garcia etal.","Studies don show say wen individual get greater levels of acculturation to U. S. and greater experience of acculturation stress, dem dey face greater conflict, IPV and tolerance of IPV for their relationships.",Social studies
"acculturation isassociated with lessavoidance ofconflict andmore expression offeelings, which may partially explain why ipv would increase(flores et al,","Acculturation dey associated wit less avoidance of conflict and more expression of feelings, which fit partially explain why IPV go increase.",Social studies
"although acculturation isassociated with greater ipv, research hasalso demonstrated itsprotective effects.","Although acculturation dey associated wit greater IPV, research also don demonstrate its protective effects.",Social studies
"for example, onestudy found thatwomen who aremore acculturated practice more safety behaviors intheface of ipv (nava, mcfarlane, gilroy, & maddoux, 2014).","for example, one study find say women wey dey more acculturated dey practice more safety behaviors for di face of IPV.",Social studies
"norms from country-of-origin rigid, patriarchal gender roles learned inthecountry-of-origin areassociated with increased tolerance forand experience ofipv(morash, bui, zhang, &holtfreter,2007; yoshioka, dinoia, &ullah, 2001).","Norms from Di country where person was born or originally come from— rigid, patriarchal gender roles learned for di country where person was born or originally come from dey associated wit increased tolerance for and experience of IPV.",Social studies
arguments about fulfilling gender roles arealso associated with greater ipv (morash etal.,Arguments about fulfilling gender roles also dey associated wit greater IPV.,Social studies
"forexample, astudy found thataquarter oftheir sample ofchinese, korean, vietnamese, andcambodian immigrants believed thatipvwas justified incertain role-specific situations, such asincases ofsexual infidelity orrefusal toperform housekeeping duties(y oshioka et al,","for example, study find say quarter of their sample of Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese and Cambodian immigrants believe say IPV dey justified for certain role-specific situations, such as for cases of sexual infidelity or refusal to perform housekeeping duties.",Social studies
"social support: a protective factor there aremany other protective factors thatreduce riskofipvinmany populations including education, parental monitoring foradolescent relationships, andcouple conflict resolution strategies andsatisfaction inadult couples (canaldi, knoble, shortt, &kim,2012).","Social support: Something wey reduce the risk of bad things happening— it protect person from harm— there dey many other protective factors wey dey reduce risk of IPV for many populations including education, parental monitoring for adolescent relationships and couple conflict resolution strategies and satisfaction for adult couples.",Social studies
"however, thelimited research onimmigrant andrefugee communities hasaddressed only oneprotective factor: social support.","However, di limited research on immigrant and refugee communities don address only one Something wey reduce the risk of bad things happening— it protect person from harm: social support.",Social studies
"social support from family, friends, andcommunity canprotect against ipv inimmigrants andrefugees.","Social support from family, friends and community fit protect against IPV for immigrants and refugees.",Social studies
"forexample, involvement inone'sown cultural community was associated with reduced ipv-supporting attitudes among east asian immigrants (yoshihama etal.","for example, involvement for one's own cultural community dey associated wit reduced IPV-supporting attitudes among East Asian immigrants.",Social studies
"they tryawide variety oftactics totrytoprevent, minimize, orescape theviolence, aswell astoprotect their families.","Dem dey try wide variety of tactics to try to prevent, minimize or escape di violence, as well as to protect their families.",Social studies
"survivors would attempt to be quiet, be still, and avoid arguments.","Survivors go attempt to be quiet, be still and avoid arguments.",Social studies
"one woman described""i don't answer back, ignore, and just stand there and die inside of anger,"" while another described""i keep quiet when he is angry and let him do whatever he wants""(y ingling et al,","One woman describe say 'I no dey answer back, I dey ignore, and I just dey stand there and dey die inside of anger,'while another describe say 'I dey keep quiet wen he dey angry and let am do whatever he want'.",Social studies
"survivors turned to family or friends for emotional help, resources, and help navigating social services.","Survivors dey turn to family or friends for emotional help, resources and help navigating social services.",Social studies
"one woman described how she turned to co-workers, stating, ""i told women at work.","One woman describe how she turn to co-workers, stating, 'I tell women at work.'",Social studies
"it was too much to keep to myself"".",E dey too much to keep to myself.',Social studies
"another described how turning to neighbors was helpful, reporting, ""i talked to a neighbor.","Another describe how turning to neighbors dey helpful, reporting, 'I talk to neighbor.'",Social studies
"she's the one who told me that you can call police; the police can help you and my husband would be arrested,""(t ing,2010, p.354-355).",She na di one wey tell me say you fit call police; di police fit help you and my husband go dey arrested.',Social studies
prayer is a common coping response.,Prayer na common coping response.,Social studies
"one woman reported that prayer""helps me forget the problem for awhile, andi feel peace in my mind""(y ingling et al,","One woman report say prayer 'dey help me forget di problem for while, and I dey feel peace for my mind'.",Social studies
"it worked, and i stayed alive long enough to getaway"" (brabeck, & guzman, 2008, p. 1287).","E work, and I stay alive long enough to getaway.'",Social studies
"another woman reported,""even though i don't agree, i end up agreeing with him to avoid more problems""(t ing,2010).","Another woman report,'Even though I no agree, I end up agreeing wit am to avoid more problems.'",Social studies
"""mainly, i would just try to ignore everything.","Mainly, I go just try to ignore everything.'",Social studies
"if he hurt me, i tried to ignore it.""(","If he hurt me, I try to ignore am.'",Social studies
some survivors believed in god's will or accept karma.,Some survivors dey believe for God's will or dey accept karma.,Social studies
"""i believe that god will take care for me, that god has a reason for having me suffer, andi believe that god is just, that god will punish my husband for what he did tome.","I believe say God go take care for me, say God get reason for making me suffer, and I believe say God dey just, say God go punish my husband for wetin he do tome.'",Social studies
"someday i will get justice and he[her husband]will get his punishment""(t ing,2010, p.352).",Someday I go get justice and he go get his punishment.',Social studies
"one woman described,""i had hope he would change since in my family, my father had changed.","One woman describe,'I get hope say he go change since for my family, my father don change.'",Social studies
"[my grandparents]talked to my father, and he changed.","My grandparents talk to my father, and he change.'",Social studies
"he stopped, so i had hope my husband would too.","He stop, so I get hope say my husband go too.'",Social studies
some men do.,Some men dey do am.',Social studies
"other women looked forward to a future time when they would be able to leave:""i need him only for now, but when the children are older, andi can work, i will not need his money; i will not need him""(t ing,2010, p.351).","Other women dey look forward to future time wen dem go be able to leave:'I need am only for now, but wen di children dey older, and I fit work, I no go need his money; I no go need am.'",Social studies
women reported that these strategies could provide temporary safety although they were still at risk.,Women report say these strategies fit provide temporary safety although dem still dey at risk.,Social studies
"for example, one woman who locked herself into a room described how""he'd just unscrew the bolts and open the door"" (brabeck & guzman, 2008, p. 1288).","for example, one woman wey lock herself into room describe how 'he go just unscrew di bolts and open di door'.",Social studies
"one woman reported,""he would swear at me and put me down, watch me, order me around.","One woman report,'He go swear at me and put me down, watch me, dey order me around.'",Social studies
survivors called the police.,Survivors dey call di police.,Social studies
"as one woman described,""i pressed charges and that was freeing.","As one woman describe,'I press charges and dat dey freeing.'",Social studies
survivors also accessed advocacy and shelter services.,Survivors also dey access advocacy and shelter services.,Social studies
"for example, one woman reported,""the shelter is very helpful because i can sleep at night finally, and my son can sleep at night"" (brabeck & guzman, 2008, p. 1281).","for example, one woman report,'Di shelter dey very helpful because I fit sleep at night finally, and my son fit sleep at night.'",Social studies
"when other coping strategies failed, survivors would leave their partners.","Wen other coping strategies fail, survivors go leave their partners.",Social studies
"this required advance planning, including efforts to move to an undisclosed location, disguise oneself, and/ or save personal money (brabeck & guzman, 2008).","Dis dey require advance planning, including efforts to move to undisclosed location, disguise oneself, and or save personal money.",Social studies
"astudy found thatsurvivors who used agreater variety ofstrategies were more likely tosuccessfully separate from their abusive partners, andwere alsomore likely tocontact family orfriends, anadvocacy program, andthepolice (yingling, etal.","Study find say survivors wey use greater variety of strategies dey more likely to successfully separate from their abusive partners, and also dey more likely to contact family or friends, advocacy program and di police.",Social studies
"wenote that notallsurvivors chose toleave their partners, andthatthere aremany reasons forthischoice.","We note say not all survivors choose to leave their partners, and say there dey many reasons for dis choice.",Social studies
"formore information, please seethecallout: ""why don't they just leave?""","for more tins, please see di callout: 'Why dem no just leave?'",Social studies
"inone series ofinterviews about coping with ipv, survivors described how they would add new strategies overtime.","For one series of interviews about coping wit IPV, survivors describe how dem go add new strategies overtime.",Social studies
"survivors generally relied atfirst oninternal resources dodeal with ipv. they would begin bytrying totolerate abuse, become unnoticeable, orrely onfaith.","Survivors generally rely at first on internal resources to deal wit IPV. Dem go begin by trying to tolerate abuse, become unnoticeable or rely on faith.",Social studies
"when this was unsuccessful, they would reach outtofamily, friends, andprofessionals forhelp (yingling, etal.","Wen dis no dey successful, dem go reach out to family, friends and professionals for help.",Social studies
"survivors who continued tolivewith their abusive partners were most likely touseavoidance strategies, attempting to be unnoticeable (y ingling, et al,","Survivors wey continue to live wit their abusive partners dey most likely to use avoidance strategies, attempting to be unnoticeable.",Social studies
itisimportant tonote thatthere aresome marked differences inhelp-seeking behaviors thatvary by immigrant/refugee background.,E important to note say there dey some marked differences for help-seeking behaviors wey dey vary by immigrant refugee background.,Social studies
"forexample, onestudy found thatmuslim immigrants were lesslikely than non-muslim immigrants tocallthepolice, duetofear ofspouses, fear ofreprisal from family, andadesire toprotect their spouses, butthey aremore likely tohave thepolice become involved due toneighbors orothers calling thepolice (ammar, couture-carron, alvi, &antonio,2013).","for example, one study find say Muslim immigrants dey less likely than non-Muslim immigrants to call di police, due to fear of spouses, fear of reprisal from family and desire to protect their spouses, but dem dey more likely to have di police become involved due to neighbors or others calling di police.",Social studies
"another study found that asian immigrants access mental health services less frequently than immigrants from other areas(cho &kim,2012).",Another study find say Asian immigrants dey access mental health services less frequently than immigrants from other areas.,Social studies
"japanese immigrants were lesslikely than united states-born women ofjapanese descent toconfront apartner, leave temporarily, orseek help (yoshihama, 2002).","Japanese immigrants dey less likely than U. S.-born women of Japanese descent to confront partner, leave temporarily or seek help.",Social studies
"further, when japanese immigrants used these strategies, they experienced higher psychological distress compared tojapanese immigrants who didnotusethem.","Further, wen Japanese immigrants use these strategies, dem dey experience higher Emotional suffering and mental pain wey person experience due to difficult circumstances compared to Japanese immigrants wey no use dem.",Social studies
"itislikely thatacultural taboo against these strategies influences both the use ofthe strategies and feelings after using them(y oshihama, 2002).126 immigrant and refugee families 6. 5 barriers to help seeking barriers to help seeking support from family, friends, andformal social systems canpromote coping after ipv (coker etal.","E likely say cultural taboo against these strategies dey influence both di use of di strategies and feelings after using dem. Barriers to help seeking— support from family, friends and formal social systems fit promote coping after IPV.",Social studies
"immigrant/refugee women arenotlikely toseek formal assistance(such asfrom police orshelters; ingram,2007), andaremore likely toseek assistance from family andfriends (brabeck &guzman, 2008).","Immigrant refugee women no dey likely to seek formal assistance(such as from police or shelters), and dey more likely to seek assistance from family and friends.",Social studies
"family andfriends provide invaluable support towomen who have experienced ipv, including emotional support, information about the system, and suggestions forgetting help (kyriakakis, 2014).","Family and friends dey provide invaluable support to women wey don experience IPV, including emotional support, information about di system and suggestions forgetting help.",Social studies
wh y don't they just leave?,Why dem no just leave?,Social studies
many people wonder why asurvivor would choose tostay inarelationship with someone who hurts them.,Many pipo dey wonder why survivor go choose to stay for relationship wit someone wey dey hurt dem.,Social studies
"while some partners willchoose toendaviolent relationship, many willnot.","While some partners go choose to end violent relationship, many no go.",Social studies
"their reasons could vary from ongoing love topragmatic need to desperate fear, or even a combination ofthe above.","Their reasons fit vary from ongoing love to pragmatic need to desperate fear, or even combination of di above.",Social studies
"wedescribe many reasons why animmigrant/ refugee surbibor would notleave therelationship oreven seek outside help in coping with the relation: commitment to relationshipmany survivors feel a bond of duty and love to their partner, even when they are sometimes treated poorly.","We dey describe many reasons why immigrant refugee survivor no go leave di relationship or even seek outside help for coping wit di relationship: commitment to relationship— many survivors dey feel bond of duty and love to their partner, even wen dem dey sometimes treated poorly.",Social studies
"they may believe that outside circumstances will become less stressful, that their partner will learn how to stop, or that they will be better able to control the situation in the future.","Dem fit believe say outside circumstances go become less stressful, say their partner go learn how to stop, or say dem go be better able to control di situation for di future.",Social studies
the abuser may threaten to hurt or even kill them or their children if they leave.,Di abuser fit threaten to hurt or even kill dem or their children if dem leave.,Social studies
"when survivors do attempt to leave, many perpetrators will escalate threats and violence.","Wen survivors do attempt to leave, many perpetrators go escalate threats and violence.",Social studies
"""for mealso, myhusband says ifidareputhiminjail, when hegetsout, hekills me.","For me also, my husband dey say if I dare put am for jail, wen he come out, he go kill me.'",Social studies
"then, iaskhimtogetdivor ced.","Then, I ask am to get divorced.'",Social studies
he says befor egetting divor cedplan tobuyacoffin beforehand.,He dey say before getting divorced plan to buy coffin beforehand.',Social studies
"khmer immigrant, quoted inbhuyan et al,","Khmer immigrant, quoted for Bhuyan et al.",Social studies
"survivors ofallbackgrounds face substantial barriers toseeking assistance, such asfear oftheabuser and retaliation (bhuyan etal.","Survivors of all backgrounds dey face substantial barriers to seeking assistance, such as fear of di abuser and retaliation.",Social studies
"immigrant/refugee survivors, however, face additional social, economic, and legal barriers toseeking informal andformal help foripv. these challenges include country-oforigin norms, family taboos, distance from orunavailability ofsupports, fear ofdeportation orloss ofcustody, andalack of culturally competent and language appropriate services.","Immigrant refugee survivors, however, dey face additional social, economic and legal barriers to seeking informal and formal help for IPV. These challenges include Di country where person was born or originally come from norms, family taboos, distance from or unavailability of supports, fear of deportation or loss of custody, and lack of culturally competent and language appropriate services.",Social studies
country-of-origin and family-related norms norms from native countries may impact survivors' willingness toseek help.,Di country where person was born or originally come from and family-related norms— norms from native countries fit impact survivors' willingness to seek help.,Social studies
"inmany countries, survivors and their families avoid outside intervention because itmight bring shame ordishonor tothefamily orcommunity (dasgupta &jain,2007; yoshihama, 2009).","For many countries, survivors and their families dey avoid outside intervention because e fit bring shame or dishonor to di family or community.",Social studies
"latina andsouth asian immigrants/refugees avoid seeking help duetotheshame andstigmatization ofdivorce (bauer, rodriguez, quiroga, &flores-ortiz, 2000), andbecause honorable marriage isone offew ways tomaintain others' respect (fuchsel etal.","Latina and South Asian immigrants refugees dey avoid seeking help due to di shame and stigmatization of divorce, and because honorable marriage na one of few ways to maintain others' respect.",Social studies
"forvietnamese immigrants/refugees, traditional values, gender roles, andconcern about discrimination decrease help seeking (bui & morash, 1999).","For Vietnamese immigrants refugees, traditional values, gender roles and concern about discrimination dey decrease help seeking.",Social studies
there may alsobenorms within thefamily thatprevent help-seeking.,There fit also dey norms within di family wey dey prevent help-seeking.,Social studies
survivors sometimes donotseek help from parents because they donotwant family toview their husband inanegative light.,Survivors sometimes no dey seek help from parents because dem no want family to view their husband for negative light.,Social studies
"also, they fearthattheir parents will bedistressed and/ orfeelshame about theviolence (bhuyan etal.","Also, dem dey fear say their parents go dey distressed and or feel shame about di violence.",Social studies
"women report ataboo against sharing family problems with people outside thefamily. also, they worry about gossip within thelocal immigrant community (bhuyan et al,","Women dey report taboo against sharing family problems wit pipo outside di family. Also, dem dey worry about gossip within di local A group of immigrants living together in the same area and sharing cultural connections.",Social studies
distance from or una wareness of supports families who arenearby canprovide more support than families separated bygreat distances.,Distance from or unawareness of supports— families wey dey nearby fit provide more support than families separated by great distances.,Social studies
"forexample, women living inmexico often turn totheir parents fortangible support such assafe refuge after violence (kyriakakis, 2014).","for example, women wey dey live for Mexico often dey turn to their parents for tangible support such as safe refuge after violence.",Social studies
"when these women immigrate totheunited states, support from parents inmexico is primarily emotional (kyriakakis, 2014).","Wen these women dey immigrate to U. S, support from parents for Mexico na primarily emotional.",Social studies
"distance from family canalsolead immigrants/refugees tobedependent onanabusive partner foremotional andsocial support, particularly when english language skills arelacking (bhuyan et al,","Distance from family fit also lead immigrants refugees to be dependent on Person wey dey use violence, cruelty or control against their romantic partner for emotional and social support, particularly wen English language skills dey lacking.",Social studies
"immigrants andrefugees may beunaware oflocal services, such associal andlegal service agencies (bhuyan etal.","Immigrants and refugees fit be unaware of local services, such as social and legal service agencies.",Social studies
"further, they might question access to oravailability ofsocial services based onprior experiences intheir countries-of-origin.","Further, dem fit question access to or availability of social services based on prior experiences for their countries of origin.",Social studies
"forexample, insome countries, such asmexico, themajority ofthepopulation donothave access topublic social services, andasian andlatina immigrants often donotbelieve thatanyone isavailable tohelp them(bauer etal.","for example, for some countries, such as Mexico, di majority of di population no get access to public social services, and Asian and Latina immigrants often no believe say anyone dey available to help dem.",Social studies
"even ifthey have knowledge ofthese services andhow they work, linguistic andcultural barriers can deter seeking help or limit successful navigation of these resources (bhuyan et al,","Even if dem get knowledge of these services and how dem dey work, linguistic and cultural barriers fit deter seeking help or limit successful navigation of these resources.",Social studies
"""incambodia, ifthehusband andwife fight wesuffer thepain andonly theparentscanhelp resolve togetus back together. weliveinamerica, therearecenters toassist us.","For Cambodia, if di husband and wife dey fight we dey suffer di pain and only di parents fit help resolve to get us back together. We dey live for America, there dey centers to assist us.'",Social studies
"incambodia, therearenosuch centers tohelp us.""","For Cambodia, there no dey such centers to help us.'",Social studies
"p. 913128 immigrant and refugee families lack of language appropriate and culturally competent services language barriers pose acritical problem forcommunity-based organizations andforsystems likethepolice, to communicate with thesurvivors andtheir families andtohelp them effectively (yingling, etal.","p. 913. Lack of language appropriate and culturally competent services— wetin dey stop pipo to tok wella becuz dem no sabi same language, na him dey cause problem for communication dey pose critical problem for community-based organizations and for systems like di police, to communicate wit di survivors and their families and to help dem effectively.",Social studies
"further, services, particularly culturally competent services, arenotalways available toimmigrant/ refugee women (morash &bui, 2008).","Further, services, particularly culturally competent services, no dey always available to immigrant refugee women.",Social studies
"community-based organizations andmainstream service providers such asthepolice need tobetrained tounderstand thecomplexities ofsurvivors' lives and toassess common aswell astheunique features ofipv experienced byimmigrant/ refugee women(messing, amanor -boadu, cavanaugh, glass,&campbell, 2013).",Community-based organizations and mainstream service providers such as di police need to be trained to understand di complexities of survivors' lives and to assess common aswell as di unique features of IPV experienced by immigrant refugee women.,Social studies
"also, services providers forimmigrant/ refugee women must develop awareness about thesocio-economic, cultural, andpolitical contexts thatthese groups ofwomen come from and use that information to develop programs and policies specific to them.","Also, service providers for immigrant refugee women must develop awareness about di socio-economic, cultural and political contexts wey these groups of women dey come from and use dat information to develop programs and policies specific to dem.",Social studies
"fellows tour the genesis women' s shelter in dallas, tx before meeting with a panel of local stakeholders.","Fellows tour di Genesis Women's Shelter for Dallas, TX before meeting wit panel of local stakeholders.",Social studies
"fear of deportation or loss of custody undocumented immigrants areoften afraid toreport crimes tothepolice, including ipv, forfearofdeportation or lossofcustody (adams&campbell, 2012; akinsulure-smith etal.","Fear of deportation or loss of custody— undocumented immigrants often dey afraid to report crimes to di police, including IPV, for fear of deportation or loss of custody.",Social studies
"such fears have likely escalated since thecreation of""secure communities,"" agovernment program which cross-checks police-recorded fingerprints toidentify documentation status.","Such fears likely don escalate since di creation of 'Secure Communities,'government program wey dey cross-check police-recorded fingerprints to identify documentation status.",Social studies
"ifanundocumented immigrant isprocessed foracrime, including minor misdemeanors, itcanbeafirst step towards deportation (vishnuvajjala, 2012).","If undocumented immigrant dey processed for crime, including minor misdemeanors, e fit be first step towards deportation.",Social studies
"although many immigrants express fear ofdeportation ifthey report ipv, some research studies show thatimmigrant/ refugee women are6. 5 barriers tohelp seeking 129 more likely toreport ipv, particularly ifthey areonaspousal dependent visaandiftheir abusive partner threatens immigrant action(raj, silverman,& mccleary-sills, 2005).","Although many immigrants dey express fear of deportation if dem report IPV, some research studies dey show say immigrant refugee women dey more likely to report IPV, particularly if dem dey on spousal dependent visa and if their Person wey dey use violence, cruelty or control against their romantic partner dey threaten immigrant action.",Social studies
"insome cases, theprocess ofimmigration leaves theimmigrant spouse/partner dependent ontheir abusive partner.","For some cases, di process of immigration dey leave di immigrant spouse partner dependent on their Person wey dey use violence, cruelty or control against their romantic partner.",Social studies
"forexample, when someone immigrates with anh1-b visa(targeting highly skilled professionals), their spouses areeligible foranh-4visa.","for example, wen someone dey immigrate wit H1-B visa(targeting highly skilled professionals), their spouses dey eligible for H-4 visa.",Social studies
"however, these spouses arenotauthorized towork, andthey cannot filetheir own application forlegal permanent residence status; theh1-b visa holder canchoose whether ornottofilefor residence forhisfamily (balgamwalla, 2014).","However, these spouses no dey authorized to work, and dem no fit file their own application for legal permanent residence status; di H1-B visa holder fit choose whether or not to file for residence for his family.",Social studies
this leaves thespouse completely dependent ontheir partner for documentation forresidency andforalleconomic benefits.,Dis dey leave di spouse completely dependent on their partner for documentation for residency and for all economic benefits.,Social studies
"abusive partners canthreaten immigration action to maintain control ofapartner, bydestroying immigration papers, notfiling paperwork, orthreatening toinform immigration and customs enforcement(ice; balgamwalla, 2014; erez et al,","Abusive partners fit threaten immigration action to maintain control of partner, by destroying immigration papers, not filing paperwork, or threatening to inform Immigration and Customs Enforcement(ICE).",Social studies
reporting ipv canalso have implications forchild custody. undocumented immigrants canlose custody of their children ifclaims arebrought against them.,Reporting IPV fit also have implications for child custody. Undocumented immigrants fit lose custody of their children if claims dey brought against dem.,Social studies
"also, ifaparent accuses their spouse ofipv, theparent can beconvicted forfailing toprotect their children from being exposed toipv. inselect cases, thiscanlead to deportation and reassignment of custody (rogerson, 2012).","Also, if parent accuse their spouse of IPV, di parent fit dey convicted for failing to protect their children from being exposed to IPV. For select cases, dis fit lead to deportation and reassignment of custody.",Social studies
"there aresome legal resources forundocumented survivors ofipv. theviolence against women act(vawa) provides protections forsurvivors ofipv. ifanon-citizen ismarried toaunited states permanent resident, they canapply fora""uvisa.""","There dey some legal resources for undocumented survivors of IPV. Di Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) dey provide protections for survivors of IPV. If non-citizen dey married to U. S. Person from another country wey get legal right to stay permanently but no be citizen yet, dem fit apply for 'U visa'.",Social studies
these visas give survivors ofipv temporary legal status andtheability towork.,These visas dey give survivors of IPV temporary legal status and di ability to work.,Social studies
"however, these arelimited to10, 000 peryear (modi, palmer,&armstrong,2014), andoften fallshort ofmeeting the needs ofthe total number of qualified partners(levine & pef fer,2012).","However, these dey limited to 10,000 per year, and often dey fall short of meeting di needs of di total number of qualified partners.",Social studies
"economic dependency immigrants/refugees who areunemployment depend ontheir partner toprovide forthemselves andtheir children, andmay avoid anyreporting thatcould jeopardize therelationship (bui &morash, 2007).","Economic dependency— immigrants refugees wey dey unemployed dey depend on their partner to provide for themselves and their children, and fit avoid any reporting wey fit jeopardize di relationship.",Social studies
"insome cases, gender norms may discourage pursuing education oremployment, which facilitates dependency (bhuyan etal.","For some cases, gender norms fit discourage pursuing education or employment, which dey facilitate dependency.",Social studies
themajority ofimmigrant/ refugee survivors have limited economic resources (erez etal.,Di majority of immigrant refugee survivors get limited economic resources.,Social studies
"when immigrant/refugee women have access toemployment, itcanlead toanincrease incouple conflict duetoextra responsibilities placed onboth thepartners, butitcanalso empower immigrant/refugee women to demand better treatment (grzywacz, rao, gentry, marin,& arcury,2009).","Wen immigrant refugee women get access to employment, e fit lead to increase for couple conflict due to extra responsibilities placed on both di partners, but e fit also empower immigrant refugee women to demand better treatment.",Social studies
"ties that bind even when ipv ispresent, most relationships also have positive components.","Ties wey dey bind— even wen IPV dey present, most relationships also get positive components.",Social studies
survivors often hope toremain in therelationship because ofthese components.,Survivors often dey hope to remain for di relationship because of these components.,Social studies
they make changes toalleviate current pain andtoprevent future incidents.,Dem dey make changes to alleviate current pain and to prevent future incidents.,Social studies
perpetrators make similar choices andchanges.,Perpetrators dey make similar choices and changes.,Social studies
"some perpetrators areable tomake choices thatreduce orstop violence altogether. inorder tohave astable family relationship, both partners must make decisions thatprotect thephysical, emotional, financial and social health of all members.","Some perpetrators dey able to make choices wey dey reduce or stop violence altogether. For order to get stable family relationship, both partners must make decisions wey dey protect di physical, emotional, financial and social health of all members.",Social studies
impact on children witnessing ipv isaharrowing experience forchildren.,Impact on children— witnessing IPV na harrowing experience for children.,Social studies
"children who witness ipv aremore likely toexperience mental health problems such asanxiety, depression, andptsd, aswell asinternalizing andexternalizing problems (kitzmann etal.","Children wey witness IPV dey more likely to experience mental health problems such as anxiety, depression and PTSD, as well as internalizing and externalizing problems.",Social studies
research with children living inconflict-af fected areas underscores thenegative impact ofipv onchildren.,Research wit children living for conflict-affected areas dey underscore di negative impact of IPV on children.,Social studies
research shows thatfamily violence isaneven stronger predictor ofptsd inchildren than warexposure (catani etal.,Research dey show say family violence na even stronger predictor of PTSD for children than war exposure.,Social studies
"inasample ofchildren exposed towar, tsunami, andfamily violence,14% identified family violence asthemost distressing event oftheir lives (catani etal.","For sample of children exposed to war, tsunami and family violence,14% identify family violence as di most distressing event of their lives.",Social studies
immigrant/refugee children exposed tofamily violence face aunique setofstressors.,Immigrant refugee children exposed to family violence dey face unique set of stressors.,Social studies
they must cope with theexperiences offamily violence alongside the stressors of trauma and/or relocation.,Dem must cope wit di experiences of family violence alongside di stressors of trauma and or relocation.,Social studies
where's waldo?,Where Waldo dey?,Social studies
can you find them?,You fit find dem?,Social studies
where are the perpetrators?,Where di perpetrators dey?,Social studies
almost no research has been done with the perpetrators of ipv among immigrants/refugees.,Almost no research don dey done wit di perpetrators of IPV among immigrants refugees.,Social studies
where are the men?,Where di men dey?,Social studies
"youcanseethatinalloftheresearch wetalkabout, thesurvivor isawoman.","You fit see say for all di research we dey talk about, di survivor na woman.",Social studies
"weknow thatwomen arealsoperpetrators ofipv, andthatmen arealsosurvivors ofipv(cdc, 2003).","We know say women also dey perpetrators of IPV, and say men also dey survivors of IPV.",Social studies
"however, thevastmajority ofallresearch onsurvivors has studied women exclusively. this focus haslikely arisen because women aremore commonly injured byipv (whitaker, haileyesus, swahn, & saltzman, 2007).","However, di most part of all research on survivors don study women exclusively. Dis focus likely dey arise because women dey more commonly injured by IPV.",Social studies
"it is nonetheless important to hear the stories of all people, regardless of gender.","E nonetheless important to hear di stories of all pipo, regardless of gender.",Social studies
where are the children?,Where di children dey?,Social studies
"once again, very little research has looked at the experience of ipv among immigrant/refugee children.","one more time, very little research don make we look di experience of IPV among immigrant refugee children.",Social studies
"ipv isanissue thataffects every member ofthefamily perpetrator, victim, andchildren.","IPV na issue wey dey affect every member of di family— perpetrator, victim and children.",Social studies
wehave several suggestions forresearch andpractice toaddress thiscritical problem.,We get several suggestions for research and practice to address dis critical problem.,Social studies
"first, researchers must evaluate ifipv inimmigrant and refugee families hasdistinct etiologies, characteristics, and outcomes compared tonon-immigrant and non-refugee families.","First, researchers must evaluate if IPV for immigrant and refugee families get distinct etiologies, characteristics and outcomes compared to non-immigrant and non-refugee families.",Social studies
"aswediscussed inthe""where' swaldo"" sidebar, very little research hascaptured ipv perpetrators' perspectives.","As we discuss for di 'Where's Waldo' sidebar, very little research don capture IPV perpetrators' perspectives.",Social studies
weurgeresearchers toparticularly assess thefeatures ofipv perpetration among immigrants/refugees.,We dey urge researchers to particularly assess di features of IPV perpetration among immigrants refugees.,Social studies
this research willguide prevention andintervention work among immigrants andrefugees.,Dis research go guide prevention and intervention work among immigrants and refugees.,Social studies
"effective programs must: 1)beavailable intheimmigrants' language; 2)beadapted tobeculturally appropriate fortheimmigrants' background; 3)reframe cultural norms; and4)encourage healthy relationships(robert wood johnson foundation,2009).",Effective programs must:1) be available for di immigrants' language;2) be adapted to be culturally appropriate for di immigrants' background;3) reframe Di unwritten rules and expectations wey guide how pipo behave in a particular culture; and 4)encourage healthy relationships.,Social studies
perpetrators arealso inneed ofculturally specific programs.,Perpetrators also dey in need of culturally specific programs.,Social studies
"such programs could include psychoeducation about ipv and culturally specific practices that call for respecting women(rana, 2012).",Such programs fit include psychoeducation about IPV and culturally specific practices wey dey call for respecting women.,Social studies
immigrant/refugee survivors describe word-of-mouth asthemost effective way toincrease awareness ofipvand resources toaddress it.,Immigrant refugee survivors dey describe word-of-mouth as di most effective way to increase awareness of IPV and resources to address am.,Social studies
"they propose acalltoaction toprevent andaddress ipv. through conversation, wecan help ourcommunity members know about available resources.","Dem dey propose call to action to prevent and address IPV. Through conversation, we fit help our community members know about available resources.",Social studies
"everyone iscalled tobeapartof""increasing the visibility of people affected by ipv, working for equality, and raising awareness"" (moya et al,","Everyone dey called to be part of'increasing di visibility of pipo affected by IPV, working for equality, and raising awareness'.",Social studies
"formany years, alaa worked asanofficemanager atalocal hospital.","For many years, Alaa work as office manager at local hospital.",Social studies
"however, when theincreasing conflict ledto deaths ofmany neighbors, thecouple fledtogether tojordan.","However, wen di increasing conflict lead to deaths of many neighbors, di couple flee together to Jordan.",Social studies
"intherefugee camp, thefamily lived alongside many other families invery cramped quarters.","For di Temporary place wey dem build to house pipo wey run from their country, di family dey live alongside many other families for very cramped quarters.",Social studies
"alaa tried togetfood andwater forthefamily daily, butresources were limited andheoften came home feeling both inadequate andfrustrated.","Alaa try to get food and water for di family daily, but resources dey limited and he often come home feeling both inadequate and frustrated.",Social studies
"one night when hewasespecially hungry, mais began acting defiant.","One night wen he dey especially hungry, Mais begin acting defiant.",Social studies
"alaa turned tosabeen andangrily asked why shecouldn' tmanage their daughter anymore, slapping heracross theface.","Alaa turn to Sabeen and angrily ask why she no fit manage their daughter anymore, slapping her across di face.",Social studies
sabeen wasshocked thishadnever happened before.,Sabeen dey shocked— dis never happen before.,Social studies
"alaa looked sad, andthey both gotquiet foraminute.","Alaa look sad, and dem both get quiet for minute.",Social studies
"they each wished they could gosomewhere tojustthink andbealone, but there was nowhere in the camp to go.","Dem each wish dem fit go somewhere to just think and be alone, but there no dey nowhere for di camp to go.",Social studies
they already knew their neighbors must have heard the fight.,Dem already know say their neighbors must don hear di fight.,Social studies
"aspressures inthecamp mounted andresources became scarcer, alaa more frequently hitsabeen.","As pressures for di camp mount and resources become scarcer, Alaa more frequently hit Sabeen.",Social studies
"they both talked about how they looked forward towhen they could berelocated, when lifewould becalmer, andtheir relationship would bebetter. when they were given refugee status andarrived intheunited states, things were better forawhile.","Dem both talk about how dem dey look forward to wen dem fit dey relocated, wen life go be calmer and their relationship go be better. Wen dem get refugee status and arrive for U. S, things dey better for while.",Social studies
"butafter afewmonths, sabeen hadfound work cleaning homes, butthere was lesswork available formen.","But after few months, Sabeen don find work cleaning homes, but there dey less work available for men.",Social studies
"withnothing todoandfewpeople totalkto, alaa began todrink.","Wit nothing to do and few pipo to talk to, Alaa begin to drink.",Social studies
"ashebecame more and more aggressive, sabeen became more andmore depressed, notknowing how torespond.","Ashe become more and more aggressive, Sabeen become more and more depressed, not knowing how to respond.",Social studies
"sheonce tried tocall forhelp from aneighbor, buttheneighbor either didnotunderstand herenglish ordidnotrespond.","She once try to call for help from neighbor, but di neighbor either no understand her English or no respond.",Social studies
"shedecided it wasbetter totrytomanage thehome well inorder totrytoavoid anyoutbursts, butherenergysagged lower and lower. intheir small one-bedroom apartment, mais would always manage tohide under blankets when herdad started yelling.","She decide say e dey better to try to manage di home well for order to try to avoid any outbursts, but her energy sag lower and lower. For their small one-bedroom apartment, Mais go always manage to hide under blankets wen her dad start yelling.",Social studies
"one day, sabeen decided totalktoafellow refugee about their family situation.","one day, Sabeen decide to talk to fellow refugee about their family situation.",Social studies
"itfeltgood totalkabout it, and thefriend saidsabeen could always come over totheir apartment ifsheneeded togetaway foranevening.","E feel good to talk about am, and di friend say Sabeen fit always come over to their apartment if she need to getaway for evening.",Social studies
"sabeen started leaving thehouse with mais right after anoutburst started, before things could escalate toofar.","Sabeen start leaving di house wit Mais right after outburst start, before things fit escalate too far.",Social studies
"around this time, alaa found a job.","Around dis time, Alaa find job.",Social studies
"he started to become less violent, and the outbursts grew less and less frequent.","He start to become less violent, and di outbursts grow less and less frequent.",Social studies
"context for case study taken from leigh,2014 6. 8 conclusion discussion questions 1. think about your cultural background.","Context for Case study na di study of one example taken from Leigh,2014. Discussion questions— 1. Think about your cultural background.",Social studies
what aspects of your background might increase tolerance of ipv?,Wetin aspects of your background fit increase tolerance of IPV?,Social studies
what aspects would reduce tolerance of ipv?,Wetin aspects go reduce tolerance of IPV?,Social studies
"helpful links national domestic violence hotline the hotline maintains lists of resources for survivors, perpetrators, and friends.","Helpful links— National Violence and abuse wey happen between pipo wey live together or are intimate partners Hotline— di hotline dey maintain lists of resources for survivors, perpetrators and friends.",Social studies
"they have screening tests if you are worried you might be experiencing ipv, and tips for safety at every stage.","Dem get screening tests if you dey worried say you fit be experiencing IPV, and tips for safety at every stage.",Social studies
they also maintain stories from survivors.,Dem also dey maintain stories from survivors.,Social studies
they have a 24/7 chatline available for support.,Dem get 24 7 chatline available for support.,Social studies
they post events and alerts focused on the eradication of all violence against immigrant women.,Dem dey post events and alerts focused on di eradication of all violence against immigrant women.,Social studies
barriers tohealth care forabused latina andasian immigrant women.,Barriers to healthcare for abused Latina and Asian immigrant women.,Social studies
"journal ofhealth careforthepoor andunderserved, 11(1),33-44.","Journal of HealthCare for the Poor and Underserved, 11(1),33-44.",Social studies
"doi:10. 1353/hpu. 2010. 0590 bhuyan, r, mell, m, senturia, k, sullivan, m,&shiu-thornton, s.(2005).","DOI: 10.1353 hpu.2010.0590 Bhuyan, R, Mell, M, Senturia, K, Sullivan, M,& Shiu-Thornton, S.(2005).",Social studies
"""women must endure according totheir karma"": cambodian immigrant women talkabout domestic violence.",Women must endure according to their karma': Cambodian immigrant women dey talk about Violence and abuse wey happen between pipo wey live together or are intimate partners.,Social studies
"journal ofinterpersonal violence,20(8), 902-921.","Journal of Interpersonal Violence,20(8), 902-921.",Social studies
"biafora f,&warheit g.(2007).","Biafora F,& Warheit G.(2007).",Social studies
"self-reported violent victimization among young adults inmiami, florida: immigration, race/ethnic and gender contrasts.","Self-reported violent victimization among young adults for Miami, Florida: immigration, race ethnic and gender contrasts.",Social studies
"international review of v ictimology,14, 29-55 black, m. c, basile, k. c, breiding, m. j, smith, s. g, walters, m. l, merrick, m. t, chen, j,&stevens, m. r.","International Review of Victimology, 14, 29-55. Black, M. C, Basile, K. C, Breiding, M. J, Smith, S. G, Walters, M. L, Merrick, M. T, Chen, J,& Stevens, M. R.",Social studies
(2011). thenational intimate partner andsexual violence survey (nisvs): 2010 summary report.,(2011). Di National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS): 2010 Summary Report.,Social studies
"atlanta, ga: national center for injury prevention and control, centers for disease control and prevention.","Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.",Social studies
frequency andperceived effectiveness ofstrategies tosurvive abuse used by battered mexican-origin women.,Frequency and perceived effectiveness of strategies to survive abuse used by battered Mexican-origin women.,Social studies
immigrants andrefugees living intheintheunited states arenodifferent.,Immigrants and refugees wey dey live for U. S. no dey different.,Social studies
"however, the resettlement process adds additional complexities tounderstanding how immigrant andrefugee communities are impacted bysubstance abuse.","However, di resettlement process dey add additional complexities to sabi how immigrant and refugee communities dey impacted by The harmful use of alcohol, drugs or other substances in ways wey hurt the person.",Social studies
"immigrants have acquired habits andcustoms ofsubstance usefrom their home country, andthey must navigate these customs andanyclashes with local united states customs.","Immigrants don acquire habits and customs of substance use from their home country, and dem must navigate these customs and any clashes wit local U. S. customs.",Social studies
"additionally, immigrants often face limited employment and housing options, which means they may beunable toleave neighborhoods with prevalent substance use(asintheexample above).","Additionally, immigrants often dey face limited employment and housing options, which mean say dem fit be unable to leave neighborhoods wit prevalent substance use.",Social studies
"immigrants frequently have stressors associated with scarce employment, theneed tosend money tofamily, past traumatic exposure, andseparation from family. some immigrant andrefugee groups may beatgreater riskforabusing substances asameans of coping with these stressors.","Immigrants frequently get stressors associated wit scarce employment, di need to send money to family, past traumatic exposure and separation from family. Some immigrant and refugee groups fit beat greater risk for abusing substances as means of coping wit these stressors.",Social studies
"however, immigrants alsohave significant protective factors, such asspecific cultural norms and family support.","However, immigrants also get significant protective factors, such as specific Di unwritten rules and expectations wey guide how pipo behave in a particular culture and family support.",Social studies
"upon entering theunited states, immigrants areatlower riskofalcohol abuse than united states-born citizens, even incomparison tothose with thesame ethnic identity (breslau &chang,2006; escobar, nervi, &gara, 2000).","Upon entering U. S, immigrants dey at lower risk of alcohol abuse than U. S.-born citizens, even for compare to those wit di same Person's sense of belonging to and identifying with their culture and ethnic heritage.",Social studies
"research hasalso found thatforimmigrants, there isapositive correlation between thelength ofstay intheunited states andtheincreased riskofalcohol abuse (szaflarski, cubbins, &ying,2011). this maybe duetoprotective factors shared byimmigrants ortoalack ofculturally validated assessments forsubstance useinimmigrant communities.","Research also don find say for immigrants, there dey positive correlation between di length of stay for U. S. and di increased risk of alcohol abuse. Dis fit be due to protective factors shared by immigrants or to lack of culturally validated assessments for substance use for immigrant communities.",Social studies
"understanding theinfluences ofsubstance abuse within immigrant andrefugee populations intheunited states isincredibly complex due totwo main considerations: (1)thebreadth of substances thatcanbeused andabused (e. g, alcohol, tobacco, illicit drugs, andnon-prescribed prescription drugs) and(2)thediversity ofpeoples andcultures thatarerepresented within theunited states immigrant andrefugee populations.","Understanding di influences ofThe harmful use of alcohol, drugs or other substances in ways wey hurt the person within immigrant and refugee populations for U. S. dey incredibly complex due to two main considerations:(1) di breadth of substances wey fit be used and abused(e. g, alcohol, tobacco, illicit drugs and non-prescribed prescription drugs)and (2)di diversity of pipos and cultures wey dey represented within U. S. immigrant and refugee populations.",Social studies
definition of substance use disorders: theamerican psychological association(apa)defines substance abuse disorders asrecurrent useofalcohol ordrugs thatcause significant impairment.,"Definition of substance use disorders: di American Psychological Association(APA) dey define The harmful use of alcohol, drugs or other substances in ways wey hurt the person disorders as recurrent use of alcohol or drugs wey dey cause significant impairment.",Social studies
"individuals with substance abuse disorders have impaired control, social impairment, risky use, and/ormeet pharmacological criteria(2013).","Individuals wit The harmful use of alcohol, drugs or other substances in ways wey hurt the person disorders get impaired control, social impairment, risky use, and or meet Medical standards related to drug dependency used when diagnosing substance use disorders.",Social studies
"there areseparate diagnoses byeach substance(alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, stimulant, hallucinogen, andopioid).","There dey separate diagnoses by each substance(alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, stimulant, hallucinogen and opioid).",Social studies
"diagnoses areclassified intofivecategories: usedisorder, intoxication, withdrawal, other, substance-induced disorder, and substance-related disorder.","Diagnoses dey classified for five categories: use disorder, intoxication, withdrawal, other, substance-induced disorder and substance-related disorder.",Social studies
"webegin byreviewing theliterature onprevalence andriskfactors forsubstance use among immigrants, followed byanexploration ofthespecific roleofthefamily. next, wereview thetheoretical frameworks onsubstance abuse, policy, andprevention andintervention models.","We begin by reviewing di literature on prevalence and risk factors for substance use among immigrants, followed by exploration of di specific role of di family. Next, we review di theoretical frameworks on The harmful use of alcohol, drugs or other substances in ways wey hurt the person, policy and prevention and intervention models.",Social studies
"initsfar-reaching effects, theestimated costs ofsubstance abuse intheunited states is$700 billion annually, with much ofthecost related tohealth care, crime, andlossofwork productivity(cdc, 2015; ndic, 2011; ushhs, 2014).","For its far-reaching effects, di estimated costs ofThe harmful use of alcohol, drugs or other substances in ways wey hurt the person for U. S. na $700 billion annually, wit much of di cost related to healthcare, crime and loss of work productivity.",Social studies
"understanding substance abuse within immigrant populations is becoming increasingly important astheunited states increases incultural diversity (szaflarski, cubbins, &ying,2011).","Understanding The harmful use of alcohol, drugs or other substances in ways wey hurt the person within immigrant populations dey becoming increasingly important as U. S. dey increase for cultural diversity.",Social studies
"ingeneral, immigrants have lower rates ofsubstance usedisorders than dounited states-born citizens.","For general, immigrants get lower rates of substance use disorders than U. S.-born citizens.",Social studies
"in anationally representative sample ofadults, prevalence ofsubstance usedisorders was substantially lower among first-generation immigrants than among united states-born, andslightly lower among second-generation immigrants than among united states-born (salas-w right, vaughn, clark, terzis, &cordova, 2014).","For nationally representative sample of adults, prevalence of substance use disorders dey substantially lower among first-generation immigrants than among U. S.-born, and slightly lower among second-generation immigrants than among U. S.-born.",Social studies
united states-born persons were three tofive times more likely toexperience lifetime substance abuse ordependence disorders than first-generation immigrants.,"U. S.-born persons dey three to five times more likely to experience lifetime The harmful use of alcohol, drugs or other substances in ways wey hurt the person or dependence disorders than first-generation immigrants.",Social studies
"specifically, 49% oftheunited states-born hadalifetime diagnosis of substance abuse or dependence, compared to 18%of firstimmigrants.","Specifically,49% of di U. S.-born get lifetime diagnosis ofThe harmful use of alcohol, drugs or other substances in ways wey hurt the person or dependence, compared to 18%of first-generation immigrants.",Social studies
"similarly, astudy ofimmigrant adolescents inmassachusetts found they hadalower riskofalcohol, tobacco, and marijuana usethan united states-born adolescents (almeida, johnson, matsumoto, &godette, 2012).","Similarly, study of immigrant adolescents for Massachusetts find say dem get lower risk of alcohol, tobacco and marijuana use than U. S.-born adolescents.",Social studies
"according tothe1999-2001 national survey ondrug useandhealth, thesubstance userates across culture andsubstance candiffergreatly across groups(brown etal.","According to di 1999-2001 National Survey on Drug Use and Health, di substance use rates across culture and substance fit differ greatly across groups.",Social studies
"intherefugee camps, common substances arealcohol, khat, and cannabis, some made for medicinal purposes and others for recreational use (streel & schilperoord, 2010).","For di refugee camps, common substances na alcohol, khat and cannabis, some made for medicinal purposes and others for recreational use.",Social studies
"despite these high rates ofuseinrefugee camps, thefew studies intheunited states have found very low rates ofalcohol useanddisorders.","Despite these high rates of use for refugee camps, di few studies for U. S. don find very low rates of alcohol use and disorders.",Social studies
"inastudy ofsubstance useamong allnewly arriving adult refugees ina texas city, reported rates ofcurrent smoking(38. 5%) andalcohol use(23%)were very low(barnes, harrison, &heneghan, 2004).","For study of substance use among all newly arriving adult refugees for Texas city, reported rates of current smoking (38.5%) and alcohol use(23%) dey very low.",Social studies
"theauthors note thatsubstance consumption may have been underreported, atleast among some ethnicities.","Di authors note say substance consumption fit have been underreported, atleast among some ethnicities.",Social studies
"the study' sbosnian interpreter andcultural consultant, forexample, believed that the20% alcohol use rate reported by bosnians underrepresented use in that community.","Di study's Bosnian interpreter and cultural consultant, for example, believe say di 20%alcohol use rate reported by Bosnians underrepresent use for dat community.",Social studies
twostudies have assessed substance usedisorders among refugees.,Two studies don assess substance use disorders among refugees.,Social studies
"inanational study ofrefugee children and adolescents receiving treatment through thenational child traumatic stress network, lessthan 4%hadasubstance usedisorder (betancourt etal.","For national study of refugee children and adolescents receiving treatment through di National Child Mental and emotional pain wey person get after going through terrible experience Network, less than 4%get A medical condition where person dey use substances in ways wey cause harm and dem cannot easily stop.",Social studies
"similarly, arandom sample ofcambodian refugees found thatfour percent had an alcohol use disorder(marshall, schell, elliott, berthold, &chun, 2005).","Similarly, random sample of Cambodian refugees find say four percent get A medical condition where person dey drink alcohol in harmful and uncontrollable ways.",Social studies
"forrefugees, patterns ofusediffersignificantly across thetrajectory ofdisplacement.","For refugees, patterns of use dey differ significantly across di trajectory of displacement.",Social studies
"these transitions canbe demonstrated inthestories toldbykaren refugees (mccleary,2013; mccleary &wieling, inpress).",These transitions fit dey demonstrated for di stories told by Karen refugees.,Social studies
"when the karen lived inburma, their country oforigin, there were cultural structures that protected most people from harmful alcohol useandconsequent problems.","Wen di Karen dey live for Burma, their Di country where person was born or originally come from, there dey cultural structures wey protect most pipo from harmful alcohol use and consequent problems.",Social studies
"however, once people fled tothailand, alcohol useincreased significantly andtheproblems resulting from harmful useincreased.","However, once pipo flee to Thailand, alcohol use increase significantly and di problems resulting from harmful use increase.",Social studies
"new problems such asviolence between unrelated adult men, intimate partner violence, andsuicide increased, andwere allrelated toalcohol use.","New problems such as violence between unrelated adult men, intimate partner violence and suicide increase, and dem all dey related to alcohol use.",Social studies
"after resettlement, patterns ofusechanged again.","After resettlement, patterns of use change again.",Social studies
"forsome people, rates ofuseincreased duetoresettlement stress andlossofroles.","For some pipo, rates of use increase due to resettlement stress and loss of roles.",Social studies
"forother people, alcohol usedropped significantly because harmful alcohol usecarried somuch more risk(e. g,","For other pipo, alcohol use drop significantly because harmful alcohol use carry so much more risk(e. g,",Social studies
"lossofjob, lossofhousing, loss ofdriving privileges).","Loss of job, loss of housing, loss of driving privileges).",Social studies
"additionally, inrefugee camps, religious and community leaders acted associal supports formany refugees toaddress alcohol-related problems.","Additionally, for refugee camps, religious and community leaders act as social supports for many refugees to address alcohol-related problems.",Social studies
"however, intheunited states, many religious andcommunity leaders feeloverwhelmed andunable tosupport their community members with substance use related concerns.146 immigrant and refugee families 7. 2 risk factors risk factors substances may beused asameans ofcoping with previous orongoing trauma, stress, isolation, anduncertainty (ezard, 2012; united nations,2014; weaver&roberts, 2010).","However, for U. S, many religious and community leaders dey feel overwhelmed and unable to support their community members wit substance use-related concerns. Risk factors— substances fit be used as means of coping wit previous or ongoing trauma, stress, isolation and uncertainty.",Social studies
each ofthese phenomena canbeariskfactor forsubstance useandrelated disorders inimmigrant communities.,Each of these phenomena fit be Something wey increase the chance of bad thing happening— it make risk higher for substance use and related disorders for immigrant communities.,Social studies
"additionally, particular practices andcultural norms inthecountry oforigin along with acculturation stressors related tolocal customs intheunited states can put immigrants at an increased risk for substance use.","Additionally, particular practices and Di unwritten rules and expectations wey guide how pipo behave in a particular culture for di country where person was born or originally come from along wit acculturation stressors related to local customs for U. S. fit put immigrants at increased risk for substance use.",Social studies
"exposur etotraumatic stressand mental health. many immigrants, particularly refugees, have been exposed toviolence andtraumatic events intheir home countries andduring resettlement(porter &haslam, 2005; united nations,2014).","Exposure to Mental and emotional pain wey person get after going through terrible experience and mental health— many immigrants, particularly refugees, don dey exposed to violence and traumatic events for their home countries and during resettlement.",Social studies
"trauma exposure increases theriskofmental health disorders(porter &haslam, 2005; johnson &thompson, 2008).",Trauma exposure dey increase di risk of mental health disorders.,Social studies
"these mental health disorders inturn canincrease theriskofsubstance abuse (ezard, 2012; weaver &roberts,2010).","These mental health disorders in turn fit increase di risk ofThe harmful use of alcohol, drugs or other substances in ways wey hurt the person.",Social studies
"however, many immigrants andrefugees avoid substance useeven after traumatic exposure anddistress.","However, many immigrants and refugees dey avoid substance use even after traumatic exposure and distress.",Social studies
"ina study ofcambodian refugees 20years after arrival, alcohol usedisorder waspositively related totrauma exposure since arriving intheunited states, butnottotrauma exposure prior toarrival (marshall, schell, elliott, berthold, &chun,2005).","For study of Cambodian refugees 20 years after arrival, A medical condition where person dey drink alcohol in harmful and uncontrollable ways dey positively related to trauma exposure since arriving for U. S, but not to trauma exposure prior to arrival.",Social studies
"alowrate(4%) ofalcohol usedisorder wasfound inspite ofhigh rates ofptsd (62%) andmajor depression disorder(51%) inthiscommunity. similarly, infocus groups conducted with karen refugees, trauma was described as a much more influential factor in substance use in the refugee camps than in the united states.","Low rate(4%) of A medical condition where person dey drink alcohol in harmful and uncontrollable ways dey found in spite of high rates of PTSD(62%) and major depression disorder(51%) for dis community. Similarly, for one kind meeting wey dem dey call to yarn about somethin, wey dem go take am discuss, wey one person go lead, make dem hear pipo tori, sabi wetin dem like, wetin dem no like conducted wit Karen refugees, trauma dey described as much more influential factor for substance use for di refugee camps than for U. S.",Social studies
stresses after resettlement.,Stresses after resettlement.,Social studies
"immigrants face significant stressors asthey seek employment andanew lifein theunited states, particularly when they face discrimination along theway.","Immigrants dey face significant stressors as dem dey seek employment and new life for U. S, particularly wen dem dey face discrimination along di way.",Social studies
these stressors areassociated with increased substance use.,These stressors dey associated wit increased substance use.,Social studies
"forexample, migrant workers report that three oftheir most common reasons for drinking areisolation from family, boredom, andstress, along with work constraints that lead tolack ofdry recreation oropportunities forsocial connection (organista, 2007).","for example, migrant workers dey report say three of their most common reasons for drinking na isolation from family, boredom and stress, along wit work constraints wey dey lead to lack of dry recreation or opportunities for social connection.",Social studies
"furthermore, immigrants' experiences of unfair treatment andperceived discrimination infinding work areassociated with alcohol disorders, prescription drug abuse, and illicit drug use(gee, delva, &t akeuchi, 2007).","Furthermore, immigrants' experiences of unfair treatment and perceived discrimination for finding work dey associated wit alcohol disorders, prescription drug abuse and illicit drug use.",Social studies
immigrants also face stressors linked tothelegal consequences ofsubstance use.,Immigrants also dey face stressors linked to di legal consequences of substance use.,Social studies
"within theunited states, individuals who abuse alcohol and identify asbeing from racial minority backgrounds areseen as""doubly vulnerable"" (gwyn &colin 2010, p. 38).","Within U. S, individuals wey dey abuse alcohol and dey identify as being from racial minority backgrounds dey seen as 'doubly vulnerable'.",Social studies
"the legal ramifications forracial minority communities aremore severe than formajority communities, such ascriminal charges(iguchi, bell, ramchand &fain, 2005)and increased involvement with social service related organizations(i. e, child protective services, department of social services; roberts &nuru-jeter,2012).","Di legal ramifications for racial minority communities dey more severe than for majority communities, such as criminal charges and increased involvement wit social service-related organizations(i. e, child protective services, department of social services).",Social studies
legal proceedings areoften expensive anddifficult tounderstand forthose without aformal legal education.,Legal proceedings often dey expensive and difficult to understand for those without formal legal education.,Social studies
"forpeople who have language andcultural barriers, thisprocess may become additionally challenging.","For pipo wey get language and cultural barriers, dis process fit become additionally challenging.",Social studies
immigrants andrefugees often experience these additional challenges.,Immigrants and refugees often dey experience these additional challenges.,Social studies
"differences inculture, religion, acculturation process, gender roles, hierarchy, collectivism/ individualism, and family structures anddynamics often exacerbate theamount ofstressors these families face (rastogi &wadhwa, 2006).","Differences for culture, religion, acculturation process, gender roles, hierarchy, collectivism individualism and family structures and dynamics often dey exacerbate di amount of stressors these families dey face.",Social studies
"each of these challenges requires consideration in research, policy, and intervention.","Each of these challenges dey require consideration for research, policy and intervention.",Social studies
norms incountry oforigin and acculturation tolocal customs.,Norms for Di country where person was born or originally come from and acculturation to local customs.,Social studies
the norms from thecountry oforigin frequently play arole inanimmigrant' ssubstance useand abuse after arrival.,Di norms from di country where person was born or originally come from frequently dey play role for immigrant's substance use and abuse after arrival.,Social studies
"forexample, inastudy of asian american immigrants, thedetrimental drinking pattern (orthe""extent towhich frequent heavy drinking, drunkenness, festive drinking atcommunity celebrations, drinking with meals, anddrinking inpublic places are common"") inthecountry oforigin wassignificantly associated with theriskoffrequent drunkenness andalcoholabuse symptoms(cook, bond, karriker -jaffe,&zemore, 2013, p. 533).","for example, for study of Asian American immigrants, di detrimental drinking pattern for di country where person was born or originally come from dey significantly associated wit di risk of frequent drunkenness and alcohol abuse symptoms.",Social studies
"drinking prevalence (orthe""extent to which alcohol consumption isintegrated into society asanordinary occurrence"") inthecountry oforigin was associated with alcohol dependence symptoms(cook etal.",Drinking prevalence for di country where person was born or originally come from dey associated wit alcohol dependence symptoms.,Social studies
"acculturation totheunited states consumption behaviors canalso increase theriskofsubstance abuse (ezard, 2012; bacio, mays, &lau,2012; kam,2011; prado etal.","Acculturation to U. S. consumption behaviors fit also increase di risk ofThe harmful use of alcohol, drugs or other substances in ways wey hurt the person.",Social studies
"pumariega, millsaps, rodriguez, moser,&pumariega (2007), forexample, found thatadolescents may beatanincreased riskofsubstance abuse duetothechallenges ofacculturation andadopting 'americanized' activities.","Pumariega, Millsaps, Rodriguez, Moser & Pumariega (2007), for example, find say adolescents fit beat increased risk ofThe harmful use of alcohol, drugs or other substances in ways wey hurt the person due to di challenges of acculturation and adopting 'Americanized' activities.",Social studies
brao woman making rice wine in a jar wikimedia commons cc by-sa 3. 0.,Brao woman dey make rice wine for jar— Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0.,Social studies
"knowing thevarious risk factors immigrants face, itissurprising that immigrants report less drug use(i. e,","Knowing di various risk factors immigrants dey face, e dey surprising say immigrants dey report less drug use(i. e,",Social studies
"alcohol, cigarette, intravenous drugs, andother illegal drugs)than united states-born individuals (hussey et al.","Alcohol, cigarette, intravenous drugs and other illegal drugs)than U. S.-born individuals.",Social studies
"forexample, onestudy found adolescents inneighborhoods ofhistorical mexican heritage(e. g, mostly non-immigrants)were athigher riskforalcohol andmarijuana use; these neighborhoods tended tohave higher rates ofcrime, poverty, andresidential insecurity.","for example, one study find say adolescents for neighborhoods of historical Mexican heritage(e. g, mostly non-immigrants)dey at higher risk for alcohol and marijuana use; these neighborhoods tend to get higher rates of crime, poverty and residential insecurity.",Social studies
"however, youth living inneighborhoods thathadhigher numbers ofimmigrants reported lower useofalcohol, cigarettes, andmarijuana.","However, youth living for neighborhoods wey get higher numbers of immigrants report lower use of alcohol, cigarettes and marijuana.",Social studies
this suggests thatthere wassomething about neighborhoods with more ofanimmigrant presence thatmay actasaprotective factor inadolescent substance use(kulis etal.,Dis dey suggest say there na something about neighborhoods wit more immigrant presence wey fit act as Something wey reduce the risk of bad things happening— it protect person from harm for adolescent substance use.,Social studies
"while thisparadox does nothold true forallimmigrant groups(hernandez, denton, macartney,&blanchard,2012), many researchers arepuzzled atthese findings.","While dis paradox no hold true for all immigrant groups, many researchers dey puzzled at these findings.",Social studies
"recent literature suggests thatfamily support may explain why thisis the case.7. 2 risk factors 149 7. 3 family influences on substance abuse family involvement andcohesion arekeyprotective factors forsubstance abuse among immigrants (bacio, mays, &lau,2012; kam,2011; prado etal.","Recent literature dey suggest say family support fit explain why dis dey di case. Family influences on The harmful use of alcohol, drugs or other substances in ways wey hurt the person— family involvement and cohesion na key protective factors for The harmful use of alcohol, drugs or other substances in ways wey hurt the person among immigrants.",Social studies
"for example, theresearch team who conducted theneighborhood study addressed above hypothesized thatthemain protective characteristic against substance useandabuse wasfamily involvement andcohesion.","for example, di research team wey conduct di neighborhood study addressed above hypothesize say di main protective characteristic against substance use and abuse na family involvement and cohesion.",Social studies
general family andecological systems theories posit thatfamily members influence eachother asthey interact onaregular basis.,General family and ecological systems theories dey posit say family members dey influence eachother as dem dey interact on regular basis.,Social studies
this might beespecially true inthecase ofrecently arrived immigrant families who areturn toeach other for support.,Dis fit be especially true for di case of recently arrived immigrant families wey dey turn to eachother for support.,Social studies
"parenting style isonestrong protective factor. forlatino/ aadolescents, parenting style patterns were related toadolescent alcohol useorabstention (driscoll, russell, &crockett,2008).","Di overall approach and methods wey parents use to raise their children na one strong Something wey reduce the risk of bad things happening— it protect person from harm. For Latino a adolescents, Di overall approach and methods wey parents use to raise their children patterns dey related to adolescent alcohol use or abstention.",Social studies
"(2008)indicated thatthere wasanincreased amount ofpermissive parenting with successive generations ofimmigrants, andthis parenting style wasrelated toincreased alcohol useamong adolescents.","(2008)indicate say there dey increased amount of A parenting style wey too easy going— parent care but no dey set proper rules wit successive generations of immigrants, and dis Di overall approach and methods wey parents use to raise their children dey related to increased alcohol use among adolescents.",Social studies
those thathadauthoritative parents did nothave anincreased riskofalcohol use(driscoll etal.,Those wey get authoritative parents no get increased risk of alcohol use.,Social studies
"this suggests thatparenting styles thatarehigh on expectations andsupport (i. e, authoritative parenting; baumrind, 1971)may serve asaprotective factor against alcohol use for adolescents.","Dis dey suggest say parenting styles wey dey high on expectations and support(i. e, A parenting style wey both caring and firm— showing love while setting clear rules)fit serve as Something wey reduce the risk of bad things happening— it protect person from harm against alcohol use for adolescents.",Social studies
"inaddition toparenting being important, thegeneral family environment canalso influence substance use.","for addition to parenting being important, di general family environment fit also influence substance use.",Social studies
"for example, schwartz, mason, pantin, &szapocznik, (2008)indicated thatfamily functioning influenced identity formation, andthatadolescents inimmigrant families with higher levels ofidentity confusion were more likely toinitiate cigarette andalcohol use, inaddition toinitiating early sexual experiences.","for example, Schwartz, Mason, Pantin & Szapocznik (2008)indicate say family functioning dey influence Di process wey person go through to develop a clear sense of who dem be and what they value, and say adolescents for immigrant families wit higher levels of identity confusion dey more likely to initiate cigarette and alcohol use, for addition to initiating early sexual experiences.",Social studies
"these findings indicate thatfamily functioning canalso serve asaprotective factor interms ofinitiating drug andalcohol behavior. it isimportant toputthisintocontext asfamily cohesion pre-immigration hasalso been negatively correlated with drug use of young adults(dillon, de la rosa, sanchez, &schwartz, 2012).",These findings dey indicate say family functioning fit also serve as Something wey reduce the risk of bad things happening— it protect person from harm for terms of initiating drug and alcohol behavior. E important to put dis for context as How tightly bonded and connected family members are to eachother pre-immigration don also dey negatively correlated wit drug use of young adults.,Social studies
"theparent-child dyad seems tobeofparticular importance inthetransmission ofanduptake ofsubstance abuse(farrell &white,1998).","Di unique relationship between one parent and one child— how dem relate with eachother dey seem to be of particular importance for di transmission of and uptake ofThe harmful use of alcohol, drugs or other substances in ways wey hurt the person.",Social studies
"farrel &white(1998) found thatwhen mother-adolescent distress was high, riskof drug useincreased among adolescents.","Farrell& White(1998) find say wen mother-adolescent distress dey high, risk of drug use dey increase among adolescents.",Social studies
"inthecontext ofdisplaced families, while high family cohesion isa protective factor, acculturated adolescents may seethiscohesion asachallenge totheir independence.","For di context of displaced families, while high How tightly bonded and connected family members are to eachother na Something wey reduce the risk of bad things happening— it protect person from harm, acculturated adolescents fit see dis cohesion as challenge to their independence.",Social studies
"ifleft unresolved, thiscanbecome aproblem.","If left unresolved, dis fit become problem.",Social studies
"conflict between parents andchildren inimmigrant latino/ afamilies predicted lifetime useofalcohol andbinge drinking behaviors (marsiglia, kulis, parsai, villar,&garcia, 2009).",Conflict between parents and children for immigrant Latino a families predict lifetime use of alcohol and binge drinking behaviors.,Social studies
itisimportant tonote thatnotallfamilies immigrate together andtheexperience ofseparation canalso impact substance use.,E important to note say not all families dey immigrate together and di experience of separation fit also impact substance use.,Social studies
"forexample, when mother-child separates there isanincreased riskinterms ofdrug andalcohol useforadolescents (mena, mitrani, muir,&santisteban 2008).","for example, wen mother-child dey separate there dey increased risk for drug and alcohol use for adolescents.",Social studies
asecond kind ofseparation canalso influence riskfactors.,Second kind of separation fit also influence risk factors.,Social studies
"conceptually, thisseparation relates toambiguous loss(boss, 1991), inthatthey occur when the parent isunable tocare forthechild duetofinancial, health(both physical andmental), andsubstance abuse problems (mena et al,","Conceptually, dis separation dey relate to A loss wey no be clear or final— like when person dey missing but you no know if dem dey alive, for dat dem dey occur wen di parent dey unable to care for di child due to financial, health (both physical and mental)and The harmful use of alcohol, drugs or other substances in ways wey hurt the person problems.",Social studies
"intheexisting literature, there areseveral theories thatareused toframe substance abuse within immigrant communities, thus adding tothedifficulties aswell.","For di existing literature, there dey several theories wey dey used to frame The harmful use of alcohol, drugs or other substances in ways wey hurt the person within immigrant communities, thus adding to di difficulties aswell.",Social studies
"itwould beunreasonable toexpect allauthors tosubscribe to only onetheory, however thevariety oftheories found increases thedifficulty ofacomprehensive discussion.","E go be unreasonable to expect all authors to subscribe to only one theory, however di variety of theories wey dey found dey increase di difficulty of comprehensive discussion.",Social studies
"ecode velopmental theory one approach that hasbeen frequently utilized intheliterature isecodevelopmental theory (szapocznik & coatsworth, 1999).","A theory wey explain person's behaviour by looking at all the different systems around dem— family, school, society— one approach wey don frequently dey utilized for di literature na A theory wey explain person's behaviour by looking at all the different systems around dem— family, school, society.",Social studies
"this theory takes tenets ofecological systems (bronfenbrenner,1977) anddevelopmental theories such asstages highlighted intheexpanded family lifecycle model(carter &mcgoldrick, 2005) inan attempt toexplain thecomplexities ofsubstance abuse within immigrant andrefugee populations.","Dis theory dey take tenets of ecological systems and developmental theories such as stages highlighted for di expanded A theory describing the different stages a family go through from when dem start to when they old for attempt to explain di complexities ofThe harmful use of alcohol, drugs or other substances in ways wey hurt the person within immigrant and refugee populations.",Social studies
"this enables adiscussion ofsurrounding systems thatinfluence theindividual, while also taking into account thestages of lifemany individuals andfamilies experience.","Dis dey enable discussion of surrounding systems wey dey influence di individual, while also taking into account di stages of life many individuals and families dey experience.",Social studies
"forexample, bronfrenbrenner (1977)discussed development as aseries ofsystems thatmimicked concentric circles.","for example, Bronfenbrenner (1977)discuss development as series of systems wey dey mimic concentric circles.",Social studies
"the circle closest totheindividual isthemicro-system, which consists ofpeople andenvironments thatinfluence theindividual onaregular basis(i. e, family members, friends, colleagues, work environment, etc.).","Di circle closest to di individual na di micro-system, wey dey consist of pipo and environments wey dey influence di individual on regular basis(i. e, family members, friends, colleagues, work environment, etc.).",Social studies
"each ofthese micro-systems interacts with eachother, andthis interaction creates themeso-system.","Each of these micro-systems dey interact wit eachother, and dis interaction dey create di meso-system.",Social studies
the next two systems aretheexoandmacro-systems.,Di next two systems na di exo-and macro-systems.,Social studies
"the exo-system consists ofthelargerinfluences ofeconomics, politics, education, government, andreligion, while themacrosystem consists ofoverarching values andbeliefs thataperson has.","Di exo-system dey consist of di larger influences of economics, politics, education, government and religion, while di macro-system dey consist of overarching values and beliefs wey person get.",Social studies
this whole system then moves through time andthiselement oftime istermed thechronosystem.,Dis whole system then dey move through time and dis element of time dey termed di chronosystem.,Social studies
"immigrants andrefugees may have similar types ofmicrosystems, however their interaction with their macro-system may beabitdifferent duetoexperiences during displacement or migration, language, culture, and law.","Immigrants and refugees fit get similar types of microsystems, however their interaction wit their macro-system fit be bit different due to experiences during displacement or migration, language, culture and law.",Social studies
the second piece ofecodevelopmental theory isthefamily lifecycle model.,"Di second piece of A theory wey explain person's behaviour by looking at all the different systems around dem— family, school, society na di A theory describing the different stages a family go through from when dem start to when they old.",Social studies
"the family lifecycle model describes thenormative stages that afamily goes through(i. e, initial coupling, marriage/ commitment, transitioning toparenthood, etc.).","Di A theory describing the different stages a family go through from when dem start to when they old dey describe di normative stages wey family dey go through(i. e, initial coupling, marriage commitment, transitioning to parenthood, etc.).",Social studies
combining each ofthese concepts intoonetheory allows foranunderstanding ofboth external andinternal influences.,Combining each of these concepts for one theory dey allow for understanding of both external and internal influences.,Social studies
"ecological systems theory focuses more ontheoutside systems with which anindividual interacts(i. e, peer andfamilial influence andwork and/orschool environment) andthe family lifecycle provides anunderstanding ofimportant internal influences such asstages oflife(i. e,","A theory wey look at how different surrounding systems— family, school, society— shape a person's development dey focus more on di outside systems wit which individual dey interact(i. e, peer and familial influence and work and or school environment)and di family lifecycle dey provide understanding of important internal influences such as stages of life(i. e,",Social studies
"childhood, adolescents, coupling, etc.).","Childhood, adolescents, coupling, etc.).",Social studies
"assimilation( or accultur ation) model one model thatfocuses more onthepopulation (i. e, immigrants andrefugees) than ontheproblem (i. e, substance abuse) istheassimilation (oracculturation) model.","Assimilation(or acculturation) model— one model wey dey focus more on di population(i. e, immigrants and refugees)than on di problem(i. e, The harmful use of alcohol, drugs or other substances in ways wey hurt the person)na di assimilation(or acculturation) model.",Social studies
"this model describes newcomers (i. e, immigrants and refugees) asadopting thehost country' scustoms andpatterns ofsubstance use.","Dis model dey describe newcomers (i. e, immigrants and refugees)as adopting di country wey receive and give a home to immigrants or refugees's customs and patterns of substance use.",Social studies
this means thatimmigrants and refugees may likely adopt substance usehabits thataremore reflective oftheir current surroundings rather than their country oforigin.,Dis mean say immigrants and refugees fit likely adopt substance use habits wey dey more reflective of their current surroundings no be their Di country where person was born or originally come from.,Social studies
"this isnotdefinitive however, andtheliterature ismixed.","Dis no dey definitive however, and di literature dey mixed.",Social studies
both d'avanzo (1997)and rebhun (1998)reported thatpeople might simply continue thesubstance abuse patterns thatthey participated in while living intheir country oforigin.,"Both D'Avanzo (1997)and Rebhun (1998)report say pipo fit simply continue di The harmful use of alcohol, drugs or other substances in ways wey hurt the person patterns wey dem participate for while living for their Di country where person was born or originally come from.",Social studies
"this may explain theimmigrant paradox discussed previously; thelonger thatimmigrants andrefugees andtheir families stayintheunited states, thehigher their riskforsubstance abuse.","Dis fit explain di surprising finding that immigrants often dey healthier than expected despite facing poverty and hardship discussed previously; di longer immigrants and refugees and their families dey stay for U. S, di higher their risk for The harmful use of alcohol, drugs or other substances in ways wey hurt the person.",Social studies
"this would make sense asfirst-generation migrant peoples would have aforeign country oforigin, butsecondgeneration would beliving intheir country oforigin andthus only have their current location(with allofits influences, culture, etc.)","Dis go make sense as first-generation migrant pipos go get foreign Di country where person was born or originally come from, but second-generation go dey living for their Di country where person was born or originally come from and thus only get their di place wey you dey now(wit all of its influences, culture, etc.)",Social studies
this book was produced using and pdf rendering was done by princexml.,Di book dey produce using and pdf rendering dey done by princexml,Social studies
"itincludes aplethora oftheory, research andpractice-related information.","E include aplethora of theory, research and practice-related information.",Social studies
the book' ssystemic framework isunique inthatitallows usto understand these issues within thecontext ofrelationships.,Di book' systemic framework dey unique for say e gree us to understand dis issues within di context of relationships.,Social studies
iwant tocongratulate theeditors andauthors for creating such strongly affirming content dedicated tothewell-being ofrefugees andimmigrants.,I wan congratulate editors and authors for creating that kind strong affirming content wey dey dedicated to di well-being of refugees and immigrants.,Social studies
itisespecially refreshing andtimely toseethisbook address theabove from theperspective ofsocial justice.,e dey specially refreshing and timely to see dis kind book address di above from di perspective of Di pursuit of fairness— making sure every person get equal rights and opportunities in society.,Social studies
"theformat of thebook isideal forthegoals oftheeditors, andforthecommunities thatthey wish toreach.","Di format of di book dey ideal for di goals ofthe editors, and for the communities wey dem wish to reach.",Social studies
ihave nodoubt that the book will enjoy a wide range of readership.,I no get doubt say di book go enjoy wide range of readership,Social studies
this tremendous influx ofimmigrants andrefugees families challenges social andhealth services intheu. s.,"di massive influx of immigrants and refugee families dey challenge social and health services inside the United States. Many communities dey struggle to provide enough care, housing, and support for the rising number of pipo looking for help",Social studies
"toobtain current information, conduct new research and create new service programs.","Dem toobtain current information, conduct new research and then create new service programs",Social studies
this timely book isanextraordinarily useful compendium ofcrucial knowledge andmultiple competencies for working with immigrant andrefugee populations.,Dis timely book dey extraordinarily useful compendium of crucial knowledge and multiple competencies for work wit immigrant andrefugee populations.,Social studies
"byfocusing incisively andcompassionately ontheinternal reorganization andtheexternal adaptation offamilies, thisbook expands theindividual lens byoffering a crucial multilevel systems orientation.","Di book expand di individual lens by focusing incisively and compassionately on the internal reorganization and di external adaptation of families, dis book expand di person lens by offering crucial multi-level systems orientation.",Social studies
"this perspective isnecessary tocreate ecologically sound prevention andintervention thatcanhelp restore asense oflifecoherence andhelp heal thedeep wounds inflicted by home displacement forindividuals, families andcommunities.","Di perspective dey necessary to create ecologically sound prevention and intervention wey go help restore sense of life coherence and help heal di deep wounds wey dey flict by home displacement for individuals, families and communities.",Social studies
"theaudiences thatwillprofit from studying and consulting thisrichbook include those working onnew theories, research orcommunity andclinical practice inmental health, trauma studies, immigration policy, substance abuse anddomestic violence, human rights, immigration policy andlegal aspects faced byimmigrant andrefugee populations intheu. s.","Di audience wey dey work on new diories, research or community and clinical practice for mental health, trauma studies, immigration policy, The harmful use of alcohol, drugs or other substances in ways wey hurt the person and Violence and abuse wey happen between pipo wey live together or are intimate partners, human rights, immigration policy and legal aspects wey dey face by immigrant and refugee populations inside U. S",Social studies
"one wonders if immigrant andrefugee themselves, their employers, teachers, counselors orhealth care providers might alsobe able tousethispublication asaresource.","One go dey wonder if immigrant and refugee themselves, them employers, teachers, counselors or healthcare provider go dey able to use dis publication as a resource",Social studies
"thelucid, easily accessible andjargonfreewriting covers conceptual approaches totreatment andmultiple avenues forintervention.","Di lucid, easily accessible and jargon free writing cover conceptual approaches to treatment and multiple avenues for intervention.",Social studies
"each subject iscovered with accurate and unbiased current topic content, with theadvantage offuture online updates inanarea ofrapidly changing information where many writings become quickly outdated.","Di subject dey covered wit accurate and unbiased current topic content, wit di advantage of future online updates for an area of rapidly changing information wey dey quickly outdated.",Social studies
"without underestimating thechallenges andrisks ofuprooting andresettlement while having been traumatized byphysical and emotional violence, theauthors also portray thehopeful perseverance and resilience demonstrated bymany immigrants andrefugees families intheface ofloss, grieving andadversity. honoring thestrengths ofthehuman spirit counteracts deficit-based views ofimmigrants andrefugees andcalls attention to culture-specific values as resources and social justice as an ethical imperative.",For honoring di strength ofthe human spirit counteracts deficit-based views of immigrants and refugees and call attention to culture-specific values as resources and Di pursuit of fairness— making sure every person get equal rights and opportunities in society as an ethical imperative.,Social studies
"celia jaes falicov, ph. d. clinical professor, department of family medicine and public health university of california, san diego acknowledgements dr. janmcculloch, former family social science department head, said 'yes' when weasked herifwecould develop andteach agraduate course onimmigrant andrefugee families, thecourse inwhich theideas forthis textbook were born.","Di family social science department head, tok say 'yes' wen we ask herifwe go develop and teach graduate course onimmigrant andrefugee families, dicourse wey dem born.",Social studies
"wedidn' tknow where itwould take us, butshetrusted ourinstincts andsupported ourdreams for this course and this work.","we no sabi wen e go take us, but she trust our instincts and support our dreams for discourse and dis work",Social studies
we thank her for her outstanding leadership and support.,E thank her for her outstanding leadership and support,Social studies
"wethank allofthegraduate students, community collaborators, andexpert contributors who created andrefined this text.","We thank all ofthe graduate students, community collaborators, andexpert contributors wey create di text",Social studies
"wethank theuniversity ofminnesota libraries staff, particularly shane nackerud and kristi jensen, for exploring new teaching resource strategies.","We thank di university of minnesota libraries staff, particularly shane nackerud and kristi jensen, for exploring new teaching resource strategies.",Social studies
"they helped create avision ofhow ourtextbook could beused in innovative ways, provided allofthetechnical andonline layout andediting work, andawarded usapartnership for affordable content grant that brought this text to fruition.","Diy help create avision ofhow awa textbook could beused for innovative way, provided allofthetechnical andonline layout andediting work, wey dey provide allofthetechnical andonline layout andediting work, wey dey ward usapartnership for affordable content grant wey dey bring dis text to fruition.",Social studies
herresearch focuses onsupporting families andparents affected bytraumatic stress.,She research focus on support families and parents affected by Mental and emotional pain wey person get after going through terrible experience.,Social studies
sheiscurrently working with karen refugees inst.,She dey currently work for karen refugees,Social studies
paul todevelop interventions tosupport families thatare culturally appropriate and responsive to shared experiences of trauma.,Paul go develop interventions to support families wey dey culturally appropriate and responsive to trauma experience wey then share us.,Social studies
elizabeth wieling elizabeth wieling* isanassociate professor inthedepartment offamily social science attheuniversity ofminnesota.,elizabeth wieling wey dey associate professor for didepartment of family social science for diuniversity ofminnesota.,Social studies
sheisafamily therapist andaprevention andintervention scholar working to develop parenting andfamily level evidence-based interventions forpopulations affected bytraumatic stress.,She be family to the therapist and intervention scholar wey work to develop parenting and family level evidence-based interventions for populations wey dey affected by Mental and emotional pain wey person get after going through terrible experience.,Social studies
wieling collaborates with interdisciplinary colleagues inpost-conflict settings outside oftheunited states and with immigrant andrefugee communities locally. herteaching includes courses onclinical treatments forfamilies affected by post-traumatic stress and topics related to social justice and mental health.,weiling been collaborate with interdiscipilinary colleagues inpost-conflict settings for outside ofthe united states and with immigrant and refugee communities locally. her teaching been include courses on clinical treatments for families affected by post-Mental and emotional pain wey person get after going through terrible experience and topics wey dey related to Di pursuit of fairness— making sure every person get equal rights and opportunities in society and mental health.,Social studies
"she teaches graduate andunder graduate courses onfamily finances, family theory, andglobal anddiverse families.","She dey teach graduate and dem undergraduate courses on family finances, family theory, and global and diverse families",Social studies
"insome situations, families willingly choose tomigrate with hopes ofbetter futures inother countries orparts oftheworld.","For some situation, families dey choose to migrate wit hope say better future dey for other countries or parts ofthe world.",Social studies
"others reluctantly choose migration when their ability tosupport basic necessities fortheir family members isextremely difficult andthey perceive that other countries, more robust economies, offerbetter opportunities toachieve their goals.",Di ability to support basic necessities for dia family members dey extremely difficult and dem think say other country get bigger economies and dey offer better opportunities to achieve dia goal,Social studies
"still others areforced to migrate duetowar, internal conflict, political orreligious persecution, ornatural disasters thatthreaten thehealth andsafety offamily members.","others dey forced to migrate due to war, internal conflict, political or religious persecution, or natural disasters wey dey threaten di health and safety of family members.",Social studies
"regardless oftheimpetus, families areonthemove globally, atrend thatwill continue in the foreseeable future.",Di foreseeable future dey continue for di foreseeable future.,Social studies
"the united states isadestination formany migrants, some from countries onthesame continent butmany from countries from distant lands.","Di united state deydestination formany migrants, some from countries wey dey di same continent butmany from kontri from distant lands.",Social studies
"throughout themigration experience, they face unique family dynamics and lifeexperiences during thetransitions ofdisplacement, relocation, andresettlement.","Di family dynamics and life experience wey dem face throughout dimigration experience, dem face unique family dynamics and life experience for ditransition of displacement, relocation, andresettlement.",Social studies
"they encounter significant challenges ranging from language, economics, andeducational barriers toexposure tostress anddiscrimination, each ofwhich influences their parenting practices, family relationships, andtheir ability tocope andprovide mutual support.","then dey face challenges wey dey range from language, economics, and educational barriers to exposure to stress and discrimination, each of which influence dia parenting practices, family relationships, and dia ability to cope and provide mutual support.",Social studies
immigrant andrefugee families also demonstrate remarkable resilience through these processes; there are many lessons to be learned from their strengths.,Di immigrant and refugee families also demonstrate remarkable resilience through dis process; na many lessons wey dem learn from dia strengths.,Social studies
"although arange ofhuman service agencies inboth public and private sectors have attempted toaddress immigrant andrefugee mental health andother family needs, their effectiveness isfrequently limited byalack of knowledge andexpertise onthepartofprofessionals who have nothadadequate training regarding therealities of these families.","As arange ofhuman service agency forboth public and private sectors don dey tempt toaddress immigrant andrefugee mental health andother family needs, dia effectiveness dey limited byalack of knowledge andexpertise wey dey onthe part of professional wey no get adequate training regarding therealities of dis families.",Social studies
"family scientists have tremendous potential tocontribute totheknowledge base about immigrant andrefugee communities andtodevelop/ adapt culturally andcontextually relevant family theories, research methodologies, and clinical and psychoeducational interventions that fit their family needs.","Di family scientists don tremendous potential tocontribute to diknowledge base about immigrant andrefugee community and to develop adapt culturally andcontextually relevant family diories, research methodologies, and clinical and psychoeducational interventions wey fit dia family needs.",Social studies
why write this book?,Why una dey write dis book?,Social studies
"the idea forthisbook grew outoftheneed toidentify atextbook thattwoofthebook' seditors, lizwieling andcatherine solheim, could useinagraduate course titled""global perspectives onimmigrant andrefugee families"".","Di idea for disbook grew out of dineed toidentify textbook wey two ofbook' seditors, lizwieling andcatherine solheim, go useinagraduate course titled""global perspective onimmigrant andrefugee families"".",Social studies
"enrolled students, developing family scholars with aninterest inimmigrant andrefugee displacement andresettlement processes, included family therapists currently working with immigrant andrefugee families and emerging family scientists conducting research ontheexperiences ofimmigrant andrefugee families.","E dey enrolled students, develop family scholars wit aninterest forimmigrant andrefugee displacement andresettlement process, include family dirapists wey dey work wit immigrant andrefugee families and emerging family scientists conduct research ontheexperience ofimmigrant andrefugee families.",Social studies
several were recent immigrants themselves.,most na recent,Social studies
"oursearch identified several books thatdocumented individual orgroup experiences ofimmigrant groups(such asimmigrant america: aportrait ), orthatguided clinical practice with immigrants(such asculturally competent practice with immigrant andrefugee childr enandfamilies andsocial work, immigration andasylum ), but very fewbooks addressed how families were faring intheprocess.","Disearch identified several books wey document individual or group experience ofimmigrant groups(such asimmigrant America: portrait), or wey guide clinical practice wit immigrants(such asculturally competent practice wit immigrant andfamilies andsocial work, immigration andasylum ), but very fewbooks wey dey address how families deyfaring withinprocess.",Social studies
"one remarkable book, refugee andimmigrant family voices, addressed thecontexts that influence families based oninterviews andfirst-person accounts.","One remarkable book, refugee andimmigrant family voices, address dicontext wey influence families based oninterviews andfirst-person account.",Social studies
"however, wewere surprised todiscover thatthere was notextthatoutlined current theoretical frameworks or synthesized research specific to immigrant and refugee families.",We dey surprise to discover say notext wey dey outline current theoretical framework or synthesized research specific to immigrant and refugee families.,Social studies
"asaresult, students inthecourse began tocollaborate with usonatextbook thatwould address thisneed; our goal wastoofferaninterdisciplinary perspective oncontemporary immigrant families across multiple domains political, legal, economic, mental health, social and health disparities, and human rights.","as e dey be, students in the course start dey collaborate with us on a textbook wey fit address this need; Di goal na toofferinterdisciplinary perspective oncontemporary immigrant families across multiple domains political, legal, economic, mental health, social and health disparities, and human rights.",Social studies
"our connection to immigrants and refugees jaime: asanovice therapist, ibegan working with families who hadexperienced significant psychological trauma.","Asnovice dirapist, ibegan work wit families wey dey experience significant psychological trauma.",Social studies
itwaspowerful formetoseehow they were coping andfinding ways with their families toadjust and move forward.,E dey powerful form to see how dem dey coping and find way wit dia families toadjust and move forward.,Social studies
itmade mecurious about thebest ways tosupport these families inthework they were doing.,Emade mecurious about dibest way tosupport dis families insidework dem dey do.,Social studies
nothing in my life has been more inspiring.,Di life don dey more inspiring,Social studies
"ibegan to understand that gender, race, andeconomic status were linked andhadprofound implications forone'slife experiences.","i begin dey understand say gender, race, and economic status dey linked and e get profound implications for one's life experience.",Social studies
"mypassion developed around working with populations thatiperceived tobemost disenfranchised intheworld, namely those affected bywar, organized violence, andpersecution.","My passion develop around work wit populations wey dey disenfranchise fortheworld, namely those affected bywar, organized violence, and persecution.",Social studies
adisproportionate number of these populations happen tobepoor women andchildren living inwarzones anddisplacement camps within their countries oforigin orinresettlement countries.,Di populations don dey bepoor women andchildren wey dey living forwarzones and displacement camps within dia kontri oforigin orinresettlement kontri.,Social studies
iamafamily therapist andaprevention andintervention scholar currently working todevelop parenting andfamily level evidence-based interventions forpopulations affected by traumatic stress.,I be family therapist andi still be intervention scholar wey dey currently work to develop parenting and family level evidence-based interventions for populations affected by Mental and emotional pain wey person get after going through terrible experience.,Social studies
"iwork with interdisciplinary colleagues inpost-conflict settings outside oftheunited states and with immigrant andrefugee communities locally. myhope isthatsocial change agents across multiple societal levels(e. g, community, academic, human rights, political) willcontinue tocoalesce todevelop stronger structures tosupport immigrant andrefugee families with specific attention tomental andfamily relational health after resettlement.",I dey work wit interdisciplinary colleagues for post-conflict settings wey dey outside united state and wit immigrant and dem family relational health after resettlement.,Social studies
"catherine: iamfrom athird-generation immigrant family; mygrandfather came tothiscountry from norway asateen-ager. stories, food, andeven some language ofthe'old country' were afamiliar partofmygrowing-up years.","i am from third generation immigrant family; mygrandfather came to discountry from norway asateen-ager. stories, food, and even some language of my grow-up years.",Social studies
"asanadult, ihadtheprivilege ofworking fortwoyears inthailand.","As adult, i get the privilege to work for two years in Thailand",Social studies
"supporting myhusband, athai national, asheadjusted tolifeintheunited states, further developed my awareness ofandempathy forthechallenges anddiscrimination faced byimmigrants.","Dem support my husband, at the national, as head just to life in united state, further develop my awareness ofandempathy for dichallenges anddiscrimination face byimmigrants.",Social studies
iampassionate about conducting research andharnessing myprivilege asauniversity scholar tosupport immigrant refugee families andinform social policies andprograms thatimpact their transitions.,i dey passionate about conduct research and harnessing my privilege as a university scholar to support immigrant refugee families and inform social policy andprograms wey impact dia transition,Social studies
"iamalsocommitted toequipping future family professionals, introduction xiii ouruniversity students, with theknowledge, intercultural skills, andcompassion toserve these families inour communities.","i dey committed to equipping future family professionals, introduction to our university students, wit diknowledge, intercultural skills, andcompassion toserve dis families forour community.",Social studies
"the purpose and organization ofthe book asawhole, thebook offersanimportant overview oftransitions, challenges, andstrengths ofimmigrant and refugee families asthey adjust toanew country andculture.","Di purpose and organization of di book asawhole, dibook offers important overview oftransitions, challenges, andstrengths ofimmigrant and refugee families as dem adjust tonew kontri andculture.",Social studies
discussion questions provide opportunities forcritical thinking anddeeper conversation about the issues that affect immigrant families.,"Di discussion questions provide opportunities for kritikal tinin be say make we dey examine tori and ideas well, sabi wetin dey happen, and use am take make sense decision and deeper conversation about di issues wey affect immigrant families.",Social studies
this textbook was written with several audiences inmind.,Di textbook dey written wit several audiences formind.,Social studies
"itisdesigned forstudents taking university classes inhuman sciences, social work, social policy, public health, andmental health, aswell asfornon-profit sector organizations, government agencies, andfaith communities that serve immigrant andrefugees.","For students taking university class forhuman sciences, social work, social policy, Di science and practice of keeping whole communities and populations healthy, andmental health, aswell asfornon-profit sector organizations, government agencies, and faith communities wey serve immigrant and refugees.",Social studies
students and community professionals alike canusethistexttodevelop understanding ofspecific challenges facing immigrant andrefugee families.,Di student and community professionals don use distext to develop understanding ofspecific challenges wey dey face immigrant andrefugee families.,Social studies
"although thefocus isprimarily ontheunited states asthedestination country, webelieve that theresearch explored inthisbook caninform work with immigrant andrefugee families who resettle in countries around theworld.",Webelieve say diresearch explore for disbook fit inform work wit immigrant andrefugee families wey resettle for kontri around theworld.,Social studies
"regardless ofgeographic location, wehope tounderscore how important itisforall of us to be engaged in research and practice with immigrant and refugee families.",We hope to underscore am out how important e dey for all of us to be engage for research and practice wit immigrant and refugee families.,Social studies
this textbook isunique initsfocus onfamilies incontext.,Di textbook dey unique foritsfocus onfamilies forcontext,Social studies
"each immigrant family' spath isinfluenced bymany situational andinterrelated factors including:1)individual health andmotivation, 2)family values, traditions, cohesion, andconflict, and3)systemic policies thatinfluence immigrant admission andaccess tosocial benefits.","Di each immigrant family's path dey influenced by many situational and interrelated factors including:1) individual health andmotivation, 2)family values, traditions, cohesion, andconflict, and3) systemic policy wey influence immigrant admission andaccess tosocial benefit.",Social studies
"theauthors identify the paths taken byrefugee families seeking relatively safe environments toliveandraise their children, including fleeing persecution, under going family separation, being admitted totheunited states, andbecoming accustomed tothenew home.","Di authors identify di paths wey dey take byrefugee families wey dey seeking safe environment tolive andraise dia children, including fleeing persecution, under going family separation, wey dey admitted to diunited states, andbecoming accustomed to dinew home.",Social studies
"the authors describe several human rights issues thatimpact families including women andchildren' srights, human trafficking, separation of families through deportation, and detention without trial.","Di authors describe several human rights issues wey impact families including women andchildren' srights, human trafficking, separation of families through deportation, and detention without trial.",Social studies
theauthors identify immigrants' family connections andvalues ofeducation andwork asprotective factors that coexist with barriers thatlimit access toneeded resources andopportunities.,Di authors identify immigrants family connection andvalues of education andwork asprotective factors wey dey coexist wit barriers wey dey limit access toneeded resources andopportunities.,Social studies
the format ofthe book wewere delighted topartner with theuniversity ofminnesota libraries whose visionary leadership intheopen access textbook movement isnoteworthy. publishing thisfreetextonline makes itavailable toabroader audience.,Di format of di book wey dey delighted to partner wit di university of minnesota libraries wey dey visionary leadership within open access textbook movement dey noteworthy.,Social studies
"weareespecially excited thatstudents, community professionals, andpractitioners around theworld will have access tothisknowledge base.","E dey excited say students, community professionals, and practitioners around the world go get access to disknowledge base.",Social studies
professors andmental healthcare providers cantailor readings within thebook tomeet theneeds oftheir courses orclients.,Di professors and mental healthcare providers can tailor reading within di book to meet di needs of dia course or clients.,Social studies
anonline format also allows ustorespond totheever-changing patterns andcontexts ofimmigration totheunited states.,Di online format also allow ustorespond to diever-changing patterns andcontexts ofimmigration to diunited state.\,Social studies
aprint-based textwould quickly become outdated.,Di print-based text go quickly become outdated.,Social studies
we are delighted to publish this text online so that it can be regularly updated to the current situation.,We dey delighted to publish dis text online so say e fit regularly update to di current situation.,Social studies
our hopes for the impact of this book webelieve thatadvancing scholarship about immigrant andrefugee family processes ismore relevant than ever asweface thelargest refugee crisis inhistory thediaspora ofsyrians displaced throughout theworld who arebattling unprecedented rates ofdiscrimination andhatred inahighly volatile global arena.,"We believe say advancing scholarship about immigrant andrefugee family process dey relevant than ever as we face dilargest Wahala wey dey happen when boku pipo dey run comot from dia kontri because of fight, war or disaster, and dem need help from anoda place for history di diaspora of syrians displace throughout the world wey deybattling unprecedented rates of discrimination and hatred for highly volatile global arena.",Social studies
"onourown continent, escalating tensions andproblematic policies abound regarding immigration across oursouthern border.",E dey escalating tension andproblematic policy wey dey abound regarding immigration across oursouthern border.,Social studies
"theunited states andtheglobal community must develop andadopt anew understanding oftheroleofimmigrant andrefugee resettlement processes asanintegral partofoureconomic sustainability, political stability, andindeed our collective humanity.","Di united states and di global community must develop andadopt anew understanding ofthe role ofimmigrant and refugee resettlement process as an integral part of our economic sustainability, political stability, and indeed our collective humanity.",Social studies
"inherbook themiddle ofeverywher e: theworld'srefugees come toour town, mary pipher writes:""when europeans arrived onthiscontinent, they blew itwith thenative americans.","Di world'srefugees kom toour town, mary pipher write:""when europeans arrive on discontinent, dem blew am wit dinative americans.",Social studies
"they plowed over them, taking as much asthey could oftheir land andvaluables, andrespecting almost nothing about thenative cultures.","Dem dey plowed over dem, take as much as dem could of dia land andvaluables, andrespect almost nothing about dinative cultures.",Social studies
wehaveintroduction xv another chance with allthese refugees[and immigrants].,We get introduction xv another chance wit all dis refugees[and immigrants].,Social studies
people come here penniless butnotcultureless.,Di pipo kom here penniless but not cultureless.,Social studies
they bring usgifts.,Dem bring us gifts,Social studies
wecansynthesize thebest ofourtraditions with thebest oftheirs.,We can synthesize di best of our tradition wit di best of theirs.,Social studies
wecanteach andlearn from eachother to produce a better america.,We fit teach and learn from eachother to produce better America,Social studies
"this time around, we can get things right.""(","Di time around, we fit get things right",Social studies
"weinvite youasreaders tograpple with therealities, thehopes, thestrengths, andthechallenges ofimmigrant and refugee families asyouread thisbook.","We dey invite you as readers to grapple wit the realities, di hopes, di strengths, and di challenges of immigrant and refugee families as you read disbook.",Social studies
"wehope itdeepens your understanding ofthelives ofthese families, sparks aninterest incontinuing tofollow ever-changing global migration patterns, anddevelops and/orstrengthens your commitment tosupporting families whose lifecircumstances propel them torelocate, adjust, andthrive intheir new homes.","We hope edeepen your understanding ofthelives of dis families, spark aninterest incontinuing to follow ever-changing global migration patterns, and develop and orstrengthen your commitment tosupport families wey dey lifecircumstances propel dem torelocate, adjust, andthrive for dia new homes.",Social studies
themiddle ofeverywher e: theworld'srefugees come toourtown.,Di middle of everywhere: the world's refugees kon tour town,Social studies
"they paid acoyote (someone who smuggles people acrossborders) $10, 000, which cover ed3attempts tobring their sons totheunited states.","Dem pay acoyote (person wey dey smuggles pipo across borders)$10, 000, wey cover attempts to bring dia sons to di united states.",Social studies
"thefirst time, they werecaught anhour after crossing intomexico andsent home.","Di first time, dem catch dem an hour after then cross into mexico and sent home",Social studies
"thesecond time, they were caught bypolice inmexico andheld 3days forransom, andthen continued north after thecoyote paid.","Di second time, dem dey caught by police for Mexico and held 3 days for ransom, and then continued north after dicoyote paid.",Social studies
theboys werecaught byimmigration officials intexas.,immigration officials catch the boys for texas,Social studies
they wereheld indetention forseveral days.,Dem hold dem in detention for several days.,Social studies
"withthehelp ofan advocacy office, the boys flew to baltimore to be reunited with their parents.",Di boys fly go baltimore so then fit dey reunited wit dia parents,Social studies
(story published bypublic radio international in2014.,Di story wey public radio international for2014,Social studies
migration ismost often motivated byadesire toimprove lifeforfamilies.,migration dey often motivate by desire toimprove lifeforfamilies,Social studies
thestory ofjose andester hascommon elements with most stories ofmigration: families must make painful choices about whether moving toanew home and/orbeing separated from oneanother isnecessary toprovide forthefamily' swell-being.,Distory ofjose andester don dey common elements wit most stories ofmigration: families must make painful choices about whether moving toanew home and or being separated from oneanother dey need toprovide for di family' swell-being.,Social studies
"families often feel""pushed"" outoftheir home country bypoor payorjobavailability, political instability, orviolence.","Di family often feel""push"" out of dia home country by poor pay or job availability, political instability, orviolence.",Social studies
"they feel""pulled"" toanew country bythepromise ofbetter paytosupport their families, greater educational opportunities for their children, greater safety for their families, or the opportunity to be together again after along absence.","Di promise of better pay to support dia families, greater educational opportunities for dia children, greater safety for dia families, or di opportunity to be together again after long absence.",Social studies
"jose andester 'sstory hasanother common element with allstories ofmigration: their methods ofmigration and their opportunities tobereunited were influenced byimmigration and immigrant policy. immigration policy determines who enters theunited states andinwhat numbers, while immigrant policy influences the integration ofimmigrants who arealready intheunited states(fix &passel, 1994).","Di methods ofmigration and dia opportunities tobereunited dey influence byimmigration and immigrant policy. immigration policy determines who enter diunited state andinwhat numbers, while immigration policy influence di integration ofimmigrants wey dey withinunited state(fix &passel, 1994).",Social studies
"forjose andester, their sons were noteligible totravel legally across theborder duetocurrent immigration policy restrictions anddelays.",Di sons no dey eligible to travel legally across diborder duetocurrent immigration policy restrictions anddelays.,Social studies
"policy determines whether immigrants have access toemployment, tohealth oreducational resources, andto family reunification (menjivar,2012).","Di policy determine whether immigrants get access to employment, to health or educational resources, and to family reunification",Social studies
"itdetermines whether they ortheir family arewithin thelaworoutside it (menjivar,2012).","Demdetermine whether dem or dia family deywithin dilaworoutside am (menjivar,2012).",Social studies
"immigration andimmigrant policy hasarippling impact onallfacets ofsociety, andimpacts both immigrants andthose born intheunited states.","Di immigration and immigrant policy get rippling impact on all facets of society, and impact both immigrants and those born inside united state.",Social studies
"attheeconomic level, thejobskills andeducation ofincoming immigrants impacts ourlabor market andshifts where jobgrowth occurs inoureconomy. onasocial level, weinteract with immigrants as neighbors and friends, and as coworkers, employees, and supervisors.","We interact wit immigrants as neighbors and friends, and as coworkers, employees, and supervisors.",Social studies
"wewilldescribe thedifferent groups invested inimmigration andimmigrant policy andthevarious viewpoints onwhat ismost important toincorporate intopolicy. wewillthen describe thehistory ofpolicy, andthecurrent policies affecting families.","Wewilldescribe didifferent groups wey dey invest forimmigration andimmigrant policy and divarious viewpoints wey dey important toincorporate intopolicy. wewill describe di history ofpolicy, and dicurrent policy wey dey affect families. wewill describe di history ofpolicy, and dicurrent policy wey dey affect families.",Social studies
weendbydescribing thecurrent barriers andopportunities forfamilies.,We end by describing di current barrier and opportunities for families.,Social studies
immigrant definitions immigrants arepeople who leave their country oforigin topermanently settle inanother country. they may enter thecountry legally andaretherefore called documented immigrants orthey may enter illegally andarereferred to as undocumented immigrants.,Dem go enter di country legally and dem go enter illegally,Social studies
"this would include those from other countries who were granted asylum, admitted asrefugees, admitted under asetofspecific authorized temporary statuses forlonger -term residence and work, or granted lawful permanent residence status or citizenship.","e include those from other country wey dey grant asylum, admitted as refugees, admitted under a set of specific authorized temporary status forlonger -term residence and work, or grant lawful permanent residence status or citizenship.",Social studies
illegal orundocumented immigrants.,Di illegal or undocumented immigrants.,Social studies
"they may have entered thecountry illegally(e. g, crossing theborders), ormay have entered thecountry legally with avalid visa buthave stayed beyond thevisa' sexpiration date (passel &cohn,2011). other terms also used inimmigration research include: unauthorized immigrants, undocumented immigrants, and illegal immigrants.","Di terms wey then use for immigration research include: unauthorized immigrants, undocumented immigrants, and illegal immigrants.",Social studies
"tug-ofwar in immigration policy there aremany ideological differences among thestakeholders inimmigration policy, and many different priorities.","Di ideological differences wey dey among distakeholders forimmigration policy, and many different priorities.",Social studies
"inorder tomeet thepurposes listed above, policy-makers must balance thefollowing goals against one another.",Di policy-makers must balance di following goals against one another.,Social studies
provide refuge toallversus recruit thebest.,E dey provide refuge to all versus recruit di best,Social studies
"some stakeholders desire toprovide refuge forthedisplaced (permanently stamped onthestatue ofliberty arethewords, ""give meyour tired, your poor, your huddled masses yearning tobreathe free"").","Dis stakeholders desire toprovide refuge for didisplaced (permanently stamp onthestatue ofliberty na diwords, ""give me my tired, your poor, your huddled masses yearning tobrea di free"").",Social studies
"these stakeholders seek towelcome allwho areseparated from their families orface economic, political, orsafety concerns intheir current locations.","Di stakeholders seek to welcome all wey deyseparate from dia families or face economic, political, orsafety concerns for dia current locations.",Social studies
others aimtorecruit those bestqualified to add to the economy.,Dem dey aim to recruit those best qualified to add to di economy,Social studies
meet labor forceneeds versus protect currentcitizen employment.,Dem meet labor force needs versus protect currentcitizen employment.,Social studies
"immigrant workers areexpected tomake up30-50% ofthegrowth intheunited states labor force inthecoming decades(lowell, gelatt, &batalova, 2006).","Di immigrant workers dey expected tomake up 30-50%of the growth within united states labor force withincoming decades(lowell, gelatt, &batalova, 2006).",Social studies
"ingeneral, immigrants provide needed employment anddonotimpact thewages ofthecurrent workforce.","For general, immigrants provide need employment and no impact diwages ofthecurrent workforce.",Social studies
"however, there aresituations (i. e, during economic downturns) where immigration canthreaten thecurrent workforce' s conditions or wages.","Di situation(i. e, during economic downturns) wey immigration donthreaten dicurrent workforce condition or wages.",Social studies
"enfor cepolicy versus minimize regulatory burden andintrusion onprivacy. inorder toenforce immigration policy away from theborder, thegovernment must access residents' documents.","In order toenforce immigration policy away from diborder, digovernment must access residents' documents.",Social studies
"however, thisthreatens citizens' privacy. when employers arerequired toaccess these documents, italso increases regulatory burden forthe employers.","Di employers dey require to access dis document, ealso increase Di difficulty and cost wey businesses and pipo face from following government rules for di employers.",Social studies
key stakeholders in policy there aremany groups who aredeeply invested inimmigration andimmigrant policy; their fortunes riseorfall with thepolicies set.,Di key stakeholders for policy na many groups wey dey invest forimmigration andimmigrant policy; dia fortune riseorfall wit di policy set.,Social studies
"these groups arecalled ""stakeholders.""","then dey call the groups""stakeholders""",Social studies
"immigration policy impacts these families' abilities tomigrate toaccess safer living conditions andseek economic stability. further, immigration policy impacts afamily' sopportunity forreunification.","Di immigration policy impact di families' abilities tomigrate toaccess safer living conditions andseek economic stability. further, immigration policy impact di family' sopportunity forreunification.",Social studies
reunification means thatimmigrants with legal status intheunited states canapply forvisas tobring family members tojointhem.,Di reunification means sayimmigrants wit legal status withinunited states goapply forvisas tobring family members tojointhem.,Social studies
"approximately two-thirds ofthe immigrants intheunited states were sponsored byfamily members who migrated first andbecame permanent residents (kandel, 2014).","Di approximately two-thirds of immigrants wey dey inside United states dey sponsor by family members wey dey migrate first andbecame Person from another country wey get legal right to stay permanently but no be citizen yet (kandel, 2014).",Social studies
"""my goals aretooffer myfamily adecent lifeand economic stability, toguarantee them afutur ewithout serious problems, with ahouse, ameans oftransport. things that sometimes youcan'tachieve inmexico.","Di goal dey tooffer my family dey adecent life and economic stability, toguarantee dem afutur ewithout serious problems, wit house, ameans oftransport, things wey sometimes youcan'tachieve formexico.",Social studies
"ourgoal must beforourfamily' swelfar e, asmuch formyfamily hereasformyfamily back there""mexican immigrant, solheim et al,","Di goal na for family's welfare, as much for my family here as for my family back there""mexican immigrant.",Social studies
"the federal government iscurrently solely responsible forthecreation ofimmigration policies (weissbrodt &danielson, 2004).",Di federal goment dey solely responsible for dicreation ofimmigration policy.,Social studies
"inthepast, each state determined itsown immigration policy according tothearticles ofconfederation because itwasunclear whether theunited states constitution gave thefederal4immigr ant and refugee families government power toregulate immigration (weissbrodt &danielson, 2011). aseries ofsupreme court cases beginning inthe1850s upheld thefederal government' sright tocreate immigration policies, arguing that the federal government must have thepower toexclude non-citizens toprotect thenational public interest (weissbrodt &danielson, 2004).","Di supreme court case wey dey start within1850s upheld difederal goment' sright tocreate immigration policy, arguing say di federal goment must have dipower toexclude non-citizens toprotect dinational tin wey concern everybody for society, wey be say e important for all of us",Social studies
"thesupreme court hasdetermined thatthepower toadmit andtoremove immigrants tothe united states belongs solely tothefederal government(using asprecedents theuniform ruleofnaturalization, article 1.8. 4, andthecommerce clause, article 1.8. 3).",Di supreme court dondetermine say dipower toadmit andtoremove immigrants to di united state belongs solely to difederal goment.,Social studies
"infact, there isnoarea where thelegislative power of congress is more complete(w eissbrodt & danielson, 2004).",Di authority wey parliament or congress get to make laws of congress dey complete.,Social studies
"immigration responsibilities were originally housed inthetreasury department andthedepartment oflabor, due toitsconnection toforeign commerce.","Di immigration responsibilities dey originally house insidetreasury department and didepartment oflabor, due toitsconnection toforeign commerce.",Social studies
"inthe1940s, theimmigration office(now called the""ins"") wasmoved totheunited states department ofjustice duetoitsconnection toprotecting national public interest (uscis, 2010).","Di immigration office don move to diunited states department ofjustice duetoitsconnection toprotect national tin wey concern everybody for society, wey be say e important for all of us",Social studies
the federal departments and agencies that implement immigration laws and policies have changed significantly since theterrorist attacks of2001.,Di federal department and agencies wey implement immigration law and policy don change significantly since di terrorist attack of 2001.,Social studies
"in2001, theunited states commission onnational security created thedepartment ofhomeland security(dhs), which absorbed andassumed theduties ofimmigration and naturalization services(ins).","Di united state commission on Di way wey dem take dey protect di kontri, di pipo wey dey di kontri, and di tins wey important for di kontri from bad tins wey fit happen from outside or inside, including make sure say terrorist no go cause trouble, or say anoder kontri no go spy on dem create didepartment of homeland security(dhs), wey absorb andassume diduties ofimmigration and naturalization services.",Social studies
"three key agencies within dhs enforce immigration and immigrant policy(see figure 1 ): united states citizenship and immigration services (uscis): uscis provides immigration services, including processing immigrant visa requests, naturalization petitions, and asylum/refugee requests.","united states citizenship and immigration services dey provide immigration services, including processing immigrant visa request, naturalization petitions, and asylum refugee request.",Social studies
the director of uscis reports directly to the deputy secretary of homeland security.,Di director of report directly to di deputy secretary of homeland security.,Social studies
"it is important to note that immigration officers, who traditionally hold law degrees, have broad discretion in deciding whether an application is complete and accurate(w eissbrodt & danielson, 2011).","E dey important to note say immigration officers, wey traditionally hold law degrees, have broad discretion for deciding whether application dey complete and accurate(w eissbrodt & danielson, 2011).",Social studies
"in addition to these responsibilities, uscbp is responsible for regulating customs and international trade to intercept drugs, illicit currency, fraudulent documents or products with intellectual property rights violations, and materials for quarantine.1. 1 immigration policy 5 figure 1: federal immigration organizations state governments.","Di responsibilities, uscbp dey responsible for regulating customs and international trade to intercept drugs, illicit currency, fraudulent document or products wit Legal rights wey protect person's creative work like books, inventions, music and art violations, and materials for quarantine.",Social studies
"although states have nopower tocreate immigration policy, theillegal immigration reform andimmigrant responsibility act(iirira, 1996)enabled thesecretary ofhomeland security toenter into agreements with states toimplement theadministration andenforcement offederal immigration laws.","Dem nopower to create immigration policy, diillegal Changes made to immigration laws to improve or update how they work andimmigrant responsibility act(iirira, 1996 enabled disecretary ofhomeland security to enter into agreement wit states toimplement diadministration andenforcement offederal immigration law.",Social studies
states are also responsible forpolicy regarding immigrant andrefugee integration.,Di state dey also responsible for policy regarding immigrant andrefugee integration.,Social studies
there iswide variation inhow states pursue integration.,Di variation wey states pursue integration.,Social studies
"in contrast, states such asminnesota, have sought toexpand immigrant access topublic services.","For contrast, states such asminnesota don sought toexpand immigrant access to public services.",Social studies
these drastically different approaches have promoted consideration ofthiscritical important task atthefederal level.,Di drastically different approaches don promote consideration of discritical important task for difederal level.,Social studies
"inlate2014, president obama formed the""whitehouse taskforce onnew americans""whose primary purpose isto""create welcoming communities andfully integrating immigrants andrefugees"" (whitehouse, 2014).","Dem form di whitehouse taskforce onnew americans wey dey primary purpose isto""create wencoming communities andfully integrating immigrants andrefugees"" (whitehouse, 2014).",Social studies
this isthefirst time in united states history that the executive branch ofthe government has undertaken such an effort.,Di first time for united states history say di part of government wey dey carry out and enforce laws— led by President or Prime Minister of di goment don undertaken such an effort.,Social studies
"employers have high stakes inpolicy that impact immigration, particularly asitimpacts their available labor force.","Di employers don high stakes inpolicy wey impact immigration, particularly asit impact dia available labor force.",Social studies
united states employers who recruit highly skilled workers from abroad typically sponsor their employees forpermanent residence.,Di united state employers wey dey recruit highly skilled workers from abroad typically sponsor dia employees forpermanent residence.,Social studies
"other employers who need alargelabor force, particularly forlow-skill work, often look to immigrants to fill positions.","Di employer wey need largelabor force, particularly forlow-skill work, often look to immigrants to fill position.",Social studies
employers arealso impacted byrequirements tomonitor theimmigrant status ofemployees.,Di employers dey impact byrequirements to monitor diimmigrant status ofemployees,Social studies
"following the immigration reform andcontrol act(irca) of1986, itbecame illegal toknowingly employ undocumented immigrants.","Di Changes made to immigration laws to improve or update how they work and control act(irca) of 1986, illegal to knowingly employ undocumented immigrants.",Social studies
many employers arenow required bystate laworfederal contract tousethee-verify program toconfirm that prospective employees arenotundocumented immigrants.,For many employers dey required by state law or federal contract to use thee-verify program toconfirm say prospective employees no document immigrants.,Social studies
"such requirements aim toreduce incentives forundocumented immigration, butalso pose burdens ofliability andreduced labor availability for employers.","Na such requirements aim to reduce incentives for undocumented immigration, but also pose burdens of liability and reduce labor availability for employers.",Social studies
"the national council offarmer cooperatives(2015) andtheamerican farm bureau federation oppose measures that could constrict immigration such asthee-verify program, stating that itcould have a detrimental impact on the country's agriculture. 6immigr ant and refugee families migrant worker.","Di national council offarmer cooperatives(2015) and diamerican farm bureau federation oppose measures wey go constrict immigration such as die-verify program, stating say e go get detrimental impact on di kontri agriculture.",Social studies
"however, these wage increases arenotunilaterally andconsistently distributed across time, skill andeducation levels ofworkers.","Di wage increases no deyunilaterally andconsistently distributed across time, skill andeducation level ofworkers.",Social studies
"some researchers have found thatlow-education workers have experienced wage decreases duetoimmigration, aslargeas4. 8% (borjas &katz,2007).","Di researchers don find say low-education workers don experience wage decrease due to immigration, as large as",Social studies
"however, other researchers have found thatamong those without ahigh school diploma, wages decreased byapproximately 1%intheshort run(shierholz, 2010; ottaviano & peri, 2012)but were increased slightly in the long run (ottaviano & peri, 2012).","Di researchers don find sayamong those without highschool diploma, wages decreased byapproximately 1%for di long run(shierholz, 2010; ottaviano & peri, 2012)but dey increased slightly for di long run (ottaviano & peri, 2012)",Social studies
"immigration generally does notdecrease jobopportunities forunited states-born workers, andmay slightly increase them (peri, 2010).","Di immigration generally no decrease job opportunities for united states-born workers, and may slightly increase dem.",Social studies
"however, during economic downturns when jobgrowth isslowed, immigration may have short-term negative effects onjobavailability and wages forthecurrent workforce (peri, 2010).","Di economic downturns wey jobgrowth dey slow, immigration go get short-term negative effects onjobavailability and wages for dicurrent workforce.",Social studies
"immigrants create growth incommunity businesses (seetextbox 1,""did youknow"" ). itisnonetheless important toemphasize thatthefearofnon-citizens taking away employment opportunities from citizens isaprimary driver for immigration laws(w eissbrodt & danielson, 2011).","I no dey important toemphasize say difearofnon-citizens takeaway employment opportunities from citizens naprimary driver for immigration laws(w eissbrodt & danielson, 2011).",Social studies
the congressional budget office found that most state andlocal governments provide services tounauthorized immigrants that cost more than those immigrants generate intaxes (2007).,Di congressional budget office found say most state and local goment provide services tounauthorized immigrants wey dey cost more than those immigrants generate intaxes (2007).,Social studies
"overall, immigrants create more jobs than they fill, both through demand forgoods andservice andentrepreneurship.","Di overall, immigrants create more jobs wey dem fill, both through demand for goods and service and entrepreneurship.",Social studies
"even though immigrants cost more inservices than they provide intaxes atastate andlocal governments level, immigrants payfar more intaxes than they cost inservices atanational level.","Di even though immigrants cost more in services than dem provide intaxes at a naija wey dey concern everybody for inside kontri, wey dey involve naija mata, naija policy, or naija trend, wey sabi pipo dey tok am for everywhere, immigrants pay far more in taxes than dem cost in services at a naija wey dey concern everybody for inside kontri, wey dey involve naija mata, naija policy, or naija trend, wey sabi pipo dey tok am for everywhere, immigrants pay far more intaxes than dem cost inservices at a naija wey dey concern everybody for inside kontri, wey dey involve naija mata, naija policy, or naija trend, wey sabi pipo dey tok am for everywhere.",Social studies
"inparticular, immigrants (both documented and undocumented)contribute billions more tomedicare through payroll taxes than they useinmedical services (zallman, woolhandler, himmelstein, bor&mccormick, 2013).",Di immigrants(both documented and undocumented)contribute billions more tomedicare through payroll taxes wey dem useinmedical services,Social studies
"additionally, many undocumented immigrants obtain social security cards thatarenotintheir name andthereby contribute tosocial security, from which they willnotbeauthorized tobenefit.","Di additionally, many undocumented immigrants dey obtain US government programme wey provide financial support to old, disabled and unemployed pipo card wey dey arenotin dia name and contribute tosocial security, from which dem no dey authorize to benefit.",Social studies
"thesocial security administration estimates that$12billion dollars were paid into social security in 2010 alone (goss et al,","Di US government programme wey provide financial support to old, disabled and unemployed pipo administration estimate say$12billion dollars dey pay into US government programme wey provide financial support to old, disabled and unemployed pipo for 2010 alone (goss and al.),",Social studies
"while immigrants makeup 16%of the labor force, they makeup 18%of the business owners between 2000 and2013, immigrants accounted fornearly half ofoverall growth ofbusiness ownership intheunited states(fiscal policy insitute, 2015). 8immigr ant and refugee families 1. 2 current immigration policy current immigration policy although thedecision tomigrate isgenerally made andmotivated byfamilies, immigration policy generally focuses ontheindividual.","As immigrants makeup 16%of di labor force, dem makeup 18%of di business ownership wey dey inside United states(Government decisions about how to collect taxes and how to spend public money forsitute, 2015). 8immigr ant and refugee families",Social studies
"forexample, visas aregranted toindividuals, notfamilies.","for example, visas dey granted give individuals not for families.",Social studies
this meant thatmore families from more countries hadtheopportunity to reunite in the united states.,Di meant saymore families from more kontri don getopportunity to reunite for di united state.,Social studies
"inthisact, thenational ethnicity quotas were repealed.","Dinational ethnicity quotas dey repealed, dinational ethnicity quotas dey repealed",Social studies
"instead, acapwas setforeach hemisphere.",Acap dey setforeach hemisphere,Social studies
"once again, priority was given tofamily reunification andemployment skills.",Di priority dey give tofamily reunification andemployment skills.,Social studies
"this actalso expanded theoriginal four admission preferences toseven, adding:(5)siblings ofunited states citizens;(6)workers, skilled and unskilled, in occupations forwhich labor wasinshort supply intheunited states; and(7)refugees from communist-dominated countries orthose affected bynatural disasters.","Di actalso expand di original four admission preferences to seven, adding: (5)siblings ofunited states citizens;(6)workers, skilled and unskilled, for occupations wey labor dey short supply withinunited states; and(7)refugees from communist-dominated countries orthose affected bynatural disasters.",Social studies
this expanded theopportunities forfamily members toreunite in the united states.,Di expand diopportunity for family members toreunite for di united state.,Social studies
deferr edaction forchildhood arrivals.,Dem deferr edaction forchildhood arrival,Social studies
"the dream act, proposed inthesenate in2001, would allow for conditional permanent residency toimmigrants who arrived intheunited states asminors and have longstanding united states residency. while thisbillhasnotbeen signed into law, theobama administration has created renewable two-year work permits forthose who meet these standards.","Di Proposed US law wey go allow undocumented pipo wey come to US as children to get citizenship, proposed for disnate for2001, go allow for conditional permanent residency toimmigrants wey dey arrive insideunited states asminors and get longstanding united states residency.",Social studies
this hasthelargest impact on undocumented families.,Di largest impact dey on undocumented families,Social studies
"many children travel totheunited states without documents tobewith their families, and then spend most oftheir lives intheunited states.","Na many children travel to diunited states without document tobe wit dia families, and then spend most of dia lives inside United states.",Social studies
"ifthebillpassed, these children would have new opportunities to pursue higher education and jobs in the land they think of as home, without fear of deportation.","Di children go get new opportunities to pursue higher education and jobs for di land wey dem think of as home, without fear of deportation.",Social studies
"this allowed undocumented immigrants present intheunited sttes toadjust their status topermanent resident, ifthey hadfamily oremployers tosponsor them(us english foundation,2014).","Di allowed undocumented immigrants present insideunited sttes toadjust dia status topermanent resident, if dem hadfamily oremployers to sponsor dem(us english foundation,2014).",Social studies
"this actcreated immigration andcustoms enforcement(ice) and citizenship and immigration services(cis), greatly enhancing immigration enforcement.","Di act create immigration and customs enforcement(ice) and citizenship and immigration services(cis), greatly enhance immigration enforcement.",Social studies
"the house ofrepresentatives passed abillthatincreased enforcement attheborders, focusing on national security rather than family or economic influences (meissner, meyers, papademetriou &fix, 2006).","Di house ofrepresentatives pass abillthatinincrease enforcement for diborders, focus on Di way wey dem take dey protect di kontri, di pipo wey dey di kontri, and di tins wey important for di kontri from bad tins wey fit happen from outside or inside, including make sure say terrorist no go cause trouble, or say anoder kontri no go spy on dem no be family or economic influences (meissner, meyers, papademetriou &fix, 2006).",Social studies
"the senate passed abillthat expanded legal immigration, inorder todecrease undocumented immigration (meissner, meyers, papademetriou &fix, 2006).","Di senate pass abill wey expand legal immigration, in order to reduce undocumented immigration (meissner, meyers, papademetriou &fix, 2006).",Social studies
"asthese policies indicate, itiscurrently very difficult toenter theunited states without documentation.","As dis policy indicate, itiscurrently very difficult toenter diunited state without documentation",Social studies
"there arefewsupports available tothose who domake itacross theborder (see table 1). however, the2000 life act andthedream actprovide some provisions forfamilies who liveintheunited states toobtain documentation to remain together, atleast temporarily.","Di2000 life act and didream act prove some provisions forfamilies wey live inside United states toobtain documentation to remain together, atleast temporarily.",Social studies
"forfamilies who want toimmigrate with documentation, current policy prioritizes family reunification.",Di policy prioritize family reunification.,Social studies
"visasare available forfamily members ofcurrent permanent residents, andthere arenoquotas onfamily reunification visas(see textbox 2,""process forbecoming acitizen). even when family members ofacurrent permanent resident aregranted avisa, they arealong way from residency. they must wait fortheir priority date andprocess extensive paperwork.","Di visas dey available for family members ofcurrent Person from another country wey get legal right to stay permanently but no be citizen yet, and dey noquotas onfamily reunification visas(see textbox 2,""process forbecoming citizen)",Social studies
"ifafamily wants toimmigrate totheunited states butdoes nothave afamily member who isacurrent permanent resident or a sponsoring employer, options for documented immigration are very limited.","Di family member wey dey current Person from another country wey get legal right to stay permanently but no be citizen yet or sponsoring employer, option for document immigration dey very limited.",Social studies
thefirst step ofdocumented immigration isobtaining animmigrant visa.,Di first step ofdocumented immigration dey obtaining an immigrant visa,Social studies
there area number of ways this can occur:10 immigrant and refugee families for family members.,For 10 immigrant and refugee families for family members.,Social studies
a citizen or lawful permanent resident in the united states can file an immigrant visa petition for their immediate family members in other countries.,Di citizen or lawful Person from another country wey get legal right to stay permanently but no be citizen yet for di united states go file immigrant visa petition for dia immediate family members for other country.,Social studies
"in some cases, they can file a petition for a fiance or adopted child.","For some case, dem fit file petition for fiance or adopted child",Social studies
united states employers sometimes recruit skilled workers who will be hired for permanent jobs.,Di united state employers sometimes recruit skilled workers wey go dey hir for permanent jobs.,Social studies
these employers can file a visa petition for the workers.,Di employer go file visa petition for di workers.,Social studies
the diversity visa lottery program accepts applications from individuals in countries with low rates of immigration.,Di diversity visa na lottery program e dey accept applications from individuals for country wit low rates of immigration.,Social studies
"these individuals can file an application, and visas are awarded based on random selection.","Di individuals fit file application, and visas dey award based on random selection.",Social studies
"ifprospective immigrants donotfallintooneofthese categories, their avenues fordocumented immigration arequite limited.",Di avenues for document immigration dey limited.,Social studies
"forprospective immigrants who fallwithin oneofthese categories, their petition must beapproved byuscis and consular officers.","For prospective immigrants wey fallwithin one of dis category, dia petition must beapprove byuscis and consular officers.",Social studies
"however, they are still along way from residency.",Dem still dey long way from residency.,Social studies
there isanannual limit tothenumber ofavailable visas inmost categories.,Diannual limit to dinumber of available visas formost categories.,Social studies
"petitions arefiled chronologically, andeach prospective immigrant isgiven a""priority date.""","Di petitions deyfiled chronologically, andeach prospective immigrant dey give Di date wey determine when your turn go reach to get visa or immigration benefit",Social studies
"the prospective immigrant must then wait until there is an available visa, based on their priority date.","Di prospective immigrant must wait until di available visa, based on dia Di date wey determine when your turn go reach to get visa or immigration benefit.",Social studies
"while waiting forthepriority date, prospective immigrants canbegin toprocess thepaperwork.","Dem wait for dipriority date, prospective immigrants go begin process dipaperwork.",Social studies
"they must payprocessing fees, submit avisa application form, andcompile extensive additional documentation(such asevidence ofincome, proof ofrelationship, proof ofunited states status, birth certificates, military records, etc.)","As evidence of income, proof ofrelationship, proof ofrelationship, proof ofunited state status, birth certificate, military records, etc.)",Social studies
they must then complete aninterview attheunited states.,Diunited state must complete interview for diunited state.,Social studies
embassy orconsulate andcomplete amedical exam.,Embassy or consulate and complete a medical exam.,Social studies
"once allof these steps arecomplete, theprospective immigrant received animmigrant visa.",Di prospective immigrant receive an immigrant visa.,Social studies
"they cantravel totheunited states with a green card and enter as a lawful permanent resident(us visas, n. d.).",As dem go travel to diunited states wit Di card wey show say person get permanent legal right to live and work for USA and enter as a lawful Person from another country wey get legal right to stay permanently but no be citizen yet.,Social studies
"alawful permanent resident isentitled tomany ofthesupports oflegal residents, including free public education, authorization towork intheunited states, andtravel documents toleave andreturn totheunited states(refugee council usa,2014).","Di a lawful Person from another country wey get legal right to stay permanently but no be citizen yet dey entitled tomany ofthesupport of legal residents, including free public education, authorization towork withinunited states, and travel documents toleave andreturn to di united states.",Social studies
"however, permanent resident aliens remain citizens oftheir home country, must maintain residence inthe united states inorder tomaintain their status, must renew their status every 10years, andcannot vote infederal elections (uscis, 2015).","Di however, Person from another country wey get legal right to stay permanently but no be citizen yet aliens dey remain citizens of dia home country, must maintain dia status every 10years, andcannot vote forfederal election (uscis, 2015).",Social studies
"generally, immigrants areeligible toapply forcitizenship when they have been apermanent resident foratleast five years, orthree years ifthey aremarried toacitizen.","Di generally, immigrants dey eligible toapply forcitizenship wen dem dey apermanent resident foratleast five years, or three years if dem deymarried to a citizen.",Social studies
"prospective citizens must complete an application, befingerprinted andhave abackground check, complete aninterview with auscis officer, andtake an english and civics test.","Di prospective citizens must complete application, be fingerprinted and have a background check, complete an interview wit auscis officer, and take an english and civic test.",Social studies
this provides new opportunities andsecurity forimmigrant families.,Di provide new opportunities and security for immigrant families.,Social studies
"however, there arestillsubstantial challenges andbarriers tofamilies.",Dem dey still substantial challenge and barriers to families,Social studies
themajority ofcurrent immigrants are family members being reunited with united states citizens or permanent residents.,Di majority of current immigrants dey family members wey dey reunited wit united states citizens or Person from another country wey get legal right to stay permanently but no be citizen yet.,Social studies
uscis providing answers about citizenship and immigration for soldiers and families at army community services in seoul.,Di uscis provide answers about citizenship and immigration for soldiers and families for army community services for seoul.,Social studies
"inaddition tothese policies thatpromote family reunification, there arenow more accepting policies tosupport reunification ofgaycitizens andtheir immigrant spouses.","Di policy wey deypromote family reunification, na now more accept policies wey dey promote family reunification, na more accept policies wey dey support reunification ofgaycitizens and dia immigrant spouses.",Social studies
"historically, united states immigration policy has denied immigration tosame-sex orientation applicants.","Di historically, united state immigration policy don denied immigration tosame-sex orientation applicants.",Social studies
"under the1917 immigration act, homosexuality was grounds forexclusion from immigration.","Di1917 immigration act, homosexuality dey grounds forexclusion from immigration",Social studies
"in1965, congress argued thatgayimmigrants were included inabanon ""sexual deviation"" (dunton, 2012).","Di Congress argu saygayimmigrants dey included forabanon ""sexual deviation"" (dunton, 2012).",Social studies
"thebanagainst gayimmigrants continued until 1990, when theimmigration andnational actwas amended, removing thehomosexual exclusion.","Dibanagainst gayimmigrants continue until 1990, wen diimmigration andnational act dey amend, removing dihomosexual exclusion.",Social studies
"moreover, asylum hasbeen granted for persecution due tosexual orientation (dunton, 2012).","Di asylum don grant asylum for persecution due tosexual orientation (dunton, 2012).",Social studies
"until 2013, immigrants and refugees could apply for residency orvisas fortheir opposite-sex spouses.",Di immigrants and refugees go apply for residency orvisas for dia opposite-sex spouses.,Social studies
there wasnoprovision made forsame-sex partners.,Na noprovision wey dey make forsame-sex partners,Social studies
"following theoverturn ofthedefense ofmarriage act(doma), citizens andpermanent residents cannow sponsor their same-sex spouses for visas.","Di overturn ofthe defense of marriage act(doma), citizens and permanent residents go sponsor dia same-sex spouses for visas.",Social studies
"united states citizens can also sponsor a same-sex fiance for a visa (uscis, 2014).","Di united states citizens go sponsor same-sex fiance for visa (uscis, 2014).",Social studies
"despite these advances, there aretwolargechallenges faced byimmigrants seeking reunification.","Di advances despite dis advances, na twolargechallenges wey immigrants dey seeking reunification.",Social studies
"first, itrequires substantial time and resources, including legal counsel, tonavigate thevisa system.","E require substantial time and resources, including Getting help and advice from a qualified lawyer on legal matters, to navigate di visa system.",Social studies
"adults canpetition for permanent resident visas forthemselves andtheir minor children, butprocessing such applications cantake years.","Di adults donpetition for Person from another country wey get legal right to stay permanently but no be citizen yet visas for themselves and dia minor children, butprocessing such applications don take years.",Social studies
"currently, children ofpermanent residents canface seven-year wait times tobeaccepted aslegal immigrants (meissner, meyers, papademetriou &fix, 2006).","Di currently, children ofpermanent residents don face seven year wait times tobeaccepted as legal immigrants (meissner, meyers, papademetriou &fix, 2006).",Social studies
"insome cases, children canageoutofeligibility bythetime theapplication isprocessed andthevisa isgranted.","Forsome case, children donageoutofeligibility bytime diapplication deyprocessed and divisa deygrant.",Social studies
"such children then gototheendofthewaiting listforadult visaprocessing (brown,2014).","Na such children then gototheendofthewaiting listfor adult visaprocessing (brown,2014).",Social studies
"the2002 child status protection actisdesigned toprotect children against aging outofvisa eligibility when thechild istheprimary applicant foravisa, buttheactdoes notstate ifitapplies ifaparent was applying onbehalf oftheir family(brown, 2014).","Di2002 child status protection actisdesigned to protect children against aging outofvisa eligibility wen dichild dey apply foravisa, but di act no state ifitapplies ifaparent dey apply wit dia family(brown, 2014).",Social studies
"inthe2014 ruling tocuellar deosorio v. mayorkas, thesupreme court found thatthechild status protection actdoes notapply forchildren when aparent isapplying onbehalf oftheir family. such young adults have already generally been separated from family formany years, andwillnow beseparated foryears ordecades more.","For2014 ruling tocuellar deosorio v. mayorkas, disupreme court found say dichild status protection act no apply for children wen aparent deyapply behalf of dia family.",Social studies
"undocumented families forfamilies who donothave asponsoring family member, have asponsoring employer, ororiginate from a country with few immigrants, theoptions forlegal immigration totheunited states arevery limited.",Dioptions for legal immigration to diunited state dey limited.,Social studies
"those families who choose totravel totheunited states face substantial barriers, including aperilous tripacross the border, few resources, and constant threat of deportation.","Di families wey choose to travel to united states face substantial barriers, including a perilous tripa cross di border, few resources, and constant threat of deportation.",Social studies
"one ofthemost dangerous times forundocumented families istherisky tripacross theborder. inorder toavoid border patrol, undocumented immigrants take very dangerous routes across theunited states border. the vast majority ofallapprehensions ofundocumented immigrants areontheborder (while theremainder isapprehended through interior enforcement).","For order toavoid Di government officers wey dey watch the border to stop illegal crossing, undocumented immigrants take very dangerous route across diunited states border.",Social studies
"forexample, in2014 ice conducted 315, 943 removals, 67% ofwhich were apprehended attheborder (nearly always bytheborder patrol), and33% ofwhich were apprehended inthe interior(ice, 2014).","Forexample, for2014 ice conduct 315, 943 removals, 67%of wey dey pprehended for diborder (nearly always by diborder patrol), and33% of wey dey pprehended inside interior(ice, 2014).",Social studies
"thetripandefforts toavoid border patrol canbephysically dangerous andinsome cases, deadly. theacronym ice symbolizes thefearthatimmigrants feelabout capture anddeportation.",Diacronym ice symbolizes difear sayimmigrants feelabout capture anddeportation.,Social studies
"adeportee in exile nation: theplastic people(2014), adocumentary thatfollows united states deportees intijuana, mexico, stated thatice was chosen astheacronym fortheimmigration andcustoms enforcement agency because it""freezes the blood ofthe most vulnerable.""","Diplastic pipo (2014), adocumentary wey follow united states deportees fortijuana, mexico, state sayice dey chosen as diacronym for diimmigration andcustom enforcement agency because im""freeze di blood of di most vulnerable",Social studies
"even after arrival attheinterior oftheunited states, undocumented immigrants feelstress andanxiety relating tothefear ofdeportation byice (chavez etal.",E dey documented immigrants feelstress and stress wey dey relating to difear ofdeportation byice (chavez etal).,Social studies
this impacts their daily lifeactivities.,Di impact dia daily life activities.,Social studies
"undocumented1. 3 opportunities and barriers for immigrant families 13 parents sometimes fear interacting with school, health care systems, andpolice, forfear ofrevealing their own undocumented status(chavez etal.","Di opportunities and barriers for immigrant families 13 parents sometimes fear interact wit school, health care systems, and police, for fear of reveal dia own undocumented status",Social studies
"since 2014, thedepartment ofhomeland security hasplaced anew emphasis ondeporting undocumented immigrants.",Didepartment ofhomeland security don place anew emphasis wey dey ondeporting undocumented immigrants.,Social studies
"department efforts generally prioritize apprehending convicted criminals andthreats topublic safety, butrecent operations have taken abroader approach.","Di department efforts generally prioritize pprehending convicted criminals andthreats topublic safety, butrecent operations don take abroader approach.",Social studies
"intheopening weeks of2016, icecoordinated anationwide operation toapprehend anddeport undocumented adults who entered thecountry with their children, taking 121 people intocustody inasingle weekend.","icecoordinate anationwide operation toapprehend anddeport undocumented adults wey enter di kontri wit dia children, take 121 pipo intocustody forasingle weekend.",Social studies
"themajority ofthese individuals were families who applied forasylum, butwhose cases were denied.","Dimajority of dis individuals dey families wey apply forasylum, butwhose case dey denied.",Social studies
"first, some states have sought toexpand theeducational supports available toundocumented immigrants.",Di state don sought toexpand dieducational support wey dey available toundocumented immigrants.,Social studies
"the state ofminnesota, forexample, enacted the""dream act""into law(2013).","Di state of minnesota, for example, enacted di Proposed US law wey go allow undocumented pipo wey come to US as children to get citizenship into law(2013).",Social studies
"second, there arenow greater protections forunaccompanied children.",secondly na great protection for unaccompanied children.,Social studies
"insome cases, children travel across the border alone, without their families.","Di cases, children travel across di border alone, without dia families.",Social studies
"they may betravelling tojoinparents already intheunited states, ortheir parents may send them ahead totrytoobtain greater opportunities forthem.","then dey travel to go join there parents already inside united state, or dia parents go send dem ahead to try obtain greater opportunities for them",Social studies
"mixed status families some members ofthefamily may have documentation, while theothers donot.","Dem don documentation, while diothers donot.",Social studies
"there may becases where aunited states citizen hasapplied foravisa forhisfamily members, butthey live without documentation while they wait fortheir priority date.","Di case wey united states citizen donapply foravisa forhis family members, but dem live without documentation while dem wait for dia Di date wey determine when your turn go reach to get visa or immigration benefit.",Social studies
"alternatively, there may bechildren who areborn intheunited states to undocumented parents.",Na children wey dey born insideunited state to undocumented parents.,Social studies
"these children areentitled tobenefits thattheir undocumented parents arenot, such as welfare benefits(peterson institute for international economics,2005).","Di children dey claim to benefit wey dia undocumented parents no dey, such as Money and services wey government give to pipo wey need help(peterson institute for international economics,2005.",Social studies
"children aresubject to""multigenerational punishment,""where they aredisadvantaged because oftheir parents' undocumented status (enriquez, 2015).","Di children deysubject to""multigenerational punishment,"" wey dem dey disadvantage because of dia parents' undocumented status (enriquez, 2015).",Social studies
"asinundocumented families, parents fear interacting with school, health care, orpolice (chavez etal.","Di family, parents fear interact wit school, health care, orpolice (chavez etal).",Social studies
'how dareyoudothattoalittle child.',How you go that kind thing to small pikin,Social studies
"it'shardbecause youdofeelguilty, you feelthatyou'r epunishing someone thatshouldn' tbepunished.""","As you deyfeelguilty, you feel say you dey epunishing someone wey no deypunished",Social studies
"mexican immigrant (enriquez, 2015, p. 949) international marriages spouses of united states service members in italy take the oath of allegiance to become united states citizens.",international marriages spouses of united states service members for italy take di oath of allegiance to become united states citizens.,Social studies
"many ofthese couples ultimately seek tolivetogether inthesame country. insome cases, animmigrant travels totheunited states andobtains citizenship, butstill hopes tomarry someone from their home country andculture.","Forsome case, animmigrant travel to diunited states andobtain citizenship, but still hope tolivetogether withinsame kontri andculture.",Social studies
"under current united states policy, there arevisas available forfiances toimmigrate totheunited states.",Di visa available forfiances toimmigrate to diunited state.,Social studies
"however, these relationships arescreened.",Di relationships dey screen,Social studies
"there arestrict requirements toprove thatthemarriage is""bonafide.""","District requirements toprove say dimarriage dey""bonafide""",Social studies
"ifamarriage is considered""fraudulent,"" theimmigrant spouse canbedetained andthenative spouse canbefined.",Diimmigrant spouse don befeit and dinative spouse don befined and dinative spouse don befined.,Social studies
"there arealso limits tohow many fiance visas canbefiled within acertain timeframe, sothatthesame person cannot repeatedly apply for a fiance visa with different partners (uscis, 2005).","Di same person no repeatedly apply for fiance visa wit different partners (uscis, 2005).",Social studies
regulations areinplace toprotect thenon-citizen fiances.,Di regulations dey place to protect dinon-citizen fiances.,Social studies
"insome cases, theunited states citizen hasmuch greater power than thenon-citizen fiance, andmay exploit their lack ofknowledge ofenglish, local customs, and culture.","Diunited states citizen get great power than dinon-citizen fiance, andmay exploit dia lack ofknowledge ofenglish, local customs, and culture.",Social studies
"theunited states government isrequired togive non-citizen fiances information about their rights and resources, inanefforttoprevent orintervene incases ofintimate partner violence (uscis, 2005).","Diunited states goment deyrequired togive non-citizen fiances information about dia rights and resources, inaneffort to prevent orintervene incases ofintimate partner violence (uscis, 2005).",Social studies
"acitizen can useaninternational marriage broker (imb) toconnect with apartner from their home country oranother desired country. the international marriage broker regulation actof2005 (imbra) states thatthegovernment must16 immigrant and refugee families conduct criminal background checks onprospective citizen clients, inorder toprotect thewelfare ofthefiances who will enter the united states (uscis, 2005).1. 3 opportunities and barriers for immigrant families 171. 4f uture directions future directions there aretwoshifts inimmigration policy thatarecritical forthewell-being offamilies.","Di international marriage broker regulation actf2005 (imbra) state say di goment must 16 immigrant and refugee families conduct criminal background checks onprospective citizen clients, in order to protect diwelfare ofthefiances wey go enter di united states (uscis, 2005.",Social studies
"first, policy should shift toaccelerate family reunification forthose families whose visas have been accepted.","For first, policy go shift toaccelerate family reunification forthose families wey dem accept visas.",Social studies
"families arecurrently separated from their children foryears, caught inaholding pattern ofwaiting.","Di family deycurrently separat from dia children foryears, caught inholding pattern ofwaiting.",Social studies
"this leads tostress, grief, anddifficulty building relationships during keydevelopmental times inachild' slife.","Di lead tostress, grief, anddifficulty building relationships for keydevelopmental times forachild' slife.",Social studies
accelerating processing applications and shorter wait times would facilitate greater family well-being.,E dey accelerate processing applications and shorter wait times go facilitate great family well-being,Social studies
"second, policy could provide greater protection forvulnerable children inundocumented ormixed-status families.","Di second, policy go provide great protection forvulnerable children forundocumented ormixed-status families.",Social studies
"incases where aparent isdeported, thechild' swelfare should becarefully considered inwhether toleave the child in the care of a local caregiver or provide the option to send the child to the home country with their parent.",Dichild' swelfare go becarefully consider inwhether toleave di child for di care of local caregiver or provide di option to send di child to di home kontri wit dia parent.,Social studies
never before haspolicy been soinclusive oraimed sointensely onfamily reunification.,Di policy dey soinclusive oraimed sointensely onfamily reunification,Social studies
thecase studies below outline different paths toimmigration andfamily reunification.,Dicase studies below outline different paths toimmigration andfamily reunification.,Social studies
"they demonstrate theopportunities andassistance which are available, as well as the challenges faced.","Dem demonstrate diopportunities andassistance wey dem dey available, as well as di challenge wey dem face.",Social studies
case study 1: becoming a citizen mr. andmrs.,Dem becoming citizen mr. andmrs,Social studies
"addisu, both intheir early 70s, immigrated totheunited states from ethiopia nearly 15years agowith sponsorship from their daughter andherunited states-born husband.","Di addisu, both for dia early 70s, immigrated to diunited state from ethiopia nearly 15years agofor sponsorship from dia daughter andherunited states-born husband.",Social studies
"thecouple waseager tolearn english andembrace thedifferent cultural values, which meant becoming citizens.","Dicouple dey eager tolearn english andembrace didifferent kulture belif wey dey important for one set of pipo, wey dey affect dem behavior, attitude, and how dem dey live, like wetin dem sabi, wetin dem like, and wetin dem no like, wey meant becoming citizens.",Social studies
they wanted tojoin thecountry that their child and grandchildren called home.,Di kontri wey dia child and grandchildren call home,Social studies
"after filing theappropriate documentation, paying related fees, andwaiting forseveral years, both mr. andmrs.","Di appropriate documentation, pay related fees, and wait for several years, both mr. and mrs.",Social studies
addisu were scheduled fortheir naturalization test.,Di addisu dey schedule for dia naturalization test,Social studies
the addisu' sdaughter helped them study thematerial.,Di addisu' sdaughter help dem study dimaterial.,Social studies
"they particularly hoped thattheir parents could obtain citizenship sothattheaddisus could take along triphome toseetheir friends in ethiopia, which they had not been able to do since moving to the united states with strict residency requirements.","Diy particularly hope say dia parents go obtain citizenship so saytheaddisus go take along triphome tosee dia friends for ethiopia, wey dem no fit do since moving to di united state wit strict residency requirements.",Social studies
butitquickly became apparent thatmr.,But it quickly became apparent say mr,Social studies
"addisu hadtrouble learning english, which was primarily age-related.","Di addisu don trouble learning english, wey dey primarily age-related.",Social studies
"with assistance from alocal church, mr. addisu applied foranenglish language exemption.","For local church, mr addisu apply for foranenglish language exemption.",Social studies
this enabled him toexempt from the english language requirement and take the civics test in oromo with the assistance of an interpreter.,Di enabled him to exempt from di english language requirement and take di civic test for oromo wit di assistance of interpreter.,Social studies
"case study 2: family reunification matias, aunited states citizen, filed apetition torequest agreen card forhisdaughter victoria who stilllived inmexico.","Di family reunification mataas, aunited states citizen, filed petition torequest agreen card forhisdaughter victoria wey still live for Mexico",Social studies
"victoria hada15-year oldsonanda14-year daughter, who were listed onthepetition as""derivative beneficiaries"", eligible toreceive avisaiftheir mother received one.","Di victoria don dey 15 year old sonanda14-year daughter, wey dey listed onpetition as""derivative beneficiaries"", wey dey eligible toreceive avisaif dia mother receive one.",Social studies
"their petition wasapproved, andthey waited fortheir priority date.","Di petition donapprove, and dem wait for dia Di date wey determine when your turn go reach to get visa or immigration benefit.",Social studies
"victoria andhersonanddaughter continued living inmexico, they lived onalowincome andinaviolent neighborhood.","Di victoria andhersonanddaughter continued living for Mexico, dem live onalowincome andinaviolent neighborhood.",Social studies
"they communicated regularly with matias, andvictoria repeatedly expressed how excited shewastoseeherdadagain, andtobeable toprovide abetter lifeforherkids.","Dem communicate regularly wit mataas, and victoria repeatedly express how excited she dey see her papa again, and to be able toprovide a better life for her kids",Social studies
"sheregularly checked onherapplication andthepriority date, excited for its arrival.","She dey regularly check on her application and the Di date wey determine when your turn go reach to get visa or immigration benefit, excited for its arrival",Social studies
the priority date arrived 7years later.,Di date wey determine when your turn go reach to get visa or immigration benefit arrive 7years later,Social studies
"victoria' schildren were now 22and21, andsothey were nolonger eligible to bederivative beneficiaries onvictoria' svisa.","Di victoria' schildren dey now 22and21, andso dem no dey eligible to bederivative beneficiaries onvictoria' svisa.",Social studies
"when victoria learned, shewasdistraught.","As victoria learn, she dey distraught",Social studies
"shetalked toevery advocacy group shecould find, butthere were nooptions.","Shetalk toevery advocacy group she go find, butthere dey nooptions.",Social studies
"there would have been services available toexpedite their petition as the children approached adulthood, but she and matias had been unaware.","Di services wey dey available to expedite dia petition as di children approach adulthood, but she and mataas don dey unaware",Social studies
"victoria talked with herchildren about theoptions; they could allremain together inmexico, orshecould travel tothe united states andapply forthem tojoinher.","Di victoria talk wit herchildren about dioptions; dem go allremain together formexico, orshe go travel tounited state andapply forthem tojoinher",Social studies
"one ofherchildren asnow working, andtheother wasattending atechnical school.","One of her children as now work, and the other dey attend technical school.",Social studies
they decided together thatitwould bebest forvictoria togoontotheunited states.,Dem decide together say e go be best for victoria to go onto the united state.,Social studies
"once shearrived and became alawful permanent resident, shefiled apetition forherkids togetavisa.",She filed petition for her kids to get a visa.,Social studies
"once again, thefamily waited fortheir priority date.",Di family wait for dia Di date wey determine when your turn go reach to get visa or immigration benefit,Social studies
"now, victoria was with herfather, butseparated from herkids.","for now, victoria dey wither father, but separate from her kids",Social studies
"itwas now herkids she wascalling, saying, ""imiss you, iamexcited toseeyou, ihope wecanbetogether soon, soon, soon.""","I miss you, i dey excited to see you, I hope say we fit dey together soon.",Social studies
"after 8years, the priority date arrived.",Di date wey determine when your turn go reach to get visa or immigration benefit arrive.,Social studies
discussion questions 1. think back on your own family history.,Dem dey think back on your own family history,Social studies
"if you had family immigrate to the united states, what policies were in place when they arrived?","If you go get family immigrate to di united states, what policy dey for place wen dem arrive?",Social studies
what might make them decide against it?,Di suppose make dem decide against am?,Social studies
what are the arguments against it?,Di argument wey dey against am?,Social studies
what supports did they receive?,Di support wey dem receive?,Social studies
"helpful links migration policy institute. migrationpolicy. org/ the migration policy institute is""an independent, nonpartisan, nonprofit think tank in washington, dc dedicated to analysis ofthe movement of people worldwide"".","Di migration policy institute dey independent, nonpartisan, nonprofit Organisation wey do research and give advice on policy and important public issues for washington, dc dedicated to analysis of di movement of pipo worldwide",Social studies
"they have regular publications and press releases about trends in migration, both to the united states and internationally.","Na regular publications and press release about trends for migration, both to di united state and internationally",Social studies
theevolution ofthemexican-born workfor ceintheunited states.,Di evolution ofthe mexican-born work for in united states.,Social studies
national bureau ofeconomic research: mexican immigration totheunited states.,Di national bureau of economic research: mexican immigration to united state,Social studies
thelong journey home: cuellar deosario v. mayorkas andtheimportance ofmeaningful judicial review in protecting immigrant rights.,Di long journey home: cuellar deosario v. mayorkas and di importance of meaningful judicial review for protecting immigrant rights,Social studies
the impact ofunauthorized immigrants onthebudgets ofstate and local governments.,Di impact of unauthorized immigrants onthebudget ofstate and local goment.,Social studies
theeffectoflow-skilled immigration onu. s.,Dieffectoflow-skilled immigration onu.,Social studies
prices: evidence from cpidata.,Di evidence from cpidata,Social studies
department ofhomeland security press office.,Di department ofhomeland security press office.,Social studies
statement bysecretary jehc. johnson onsouthwest bordersecurity [press release].,Di statement by secretary jehc. johnson onsouthwest bordersecurity [press release].,Social studies
"same sex, different rights: amending u. s. immigration lawtorecognize same-sex partners ofrefugees andasylees.",Imending u. s. immigration lawtorecognize same sex partners ofrefugees andasylees,Social studies
multigenerational punishment: shared experiences ofundocumented immigration status within mixed-status families.,Di shared experience ofundocumented Person's legal classification— whether dem have permission to bein a country and under what conditions within mixed-status families.,Social studies
how immigrant small businesses help local economies grow. retrieved from www. fiscalpolicy. org.,Wey immigrant small business help local economies grow,Social studies
"national bureau of economic research, cambridge ma.",E dey setting andrecord straight.,Social studies
the impact ofimmigrants inrecession and economic expansion.,Di impact of immigrants for recession and economic expansion.,Social studies
unintended and unavoidable: the failure toprotect rule and itsconsequences for undocumented parents and their children.,Di failure to protect rule and its consequences for undocumented parents and dia children.,Social studies
immigration andwages: methodological advancements confirm modest gains fornative workers.,Di methodological advancement confirm modest gain fornative workers.,Social studies
economic policy institute briefing paper#255.,Di economic policy institute briefing paper,Social studies
"family influences ongoals, 22 immigrant and refugee families remittance use, and settlement ofmexican immigrant agricultural workers inminnesota.","Di family influence on goals, immigrant and refugee families remittance use, and settlement of mexican immigrant agricultural workers for minnesota.",Social studies
"(2011). voice, agency andvulnerability: theimmigration ofchildren through systems ofprotection and enforcement.","Di voice, agency andvulnerability: diimmigration ofchildren through systems ofprotection and enforcement",Social studies
"we believe that the brilliant histories of art belong to everyone, no matter their background.","Di brilliant histories of art belong to all, no matter dia background.",History
"smarthistory is a not-for-profit and a radical collaborative of more than five hundred art historians, curators, archaeologists, and artists who contribute because they believe that high-quality art history should be available to everyone.","Nano-for -profit and radical collaborative of more than five hundred art historians, curators, archaeologists, and artists wey dey contribute because dem believe say high-quality art history dey available to all.",History
"anne mcclanan map with rome and constantinople(underlying map google)the course ofthe roman empire, established by augustus caesar in 27 b. c. e, was altered by two significant events that occurred in the fourth century c. e.","E, di course of di Roman Empire, wey dey establish by augustus caesar for 27 b. c. e, dey altered by two significant events wey dey occur for di fourth century c. e.",History
"first, in 313 c. e, the roman empire legalized christianity, which soon became the predominant religion in the empire.","Di Roman Empire legalized christianity, wey soon be di predominant religion for di empire.",History
"second, in 330 c. e, emperor constantine moved the empire' s capital from rome to an ancient greek city known as byzantion, which he renamed constantinople and new rome(today this city is known as istanbul, t urkey).","For 330 c. e, emperor constantine move di empire capital from rome to ancient greek city wey dey known as byzantion, wey he renamed constantinople and new rome(today dis city dey known as istanbul, t urkey).",History
"western european historians since the enlightenment era(the 18th century)have often described the period that followed as the history ofthe ""byzantine empire,""or simply as ""byzantium"" (after constantinople' s original name).","Di 18th century don described di period wey follow as di history of di byzantine empire, or simply as ""byzantium"" (after constantinople's original name).",History
"but despite its new religion and capital, thebyzantine empire was very much a continu-ation ofthe roman empire.",Dibyzantine empire dey very much continuation of di Roman Empire.,History
its citizens even referred to themselves as romans.,Di citizens even referred to dia citizens as Romans,History
"because of this, many scholars now believe that the byzantine empire is more accurately termed the""medieval roman""or ""eastern roman""empire.","Di scholars now believe say di byzantine empire dey more accurately term di""medieval Roman""or ""eastern Roman""empire",History
"like its name, the art and architecture ofthe eastern roman(byzantine) empire have often occupied a position in the academic discipline of art history that is ambiguous, if not misleading.","Di art and architecture of di eastern Roman(byzantine) empire don occupi position for di academic discipline of art history wey dey ambiguous, if no misleading.",History
art history textbooks tend to squeeze byzantine art between late roman and islamic arts.,art history textbooks dey always squeeze byzantine art between late roman and islamic arts.,History
the problem with this structure is that byzantium then appears to have little to do with the arts of western europe during the middle ages and renaissancewhich is not the case.,Di problem wit dis structure na say byzantium suppose get little to do wit di arts of western Europe during di middle ages and renaissance wey no dey case.,History
"so, despite its dislocation in modern textbooks, constantinople was well connected through trade and diplomacy with western europe, eastern europe, and asia.","Di dislocation for modern textbooks, constantinople dey well connect through trade and diplomacy wit western Europe, eastern europe, and Asia.",History
byzantine art and architecture widely influencedand was influenced bythese many connections with lands and peoples far and near.,Dem influence byzantine art and architecture widely influenced by dis many connections wit lands and pipo far and near.,History
"in recent decades, several blockbuster museum exhibitions have helped make the arts ofthe byzantine empire better known among the public.",Di blockbuster museum exhibitions don help make di arts of di byzantine empire better known among di public.,History
byzantium' s sacred art in particularits golden icons and domed churcheshave become well known.,byzantium' s sacred art for particularits golden icons and domed churcheshave become well known.,History
such works are well represented in textbooks and museum catalogues.,Na such works dey well represented for textbooks and museum catalogues.,History
"but the byzantines were, like any people, more than their religious rituals and artifacts.","Di byzantines dey, like any pipo, more than dia religious ritual and artifacts",History
"they also left behind clothing, jewelry, vessels, and many other nonsacred objects, as well as building palaces, fortifications, and other non-sacred structures.","Dem also left behind clothing, jewelry, vessels, and oda nonsacred structures, as well as building palaces, fortifications, and oda nonsacred structure.",History
this book seeks to introduce both the sacred and secular art and architecture ofthe eastern roman(byzantine) empire within the larger context of byzantium' s cross-cultural exchange with near and distant neighbors.,Di book seeks to introduce both di sacred and secular art and architecture of di eastern Roman(byzantine) empire wey dey inside di larger context of byzantium's cross-cultural exchange wit near and distant neighbors.,History
"the""beginner 's guide""introduces foundational concepts, such as the chronology of byzantine history, sacred imagery, and wearable objects.","Di""beginner 's guide""introduces foundational concepts, such as di chronology of byzantine history, sacred imagery, and wearable objects.",History
"finally, we have included questions for study or discussion to encourage teachers, students, and other readers to engage with videos and other content on the smarthistory website which could not be included in this book format but which we believe richly compliments what is presented here.","We don include questions for study or discussion to encourage teachers, students, and oda readers to engage wit videos and oda content on di smarthistory website wey no fit include for dis book format but we believe richly compliment what dey presented here.",History
we look forward to expanding the range of perspectives on byzantine art at the smarthistory website and in this companion ebook as scholars continue to share their expertise.,We look forward to expand di range of perspective on byzantine art for di smarthistory website and for dis companion ebook as scholars continue to share dia expertise.,History
"for now, we hope that this book will enable first-time and longtime learners alike to explore and better understand the art and architecture, cross-cultural connections, and enduring legacy ofthe eastern roman, or byzantine, empire.","for now, we hope say dis book go enable first-time and longtime learners alike to explore and better understand dart and architecture, cross-cultural connections, and enduring legacy of d eastern roman, or byzantine, empire.",History
"about the chronological periods ofthe byzantine empire dr. evan freeman this essay introduces the periods of byzantine history, with attention to developments in art and architecture.","For di chronological period of di byzantine empire dr. evan freeman dis essay introduces di period of byzantine history, wit attention to development for art and architecture.",History
"not long after, emperor constantine transferred the empire' s capital from rome to the ancient greek city of byzantion (modern istanbul).","e no tey, wey d emperor constantie transfer hin empire capital from rome to d ancient greek city of byznation (modern istanbul)",History
"constantine renamed the new capital city""constantinople"" (""the city of constantine"")after himself and dedicated it in the year 330.","Di new capital city""constantinople"" (""the city of constantine"")after himself and dedicated am for di year 330.",History
"with these events, the byzantine empire was bornor was it?",Di byzantine empire dey bornor na am?,History
"the term""byzantine empire""is a bit of a misnomer.","Di term""byzantine empire""na bit of misnomer.",History
"the byzantines understood their empire to be a continuation ofthe ancient roman empire and referred to themselves as""romans.","Di byzantines dey understand dia empire to be continuation of di ancient Roman empire and dey referred to themselves as""romans.",History
"""the use ofthe term""byzantine"" only became widespread in europe after constantinople finally fell to the ottoman turks in 1453.","Di use of di term""byzantine"" only be widespread for Europe afta constantinople finally fall to di ottoman turks for 1453.",History
"for this reason, some scholars refer to byzantium as the""medieval roman""or ""eastern roman""empire.","for this reason, some scholars dey to talk about byzantium as d""medieval roman""or ""eastern roman""empire.",History
byzantine history the history of byzantium is remarkably long.,Di history of byzantium dey remarkably long,History
"if we reckon the history ofthe eastern roman empire from the dedication of constantinople in 330 until its fall to the ottomans in 1453, the empire endured for some 1, 123 years.","If we remember di history of di eastern Roman empire from di dedication of constantinople for 330 until its fall to di ottomans for 1453, di empire endure for some 1, 123 years.",History
"scholars typically divide byzantine history into three major periods: early byzantium, middle byzantium, and late byzantium.","Di scholars typically divide byzantine history into three major periods: early byzantium, middle byzantium, and late byzantium",History
but it is important to note that these historical designations are the invention of modern scholars rather than the byzantines themselves.,Di historical designations dey di invention of modern scholars no be di byzantines themselves.,History
"nevertheless, these periods can be helpful for marking significant events, contextualizing art and architecture, and understanding larger cultural trends in byzantium' s history.","dis periods fit dey helpful to mark significant events, contextualizing art and architecture, and to dey understand large cultural trends for byzantium history.",History
"on the one hand, this period saw a continuation of roman society and cultureso, is it really correct to say it began in 330?","Di period saw continuation of Roman society and cultureso, na e correct to say e began for 330?",History
"on the other, the empire' s acceptance of christianity and geographical shift to the east inaugurated anew era.",Di empire's acceptance of christianity and geographical shift to di east inaugurate new era.,History
"following constantine' s embrace of christianity, the church enjoyed imperial patronage, constructing monumental churches in centers such as rome, constantinople, and jerusalem.","Di church enjoy imperial patronage, construct monumental churches for centers such as rome, constantinople, and jerusalem.",History
"in the west, the empire faced numerous attacks by germanic nomads from the north, and rome was sacked by the goths in 410 and by the v andals in 455.","Di empire face numerous attacks by germanic nomads from di north, and rome dey sacked by di goths for 410 and by di v andals for 455.",History
the city of ravenna in northeastern italy rose to prominence in the 5th and 6th centuries whenit functioned as an imperial capital for the western half ofthe empire.,Di city of ravenna for northeastern italy rose to prominence for di 5th and 6th centuries wey dem function as imperial capital for di western half of di empire.,History
"several churches adorned with opulent mosaics, such as san v itale and the nearby sant'apollinare in classe, testify to the importance of ravenna during this time.","Di several churches wey dey adorned wit opulent mosaics, such as san v itale and di nearby sant'apollinare for classe, testify to di importance of ravenna during dis time.",History
"under the sixth-century emperor justinian i, who reigned 52765, the byzantine empire expanded to its largest geographical area: encompassing the balkans to the north, egypt and other parts of north africa to the south, anatolia (what is now turkey)and the levant(including including modern syria, lebanon, israel, and jordan)to the east, and italy and the southern iberian peninsula(now spain and portugal)to the west.","For di sixth century emperor justinian i, wey reign 52765, di byzantine empire expand to di largest geographical area: encompassing di Balkans to di north, egypt and oda parts of north Africa to di south, anatolia (wia now turkey)and di levant(including modern syria, lebanon, israel, and jordan)to di east, and italy and di southern iberian peninsula(now spain and portugal)to di west.",History
"christian monasticism, which began to thrive in the 4th century, received imperial patronage at sites like mount sinai in egypt.","Di christian monasticism began to thrive for di 4th century, receive imperial patronage for sites like mount sinai for egypt.",History
"following the rise of islam in arabia and subsequent attacks by arab invaders, byzantium lost substantial territories, including syria and egypt, as well as the symbolically important city of jerusalem with its sacred pilgrimage sites.","following d rise of islam for arabia and subsequent attacks by arab invaders, byzantium lost substantial territories, including syria and egypt, as well as d symbolically important city of jerusalem with hin sacred pilgrimage sites.",History
the empire experienced a decline in trade and an economic downturn.,Di empire experience decline for trade and A time when the economy go down— businesses struggle and jobs become scarce.,History
"against this backdrop, and perhaps fueled by anxieties about the fate ofthe empire, the so-called ""iconoclastic controversy""erupted in constantinople in the 8th and 9th centuries.","Di so-called ""iconoclastic controversy""erupted for constantinople for di 8th and 9th centuries.",History
"church leaders and emperors debated the use of religious images that depicted christ and the saints, some honoring them as holy images, or ""icons,""and others condemning them as idols(like the images of deities in ancient rome)and apparently destroying some.","Di church leaders and emperors debat di use of religious images wey depict christ and di saints, some honor dem as holy images, or ""icons""and odas condemning dem as idols(like di images of deities for ancient rome)and apparently destroy some.",History
"finally, in 843, church and imperial authorities definitively affirmed the use of religious images and ended the iconoclastic controversy, an event subsequently celebrated by the byzantines as the""t riumph of orthodoxy.""","Di 843, church and imperial authorities plentily affirm di use of religious images and ended di iconoclastic controversy, event wey dey celebrate by di byzantines as di""triumph of orthodoxy.",History
"(orthodoxy refers to right christian belief, believed to be essential for salvation.)","Di orthodoxy to talk about right christian belief, dem believe say e dey essential for salvation.",History
"apse mosaic with virgin and child, c. 867, hagia sophia, constantinople (istanbul)(photo: evan freeman, cc by-nc-sa 4. 0)6smarthistory guide tobyzantine art middle byzantium: c. 8431204 in the period following iconoclasm, the byzantine empire enjoyed a growing economy and reclaimed some ofthe territories it lost earlier. with the affirmation of images in 843, art and architecture once again flourished.","C. 8431204 for di period following iconoclasm, di byzantine empire enjoy growing economy and reclaim some of di territories wey dem lost earlier",History
but byzantine culture also underwent several changes.,Di culture don underwent several change but byzantine culture don underwent several change.,History
"middle byzantine churches elaborated on the innovations of justinian' s reign, but were often constructed by private patrons and tended to be smaller than the large imperial monuments of early byzantium.","Di middle byzantine churches wey dey elaborate on di innovations of justinian' reign, but dey often construct by private patrons and suppose to be smaller than di large imperial monuments of early byzantium.",History
"the smaller scale of middle byzantine churches also coincided with a reduction of large, public ceremonies.","Di smaller scale of middle byzantine church also coincided wit reduction of large, public ceremonies.",History
"monumental depictions of christ and the virgin, biblical events, and an array of various saints adorned church interiors in both mosaics and frescoes.","Di monumental depictions of christ and di virgin, biblical events, and an array of various saints wey dey adorned church interiors for both mosaic and frescoes.",History
"but middle byzantine churches largely exclude depictions ofthe flora and fauna ofthe natural world that often appeared in early byzantine mosaics, perhaps in response to accusations of idolatry during the iconoclastic controversy.","Di middle byzantine churches largely exclude depictions of di flora and fauna of di natural world wey often appear for early byzantine mosaics, perhaps in response to accusations of idolatry during di iconoclastic controversy.",History
"in addition to these developments in architecture and monumental art, exquisite examples of manuscripts, cloisonne enamels, stonework, and ivory carving survive from this period aswell.","to add to dis developments for architecture and monumental art, exquisite examples of manuscripts, cloisonne enamels, stonework, and ivory carving survive from dis period aswell.",History
"the middle byzantine period also saw increased tensions between the byzantines and western europeans(whom the byzantines often referred to as ""latins"" or""franks"").","d middle byzantine period also saw see as tension increase between d byzantines and western europeans(whom d byzantines often dem dey call ""latins"" or""franks"").",History
"the so-called""great schism""of 1054 signaled growing divisions between orthodox christians in byzantium and roman catholics in western europe.","Di so-called""great schism""of 1054 signal growing divisions between orthodox christians for byzantium and Roman catholics for western Europe.",History
"the fourth crusade and the latin empire: 12041261 in 1204, the fourth crusadeundertaken by western europeans loyal to the pope in romeveered from its path to jerusalem and sacked the christian city of constantinople.","12041261 for 1204, di fourth crusade wey western europeans loyal to di pope for romeveer from its path to jerusalem and sacked di christian city of constantinople.",History
many of constantinople' s artistic treasures were destroyed or carried back to western europe as booty.,Di many of constantinople's artistic treasures dey destroy or carried back to western Europe as booty.,History
"the crusaders occupied constantinople and established a""latin empire""in byzantine territory.","Di crusaders occupi constantinople and establish a""latin empire""for byzantine territory",History
"exiled byzantine leaders established three successor states: the empire of nicaea in northwestern anatolia, the empire of t rebizond in northeastern anatolia, and the despotate of epirus in northwestern greece and albania.","Di empire of nicaea for northwestern anatolia, di empire of t rebizond for northwestern anatolia, and di despotate of epirus for northwestern anatolia, and di despotate of epirus for northwestern greece and albania.",History
"in 1261, the empire of nicaea retook constantinople and crowned michael viii palaiologos as emperor, establishing the palaiologan dynasty that would reign until the end ofthe byzantine empire.","Di empire of nicaea retook constantinople and crown Michael viii palaiologos as emperor, establish di palaiologan dynasty wey go reign until di end of di byzantine empire.",History
"some scholars refer to this cultural flowering as the ""palaiologan renaissance""(after the ruling palaiologan dynasty).","some scholars to talk about dis cultural flowering as d ""palaiologan renaissance""(after the ruling palaiologan dynasty).",History
"several existing churches such as the chora monastery in constantinoplewere renovated, expanded, and lavishly decorated with mosaics and frescoes.","Di chora monastery for constantinople dey renovate, expanded, and lavishly decorated wit mosaics and frescoes.",History
"byzantine artists were also active outside constantinople, both in byzantine centers such as thessaloniki, aswell as in neighboring lands, such as the kingdom of serbia, where the signatures ofthe painters named michael astrapas andeutychios have been preserved in frescos from the late 13th and early 14th centuries.",Di signatures of di painters wey dey named michael astrapas andeutychios don dey preserved for frescos from di late 13th and early 14th centuries.,History
"yet the byzantine empire never fully recovered from the blow ofthe fourth crusade, and its territory continued to shrink.","Di byzantine empire never recover from di blow of di fourth crusade, and its territory continue to shrink",History
byzantium' s calls for military aid from western europeans in the face ofthe growing threat ofthe ottoman turks in the east remained unanswered.,byzantium' s calls for military aid from western europeans ford face of d growing threat of d ottoman turks ford east remained unanswered.,History
"post-byzantium: after 1453 despite the ultimate demise ofthe byzantine empire, the legacy of byzantium continued.","As 1453 despite di ultimate demise of di byzantine empire, di legacy of byzantium continue",History
"this is evident in formerly byzantine territories like crete, where the so-called ""cretan school""of iconography flourished under venetian rule(a famous product ofthe cretan school being domenikos theotokopoulos, better known as el greco).","Dis dey evident for formerly byzantine territories like crete, wey di so-called ""cretan school""of iconography flourish under venetian rule(a famous product of di cretan school wey be domenikos diotokopoulos, better known as el greco).",History
"but byzantium' s influence also continued to spread beyond its former cultural and geographic boundaries, in the architecture ofthe ottomans, the icons of russia, the paintings of italy, and elsewhere.","For di architecture of di ottomans, di icons of russia, di paintings of italy, and elsewhere.",History
"icons, an introduction dr. evan freeman what is an icon?",Di introduction dr. evan freeman wey be icon?,History
"in our time, we often refer to celebrities as cultural icons, pop icons, and fashion icons.","for our time, we often to talk about celebrities as cultural icons, pop icons, and fashion icons.",History
rebels are sometimes labeled iconoclasts.,Di rebels dey label iconoclasts,History
"icons are also the little images that populate the screens of our computers, phones, and tablets, which we click to open files and apps.","Di icons dey also di little images wey populate di screen of awa computers, phones, and tablets, wey we click to open files and apps.",History
"the word""icon"" comes from the greek eikn, so,""icon"" simply means image.","Di word""icon"" kom from di greek eikn, so,""icon"" simply means image",History
"in the eastern roman""byzantine"" empire and other lands that shared byzantium' s orthodox christian faith,""holy icons""were images of sacred figures and events.","Di eastern Roman""byzantine"" empire and oda lands wey dey shared byzantium's orthodox christian faith,""holy icons"" dey images of sacred figures and events.",History
"when art historians talk about icons today, they often mean portraits of holy figures painted on wood panels with encaustic or egg tempera, like this tempera icon of christ from fourteenthcentury thessaloniki.","Di art historians talk about icons today, dem mean portrait of holy figures wey dey paint on wood panel wit encaustic or egg tempera, like dis tempera icon of christ from fourteenthcentury thessaloniki.",History
"but the byzantines used the term icon more broadly, as this statement made by church authorities in 787 c. e.",Di statement make church authorities for 787 c. e.,History
"shows: holy iconsmade of colors, pebbles, or any other material that is fitmay beset in the holy churches of god, on holy utensils and vestments, on walls and boards, in houses and in streets.","Di holy iconsmade of colors, pebbles, or any oda material wey dey fit set for di holy church of god, on holy utensils and vestments, on walls and boards, for house and for street.",History
"these maybe icons of our lord and god the savior jesus christ, or of our pure lady the holy theotokos [""theotokos"" is a greek term for the virgin mary that means""god-bearer""], or of honorable angels, or of any saint or holy man.","Diotokos dey greek term for di virgin mary wey means""god-bearer""], or of honorable angels, or of any saint or holy man",History
icons could be monumental or miniature.,icons fit dey monumental or miniature.,History
"they were located in a variety of religious and nonreligious settings, including as decoration on functional objects like this eucharistic chalice.","Di eucharistic chalice dey locate for variety of religious and nonreligious settings, including as decoration on functional objects like dis eucharistic chalice.",History
"(the eucharist is the christian offering and blessing of bread and wine, which are then consumed as the body and blood of christ.)","Di eucharist dey di christian offering and blessing of bread and wine, wey dey consumed as di bodi and blood of christ.)",History
"and icons could depict a wide range of sacred subjects, such as christ, the saints, and events from the bible or the lives of saints.","Dem depict wide range of sacred subjects, such as christ, di saints, and events from di bible or di lives of saints.",History
"texts from as early as the second and third century describe some christians using religious images, which they illuminated and adorned with garlands, but these practices were not universal or standardized.","For early as di second and third century describe some christians using religious images, wey dem illuminate and adorned wit garlands, but dem no dey standardized.",History
"church authorities often criticized these practices, which reminded them of customs associated with pagan greece and rome, where images of gods and emperors were widely venerated.","Di church authorities dey criticize dis practices, wey dey reminded dem of customs wey dey associated wit pagan greece and rome, where images of gods and emperors dey widely venerated.",History
"by the eighth and ninth centuries, icons were increasingly popular, and arguments about religious images boiled over in what is called the ""iconoclastic controversy.""","Di eighth and ninth centuries, icons dey popular, and arguments about religious images wey dey boiled over for what dey call di ""iconoclastic controversy.",History
"the so-called ""iconoclasts"" (literally, ""breakers of images"")opposed icons, ar guing that god was transcendent and could not be depicted in art.","Di so-called ""iconoclasts"" (literally, ""breakers of images"")oppose icons, ar guing say god dey transcendent and no be depicted for art.",History
the iconoclasts feared that christians praying before icons were worshipping inanimate objects.,Di iconoclasts fear say christians pray before icons dey worshipping inanimate objects,History
"imperial and church authorities in favor of icons gathered at a council in the city of nicaea (modern iznik, turkey, an ancient city in northwestern anatolia) in 787 to try to resolve the controversy, but it was not until 843 that the church definitively affirmed the use of images, ending the iconoclastic controversy in what became known as the""triumph of orthodoxy.""","Di church plentily affirm di use of images, ending di iconoclastic controversy for wey dey known as di""triumph of orthodoxy.",History
(the orthodox church is the second largest christian community after the roman catholic church.,Di orthodox church dey di second largest christian community afta di roman catholic church,History
"christianity split between orthodoxy in the east and roman catholicism in the west in 1054, an event known as the great schism.",Di event wey dey known as di great schism.,History
"christians should bowbefore and kiss icons, light candles and lamps, and burn incense before them.","Di christians go bow before and kiss icons, light candles and lamps, and burn incense before dem",History
all of these acts of devotion directed at images were intended to pass to the holy figures represented.,Di act of devotion directed at images dey intended to pass to di holy figure represented.,History
"as a modern analogy, we might consider the ways many people frame and hang photos of loved ones in their homes, sometimes even embracing or kissing such images.","We go consider di way many pipo frame and hang photos of loved ones for dia house, sometimes even embracing or kiss such images.",History
"reading icons today, many people identify art with creativity and self-expression.",Na many pipo identify art wit creativity and self-expression.,History
but this was not always the case.,Di case no always di case but dis no dey always di case.,History
icons were meant to represent historical figures and christian teaching in a manner that was recognizable and understandable for viewers.,Di icons dey meant to represent historical figure and christian teaching for manner wey dey recognizable and understandable for viewers,History
"since icons were venerated as away of showing devotion to the figure represented, understanding who was depicted was particularly important.","Di icons dey venerated as way wey dey show devotion to di figure represent, understanding wey dey important.",History
"to achieve this, artists often relied on established artistic conventions.",Di artist often relied on establish artistic conventions.,History
"for example, saints peter and paul appear much the same through the centuries: peter is an old man with white wavy hair and a short beard; paul has balding, brown hair and a pointy beard.","Dem dey old man wit white wavy hair and short beard; paul get balding, brown hair and pointy beard.",History
modern viewers may dismiss such repetition as unoriginal.,modern viewers fit dismiss such repetiton like say e no be original,History
"for viewers familiar with these conventions, the figures in icons were immediately recognizable, like seeing the faces of old friends.","Di figures for icons dey immediately recognable, like seeing di face of old friends.",History
peter and paul appear much the same through the centuries.,Di centuries wey dey carry di same through di centuries.,History
"artists also used what art historians call ""iconographic attributes""to identify figures.",artist dey also use wetin art historians dey call 'iconographic attributes' identify figuress.,History
"for example, evangelists (authors ofthe gospels)often hold gospel books.","for example, evangelists (authors of di gospel)dey often hold gospel books.",History
"clergy saints wear church vestments and hold liturgical objects, such as censers, which were used by the clergy in church services.","Di clergy saints wear church vestments and hold liturgical objects, such as censers, wey dey used by di clergy for church services.",History
"(the term ""clergy"" refers to church leaders; in byzantium, the three major orders ofthe clergy were the bishops, priests, and deacons.)","Di term ""clergy"" to talk about church leaders; for byzantium, di three major order of di clergy dey bishops, priests, and deacons.",History
healer saints hold boxes of medicine.,Di martyrssaints wey don die for dia faith often hold crosses to associate dia sacrifice wit di death of christ on di cross.,History
martyrssaints who had died for their faith often hold crosses to associate their sacrifice with the death of christ on the cross.,Di martyrssaints wey don die for dia faith often hold crosses to associate dia sacrifice wit di death of christ on di cross.,History
these attributes helped identify the holy figures represented.,Di attributes help identify di holy figure represented,History
"but there were no rulebooks governing these conventions, so iconographic attributes were subject to change.","Di rulebooks dey govern these conventions, so iconographic attributes dey subject to change.",History
"it was only in the post-iconoclastic period, for example, that artists regularly depicted soldier saints in military garb, as seen in this tenthor eleventh-century ivory icon of saint demetrios.","E dey only for di post-iconoclastic period, for example, say artists regularly depict soldier saints for military garb, as dem see for dis tenthor eleventh century ivory icon of saint demetrios.",History
another way of guaranteeing that viewers recognized the figures in icons was by including texts that labeled the icon' s subjects.,Di way wey dey guarantee say viewers recogniz di figures for icons dey by including text wey label di icon subjects.,History
"although labels were sporadic before iconoclasm, they became normative in the post-iconoclastic era.","Di label dey sporadic before iconoclasm, dem dey normative for di post-iconoclastic era.",History
"so, icons of christ are labeled""ic xc"" (the greek abbreviation for""jesus christ"").","Di icons of christ dey label""ic xc"" (the greek abbreviation for""jesus christ"").",History
christ appears with his conventional long brown hair and beard.,Di christ appear within conventional long brown hair and beard.,History
iconographic attributes describe him further: the artist has sought to portray christ in clothing from the ancient era in which he lived; christ holds a gospel book displaying his own words from matthew 6: 1415; and there is across in christ's halo because he was crucified to save the world.,Di artist don sought to portray christ for clothing from di ancient era wey hin lived; christ holds gospel book wey dey show hin own words from matthew 6: 1415; and e dey cross for Christ's halo because he dey crucified to save di world,History
"finally, the text identifies this as""jesus christ,""and also includes a more particular title:""the wisdom of god.""","Di text dey identify dis as""jesus christ,""and also include more particular title:""the wisdom of god",History
"together, all these elements enabled byzantine viewers to recognize the figure who gazed out and blessed them.",Di elements enabled byzantine viewers to recognize di figure wey dey gaz out and bless dem,History
"variety and creativity while the use of artistic conventions, attributes, and inscriptions made icons recognizable through the centuries, it would be wrong to suggest that all icons were the same.","Di use of artistic conventions, attributes, and inscriptions make icons recognizable through di centuries, e go suggest say all icons dey di same.",History
"icons varied based on the scale and medium in which they were depicted, as well as across periods and regions, where they were often the product of local materials, workshops, and tastes.","Di icons dey varied based on di scale and medium wey dem depict, as well as across periods and regions, wey dem dey often di product of local materials, workshop, and tastes.",History
artists also regularly experimented with new compositions.,Di artists also regularly experiment wit new compositions,History
"depictions ofthe virgin and child, among the most popular subjects of byzantine icons, took numerous forms through the centuries.","Di most popular subjects of byzantine icons, take numerous forms through di centuries.",History
depictions ofthe virgin and child varied widely in icons.,Di virgin and child dey vari widely for icons.,History
"the anastasis (greek for""resurrection""), which depicted christ descending into hades(the underworld)to raise the dead from their tombs, first appeared in the eighth century and has remained a common image in orthodox churches to this day.","Di anastasis (greek for""resurrection""), wey depict christ descending into hades(the underworld)to raise di dead from dia tombs, first appear for eighth century and don remain common image for orthodox churches to dis day.",History
"another example, the tenth-century ivory crucifixion at the metropolitan museum of art, drew imagery from church hymnography (the poetic songs sung in byzantine churches)to show christ's cross impaling a personification of hades.","Di tenth century ivory crucifixion for di metropolitan museum of art, drew imagery from church hymnography (the poetic songs wey dey sung for byzantine churches)to show christ's cross impaling a personification of hades.",History
it was apparently one of a kind; no comparable images survive.,E dey apparently one of a kind; no comparable images survive,History
"their readability enabled them to illustrate biblical texts, hagiographies (written accounts of a saint' s life), and theological ideas.","Di readability enabled dem to illustrate biblical text, hagiographies (written account of saint's life), and diological ideas.",History
"it was a truism in the middle ages that images functioned as""books for the illiterate.""","Di truism for di middle ages wey images function as""books for di illiterate""",History
"before the age ofthe printing press and inexpensive books, few people owned books, and many could not read.","Di age of di printing press and inexpensive books, few pipo owned books, and many pipo no read.",History
"while biblical passages were read aloud in church services, icons offered visual depictions of biblical events that all could see whenever they entered a church.","As biblical passages dey read aloud for church services, icons offered visual depictions of biblical events wey all go see wen dem enter church.",History
"miniature depicting monks praying with icons in a church, in codex containing the heavenly ladder of john climacus (sinai cod.","E depict moniks pray wit icons for church, for codex containing di heavenly ladder of john climacus (sinai cod.",History
the frontality of portrait icons facilitated face-to-face encounters between holy figures and worshippers who wished to address the holy figures in prayer.,Di frontality of portrait icons facilitate face-to-face encounters between holy figures and worshippers wey wish to address di holy figure for prayer.,History
the eleventh-century theodore psalter anachronistically imagines such an encounter between king david(from the hebrew bible)and a byzantine icon of christ.,Di eleventh century diodor e psalter anachronistically imagine such encounter between king david(from di hebrew bible)and byzantine icon of christ.,History
numerous byzantine texts describe the figures in icons coming alive to defend or heal people.,Di numerous byzantine text wey dey describe di figure for icons wey dey coming alive to defend or heal pipo.,History
"icons could even be worn as jewelry, and inscriptions suggest that their wearers hoped these wearable icons would protector heal them.",Di wearers hope say dis wearable icons go protector heal dem.,History
"and in a culture with no notion of separation of church and state, icons frequently blurred the boundaries between religious and political imagery.","and for culture wey no get notion of separation of church and state, icons frequently blurred d boundaries between religious and political imagery.",History
"icons were carried in public processions, processed around city walls in times of distress, and even carried into battle.","Di icons dey carried for public processions, processed around city walls for times of distress, and even carried into battle.",History
a fourteenth-century fresco at markov manastir in north macedonia depicts both the byzantine emperor and church officials in procession with an icon ofthe virgin and child.,Di fourteenth century fresco for markov manastir for north macedonia depict both di byzantine emperor and church officials for procession wit icon of di virgin and child.,History
"in hagia sophia, the great cathedral ofthe byzantine capital, mosaics depicted haloed emperors and empresses within the same frame as christ and the virgin.","for hagia sophia, d great cathedral of d byzantine capital, mosaics depicted haloed emperors and empresses within d same frame as christ and dv irgin.",History
"icons of christ even appeared on byzantine coins during the reign of justinian ii around the turn ofthe eighth century, where god and emperor were literally on two sides ofthe same coin.","For di reign of justinian ii around di turn of di eighth century, wey god and emperor dey literally on two sides of di same coin.",History
"this revetment covers much ofthe wooden surface with a swirling filigree pattern, and smaller icons of various saints populate the icon' s frame.","Di revetment covers much of di wooden surface wit swirling filigree pattern, and smaller icons of various saints populate di icon frame.",History
t wo fulllength portraits ofthe byzantine donors appear in the lower corners ofthe frame.,Di fulllength portrait of di byzantine donors appear for di lower corners of di frame.,History
"after the fall of byzantium to the ottomans in 1453, the tradition of af fixing precious materials to icons endured in places like russia, where the icon cover was referred to as an oklad orriza.","For di fall of byzantium to di ottomans for 1453, di tradition of affix precious materials to icons endured for place like russia, wey di icon cover dey dem dey call oklad orriza.",History
"russian oklads were often elaborate, covering the entire icon except for the face and hands ofthe holy figures represented, as seen with a seventeenthcentury icon depicting the face of christ at the metropolitan museum of art.","Di russian oklads dey often elaborate, covering di entire icon except for di face and hands of di holy figure represent, as dem see wit seventeenthcentury icon wey depict di face and hands of di holy figure represent, as dem see wit seventeenthcentury icon wey dey represent di face of christ for di metropolitan museum of art.",History
"icon varnish tended to darken with age, obscuring the icon' s image.","Di icon varnish suppose darken wit age, obscuring di icon image.",History
"in an age when modern restoration techniques did not yet exist, artists often painted directly over the darkened images so that an icon could be seen and used once again.","Di age wey modern restoration techniques no exist, artists often paint directly over di darkened images so say icon could dey see and use one more time.",History
"but at the turn ofthe twentieth century, new restoration techniques enabled conservators to uncover the original layers of many old, overpainted icons.","but ford turn of d twentieth century, new restoration techniques dey enable conservators make dem uncover d original layers of many old, overpainted icons.",History
"in russia, countless icons were stripped of oklads, darkened varnish, and layers of overpainting to reveal their original images.","Di countless icons dey strip of oklads, darkened varnish, and layers of overpainting to reveal dia original images",History
"such was the case with the fifteenth-century icon ofthe trinity attributed to andrew rublev, restored in 1904 and again in 1918.","Di case wit di fifteenth century icon of di trinity attributed to andrew rublev, restored for 1904 and again for 1918.",History
"while the restoration of rublev' strinity revealed the brilliant colors and balanced composition ofthe original image, it also erased the many acts of devotion and overpainting that occurred through centuries, to which nail holes across the scarred surface ofthe image still attest.","Di restoration of rublev strinity reveal di brilliant colors and balanced composition of di original image, e also eras di many acts of devotion and overpainting wey dey occur through centuries, to which nail holes across di scarred surface of di image still attest.",History
such newly cleaned icons offered art historians valuable insights about the past and inspired modern artists in the present.,such newly cleaned icons offered art historians valuable insights about d past and inspired modern artists ford present.,History
"after viewing an exhibition withicons in russia in 1911, henri matisse famously commented:""french artists should come to study in russia: italy offers less in this field.""",Hinri matisse famously comment say French artist go study for russia: italy offers less for dis field,History
viewing icons then and now both the restoration of icons and their subsequent interpretation in the twentieth century were strongly influenced by modern tastes and theories of art.,Di restoration of icons and dia subsequent interpretation for di twentieth century dey strongly influence by modern taste and diories of art.,History
"today, the earliest painted image is prized, while the oklad is often dismissed as an ornamental addition that is foreign to the nature ofthe painted icon.","Di earliest painted image dey prized, while di oklad dey often dismiss as ornamental addition wey dey foreign to di nature of di painted icon",History
"drawing parallels with modern art, art historians and critics like clement greenberg described icons as non-naturalistic, and many art historians have interpreted this aspect of icons as symbolizing spirituality and the figures in icons as distant from viewers.","Clement greenberg described icons as non-naturalistic, and many art historians don interpret dis aspect of icons as symbolizing spirituality and di figures for icons as distant from viewers.",History
"more recently though, art historians have noted that the byzantines consistently described the sacred figures in icons as accurate and lifelike.",Di art historians don note say di byzantines consistently described di sacred figures for icons as accurate and lifelike.,History
"abeginner's guide 21 preaching in 867 about anew mosaic installed in the apse of hagia sophia following the triumph of orthodoxy over iconoclasm, patriarch photios, the leader ofthe byzantine church, stated: with such exactitude has the art of painting, which is a reflection of inspiration from above, set up a lifelike imitation. y ou might think her not incapable of speaking, even if one were to ask her, ""how didst thou give birth and remainest a virgin?""","Di guide 21 wey dey preaching for 867 about new mosaic wey dey install for di apse of hagia sophia following di triumph of orthodoxy over iconoclasm, patriarch photios, di leader of di byzantine church, tok say: wit such exactitude don get di art of painting, wey dey reflection of inspiration from above, set up lifelike imitation.",History
"to such an extent have the lips been made flesh by the colors. photios, homily 17 such texts remind us that the ways we view artworks are often highly contingent on our own cultural contexts.",Di ways wey we view artworks dey highly contingent on awa own cultural contexts.,History
"as a result, byzantine art includes works created from the fourth century to the fifteenth century and from such diverse regions as greece, the italian peninsula, the eastern edge ofthe slavic world, the middle east, and north africa.","Di byzantine art include works wey dey create from di fourth century to di fifteenth century and from such diverse regions as greece, di italian peninsula, di eastern edge of di slavic world, di middle east, and north Africa",History
so what is byzantine art and what do we mean when we use this term?,So what dey byzantine art and what do we mean wen we use dis term?,History
"events from the lives of jesus christ and his mother, the virgin mary, were among the most frequently depicted subjects in byzantine art.","Di events from di lives of jesus christ and hin mother, di virgin Mary, deyamong di most frequently depicted subjects for byzantine art.",History
"many of these events were recorded in the four gospels in the christian bible, but others were also inspired by non-biblical texts, such as the ""protoevangelion of james,""a second-century narrative ofthe life ofthe virgin which was nevertheless read by byzantines.","For di four gospels for di christian bible, but odas dey inspired by non-biblical texts, such as di ""protoevangelion of james,""a second century narrative of di life of di virgin wey no dey read by byzantines.",History
"the byzantines commemorated these events as church feasts according to the liturgical calendar each year(as does the eastern orthodox church today, which is heir to byzantium' s religious tradition). depictions of these events appeared in a wide range of media, on different scales, and in public and private settings.","Di byzantines don commemorat dis events as church feasts according to di liturgical calendar each year(as does di eastern orthodox church today, wey dey heir to byzantium' religious tradition).",History
it would be inaccurate to imply that these scenes were always the same; they varied depending on the circumstances of their production aswell as the periods in which they were made.,Di scenes dey always di same; diy varied based on di circumstances of dia production aswell as di periods wey dem dey make.,History
"acknowledging the risk of oversimplifying an artistic tradition that endured for more than a millennium, this essay nevertheless seeks to introduce the stories and common features in byzantine depictions ofthe lives of christ and the virgin.","acknowledging d risk of oversimplifying an artistic tradition dat endured for more than a millennium, dos essay nevertheless seeks to introduced stories and common features in byzantine depictions of d lives of christ and dv irgin.",History
"anna, the v irgin's mother, lies on a bed.","anna, di v irgin's mother, lie for bed",History
midwives bathe the newborn mary.,Di midwives bathe di newborn mary.,History
"other women bustle about, attending to anna.","Di women dey bustle about, attend to anna.",History
"joachim, the v irgin's father, sometimes appears aswell.","joachim, dv irgin's father, sometimes dey appears aswell.",History
"at studenica monastery in serbia, joachim stands beside the virgin as she lies in a cradle after her bath in the lower right.","for studenica monastery in serbia, joachim stands beside dv irgin as she lies in a cradle after her bath in d lower right.",History
the presentation ofthe virgin in the temple the presentation ofthe virgin in the temple is based on non-biblical texts and is commemorated on november 21.,Di presentation of di virgin for di templo dey based on non-biblical text and dey commemorated on november 21.,History
the virgin mary is a child.,Di virgin Mary dey child,History
"she processes with her parents, joachim and anna, along with several candle-bearing maidens, toward the jewish temple.","She process wither parents, joachim and anna, along wit several candle-bearing maidens, toward di jewish temple.",History
joachim and anna offer the virgin to god and the priest zacharias24 smarthistory guide tobyzantine art receives her into the temple.,As joachim and anna offer di virgin to god and di priest zacharias24 smarthistory guide tobyzantine art receive her into di temple,History
"as the narrative continues, mary dwells within the temple, where an angel feeds her bread.","As di narrative continue, Mary dwell inside di temple, wia an angel feeds her bread",History
the hymnography (the poetic songs sung in byzantine churches)for the feast emphasizes that the virgin herself became a temple by allowing god to dwell in her when she conceived christ.,Di hymnography (d poetic songs wey dey sung for byzantine churches)for di feast emphasize say di virgin herself be a temple by allow god to dwell for her wen she conceived christ.,History
"at the chora monastery, the procession to the temple takes a circular form to accommodate the vault where it appears(view annotated image below).",Di procession to di temple take circular form to accommodate di vault wey dem appear(view annotated image below).,History
"simple compositions, such as the mosaic found at daphni, show the archangel gabriel approaching the virgin mary to announce that the holy spirit will come upon her and that she will conceive the son of god, jesus.","Di archangel gabriel approach di virgin mary to announce say di holy spirit go kom upon her and say she go conceive di son of god, jesus.",History
other images show the spirit descending as a dove on a ray of light.,oda images dey show d spirit as e dey descend like dove for ray of light.,History
it is drawn primarily from matthew 1:182: 12 andluke 2:120 and is commemorated on december 25.,we see am for matthew 1:182: 12 andluke 2:120 and is commemorated on december 25.,History
the newborn christ appears in a manger (a feeding trough for animals)near an ox and ass.,Di newborn christ appear for a manger (a feed trough for animals)near an ox and ass.,History
"the virgin sits or reclines near christ, but joseph is usually relegated to the periphery(appearing in the lower left corner in the miniature from the menologion of basil ii, a book containing descriptions of saints' lives and sacred events arranged according to the date of their commemoration in the church calendar)to minimize his role in the christ's birth(emphasizing mary's virginity).","Di lower left corner for di miniature from di menologion of basil ii, book wey dey containing description of saints' lives and sacred events arranged according to di date of dia commemoration for di church calendar)to minimize hin role for di christ's birth(emphasizing Mary's virginity.",History
the narrative continues with one or two midwives bathing christ.,Di narrative continue wit one or two midwives bathin christ,History
angels announce the good news to shepherds.,Dem announce di good news to shepherds.,History
"mary and joseph enter the jewish temple to sacrifice two birds and offer jesus to the lord, in accordance with the jewish law.","Mary and joseph enter di jewish temple to sacrifice two birds and offer jesus to di lord, wey dey in accordance wit di jewish law.",History
"they encounter the prophet simeon(shown taking the christ child in his arms in this image from the metropolitan museum of art)and the prophetess anna, who identify christ as the messiah.","Di prophet simeon(shown take di christ child for hin arms for dis image from di metropolitan museum of art)and di prophetess anna, wey identify christ as di messiah.",History
"john the baptist, or ""forerunner,""baptizes christ in the jordan river, while attending angels stand nearby.","john d baptist, or ""forerunner,""baptizes christ for jordan river, while attending angels stand nearby.",History
"the holy spirit descends on christ in the form of a dove, while the words of god the father identifying jesus as his son are represented by a hand blessing from the heavens.","Di holy spirit descend on christ for di form of a dove, while di words of god di father identify jesus as hin son dey represented by hand blessing from di heavens.",History
"an ax appears with a tree, referencing the baptist' s ominous words,""even now the axis lying at the root ofthe trees; every tree therefore that does not bear good fruit is cut down and thrown into the fire""(matthew 3:10).","Di baptist's ominous words,""even now di ax dey lying wit a tree, referencing di baptist's ominous words,""even now di ax dey lying for di root of di trees; every tree therefore say no bear good fruit dey cut down and throw into di fire""(matthew 3:10).",History
"sometimes, as at hosios loukas monastery, the jordan river is personified as a human figure in the water, corresponding with its personification in the hymnography for the feast.","For hosios loukas monastery, di jordan river dey personified as human figure for di water, corresponding wit its personification for di hymnography for di feast.",History
"jesus ascends a mountain(which tradition identifies as mount t abor) with peter, james, and john(three of his disciples)and is transformed so that he shines with divine light.","Di jesus ascend mountain(which tradition identify as mount t abor) wit Peter, james, and John(three of hin disciples)and dey transform so say hin shine wit divine light.",History
"this light often appears as rays and a mandorla (an almondor circle-shaped halo of light), as seen in the mosaic icon at the louvre.","Di light often appear as rays and mandorla (an almondor circle-shaped halo of light), as seen for di mosaic icon for di louvre.",History
moses and elijahtwo figures representing the law and the prophets from the hebrew bibleappear on either side of christ.,moses and elijahtwo figures representing d law and d prophets from d hebrew bibleappear on either side of christ.,History
"early examples of this motif are found at the monastery of saint catherine at mount sinai and sant'apollinare in classe. 30 smarthistory guide tobyzantine art the passion the passion (""suffering"") refers to christ's sacrificial death on the cross and the period leading upto it.","Na 30 smarthistory guide tobyzantine art di passion di passion (""suffering"") to talk about christ's sacrificial death on di cross and di period wey dey leading upto am.",History
"it is commemorated annually during holy week, whose dates vary from year to year based on the lunar cycle.","E dey commemorated annually during holy week, wey dey dates vary from year to year based on di lunar cycle.",History
the eastern orthodox church commemorates this miracle of christ on the saturday before palm sunday.,Di eastern orthodox church don commemorat dis miracle of christ on di saturday before palm sunday,History
"christ, trailed by the apostles, calls forth the shrouded lazarus from the tomb, as seen in the templon beam fragment in athens.","Di apostles, call forth di shrouded lazarus from di tomb, as seen for di templon beam fragment for athens.",History
"mary and martha, the sisters of lazarus, kneel at christ's feet.","mary and martha, d sisters of lazarus, kneel for christ's feet.",History
additional figures open the tomb and free lazarus from his grave clothes.,Di additional figures open di tomb and free lazarus from hin grave clothes.,History
jesus rides into the city of jerusalem on a donkey.,jesus rides into d city of jerusalem on top donkey.,History
"a crowd hails him, throwing cloaks and palms on the road before him.","Di crowd dey hin, throwing cloaks and palms for di road before hin.",History
"judas reaches to dip his food in a bowl, which christ identifies as a sign of betrayal.","Di judas reach hin food for a bowl, wey christ identify assign of betrayal.",History
"in the gospel account, peter resists letting jesus wash his feet.","For di templon beam for Sinai, incorporate oda women wey follow christ aswell as Roman soldiers, such as saint longinus wey convert to christianity.",History
"but christ explains:""if i, your lord and teacher, have washed your feet, you also ought to wash one another's feet.","If i, your lord and teacher, don washed your feet, you also ought to wash one another feet.",History
"for i have set you an example""(john 13: 1415).","I don set you example""(john 13: 1415).",History
the mosaic at hosios loukas monastery shows christ in the act of washing peter's feet.,Di mosaic for hosios loukas monastery show christ for di act of washing peter feet.,History
"simpler representations ofthe scene include the virgin and john the evangelist, illustrating john's account.","Di scene include di virgin and john di evangelist, illustrating john account.",History
the sun and moon or angels appear in the sky above.,Di sun and moon or angels appear for di sky above.,History
"more complex compositions, such as that found on a templon beam at sinai, incorporate other women who followed christ aswell as roman soldiers, such as saint longinus who converted to christianity.","For di templon beam for Sinai, incorporate oda women wey follow christ aswell as Roman soldiers, such as saint longinus wey convert to christianity.",History
"john recounts how one ofthe soldiers pierced christ with a spear, spilling blood and water from his side(john 19:34-35).","John recount how one of di soldiers dey pierced christ wit spear, spilling blood and water from hin side(john 19:34-35).",History
"the event unfolds at golgotha, the""place ofthe skull,""outside ofthe city34 smarthistory guide tobyzantine art walls of jerusalem(which sometimes appear in the background).","Di event unfold for golgotha, di place of di skull, outside of di city34 smarthistory guide tobyzantine art walls of jerusalem(which sometimes appear for di background).",History
"some depictions of this scene include a skull at the foot ofthe cross, which tradition identifies as the skull of adam(the first man), reflecting the christian belief that christ is the""new adam""as savior of humankind.","Na some depictions of dis scene include skull for di foot of di cross, wey tradition identify as di skull of adam(the first man), reflect di christian belief say christ dey di new adam as savior of humankind.",History
"as at the church of saint panteleimon at nerezi, the composition often includes the virgin and john the evangelist(who were present at christ's crucifixion), as well as joseph of arimathea and nicodemus, two followers of jesus.","Di composition often include di virgin and john di evangelist(who dey present for christ's crucifixion), as well as joseph of arimathea and nicodemus, two followers of jesus.",History
an angel tells them that christ has risen from the dead.,Di angel tell dem say christ don rise from di dead,History
"based largely on non-biblical sources, the scene shows christ descending into hades(the underworld)sometimes carrying his cross as an instrument of salvationto raise the dead from their tombs.",Di scene show christ descending into hades(the underworld)sometimes carry hin cross as instrument of salvation to raise di dead from dia tombs.,History
locks and hinges lie broken underfoot as christ tramples the broken gates ofthe underworld that once imprisoned the dead.,Di locks and hinges lie broken underfoot as christ tramples di broken gates of di underworld wey once imprison di dead.,History
"in some images, christ also tramples the personified figure of hades, who represents death.","Pastor also tramples di personified figure of hades, wey represent death.",History
"at the chora monastery, christ reaches with both hands to raise adam and eve(the first humans)from their tombs.","ford chora monastery, christ reaches wit both hands to raise adam and eve(d first humans)from their tombs.",History
"righteous figures from the hebrew bible and christian new testamentusually david, solomon, and john the baptiststand nearby.","righteous figures from d hebrew bible and christian new testamentusually david, solomon, and john d baptiststand nearby.",History
"when some ofthe disciples claim to have encountered the risen christ, the apostle thomas expresses doubt, stating: ""unless i see the mark ofthe nails in his hands, and put my finger in the mark ofthe nails and my hand in his side, i will not believe""(john 20:25).","Di apostle thomas express doubt, say: ""unless i see di mark of di nails for hin hand, and put my finger for di mark of di nails and my hand for hin side, i no believe""(john 20:25).",History
"a week later, jesus appears and invites thomas to touch his wounds: the moment depicted in this mosaic at hosios loukas monastery.",Di moment wey depict for dis mosaic for hosios loukas monastery.,History
"the iconography derives from pre-christian imperial apotheosis scenes(for example, on the arch of titus in rome).","Di iconography derives from pre-christian imperial apotheosis scenes(for example, on di arch of titus for rome).",History
"christ appears within a mandorla and is borne heavenward by angels, as seen in the miniature from the getty museum.","Pastor appear inside mandorla and dey borne heavenward by angels, as seen for di miniature from di getty museum.",History
the virgin and apostles stand on earth below.,Di virgin and apostles stand on earth below.,History
the holy spirit takes the form of tongues of fire.,Di holy spirit take di form of tongues of fire.,History
"sometimes the virgin appears with the apostles, although she is not present in the biblical account.","Di virgin appear wit di apostles, although she no present for di biblical account.",History
"in acts, the holy spirit inspires the apostles to preach the crucified and risen christ in different languages so that all can understand.",Di holy spirit inspire di apostles to preach di crucified and risen christ for different languages so say all fit understand.,History
"in artistic representations ofthe event, figures representing different ""tribes""and ""tongues,""or a single figure personifying the entire""cosmos,"" (seen in this miniature from the getty)receive the apostles' words.","Di miniature of di event, figures represent different ""tribes""and ""tongues"", or single figure wey dey represent di entire""cosmos,"" (seen for dis miniature from di getty)receive di apostles' words.",History
the virgin lies on her funeral bier surrounded by the apostles.,Di virgin lies on her funeral bier wey dey surrounded by di apostles.,History
"christ stands behind the virgin, receiving her soul, which takes the form of a swaddled infant.","Pastor stands behind di virgin, wey dey receive her soul, wey dey take di form of swaddled infant.",History
later icons sometimes include additional details such as the apostles miraculously borne to the scene on clouds and the gates of heaven opening to receive the virgin.,Di later icons sometimes dey include additional details such as di apostles miraculously borne to di scene on clouds and di gate of heaven opening to receive di virgin,History
tenth-century ivories from constantinople like this one are among the earliest depictions ofthe dormition.,E dey among di earliest depictions of di dormition.,History
"for this reason, it is often easy to forget that these objects once participated actively in byzantine life.",E dey easy to get dat objects wey dey participat actively for byzantine life.,History
this is especially true of things worn on the body.,Di especially true of things wey dey wear on di bodi,History
"earrings, bracelets, belts, necklaces, and garments were meant to be seen in motion, changing their appearance as they refracted light, as they were concealed and revealed on the body, and as their wearersboth women and menengaged in everyday and ritual practices.","Di earrings, bracelets, belts, necklaces, and garments dey meant to dey see for motion, changing dia appearance as dem refract light, as dem dey reveal on di bodi, and as dia wearersboth women and menengage for everyday and ritual practices.",History
"the function of clothing and jewelry was not simply utilitarian: wearable art in byzantium communicated complex messages about social identity, religious beliefs, and concerns about physical and spiritual well-being.","d function of clothing and jewelry no be simply utilitarian: wearable art for byzantium communicated complex messages about social identity, religious beliefs, and concerns about physical and spiritual well-being.",History
"(enamel is a decorative technique in which glass, colored with metallic oxides, is melted and fused with metal.","Di decorative technique wey glass, colored wit metallic oxides, dey melted and fused wit metal.",History
"the byzantines are well known for their cloisonne enamels, which employ strips of gold cloisons to create cells that are filled with glass and fired.)","Di byzantines dey well known for dia cloisonne enamels, wey employ strip of gold cloisons to create cells wey dey filled wit glass and fire.",History
"indeed, some objects combined precious natural materials with those that were human made, like an early byzantine gold bracelet at the metropolitan museum of art set with pearls, sapphires, emeralds, and amethysts but also glass(see image above).","Di objects wey dey combin precious natural materials wit those wey human make, like early byzantine gold bracelet for di metropolitan museum of art set wit pearls, sapphires, emeralds, and amethysts but also glass(see image above).",History
pearls were harvested from the sea and were typically small in size.,Di pearls dey harvest from di sea and dey typically small for size.,History
they were often strung and applied as framing elements on clothing and jewelry.,Di often strung and apply as framing elements on clothing and jewelry.,History
"precious gemssuch as sapphires, amethysts, and emeraldswere imported from throughout medieval afro-eurasia and were prized for their color and shape.","Di precious gems such as sapphires, amethysts, and emeralds dey import from throughout medieval afro-eurasia and dem dey prized for dia color and shape.",History
the byzantinesdid not practice faceting.,Di byzantines no dey practice face,History
"(faceting is the technique of cutting the surfaces of stones to increase their refraction of light, thereby enhancing their color and luminosity.)","Di technique of cutting di surface of stones to increase dia refraction of light, thereby enhance dia color and luminosity.",History
"instead, gems were smoothed and polished to enhance their color and luminosity.",Di gems dey smooth and polished to enhance dia color and luminosity.,History
"gems and semi-precious stones were also engraved and carved in relief, as seen with an engraved intaglio seal with the crucifixion and a carved cameo with saint george (reproduced below).","gems and semi-precious stones also dey engraved and carved for relief, as seen with an engraved intaglio seal with d crucifixion and a carved cameo with saint george (reproduced below).",History
natural gems of comparable size and shape were especially prized.,Di natural gems of comparable size and shape dey especially prized.,History
"earrings or bracelets of matching design or necklaces with regular, repeating elements imposed symmetry on the wearer 's body.",For earrings or bracelets of matching design or necklaces wit regular repeat elements impose symmetry on di wearer 's bodi.,History
"the byzantines celebrated well-proportioned and balanced physical features, and objects of adornment that enhanced these qualities were especially desirable.","Di byzantines celebrat well-proportioned and balanced physical features, and objects of adornment wey dey especially desirable.",History
"through their mastery of these and other techniques, byzantine artisans created earrings, rings, necklaces, belts, and bracelets of astounding fineness and intricacy.","through deir mastery of these and oda techniques, byzantine artisans created earrings, rings, necklaces, belts, and bracelets of astounding fineness and intricacy.",History
"she is depicted with around face, bifur cated by an aquiline nose and delicately balanced by bow-shaped lips.","she dey depicted with around face, bifur cated by an aquiline nose and delicately balanced by bow-shaped lips.",History
"her arched brows, almond-shaped eyes, r osy cheeks, and finely braided hair ar e arranged evenly on each side.","her arched brows, almond-shaped eyes, r osy cheeks, and finely braided hair ar e arranged evenly on each side.",History
"her gem encrusted crown and collar, pearl earrings, and elaborately adorned garment enhance the impression of beautiful balance.","her gem encrusted crown and collar, pearl earrings, and elaborately adorned garment enhanced impression of beautiful balance.",History
"some of these down-market items of personal adornment imitate objects in finer materials, for example, belt buckles and fibulae made of gilt-copper or gilt-bronze were burnished to appear like gold.","some of these down-market items of personal adornment imitate objects for finer materials, for example, belt buckles and fibulae made of gilt-copper or gilt-bronze were burnished to appear like gold.",History
the combination of natural and human-made materials is also found in these less luxurious items of adornment; early byzantine necklaces from egypt pair amber or coral and glass.,d combination of natural and human-made materials is also found for dis less luxurious items of adornment; early byzantine necklaces from egypt pair amber or coral and glass.,History
"men, women, and children of all social classes wore tunics, which were initially produced in untailored form that could be adjusted to shape on the body with belts, pins, and tucks.","Di men, women, and children of all social class wore tunics, wey dey produce for untailored form wey dey adjust to shape on di bodi wit belts, pins, and tucks.",History
"wool and flax (linen)were common materials for clothing of all social classes, while garments ofthe elite could be produced in imported materials like cotton and silk.","Di wool and flax (linen) dey common materials for clothing of all social class, while garments of di elite go produce for imported materials like cotton and silk.",History
individuals at all levels of society embellished their clothing with decorations.,Di individuals for all level of society embellished dia clothing wit decorations.,History
"although byzantine society was increasingly christianized by the fifth to sixth century when this tunic was created, grecoroman literature continued to be a mainstay ofthe byzantine educational system until the fifteenth century, and pagan mythology was well-known, especially among the cultured elite.","Di byzantine society dey increasingly christianized by di fifth to sixth century, and pagan mythology dey well-known, especially among di cultured elite.",History
"images of dionysus were especially popular in clothing and domestic textiles, perhaps because he was associated with the pleasures of drinking, dancing, and merry making.","Di images of di dionysus dey popular for clothing and domestic textiles, perhaps because hin dey associated wit di pleasure of drinking, dancing, and merry making.",History
"in the early byzantine period, sasanian-style fitted garments were highly valued luxury objects because they were usually fabricated from precious silken fabrics and ornamented with intricate, beautiful designs.","ford early byzantine period, sasanian-style fitted garments were highly valued luxury objects because they were usually fabricated from precious silken fabrics and ornamented with intricate, beautiful designs.",History
they may have also been appreciated for their tailored cut and the form-fitting silhouette it produced.,For dia tailored cut and di form-fitting silhouette wey dem produce,History
their fitted forms distinguished them clearly from the comparatively shapeless tunics of roman-byzantine fashion.,Di comparatively shapeless tunics of Roman-byzantine fashion distinguished dem clearly from di comparatively shapeless tunics of Roman-byzantine fashion.,History
the emulation of foreign styles was not always condoned by byzantine authorities.,Di emulation of foreign styles no dey condoned by byzantine authorities.,History
"in the sixth century, the court historian prokopios criticized young men ofthe capital for dressing and arranging their hair in""persian"" (i. e. sasanian) and""hunnic fashion.""[","Di court historian prokopios criticize young men of di capital for dressing and arranging dia hair for""persian"" (i. e. Sasanian) and hinnic fashion.",History
"in-woven designs were typically rendered in wool, which took dye more easily than flax (linen).","For-woven designs dey typically render for wool, wey dey take dye more easily than flax (linen).",History
"symmetry ofthe body was enhanced by tunic decorations that defined the shoulders, the vertical stretch ofthe chest, and the length ofthe arms.","Di symmetry of di bodi dey enhance by tunic decorations wey define di shoulders, di vertical stretch of di chest, and di length of di arms.",History
"some were primarily ornamental, such as geometric or vegetal designs.","some dey primarily ornamental, such as geometric or vegetal designs.",History
"in the early centuries of christianity, before the religion achieved widespread social and political endorsement, devotees risked persecution.","ford early centuries of christianity, before d religion achieved widespread social and political endorsement, devotees risked persecution.",History
motifs that were polysemous (communicated multiple meanings)allowed the earliest christians to avoid overt expression of their religious affiliation: only the initiated would recognize the christian identity that these motifs conveyed.,"Di initiated go recognize di christian identity wey dem dey convey, only di initiated go recognize di christian identity wey dem convey.",History
many of these motifs continued in popularity even after christianity became the almost exclusive religion ofthe byzantine empire.,Di motifs continue for popularity even afta christianity be di almost exclusive religion of di byzantine empire.,History
crosses and images of holy people served both to identify the wearer as christian and to facilitate prayer and protection.,crosses and images of holy pipo served both to identify d wearer as christian and to facilitate prayer and protection.,History
"(personification is the human embodiment of an abstract concept; in the roman pagan cult, personifications were worshipped as demi-gods.","Di Roman pagan cult, personifications dey worship as demi-gods.",History
(paideia refers to the greco-roman tradition of education that the byzantines inherited.),Di paideia to talk about di greco-roman tradition of education wey di byzantines inherit,History
"after iconoclasm, as christianity fully dominated byzantine society and pagan mythological iconography was no longer common in objects worn on the body, protective motifs that originated in antiquity still endured, bearing witness to the survival of pre-christian traditions.","As christianity fully dominated byzantine society and pagan mythological iconography no dey common for objects wey dey wear on di bodi, protective motifs wey dey originated for antiquity still endure, bearing witness to di survival of pre-christian traditions.",History
"for example, the so-called evil eye(which protected the wearer from the envy of others), the holy rider(who was thought to be powerful against demons and other evil forces)and the chnoubis (a magical motif that was believed to be especially effective against headaches and ailments ofthe uterus)can be found in medievaland even modernamulets, as illustrated here.","Di so-called evil eye( wey dey protect di wearer from di envy of odas), di holy rider(who dey thought to be powerful against demons and oda evil forces)and di chnoubis (a magical motif wey dey believe to be especially effective against headaches and ailments of di uterus)go find for medieval and even modernamulets, as dey illustrated here.",History
"it was intended to cure its owner, wh op r e s u m abl ys uf fered from a similar ailment.","E dey intended to cure im owner, wh op r e s u m abl ys uf fered from similar ailment.",History
"the object' sm a t e rial, hematite, was believed to staunch the flow of blood, and the image would have operated sympathetically, healing the owner ofthe amulet (who is possibly represented in the praying figure on the reverse)just aschrist healed thewoman whosought hisaid.","Di object' sm a t e rial, hematite, dey believe to staunch di flow of blood, and di image go dey operat sympathetically, healing di owner of di amulet (who dey represent for di praying figure on di reverse)just aschrist heal di woman wey dey get hinaid.",History
"bronze examples are attested in large numbers, as seen with this pectoral cross-shaped reliquary with saints.","Di bronze examples dey tested for large numbers, as dem see wit dis pectoral cross-shaped reliquary wit saints.",History
"they are decorated with inscriptions and images, often crudely executed.","Dem dey decorat wit inscription and images, often crudely executed",History
more luxurious pectoral crosses might be made from precious metals or enamel.,Di more luxurious pectoral crosses go make from precious metal or enamel.,History
"over the course ofthe middle byzantine era, enkolpia (pendants worn on the chest, usually decorated with sacred imagery and used in personal devotion)became an integral part of personal devotion and were closely aligned with an individual's identity.","For di course of di middle byzantine era, enkolpia (pendants wey dey wear on di chest, usually decorated wit sacred imagery and use for personal devotion)be integral part of personal devotion.",History
"some examples were made from luxurious materialsincluding gold, enamel, pearls, and precious stonesand they were inscribed with prayers for the salvation and defense ofthe owner.","Dem dey made from luxurious materialsincluding gold, enamel, pearls, and precious stones and dem dey inscribed wit prayers for di salvation and defense of di owner.",History
"an especially elaborate enkolpion depicts saint demetrios (obverse) and the soldier martyrs, saints ser gios and bacchos (reverse).","an especially elaborate enkolpion depicts saint demetrios (obverse) and d soldier martyrs, saints ser gios and bacchos (reverse).",History
"a pin at the top can be unscrewed, allowing the container to open.","a pin at d top fit dey unscrewed, allowing d container to open.",History
"inside two doors are revealed behind which reclines a miniature effigy (a representation of a specific person, typically in sculptural form)of the saint that likely references his pilgrimage shrine, which was thought to be a site for miracles.","Di inside two doors dey reveal a miniature effigy (a representation of specific person, typically for sculptural form)of di saint wey likely references hin pilgrimage shrine, wey dey thought to be site for miracles.",History
"an inscription on the edge of this object indicates that it once held a blood relic of saint demetrios along with the contact relic ofthe miraculous balm(oil) excreted at his tomb:""the faith of ser gios [the owner]carries the venerable receptacle of demetrios' blood together with the balm.",Di faith of ser gios [the owner]carry di venerable receptacle of demetrios along wit di contact relic of di miraculous balm(oil) wey demetrios get together wit di balm.,History
"while some ecclesiastical authorities advised that the devout should adorn their bodies with only religious imagery, others criticized such practices as a form of false devotion, ar guing that proper christian behavior required the hard work of adorning the soul through good deeds rather than the quick fix of merely wearing christian identity on one's sleeve.","Di ecclesiastical authorities advise say di devout go adorn dia bodi wit only religious imagery, odas criticize such practice as a form of false devotion, ar guing say proper christian behavior go require di hard work of adorning di soul through good deeds no be di quick fix of merely wearing christian identity on one sleeve.",History
"she had sought remedy for her condition from all available sources, but unsuccessfully.","She don sought remedy for her condition from all available source, but unsuccessfully.",History
"because menstrualabeginner's guide 57 blood was considered unclean, her illness would have also caused social ostracization.","Di menstrualabeginner's guide 57 blood don consider unclean, her illness go dey also caus social ostracization.",History
"moved by her faith in christ's power to heal, she approached him from behind and touched the hem of his garment.","Di faith for christ's power to heal, she approach am from behind and touch di hem of hin garment.",History
"upon contact, she was relieved of her illness.",She dey relieved of her illness,History
"although limited physical evidence survives, a combination of archaeology and texts may help us to understand the formation of an architecture in service ofthe new religion.",Di combination of archaeology and texts go help us understand di formation of an architecture for service of di new religion.,History
"thedomus ecclesiae, or house-church, most often represented an adaptation of an existing late antique residence to include a meeting hall and perhaps a baptistery (a building or room containing a font for christian initiation).","Didomus ecclesiae, or house-church, most often represent an adaptation of di existing late antique residence to include meeting hall and perhaps a baptistery (a building or room wey dey containing font for christian initiation)",History
"mostexamples are known from texts; while there are significant remains in rome, where they were known as tituli, most early sites of christian worship were subsequently rebuilt and enlarged to give them a suitably public character, thus destroying much ofthe physical evidence.","Di significant remains for rome, wey dey known as tituli, most early sites of christian worship dey rebuilt and enlarged to give dem suitably public character, thus destroy much of di physical evidence.",History
synagogues and mithraia (temples for the worship ofthe god mithras) from the period are considerably better preserved.,Di period dey considerably better preserved.,History
"a notable exception is the christian house at dura-europos in syria, built c.200 c. e.","Di christian house for dura-europos for syria, build c.200 c. e.",History
on atypical courtyard plan.,Di typical courtyard plan dey typical courtyard plan,History
"modified c.230 c. e, two rooms were joined to form a longitudinal meeting hall; another was provided with a piscina (a basin for water)to function as a baptistery for christian initiation.","For modified c.230 c. e, two rooms dey join to form longitudinal meeting hall; one room dey provided wit piscina (basin for water)to function as baptistery for christian initiation",History
"another house-church, considerably modified, was the house of st. peter at capharnaum, visited by early pilgrims.","Di house-church, considerably modified, na di house of st. peter for capharnaum, visited by early pilgrims.",History
"unlike pagans, who practiced both cremation and inhumation (burial), christians insisted upon inhumation because ofthe belief in the bodily resurrection ofthe dead at the end of days.","Di pagans wey practice both cremation and inhumation (burial), christians insist upon inhumation because of di belief for bodily resurrection of di dead for di end of days.",History
"in addition to areae(above-ground cemeteries)and catacombs (underground cemeteries), christians required settings for commemorative banquets or refrigeria, a carry-over from pagan practices.","For addition to areae(above-ground cemeteries)and catacombs (underground cemeteries), christians need settings for commemorative banquets or refrigeria, carry-over from pagan practices.",History
"the earliest christian burials at the roman catacombs were situated amid those of other religions, but by the end ofthe second century, exclusively christian cemeteries are known, beginning with the catacomb of st. callixtus on the v ia appia, c.230.","Di earliest christian burials for di Roman catacombs dey situated amid those of oda religions, but by di end of di second century, exclusively christian cemeteries dey known, beginning wit di catacomb of st. callixtus on di v ia appia, c.230.",History
"originally well organized with a series of parallel corridors carved into the tufa (a porous rock common in italy), the catacombs expanded and grew more labyrinthineover the subsequent centuries.","originally well organized with a series of parallel corridors carved into the tufa (a porous rock common in italy), the catacombs expanded and grew more labyrinthineover the subsequent centuries.",History
"within, the most common form of tomb was a simple, shelf-like loculus (a horizontal, rectangular burial niche)organized in multiple tiers in the walls ofthe corridors.","Di most common form of tomb na simple, shelf-like loculus (a horizontal, rectangular burial niche)organized for multiple tiers for di walls of di corridors.",History
small cubicula (either small rooms in a roman house or a burial chamber in the catacombs) surrounded with arcosolium (an arched burial niche)tombs provided setting for wealthier burials and provide evidence of social stratification within the christian community.,"Na small cubicula (either small rooms for Roman house or burial chamber for di catacombs) wey dey surround wit arcosolium (an arched burial niche) wey dey provide setting for wealthier burials and provide evidence of Di arrangement of pipo in a society into levels based on wealth, power and status within di christian community.",History
"above ground, a simple covered structure provided a setting for the refrigeria, such as the triclia excavated beneath s. sebastiano, by the entrance to the catacombs.","Di simple covered structure provide setting for di refrigeria, such as di triclia wey dey excavat beneath s. sebastiano, by di entrance to di catacombs.",History
"the development of a cult of martyrs with the early church led to the development of commemorative monuments, usually called martyria, but also referred to in texts as tropaia and heroa.","Di development of cult of martyrs wit di early church led to di development of commemorative monuments, usually call martyria, but also referred to in text as tropaia and heroa.",History
"among those in rome, the most important was the tropaion marking the tomb of st. peter in the necropolis on the vatican hill.",Di most important na di tropaion marking di tomb of st. peter for di necropolis on di vatican hill.,History
"in rome, the meeting hall of s. crisogono seems to have been founded c.300 as a visible christian monument.",Di meeting hall of s. crisogono dey found c.300 as visible christian monument.,History
"similarly in nikomedia (a city located in northwest asia minor, the residence of diocletian and his successors)at the same time, the christian meetinghall was prominent enough to be seen from the imperial palace.",Di christian meetinghall dey prominent enough to be seen from di imperial palace.,History
"just as the administrative structure ofthe church and the basic character of christian worship were established in the early centuries, pre-constantinian building laid the groundwork for later architectural developments, addressing the basic functions that would be of prime concern in later centuries: communal worship, initiation into the cult, burial, and the commemoration ofthe dead.","Di administrative structure of di church and di basic character of christian worship dey establish for di early centuries, pre-constantinian building dey laid di groundwork for later architectural developments, address di basic functions wey go be of prime concern for later centuries: communal worship, initiation into di cult, burial, and di commemoration of di dead.",History
"imperial patronage with constantine' s acceptance of christianity as an official religion ofthe roman empire in 313, he committed himself to the patronage of buildings meant to compete visually with their pagan counterparts.","Di imperial patronage wit constantine's acceptance of christianity as an official religion of di Roman Empire for 313, hin committe himself to di patronage of buildings wey dem fit compete visually wit dia pagan counterparts.",History
"in major centers like rome, this meant the construction of huge basilicas (a church type based on roman assembly halls, usually composed of a longitudinal nave flanked by side aisles)capable of holding congregations numbering into the thousands.","Di meant di construction of huge basilicas (a church type wey dey based on Roman assembly halls, usually composed of longitudinal nave flanked by side aisles)capable of holding congregations number into di thousands.",History
"although the symbolic associations ofthe christian basilica with its roman predecessors have been debated, it thematized power and opulence in ways comparable to but not exclusive to imperial buildings.","Di symbolic association of di christian basilica wit its Roman predecessors don debat, e dey thematized power and opulence for ways comparable to but no exclusive to imperial buildings.",History
"batsfor d,1921) formally, the basilica also stood in sharp contrast to the pagan temple, at which worship was conducted out of doors.","Di basilica also stood in sharp contrast to di pagan temple, wey worship dey conduct out of doors.",History
"the church basilica was essentially a meeting house, not a sacred structure, but a sacred presence was created by the congregation joining in common prayerthe people, not the building, comprised the ekklesia (the greek word for""church"").","Di church basilica dey essentially meeting house, no a sacred structure, but a sacred presence dey create by di congregation joinin for common prayerthe pipo, no di building, dey compris di ekklesia (the greek word for""church"").",History
"the lateran basilica, originally dedicated to christ, was begun c.313 to serve as rome' scathedral, built on the grounds of an imperial palace, donated to be the residence ofthe bishop.","Di lateran basilica, originally dedicated to christ, begun c.313 to serve as rome' scathedral, built on di grounds of di imperial palace, donat to be di house of di bishop.",History
"five-aisled in plan, the basilica' stall nave(the central aisle of a basilica)was illuminated by clerestory windows, which rose above coupled side aisles along the flanks and terminated in an apse (a semicircular recess containing the altar)at the west end, which held seats for the clergy.","Di basilica' st al nave(the central aisle of a basilica) dey illuminate by clerestory windows, wey rose above couple side aisles along di flanks and dem carry seat for di clergy.",History
"before the apse, the altar was surrounded by a silver enclosure, decorated with statues of christ and the apostles.","Di altar dey surrounded by silver enclosure, decorated wit statues of christ and di apostles.",History
"s. sebastiano, probably originally the basilica apostolorum, which may have been begun immediately before the peace ofthe church(the toleration of christianity following the edict of milan), rose on the site ofthe earlier triclia, in which graffiti testify to the special veneration of peter and paul at the site.","Di basilica apostolorum, wey probably originally di basilica apostolorum, wey dey begun immediately before di peace of di church(the toleration of christianity following di edict of milan), rose on di site of di earlier triclia, in wey graffiti testify to di special veneration of Peter and Paul for di site.",History
these so-called cemetery basilicas provided a setting for commemorative funeral banquets.,Di so-called cemetery basilicas provide setting for commemorative funeral banquets.,History
"essentially covered burial grounds, the floors ofthe basilicas were paved with graves and their walls enveloped by mausolea.",Di floors of di basilicas dey paved wit graves and dia wall enveloped by mausolea.,History
"image by evan gallitelli includes drawings by konstantin brandenbur g published in hugo brandenbur g's ancient churches of rome from the fourth to the seventh century(t urnhout: br epols, 2004), fig.","Di image by evan gallitelli wey dey published for hugo brandenbur g's ancient churches of rome from di fourth to di seventh century(t urnhout: br epols, 2004), fig.",History
"by the end ofthe fourth century, however, the practice ofthe funerary banquet was suppressed, and the grand cemetery basilicas were either abandoned or transformed into parish churches.","Di practice of di funerary banquet don suppress, and di grand cemetery basilicas dey throw away or transform into parish churches.",History
"constantine' s st. peter's basilica, rome, from: giovanni ciampini, de sacris aedificiis a constantino magno constructis: synopsis historica, 1693, p.33 martyria constantine also supported the construction of monumental martyria.","Di synopsis historica, 1693, p.33 martyria constantine don support di construction of monumental martyria.",History
a martyrium is the tomb of a martyr or site that bore witness to the christian faith.,Di martyrium dey di tomb of martyr or site wey dey bore witness to di christian faith.,History
"most important in the west was st. peter's basilica in rome, begun c.324, originally functioning as a combination of cemetery basilica and martyrium, sited so that the focal point was the marker at the tomb of peter, covered by a ciborium (canopy)and located at the chord ofthe western apse.","Di most important for di west na st. Peter's basilica for rome, begun c.324, originally function as combination of cemetery basilica and martyrium, site so say di focal point na di marker for di tomb of Peter, covered by ciborium (canopy)and located at di chord of di western apse.",History
"the enormous five-aisled basilica served as the setting for burials and the refrigeria. to this was juxtaposed a transept essentially a transverse, single-aisled navewhich provided access to the saint' s tomb.","Di transept essentially transverse, single-aisled nave wey dey provide access to di saint's tomb",History
the eastern atrium seems to have been slightly later in date.,Di eastern atrium seem to dey slightly later for date,History
"reconstructed plan of constantine' s st. peter's basilica, rome, c.320, adapted from banister f.","reconstructed plan of constantine' s st. peter's basilica, rome, c.320, adapted from banister f.",History
"fletcher, a history of architecture on the comparative method,5th ed.","fletcher, a history of architecture on d comparative method,5th ed.",History
"ciborium of old st. peter's, werro, itinerarium von der saeligen reise gegen romeund jerusalem im jahr 1581 (fribour g, bibliotheque cantonale et universitair e, ms.","Di ciborium of old st. Peter's, werro, itinerarium von der saeligen reise gegen romeund jerusalem im jahr 1581 (fribour g, bibliotheque cantonale and universitair e, ms.",History
"l 181, f. 16v) in the holy land, major shrines similarly juxtaposed congregational basilicas with centrallyplanned commemorative structures housing the venerated site.","Di holy land, major shrines similarly juxtaposed congregational basilicas wit centrallyplanned commemorative structure wey dey housing di venerated site.",History
"the anastasis rotunda, enclosing the tomb aedicula, was completed only after constantine' s death.","Di anastasis rotunda, enclosing di tomb aedicula, dey completed only afta constantine's death",History
(see plan on next page.),see Di plan for next page,History
"most martyria were considerably simpler, often no more than a small basilica.","Di most martyria dey considerably simpler, often no more than small basilica",History
"at constantine' s eleona church on the mount of olives, for example, a simple basilica was constructed above the cave where christ had taught the apostles.","for example, a simple basilica wey dey construct above di cave wey christ don teach di apostles.",History
"pilgrims' accounts, such as that left by the spanish nun egeria (c.380), provide a fascinating view of life at the shrines.","Di pilgrims' account, such assay di spanish Nun egeria (c.380), provide fascinating view of life for di shrines.",History
"these great buildings played an important role in the development ofthe cult of relics, but they were less important for the subsequent development of byzantine architecture.","Dem play important role for di development of di cult of relics, but dem dey less important for di subsequent development of byzantine architecture.",History
"new rome in addition to his acceptance of christianity, constantine' s other great achievement was the establishment of anew imperial residence and subsequent capital city in the east, strategically located on the straits ofthe bosphorus.","Di establishment of new imperial residence and subsequent capital city for di east, strategically located on di straits of di bosphorus.",History
"as in rome, there were a senate house, a capitol, great baths, and other public amenities; imperial fora provided its public spaces; triumphal columns, arches, and monuments, including a colossus ofthe emperor as apollo-helios, and a variety of dedications imparted mimetic associations with the old capital.","Di senate house, a capitol, great baths, and oda public amenities; imperial fora provide dia public space; triumphal columns, arches, and monuments, including colossus of di emperor as apollo-helios, and a variety of dedications wey dey impart mimetic association wit di old capital.",History
constantine' s own mausoleum was established in a position that encouraged a comparison with that of augustus' s mausoleum in rome.,Di constantine' s own mausoleum dey establish for position wey encourage comparison wit dat of augustus' s mausoleum for rome.,History
the adjoining cruciform (cross-shaped)basilica known as the church ofthe holy apostles was apparently added by his sons.,Di adjoining cruciform (cross-shaped)basilica wey dey known as di church of di holy apostles dey apparently add by hin sons,History
"rebuilt in the sixth century under emperor justinian i, the holy apostles contained relics of some of christ's apostles and incorporated mausolea where subsequent byzantine emperors were buried until 1028.","dem rebuild am ford sixth century under emperor justinian i, d holy apostles contained relics of some of christ's apostles and incorporated mausolea where subsequent byzantine emperors were buried until 1028.",History
"beyond the much-altered porphyry column that once stood at the center of his forum, however, virtually nothing survives from the time of constantine; the city continued to expand long after its foundation.","For di much-altered porphyry column wey once stood for di center of hin forum, however, virtually nothing survive from di time of constantine; di city continue to expand long after dia foundation.",History
"the basilica is a church type based on roman assembly halls, usually composed of a longitudinal nave flanked by side aisles.","Di basilica be church type wey dey based on Roman assembly halls, usually composed of longitudinal nave flanked by side aisles.",History
"there were numerous regional variations: in rome and the west, for example, basilicas usually were elongated without galleries, as ats. sabina in rome (52232) or s. apollinare nuovo in ravenna (c.490).","for example, basilicas dey elongated without galleries, as ats. sabina for rome (52232) or s. apollinare nuovo for ravenna (c.490).",History
"(the gallery is the upper level in a church, above the side aisles and narthex, where worshippers could participate in church services.)","Di gallery dey di upper level for church, above di side aisles and narthex, wey worshippers go participate for church services.",History
"plan and elevation ofthe church ofthe acheir opoietos, thessaloniki, early 5th century( robert ouster hout) plan of st. john stoudios, 458, constantinople(istanbul) (robert ouster hout) church ofthe acheir opoietos, thessaloniki, early 5th century(photo: evan freeman, cc by-sa 4. 0)by the fifth century, the liturgy had become standardized, but, again, with some regional variations, evident in the planning and furnishing of basilicas.","evan freeman, cc by-sa 4.0) by di fifth century, di liturgy don become standardized, but, again, wit some regional variations, but, again, wit some regional variations, di church of di acheir opoietos, thessaloniki, early 5th century",History
"in general, the area ofthe altar was enclosed by a templon barrier(a screen separating the nave or naos from the sanctuary, also called a chancel barrier), with semicircular seating for the of ficiants (the synthr onon ) in the curvature of theapse (a semicircular recess, usually terminating the longitudinal axis of a church, containing the altar).","Di area of di altar dey enclosed by a templon barrier(a screen separating di nave or naos from di sanctuary, also call chancel barrier), wit semicircular seating for di of ficiants (the synthr onon )for di curvature of diapse (a semicircular recess, usually terminate di longitudinal axis of a church, containing di altar).",History
"the altar itself was covered by a ciborium, a canopy raised above an altar, throne, or tomb(also called a baldachin). within the nave, a raised pulpit or ambo provided a setting for the gospel readings.74 smarthistory guide tobyzantine art left: diagram of an early christian roman sanctuary; right: diagram of an early christian constantinopolitan sanctuary( robert g. ouster hout, adapted from t.","Di early christian Roman sanctuary; right: diagram of early christian constantinopolitan sanctuary( robert g. ouster hout, a canopy wey dey raised above di altar, throne, or tomb(also called baldachin)",History
"some new building types emerge, such as the cruciform (cross-shaped)church, the tetraconch (a building with four apses), octagon (eight-sided shape), and a variety of centrally planned structures.","some new building types emerge, such as d cruciform (cross-shaped)church, d tetraconch (a building wey get four apses), octagon (eight-sided shape), and a variety of centrally planned structures.",History
such forms may have had symbolic overtones.,Na such forms don get symbolic overtones.,History
"for example, the cruciform plan maybe either a reflection ofthe church ofthe holy apostles in constantinople(a nonextant cruciform church of constantinople first built by constantine' s sons and rebuilt in the sixth century under emperor justinian i that contained relics of some ofthe apostles and incorporated mausolea where byzantine emperors were buried until 1028) or associated with the life-giving cross, as ats. croce in ravenna or ss.","Di cruciform plan go be either reflection of di church of di holy apostles for constantinople(a nonextant cruciform church of constantinople first build by constantine's sons and rebuilt for sixth century under emperor justinian i dat contain relics of some of di apostles and incorporated mausolea wey byzantine emperors dey buried until 1028) or associated wit di life-giving cross, as ats. croce for ravenna or ss. croce for ravenna or",History
apostoli in milan.,Di apostoli for milan,History
"other innovative designs may have had their origins in architectural geometry, such as the enigmatic s. stefano rotondo (46883) in rome.",stefano rotondo (46883) for rome.,History
"the aisled tetraconch churches, once thought to be a form associated with martyria (tomb of a martyr or a site that bears witness to the christian faith), are most likely cathedrals or metropolitan churches.","Di aisled tetraconch churches, once thought to be form associated wit martyria (tomb of a martyr or site wey bear witness to di christian faith), na most likely cathedral or metropolitan churches.",History
"the early fifth-century tetraconch in the library of hadrian in athens was probably the first cathedral ofthe city; that at selucia pieriaantioch, from the late fifth century, was possibly a metropolitan church.","Di early fifth century tetraconch for di library of hadrian for athens dey probably di first cathedral of di city; dat at selucia pieriaantioch, from di late fifth century, na metropolitan church.",History
"most common was a symbolically resonant, octagonal building housing the font and attached to the cathedral, as with the orthodox(or neonian) baptistery at ravenna, c. 400450.","Di most common na symbolically resonant, octagonal building housing di font and attached to di cathedral, as wit di orthodox(or neonian) baptistery for ravenna, c. 400450.",History
"in rome, the lateran' s baptistery was an independent, octagonal structure that stood north ofthe basilica' s apse.","Di lateran' s baptistery na independent, octagonal structure wey dey north of di basilica' s apse.",History
"built under constantine, the baptistery expanded under pope sixtus iii in the fifth century with the addition of an ambulatory around its central structure.",Di baptistery expand under pope sixtus iii for di fifth century wit di addition of ambulatory around dia central structure.,History
"with the change to infant baptism and a simplified ceremony, however, monumental baptisteries cease to be constructed after the sixth century.","Di change to infant baptism and a simplified ceremony, however, monumental baptisteries don dey construct for sixth century.",History
"comparative view ofthe constantinian basilicas of st. peter and at the lateran, alongside the theodosian basilica of st. paul.","comparative view of d constantinian basilicas of st. peter and at d lateran, alongside d theodosian basilica of st. paul.",History
all ar e depicted at the same scale.,Na all ar e depict for di same scale,History
model of st. paul's by evan gallitelli.,model of st. paul's by evan gallitelli.,History
"in spite of this, there was not a standard architectural form for the martyria, which instead seem to depend on site-specific conditions or regional developments.","Di standard architectural form for di martyria, wey dey depend on site-specific conditions or regional developments.",History
"in rome, for example, s. paolo fuori le mura (st. paul outside the walls), begun 384, follows the model of st. peter's in adding a transept to a huge five-aisled basilica.","for example, s. paolo fuori le mura (st. Paul outside di walls), begun 384, follow di model of st. peter's for adding transept to huge five-aisled basilica.",History
"stylite saints lived atop pillars (stylos is greek for""pillar"") as a means of self denial.","Di stylite saints dey live atop pillars (stylos na greek for""pillar"") as means of self denial.",History
"st. demetrios in his tomb, r eliquary pendant,1 1th century, gold and enamel,3. 7x 4. 6 x1 cm (the british museum, cc by-nc-sa 4. 0)an entire city(abu mena), with church architecture of increasing complexity, grew around the venerated tomb of st. menas in egypt.","Di british museum, cc by-nc-sa 4. 0)entire city(abu mena), wit church architecture of increasing complexity, grew around di venerated tomb of st. menas for egypt.",History
"at ephesus, a cruciform church arose at the tomb of st. john the evangelist.","Di cruciform church wey dey arose for ephesus, cruciform church arose for di tomb of st. john di evangelist.",History
"at the martyrium of st. thekla at meryemlik, c.480, a three-aisled basilica was added above her holy cave.","Di martyrium of st. dikla for meryemlik, c.480, three-aisled basilica dey add above her holy cave.",History
"at sinai, the sixth-century basilica was augmented by subsidiary chapels along its sides, but the holysitethe burning bush, believed to be the bush through which god revealed himself to moses exodus 3:15 lay outside, immediately to the east of its apse (see plan below).","Di sixth century basilica don expand by subsidiary chapels along di side, but di holysite di burning bush, believe to be di bush wey god reveal himself to moses exodus 3:15 lay outside, immediately to di east of its apse (see plan below).",History
in rome the fourth-century mausolea of helena(mother of emperor constantine)and constantina (the daughter of emperor constantine)were attached to cemetery basilicas.,for rome d fourth-century mausolea of helena(mother of emperor constantine)and constantina (d daughter of emperor constantine)were attached to cemetery basilicas.,History
"in constantinople, the successors of constantine were buried in the rotunda at the church ofthe holy apostles or its dependencies.",Di successors of constantine dey buried for rotunda for di church of di holy apostles or dia dependncies.,History
"monasticism monasticism began to play an increasingly important role in society, but from the perspective of architecture, early monasteries lacked systematic planning and were dependent on sitespecific conditions.","Di perspective of architecture, early monasteries dey lack systematic planning and dey depend on sitespecific conditions.",History
"the coenobitical system(communal monasticism) included living quarters, with cells for the monks, as well as a refectory for common dining and a church or chapel for common worship.","Di coenobitical system(communal monasticism) include living quarters, wit cells for di monks, as well as refectory for common dining and church or chapel for common worship.",History
evidence is preserved in the desert communities of egypt and palestine.,Di evidence dey preserved for desert communities of egypt and palestine,History
"at the red monastery at sohag, the formal spaces are contained within a fortress-like complex, although it is unclear where with or without the enclosure the monks actually lived.","Di formal spaces dey contain within fortress-like complex, although e dey unclear where wit or without di enclosure di monks dey live.",History
"in the judean desert, a variety of hermits' cells are preservedsimple caves carved into the rough landscape.","ford judean desert, a variety of hermits' cells are preservedsimple caves carved into d rough landscape.",History
the transformation of temples into churches was rare before the sixth century. defensive architecture followed roman practices.,Di transformation of temples into churches dey rare before di sixth century. defensive architecture follow Roman practices.,History
"the walls of constantinople, added by theodosius ii (41213) stand as a singular achievement, combining two lines of defensive walls with a moat.","Di walls of constantinople, added by diodosius ii (41213) stand as singular achievement, combining two lines of defensive walls wit moat.",History
"in alike manner, the system of aqueducts and cisterns at constantinople expanded upon established roman technology to create the most extensive water system in antiquity(see diagram below).",Di system of aqueducts and cisterns for constantinople expand upon establish Roman technology to create di most extensive water system for antiquity(see diagram below).,History
"large houses excavated in asia minor (sardis, ephesus), north africa(carthage, spaitla, apollonia), italy (ravenna, piazza armerina), greece(athens, argos), and elsewhere include porticoed gardens, audience halls, and triclinia (dining rooms).","large houses excavated in asia minor (sardis, ephesus), north africa(carthage, spaitla, apollonia), italy (ravenna, piazza armerina), greece(athens, argos), and elsewhere include porticoed gardens, audience halls, and triclinia (dining rooms).",History
the great palace in constantinople and the so-called palace of theodoric in ravenna were essentially elaborations on or repetitions ofthe late roman villa.,Di great palace for constantinople and di so-called palace of diodoric for ravenna dey essentially elaborations on or repetitions of di late Roman villa.,History
the latter phenomenon is indicative ofthe growing importance of private worship and was a source of growing concern in ecclesiastical legislation.,Di latter phenomenon dey indicative of di growing importance of private worship and dey source of growing concern for ecclesiastical legislation.,History
"with significant economic and social changes, however, by the end ofthe period under discussion, the domus disappeared.","For di end of di period under discussion, di domus disappear.",History
"gerizim (in modern israel)(adapted from schneider)new trends although standardized church basilicas (achurch type based on roman assembly halls, usually composed of a longitudinal nave flanked by side aisles)continued to be constructed, by the end ofthe fifth century, two important trends emerge in church architecture: the centralized plan, into which a longitudinal axis is introduced, and the longitudinal plan, into which a centralizing element is introduced.","Di centralized plan, into which longitudinal axis dey introduced, and di longitudinal plan, into which a centralizing element dey introduced, and di longitudinal plan, into which a centralizing element dey introduced.",History
the first type maybe represented by the ruined church ofthe theotokos on mt.,Di first type dey represent di ruined church of di diotokos on mt.,History
"gerizim (in modern israel), c. 484, which has a developed sanctuary bay projecting beyond an aisled octagon with radiating chapels; the second by the so-called domed basilica at meriamlik (on the southern coast of turkey), c. 47194, which superimposed a dome on a standard basilican nave, or central aisle.","Di second by di so-called domed basilica for meriamlik (on di southern coast of turkey), c. 47194, wey superimpose dome on standard basilican nave, or central aisle.",History
"ser gios and bakchos in constantinople, completed before 536, and s. v itale in ravenna, completed c.546/48, for example, are ""double-shelled octagons"" (buildings whose outer walls and interior space are created with two concentric octagons) of increasing geometric sophistication, with masonry domes covering their central spaces, perhaps originally combined with wooden roofs for the side aisles andgalleries (the upper level in a church, above the side aisles and narthex, where worshippers could participate in church services).","Di double-shelled octagons (buildings wey dey outer walls and interior space dey create wit two concentric octagons) of increasing geometric sophistication, wit wooden roofs for di side aisles andgalleries (the upper level for a church, above di side aisles andgalleries) of increasing geometric sophistication, wit wooden roofs for di side aisles andgalleries (the upper level for a church, above di side aisles andgalleries) of increasing geometric sophistic",History
"paul neff verlag, esslingen, 1908 hagia sophia, constantinople several monumental basilicas ofthe period included domes and vaulting throughout, most notably at hagia sophia, built 53237 by the mechanikoi, or architect-engineers, anthemios and isidoros, which combines elements ofthe central plan and the basilica on an unprecedented scale.","Paul neff verlag, Esslingen, 1908 hagia sophia, constantinople several monumental basilicas of di period include domes and vaulting throughout, most notably for hagia sophia, built 53237 by di mechanikoi, or architect-engineers, anthemios and isidoros, wey combin elements of di central plan and di basilica on an unprecedented scale.",History
"its unique design focused on a daring central dome of slightly more than 100 feet in diameter, raised above pendentives, and braced to the east and west by half-domes.","Di unique design wey dey focus on di central dome of slightly more than 100 feet for diameter, raised above pendentives, and brace to di east and west by half-domes.",History
"the aisles and galleries are screened by colonnades (rows of columns), with exedrae (semicircular recesses) at the corners.","Di aisles and galleries dey screen by colonnades (rows of columns), wit exedrae (semicircular recesses) for di corners.",History
"following the innovative trends in late roman architecture, the structural system concentrates the loads at critical points, opening the walls with large windows.","Di structural system concentrate di loads for critical points, opening di wall wit large windows.",History
"with glistening marble revetments (cladding or facing to decorate walls and piers)on all flat surfaces and more than seven acres of gold mosaic on the vaults, the effect was magicalwhether in daylight or by candlelight, with the dome seeming to float aloft with no discernable means of support; accordingly prokopios writes that the interior impression was""altogether terrifying.""","For prokopios write say di interior impression dey magicalwiawia for daylight or by candlelight, wit di dome seem to float aloft wit no discernable means of support; accordingly prokopios write say di interior impression dey magicalwia for daylight or by candlelight, wit di dome seem to float aloft wit no discernable means of support; accordingly prokopios write say di interior impression dey magicalwia for daylight or by candlelight, wit di dome seem to float aloft wit no disc",History
"the common feature in all three buildings was an elongated nave, partially covered by a dome on pendentives, but lacking necessary lateral buttressing.","Di common feature for all three buildings na elongated nave, partially covered by dome on pendentives, but lacking necessary lateral buttressing.",History
all three buildings suffered partial or complete collapse in subsequent earthquakes.,Di three buildings suffer partial or complete collapse for subsequent earthquakes.,History
"dome of hagia sophia, constantinople (photo: robert g. ouster hout) a more stable, hemispherical dome replaced the original essentially that which survives today, with partial collapses and repairs in the west and east quadrants in the tenth and fourteenth centuries.","Dem replace di original essentially say wey survive today, wit partial collapse and repairs for di west and east quadrants for di tenth and fourteenth centuries.",History
"although h. polyeuktos, built in constantinople by justinian' s rival juliana anicia, is normally reconstructed as a domed basilicaand thus suggested to be the forerunner of h. sophiait was unlikely domed, although it was certainly h. sophia' s predecessor in lavishness.","Di polyeuktos wey dey build for constantinople by justinian' s rival juliana anicia, dey normally reconstructed as domed basilica and thus suggest say di forerunner of h. sophiait be di predecessor for lavishness.",History
"five-domed churches the spatial unit formed by the dome on pendentives could also be used as a design module, as at justinian' s rebuilding ofthe church ofthe holy apostles in constantinople, in which five domes covered the cruciform (crossshaped) building.","For justinian' s rebuilding of di church of di holy apostles for constantinople, wey five domes covered di cruciform (crossshaped) building.",History
the late eleventh-century s. marco in venice follows this sixth-century scheme.,Di late eleventh century s. marco for venice follow dis sixth century scheme.,History
"sinai, built c.540, the church preserves its wooden roof and much of its decoration.",Di church preserve dia wooden roof and much of dia decoration.,History
the three-aisled plan incorporated numerous subsidiary chapels flanking the aisles.,Di three-aisled plan incorporated numerous subsidiary chapels flank di aisles.,History
"at the sixth-century cathedral of caricin grad, the three-aisled basilica included a vaulted sanctuary area, with the earliest securely dated example of pastophoria: apsed chapelsknown as the prothesis and diakonikon which flanked the central altar area to form a tripartite sanctuary.",As di prothesis and di diakonikon wey dey flank di central altar area to form tripartite sanctuary area.,History
this tripartite form that would become standard in later centuries.,Di tripartite form wey go become standard for later centuries.,History
"h. sophia in thessalonikie for example, built less than a century later than its namesake, is both considerably smaller and heavier, as is the koimesis church at nicaea.","for example, h. sophia for thessalonikie for example, build less than a century later than its namesake, dey considerably smaller and heavier, as na di koimesis church for nicaea.",History
"the domed church of st. hripsime at v agarshapat has a dome rising above eight supports, set within a rectangular building.","Di domed church of st. hripsime for v agarshapat don rising above eight supports, set inside rectangular building.",History
"the church at church ofthe cross at jvari (mtskheta) is similar, but with its lateral apses projecting.","Di church for church of di cross for jvari (mtskheta) dey similar, but wit dia lateral apses projectin.",History
"the aisled tetraconch (greek for""four shells,""refers to a building with four apses) church of zvartnots stands out as following byzantine, particularly syrian, models.","Di aisled tetraconch (greek for""four shells""to talk about building wit four apses) church of Zvartnots dey different as following byzantine, particularly syrian, models.",History
"(the orthodox church is the second largest christian community after the roman catholic church; christianity split between orthodoxy in the east and roman catholicism in the west in 1054, known as the great schism.)","Di orthodox church dey di second largest christian community afta di Roman catholic church; christianity split between orthodoxy for di east and roman catholicism for di west for 1054, known as di great schism.)",History
"there the angel ofthe lord appeared to him in a flame of fire out of a bush; he looked, and the bush was blazing, yet it was not consumed.","Di angel of di lord appear to him for flame of fire out of bush; hin look, and di bush dey blazing, yet dem no consume.",History
"then moses said,""i must turn aside and look at this great sight, and see why the bush is not burned up.""","I must turn aside and make we look dis great sight, and see why di bush no burn up",History
"when the lord saw that he had turned aside to see, god called to him out ofthe bush,""moses, moses!""","Di lord tok say hin don turn aside to see, god call to him out of di bush,""moses, moses!""",History
"and he said,""here i am.""","He tok say,""here i am",History
"then he said,""come no closer!","Di tok say,""come no closer!",History
"remove the sandals from your feet, for the place on which you are standing is holy ground.""",Di place wey you dey standing dey holy ground,History
"he said further, ""i am the god of your father, the god of abraham, the god of isaac, and the god of jacob.""","I am di God of your father, di God of abraham, di God of isaac, and di God of jacob",History
"and moses hid his face, for he was afraid to look at god.",E dey afraid to make we look god,History
"this image represents the moment when god spoke to moses:""come no closer!","Di image represent di moment wey god tok to moses:""come no closer!",History
"remove the sandals from your feet, for the place on which you are standing is holy ground""(exodus 3:5, nrsv). the monastery of saint catherine was founded between 54865 c. e, in the later years ofthe byzantine emperor justinian' s reign, part of a massive building program that he had initiated across the empire.","Di monastery of saint catherine don found between 54865 c. e, for di later years of di byzantine emperor justinian' reign, part of massive building program wey he don initiate across di empire.",History
"icon with moses before the burning bush, early 13th century, byzantine(mount sinai?","Di icon wit moses before di burning bush, early 13th century, byzantine (mount sinai)",History
"a few elements came later(for example, the belfry was added in the 19th century).",Di belfry dey add for 19th century,History
"monks have worshipped for 1, 400 years inside this church.","Dem don worship for 1, 400 years inside dis church",History
"columns frame the central nave and above the altar is a recently-restored apse (a semicircular recess, usually terminating the longitudinal axis of a church, containing the altar)mosaic that might hint at the building's original name.","Di columns frame di central nave and above di altar na recently-restored apse (a semicircular recess, usually terminate di longitudinal axis of a church, containing di altar)mosaic wey might hint at di building's original name.",History
"the mosaic depicts a moment in the christian newt estament called the""t ransfiguration,"" in which christ appears transformed by radiant light, an event witnessed by three of his apostles.","Di mosaic depict moment for di christian newt estament wey dey call di""t ransfiguration"" for which christ dey transformed by radiant light, an event wey dey witness three of hin apostles.",History
the scene is set against a glimmering gold background.,Di scene dey set against glimmering gold background,History
"when the monastery was first built it might have been dedicated to the t ransfiguration, which in christian belief is like the burning bush in that it is a moment when god revealed himself to humanity. early byzantine art and architecture, c. 330-700 c. e.","when dem just build monastery e fit be say dem dedicate am to t ransfiguration, which in christian belief is liked burning bush in that it is a moment when god revealed himself to humanity. early byzantine art and architecture, c. 330-700 c. e.",History
"here jesus is shown in the center radiating light as john, peter, and james witness the miracle.","for here we show Jesus ford center radiating light as john, peter, and james witness d miracle.",History
the two standing figures that frame the central group ar e the prophets elijah and moses.,Di two standing figur wey frame di central gr orp ar e di prophets elijah and moses.,History
"jesus took with him peter and james and his brother john and led them up a high mountain, by themselves.","Di jesus tok wit him peter and james and hin brother john and led dem up high mountain, by themselves.",History
"and he was transfigured before them, and his face shone like the sun, and his clothes became dazzling white.","E dey transfigure before dem, and hin face shone like di sun, and hin clothes dey dazzling white",History
"suddenly there appeared to them moses and elijah, talking with him. while he was still speaking, suddenly a bright cloud overshadowed them, and from the cloud a voice said,""this is my son, the beloved; with him i am well pleased; listen to him!""","Di son, di beloved, di beloved; wit hin i dey well pleased; listen to hin",History
"when the disciples heard this, they fell to the ground and were overcome by fear.","Di disciples hear dis, dem fall to di ground and dem dey overcome by fear.",History
"icons and iconoclasm during the iconoclastic period ofthe eighth to ninth centuries, the byzantine empire, and particularly its capital city of constantinople(modern istanbul), was convulsed with the question of whether religious images with human figures(called ""icons"")were appropriate, or whether such images were in effect idols, akin to the statues of gods in ancient greece and rome.","For di iconoclastic period of di eighth to ninth centuries, di byzantine empire, and particularly di capital city of constantinople(modern istanbul), dey convuls wit di question of whether religious images wit human figures(called ""icons"") dey appropriate, or whether such images dey in effect idols, akin to di statues of gods for ancient greece and rome.",History
"in other words, did worshippers pray through icons to the holy figure represented, or did they pray to the physical image itself?","Di worshippers pray through icons to di holy figure represent, or do dem pray to di physical image itself?",History
the iconoclasts (those who opposed images)attempted to ban icons and reportedly even destroyed some.,Di iconoclasts (those wey oppose images)dey try ban icons and reportedly even destroy some.,History
"other factors, including the monastery' s isolated location, fortifications, continuous occupation by monks, as100 smarthistory guide tobyzantine art well as the dry climate ofthe region, all likely contributed to the preservation of icons at sinai.","Di monastery's isolated location, fortifications, continuous occupation by monks, as100 smarthistory guide tobyzantine art well as di dry climate of di region, all likely contribute to di preservation of icons for sinai.",History
that enabled the artist to create a vivid sense of naturalism.,Di artist go create a vivid sense of naturalism.,History
"this icon was painted by a highly skilled artist, and therefore might have been made in the capital city of constantinople.","Di icon dey painted by highly skilled artist, and therefore might be made for di capital city of constantinople.",History
christ raises his right hand to give a blessing.,Pastor raise hin right hand to give blessing,History
"his other hand holds an elaborate manuscript, which probably takes the form of a contemporary gospel book, emphasizing christ's identity as the embodied""w ord"" of god.","Di oda hand hold elaborate manuscript, wey probably take di form of contemporary gospel book, emphasizing christ's identity as di embodied""w ord"" of god.",History
"this bearded, mature version of christjust one of several ways christ appears in art before iconoclasmdraws on prechristian traditions of rendering other male divinities such as jupiter. the monastery of saint catherine preserves a number of rare early byzantine icons such as this.",Di monastery of saint catherine preserve a number of rare early byzantine icons wey dey for art before iconoclasmdraw on prechristian tradition of rendering oda male divinities such as jupiter.,History
compare this middle byzantine icon ofthe heavenly ladder with the early byzantine icon of christ.,compare dis middle byzantine icon of d heavenly ladder with dearly byzantine icon of christ.,History
"notice, for example, the ethereal, flat gold background in the icon ofthe ladder that replaces the landscape hinted at behind the halo in the sixth-century christ ""pantokrator.""early byzantine art and architecture, c. 330-700 c. e.","for example, di ethereal, flat gold background for di icon of di ladder wey replace di landscape for di sixth century christ ""pantokrator. early byzantine art and architecture, c. 330-700 c. e.",History
"the icon is based on a spiritual text ofthe same name, written by a monk called saint john ofthe ladder, who lived c. 579649 and was a member of saint catherine' s monastery.","Di icon dey based on spiritual text of di same name, wey dey written by a monk wey call saint john of di ladder, wey dey live c. 579649 and dey member of saint catherine's monastery.",History
"in his writing, john warns his fellow monks about temptations ofthe monastic life; in the icon ofthe ladder, the artist depicts these temptations as elegantly silhouetted demons who attempt to tug the monks of f the ladder as they climb toward christ in the upper righthand corner. saint theodosia this 13th-century icon depicts saint theodosia and is one of five icons at saint catherine' s that depict the same saint.","Di artist depict di temptations of di monastic life; for di icon of di ladder, di artist depict dis temptations as elegantly silhouette demons wey dey climb toward christ for di upper righthand corner.",History
"clearly, saint theodosia' scult was popular at sinai as it was elsewhere in the byzantine world.",Di saint diodosia' scult dey popular for sinai as e dey elsewhere for di byzantine world,History
"in this image, theodosia wears the somber dress of a nun.",Diodosia wear di somber dress of a Nun,History
"although her historical status is debated(she may have been legendary rather than an actual historical figure), to the christian faithful she represents the challenges faced during iconoclasm, when she reputedly died defending a famed icon of christ in constantinople.","Di christian faithful she represent di challenges wey dey face during iconoclasm, wen she reputedly die defend a famed icon of christ for constantinople.",History
the cross she holds represents her martyrdom.,Di cross she hold represent her martyrdom.,History
"this book is an experiment in not starting from scratch, but instead ""remixi ng""the book titled think python: how to think like a computer scientist written by allen b. downey, jeff elkner, and others.","This book na experiment wey no start from beginning, but ""remixi ng"" wey dem name think python: how to think like a computer scientist written by b. downey, jeff elkner, and others",Computer science
"in december of 2009, i was preparing to teach si502 - networked programming at the university of michigan for the fifth semester in a row and decided it was time to write a python textbook that focused on exploring data instead of understanding algorithms and abstractions.","For december 2009, i been dey prepare to teach si502-networked programming for university of michigan ford fifth semester. Icon decide say time don reach to write python textbook wey focus on exploring data not dat one understanding algorithms and abstractions",Computer science
my goal in si502 is to teach people lifelong data handling skills using python.,My goal for si502 nato teach pipo data handling skills using python wey go last well,Computer science
few of my students were planning to be professional computer programmers.,Some of my students been dey plan to be professional computer programmer.,Computer science
"instead, they planned to be librarians, managers, lawyers, biologists, economists, etc,","Some also dey plan to be librarians, managers, lawyers, biologists, economists etc.",Computer science
who happened to want to skillfully use technology in their chosen field.,Dem also wan use technology for the kin job wey dem choose,Computer science
"luckily at a faculty meeting three weeks befor ei was about to start my new book from scratch over the holiday break, dr. at ul prakash showed me the think python book which he had used to teach his python course that semester.","Econ happen luckily say i attend faculty meeting three wweks before i start to dey write my new book, dr. at ul prakah show me the think python book wey hin been dey use to teach python course that semester",Computer science
"it is a well-written computer science text with a focus on short, direct explanations and ease of learning.","D book dey well-written, con get short and direct explanation wey dey easy to understand.",Computer science
the overall book structure has been changed to get to doing data analysis problems as quickly as possible and have a series of running examples and exercises about data analysis from the very beginning.,Dem change the way dem write the book make e contain to study numbers problems and plenty examples and exercises about to study numbers from the beginnig,Computer science
number-oriented examples and exercises have been replaced with dataoriented exercises.,Dem replaced examples and exercises wey dey number-oriented with the one wey dey dataoriented.,Computer science
topics are presented in the order needed to build increasingly sophisticated data analysis solutions.,D topics dey in order wey dey needed to build to study numbers solutions wey make sense.,Computer science
functions are given very light treatment until they are needed to handle program complexity rather than introduced as an early lesson in abstraction.,Dem give d functions very light treatment until you go need am to handle program wey hard instead make dem introduce am early in abstraction,Computer science
"the word ""recursion""1does not appear in the book at all.","D word ""recursion"" no appear for dis book at all.",Computer science
the ultimate goal of all of these changes is to shift from a computer science to an informatics focus and to only include topics into a first technology class that can be useful even if one chooses not to become a professional programmer.,D goal of all dis changes nato shift from computer science to informatics and to add only topics for first technology class wey fit dey useful even if person no choose to be programmer.,Computer science
"because there is alot of overlap between the two books, students will quickly pickup skills in the additional areas of technical programming and algorithmic thinking that are covered in think python.","Because say overlap dey between d two books, students go quickly sabi skills wey dey the additional areas of technical programming and algorithimic thinking wey dey inside think python.",Computer science
"and given that the books have a similar writing style, they should be able to move quickly through think python with a minimum of effort.","As e be say d books get d same writing style, dem go fit move fast through think python",Computer science
writing programs(or programming)is avery creative and rewarding activity.,"To dey write programs dey very creative, con still get plenty rewards",Computer science
"you can write programs for many reasons, ranging from making your living to solving a difficult data analysis problem to having fun to helping someone else solve a problem.","You fit write programs for many reasons, you fit write am to solve difficult to study numbers problem, or make you write am for fun, you fit also write am to help person solve problem.",Computer science
"this book assumes that everyone needs to know how to program, and that once you know how to program you will figure out what you want to do with your newfound skills.","Dis book assume say everybody suppose sabi how to program, and if person don sabi how to program, e go fit to know howe go take use am.",Computer science
we are surrounded in our daily lives with computers ranging from laptops to cell phones.,"We dey surrounded with computers everyday, from laptops to cellphone",Computer science
"we can think of these computers as our""personal assistants""who can take care of many things on our behalf.","We fit think of dis computers as our""personal assistant""we fit help us take care of many things.",Computer science
"the hardware in our current-day computers is essentially built to continuously ask us the question,""what would you like me to do next?""","D kin hardware wey dey our computer dis days dey built to ask us questions like ""wetin you go like make i do next?""",Computer science
programmers add an operating system and a set of applications to the hardware and we end up with a personal digital assistant that is quite helpful and capable of helping us do many different things.,"Programmers dey add system wey dey control wetin computer fit do, e dey manage hardware and software, make am possible for apps and services to dey run, e be like brain wey dey direct computer and different kind applications to d hardware to give us personal assistant wey fit help us do many things.",Computer science
"our computers are fast and have vast amounts of memory and could be very helpful to us if we only knew the language to speak to explain to the computer what we would like it to""do next"".","Our computer dey fast and e get many amounts of memory wey fit help us, but na only if we sabi the languauge wey we fit use explain to d computer say wetin we go like""do next""",Computer science
"if we knew this language, we could tell the computer to do tasks on our behalf that were repetitive.","If we don sabi the language, we fit tell d computer make e do things wey we suppose do.",Computer science
"interestingly, the kinds of things computers can do best are often the kinds of things that we humans find boring and mind-numbing.","Wetin sweet pass be say, the kin things wey computer sabi do pass na things wey humans find boring or difficult.",Computer science
why should you learn to write programs?,Why make we sabi write programs?,Computer science
"while you were able to read and understand the words in a few seconds, counting them is almost painful because it is not the kind of problem that human minds are designed to solve.","As we take sabi read and understand words for few seconds, to count am no easy at all, cause no be the kin task wey dem design human mind for.",Computer science
"this very fact that computers are good at things that humans are not is why you need to become skilled at talking""computer language"".","D fact say computers fit do wetin humans no fit do, na why we suppose sabi ""computer language"".",Computer science
"once you learn this new language, you can delegate mundane tasks to your partner(the computer), leaving more time for you to do the things that you are uniquely suited for.","If you don sabi this new language, you go fit carry tasks give computer, con create more time for yourself to do other things.",Computer science
"you bring creativity, intuition, and inventiveness to this partnership.","You fit bring ideas, creativity and inventiveness to dis partnership.",Computer science
"building useful, elegant, and clever programs for others to use is avery creative activity.","To dey build useful, clever programs wey fine well na very creative activity.",Computer science
"your computer or personal digital assistant (pda) usually contains many different programs from many different groups of programmers, each competing fo r your attention and interest.","Your computer or personal digital assistant (pda) dey usually contain many programs from different programmers, each go dey compete for your attention.",Computer science
they try their best to meet your needs and give you a great user experience in the process.,"Dem dey try their best to meet your needs, con still give you great user experience.",Computer science
"in some situations, when you choose apiece of software, the programmers are directly compensated because of your choice.","For some situations, if you choose one kin software, d programmer fit give you money or gift because say you use hin software.",Computer science
"if we think of programs as the creative output of groups of programmers, perhaps the following figure is a more sensible version of our pda: for now, our primary motivation is not to make money or please end users, but instead for us to be more productive in handling the data and information that we will encounter in our lives.","for now, our primary motivation no be to make money, na to dey more productive in handling data and information wey we go encounter for our lives.",Computer science
"when you first start, you will be both the programmer and the end user of your programs.","If person first start, na you go be both programmer and end user for your programs.",Computer science
"as you gain skill as a programmer and programming feels more creative to you, your thoughts may turn toward developing programs for others.","As you continue to gain skill as a programmer, you go begin dey develop program for others.",Computer science
computer hardware architecture 3 input and output devices software main memory central processing unit what next?,"Computer output get 3 parts, input and output devices software main memory central processing unit. wetin be next?",Computer science
"network secondary memory figure 1.3: hardware architecture 1. 2 computer hardware architecture before we start learning the language we speak to give instructions to computers to develop software, we need to learn a small amount about how computers are built.","network secondary memory figure 1.3: hardware architecture 1.2 tin wey dey inside komputa wey dey make am work, like brain, memory, and tin wey you take enter information architecture. Before we begin dey learn the language wey we go use give instruction to computer to build software, we go need learn how dem dey build computer small.",Computer science
"if you were to take apart your computer or cellphone and look deep inside, you would find the following parts: the high-level definitions of these parts areas follows: the central processing unit(or cpu)is the part ofthe computer that is built to be obsessed with""what is next?""","If we carry our computer or cellphone con look inside, we go find the following parts: the central processing unit(or cpu)na part of computer wey dey very important, wey person go dey need all the time.",Computer science
"if your computer is rated at 3. 0 gigahertz, it means that the cpu will ask""what next?""","If your computer dey rated 3.0 gigahertz, e mean say the cpu go ask ""wetin be next?""",Computer science
three billion times per second.,Three billion per second.,Computer science
you are going to have to learn how to talk fast to keep up with the cpu.,You go need learn how to talk fast to keep up with the cpu.,Computer science
the main memory is nearly as fast as the cpu.,D main memory dey almost fast as the cpu.,Computer science
but the information stored in the main memory vanishes when the computer is turned off.,D information wey dey the main memory dey vanishe when the computer dey turned off.,Computer science
the advantage ofthe secondary memory is that it can store information even when there is no power to the computer.,The advantage wey the secondary storage get na say e fit store information even when the computer no dey on.,Computer science
examples of secondary memory are disk drives or flash memory(typically found in usb sticks and portable music players).,Examples of secondary memory na disk drives or flash memory (wey we fit find for usb sticks and portable music players).,Computer science
they are all ofthe ways we interact with the computer.,Na all the ways we dey interact wit d computer,Computer science
"we can think ofthe network as avery slow place to store and retrieve data that might not always be""up"".","We fit think of d network as very slow place wey we fit store and retreive data wey no always dey""up"".",Computer science
"so in a sense, the network is a slower and at times unreliable form of secondary memory.",D network dey slow and sometimes we no fit rely on am as a form of secondary memory.,Computer science
"while most ofthe detail of how these components work is best left to computer builders, it helps to have some terminology so we can talk about these different parts as we write our programs.","As most ofthe details of dis components dey work, e better make we leave am to computer builders, e dey help to get some words wey we fit use to talk about these different parts as we dey write our programs.",Computer science
input and output devices software main memory central processing unit what next?,"Input and output devices software main memory central processing unit, wetin be next?",Computer science
network secondary memory figure 1.4: where are you?,network secondary memory figure 1.4: where you dey?,Computer science
"as a programmer, your job is to use and orchestrate each of these resources to solve the problem that you need to solve and analyze the data you get from the solution.","As a programmer, your job nato use all these resources to solve problem wey you need to solve and analysed data wey you go get from your solution.",Computer science
"as a programmer you will mostly be""talking"" to the cpu and telling it what to do next.","As a programmer, na you go dey do d""talking"" to d cpu, you go dey tell am wetin to do next.",Computer science
"sometimes you will tell the cpu to use the main memory, secondary memory, network, or the input/output devices.","Sometimes, you go dey tell the cpu to used main memory, secondary memory, network, or d input output devices.",Computer science
"you need to be the person who answers the cpu's ""what next?""","You go need be d person wey fit answer the cpu's ""what's next?'",Computer science
but it would be very uncomfortable to shrink you down to 5mm tall and insert you into the computer just so you could issue a command three billion times per second.,"But e go dey uncomfortable to press you down to 5mm, con insert you inside computer so you go fit issue command three billion times per second.",Computer science
"so instead, you must write down your instructions in advance.",You go need write down your instructions in advance.,Computer science
we call these stored instructions a program and the act of writing these instructions down and getting the instructions to be correct programming.,"We dey call these stored instructions program, and to dey write am down and to dey get the instruction correct na programming.",Computer science
"in the end you will be a programmer- perhaps not a professional programmer, but atleast you will have the skills to look at a data/information analysis problem and develop a program to solve the problem.","for the end, you go become programmer, you fit no be professional programmer, but atleast, you go get skills to look data information analysis problem and you go fit develop program to solved problem",Computer science
"in a sense, you need two skills to be a programmer: first, you need to know the programming language(python) -you need to know the vocabulary and the grammar.",You go need two skills to be programmer: first nato sabi kod langwej wey dem dey use write instruksiyon wey komputa go fit undastand (python)-you need sabi the vocabulary and grammar.,Computer science
"you need to be able to spell the words in this new language properly and know how to construct well-formed""sentences"" in this new language.","You need sabi spell words for this new language well, and sabi how you go fit construct sentences for this new language.",Computer science
"in writing a story, you combine words and sentences to convey an idea to the reader.","If person dey write story, you go need combine words and sentence to talk about your idea to pipo wey dey read am.",Computer science
"there is a skill and art in constructing the story, and skill in story writing is improved by doing some writing and getting some feedback.","Di skill and art wey dey construct di story, and skill for story writing dey improve by doing some writing and get some feedback",Computer science
"in programming, our program is the""story"" and the problem you are trying to solve is the""idea"".","Di program dey di""story"" and di problem you dey try solve na di""idea"".",Computer science
"once you learn one programming language such as python, you will find it much easier to learn a second programming language such as javascript orc++.","If you don sabi one kod langwej wey dem dey use write instruksiyon wey komputa go fit undastand like python, you go find am easy to learn another kod langwej wey dem dey use write instruksiyon wey komputa go fit undastand like javascript orc++",Computer science
words and sentences 5 new programming language has very different vocabulary and grammar but the problem-solving skills will be the same across all programming languages.,"D words and sentences wey dey the new kod langwej wey dem dey use write instruksiyon wey komputa go fit undastand get very different vocabulary and grammar, but the way we go take dey solve problem dey the same for all kod langwej wey dem dey use write instruksiyon wey komputa go fit undastand",Computer science
"you will learn the""vocabulary"" and""sentences"" of python pretty quickly.","You go learn the""vocabulary"" and""sentences"" wey dey python fast",Computer science
it will take longer for you to be able to write a coherent program to solve a brand-new problem.,E go tey before you go fit write better program wey you fit solve problem,Computer science
we teach programming much like we teach writing.,We dey teach programming like say we dey teach writing.,Computer science
"we start reading and explaining programs, then we write simple programs, and then we write increasingly complex programs overtime.","We go start to dey read and explain programs, we go con write simple programs, we go con write programs wey hard.",Computer science
"at some point you""get your muse""and see the patterns on your own and can see more naturally how to take a problem and write a program that solves that problem.","For some point, you go get muse con see patterns by yourself wey you go fit see how to take problem con write program wey fit solve dat problem",Computer science
"and once you get to that point, programming becomes avery pleasant and creative process.","If you don reach that point, programming go become process wey dey sweet and creative.",Computer science
we start with the vocabulary and structure of python programs.,We goto start with d vocabulary and structure of python programs.,Computer science
be patient as the simple examples remind you of when you started reading for the first time.,Try get patience make d simple examples remind you of d first time wey you start to dey read.,Computer science
"we call this""vocabulary"" the""reserved words""or ""keywords"".","We dey call dis""vocabulary"" d""reserved words""or ""keywords"".",Computer science
these are words that have very special meaning to python.,Dis words get special meaning to python.,Computer science
"when python sees these words in a python program, they have one and only one meaning to python.","When python see dis word for python program, dem get only one meaning to python.",Computer science
later as you write programs you will makeup your own words that have meaning to you called variables.,As you write programs you go makeup your own words wey get meaning to you con call am variables.,Computer science
"you will have great latitude in choosing your names for your variables, but you cannot use any of python's reserved words as a name for a variable.",You go get great latitude if you choose your name for your variables,Computer science
"when we train a dog, we use special words like""sit"", ""stay"", and ""fetch"".","If we wan train dog, we go use words wey special like""sit"", ""stay"", and ""fetch"".",Computer science
"when you talk to a dog and don't use any ofthe reserved words, they just look at you with a quizzical look on their face until you say a reserved word.","If you dey follow dog yarn wey you no con sabi use any of dis words, d dog go just dey look you anyhow until you talk the thing wey you suppose talk.",Computer science
"for example, if you say,""i wish more people would walk to improve their overall health"", what most dogs likely hear is,""blah blah blah walk blah blah blah blah.""","for example, if you talk say""i wish say plenty pipo go work to make their health better"", wetin d dog go hear na""and soon"".",Computer science
"that is because""walk"" is a reserved word in dog language.","Na because say""walk"" na word wey dey reserved for dog language.",Computer science
many might suggest that the language between humans and cats has no reserved words1.,Many pipo fit talk say the language wey dey between humans and cats no get reserved words.,Computer science
"the reserved words in the language where humans talk to python include the following: false await else import pass none break except in raise true class finally is return and continue for lambda try as def from nonlocal while assert del global not with async elif if or yield that is it, and unlike a dog, python is already completely trained.","D reserved words wey dey d language wey human dey take talk to python included following: false await else import pass none break except for raise true class finally return and continue for lambda try as def from nonlocal while assert di global no wit async elif if or yield say na im, and unlike a dog, python dey completely train.",Computer science
"when you say""try"", python will try everytime you say it without fail.","If you talk""try"", python go try everytime you talk am.",Computer science
"we will learn these reserved words and how they are used in good time, but for now we will focus on the python equivalent of""speak"" (inhuman-to-dog language).","We go learn these reserved words and how we fit use dem, but for now we go focus on python wey be the same with""speak"" (inhuman-to-dog-language).",Computer science
why should you learn to write programs?,Why make you sabi how to write programs.,Computer science
print( /quotesingle. ts1hello world!/quotesingle. ts1 )and we have even written our first syntactically correct python sentence.,"print( quotesingle, ts1hello world! quote single. ts1) like dis we don write our first python wey correct well.",Computer science
our sentence starts with the function print followed by a string of text of our choosing enclosed in single quotes.,D sentence dey start wit print function wey dey followed by string of text wey we like wey dey inside single quotes.,Computer science
the strings in the print statements are enclosed in quotes.,Di strings for di print statement dey enclosed for quotes.,Computer science
single quotes and double quotes do the same thing; most people use single quotes except in cases where a single quote(which is also an apostrophe) appears in the string.,Di pipo use single quote except for case wey a single quote(which dey also apostrophe) appear for di string.,Computer science
"before you can converse with python, you must first install the python software on your computer and learn how to start python on your computer.","Before you go fit follow python yarn, we go need install python software for computer con begin learn how we go begin python for our computer.",Computer science
all you have to know is how to speak the python language.,For all you go know na how to speak di python language,Computer science
let's say for example that you did not know even the simplest python language words or sentences.,"for example, make we talk say we no sabi even d simplest python language words.",Computer science
"unless you think of something quickly, the inhabitants ofthe planet are likely to stab you with their spears, put you on a spit, roast you over a fire, and eat you for dinner.","Unless person quick think of something, the pipo wey dey d planet fit stab person wit their spears, put you for spit, still roast person over fire, con chop you as night food.",Computer science
"luckily you brought a copy of this book on your travels, and you thumb to this very page and try again:1. 5.","Luck con make you bring d book come travel, con open dis page try again:1. 5.",Computer science
"at this point, you should also realize that while python is amazingly complex and powerful and very picky about the syntax you use to communicate with it, python isnotintelligent.","For dis point, you suppose don sabi say as python dey complex and powerful, con still dey select d syntax wey you fit use folow am talk, python no dey intelligent.",Computer science
"you are really just having a conversation with yourself, but using proper syntax.","As you dey just having conversation wit you, but using proper syntax.",Computer science
"in a sense, when you use a program written by someone else the conversation is between you and those other programmers with python acting as an intermediary.","Di sense, wen you use program written by someone else di conversation dey between you and those oda programmers wit python acting as intermediary.",Computer science
python is away for the creators of programs to express how the conversation is supposed to proceed.,Na way for di creators of programs to express how di conversation dey suppose proceed.,Computer science
t he second error is different because ifis a reserved word and python saw the reserved word and thought we were trying to say something but got the syntax ofthe sentence wrong.,Di second error dey different because ifis a reserved word and python saw di reserved word and thought we dey try say something but e get di syntax of di sentence wrong.,Computer science
why should you learn to write programs?,Di why go learn to write programs?,Computer science
"it would have probably taken you quite awhile to guess that one, so having a book handy probably will turnout to be helpful.","E go tey small to guess dat one, so if you go get book for hand e go fit help you",Computer science
"other high-level languages include java, c++, php, ruby, basic, perl, javascript, and many more.","Other langauges wey dey high level inculde java, c++, php, ruby, basic, perl, javascript, and many more.",Computer science
the actual hardware inside the central processing unit(cpu) does not understand any of these high-level languages.,D hardware wey dey inside d central processing unit(cpu)no understand any of dis high level languages.,Computer science
the cpu understands a language we call machine language.,Di cpu understand a language wey call machine language,Computer science
"machine language is very simple and frankly very tiresome to write because it is represented all in zeros and ones: 001010001110100100101010000001111 11100110000011101010010101101101. machine language seems quite simple on the surface, given that there are only zeros and ones, but its syntax is even more complex and far more intricate than python. so very few programmers ever write machine language.",Di machine language dey simple and frankly very tiresome to write because e dey represent all i zero and ones,Computer science
instead we build various translators to allow programmers to write in high-level languages like python or javascript and these translators convert the programs to machine language fo r actual execution by the cpu.,We build various translators to allow programmers write for high level languages like python or javascript and dem convert di programs to machine language fo r actual execution by di cpu.,Computer science
"since machine language is tied to the computer hardware, machine language is not portable across different types of hardware.","Di machine language dey tied to di tin wey dey inside komputa wey dey make am work, like brain, memory, and tin wey you take enter information, machine language no dey portable across different types of hardware.",Computer science
programs written in high-level languages can be moved between different computers by using a different interpreter on the new machine or recompiling the code to create a machine language version ofthe program for the new machine.,Di program wey dey written for high level languages go move between different computers by using different interpreter on di new machine or recompil di code to create machine language version of di program for di new machine.,Computer science
these programming language translators fall into two general categories:(1) interpreters and(2) compilers.,Dis kod langwej wey dem dey use write instruksiyon wey komputa go fit undastand translators get two categories:(1) interpreters and(2) compilers.,Computer science
"aninterpreter reads the source code ofthe program as written by the programmer, parses the source code, and interprets the instructions on the fly.","Di Interpreter dey read d source code of d program as d programmer take write am, dey parse d source code, con interpret d instruction.",Computer science
"python is an interpreter and when we are running python interactively, we can type a line of python(a sentence)and python processes it immediately and is ready for us to type another line of python.","Di python dey interpreter and wen we dey run python interactively, we fit type line of python(a sentence)and python process am immediately and deyready for us to type one line of python.",Computer science
some ofthe lines of python tell python that you want it to remember some value for later.,Di line of python tell python say you go remember some value for later,Computer science
we need to pick a name for that value to be remembered and we can use that symbolic name to retrieve the value later.,We need to pick name for dat value to be remember and we fit use dat symbolic name to retrieve di value later.,Computer science
we use the term variable to refer to the labels we use to refer to this stored data.,We use di term variable to talk about di label wey we use to talk about dis store data.,Computer science
we verify that python has actually remembered the value using print.,We verify say python don remember di value wey dey using print,Computer science
then we ask python to retrieve xand multiply it by seven and put the newly computed value in y.,"We go ask python make e retrieve and multiply am by seven, con add d new value for y.",Computer science
then we ask python to print out the value currently in y.,We go con ask python make e to show d value wey dey y.,Computer science
"even though we are typing these commands into python one line at a time, python is treating them as an ordered sequence of statements with later statements able to retrieve data created in earlier statements.","We dey typ these commands into python one line for time, python dey treat dem as ordered sequence of statements wit later statements wey dey able to retrieve data wey dey created for later statements.",Computer science
we are writing our first simple paragraph with four sentences in a logical and meaningful order.,We dey write our first simple paragraph wit four seentences in away wey make sense.,Computer science
it is the nature of an interpreter to be able to have an interactive conversation as shown above.,Na nature of interpreter make he sabi talk as we don see above.,Computer science
"a compiler needs to be handed the entire program in a file, and then it runs a process to translate the high-level source code into machine language and then the compiler puts the resulting machine language into a file for later execution.","Di compiler need to hand di entire program for file, and then di compiler put di resulting machine language into file for later execution.",Computer science
"if you have a windows system, often these executable machine language programs have a suffix of"". exe"" or"". dll"" which stand for ""executable"" and""dynamic link library""respectively.","Di executable machine language programs don get suffix of"". exe"" or"". dll"" wey stand for ""executable"" and""dynamic link library""respectively.",Computer science
"in linux and macintosh, there is no suffix that uniquely marks a file as executable.",Dino suffix wey uniquely mark file as executable,Computer science
"it is not easy to read or write machine language, so it is nice that we have interpreters andcompilers that allow us to write in high-level languages like python orc. now at this point in our discussion of compilers and interpreters, you should be wondering a bit about the python interpreter itself.","Di point for awa discussion of compilers and interpreters, you need wonder a bit about di python interpreter wey dey write for high level languages like python orc.",Computer science
what language is it written in?,Di language dey written for?,Computer science
is it written in a compiled language?,"Di written for language wey dem don compile, wey dem don translate im code into machine code before time, make e become executable wey fit run for hardware, no need interpreter or compiler for am again?",Computer science
"when we type""python"", what exactly is happening?","We type""python"", what exactly dey happen?",Computer science
"the python interpreter is written in a high-level language called""c"".","Di python interpreter dey write for high-level language wey dey call""c"".",Computer science
so python is a program itself and it is compiled into machine code.,So python dey program wey deyself and e dey compiled into machine code,Computer science
"when you installed python on your computer(or the vendor installed it), you copied a machine-code copy ofthe translated python program onto your system.","When you install python for your computer, you go copy machine-code copy of d python program for your system.",Computer science
"that is more than you really need to know to be a python programmer, but sometimes it pays to answer those little nagging questions right at the beginning.",Di why go learn to write programs?,Computer science
"when we want to write a program, we use a text editor to write the python instructions into a file, which is called a script.","We use di editor for words to write di python instructions into file, we use di editor for words to write di python instructions into file, we dey call script.",Computer science
"by convention, python scripts have names that end with. py.","For convention, python script don name say end wit. py",Computer science
"to execute the script, you have to tell the python interpreter the name ofthe file.",Di python interpreter di name of di file.,Computer science
"in a command window, you would type python hello. py as follows:$cat hello. py print( /quotesingle. ts1hello world!/quotesingle. ts1 ) $python hello. py hello world!","For command window, you go type python hello. py as follow:$cat hello. py print( quotesingle. ts1hello world! quotesingle. ts 1) $python hello. py hello world!",Computer science
"the""$"" is the operating system prompt, and the""cat hello. py"" is showing us that the file""hello. py"" has a one-line python program to print a string.","Di file""hello. py"" don show us say di file""hello. py"" don print a string.",Computer science
"we call the python interpreter and tell it to read its source code from the file""hello. py"" instead of prompting us for lines of python code interactively.","We go call d python interpreter tell am make e read d source code from d file ""hello. py"" instead make e ask us for lines of python code.",Computer science
you will notice that there was no need to have quit()at the end ofthe python program in the file.,I go notice say no need to quit()for di end of di python program for di file.,Computer science
"when python is reading your source code from a file, it knows to stop when it reaches the end ofthe file.","when python dey reading your source code from file, e know to stop when e reach di end of di file.",Computer science
the definition of a program at its most basic is a sequence of python statements that have been crafted to do something.,Di definition of a program for its most basic na sequence of python statements wey dey craft to do something,Computer science
even our simple hello. py script is a program.,Di pipo script dey a program,Computer science
"it is a one-line program and is not particularly useful, but in the strict est definition, it is a python program.","Di strictest definition, e no dey useful, but for di strictest definition, e dey a python program",Computer science
"it might be easiest to understand what a program is by thinking about a problem that a program might be built to solve, and then looking at a program that would solve that problem.","E dey easiest to understand how a program dey by thinking about problem wey a program dey solve, and then looking at a program wey dey build to solve dat problem.",Computer science
lets say you are doing social computing research on facebook posts and you ar e interested in the most frequently used word in a series of posts.,Dem tok say you dey do social computing research on facebook post and you dey interested for di most frequently used word for series of post.,Computer science
"you could print out the stream of facebook posts and pore over the text looking for the most common word, but that would take along time and be very mistake prone.","Di stream of facebook post and pore over di text wey dey look for di most common word, but dat go take longtime and be very mistake prone.",Computer science
you would be smart to write a python program to handle the task quickly and accurately so you can spend the weekend doing something fun.,I go be smart to write python program to handle di task quickly and accurately so you fit spend di weekend do something fun,Computer science
"for example, look at the following text about a clown and a car.","for example, look d text about clown and car.",Computer science
look at the text and figure out the most common word and how many times it occurs.,Di text and sabi wetin dey happen or find solution by dey think amor try different tin di most common word and how many times e dey occur,Computer science
the building blocks of programs 11 the clown ran after the car and the car ran into the tent and the tent fell down on the clown and the car then imagine that you are doing this task looking at millions of lines of text. frankly it would be quicker for you to learn python and write a python program to count the words than it would be to manually scan the words.,Di building blocks of programs 11 di clown ran afta di car and di car ran into di tent and di tent fall down on di clown and di car then imagine say you dey do di task wey dey reach millions of line of text,Computer science
the even better news is that i already came up with a simple program to find the most common word in a text file.,Di even better news na say i kom up wit simple program to find di most common word for text file,Computer science
"you are the end user, you simply use the program and marvel at its cleverness and how it saved you so much manual effort.","Na you be d end user, you go used program con dey wonder as d program take dey clever and howe go save you from plenty work.",Computer science
this is a good example of how python and the python language are acting as an intermediary between you(the end user)and me(the programmer).,Di good example of how python and di python language dey act as intermediary between you(the end user)and me(the programmer).,Computer science
"python is away for us to exchange useful instruction sequences(i. e, programs) in a common language that can be used by anyone who installs python on their computer.","For us to exchange useful instruction sequences(i. e, programs) for common language wey dey use by anyone wey install python on dia computer.",Computer science
"so neither of us are talking to python, instead we are communicating with eachother through python.","Na either of us dey talk to python, instead we dey communicate wit each oda through python.",Computer science
powerful capabilities of python and how to compose those capabilities together to create useful programs.,D tins wey python fit do dey powerful and how person go fit compose those capabilities together use am create useful programs.,Computer science
there are some low-level conceptual patterns that we use to construct programs.,Di low-level conceptual pattern wey we use to construct programs.,Computer science
"these constructs are not just for python programs, they are part of every program- ming language from machine language upto the high-level languages.","Di constructs no just for python programs, dem dey part of every program- ming language from machine language upto di high level languages.",Computer science
"input get data from the""outside world"".","Input get data from d""outside world"".",Computer science
"this might be reading data from a file, or even some kind of sensor like a microphone or gps.","E fit be reading data wey come from file, or some kin sensor like microphone or gps.",Computer science
"in our initial programs, our input will come from the user typing data on the keyboard.",Di input go kom from di user typing data on di keyboard.,Computer science
output display the results ofthe program on a screen or store them in a file or perhaps write them to a device like a speaker to play music or speak text.,Di output display di results of di program on screen or store dem for file or perhaps write dem to a device like speaker to play music or speak text.,Computer science
sequential execution perform statements one after another in the order they are encountered in the script.,Di script dey perform statements one after another for di order dem dey encounter for di script.,Computer science
conditional execution check for certain conditions and then execute or skip a sequence of statements.,Di conditional execution check for certain conditions and then execute or skip sequence of statements.,Computer science
"repeated execution perform some set of statements repeatedly, usually with some variation.",D repeated execution dey perform some sets of statements repeatedly wey get some variation.,Computer science
reuse write a set of instructions once and give them a name and then reuse those instructions as needed throughout your program.,We go reuse set of instructions con give am name con reused instructions as you dey need am throughot your program.,Computer science
"it sounds almost too simple to be true, and ofcourse it is never so simple.","Di sounds almost too simple to be true, and ofcourse dey never so simple.",Computer science
"it is like saying that walking is simply""putting one foot in front ofthe other"".","E dey like say walking dey simply""putting one foot for front of di oda""",Computer science
"the"" art""of writing a program is composing and weaving these basic elements together many times over to produce something that is useful to its users.","D""art"" of writing a program nato compose and weave dis basic elements together many times to produce something wey dey useful to hin users.",Computer science
the word counting program above directly uses all of these patterns except for one.,D word counting program wey dey above dey use dis patterns except for one.,Computer science
"as we saw in our earliest conversations with python, we must communicate very precisely when we write python code.","As we see am for our earliest conversation with python, we gats communicate precisely when we dey write python code.",Computer science
the smallest deviation or mistake will cause python to give up looking at your program.,D smallest deviation or mistake fit cause python to give up looking at your program.,Computer science
"beginning programmers often take the fact that python leaves no room for errors as evidence that python is mean, hateful, and cruel.","Di beginning programmers often take di fact say python leave no room for errors as evidence say python dey mean, hateful, and cruel.",Computer science
"while python seems to like everyone else, python knows them personally and holds a grudge against them.","while python dey like all else, python know dem personally and holds grudge against dem.",Computer science
"because of this grudge, python takes our perfectly written programs and rejects them as""unfit"" just to torment us.","Di grudge, python dey take awa perfectly written programs and reject dem as""unfit"" just to torment us",Computer science
what could possibly go wrong?,Dem go wrong?,Computer science
did you mean: /quotesingle. ts1print/quotesingle. ts1?,Di quotesingle. ts1print quotesingle. ts1,Computer science
"file ""<stdin>"", line 1 i hate you python!","file ""<stdin>"", line 1 i hate you python!",Computer science
it is just a tool.,Di tool dey just tool,Computer science
it ha s no emotions and it is happy and ready to serve you whenever you need it.,Nano emotions and e dey happy and ready to serve you wenever you need am,Computer science
"its error messages sound harsh, but they are just python's call for help.","Di error messages sound harsh, but dem just call for help.",Computer science
"it has looked at what you typed, and it simply cannot understand what you have entered.","E no dey understand what you type, and e no dey understand what you dey type, and e no understand what you dey entered.",Computer science
"a syntax error means that you have violated the""grammar"" rules of python.","Di syntax error means say you viola di""grammar"" rules of python.",Computer science
python does its best to point right at the line and character where it noticed it was confused.,Di python don dey best to point right for di line and character wey dem notice am confused.,Computer science
the only tricky bit of syntax errors is that sometimes the mistake that needs fixing is actually earlier in the program than where python noticed it was confused.,Di only tricky bit of syntax errors na say sometimes di mistake wey need fixin dey earlier for di program than where python notice say e dey confused.,Computer science
so the line and character that python indicates in a syntax error may just be a starting point for your investigation.,Di line and character wey python indicates for syntax error go just be starting point for your investigation.,Computer science
logic errors a logic error is when your program has good syntax but there is a mistake in the order ofthe statements or perhaps a mistake in how the statements relate to one another.,Di logic error dey when your program don good syntax but e dey mistake for di order of di statement or perhaps mistake for how di statement relate to one another.,Computer science
"a good example of a logic error might be,""take a drink from your water bottle, put it in your backpack, walk to the library, and then put the top back on the bottle.""","Di good example of logic error might be,""take drink from your water bottle, put am for your backpack, walk to di library, and then put di top back on di bottle",Computer science
"semantic errors a semantic error is when your description ofthe steps to take is syntactically perfect and in the right order, but there is simply a mistake in the program.","Di semantic error dey when your description of di step to take dey syntactically perfect and for di right order, but e dey simply mistake for di program.",Computer science
the program is perfectly correct but it does not do what you intended for it to do.,Di program dey perfectly correct but e no do what you dey suppose do,Computer science
"a simple example would be if you were giving a person directions to a restaurant and said,"".","Di simple example go be if you go get person directions to a restaurant and tok say,""",Computer science
"your friend is very late and calls you to tell you that they are on a farm and walking around behind a barn, with no sign of a restaurant.","Di friend dey late and call you tell you say dem dey on farm and walking around behind a barn, wit no sign of restaurant.",Computer science
"then you say""did you turn left or right at the gas station?""","Di gas station tok say""did you turn left or right for gas station?",Computer science
"and they say,""i followed your directions perfectly, i have them written down, it says turn left and go one mile at the gas station.""","I follow your direction perfectly, i don write down, e tok say turn left and go one mile for gas station",Computer science
"while my instructions were syntactically correct, they sadly contained a small but undetected semantic error."".","Di instructions dey syntactically correct, dem dey contain small but undetected semantic error.",Computer science
"again in all three types of errors, python is merely trying its hardest to do exactly what you have asked.","For all three types of errors, python dey merely try di hardest to do exactly what you asked.",Computer science
debugging is the process of finding the cause ofthe error in your code.,Di process of finding di cause of di error for your code.,Computer science
"when you are debugging a program, and especially if you are working on a hard bug, there are four things to try: reading examine your code, read it back to yourself, and check that it says what you meant to say.","Di four things wey dey try: reading examine your code, read am back to yourself, and check say e tok say e no dey say.",Computer science
running experiment by making changes and running different versions.,Di run experiment by make changes and run different version,Computer science
"often if you display the right thing at the right place in the program, the problem becomes obvious, but sometimes you have to spend sometime to build scaffolding.","If you display d right thing at d right place ford program, d problem go dey obvious, but sometimes you go need spend time to build scaffholding.",Computer science
ruminating take sometime to think!,D thinking dey take sometime.,Computer science
"what kind of error is it: syntax, runtime, semantic?","Which kin error e be: syntax, runtime, semantic?",Computer science
"what information can you get from the error messages, or from the output ofthe program?","Di information wey you go get from di error message, or from di output of di program?",Computer science
what kind of error could cause the problem you're seeing?,Di kind of error could cause di problem you dey seeing?,Computer science
"what did you change last, before the problem appeared?","Dem change last, before di problem appear?",Computer science
"retreating at some point, the best thing to do is back off, undoing recent changes, until you get back to a program that works and that you understand.","Di best thing to do na back off, undoing recent changes, until you go get back to a program wey dey work and say you understand.",Computer science
then you can start rebuilding.,E go start rebuilding,Computer science
beginning programmers sometimes get stuck on one of these activities and forget the others.,Programmers wey just dey start sometimes dey get stuck on one of dis activities con forget others.,Computer science
"finding a hard bug requires reading, running, ruminating, and sometimes retreating.","To find hard bug wey require reading, running, ruminating, and sometimes retreating.",Computer science
"if you get stuck on one of these activities, try the others.","If you go get stuck on one of dis activities, try di odas.",Computer science
each activity comes with its own failure mode.,Di activity kom wit its own failure mode.,Computer science
"for example, reading your code might help if the problem is a typographical error, but not if the problem is a conceptual misunderstanding.","for example, reading your code go help if di problem dey typographical error, but no if di problem dey conceptual misunderstanding.",Computer science
"if you don't understand what your program does, you can read it 100 times and never see the error, because the error is in your head.","If you no understand what your program does, you go read 100 times and no see di error, because di error dey inside your head",Computer science
"running experiments can help, especially if you run small, simple tests.","To dey run experiments dey help, especially if you dey run small, simple tests.",Computer science
"but if you run experiments without thinking or reading your code, you might fall into a pattern i call""random walk programming"", which is the process of making random changes until the program does the right thing.","If you run experiments without thinking or reading your code, you go fall into pattern wey dey call""random walk programming"", wey dey di process of make random change until di program does di right thing.",Computer science
"needless to say, random walk programming can take along time.",Random walk program fit take long,Computer science
you have to take time to think.,Dem don take time to think.,Computer science
debugging is like an experimental science.,Di debugging dey like experimental science.,Computer science
you should have atleast one hypothesis about what the problem is.,Di problem dey.,Computer science
"if there are two or more possibilities, try to think of a test that would eliminate one of them.","Di test wey go eliminate one of dem, try think of test wey go eliminate one of dem",Computer science
taking a break helps with the thinking.,Dem take break help wit di thinking.,Computer science
so does talking.,So e dey talk,Computer science
"if you explain the problem to someone else(or even to yourself), you will sometimes find the answer before you finish asking the question.","If you explain d problem give person(or even yourself), you go find d answer before you ask d question finish.",Computer science
"the learning journey 15 but even the best debugging techniques will fail if there are too many errors, or if the code you are trying to fix is too big and complicated.","Di learning journey 15 but even di best debugging techniques go fail if e dey too many errors, or if di code you dey try fix dey too big and complicated.",Computer science
"sometimes the best option is to retreat, simplifying the program until you get to something that works and that you understand.","Di best option dey to retreat, simplifying di program until you go get something wey dey work and say you understand.",Computer science
beginning programmers are often reluctant to retreat because they can't stand to delete a line of code(even if it's wrong).,Di beginning programmers dey often reluctant to retreat because dem no stand to delete line of code(even if im wrong).,Computer science
"if it makes you feel better, copy your program into another file before you start stripping it down.","If e make you feel better, copy your program put for inside another file before you go start to dey strip am.",Computer science
then you can paste the pieces back in a little bit at a time.,Di pieces back for a little bit for a time.,Computer science
"when you were learning to speak, it was not a problem for your first few years that you just made cute gurgling noises.","Di problem for your first few years wey you dey learn to speak, na problem for your first few years wey you just make cute gurgling noises.",Computer science
"and it was ok if it took six months for you to move from simple vocabulary to simple sentences and took 5-6 more years to move from sentences to paragraphs, and a few more years to be able to write an interesting complete short story on your own.","E dey ok if e take six months for you to move from simple vocabulary to sentences wey dey simple and e take 5-6 more years to move from sentences to paragraphs, and few more years till you go fit write complex short story wey dey interesting.",Computer science
but it is like learning anew language that takes time to absorb and understand before it feels natural.,E dey like learning new language wey dey take time to absorb and understand before im feel natural,Computer science
that leads to some confusion as we visit and revisit topics to try to get you to see the big picture while we are defining the tiny fragments that makeup that big picture.,We dey visit and revisit topics to try to get you see di big picture while we dey defini di tiny fragment wey makeup dat big picture.,Computer science
"while the book is written linearly, and if you are taking a course it will progress in a linear fashion, don't hesitate to be very nonlinear in how you approach the material.","Di book dey written linearly, and if you dey take course e go progress for linear fashion, don hesitate to be nonlinear for how you approach di material.",Computer science
look forwards and backwards and read with a light touch.,Forwards and backwards and read wit light touch,Computer science
"by skimming more advanced material without fully understanding the details, you can get a better understanding ofthe ""why?""","Di""why?""",Computer science
"by reviewing previous material and even redoing earlier exercises, you will realize that you actually learned alot of material even if the material you are currently staring at seems a bit impenetrable.",E go realize say you dey learn alot of material even if di material you dey star at seem a bit impenetrable.,Computer science
"usually when you are learning your first programming language, there area few wonderful""ah hah!""","If you dey learn your first kod langwej wey dem dey use write instruksiyon wey komputa go fit undastand, few wonderful""ah hah""go dey.",Computer science
moments where you can look up from pounding away at some rock with a hammer and chisel and step away and see that you are indeed building a beautiful sculpture.,Di moment wey you fit look up from pounding away for some rock wit hammer and chisel and step away and see say you dey indeed building beautiful sculpture.,Computer science
"if something seems particularly hard, there is usually no value in staying up all night and staring at it.",Di value wey dey stay up all night and staring at am.,Computer science
"take a break, take a nap, have a snack, explain what y ou are having a problem with to someone(or perhaps your dog), and then comeback to it with fresh eyes.","E dey take break, take a break, take a break, take a break, take a break, take a break, take a break, take a break, take a break, take a break, take a break, take a break, take a break, take a break, take a nap, get snack, explain say y ou dey having problem wit to someone(or perhaps your dog), and then kom back to am wit fresh eyes.",Computer science
central processing unit the heart of any computer.,Central processing unit na d heart of any computer.,Computer science
"it is what runs the software that we write; also called""cpu"" or""the processor"".","Di software wey we write; also called""cpu"" or""the processor"".",Computer science
"compile to translate a program written in a high-level language into a low-level language all at once, in preparation for later execution.","Di compile to translate program wey dey write for high-level language into low-level language all at once, for preparation for later execution.",Computer science
high-level language a programming language like python that is designed to be easy for humans to read and write.,Di high-level language wey dey designed to be easy for humans to read and write,Computer science
interactive mode away of using the python interpreter by typing commands and expressions at the prompt.,D interactive mode wey person fit use python interpreter by typing commands and expressions ford prompt.,Computer science
interpret to execute a program in a high-level language by translating it one line at a time.,E interpret to execute a program for high level language by translating am one line for time.,Computer science
"low-level language a programming language that is designed to be easy for a computer to execute; also called""machine code""or ""assembly language"".","Di low level language wey dey designed to be easy for a computer to execute; also called""machine code""or ""assembly language"".",Computer science
"machine code the lowest-level language for software, which is the language that is directly executed by the central processing unit(cpu).","Di lowest level language for software, wey be di language wey dey directly executed by di central processing unit(cpu).",Computer science
main memory stores programs and data.,Di main memory store programs and data.,Computer science
main memory loses its information when the power is turned off.,Di main memory lose its information wen di power dey turn off.,Computer science
parse to examine a program and analyze the syntactic structure.,parse to examine a program and analyze di syntactic structure.,Computer science
portability a property of a program that can run on more than one kind of computer.,Di portability property of a program wey dey run on more than one kind of computer.,Computer science
print function an instruction that causes the python interpreter to display a value on the screen.,Di python interpreter go display value on di screen.,Computer science
"problem solving the process of formulating a problem, finding a solution, and expressing the solution.","Di problem wey solve di process of formulating problem, find solution, and express di solution.",Computer science
program a set of instructions that specifies a computation.,Di program a set of instructions wey dey specifi computation.,Computer science
prompt when a program displays a message and pauses for the user to type some input to the program.,Di program display message and pause for di user to type some input to di program.,Computer science
secondary memory stores programs and data and retains its information even when the power is turned off.,Di secondary memory store programs and data and retain dia information even wen di power dey turn off.,Computer science
generally slower than main memory.,E dey generally slower than main memory,Computer science
examples of secondary memory include disk drives and flash memory in usb sticks.,Di example of secondary memory include disk drives and flash memory for usb stick.,Computer science
semantics the meaning of a program.,Di meaning of a program,Computer science
semantic error an error in a program that makes it do something other than what the programmer intended.,Na semantic error an error for a program wey dey make dem do something oda than what di programmer dey suppose do.,Computer science
source code a program in a high-level language.,For high-level language.,Computer science
"a)execute all ofthe computation and logic ofthe program b)retrieve web pages over the internet c)store information for the long term, even beyond a power cycle d)take input from the user exercise 2: what is a program?","A)execute all of di computation and logic of di program b)retrieve web pages over di internet c)store information for di long term, even beyond power cycle d)take input from di user exercise",Computer science
exercise 3: what is the difference between a compiler and an interpreter?,Excercise 3: wetin be d di difference between a compiler and an interpreter?,Computer science
"exercise 4: which ofthe following contains""machine code""?","excercise 4: Which of d following contain""machine code""?",Computer science
a)the python interpreter b)the keyboard c)python source filed) a word processing document exercise 5: what is wrong with the following code:1. 14.,Di python interpreter b)di keyboard c)python source filed) word processing document exercise 5: wetin dey wrong wit d following code:1. 14,Computer science
"for example,""what is the human equivalent to a central processing unit""?",for example: wetin be d human equivalent for central processing unit?,Computer science
"the values we have seen so far are 1, 2, and ""hello, world!""","Di values wey we see so far na 1, 2, and ""hello, world!""",Computer science
"these values belong to different types:2 is an integer, and ""hello, world!""","Di values belong to different types:2 na integer, and ""hello, world!""",Computer science
"is a string, so called because it contains a""string"" of letters.","E dey string, so called because e dey contains""string"" of letters",Computer science
you(and the interpreter)can identify strings because they are enclosed in quotation marks.,Di interpreter)go identify strings bikos dem dey enclosed for quotation marks.,Computer science
theprint statement also works for integers.,D print statement dey also work for integers.,Computer science
we use the python command to start the interpreter.,We use di python command to start di interpreter,Computer science
"less obviously, numbers with a decimal point belong to a type called float, because these numbers are represented in a format called floating point.","For less obviously, numbers wit decimal point belong to a type wey dey call float, bikos dem dey represent for format wey dey call floating point.",Computer science
"they look like numbers, but they are in quotation marks like strings.","Dem look like numbers, but dem dey in quotation marks like strings.",Computer science
"when you type a large integer, you might be tempted to use commas between groups of three digits, as in 1, 000,000.","For when you type large integer, you go use commas between groups of three digits, as in 1, 000,000.",Computer science
"python interprets 1, 000,000 as a co mmaseparated sequence of integers, which it prints with spaces between.","Di python interpret 1, 000,000 as co mmaseparated sequence of integers, wey dey print wit space between.",Computer science
"this is the first example we have seen of a semantic error: the code runs without producing an error message, but it doesn't do the""right"" thing.","Di first example wey we see of semantic error: di code run without producing error message, but e no dey do di""right"" thing",Computer science
a variable is a name that refers to a value.,Di variable dey name wey to talk about value.,Computer science
the first assigns a string to anew variable named message; the second assigns the integer 17 ton; the third assigns the(approximate) value of topi.,Di second assign string to new variable named message; di second assign di integer 17 ton; di third assign di(approximate) value of topi.,Computer science
variable names and keywords 212. 3 variable names and keywords programmers generally choose names for their variables that are meaningful and document what the variable is used for.,Dem generally choose name for dia variables wey dey meaningful and document what di variable dey use for.,Computer science
variable names can be arbitrarily long.,Di name of variable dey arbitrarily long,Computer science
"they can contain both letters and numbers, but they cannot start with a number.","Di letters and numbers, but dem no start wit number.",Computer science
"it is legal to use uppercase letters, but it is a good idea to begin variable names with a lowercase letter(you'll see why later).","E dey legal to use uppercase letters, but e dey good idea to begin dem name wey dey represent figure wey fit change for kompyuta program wit lowercase letter( you go see why later).",Computer science
the underscore character( )can appear in a name.,Di underscore character( )don appear for name,Computer science
"it is often used in names with multiple words, such as my name orairspeed of unladen swallow.","Di name dey often use for name wit multiple words, such as my name orairspeed of unladen swallow",Computer science
"variable names can start with an underscore character, but we generally avoid doing this unless we are writing library code for others to use.",We generally avoid do dis unless we dey write library code for odas to use.,Computer science
"more@is illegal because it contains an illegal character,@.",Di illegal character dey illegal because di illegal character dey illegal,Computer science
but what's wrong with class?,We dey wrong wit class? but what dey wrong wit class,Computer science
it turns out that class is one of python's keywords.,E turnout say class dey one of python's keywords,Computer science
"the interpreter uses keywords to recognize the structure ofthe program, and they cannot be used as variable names.","Di interpreter use keywords to recognize di structure of di program, and dem no use as dem name wey dey represent figure wey fit change for kompyuta program.",Computer science
python reserves 35 keywords: false await else import pass none break except in raise true class finally is return and continue for lambda try as def from nonlocal while assert del global not with async elif if or yield you might want to keep this list handy.,Di python reserve 35 keywords: false await else import pass none break except for raise true class finally dey return and continue for lambda try as def from nonlocal while assert di global no wit async elif if or yield you go fit keep dis list handy.,Computer science
"if the interpreter complains about one of your variable names and you don't know why, see if it is on this list.","Di interpreter complain about one of your dem name wey dey represent figure wey fit change for kompyuta program and you no know why, see if e dey on dis list.",Computer science
"we have seen two kinds of statements: print being an expression statement and assignment. when you type a statement in interactive mode, the interpreter executes it and displays the result, if there is one.",We don see two kind statements: print being expression statement and assignment.,Computer science
"variables, expressions, and statements a script usually contains a sequence of statements.","Variables, expressions, and statements na script wey dey usually contain sequence of statements",Computer science
"if there is more than one statement, the results appear one at a time as the statements execute.",Di results dey appear one time as di statement execute.,Computer science
"for example, the script print(1) x=2 print(x)produces the output 12 the assignment statement produces no output.",Di script print(1) x=2 print(x)produce di output 12 di assignment statement produce no output,Computer science
the values the operator is applied to are called operands.,Di values di operator dey apply to dey call operands,Computer science
this is a common source of confusion for beginners.,Dis na common source of confusion for peopel wey just start,Computer science
"exercise 1: type the following statements in the python interpreter to see what they do:5 x=5x+1 2. 7 order of operations when more than one operator appears in an expression, the order of evaluation depends on the rules of precedence.","Di exercise 1: type di following statement for di python interpreter to see what dem do:5 x=5x+1 2. 7 order of operations wey more than one operator appear for expression, di order of evaluation depend on di rules of precedence.",Computer science
"for mathematical operators, python follows mathematical convention.","For mathematical operator, python follow mathematical convention",Computer science
the acronym pemdas is a useful way to remember the rules: parentheses have the highest precedence and can be used to force an expression to evaluate in the order you want.,Di acronym pemdas dey useful way to remember di rules: parentheses don get di highest precedence and go use to force expression to evaluate for di order you want.,Computer science
"you can also use parentheses to make an expression easier to read, as in(minute *100) / 60, even if it doesn't change the result.","we fit use parentheses make expression wey dey easy to read, as in(minute *100) 60, even if e no dey change result.",Computer science
"variables, expressions, and statements exponentiation has the next highest precedence, so 2**1+1 is 3, not 4, and 3*1**3 is 3, not 27.","Di variables, expression, expression, and statements exponentiation don di next highest precedence, so 2**1+1 dey 3, not 4, and 3*1**3 dey 3, not 27.",Computer science
"so 2*3-1 is 5, not 4, and 6+4/2 is 8, not 5.","So 2*3-1 dey 5, no 4, and 6+42 dey 8, no 5.",Computer science
"so the expression 5-3-1 is 1, not 3, because the 5-3happens first and then 1is subtracted from 2.","Di expression 5-3-1 na 1, no 3, because di 5-3happen first and then 1is subtracted from 2.",Computer science
"when in doubt, always put parentheses in your expressions to make sure the computations are performed in the order you intend.","For doubt, always put parentheses for your expression to make sure di computations dey perform for di order you intend.",Computer science
"in python, the modulus operator is a percent sign( %).",Di modulus operator dey percent sign( %).,Computer science
the modulus operator turns out to be surprisingly useful.,D modolus operator dey useful.,Computer science
"for example, you can check whether one number is divisible by another: if x%y is zero, then xis divisible by y.","If x%y dey zero, then xis divisible by y",Computer science
you can also extract the right-most digit or digits from a number.,You fit comot d right-most digits or digit from number.,Computer science
"for example, x%10 yields the right-most digit of x(in base 10).","For example, x%10 dey yield d right-most digit of x(in base 10).",Computer science
"similarly, x% 100 yields the last two digits.",Di last two digits yield di last two digits.,Computer science
python provides a built-in function called input that gets input from the keyboard1.,python provide built-in function wey dey call input wey get input from di keyboard1.,Computer science
"when this function is called, the program stops and waits for the user to type something.",Di program stop and wait for di user to type something,Computer science
"when the user presses return orenter, the program resumes and input returns what the user typed as a string.",Di program resume and input return what di user type as string.,Computer science
that's why the user's input appears below the prompt.,Di user input appear below di prompt.,Computer science
"what do you mean, an african ora european swallow?",Wetin you mean say an african or european swallow?,Computer science
"formal languages are dense, and it is often difficult to look at apiece of code and figure out what it is doing, or why.","Di formal languages dey dense, and e dey difficult to make we look piece of code and sabi wetin dey happen or find solution by dey think amor try different tin what dey do, or why.",Computer science
"for this reason, it is a good idea to add notes to your programs to explain in natural language what the program is doing.",E dey good idea to add notes to your programs to explain in natural language what di program dey do.,Computer science
"these notes are called comments, and in python they start with the#symbol: #compute the percentage ofthe hour that has elapsed percentage=(minute *100)/60 in this case, the comment appears on a line by itself.","Di note dey call comment, and for python dem start wit di#symbol: #compute di percentage of di hour wey dey elapsed percentage=(minute *100)60 for dis case, di comment appear online by itself.",Computer science
you can also put comments at the end of a line: percentage=(minute *100)/60# percentage of an hour everything from the#to the end ofthe line is ignored; it has no effect on the program.,Di percentage=(minute *100)60 #percentage of an hour wey dey from di end of di line dey ignored; na no effect on di program.,Computer science
comments are most useful when they document non-obvious features ofthe code.,Di comments dey most useful wen dem document non-obvious features of di code.,Computer science
it is reasonable to assume that the reader can figure out what the code does; it is much more useful to explain why.,E dey reasonable to assume say di reader fit sabi wetin dey happen or find solution by dey think amor try different tin what di code does; e dey much more useful to explain why,Computer science
this comment is redundant with the code and useless: v=5# assign 5 to v this comment contains useful information that is not in the code: v=5# velocity in meters/second.,Di comment dey redundant wit di code and useless: v=5# assign 5 to v dis comment contains useful information wey no dey for di code: v=5# velocity for meters second,Computer science
"good variable names can reduce the need for comments, but long names can make complex expressions hard to read, so there is a trade-off.","E dey trade-off, but long name don make complex expressions hard to read, so e dey trade-off",Computer science
"choosing mnemonic variable names 272. 12 choosing mnemonic variable names as long as you follow the simple rules of variable naming, and avoid reserved words, you have alot of choice when you name your variables.","Di simple rules of name of variable as long as you follow di simple rules of name of variable, and avoid reserved words, you go get lot of choice wen you name your variables",Computer science
"in the beginning, this choice can be confusing both when you read a program and when you write your own programs.",Di choice go confuse both wen you read a program and wen you write your own programs.,Computer science
"for example, the following three programs are identical in terms of what they accomplish, but very different when you read them and try to understand them.","Di following three programs dey identical for terms of wetin dem accomplish, but very different when you read demand try to understand dem",Computer science
humans will most quickly understand the intent ofthe second program because the programmer has chosen variable names that reflect their intent regarding what data will be stored in each variable.,Di programmer don select name of variable wey reflect dia intent regarding what data go store for each variable.,Computer science
"we call these wisely chosen variable names ""mnemonic variable names"".","We call dis wisely chosen name of variable ""mnemonic name of variable"".",Computer science
"the word mnemonic2means ""memory aid"".","Di word mnemonic2means ""memory aid"".",Computer science
we choose mnemonic variable names to help us remember why we created the variable in the first place.,We dey choose mnemonic dem name wey dey represent figure wey fit change for kompyuta program make e for help us remember why we created variable ford first place.,Computer science
"while this all sounds great, and it is avery good idea to use mnemonic variable names, mnemonic variable names can get in the way of a beginning programmer's ability to parse and understand code.","E dey good idea to use mnemonic dem name wey dey represent figure wey fit change for kompyuta program, mnemonic dem name wey dey represent figure wey fit change for kompyuta program go get for di way of beginning programmer's ability to parse and understand code.",Computer science
this is because beginning programmers have not yet memorized the reserved words(there are only 35 of them)and sometimes variables with names that are too descriptive start to look like part of t he language and not just well-chosen variable names.,E dey because beginning programmers no dey memorize di reserved words(there dey only 35 of dem)and sometimes variables wey dey too descriptive start to look like part of t he language and no just well-chosen dem name wey dey represent figure wey fit change for kompyuta program.,Computer science
take a quick look at the following python sample code which loops through some data.,Di following python sample code wey dey loop through some data.,Computer science
"variables, expressions, and statements what is happening here?","Di variables, expressions, and statements wey dey happen here?",Computer science
"which ofthe tokens(for, word, in, etc.)","Di tokens(for, word, in, etc",Computer science
are reserved words and which are just variable names?,Dem dey reserve words and wey dey just dem name wey dey represent figure wey fit change for kompyuta program?,Computer science
does python understand at a fundamental level the notion of words?,Shey python understand for di core level di notion of words?,Computer science
beginning programmers have trouble separating what parts ofthe code must be the same as this example and what parts ofthe code are simply choices made by the programmer.,Di beginning programmers don trouble separating what parts of di code must be di same as dis example and what parts of di code dey simply choice make di programmer.,Computer science
the following code is equivalent to the above code: for slice inpizza: print(slice)it is easier for the beginning programmer to look at this code and know which parts are reserved words defined by python and which parts are simply variable names chosen by the programmer.,For slice forpizza: print(slice)e dey easier for di beginning programmer to make we look dis code and know which parts dey reserved words wey dey chosen by di programmer.,Computer science
it is pretty clear that python has no fundamental understanding of pizza and slices and the fact that a pizza consists of a set of one or more slices.,E dey clear say python no fundamental understanding of pizza and slices and di fact say a pizza dey set of one or more slices.,Computer science
"but if our program is truly about reading data and looking for words in the data, pizza andslice are very un-mnemonic variable names.","Di program dey truly about reading data and looking for words for di data, pizza andslice dey very un-mnemonic name of variable.",Computer science
choosing them as variable names distracts from the meaning ofthe program.,Di program dey distract from di meaning of di program.,Computer science
"after a pretty short period of time, you will know the most common reserved words and you will start to see the reserved words jumping out at you: the parts ofthe code that are defined by python( for, in, print, and:) are in bold and the programmer-chosen variables( word andwords )are not in bold.","Di parts of di code wey dey define by python( for, for, print, and",Computer science
many text editors are aware of python syntax and will color reserved words differently to give you clues to keep your variables and reserved words separate.,Plenty di editor for words dey to know python syntax and go colour reserved words differ entirely wey go give you clues to keep your variables and reserved words separate.,Computer science
after awhile you will begin to read python and quickly determine what is a variable and what is a reserved word.,Di while you go begin to read python and quickly determine what dey a variable and what dey a reserved word,Computer science
the most common messages aresyntaxerror: invalid syntax which is not very informative.,Di most common messag dey syntaxerror: invalid syntax wey no dey informative,Computer science
"the runtime error you are most likely to make is a""use before def;""that i s, trying to use a variable before you have assigned a value.","Di runtime error you dey most likely make na""use before def;""dat i s, try to use a variable before you go get assigned value.",Computer science
this can happen if you spell a variable name wrong:2. 14.,E fit happen if you spell a name of variable wrong:,Computer science
"at this point, the most likely cause of a semantic error is the order of operations.",Di most likely cause of semantic error na di order of operations.,Computer science
"there is no way for python to know what you meant to write, so in this case yo u don't get an error message; you just get the wrong answer.","Nano way for python to know what you meant write, so for dis case u no get error message; you just get di wrong answer.",Computer science
concatenate to join two operands end to end.,Dem concatenate to join two operand end to end,Computer science
comment information in a program that is meant for other programmers(or anyone reading the source code)and has no effect on the execution ofthe program.,Di program wey dey meant for oda programmers(or anyone reading di source code)and no effect on di execution of di program.,Computer science
evaluate to simplify an expression by performing the operations in order to yield a single value.,You go evaluate to simplify expression by performing d operations for order to yield a single value.,Computer science
"expression a combination of variables, operators, and values that represents a single result value.","Di expression combination of variables, operator, and value wey represent single result value.",Computer science
floating point a type that represents numbers with fractional parts.,Di type wey represent numbers wit fractional parts.,Computer science
integer a type that represents whole numbers.,Di type wey represent whole numbers.,Computer science
"keyword a reserved word that is used by the compiler to parse a program; you cannot use keywords like if, def, and while as variable names.","A reserved word wey d compiler dey use parse program; you no fit use keywords like if, def, and while as variabble names.",Computer science
mnemonic a memory aid.,mnemonic na memory aid.,Computer science
we often give variables mnemonic names to help us remember what is stored in the variable.,We often give variables mnemonic names to help us remember what dey store for di variable.,Computer science
"modulus operator an operator, denoted with a percent sign( %), that works on integers and yields the remainder when one number is divided by another.","Di operator wey denot wit percent sign( %), wey dey work on integers and yield di remainder wen one number dey divide by another.",Computer science
operand one ofthe values on which an operator operates.,Operand one of d values for which operator dey operate.,Computer science
"operator a special symbol that represents a simple computation like addition, multiplication, or string concatenation.","Na special symbol wey represent simple computation like addition, multiplication, or string concatenation.",Computer science
rules of precedence the set of rules governing the order in which expressions involving multiple operators and operands are evaluated.,Di set of rules of precedence di set of rules wey dey governing di order wey expression dey involving multiple operators and operands dey evaluated.,Computer science
"so far, the statements we have seen are assignments and print expression statement.",Di statement wey we see dey assignment and print expression statement.,Computer science
string a type that represents sequences of characters.,Di type wey represent sequences of character,Computer science
type a category of values.,Di category of values dey type category of values,Computer science
"the types we have seen so far are integers(type int), floating-point numbers(type float), and strings(type str).","Di type wey we see so far dey integers(type int), floating point numbers(type float), and strings(type str).",Computer science
"value one ofthe basic units of data, like a number or string, that a program manipulates.","Di basic unit of data, like number or string, wey a program manipulate.",Computer science
variable a name that refers to a value.,Di name wey dey to talk about value.,Computer science
"variables, expressions, and statements 2. 15 exercises exercise 2: write a program that uses input to prompt a user for their name and then welcomes them.",For 15 exercises exercise 2: write program wey use input to prompt user for dia name and then welcome dem,Computer science
enter your name: chuck hello chuck exercise 3: write a program to prompt the user for hours and rate per hour to compute gross pay.,You go enter your name: chuck hello chuck exercise 3: write program wey go prompt d user for hours and rate per hour wey go compute gross pay.,Computer science
enter hours:35 enter rate:2. 75 pay:96. 25 we won't worry about making sure our pay has exactly two digits after the decimal place for now.,We no dey worry about make sure awa pay get exactly two digits afta di decimal place for now,Computer science
"if you want, you can play with the built-in python round function to properly round the resulting pay to two decimal places.","If you want, you fit play with built-in python round function to properly round d resulting pay to two decimal places.",Computer science
"exercise 4: assume that we execute the following assignment statements: width= 17 height= 12. 0 for each ofthe following expressions, write the value ofthe expression and t he type(of the value ofthe expression).","Di exercise 4: assume say we execute di following assignment statements: width= 17 height= 12. 0 for each of di following expression, write di value of di expression and t he type(of di value of di expression).",Computer science
"exercise 5: write a program which prompts the user for a celsius temperature, convert the temperature to fahrenheit, and print out the converted temperature.","Di exercise 5: write program wey prompt di user for a celsius temperature, convert di temperature to fahrenheit, and to show di converted temperature.",Computer science
there is no such thing as=<or=>.,Nano such thing as=<or=>,Computer science
"conditional execution 3. 2 logical operators there are three logical operators: and, or, and not.","Di logical operator dey three logical operator: and, or, and no.",Computer science
the semantics(meaning) of these operators is similar to their meaning in english.,Di semantics(meaning) of dis operator dey similar to dia meaning for english,Computer science
"finally, the notoperator negates a boolean expression, so not(x > y)is true if x>y is false.","Di notoperator negate boolean expression, so no(x > y)dey true if x>y dey true if x>y dey true if x>y dey true if x>y dey true if x",Computer science
you might want to avoid it until you are sure y ou know what you are doing.,I go want to avoid am until you dey sure y dey know what you dey do.,Computer science
conditional statements give us this ability.,Di conditional statement give us disability,Computer science
the simplest form is the ifstatement: ifx>0: print( /quotesingle. ts1x is positive/quotesingle. ts1 )the boolean expression after the ifstatement is called the condition.,Ifx>0: print( quotesingle. ts1x dey positive quotesingle. ts1) di boolean expression wey dey call di condition,Computer science
we end the ifstatement with a colon character(:) and the line(s)after the if statement ar e indented.,We end di ifstatement wit colon character(:) and di line(s) afta di if statement dey indented,Computer science
"if the logical condition is true, then the indented statement gets executed.",Di indented statement get executed.,Computer science
"if the logical condition is false, the indented statement is skipped.",Di indented statement dey skipped.,Computer science
ifstatements have the same structure as function definitions or forloops1.,Ifstatements don get di same structure as function definition or forloops1.,Computer science
conditional execution 33 x>0 print('x is postitive') yes figure 3.1: if logic by an indented block.,conditional execution 33 x>0 print('x is postitive') yes figure 3.1: if logic by an indented block.,Computer science
statements like this are called compound statements because they stretch across more than one line.,Di statement like dis dey call compound statements because dem stretch across more than one line.,Computer science
"ifx>y: print(x)print(y) there is no limit on the number of statements that can appear in the body, but there must beat least one.","Nano limit on di number of statement wey dey appear for di bodi, but na least one",Computer science
"occasionally, it is useful to have a body with no statements(usually as a place holder for code you haven't written yet).",E dey useful to have body wit no statements(usually as place holder for code wey dey write yet).,Computer science
"in that case, you can use the pass statement to pass the python interpreter check, which does nothing.","Di pass statement to pass di python interpreter check, wey no dey nothing.",Computer science
"ifx<0: pass# need to handle negative values, do nothing for now.","ifx<0: pass# need to handle negative values, do nothing for now.",Computer science
"if you enter an ifstatement in the python interpreter, the prompt will change from three chevrons (>)to three dots(.","If you enter ifstatement for di python interpreter, di prompt go change from three chevrons (>)to three dots",Computer science
"if the condition is false, the second set of statements is executed.",Di second set of statements dey executed.,Computer science
"since the condition must either be true or false, exactly one ofthe alternatives will be executed.","Di condition must either be true or false, exactly one of di alternatives wey dey go executed.",Computer science
"the alternatives are called branches, because they are branches in the flow of execution.","Di alternatives dey call branches, because dem dey branch for di flow of execution.",Computer science
there is no limit on the number of elif statements.,Nano limit on di number of elif statements,Computer science
"if there is an else clause, it has to beat the end, but there doesn't have to be one.","For di end, but e no fit be one",Computer science
"if the first is false, the next is checked, and soon.","Di first dey false, di next dey check, and soon",Computer science
"if one of them is true, the corresponding branch executes, and the statement ends.","Di corresponding branch executes, and di statement end.",Computer science
"even if more than one condition is true, only the first true branch executes.",Di first true branch dey execute.,Computer science
the first branch contains a simple statement.,Di first branch contains simple statement,Computer science
"the second branch contains another ifstatement, which has two branches of its own.","Di second branch dey contains another ifstatement, wey get two branches of its own",Computer science
"those two branches are both simple statements, although they could have been conditional statements aswell.","Di two branch dey both simple statements, although dem dey conditional statements aswell.",Computer science
"in general, it is a good idea to avoid them when you can.",E dey good idea to avoid dem wen you fit.,Computer science
logical operators often provide away to simplify nested conditional statements.,Di logical operator dey provide way to simplify nested conditional statements.,Computer science
"for example, we can rewrite the following code using a single conditional: if0<x: ifx<10: print( /quotesingle. ts1x is a positive single-digit number./quotesingle. ts1 )the print statement is executed only when we pass both conditionals.",If0<x: ifx<10: print( quotesingle. ts1 ) di print statement dey executed only wen we pass both conditionals.,Computer science
we can get the same effect with the andoperator: if0<xand x<10: print( /quotesingle. ts1x is a positive single-digit number./quotesingle. ts1 ) 3. 7 catching exceptions using try and except earlier we saw a code segment where we used the input andintfunctions to read and parse an integer number entered by the user.,If0<xand x<10: print( quotesingle. ts1x na positive single-digit number.,Computer science
"catching exceptions using try and except 37 when we are executing these statements in the python interpreter, we get anew prompt from the interpreter, think ""oops"", and move onto our next statement.","We get new prompt from di interpreter, think ""oops"", and move onto awa next statement.",Computer science
"however if you place this code in a python script and this error occurs, your script immediately stops in its tracks with a traceback.","If you place dis code for python script and dis error occur, your script immediately stop for its track wit traceback.",Computer science
it does not execute the following statement.,Di following statement no execute di following statement,Computer science
the purpose of tryand except is that you know that some sequence of instruction(s)may have a problem and you want to add some statements to be executed if an error occurs.,Di purpose of tryand except na say you know say some sequence of instruction(s)don get problem and you want add some statements to be executed if an error occur.,Computer science
these extra statements(the except block)are ignored if there is no error.,Di extra statements(the except block)dey ignored if no dey error,Computer science
"you can think ofthe tryandexcept feature in python as an""insurance policy""on a sequence of statements.","You fit think of d tryandexcept feature for python as""insurance policy""on a sequence of statements.",Computer science
conditional execution python starts by executing the sequence of statements in the tryblock.,Di conditional execution python start by executing di sequence of statements for di tryblock.,Computer science
"if all goes well, it skips the except block and proceeds.",E skip di except block and proceeds,Computer science
"if an exception occurs in the try block, python jumps out ofthe tryblock and executes the sequence of statements in the except block.",python jump out of di tryblock and execute di sequence of statements for di except block.,Computer science
python fahren2. py enter fahrenheit temperature:72 22. 22222222222222 python fahren2. py enter fahrenheit temperature: fred please enter a number handling an exception with a trystatement is called catching an exception.,For 72 22. 22222222222222 python fahren2. py enter fahrenheit temperature:72 22. 22222222222222 python fahren2. py enter fahrenheit temperature: fred please enter number handling an exception wit trystatement dey call catch an exception.,Computer science
"in this example, the except clause prints an error message.","for example, Di except clause prints error message",Computer science
"in general, catching an exception gives you a chance to fix the problem, or try again, or atleast end the program gracefully.","for general, to catch exception fit give chance to fix d problem, or try again, or atleast end d program gracefully.",Computer science
"because ofthe definition of and, ifxis less than 2, the expression x >= 2 isfalse and so the whole expression is false regardless of whether(x/y) >2 evaluates to true orfalse.","Di definition of and, ifxis less than 2, di expression x >= 2 deyfalse and so di whole expression dey true regardless of whether(x y)>2 evaluate to true orfalse",Computer science
"when python detects that there is nothing to be gained by evaluating the rest of a logical expression, it stops its evaluation and does not do the computations in the rest ofthe logical expression.","When python detect say nothing dey to be gained by evaluating d rest of a logical expression, e go stop hin evaluation and d computations in d rest of d logical expression.",Computer science
"when the evaluation of a logical expression stops because the overall value is already known, it is called short-circuiting the evaluation.","Di evaluation of logical expression stop because di overall value dey already known, na short-circuiting di evaluation.",Computer science
"while this may seem like a fine point, the short-circuit behavior leads to a clever technique called the guardian pattern.",Di short-circuit behavior lead to clever technique wey dey call di guardian pattern.,Computer science
"debugging 39 the third calculation failed because python was evaluating(x/y) andywas zero, which causes a runtime error.","Di second calculation don fail because python evaluate(x y)andy dey zero, wey cause runtime error.",Computer science
but the first and the second examples did notfail because in the first calculation ywas non zero and in the second one the first part of these expressions x >= 2 evaluated to false so the(x/y) was not ever executed due to the short-circuit rule and there was no error.,Di first and di second examples no fail but di first and di second examples no fail but di first and di second examples no fail but di second part of dis expressions x >= 2 evaluate to false so di(x y)no dey fail bikos di(x y)no dey executed due to di short-circuit rule and no dey no fail.,Computer science
"in the second logical expression, x >= 2 istrue buty!","Di second logical expression, x >= 2 deytrue buty!",Computer science
"in the third logical expression, the y!","Di third logical expression, di y!",Computer science
"in the second expression, we say that y!",We say y!,Computer science
"the most useful parts are usually: what kind of error it was, and where it occurred.","Di most useful parts dey usually: what kind of error wey dey, and where dey occur",Computer science
"syntax errors are usually easy to find, but there area few gotchas.","Di syntax errors dey easy to find, but na few gochas.",Computer science
whitespace errors can be tricky because spaces and tabs are invisible and we are used to ignoring them.,Di whitespace errors dey tricky because space and tabs dey invisible and we dey use to ignor dem,Computer science
"conditional execution in this example, the problem is that the second line is indented by one space.",Di problem na say di second line dey indented by one space.,Computer science
"but the error message points toy, which is misleading.","Di error message points toy, wey dey misleading",Computer science
"in general, error messages indicate where the problem was discovered, but the actual error might be earlier in the code, sometimes on a previous line.","For general, error messages indicate where di problem dey discover, but di actual error might be earlier for di code, but di actual error might be earlier for di code, sometimes on previous line.",Computer science
"in general, error messages tell you where the problem was discovered, but that is often not where it was caused.","For general, error messages tell you where di problem dey discover, but say no dey where di problem dey caused.",Computer science
boolean expression an expression whose value is either true orfalse.,Di boolean expression wey dey either true orfalse.,Computer science
branch one ofthe alternative sequences of statements in a conditional statement.,Di alternative sequence of statements for conditional statement.,Computer science
chained conditional a conditional statement with a series of alternative branches.,Di conditional statement wit series of alternative branches.,Computer science
conditional statement a statement that controls the flow of execution depending on some condition.,Di conditional statement a statement wey controls di flow of execution based on some condition.,Computer science
condition the boolean expression in a conditional statement that determines which branch is executed.,Di boolean expression for conditional statement wey determines which branch dey executed.,Computer science
compound statement a statement that consists of a header and a body.,Di compound statement wey dey compound statement a statement wey dey consist of header and body,Computer science
the header ends with a colon(:).,Di header end wit colon(:).,Computer science
the body is indented relative to the header.,Di bodi dey indented relative to di header,Computer science
guardian pattern where we construct a logical expression with additional comparisons to take advantage ofthe short-circuit behavior.,Guardian pattern where we dey construct logical expression wit additional comparisons to take advantage of d short-circuit behaviour.,Computer science
"logical operator one ofthe operators that combines boolean expressions: and, or, and not.","Di logical operator one of di operator wey combines boolean expressions: and, or, and no",Computer science
nested conditional a conditional statement that appears in one ofthe branches of another conditional statement.,Di conditional statement wey appear for one of di branch of one conditional statement wey dey appear for one of di branch of one conditional statement.,Computer science
"traceback a list ofthe functions that are executing, printed when an exception occurs.","Di function wey dey executin, traceback a list of di functions wey dey executin, printed wen a exception occur.",Computer science
short circuit when python is part-way through evaluating a logical expression and stops the evaluation because python knows the final value for the expression without needing to evaluate the rest ofthe expression.,Di short circuit wen python dey part-way through evaluating logical expression and stop di evaluation bikos python know di final value for di expression without need to evaluate di rest of di expression,Computer science
enter hours:45 enter rate:10 pay:475. 0 exercise 2: rewrite your pay program using tryandexcept so that your program handles non-numeric input gracefully by printing a message and exiting the program.,Di exercise 2: rewrite your pay program using tryandexcept so say your program handle non-numeric input gracefully by printing message and exit di program,Computer science
the following shows two executions ofthe program:3. 11.,Di following show two executions of di program:3. 11. 11.,Computer science
"exercises 41 enter hours:20 enter rate: nine error, please enter numeric input enter hours: forty error, please enter numeric input exercise 3: write a program to prompt for a score between 0. 0 and 1.0.","exercises 41 enter hours:20 enter rate: nine error, please enter numeric input enter hours: forty error, please enter numeric input exercise 3: write a program to prompt for a score between 0. 0 and 1.0.",Computer science
"if the score is out of range, print an error message.","for example, if d score dey out of range print error message.",Computer science
if the score is between 0. 0 and 1.,If Di score dey between 0. 0 and 1.,Computer science
"when you define a function, you specify the name and the sequence of statements.","If you define a function, you specify di name and di sequence of statements",Computer science
"later, you can""call"" the function by name.",We go call di function by name.,Computer science
the expression in parentheses is called the argument ofthe function.,Di expression for parentheses be di argument of di function.,Computer science
the argument is a value or variable that we are passing into the function as input to the function.,Di argument dey value or variable wey we dey pass into di function as input to di function,Computer science
"the result, for the type function, is the type ofthe argument.","Di result, for di type function, na di type of di argument.",Computer science
"it is common to say that a function""takes"" an argument and""returns"" a result.","E dey common to say a function""takes"" argument and""return"" a result",Computer science
the result is called the return value.,"Di result dey call di tin wey dey come out from function, dem dey call am return value, but make we tok am well, na di result wey function dey bring out after e don finish im work.",Computer science
the creators of python wrote a set of functions to solve common problems and included them in python for us to use.,Di creators of python write set of functions to solve common problems and include dem for python for us use.,Computer science
"functions themaxfunction tells us the""largest character""in the string(which turns out to be the letter""w"") and the minfunction shows us the smallest character(which turns out to be a space).","Dimaxfunction tell us di""largest character""for di string(which turnout to be di letter""w"") and di minfunction show us di smallest character(which turnout to be space).",Computer science
another very common built-in function is the lenfunction which tells us how many items are in its argument.,One very common built-in function dey di lenfunction wey tell us how many items dey for its argument.,Computer science
"if the argument to lenis a string, it returns the number of characters in the string.","Di argument to lenis string, e return di number of character for di string.",Computer science
"you should treat the names of built-in functions as reserved words(i. e, avoid using ""max""as a variable name).","Make you treat the names of built-in functions as reserved words(i. e, avoid using ""max""as a name of variable).",Computer science
math functions 454. 4 math functions python has a math module that provides most ofthe familiar mathematical functions.,Di math functions 454. 4 math functions python don provide most of di familiar mathematical functions.,Computer science
"to access one ofthe functions, you have to specify the name ofthe module and the name ofthe function, separated by a dot(also known as a period).","Di name of di module and di name of di function, wey dey separated by dot(also known as period).",Computer science
this format is called dot notation.,Di format i dey call dot notation,Computer science
t he math module also provides a function called logthat computes logarithms base e. the second example finds the sine of radians.,D math module dey also provid function called log wey dey compute logarithm base. d second example finds d sine of radians.,Computer science
"the name ofthe variable is a hint that sinand the other trigonometric functions( cos, tan, etc.)","Di name of di variable dey hint say sinand di oda trigonometric functions( cos, tan, etc.)",Computer science
take arguments in radians.,Dem take arguments for radians.,Computer science
"the value of this variable is an approximation of, accurate to about 15 digits.","Di value of dis variable dey approximation of, accurate to about 15 digits",Computer science
"functions 4. 5 random numbers given the same inputs, most computer programs generate the same outputs everytime, so they are said to be deterministic.","For 5 random numbers wey dey give di same input, most computer programs dey generate di same output everytime, so dem tok say dem dey tok say dem dey deterministic.",Computer science
"determinism is usually a good thing, since we expect the same calculation to yield the same result.",We expect di same calculation to yield di same result,Computer science
"for some applications, though, we want the computer to be unpredictable.",We want di computer to be unpredictable.,Computer science
"games are an obvious example, but there are more.","Di game dey obvious example, but na more",Computer science
"making a program truly nondeterministic turns out to be not so easy, but there are ways to make it atleast seem nondeterministic.","Di ways to make a program truly nondeterministic turnout to be no easy, but ways to make am no deterministic.",Computer science
one of them is to use algorithms that generate pseudorandom numbers.,One of dem dey use algorithms wey dey generate pseudorandom numbers,Computer science
"pseudorandom numbers are not truly random because they are generated by a deterministic computation, but just by looking at the numbers it is all but impossible to distinguish them from random.","Di pseudorandom numbers no truly random because dem dey generate by deterministic computation, but just by looking at di numbers e no dey impossible to distinguish dem from random.",Computer science
"the random module provides functions that generate pseudorandom numbers(which i will simply call""random"" from here on).","Di random module provide functions wey dey generate pseudorandom numbers(which i go call""random"" from here on).",Computer science
the function random returns a random float between 0. 0 and 1. 0(including 0. 0 but not 1.0).,Di function random return random float between 0. 0 and 1. 0(including 0. 0 but no 1.0).,Computer science
"each time you call random, you get the next number in along series.","Each time wey you call random, you go get d next number wey dey for long series.",Computer science
"to see a sample, run this loop: import random for iinrange( 10): x=random. random()print(x) this program produces the following list of 10 random numbers between 0. 0 and upto but not including 1.0.","to see a sample, you go run this loop: import random for iinrange( 10): x=random. random()print(x) this program produces the following list of 10 random numbers between 0. 0 and upto but not including 1.0.",Computer science
run the program more than once and see what numbers you get.,Dem run di program more than once and see what numbers you go get,Computer science
therandom function is only one of many functions that handle random numbers.,Dirandom function dey only one of many function wey handle random numbers.,Computer science
"the function randint takes the parameters lowandhigh, and returns an integer between lowandhigh (including both).","D function randint go take d parameters lowandhigh, con return integer between lowandhigh (including both).",Computer science
a function definition specifies the name of anew function and the sequence of statements that execute when the function is called.,Di function definition define di name of new function and di sequence of statements wey dey execute wen di function dey call.,Computer science
"once we define a function, we can reuse the function over and over throughout our program.","Once we define a function, we fit reused function over and over throughout d program.",Computer science
"here is an example: def print lyrics(): print( ""i/quotesingle. ts1m a lumberjack, and i/quotesingle. ts1m okay.""","Na example be dis: def print lyrics(): print( ""i quotesingle. ts1m a lumberjack, andi quotesingle. ts1m okay.""",Computer science
the name ofthe function is print lyrics.,Di name of di function na print lyrics,Computer science
"the rules for function names are the same as for variable names: letters, numbers and some punctuation marks are legal, but the first character can't be a number.","Di rules for function name dey di same as for name of variable: letters, numbers and some punctuation marks dey legal, but di first character no be number",Computer science
"you can't use a keyword as the name of a function, and you should avoid having a variable and a function with the same name.","As di name of a function, and you go avoid having a variable and a function wit di same name.",Computer science
the empty parentheses after the name indicate that this function doesn't take any arguments.,Di name indicate say dis function no take any arguments,Computer science
later we will build functions that take arguments as their inputs.,We go build functions wey take arguments as dia input,Computer science
the first line ofthe function definition is called the header; the rest is called thebody.,Di first line of di function definition dey call di header; di rest dey call dibody,Computer science
the header has to end with a colon and the body has to be indented.,Di header don end wit colon and di body don dey indented.,Computer science
"by convention, the indentation is always four spaces.",Di indentation dey always four spaces,Computer science
the body can contain any number of statements.,Di bodi fit contain any number of statements.,Computer science
"if you type a function definition in interactive mode, the interpreter prints elli pses (.","If you type a function definition for interactive mode, d interpreter prints elli pses(.",Computer science
defining a function creates a variable with the same name.,Di function create a variable wit di same name,Computer science
"once you have defined a function, you can use it inside another function.","For once you don define a function, you fit use am inside one function.",Computer science
"i/quotesingle. ts1m a lumberjack, and i/quotesingle. ts1 m okay.","i quotesingle. ts1m a lumberjack, andi quotesingle. ts1 m okay.",Computer science
but that's not really how the song goes.,Dis no really how di song go,Computer science
flow of execution 49 this program has two function definitions: print lyrics andrepeat lyrics.,Di program don two function definitions: print lyrics andrepeat lyrics,Computer science
"function definitions get executed just like other statements, but the effect is to create function objects.",Di effect dey to create function objects,Computer science
"the statements inside the function do not get executed until the function is called, and the function definition generates no output.","Di statement inside di function no get executed until di function dey call, and di function definition generate no output.",Computer science
"as you might expect, you have to create a function before you can execute it.","As you fit expect, you go need create function before you fit execute am.",Computer science
"in other words, the function definition has to be executed before the first time it is called.",Di function definition don dey executed before di first time wey dey call,Computer science
"exercise 2: move the last line of this program to the top, so the function call appears before the definitions.","Dem move di last line of dis program to di top, so di function call appear before di definition.",Computer science
run the program and see what error message you get.,Dem run di program and see what error message you go get,Computer science
exercise 3: move the function call back to the bottom and move the definition ofprint lyrics after the definition of repeat lyrics.,exercise 3: move the function call back to d bottom and moved definition ofprint lyrics after d definition of repeat lyrics.,Computer science
what happens when you run this program?,If you run dis program?,Computer science
execution always begins at the first statement ofthe program.,Di first statement of di program start for di first statement of di program.,Computer science
"statements are executed one at a time, in order from top to bottom.","Di statement dey executed one time, for order from top to bottom",Computer science
"function definitions do not alter the flow of execution ofthe program, but remember that statements inside the function are not executed until the function is called.","Di function definition no change di flow of execution of di program, but remember say statement inside di function no dey executed until di function dey call.",Computer science
a function call is like a detour in the flow of execution.,Di function call dey like detour for di flow of execution,Computer science
"instead of going to the next statement, the flow jumps to the body ofthe function, executes all the statements there, and then comes back to pickup where it left off.","Di flow jump to di bodi of di function, dey execut all di statements there, and then kom back to pickup where dey left off.",Computer science
"that sounds simple enough, until you remember that one function can call another.","Di function dey simple enough, until you remember say one function fit call one",Computer science
"while in the middle of one function, the program might have to execute the statements in another function.","For di middle of one function, di program go execute di statements for one function.",Computer science
"but while executing that new function, the program might have to execute yet another function!","Di program go execute dat new function but while dey executing dat new function, di program go execute yet another function",Computer science
"fortunately, python is good at keeping track of where it is, so each time af unction completes, the program picks up where it left off in the function that called it.","For fortunately, python dey good for keeping track of where im dey, so each time af unction complete, di program pickup where im left off for di function wey dey call am.",Computer science
"when it gets to the end ofthe program, it terminates.",E terminate.,Computer science
what's the moral of this sordid tale?,Di moral of dis sordid tale?,Computer science
"when you read a program, you don't always want to read from top to bottom.","When you read a program, you no go always wan read from top to bottom.",Computer science
sometimes it makes more sense if you follow the flow of execution.,sometimes e make more sense if you follow d flow of execution.,Computer science
"for example, when you call math. sin you pass a number as an argument.","for example, wen you call math. sin you pass a number as an argument",Computer science
"some functions take more than one argument: math. pow takes two, the base and the exponent.","Dem take two, di base and di exponent",Computer science
"functions inside the function, the arguments are assigned to variables called parameters.",Di argument dey assigned to variables wey dey call parameters.,Computer science
here is an example of a user-defined function that takes an argument: def print twice(bruce): print(bruce) print(bruce)this function assigns the argument to a parameter named bruce.,Di example of a user-defined function wey dey take argument: def print(bruce)print(bruce) dis function assign di argument to a parameter wey dey named bruce,Computer science
"when the function is called, it prints the value ofthe parameter(whatever it is)twice.","Di function dey call, e prints di value of di parameter(whatever it dey)twice.",Computer science
this function works with any value that can be printed.,Di function works wit any value wey dey printed,Computer science
"eric, the half a bee.",Di half a bee,Computer science
the name ofthe variable we pass as an argument( michael) has nothing to do with the name ofthe parameter( bruce).,Di name of di variable wey pass as argument( michael) don no do wit di name of di parameter( bruce) don no do wit di name of di parameter( bruce).,Computer science
"it doesn't matter what the value was called back home(in the caller); here in print twice, we call everybody bruce.","E no matter wetin dem dey call d value for home(in d caller); for herein print twice, we dey call everybody bruce.",Computer science
"fruitful functions and void functions 514. 10 fruitful functions and void functions some ofthe functions we are using, such as the math functions, yield results; for lack of a better name, i call them fruitful functions.","Di fruitful functions and void functions some of di function wey we use, such as di math functions, yield results; for lack of better name, i call dem fruitful functions",Computer science
"other functions, like print twice, perform an action but don't return a value.","Na print twice, perform action but don di tin wey dey come out from function, dem dey call am return value, but make we tok am well, na di result wey function dey bring out after e don finish im work",Computer science
they are called void functions.,Dem call void functions.,Computer science
"math. sqrt( 5)this script computes the square root of 5, but since it doesn't store the result in a variable or display the result, it is not very useful.","Di script compute di numba wey if you multiply am by itself, e go give you the original numba, we dey call am squa root, but for pidgin, we fit say 'numba wey e be root of anoda numba' of 5, but since e no fit store di result for a variable or display di result, e no dey useful.",Computer science
"void functions might display something on the screen or have some other effect, but they don't have a return value.","Di void functions go display something on di screen or get some oda effect, but dem no get di tin wey dey come out from function, dem dey call am return value, but make we tok am well, na di result wey function dey bring out after e don finish im work",Computer science
"if you try to assign the result to a variable, you get a special value called none.","if you try assign d result to a variable, you go get a special value called none.",Computer science
"for example, we could make avery simple function called addtwo that adds two numbers together and returns a result.",We go make very simple function called addtwo wey add two numbers together and return result.,Computer science
"within the function, the parameters aandbwere 3 and 5 respectively.",Di parameters dey 3 and 5 respectively.,Computer science
the function computed the sum ofthe two numbers and placed it in the local function variable named added.,Di function compute di sum of di two numbers and place am for di local function variable named added.,Computer science
"then it used the return statement to send the computed value back to the calling code as the function result, which was assigned to the variable xand printed out.","E use di statement wey make function stop work at once, den e go give value back to de place wey call am for program to send di computed value back to di kod wey dey call, wey beset of rule or way dem dey give name to tinz, like variable, function, or data structure for kompyuta or tekno mata as di function result, wey dey assigned to di variable xand to print.",Computer science
it may not be clear why it is worth the trouble to divide a program into functions.,E no be clear why e dey worth di trouble to divide program into functions.,Computer science
"there are several reasons: creating anew function gives you an opportunity to name a group of statements, which makes your program easier to read, understand, and debug.","Di new function give you opportunity to name group of statements, wey make your program easier to read, understand, and debug",Computer science
"later, if you make a change, you only have to make it in one place.","If you make change, you only go make am for one place",Computer science
"once you write and debug one, you can reuse it.","Once you write and debug one, you go fit reuse am.",Computer science
"throughout the rest ofthe book, often we will use a function definition to explain a concept.",We go use function definition to explain a concept.,Computer science
"part ofthe skill of creating and using functions is to have a function properly capture an idea such as""find the smallest value in a list of values"".","Di part of di skill of creating and using functions nato get a function properly capture idea such as""find di least for list of values"".",Computer science
later we will show you code that finds the smallest in a list of values and we will present it to you as a function named minwhich takes a list of values as its argument and returns the smallest value in the list.,We goto show you code wey find di smallest for list of values and we go dey return di least for di list.,Computer science
the best way to avoid these problems is to use spaces exclusively(no tabs).,Di best way to avoid dis problems na use space exclusively(no tabs).,Computer science
"most text editors that know about python do this by default, but some don't.","Di most di editor for words wey know about python do dis as e be, but some don dey.",Computer science
"tabs and spaces are usually invisible, which makes them hard to debug, so try to find an editor that manages indentation for you.","Di tabs and space dey usually invisible, wey make dem hard to debug, so try find editor wey manage indentation for you.",Computer science
"glossary 53 also, don't forget to save your program before you run it.","Di glossary 53 also, don forget to save your program before you run am",Computer science
"some development environments do this automatically, but some don't.","Di development environment don do dis automatically, but some don dey don do dis automatically, but some don dey don.",Computer science
"in that case, the program you are looking at in the text editor is not the same as the program you are running.",Di program wey dey make we look for di editor for words no dey di same as di program wey dey run,Computer science
debugging can take along time if you keep running the same incorrect program over and over!,Di debugging go take longtime if you keep running di same incorrect program over and over,Computer science
make sure that the code you are looking at is the code you are running.,Di code you dey make we look na di code you dey running,Computer science
"if you're not sure, put something like print(""hello"")at the beginning ofthe program and run it again.","If you no sure, put something like print(""hello"")for di beginning of di program and run am again",Computer science
"if you don't see hello, you're not running the right program!","If you no see hello, you no run di right program",Computer science
argument a value provided to a function when the function is called.,Di function dey call a value wey di function dey call,Computer science
this value is assigned to the corresponding parameter in the function.,Di value dey assigned to di corresponding parameter for di function.,Computer science
body the sequence of statements inside a function definition.,Di sequence of statement inside a function definition.,Computer science
"composition using an expression as part of a larger expression, or a statement as part of a larger statement.","Di composition wey dey composition using expression as part of larger expression, or statement as part of a larger statement, or statement as part of a larger statement.",Computer science
"deterministic pertaining to a program that does the same thing each time it runs, given the same inputs.","Di same input wey dey deterministic pertaining to a program wey dey do di same thing each time wey dey run, give di same inputs.",Computer science
dot notation the syntax for calling a function in another module by specifying the module name followed by a dot(period) and the function name.,Di syntax for call a function for another module by specifying di module name followed by dot(period) and di function name.,Computer science
flow of execution the order in which statements are executed during a program run.,Di order wey statements dey executed during program run.,Computer science
fruitful function a function that returns a value.,"For fruitful function a function wey dey di tin wey dey come out from function, dem dey call am return value, but make we tok am well, na di result wey function dey bring out after e don finish im work",Computer science
function a named sequence of statements that performs some useful operation.,Di sequence of statements wey perform some useful operation.,Computer science
functions mayor may not take arguments and mayor may not produce a result.,Dem no take arguments and dey no produce result.,Computer science
function call a statement that executes a function.,Dem call statement wey dey execute a function,Computer science
it consists ofthe function name followed by an argument list.,Di function name follow argument list.,Computer science
"function definition a statement that creates anew function, specifying its name, parameters, and the statements it executes.","Di statement wey create new function, specifying dia name, parameters, and di statement wey dem dey execute.",Computer science
function object a value created by a function definition.,Di function object a value wey dey create by a function definition.,Computer science
header the first line of a function definition.,Di first line of a function definition,Computer science
import statement a statement that reads a module file and creates a module object.,Di import statement wey read a module file and create a module object.,Computer science
module object a value created by an import statement that provides access to the data and code defined in a module.,Di module object a value wey dey create by import statement wey provide access to di data and code wey dey define for a module.,Computer science
parameter a name used inside a function to refer to the value passed as an argument.,Di name wey dey use inside a function to talk about di value pass as argument.,Computer science
"pseudorandom pertaining to a sequence of numbers that appear to be random, but are generated by a deterministic program.","Di pseudorandom wey dey pertaining to sequence of numbers wey dey random, but dey generate by deterministic program.",Computer science
return value the result of a function.,"di tin wey dey come out from function, dem dey call am return value, but make we tok am well, na di result wey function dey bring out after e don finish im work d result of a fuction.",Computer science
"if a function call is used as an expression, the return value is the value ofthe expression.","Di tin wey dey come out from function, dem dey call am return value, but make we tok am well, na di result wey function dey bring out after e don finish im work na di value of di expression",Computer science
void function a function that does not return a value.,"Di void function a function wey no di tin wey dey come out from function, dem dey call am return value, but make we tok am well, na di result wey function dey bring out after e don finish im work",Computer science
"functions 4. 14 exercises exercise 4: what is the purpose ofthe ""def""keyword in python?","Di purpose of di""def"" keyword for python?",Computer science
exercises 55 enter score:10. 0 bad score enter score:0. 75 center score:0. 5f run the program repeatedly to test the various different values for input.,exercises 55 enter score:10. 0 bad score enter score:0. 75 center score:0. 5f run d program repeatedly to test d various different values for input.,Computer science
repeating identical or similar tasks without making errors is something that computers do well and people do poorly.,Na something wey computers do well and people do poorly.,Computer science
"because iteration is so common, python provides several language features to make it easier.","Di iteration dey so common, python provide several language feature to make easier",Computer science
one form of iteration in python is the while statement.,Di while way.,Computer science
"here is a simple program that counts down from five and then says ""blastoff!"".","Di simple program wey countdown from five and then tok say ""blastoff!"".",Computer science
"it means,""while nis greater than 0, display the value of nand then reduce the value of nby 1.","E mean,""while nis greater dan 0, display d value of nand then reduced value of nby 1.",Computer science
"when you get to 0, exit the while statement and display the word blastoff!","when you go get to 0, exit d di while way and display d word blastoff!",Computer science
"""more formally, here is the flow of execution for awhile statement:1.",Here na d flow of execution for di while way:1.,Computer science
"evaluate the condition, yielding true orfalse.","evaluated condition, yielding true or false.",Computer science
"if the condition is false, exit the while statement and continue execution at the next statement.","if d condition na false, exit d di while way and continue execution ford next statement.",Computer science
"if the condition is true, execute the body and then go back to step 1.",Di type of flow dey call loop bikos di second step loops back around to di top.,Computer science
this type of flow is called a loop because the third step loops back around to the top.,Di type of flow dey call loop bikos di second step loops back around to di top.,Computer science
we call each time we execute the body ofthe loop an iteration.,We call each time we execute di bodi of di loop an iteration,Computer science
"for the above loop, we would say,""it had five iterations"", which means that the body ofthe loop was executed five times.","We go say,""it get five iterations"", wey mean say di bodi of di loop dey execut five times.",Computer science
the body ofthe loop should change the value of one or more variables so that eventually the condition becomes false and the loop terminates.,Di bodi of di loop go change di value of one or more variables so dat eventually di condition become false and di loop terminate.,Computer science
we call the vari -able that changes each time the loop executes and controls when the loop finishes theiteration variable.,We call di vari -able wey change each time di loop executes and controls wen di loop finish diiteration variable.,Computer science
"if there is no iteration variable, the loop will repeat forever, resulting in an infinite loop.","Di loop go repeat forever, resultin for infinite loop.",Computer science
"in the case of countdown, we can prove that the loop terminates because we know that the value of nis finite, and we can see that the value of ngets smaller each time through the loop, so eventually we have to get to 0.","We fit prove say di loop terminate bikos we know say di value of nis finite, and we fit see say di value of nis smaller each time through di loop, so eventually we get to 0.",Computer science
other times a loop is obviously infinite because it has no iteration variable at all.,For oda times a loop dey infinite because e no get iteration variable for all.,Computer science
sometimes you don't know it's time to end a loop until you get halfway through the body.,sometimes you no sabi d time to end a loop until you go get halfway through d body.,Computer science
in that case you can write an infinite loop on purpose and then use the break statement to jump out ofthe loop.,Di case you fit write infinite loop on purpose and use di break statement to jump out of di loop.,Computer science
"finishing iterations with continue 59 if you make the mistake and run this code, you will learn quickly how to sto pa runaway python process on your system or find where the power-off button is on your computer.","If you make di mistake and run di code, you go learn quickly how to stop runaway python process on your system or find where di power-off button dey on your computer",Computer science
this program will run forever or until your battery runs out because the logical expression at the top ofthe loop is always true by virtue ofthe fact that the expression is the constant value true.,Di program go run forever or until your battery run out because di logical expression for top of di loop dey true by virtue of di fact say di expression dey di constant value true.,Computer science
"while this is a dysfunctional infinite loop, we can still use this pattern to build useful loops as long as we carefully add code to the body ofthe loop to explicitly exit the loop using break when we have reached the exit condition.","Di pattern dey dysfunctional infinite loop, we fit still use dis pattern to build useful loops as long as we carefully add code to di bodi of di loop to explicitly exit di loop using break wen we get exit condition.",Computer science
"for example, suppose you want to take input from the user until they type done.","for example, suppose you want to take input from di user until dem type.",Computer science
"each time through, it prompts the user with an angle bracket.",E prompt di user wit angle bracket.,Computer science
"if the user types done, the break statement exits the loop.",Di break statement exit di loop.,Computer science
otherwise the program echoes whatever the user types and goes back to the top ofthe loop.,Di program echo whatever di user type and to go back to top of di loop.,Computer science
here's a sample run:> hello there hello there> finished finished> done done!,E dey sample run:,Computer science
"this way of writing while loops is common because you can check the condition anywhere in the loop(not just at the top)and you can express the stop condition affirmatively (""stop when this happens"")rather than negatively(""keep going until that happens."").","Di way of writing while loops dey common because you fit check di condition anywhere for di loop(not just for top)and you fit express di stop condition affirmatively (""stop when dis happens"")no be negatively(""keep going until wey dey happen",Computer science
in that case you can use the continue statement to skip to the next iteration without finishing the body ofthe loop fo r the current iteration.,Di case you go use di continue statement to skip to di next iteration without finish di bodi of di loop fo r di current iteration.,Computer science
"here is an example of a loop that copies its input until the user types""done"", but treats lines that start with the hash character as lines not to be printed(kind of like python comments).","Di example of loop wey dey copies im input until di user type""done"", but treat lines wey start wit di hash character as lines no dey printed(almost like python comments).",Computer science
"all the lines are printed except the one that starts with the hash sign because when the continue is executed, it ends the current iteration and jumps back to thewhile statement to start the next iteration, thus skipping the print statement.","Di current iteration dey printed except di one wey start wit di hash sign because when di continue dey executed, e start di next iteration, thus skip di print statement.",Computer science
"when we have a list of things to loop through, we can construct a definite loop using a forstatement.","We fit construct list of things to loop through, we fit construct definite loop using forstatement.",Computer science
"we call the while statement anindefinite loop because it simply loops until some condition becomes false, whereas the forloop is looping through a known set of items so it runs through as many iterations as there are items in the set.","We call di while way anindefinite loop because e simply loop until some condition dey false, whereas di forloop dey loop through a known set of items so e run through as many iterations as e dey items for di set.",Computer science
loop patterns 61 happy new year: joseph happy new year: glenn happy new year: sally done!,loop patterns 61 happy new year: joseph happy new year: glenn happy new year: sally done!,Computer science
"translating this forloop to english is not as direct as the while, but if you think of friends as a set, it goes like this:""run the statements in the body ofthe for loop once for each friend inthe set named friends.""","Di statement for di bodi of di forloop to english no dey direct as di while, but if you think of friends asset, e go like dis:""run di statement for di bodi of di for loop once for each friend wey dey named friends",Computer science
"looking at the forloop, forandinare reserved python keywords, and friend andfriends are variables.","To dey look d forloop, for and in na reserved python keywords, and friends na variable.",Computer science
"for friend infriends: print( /quotesingle. ts1happy new year:/quotesingle. ts1, friend) in particular, friend is the iteration variable for the for loop.","For friend especially, friend dey di iteration variable for di for loop.",Computer science
the variable friend changes for each iteration ofthe loop and controls when the forloop completes.,Di variable friend change for each iteration of di loop and controls wen di forloop complete.,Computer science
the iteration variable steps successively through the three strings stored in the friends variable.,Di iteration variable steps successively through di three strings store for di friends variable.,Computer science
"these loops are generally constructed by: initializing one or more variables before the loop starts performing some computation on each item in the loop body, possibly chang- ing the variables in the body ofthe loop looking at the resulting variables when the loop completes we will use a list of numbers to demonstrate the concepts and construction of these loop patterns.","Di loops dey generally constructed by: initializing one or more variables before di loop start perform some computation on each item for di loop body, possibly chang- ing di variables for di bodi of di loop looking at di resulting variables wey di loop dey make we look di resulting variables wey di loop dey looking at di resulting variables wey di loop dey make we look di resulting variables wey di loop dey make we look di resulting variables wey di loop dey make we look di resulting variables",Computer science
"iteration we set the variable count to zero before the loop starts, then we write a forloop to run through the list of numbers.","We go set d variable count to zero before d loop go start, con write a forloop wey go run through d list of numbers.",Computer science
"our iteration variable is named itervar and while we do not use itervar in the loop, it does control the loop and cause the loop body to be executed once for each ofthe values in the list.","Di iteration variable dey name itervar and while we no use itervar for di loop, e go control di loop and cause di loop body to be executed once for each of di value for di list.",Computer science
"in the body ofthe loop, we add 1 to the current value of count for each ofthe values in the list.",We add 1 to di current value of count for each of di values for di list.,Computer science
"while the loop is executing, the value of count is the number of values we have seen""so far"".","Di loop dey executin, di value of count na di number of values wey we see""so far"".",Computer science
"once the loop completes, the value of count is the total number of items.",Di value of count na di total number of items.,Computer science
"the total number""falls in our lap""at the end ofthe loop.","Di total number""fall for our lap""for di end of di loop.",Computer science
we construct the loop so that we have what we want when the loop finishes.,We construct di loop so we get what we want when di loop finish,Computer science
"instead of simply adding one to the count as in the previous loop, we add the actual number(3, 41, 12, etc.)","We add di actual number(3, 41, 12, etc.)",Computer science
to the running total during each loop iteration.,Di running total during each loop iteration.,Computer science
"if you think about the variable total, it contains the""running total ofthe values so far"".","If you think about di variable total, e contains di""running total of di values so far"".",Computer science
"so before the loop starts total is zero because we have not yet seen any values, during the loop total is the running total, and at the end ofthe loop total is the overall total of all the values in the list.","Di loop start total na zero bikos we no see any values, during di loop total na di running total, and for di end of di loop total na di overall total of all di values for di list.",Computer science
"as the loop executes, total accumulates the sum ofthe elements; a variable used this way is sometimes called an accumulator.","As di loop executes, total accumulate di sum of di elements; a variable wey dey use dis way dey call accumulator.",Computer science
neither the counting loop nor the summing loop are particularly useful in practice because there are built-in functions len() andsum() that compute the number of items in a list and the total ofthe items in the list respectively.,Di built-in functions len() andsum() wey dey compute di number of items for list and di total of di items for di list respectively.,Computer science
"loop patterns 63 loop:41 41 loop:12 41 loop:9 41 loop:74 74 loop:15 74 largest:74 the variable largest is best thought of as the""largest value we have seen so far"".","Di variable largest wey dey best thought of as di""di most wey we see so far"".",Computer science
"before the loop, we set largest to the constant none.",We set largest to di constant none.,Computer science
"none is a special constant value which we can store in a variable to mark the variable as""empty"".","Di none dey special constant value wey we fit store for a variable to mark di variable as""empty"".",Computer science
"before the loop starts, the largest value we have seen so far is none since we have not yet seen any values.",Di most wey we don see so far na none since we no see any value.,Computer science
"while the loop is executing, if largest isnone then we take the first value we see as the largest so far.","Di loop dey executin, if largest nanone then we take di first value wey we see as di largest so far.",Computer science
"you can see in the first iteration when the value of itervar is 3, since largest isnone, we immediately set largest to be 3.","Di first iteration wey di value of itervar dey 3, since largest isnone, we immediately set largest to be 3.",Computer science
"after the first iteration, largest is no longer none, so the second part ofthe compound logical expression that checks itervar >largest triggers only when we see a value that is larger than the""largest so far"".","Di second part of di compound logical expression wey check itervar >largest trigger only when we see value wey dey small than di""largest so far"".",Computer science
"when we see anew ""even larger""value we take that new value for largest.","When we see new value wey dey larger, we go take dat new value ford largest.",Computer science
you can see in the program output that largest progresses from 3 to 41 to 74.,Di program output wey largest progress from 3 to 41 to 74.,Computer science
"at the end ofthe loop, we have scanned all ofthe values and the variable largest now does contain the largest value in the list.",We don scann all of di values and di variable largest now don contain di most for di list.,Computer science
"when the loop has completed, smallest contains the minimum value in the list.","Di loop don complete, smallest contains di smawest amont or degree wey dey possible or dem dey allow for di list.",Computer science
"again as in counting and summing, the built-in functions max() andmin() make writing these exact loops unnecessary.",Di built-in functions max() andmin() make write dis exact loops unnecessary.,Computer science
"iteration 5. 7 debugging as you start writing bigger programs, you might find yourself spending more time debugging.","iteration 5.7 debugging as you start to dey write bigger programs, you fit find yourself spending more time debugging.",Computer science
more code means more chances to make an error and more places for bugs to hide.,more code mean say more chance dey to make error and more place wey d bugs fit hide.,Computer science
"for example, if there are 100 lines in your program and you check them one at a time, it would take 100 steps.","for example, if e dey 100 line for your program and you check dem one time, e go take 100 steps.",Computer science
"instead, try to break the problem in half.","Forstead, try to break di problem for half",Computer science
"look at the middle ofthe program, or near it, for an intermediate value you can check.","Di middle of di program, or near am, for intermediate value wey dey check",Computer science
add a print statement(or something else that has a verifiable effect)and run the program.,E don add print statement(or something else wey dey verifiable effect)and run di program.,Computer science
"if the mid-point check is incorrect, the problem must bein the first half ofthe program.",Di problem must be for di first half of di program.,Computer science
"if it is correct, the problem is in the second half.",Di problem dey for di second half,Computer science
"everytime you perform a check like this, you halve the number of lines you have to search.","Di time you perform check like dis, you halve di number of lines wey dey search.",Computer science
"after six steps(which is much less than 100), you would be down to one or two lines of code, at least in theory.","For six steps(which dey much less than 100), you go down to one or two lines of code, at least for theory.",Computer science
"in practice it is not always clear what the""middle ofthe program""is and not always possible to check it.","Di""middle of di program""dey clear and no always possible to check am",Computer science
it doesn't make sense to count lines and find the exact midpoint.,E no make sense to count lines and find di exact midpoint,Computer science
"instead, think about places in the program where there might be errors and places where it is easy to put a check.","Forstead, think about places for di program wey dey where errors and place wey dey easy to put check.",Computer science
then choose a spot where you think the chances are about the same that the bug is before or after the check.,Di chances dey about di same say di bug dey before or after di check.,Computer science
counter a variable used in a loop to count the number of times something happened.,Dem counter a variable wey dey use for loop to count di number of times something happen.,Computer science
"we initialize a counter to zero and then increment the counter each time we want to""count"" something.","we go initialize counter to zero con start to dey increased counter for everytime wey we wan""count"" something.",Computer science
decrement an update that decreases the value of a variable.,Di change wey decrease di value of a variable.,Computer science
initialize an assignment that gives an initial value to a variable that will be updated.,Di assignment wey give initial value to a variable wey dey updated,Computer science
increment an update that increases the value of a variable(often by one).,Di update wey increase di value of a variable(often by one).,Computer science
infinite loop a loop in which the terminating condition is never satisfied or for which there is no terminating condition.,Di terminating condition no dey satisfied or for which no dey terminating condition,Computer science
iteration repeated execution of a set of statements using either a function that calls itself or a loop.,Di iteration repeat execution of set of statements using either a function wey call amself or loop.,Computer science
"once""done"" is entered, print out the total, count, and average ofthe integers.","Di total, count, and average of di integers",Computer science
"if the user enters anything other than an integer, detect their mistake using tryandexcept and print an error message and skip to the next integers.","if Di user enter anything oda than one integer, detect dia mistake using tryandexcept and print error message and skip to di next integer.",Computer science
exercises 65 enter a number:4 enter a number:5 enter a number: bad data invalid input enter a number:7 enter a number: done 16 3 5. 333333333333333 exercise 2: write another program that prompts for a list of numbers as above and at the end prints out both the maximum and minimum ofthe numbers instead ofthe average.,exercises 65 enter a number:4 enter a number:5 enter a number: bad data invalid input enter a number:7 enter a number: done 16 3 5. 333333333333333 exercise 2: write another program that prompts for a list of numbers as above and at the end to write for screen both the maximum and minimum ofthe numbers not dat one the average.,Computer science
the expression in brackets is called an index.,Di expression for brackets dey call index.,Computer science
the index indicates which character in the sequence you want(hence the name).,Di index indicate which character for di sequence you want(hence di name).,Computer science
"but in python, the index is an offset from the beginning ofthe string, and the offset ofthe first letter is zero.","Di index dey offset from di start of di string, and di offset of di first letter dey zero.",Computer science
"you can use any expression, including variables and operators, as an index, but the value ofthe index has to bean integer.","Di value of di index don be integer, but di value of di index don be integer.",Computer science
"since we started counting at zero, the six letters are numbered 0 to 5.","We start counting at zero, di six letters dey number 0 to 5.",Computer science
"the expression fruit[-1]yields the last letter, fruit[-2] yields the second to last, and soon.","Di expression fruit[-1]yield di last letter, fruit[-2] yield di second to last, and soon.",Computer science
"often they start at the beginning, select each character in turn, do something to it, and continue until the end.","Dem start for di beginning, select each character for turn, do something to am, and continue until di end.",Computer science
this pattern of processing is called a traversal.,Di pattern of processing dey call a traversal.,Computer science
string slices 69 this loop traverses the string and displays each letter on a line by itself.,Di loop traverse di string and display each letter online by itself.,Computer science
"t he loop condition is index< len(fruit), so when index is equal to the length ofthe string, the condition is false, and the body ofthe loop is not executed.","Di loop condition dey index< len(fruit), so when index dey equal to di length of di string, di condition dey false, and di bodi of di loop no dey executed.",Computer science
"the last character accessed is the one with the index len(fruit)-1, which is the last character in the string.","Di last character accessed na di one wit di index len(fruit)-1, wey dey di last character for di string",Computer science
"exercise 1: write awhile loop that starts at the last character in the string and works its way backwards to the first character in the string, printing each letter on a separate line, except backwards.","Di exercise 1: write while loop wey start for di last character for di string and work its way backwards to di first character for di string, printing each letter on separate line, except backwards.",Computer science
"another way to write a traversal is with a forloop: for char infruit: print(char)each time through the loop, the next character in the string is assigned to the variable char.","For char infruit: print(char)each time through di loop, di next character for di string dey assigned to di variable char.",Computer science
the loop continues until no characters are left.,Di loop continue until no character dey left,Computer science
"if you omit the first index(before the colon), the slice starts at the beginning ofthe string.",Di slice start for di beginning of di string.,Computer science
"exercise 2: given that fruit is a string, what does fruit[:]mean?","Di exercise 2: given say fruit dey string, what does fruit[:]mean?",Computer science
"strings 6. 5 strings are immutable it is tempting to use the operator on the left side of an assignment, with the intention of changing a character in a string.","E dey tempting to use di operator on di left side of assignment, wit di intention of changing character for a string",Computer science
"for now, an object is the same thing as a value, but we will refine that definition later.","Di object dey di same thing as value, but we go refine dat definition later",Computer science
an item is one ofthe values in a sequence.,Di item dey one of di value wey dey sequence,Computer science
"the reason for the error is that strings are immutable, which means you can't change an existing string.","Di reason for di error na say strings dey immutable, wey means you no change existing string",Computer science
this example concatenates anew first letter onto a slice of greeting.,dis example dey join new first letter with a slice of greeting.,Computer science
it has no effect on the original string.,Di original string no get effect on di original string,Computer science
"the variable count is initialized to 0 and then incremented each time an""a"" is found.","Di variable count dey initialize to 0 and then increment each time an""a"" dey found",Computer science
"when the loop exits, count contains the result: the total number of a's.","when d loop exists, count go contain d result: d total number of a's.",Computer science
"exercise 3: encapsulate this code in a function named count, and generalize it so that it accepts the string and the letter as arguments.","Di exercise 3: encapsulate dis code for a function wey dey named count, and generalize am so say e accept di string and di letter as argument.",Computer science
"all the uppercase letters come before all the lowercase letters, so: your word, pineapple, comes before banana.","Di word, pineapple, kom before banana",Computer science
"a common way to address this problem is to convert strings to a standard format, such as all lowercase, before performing the comparison.","a common way wey we fit address dis problem nato convert strings to standard format, such as all lowercase, before we go fit perform d comparison.",Computer science
keep that in mind in case you have to defend yourself against a man armed with a pineapple.,keep for mind in case you go need defend yourself against a man armed with pineapple.,Computer science
"an object contains both data(the actual string itself)and methods, which are effectively functions that are built into the object and are available to any instance ofthe object.",Di object get two of dem data(the actual string itself)and methods wey dey effectively function for di object and dey available to any instance of di object.,Computer science
python has a function called dirwhich lists the methods available for an object.,Di python don get function wey dey call dirwhich list di methods available for an object.,Computer science
the type function shows the type of an object and the dirfunction shows the available methods.,Di type function show di type function show di type of an object and di dirfunction show di available methods.,Computer science
"more specifically, make the first character have upper case and the rest lower case.",Di first character get upper case and di rest lower case.,Computer science
calling a method is similar to calling a function(it takes arguments and returns a value)but the syntax is different.,"Di method dey similar to call a method(it take arguments and di tin wey dey come out from function, dem dey call am return value, but make we tok am well, na di result wey function dey bring out after e don finish im work)but di syntax dey different.",Computer science
we call a method by appending the method name to the variable name using the period as a delimiter.,we fit call a methond by adding d method name to d name of variable using d period as a delimeter.,Computer science
"for example, the method upper takes a string and returns anew string with all uppercase letters: instead ofthe function syntax upper(word), it uses the method syntax word. upper().","for example, di method upper take string and return new string wit all uppercase letters",Computer science
the empty parentheses indicate that this method takes no argument.,Di empty parentheses indicate say dis method take no argument.,Computer science
"a method call is called an invocation; in this case, we would say that we are invoking upper on the word.",We go say we dey invoking upper on di word,Computer science
"for example, there is a string method named find that searches for the position of one string within another:6. 9.",Di string method wey dey named find say to find di position of one string within another,Computer science
"as long as we are careful with the order, we can make multiple method calls in a single expression.",We fit make multiple method call for single expression.,Computer science
exercise 4: there is a string method called count that is similar to the function in the previous exercise.,Di string method wey dey call count wey dey similar to di function for di previous exercise,Computer science
"strings 6. 10 parsing strings often, we want to look into a string and find a substring.","strings 6. 10 parsing strings often, we wan look inside a string con find substring.",Computer science
"for example if we were presented a series of lines formatted as follows: from stephen. marquard@ uct. ac. za sat jan 509: 14:16 2008 and we wanted to pull out only the second half ofthe address(i. e, uct. ac. za )from each line, we can do this by using the find method and string slicing.","E. e, uct. ac. za sat jan 509: 14:16 2008 and we go do dis by using di find method and string slicing.",Computer science
"first, we will find the position ofthe at-sign in the string.",We go find di position of di at-sign for di string,Computer science
then we will find the position ofthe first space after the at-sign.,We go find di position of di first space afta di at-sign,Computer science
and then we will use string slicing to extract the portion ofthe string which we are looking for.,We go use string slicing to extract di portion of di string wey we dey looking for,Computer science
"when we slice, we extract the characters from""one beyond the at-sign through upto but not including the space character"".","when we slice, we go comot characters from""one beyond dat-sign through upto but make e no invlude d space character"".",Computer science
this is accomplished by prepending anfto the string literal and enclosing expressions in curly braces{}.,Di accomplished by prepending anfto di string literal and enclosing expressions for curly braces{}.,Computer science
"an expression can appear anywhere in the string, so you can embed a value in a sentence:6. 12.",Na 6. 12. 12.,Computer science
print this!,Di print dis!,Computer science
strings the code works fine until it is presented an empty line.,Di code works fine until e dey present empty line.,Computer science
"then there is no zero-th character, so we get a traceback.","Na zero-th character, so we get traceback",Computer science
"there are two solutions to this to make line three""safe"" even if the line is empty.","Di two solution to make line three""safe"" even if di line dey empty",Computer science
one possibility is to simply use the startswith method which returns false if the string is empty.,one way wey e fit be nato use di startswith method wey return false if di string dey empty,Computer science
"empty string a string with no characters and length 0, represented by two quotation marks.",Di empty string wey no character and length 0 represent two quotation marks.,Computer science
flag a boolean variable used to indicate whether a condition is true or false.,Di boolean variable wey dey use to indicate whether condition dey true or true.,Computer science
invocation a statement that calls a method.,Di statement wey call a method.,Computer science
immutable the property of a sequence whose items cannot be assigned.,Dem dey immutable di property of sequence wey dem no be assigned.,Computer science
"index an integer value used to select an item in a sequence, such as a character in a string.","Di index an integer value wey dey use to select item for sequence, such as character for string.",Computer science
item one ofthe values in a sequence.,Di item one of di value wey dey sequence,Computer science
method a function that is associated with an object and called using dot notation.,Di method wey dey method a function wey dey associated wit an object and call dot notation.,Computer science
object something a variable can refer to.,Di variable dey to talk about.,Computer science
"for now, you can use""object"" and""value"" interchangeably.","We go use""object"" and""value"" interchangeably.",Computer science
search a pattern of traversal that stops when it finds what it is looking for.,E dey search pattern of traversal wey stop when e find what wey dey look for,Computer science
"sequence an ordered set; that is, a set of values where each value is identified by an integer index.",Di set of values wey each value dey identified by integer index,Computer science
slice apart of a string specified by a range of indices.,Di slice apart of a string wey dey specified by range of indices,Computer science
"traverse to iterate through the items in a sequence, performing a similar operation on each.","Di items for sequence, perform similar operation on each.",Computer science
you might want to experiment with some of them to make sure you understand how they work.,I go want to experiment wit some of dem to make sure you understand how dem work,Computer science
strip andreplace are particularly useful.,Di strip andreplace dey useful,Computer science
the documentation uses a syntax that might be confusing.,Di documentation use a syntax wey dey confusing.,Computer science
"for example, in find(sub[, start[, end]]), the brackets indicate optional arguments.","for example, for find(sub[, start[, end]]), di brackets indicate optional argument.",Computer science
"so sub is required, but start is optional, and if you include start, then endis optional.","So sub dey required, but start dey optional, and if you include start, then endis optional.",Computer science
we have learned how to create and use data structures in the main memory.,We learn how to create and use data structure for di main memory.,Computer science
the cpu and memory are where our software works and runs.,d cpu and memory dey where d software dey work.,Computer science
"it is where all ofthe ""thinking""happens.","E dey where all of di""thinking"" dey happen",Computer science
"but if you recall from our hardware architecture discussions, once the power is turned off, anything stored in either the cpu or main memory is erased.","If you recall from awa hardware architecture discussion, once di power dey turn off, anything store for either di cpu or main memory dey erased.",Computer science
"soup to now, our programs have just been transient fun exercises to learn python.",We don dey transient fun exercises to learn python,Computer science
secondary memory is not erased when the power is turned off.,Di secondary memory no dey erased wen di power dey turn off,Computer science
"or in the case of a usb flash drive, the data we write from our programs can be removed from the system and transported to another system.",Di data wey we write from awa programs go remove from di system and transport to another system.,Computer science
we will primarily focus on reading and writing text files such as those we create in a text editor.,we go primarily focus on reading and writing text files such as those wey we dey create for di editor for words.,Computer science
"later we will see how to work with database files which are binary files, specifically designed to be read and written through database software.","We go see how to work wit database files wey dey binary files, specifically designed to read and write through database software.",Computer science
"opening the file communicates with your operating system, which knows where the data for each file is stored.","Di file communicate wit your system wey dey control wetin computer fit do, e dey manage hardware and software, make am possible for apps and services to dey run, e be like brain wey dey direct computer, wey know where di data for each file dey store",Computer science
"when you open a file, you are asking the operating system to find the file by name and make sure the file exists.","Di system wey dey control wetin computer fit do, e dey manage hardware and software, make am possible for apps and services to dey run, e be like brain wey dey direct computer dey ask di system wey dey control wetin computer fit do, e dey manage hardware and software, make am possible for apps and services to dey run, e be like brain wey dey direct computer to find di file by name and make sure di file exist",Computer science
"in this example, we open the file mbox. txt, which should be stored in the same folder that you are in when you start python.","We open di file mbox. txt, we go store for di same folder wey you dey start python.",Computer science
files input and output devices software main memory central processing unit what next?,Di next?,Computer science
network secondary memory figure 7.1: secondary memory from stephen. m. return-path: <p.,For stephen. m. return-path:<p.,Computer science
"date: sat,5 jan. to: from: stephen. subject: [sakai].",Di subject: [sakai],Computer science
"details:. your program h a n dl eopen close read write figure 7.2: a file handle if the open is successful, the operating system returns us a file handle.","Di program h a n dl eopen close read write figure 7.2: file handle if di open dey successful, di system wey dey control wetin computer fit do, e dey manage hardware and software, make am possible for apps and services to dey run, e be like brain wey dey direct computer return us file handle",Computer science
"the file handle is not the actual data contained in the file, but instead it is a""handle"" that we can use to read the data.","Di file handle no dey di actual data wey dey contain for di file, but instead e dey""handle"" wey we use to read di data",Computer science
you are given a handle if the requested file exists and you have the proper permissions to read the file.,I get handle if di request file exist and you go get di proper permissions to read di file.,Computer science
"text files and lines 81 7. 3 text files and lines a text file can be thought of as a sequence of lines, much like a python string can be thought of as a sequence of characters.","Di text files and lines a text file fit be thought of as sequence of lines, much like python string fit be thought of as sequence of character",Computer science
"the lines which start with""from"" separate the messages and the lines which start with""from:"" are part ofthe messages.","Di lines wey start wit""from"" separate di messages and di lines wey start wit""from"" dey part of di messages.",Computer science
"to break the file into lines, there is a special character that represents the""end ofthe line""called the newline character.","Di special character wey represent di""end of di line"" wey dey call di newline character",Computer science
"in python, we represent the newline character as a backslash-n in string constants.",We represent di newline character as backslash-n for string constants,Computer science
"even though this looks like two characters, it is actually a single character.","Di look like two character, na single character.",Computer science
"when we look at the variable by entering""stuff"" in the interpreter, it shows us the in the string, but when we use print to show the string, we see the string broken into two lines by the newline character.","We make we look di variable by entering""stuff"" for di interpreter, e show us di string broken into two lines by di newline character.",Computer science
"files so when we look at the lines in a file, we need to imagine that there is a special invisible character called the newline at the end of each line that marks the end ofthe line.","We need imagine say di special invisible character wey dey call di newline for di end of di line, we need imagine say di newline for di end of di line.",Computer science
so the newline character separates the characters in the file into lines.,Di newline character dey separat di character for di file into lines.,Computer science
our forloop simply counts the number of lines in the file and prints them out.,Di forloop simply count di number of lines for di file and prints dem out,Computer science
"the rough translation ofthe forloop into english is,""for each line in the file represented by the file handle, add one to the count variable.""","Di rough translation of di forloop into english na,""for each line for di file represented by di file handle, add one to di count variable.",Computer science
the reason that the open function does not read the entire file is that the file might be quite large with many gigabytes of data.,Di reason say di open function no read di entire file na say di file might be large wit many gigabytes of data.,Computer science
the open statement takes the same amount of time regardless ofthe size ofthe file.,d open statement dey takke d same amount of time regardless of d size of d file.,Computer science
the forloop actually causes the data to be read from the file.,Di forloop actually cause di data to read from di file.,Computer science
"when the file is read using a forloop in this manner, python takes care of splitting the data in the file into separate lines using the newline character.",python take care of split di data for di file into separate lines using di newline character.,Computer science
python reads each line through the newline and includes the newline as the last character in the line variable for each iteration ofthe forloop.,Di python read each line through di newline and include di newline as di last character for di line variable for each iteration of di forloop.,Computer science
"because the forloop reads the data one line at a time, it can efficiently read and count the lines in very large files without running out of main memory to store the data.","Di forloop read di data one line for a time, e fit efficiently read and count di lines for very large files without running out of main memory to store di data",Computer science
"the above program can count the lines in any size file using very little memory since each line is read, counted, and then discarded.","Di above program don count di lines for any size file using very little memory since each line dey read, count, and then discarded",Computer science
"if you know the file is relatively small compared to the size of your main memory, you can read the whole file into one string using the read method on the file handle.","If you know di file dey small compare to di size of your main memory, you fit read di whole file into one string using di read method on di file handle.",Computer science
we use string slicing to print out the first 20 characters ofthe string data stored in inp.,We use string slicing to show di first 20 character of di string data store for inp.,Computer science
"searching through a file 83 when the file is read in this manner, all the characters including all ofthe lines and newline characters are one big string in the variable inp.","Di file dey read for dis manner, all di character wey dey include all of di lines and newline character dey one long word for di variable inp.",Computer science
"if the file is too large to fit in main memory, you should write your program to read the file in chunks using a fororwhile loop.",Di program go write your program to read di file for chunks using fororwhile loop.,Computer science
we can combine the pattern for reading a file with string methods to build simple search mechanisms.,We fit combine di pattern for reading file wit string methods to build simple search mechanisms.,Computer science
"the output looks great since the only lines we are seeing are those which start with ""from:"", but why are we seeing the extra blank lines?","Di output look great since di only lines we dey see na those we start with ""from:"", but why dey we see di extra blank lines?",Computer science
this is due to that invisible newline character.,Dis dey due to say invisible newline character.,Computer science
"files prints the string in the variable linewhich includes a newline and then print adds another newline, resulting in the double spacing effect we see.","files dey prints d string ford variable line which includes a newline con add print another newline, wey go result in d double spacing effect wey we dey see.",Computer science
"the basic idea ofthe search loop is that you are looking for""interesting"" lines and effectively skipping ""uninteresting"" lines.","Di basic idea of di search loop na say you dey to find""interesting"" lines and effectively skipping ""uninteresting"" lines.",Computer science
"and then when we find an interesting line, we do something with that line.","we find interesting line, we do something wit dat line.",Computer science
"in english, the uninteresting lines are those which do not start with""from:"", which we skip using continue.","Di uninteresting line dey those wey no start wit""from:"", we skip using continue.",Computer science
"for the""interesting"" lines(i. e, those that start with""from:"") we perform t he processing.","for the""interesting"" lines(i. e, those that to start with""from:"") we perform t he processing.",Computer science
we can use the find string method to simulate a text editor search that finds lines where the search string is anywhere in the line.,We go use di find string method to simulate di editor for words search wey find lines wey dey anywhere for di line.,Computer science
since find looks for an occurrence 7.6.,Dem find looks for occurrence 7.6. 6.6. 6.6.,Computer science
here we also use the contracted form ofthe ifstatement where we put the continue on the same line as the if.,We also use di contract form of di ifstatement wey we put di continue on di same line as di if.,Computer science
this contracted form ofthe iffunctions the same as if the continue were on the next line and indented.,Di contract form of di iffunctions di same as if di continue dey on di next line and indented.,Computer science
it would be more usable to ask the user to enter the file name string each time the program runs so they can use our program on different files without changing the python code.,E go be more usable to ask di user to enter di file name string each time di program run so dem fit use awa program on different files without change di python code.,Computer science
files we read the file name from the user and place it in a variable named fname and open that file.,files wey we read d file name from d user and place am for inside a variable named fname con open d file.,Computer science
now we can run the program repeatedly on different files.,We go run di program repeatedly on different files,Computer science
"or""what might our friendly user do that would cause our nice little program to ungracefully exit with a traceback, making us look not-so-cool in the eyes of our users?""","We might awa friendly user do say e go cause awa nice little program to ungracefully exit wit traceback, make us look no-so-cool for di eyes of awa users?",Computer science
this is your last chance.,Di last chance na your last chance,Computer science
what if our user types something that is not a file name?,Di user type something wey no dey file name?,Computer science
"users will eventually do every possible thing they can do to break your programs, either mistakenly or with malicious intent.","Di users go eventually do every possible thing wey dem fit do to break your programs, either mistakenly or wit malicious intent.",Computer science
"as a matter of fact, an important part of any software development team is a person or group called quality assurance(or qa for short)whose very job it is to do the craziest things possible in an attempt to break the software that the programmer has created.",Di important part of any software development team na person or group ca lle quality assurance(or qa for short) wey dey very job nato do di craziest things possible for an attempt to break di software wey di programmer don create.,Computer science
the qa team is responsible for finding the flaws in programs before we have delivered the program to the end users who maybe purchasing the software or paying our salary to write the software.,Di qa team dey responsible for finding di flaws for programs before we don deliver di program to di end users wey dey purchasing di software or pay dia salary to write di software.,Computer science
so the qa team is the programmer's best friend.,Di qa team dey di programmer's b dey friend,Computer science
"so now that we see the flaw in the program, we can elegantly fix it using the try/except structure.","We go see di flaw for di program, we fit elegantly fix amusing di try except structure.",Computer science
we need to assume that the open call might fail and add recovery code when the open fails as follows:7. 8.,We need to assume say di open call go fail and add recovery code wey di open fail as follows:7. 8. 8.,Computer science
it is a function that we call that never returns.,Di function wey we call say no return,Computer science
"now when our user(or qa team)types in silliness or bad file names, we ""catch""them and recover gracefully: python search7. py enter the file name: mbox. txt there were 1797 subject lines in mbox. txt python search7. py enter the file name: nana boo boo file cannot be opened: nana boo boo protecting the open call is a good example ofthe proper use of tryandexcept in a python program.",Na boo wey dey protect di open call na good example of di proper use of tryandexcept for python program.,Computer science
"we use the term ""pythonic"" when we are doing something the""python way"".","We use di term ""pythonic"" wen we dey do something di""python way"".",Computer science
we might say that the above example is the pythonic way to open a file.,We go say di above example dey di pythonic way to open file,Computer science
"once you become more skilled in python, you can engage in repartee with other python programmers to decide which of two equivalent solutions to a problem is""more pythonic"".","Di once you become more skilled for python, you fit engage in repartee wit oda pipo programmers to decide which of two equivalent solution to problem na""more pythonic"".",Computer science
"the goal to be""more pythonic"" captures the notion that programming is part engineering and part art.","Di goal to be more pythonic"" captur di notion say programming dey part engineering and part art.",Computer science
"we are not always interested in just making something work, we also want our solution to be elegant and to be appreciated as elegant by our peers.","We no dey interest for just make something work, we also want awa solution to be elegant and to be appreciate as elegant by our peers.",Computer science
"if the file doesn't exist, a new one is created.","Di file no exist, new one dey create",Computer science
"files thewrite method ofthe file handle object puts data into the file, returning the number of characters written.","Di write method of di file handle object put data into di file, return di number of character written.",Computer science
the default write mode is text for writing(and reading)strings.,Di default write mode dey text for writing(and reading)strings,Computer science
we must make sure to manage the ends of lines as we write to the file by explicitly inserting the newline character when we want to end a line.,We must make sure to manage di end of line as we write to di file by explicitly insert di newline character wen we want end line.,Computer science
"the print statement automatically appends a newline, but the write method does not add the newline automatically.","Di print statement automatically append newline, but di write method no add di newline automatically.",Computer science
"when we are writing files, we want to explicitly close the files so as to leave nothing to chance.","when we dey write files, e better make we closed file so as to leave nothing to chance.",Computer science
it takes any object as an argument and returns a string representation ofthe object.,E take any object as argument and return string representation of di object,Computer science
glossary 89 this can be helpful for debugging.,E dey helpful for debugging,Computer science
one other problem you might run into is that different systems use different characters to indicate the end of a line.,one oda problem wey we fit run into na say different systems dey use different characters to indicated end of a line.,Computer science
"some systems use a newline, represented.","Di system use newline, represent.",Computer science
"others use a return character, represented.",Di return character wey dey represent.,Computer science
some use both.,Dem use both,Computer science
"if you move files between different systems, these inconsistencies might cause problems.","if you move file for different systems, these inconsistencies fit cause problems.",Computer science
"for most systems, there are applications to convert from one format to another.",Di applications wey dey convert from one format to one,Computer science
"or, of course, you could write one yourself.",or make you write another one for yourself.,Computer science
newline a special character used in files and strings to indicate the end of a line.,Di newline special character wey dey use for files and strings to indicate di end of line,Computer science
pythonic a technique that works elegantly in python.,Di pythonic technique wey dey work elegantly for python,Computer science
"""using try and except is thepythonic way to recover from missing files"".",I use try and except na dipythonic way to recover from missing files,Computer science
quality assurance a person or team focused on ensuring the overall quality of a software product.,Di quality assurance a person or team focus on ensuring di overall quality of a software product.,Computer science
qa is often involved in testing a product and identifying problems before the product is released.,Di qa dey involved for testing a product and identifying problems before di product dey release,Computer science
text file a sequence of characters stored in permanent storage like a hard drive.,Di text file sequence of character wey dey store for permanent storage like hard drive.,Computer science
count these lines and then compute the total ofthe spam confidence values from these lines.,E dey compute di total of di spam confidence value from dis lines.,Computer science
"when you reach the end ofthe file, print out the average spam confidence.","For di end of di file, to show di average spam confidence.",Computer science
files enter the file name: mbox. txt average spam confidence:0. 894128046745 enter the file name: mbox-short. txt average spam confidence:0. 750718518519 test your file on the mbox. txt andmbox-short. txt files.,files enter the file name: mbox. txt average spam confidence:0. 894128046745 enter the file name: mbox-short. txt average spam confidence:0. 750718518519 test your file on the mbox. txt andmbox-short. txt files.,Computer science
"exercise 3: sometimes when programmers get bored or want to have a bit of fun, they add a harmless easter egg to their program.","Di exercise 3: sometimes wen programmers get bored or want to get bit of fun, dem add harmless easter egg to dia program.",Computer science
"modify the program that prompts the user for the file name so that it prints a funny message when the user types in the exact file name""na na boo boo"".","Di program wey prompt di user for di file name so say e prints funny message wen di user type for di exact file name""na boo"".",Computer science
the program should behave normally for all other files which exist and don't exist.,Di program go behave normally for all oda files wey exist and don exist.,Computer science
here is a sample execution ofthe program: python egg. py enter the file name: mbox. txt there were 1797 subject lines in mbox. txt python egg. py enter the file name: missing. tyxt file cannot be opened: missing. tyxt python egg. py enter the file name: nana boo boo nana boo boo to you- you have been punk/quotesingle. ts1d!,Di sample execution of di program: python egg. py enter di file name: na boo to you- you dey punk quotesingle.,Computer science
we are not encouraging you to put easter eggs in your programs; this is just an exercise.,We no encourage you to put easter egg for your programs; dis na just exercise.,Computer science
"in a string, the values are characters; in a list, they can be any type.","Di values dey character; for a list, dem fit be any type.",Computer science
the values in lists are called elements or sometimes items.,Di values for lists dey call elements or sometimes items,Computer science
the second is a list of three strings. the elements of a list don't have to be the same type.,Di second na list of three strings. di elements of a list don be di same type.,Computer science
"the following list contains a string, a float, an integer, and (lo!)","Di following list contains string, float, an integer, and (lo!)",Computer science
"another list: [/quotesingle. ts1spam/quotesingle. ts1, 2. 0, 5,[10, 20]]a list within another list is nested.","Di quotesingle. ts1, 2, 5,[10, 20]]a list wey dey within one list wey dey within another list",Computer science
"a list that contains no elements is called an empty list; you can create one with empty brackets,[].","Di list wey contains no elements dey call empty list; you fit create one wit empty brackets,[].",Computer science
lists 8. 2 lists are mutable the syntax for accessing the elements of a list is the same as for accessing the characters of a string: the bracket operator.,Di lists dey mutable di syntax for accessing di elements of a list na di same as for accessing di character of a string: di bracket operator.,Computer science
the expression inside the brackets specifies the index.,Di expression inside di brackets dey specifi di index,Computer science
"when the bracket operator appears on the left side of an assignment, it identifies the element ofthe list that will be assigned.","Di bracket operator dey appear on di left side of assignment, e identify di element of di list wey dey assigned.",Computer science
you can think of a list as a relationship between indices and elements.,you fit think of d list as a relationship wey dey between indices and elements.,Computer science
"this relationship is called a mapping; each index""maps to""one ofthe elements.","Di relationship dey call mapping; each index""maps to""one of di elements.",Computer science
list indices work the same way as string indices: any integer expression can be used as an index.,Di list indices work di same way as string indices.,Computer science
theinoperator also works on lists.,Diinoperator also work on lists,Computer science
the syntax is the same as for strings: for cheese incheeses: print(cheese)8. 4.,the syntax na d same as for strings: for cheese incheeses: print(cheese)8. 4.,Computer science
list operations 93 this works well if you only need to read the elements ofthe list.,Dem work well if you no need read di elements of di list.,Computer science
"but if you want to write or update the elements, you need the indices.","If you wan to write or update di elements, you need di indices.",Computer science
lenreturns the number of elements in the list.,Di number of elements wey dey list,Computer science
"range returns a list of indices from 0 to n1, where nis the length ofthe list.","Di range return list of indices from 0 to n1, wey nis di length of di list.",Computer science
"each time through the loop, igets the index ofthe next element.","Di loop, iget di index of di next element",Computer science
the assignment statement in the body uses ito read the old value ofthe element and to assign the new value.,Di assignment statement for di bodi use ito read di old value of di element and to assign di new value,Computer science
"aforloop over an empty list never executes the body: for xinempty: print( /quotesingle. ts1this never happens./quotesingle. ts1 )although a list can contain another list, the nested list still counts as a single element.","aforloop over an empty list never executes the body: for xinempty: print( quotesingle. ts1this never happens. quotesingle. ts1 )although a list can contain another list, the nested list still counts as a single element.",Computer science
the second example repeats the list three times.,Di second example repeat di list three times.,Computer science
"if you omit the second, the slice goes to the end.",Di slice goto di end.,Computer science
sort arranges the elements ofthe list from low to high:8. 7.,sort arranges the elements ofthe list from low to high:8. 7.,Computer science
"if you accidentally write t=t. sort(), you will be disappointed with the result.",Di result dey disappointed wit di result.,Computer science
"if you don't provide an index, it deletes and returns the last element.","If you don provide index, e delete and return di last element",Computer science
"the other functions( max(), len(), etc.)","Di oda function( max(), len(), etc.)",Computer science
work with lists of strings and other types that can be comparable.,Di work wey dey work wit list of strings and oda type wey dey comparable,Computer science
we could rewrite an earlier program that computed the average of a list of numbers entered by the user using a list.,We go rewrite earlier program wey compute di average of list of numbers wey dey enter by di user using list.,Computer science
we could simply remember each number as the user entered it and use built-in functions to compute the sum and count at the end.,We go simply remember each number as di user enter am and use built-in function to compute di sum and count for di end.,Computer science
"at the end ofthe program, we simply compute the sum ofthe numbers in the list and divide it by the count ofthe numbers in the list to come up with the average.",We simply compute di sum of di numbers for di list and divide am by di count of di numbers for di list to kom up wit di average.,Computer science
"so that's why i use""t"".","I use""t"" so why i use""t",Computer science
thelist function breaks a string into individual letters.,Dilist function break string into individual letters.,Computer science
you can call split with an optional argument called a delimiter that specifies which characters to use as word boundaries.,Dem call split wit optional argument wey dey call di delimiter wey dey describe which character wey dey use as word boundaries,Computer science
lists join is the inverse of split.,Di inverse of split.,Computer science
it takes a list of strings and concatenates the elements.,it takes a list of strings and concatenates the elements.,Computer science
"to concatenate strings without spaces, you can use the empty string,"""", as a delimiter.","to add stings wey no get space, you fit used empty string,"""", as a delimiter.",Computer science
"often we want to find the""interesting lines""and then parse the line to find some interesting partof the line.","We want find di""interesting line""and then parse di line to find some interesting part of di line",Computer science
"what if we wanted to print out the day ofthe week from those lines that start with""from""?","We goto show di day of di week from those lines wey start wit""from""?",Computer science
from sat jan 509: 14:16 2008 thesplit method is very effective when faced with this kind of problem.,Displit method dey very effective wen face wit dis kind of problem,Computer science
"objects and values 99 a b'banana' 'banana' a b'banana' figure 8.1: variables and objects 8. 11 objects and values if we execute these assignment statements: a=/quotesingle. ts1banana/quotesingle. ts1 b=/quotesingle. ts1banana/quotesingle. ts1 we know that aandbboth refer to a string, but we don't know whether they refer to the same string.","We know say aandbboth to talk about a string, but we no know whether dem to talk about di same string.",Computer science
"there are two possible states: in one case, aandbrefer to two different objects that have the same value.","For one case, aandbrefer to two different objects wey don get di same value",Computer science
"in the second case, they refer to the same object.","Di second case, dem to talk about di same object.",Computer science
"to check whether two variables refer to the same object, you can use the isoperator.","to check whether two variables to talk about d same object, you fit used is operator.",Computer science
"if two objects are identical, they are also equivalent, but if they are equivalent, they a re not necessarily identical.","if two objects are identical, they are also equivalent, but if they are equivalent, they a re not necessarily identical.",Computer science
"until now, we have been using""object"" and""value"" interchangeably, but it is more precise to say that an object has a value.","We don use""object"" and""value"" interchangeably, but e dey more precise to say di object get value.",Computer science
"if you execute a=[1, 2, 3], arefers to a list object whose value is a particular sequence of elements.",Di list object wey dey value na particular sequence of elements.,Computer science
"if another list has the same elements, we would say it has the same value.","Di example, na two references to di same object",Computer science
"in this example, there are two references to the same object.","for dis example, na two references dey to d same object.",Computer science
"an object with more than one reference has more than one name, so we say that the object is aliased.","We tok say di object get more than one reference don more than one name, so we say di object dey aliased",Computer science
"in general, it is safer to avoid aliasing when you are working with mutable objects.",E dey safer to avoid aliasing wen you dey work wit mutable objects.,Computer science
"for immutable objects like strings, aliasing is not as much of a problem.","For immutable objects like strings, aliasing no dey as much of problem.",Computer science
"if the function modifies a list parameter, the caller sees the change.",Di caller sees di change.,Computer science
list arguments 101 the parameter tand the variable letters are aliases for the same object.,Di parameter tok di variable letters dey aliases for di same object.,Computer science
it is important to distinguish between operations that modify lists and operations that create new lists.,e dey important to distinguish between operations wey dey modify lists and operations dat create new lists.,Computer science
"for example, this function does not delete the head of a list: def bad delete head(t): t=t[1:] #wrong!",Di function no delete di head of list: def bad delete head(t),Computer science
"the slice operator creates anew list and the assignment makes trefer to it, but none of that has any effect on the list that was passed as an argument.","Di slice operator create new list and di assignment make dem trefer to am, but none of dat no get any effect on di list wey dem pass as argument.",Computer science
an alternative is to write a function that creates and returns anew list.,Di alternative dey to write a function wey create and return new list,Computer science
"for example, tail returns all but the first element of a list: def tail(t): return t[1:]this function leaves the original list unmodified.","for example, tail returns all but the di first one of a list: def tail(t): return t[1:]this function leaves the original list unmodified.",Computer science
then write a function called middle that takes a list and returns anew list that contains all but the first and last elements.,Di function wey dey middle wey dey take list and return new list wey dey contains all but di first and last elements.,Computer science
lists 8. 14 debugging careless use of lists(and other mutable objects)can lead to long hours of debugging.,Di debugging careless use of lists(and oda mutable objects)go lead to long hours of debugging.,Computer science
here are some common pitfalls and ways to avoid them:1.,Di common pitfall and ways to avoid dem,Computer science
don't forget that most list methods modify the argument and return none.,Di list methods dey modify di argument and return none,Computer science
"this is the opposite ofthe string methods, which return anew string and leave the original alone.","Di opposite of di string methods, wey return new string and leave di original alone.",Computer science
if you are used to writing string code like this: word=word. strip()it is tempting to write list code like this: t=t. sort()# wrong!,Di word=word. strip()e dey tempting to write list code like dis: word=word. strip,Computer science
"because sort returns none, the next operation you perform with tis likely to fail.","because say sort dey return none, d next operation wey you go perform dey likely to fail.",Computer science
"before using list methods and operators, you should read the documentation carefully and then test them in interactive mode.",Di documentation carefully and then test dem for interactive mode.,Computer science
pick an idiom and stick with it.,Di idiom and stick wit am,Computer science
part ofthe problem with lists is that there are too many ways to do things.,Di part of di problem wit lists na say na too many way to do things,Computer science
"for example, to remove an element from a list, you can use pop, remove, del, or even a slice assignment.","for example, to remove di element from list, you go use pop, remove, del, or even slice assignment.",Computer science
"to add an element, you can use the append method or the+operator.",Di append method or di+operator.,Computer science
t=t. append(x) #wrong!,Di append(x) #wrong,Computer science
t+[x]# wrong!,Di wrong!,Computer science
t=t+x# wrong!,E dey wrong!,Computer science
try out each of these examples in interactive mode to make sure you understand what they do.,Di examples for interactive mode make sure you understand what dem do,Computer science
"notice that only the last one causes a runtime error; the other three are legal, but they do the wrong thing.","Dem notice say only di last one cause runtime error; di oda three dey legal, but dem do di wrong thing",Computer science
make copies to avoid aliasing.,E dey make copies to avoid aliasing,Computer science
"if you want to use a method like sort that modifies the argument, but you need to keep the original list aswell, you can make a copy.","Di method like sort wey dey modifies di argument, but you need to keep di original list aswell, you fit make copy.",Computer science
"debugging 103 orig =t[:]t. sort()in this example you could also use the built-in function sorted, which returns anew, sorted list and leaves the original alone.","Di example you go use di built-in function sorted, wey return new, sorted list and leave di original alone.",Computer science
but in that case you should avoid using sorted as a variable name!,For dat case you go avoid using sorted as a name of variable but for dat case you go avoid using sorted as a name of variable but for dat case you go avoid using sorted as a name of variable,Computer science
"lists, split, and files when we read and parse files, there are many opportunities to encounter input that can crash our program so it is a good idea to revisit the guardian pattern when it comes to writing programs that read through a file and look for a""needle in the haystack"".","E dey good idea to revisit di guardian pattern wey dey read through file and look for a""needle for di haystack"".",Computer science
"let's revisit our program that is looking for the day ofthe week on the from lines of our file: from sat jan 509: 14:16 2008 since we are breaking this line into words, we could dispense with the use ofstartswith and simply look at the first word ofthe line to determine if we are interested in the line at all.","We dey breaking dis line into words, we fit dispense wit di use ofstarts wit and simply make we look di first word of di line to determine if we dey interest for di line for all.",Computer science
but is it better?,But na e better?,Computer science
what went wrong?,We go wrong?,Computer science
"what messed-up data caused our elegant, clever, and very pythonic program to fail?","Di messed-up data caused awa elegant, clever, and very pythonic program to fail?",Computer science
"you could stare at it for along time and puzzle through it or ask someone for help, but the quicker and smarter approach is to add a print statement.",Di quicker and smart approach dey add print statement.,Computer science
the best place to add the print statement is right before the line where the program failed and print out the data that seems to be causing the failure.,Di best place to add di print statement dey right before di line wey di program fail and to show di data wey dey caus di failure.,Computer science
"now this approach may generate alot of lines of output, but atleast you will immediately have some clue as to the problem at hand.","dis approach fit generate plenty lines of output, but atleast you go immediately get some clue about d problem wey we get for hand.",Computer science
so we add a print ofthe variable words right before line five.,We add print of di variable words right before line five,Computer science
"we even add a prefix ""debug:"" to the line so we can keep our regular output separate from our debug output.","We even add prefix ""debug"" to di line so we fit keep awa regular output separate from awa debug output",Computer science
"when the program fails, the list of words is empty[].","Di program fail, di list of words dey empty[]",Computer science
"ofcourse there are""zero words""on a blank line.","For course na""zero words""for blank line.",Computer science
why didn't we think of that when we were writing the code?,We no think of say wen we dey write di code?,Computer science
"when the code looks for the first word( word[0]) to check to see if it matches""from"", we get an""index out of range""error.","Di code look for di first word( word[0])to check to see if e match""from"", we get""index out of range""error.",Computer science
this ofcourse is the perfect place to add some guardian code to avoid checking the first word if the first word is not there.,Di ofcourse na di perfect place to add some guardian code to avoid check di first word if di first word no dey there,Computer science
"then we added a guardian statement that checks to see if we have zero words, and if so, we usecontinue to skip to the next line in the file.","We add guardian statement wey check if we get zero words, and if so, we use continue to skip to di next line for di file.",Computer science
"glossary 105 we can think ofthe two continue statements as helping us refine the set of lines which are""interesting"" to us and which we want to process some more.",Di glossary 105 we fit think of di two continue statements as we dey help us refine di set of lines wey dey interesting to us and we want to process some more,Computer science
"a line which has no words is ""uninteresting"" to us so we skip to the next line.",We skip to di next line.,Computer science
"a line which does not have""from"" as its first word is uninteresting to us so we skip it.",Di first word dey uninteresting to us so we skip am,Computer science
"the program as modified runs successfully, so perhaps it is correct.","Di program as modified runs successfully, so perhaps e dey correct",Computer science
"our guardian statement does make sure that the words[0]will never fail, but perhaps it is not enough.","Di guardian statement don make sure say di words[0]no fail, but perhaps e no enough.",Computer science
"when we are programming, we must always be thinking,""what might go wrong?""","when we dey program, we gats always dey think, ""wetin fit go wrong?""",Computer science
exercise 2: figure out which line ofthe above program is still not properly guarded.,"Di guardian statement don make sure say di words[0]no fail, but perhaps e no enough.",Computer science
see if you can construct a text file which causes the program to fail and then modify the program so that the line is properly guarded and test it to make sure it handles your new text file.,We see if you fit construct text file wey dey cause di program to fail and then modify di program so say di line dey properly guard and test am make sure im handle your new text file.,Computer science
exercise 3: rewrite the guardian code in the above example without two ifstatements.,exercise 3: rewrite the guardian code in the above example without two ifstatements.,Computer science
"instead, use a compound logical expression using the orlogical operator with a single ifstatement.","instead make we use compound logical expression, we fit used or logical operator with a singe if statement.",Computer science
delimiter a character or string used to indicate where a string should be split.,Di delimiter a character or string wey dey use to indicate where a string dey split,Computer science
element one ofthe values in a list(or other sequence); also called items.,Di element one of di values for list(or oda sequence)also call items.,Computer science
equivalent having the same value.,Di same value wey dey get di same value.,Computer science
index an integer value that indicates an element in a list.,Di index an integer value wey dey indicate an element for list.,Computer science
identical being the same object(which implies equivalence).,Di same object(which dey implies equivalence),Computer science
lista sequence of values.,Di list wey dey list sequence of values.,Computer science
list traversal the sequential accessing of each element in a list.,Di list traversal di sequential accessing of each element for a list.,Computer science
nested list a list that is an element of another list.,Di list wey dey element of another list.,Computer science
an object has a type and a value.,Di object get type and value.,Computer science
reference the association between a variable and its value.,Di association wey dey between variable and its value.,Computer science
but how would you determine that?,Howe go determine dat?,Computer science
how would you produce the list of all the words that shakespeare used?,Di list of all di words wey shakespeare use?,Computer science
"would you download all his work, read it and track all unique words by hand?","I go download all hin work, read am and track all unique words by hand?",Computer science
let's use python to achieve that instead.,We dey use python to achieve dat instead,Computer science
"list all unique words, sorted in alphabetical order, that are stored in a file romeo. txt containing a subset of shakespeare's work.","Dem list all unique words wey dey sort for alphabetical order, wey dey store for file romeo.",Computer science
"create a list of unique words, which will contain the final result.","E create list of unique words, wey go contain di final result",Computer science
write a program to open the file romeo. txt and read it line by line.,Di program to open di file romeo. txt and read am line by line,Computer science
"for each line, split the line into a list of words using the split function.",Di split function dey use di split function.,Computer science
lists already in the list of unique words.,Di list of unique words wey dey already for di list of unique words,Computer science
"if the word is not in the list of unique words, add it to the list.","Di word no dey for di list of unique words, add am to di list.",Computer science
"when the program completes, sort and print the list of unique words in alphabetical order.","Di program complete, sort and print di list of unique words for alphabetical order",Computer science
mbox (mailbox) is a popular file format to store and share a collection of emails.,Na popular file format to store and share collection of emails.,Computer science
this was used by early email servers and desktop apps.,E dey use by early email server and desktop apps,Computer science
"without getting into too many details, mbox is a text file, which stores emails consecutively.","Di box dey text file, wey dey store emails consecutively.",Computer science
emails a re separated by a special line which starts with from(notice the space).,Di space dey notice di space,Computer science
"importantly, lines starting with from:(notice the colon)describes the email itself and does not act as a separator.",Di colon)describe di email itself and no act as separator,Computer science
"imagine you wrote a minimalist email app, that lists the email ofthe senders in the user's inbox and counts the number of emails.","I imagine you write minimalist email app, wey list di email of di senders for di user's inbox and count di number of emails.",Computer science
"write a program to read through the mailbox data and when you find a line that starts with""from"", you will split the line into words using the split function.","As you find line wey start wit""from"", you go split di line into words using di split function.",Computer science
"we are interested in who sent the message, which is the second word on the from line.","We dey interest for we send di message, wey dey second word on di from line.",Computer science
"from sat jan 509: 14:16 2008 you will parse the from line and print out the second word for each from line, then you will also count the number of from(not from:)lines and print out a count at the end.","Di 16 2008 you go parse di from line and to show di second word for each from line, then you go count di number of from(not from:)lines and to show a count for di end",Computer science
"this is a good sample output with a few lines removed: python fromcount. py enter a file name: mbox-short. txt[. some output removed.]there were 27 lines in the file with from as the first word exercise 6: rewrite the program that prompts the user for a list of numbers and prints out t he maximum and minimum ofthe numbers at the end when the user enters""done"".",E dey good sample output wit few lines removed: python fromcount. py enter file name: mbox-short,Computer science
write the program to store the numbers the user enters in a list and use the max() andmin() functions to compute the maximum and minimum numbers after the loop completes.,Di program to store di numbers di user enter for list and use di max() andmin() functions to compute di maximum and minimum numbers after di loop complete.,Computer science
"in a list, the index positions have to be integers; in a dictionary, the indices can be(almost) any type.","For a list, di index position don be integer; for a dictionary, di indices don be(almost) any type.",Computer science
you can think of a dictionary as a mapping between a set of indices(which are called keys)and a set of values.,Di dictionary as a mapping between set of indices( wey dey call keys)and set of value,Computer science
each key maps to a value.,each key dey map to a value.,Computer science
the association of a key and a value is called a key-value pair or sometimes an item.,Di association of key and value dey call key-value pair or sometimes item.,Computer science
"as an example, we'll build a dictionary that maps from english to spanish words, so the keys and the values are all strings.","We fit build dictionary wey map from english to spanish words, so di keys and di value dey all strings.",Computer science
the function dict creates anew dictionary with no items.,Di function dict create new dictionary wit no items,Computer science
"because dict is the name of a built-in function, you should avoid using it as a variable name.","Di dict na di name of built-in function, you go avoid using am as a name of variable.",Computer science
"for example, you can create anew dictionary with three items.",We go create new dictionary wit three items.,Computer science
"dictionaries since python 3. 7x the order of key-value pairs is the same as their input order, i. e.","Di order of key-value pairs na di same as dia input order, i. e.",Computer science
dictionaries are now ordered structures.,Di dictionaries dey now order structures,Computer science
but that doesn't really matter because the elements of a dictionary are never indexed with integer indices.,Di elements of a dictionary no dey index wit integer indices.,Computer science
"for lists, it uses a linear search algorithm.",E use linear search algorithm.,Computer science
"as the list gets longer, the search time gets longer indirect proportion to the length ofthe list.",Di search time get longer for direct proportion to di length of di list.,Computer science
"for dictionaries, python uses an algorithm called a hash table that has a remarkable property: the inoperator takes about the same amount of time no matter how many items there are in a dictionary.",python use algorithm wey dey call hash table wey dey remarkable property: di inoperator take about di same amount of time no matter how many items wey dey for dictionary.,Computer science
it doesn't matter what the values are.,e no matter wetin d values be.,Computer science
then you can use the in operator as a fast way to check whether a string is in the dictionary.,I go use di in operator as fast way to check whether string dey for di dictionary,Computer science
there are several ways you could do it:1.,Na several ways you go do am:,Computer science
"you could create 26 variables, one for each letter ofthe alphabet.","you fit create 26 variables, one go be for each letter wey dey d alphabets.",Computer science
"then you could traverse the string and, for each character, increment the corresponding counter, probably using a chained conditional.","you fit transverse d string and, for each character, make you increased corresponding counter, using a chained conditional.",Computer science
you could create a list with 26 elements.,We go create list wit 26 elements,Computer science
"then you could convert each character to a number(using the built-in function ord), use the number as an index into the list, and increment the appropriate counter.","Di built-in function ord), use di number as index into di list, and increment di appropriate counter.",Computer science
you could create a dictionary with characters as keys and counters as the corresponding values.,We go create dictionary wit character as keys and counters as di corresponding value.,Computer science
"the first time you see a character, you would add an item to the dictionary.","Di first time you see character, you go add item to di dictionary.",Computer science
after that you would increment the value of an existing item.,We go increment di value of an existing item,Computer science
"each of these options performs the same computation, but each of them implements that computation in a different way.","Di each of dis options perform di same computation, but each of dem implement dat computation for different way.",Computer science
animplementation is away of performing a computation; some implementations are better than others.,Di implementation dey way of perform computation; some implementation dey better than odas.,Computer science
"for example, an advantage ofthe dictionary implementa - tion is that we don't have to know ahead of time which letters appear in the string and we only have to make room for the letters that do appear.",Di advantage of di dictionary implementa -tion na say we don know ahead of time wey letters dey appear for di string and we only go make room for di letters wey dey appear,Computer science
theforloop traverses the string.,Diforloop travers di string.,Computer science
"each time through the loop, if cis not in the dictionary, we create anew item with key cand the initial value 1(since we have seen this letter once).",We create new item wit key cand di initial value 1(since we don see dis letter once).,Computer science
if cis already in the dictionary we increment d[c].,if cis already in the dictionary we increment d[c].,Computer science
dictionaries have a method called getthat takes a key and a default value.,Di dictionaries don call get say get key and di normal number.,Computer science
"if the key appears in the dictionary, getreturns the corresponding value; otherwise it returns the default value.","Di key appear for di dictionary, get return di corresponding value; odawise e return di normal number; odawise e return di normal number; odawise e return di normal number",Computer science
"because the get method automatically handles the case where a key is not in a dictionary, we can reduce four lines down to one and eliminate the ifstatement.","Di get method automatically handle di case wey key no dey for dictionary, we go reduce four line down to one and eliminate di ifstatement.",Computer science
so you should take a moment and compare the loop using the ifstatement andinoperator with the loop using the getmethod.,As you go take moment and compare di loop using di ifstatement andinoperator wit di loop using di getmethod,Computer science
"they do exactly the same thing, but one is more succinct.","Di same thing, but one dey more succinct.",Computer science
let's start with avery simple file of words taken from the text of romeo and juliet.,We start wit very simple file of words wey dey aken from di text of romeo and juliet,Computer science
"for the first set of examples, we will use a shortened and simplified version ofthe text with no punctuation.",We go use shortened and simplified version of di text wit no punctuation.,Computer science
later we will work with the text ofthe scene with punctuation included.,We go work wit di text of di scene wit punctuation included.,Computer science
"but soft what light through yonder window breaks it is the east and juliet is the sun arise fair sun and kill the envious moon who is already sick and pale with grief we will write a python program to read through the lines ofthe file, break each line into a list of words, and then loop through each ofthe words in the line a nd count each word using a dictionary.","We go write python program to read through di line of di file, break each line into list of words, and then loop through each of di words for di line a nd count each word using dictionary.",Computer science
dictionaries and files 113 you will see that we have two forloops.,we go see say we don get two forloops,Computer science
the outer loop is reading the lines ofthe file and the inner loop is iterating through each ofthe words on that particular line.,Di outer loop dey reading di lines of di file and di inner loop dey iterating through each of di words on dat particular line.,Computer science
this is an example of a pattern called nested loops because one ofthe loops is the outer loop and the other loop is the inner loop.,E dey example of pattern wey dey called nested loops bikos one of di loops dey di outer loop and di oda loop dey di inner loop.,Computer science
"because the inner loop executes all of its iterations each time the outer loop makes a single iteration, we think ofthe inner loop as iterating ""more quickly""a nd the outer loop as iterating more slowly.","We think of di inner loop as iterating more quickly""nd di outer loop as iterating more slowly.",Computer science
the combination ofthe two nested loops ensures that we will count every word on every line ofthe input file.,Di combination of di two nested loops ensure say we go count every word on every line of di input file.,Computer science
counts[word]+= 1 is equivalent to counts[word]= counts[word]+ 1.,Di equivalent to counts[word]+= 1 na equivalent to counts[word]= counts[word],Computer science
either method can be used to change the value of a variable by any desired amount.,Dem use either method to change di value of a variable by any desired amount.,Computer science
"similar alternatives exist for-=,*=, and/=.","Na similar alternatives exist for-=,*=, and",Computer science
"when we run the program, we see a raw dump of all ofthe counts in unsorted hash order.",We see raw dump of all of di counts for unsorted hash order.,Computer science
"dictionaries 9. 3 looping and dictionaries if you use a dictionary as the sequence in a forstatement, it traverses the keys ofthe dictionary.","Di dictionaries 9. 3 looping and dictionaries if you use dictionary as di sequence for forstatement, e travers di keys of di dictionary",Computer science
we can use this pattern to implement the various loop idioms that we have described earlier.,We go use dis pattern to implement di various loop idiom wey we dey described earlier.,Computer science
here's what the output looks like: annie 42 jan 100 we see only the entries with a value above 10.,Di output look like: annie 42 jan 100 we see only di entries wit value above 10.,Computer science
then we see the key-value pairs in alphabetical order from the forloop.,We see di key-value pairs for alphabetical order from di forloop.,Computer science
"the actual text has lots of punctuation, as shown below.","Di actual text don lots of punctuation, as show below.",Computer science
what light through yonder window breaks?,Di light through yonder window break?,Computer science
"it is the east, and juliet is the sun.","Di east, and juliet dey di sun",Computer science
"arise, fair sun, and kill the envious moon, who is already sick and pale with grief, since the python split function looks for spaces and treats words as tokens separated by spaces, we would treat the words""soft!""","Di python split function look for spaces and treat words as tokens separated by spaces, we go treat di words""soft!""",Computer science
"and""soft"" as different words and create a separate dictionary entry for each word.","and""soft"" as word wey different and create separate dictionary entry for each word.",Computer science
"also since the file has capitalization, we would treat""who"" and""who"" as different words with different counts.","We go treat""who"" and""who"" as different words wit different counts.",Computer science
"we can solve both these problems by using the string methods lower, punctuation, andtranslate.","We fit solve both dis problems by using di string methods lower, punctuation, andtranslate.",Computer science
the translate is the most subtle ofthe methods.,Di translate na di most subtle of di methods.,Computer science
"here is the documentation for translate: line. translate(str. maketrans(fromstr, tostr, deletest r))replace the characters in fromstr with the character in the same position in tostr and delete all characters that are in deletestr.","Di documentation for translate(str. maketrans(fromstr, tostr, deletest r)replace di character for fromstr wit di character for di same position for tostr and delete all character wey dey in deletestr",Computer science
the fromstr andtostr can be empty strings and the deletestr parameter can be omitted.,Di fromstr andtostr don be empty strings and di deletestr parameter don dey omitted.,Computer science
we will not specify the tostr but we will use the deletestr parameter to delete all ofthe punctuation.,we no go specify d tostr but we go used deletestr parameter delete all d punctuation.,Computer science
"overtime, you will see enough example code and read enough ofthe documentation to know where to look to see if someone has already written something that makes your job much easier.","as time dey go, we go see eough example code and read enough documentation make we know where we go look to see if person don already write something wey fit make our job easier.",Computer science
we will pickup this example once we learn about tuples.,We go pickup dis example once we learn about tuples,Computer science
here are some suggestions for debugging large datasets: 9.6.,Here na some suggestions wey we fit use debug large datasets.,Computer science
"glossary 117 scale down the input if possible, reduce the size ofthe dataset.","Di glossary 117 scale down di input if possible, reduce di size of di dataset.",Computer science
"for example if the program reads a text file, start with just the first 10 lines, or with the smallest example you can find.","for example if di program read text file, start wit just di first 10 lines, or wit di smallest example you fit find.",Computer science
"you can either edit the files themselves, or (better)modify the program so it reads only the first nlines.","E fit either edit di files themselves, or (better)modify di program so e read only di first nlines",Computer science
"if there is an error, you can reduce nto the smallest value that manifests the error, and then increase it gradually as you find and correct errors.","We go reduce nto di least wey dey manifest di error, and increase am gradually as you find and correct errors.",Computer science
"check summaries and types instead of printing and checking the entire dataset, consider printing summaries ofthe data: for example, the number of items in a dictionary or the total of a list of numbers.","for example, di number of items for dictionary or di total of list of numbers.",Computer science
a common cause of runtime errors is a value that is not the right type.,Di common cause of runtime errors na value wey no dey right type.,Computer science
"for debugging this kind of error, it is often enough to print the type of a value.","For debugging dis kind of error, na often enough to print di type of value",Computer science
write self-checks sometimes you can write code to check for errors automatically.,We go write self-check sometimes you go write code to check for errors automatically.,Computer science
"for example, if you are computing the average of a list of numbers, yo u could check that the result is not greater than the largest element in the list or less than the smallest.","If you dey comput di average of list of numbers, yo u go check say di result no pass, as in one thing pass anoda, for example, if u get 10 naira and v get 5 naira, u pass v di largest element for di list or less than di smallest.",Computer science
"this is called a""sanity check""because it detects results that are""completely illogical"".","this na wetin we dey call""sanity check""because e dey detect results wey dey""completely illogical"".",Computer science
another kind of check compares the results of two different computations to see if they are consistent.,Di kind of check compare di results of two different computations to see if dem dey consistent,Computer science
"this is called a""consistency check"".","Dis dey call""consistency check"".",Computer science
pretty print the output formatting debugging output can make it easier to spot an error.,e dey print d output formatting and debug output go make am easy to catch error.,Computer science
"again, time you spend building scaffolding can reduce the time you spend debugging.",d time wey you spend to build scaffolding fit reduced time wey you go spend debugging.,Computer science
hashtable the algorithm used to implement python dictionaries.,Di algorithm wey dey use to implement python dictionaries,Computer science
hash function a function used by a hashtable to compute the location for a key.,Di hash function a function wey dey use by hashtable to compute di location for key,Computer science
histogram a set of counters.,histogram a set of counters.,Computer science
implementation away of performing a computation.,implementation na way of performing computation,Computer science
item another name for a key-value pair.,Di item one name for key-value pair,Computer science
key an object that appears in a dictionary as the first part of a key-value pair.,Di first part of key-value pair wey dey appear for dictionary as di first part of key-value pair,Computer science
key-value pair the representation ofthe mapping from a key to a value.,Di key-value pair di representation of di mapping from key to value.,Computer science
lookup a dictionary operation that takes a key and finds the corresponding value.,Di dictionary operation wey take key and find di corresponding value,Computer science
"nested loops when there are one or more loops""inside"" of another loop.","Na one or more loops""inside"" of one loop.",Computer science
the inner loop runs to completion each time the outer loop runs once.,Di inner loop run to completion each time di outer loop run once.,Computer science
value an object that appears in a dictionary as the second part of a key-value pair.,Di second part of a key value pair wey appear for dictionary as di second part of a key value pair,Computer science
"this is more specific than our previous use ofthe word""value"".","E dey more specific than our previous use of di word""value"".",Computer science
dictionaries then look for the third word and keep a running count of each ofthe days ofthe week.,Di dictionaries look for di second word and keep a running count of each of di days of di week,Computer science
"enter a file name: mbox-short. txt 5 enter a file name: mbox. txt 195 exercise 5: this program records the domain name(instead ofthe address)where the message was sent from instead of who the mail came from(i. e, the whole email address).","Di program record di domain name(not dat one di address) wey di message kom from(i. e, di whole email address)",Computer science
"the values stored in a tuple can be any type, and they are indexed by integers.","Di values wey dey store for tuple fit be any type, and dem dey indexed by integers.",Computer science
the important difference is that tuples are immutable.,Di important difference na say tuples dey immutable.,Computer science
tuples are also comparable andhashable so we can sort lists of them and use tuples as key values in python dictionaries.,Di tuples dey also comparable andhashable so we fit sort list of demand use tuples as key value for python dictionaries,Computer science
"with no argument, it creates an empty tuple: 1fun fact: the word ""tuple"" comes from the names given to sequences of numbers of varying lengths: single, double, triple, quadruple, quintuple, se xtuple, septuple, etc.","Di word ""tuple"" kom from di name wey dey given to sequence of number of varying lengths: single, double, triple, quadruple, quintuple, se xtuple, septuple, etc.",Computer science
most list operators also work on tuples.,Di list operator dey work on tuples,Computer science
python starts by comparing the first element from each sequence.,python dey start too dey compared di first one wey dey each sentence.,Computer science
"if they are equal, it goes onto the next element, and soon, until it finds elements that differ.","E goon to di next element, and soon, until e find elements wey dey equal, e goon to di next element, and soon, until e find elements wey dey differ",Computer science
subsequent elements are not considered(even if they are really big).,Di subsequent elements no dey consider(even if dem dey big),Computer science
comparing tuples 121 thesort function works the same way.,Di sort function works di same way.,Computer science
"it sorts primarily by first element, but in the case of a tie, it sorts by second element, and soon.","e dey sort by di first one, but ford case wey we get tie, e go sort by di second one, and soon.",Computer science
"this feature lends itself to a pattern called dsu for decorate a sequence by building a list of tuples with one or more sort keys preceding the elements from the sequence, sort the list of tuples using the python built-in sort, and undecorate by extracting the sorted elements ofthe sequence.","Di feature dey lend amself to pattern wey dey called dsu for decorate sequence by building list of tuples wit one or more sort keys preceding di elements from di sequence, sort di list of tuples wey dey using di python built-in sort, and undecorate by extract di sorted elements of di sequence.",Computer science
"sort compares the first element, length, first, and only considers the second element to break ties.","sort go compared di first one, length, first and e go only consider d di second one wey fit break d tie.",Computer science
the keyword argument reverse=true tells sort to goin decreasing order.,Di keyword argument reverse=true tell sort to go for decreasing order.,Computer science
the second loop traverses the list of tuples and builds a list of words in descending order of length.,Di second loop travers di list of tuples and build list of words for descending order of length.,Computer science
"the four-character words are sorted in reverse alphabetical order, so ""what""appears before""soft"" in the following list.","Di four-character words dey sort for reverse alphabetical order, so ""what""appear before""soft"" for di following list.",Computer science
tuples 10. 3 tuple assignment one ofthe unique syntactic features ofthe python language is the ability to have a tuple on the left side and a sequence on the right side of an assignment statement.,Di unique syntactic feature of di python language na di ability to get tuple on di left side and sequence on di right side of assignment statement.,Computer science
this allows you to assign more than one variable at a time to the given sequence.,dis go allow make you assign more than one variable at a time give d sequence.,Computer science
in this example we have a two-element tuple and assign the first and second elements ofthe tuple to the variables xandyin a single statement.,"for dis example, we get two element tupule and we go assign d first and second elements wey dey d tupule to d variables x andy for inside single statement.",Computer science
"both tuples and lists are sequences, so this syntax works with a two element list aswell.","Di syntax works wit two element list aswell, so dis syntax works wit two element list aswell.",Computer science
"for example, if you try this with a dictionary, it will not work as you might expect.","If you try dis wit dictionary, e no work as you might expect.",Computer science
each value on the right side is assigned to its respective variable on the left side.,Di each value on di right side dey ass igne to dia respective variable on di left side.,Computer science
all the expressions on the rights ide are evaluated before any ofthe assignments.,Di expressions on di rights ide dey evaluate before any of di assignments.,Computer science
"however, since the list of tuples is a list, and tuples are comparable, we can now sort the list of tuples.","Di list of tuples dey list, and tuples dey comparable, we go sort di list of tuples.",Computer science
"for each iteration through the loop, both keyandvalare advanced to the next key-value pair in the dictionary(still in hash order).",Di keyandval dey advanced to di next key-value pair for di dictionary(still in hash order).,Computer science
"the output of this loop is:10 a 1b 22 c again, it is in hash key order(i. e, no particular order).","Di output of dis loop na:10 a 1b 22 c again, e dey in hash key order(i. e, no particular order).",Computer science
"to do this, we first make a list of tuples where each tuple is(value, key).","We first make list of tuples wey dey value, key)",Computer science
"the items method would give us a list of(key, value) tuples, but this time we want to sort by value, not key.","Di items method go give us list of(key, value) tuples, but dis time we wan sort by value, not key.",Computer science
"once we have constructed the list with the value-key tuples, it is a simple matter to sort the list in reverse order and print out the new, sorted list.","We don construct di list wit value-key tuples, na simple matter to sort di list for reverse order and to show di new, sorted list",Computer science
"but instead of simply printing out counts and ending the program, we construct a list of(val, key) tuples and then sort the list in reverse order.","We construct list of(val, key) tuples and then sort di list for reverse order.",Computer science
"since the value is first, it will be used for the comparisons.","Di value dey first, e go use for di comparisons",Computer science
"if there is more than one tuple with the same value, it will look at the second element(the key), so tuples where the value is the same will be further sorted by the alphabetical order ofthe key.","Di second one(the key), so tuples wey di value dey di same go make we look di second one( di key), so tuples wey di value dey di same go make we look di second one( di key), so tuples wey di value dey di same go make we look di second one( di key), so tuples wey di value dey di same go make we look di second one( di key), so tuples wey di value dey di same go make we look di second one( di key), so tuples wey di value dey di same go make we look di",Computer science
tuples at the end we write a nice forloop which does a multiple assignment iteration and prints out the ten most common words by iterating through a slice ofthe list (lst[: 10]).,tupules wey dey d end we go write forloop wey dey okay wey go do plenty assignment iteration con to show d ten words wey dey common pass by iterating through a slice of d list.,Computer science
so now the output finally looks like what we want for our word frequency analysis.,so now d output go finally look like wetin we want for our word frequency analysis.,Computer science
"we would encounter a composite key if we wanted to create a telephone directory that maps from last-name, first-name pairs to telephone numbers.","We go encounter composite key if we go create telephone directory wey map from last-name, first-name pairs to telephone number.",Computer science
"assuming that we have defined the variables last, first, and number, we could write a dictionary assignment statement as follows: directory[last, first] =number the expression in brackets is a tuple.","Di directory[last, first] =number di expression for brackets na tuple.",Computer science
we could use tuple assignment in a forloop to traverse this dictionary.,we fit use tuple assignment for forloop to transverse dis dictionary.,Computer science
"for last, first indirectory: print(first, last, directory[last, first]) this loop traverses the keys in directory, which are tuples.","For last, last, directory[last, first]) dis loop travers di keys for directory, wey dey tuples",Computer science
"it assigns the elements of each tuple to last andfirst, then prints the name and corresponding telephone number.","Dem assign di elements of each tuple to last andfirst, then prints di name and corresponding telephone number.",Computer science
"to avoid enumerating the possible combinations, it is sometimes easier to talk about sequences of sequences.",E dey easier to talk about sequences of sequences.,Computer science
"list comprehension 127 in many contexts, the different kinds of sequences(strings, lists, and tuples) can be used interchangeably.","Di different kind of sequences(strings, lists, and tuples) go use interchangeably.",Computer science
so how and why do you choose one over the others?,so how and why you go choose one over d odas?,Computer science
"to start with the obvious, strings are more limited than other sequences because the elements have to be characters.","Di obvious, strings dey less limited than oda sequence wey dey because di elements dey character.",Computer science
they are also immutable.,Dem dey also immutable,Computer science
"if you need the ability to change the characters in a string(as opposed to creating anew string), you might want to use a list of characters instead.","If you need di ability to change di character for string(as oppose to create new string), you go need use list of character forstead.",Computer science
"lists are more common than tuples, mostly because they are mutable.","Di list dey more common than tuples, mostly because dem dey mutable.",Computer science
but there area few cases where you might prefer tuples: 1.,Di few cases wey you go prefer tuples:,Computer science
"in some contexts, like a return statement, it is syntactically simpler to create a tuple than a list.","For some context, like statement wey make function stop work at once, den e go give value back to de place wey call am for program, e dey syntactically simple to create tuple than list",Computer science
"in other contexts, you might prefer a list.",Di list go prefer a list.,Computer science
"if you want to use a sequence as a dictionary key, you have to use an immutable type like a tuple or string.","if you wan use sequence as a dictionary key, you go use immutable type wey be like tuple or string.",Computer science
"if you are passing a sequence as an argument to a function, using tuples reduces the potential for unexpected behavior due to aliasing.","if you dey pass a sequence as an argument to function, to dey use tuple dey reduced potential for unexpected behaviour due to aliasing.",Computer science
"because tuples are immutable, they don't provide methods like sort andreverse, which modify existing lists.","Di tuples dey immutable, dem no provide methods like sort andreverse, wey modify existing lists.",Computer science
"however python provides the built-in functions sorted andreversed, which take any sequence as a parameter and return anew sequence with the same elements in a different order.","Di python provide di built-in functions sort andreversed, wey take any sequence as a parameter and return new sequence wit di same elements for different order.",Computer science
you can achieve this by writing a for loop and appending one item at a time.,E fit achieve dis by writing a for loop and append one item for time.,Computer science
"compound data structures are useful, but they are prone to what i call shape errors; that is, errors caused when a data structure has the wrong type, size, or composition, or perhaps you write some code and forget the shape of your data and introduce an error.","Na, errors wey dey caused wen data structure don dey wrong type, size, or composition, or perhaps you write some code and forget di shape of your data and introduce an error.",Computer science
"f or example, if you are expecting a list with one integer andi give you a plain ol d integer(not in a list), it won't work.","If you expect list wit one integer andi give you plain ol d integer(not for list), e no work.",Computer science
types which are comparable can be putin a list and sorted.,Di types wey dey comparable dey put for list and sort.,Computer science
"data structure a collection of related values, often organized in lists, dictionaries, tuples, etc.","data structure na collection of related values, wey dey always dey organized for inside lists, dictionaries, tupules, etc.",Computer science
"dsu abbreviation of ""decorate-sort-undecorate"", a pattern that involves building a list of tuples, sorting, and extracting part ofthe result.","Di dsu abbreviation of ""decorate-sort-undecorate"", pattern wey dey involve building list of tuples, sorting, and extract part of di result.",Computer science
gather the operation of assembling a variable-length argument tuple.,gather d operation of assembling variable-length argument tuple.,Computer science
hashable a type that has a hash function.,Di type wey dey hashable type wey don get hash function,Computer science
"immutable types like integers, floats, and strings are hashable; mutable types like lists and dictionaries are not.","Di immutable type like integers, floats, and strings dey hashable; immutable type like lists and dictionaries no dey hashable; immutable type like lists and dictionaries no dey hashable; immutable type like lists and dictionaries no dey hashable; immutable type like lists and dictionaries no dey hashable; immutable type like lists and dictionaries no dey hashable; immutable type like lists and dictionaries no dey",Computer science
scatter the operation of treating a sequence as a list of arguments.,scatter d operation of treating a sequence as a list of arguments.,Computer science
"shape(of a data structure)a summary ofthe type, size, and composition of a data structure.","shape(of a data structure)na summary of d type, size, and composition of a data structure.",Computer science
singleton a list(or other sequence)with a single element.,Di singleton list(or oda sequence)wit single element wit single element.,Computer science
tuple an immutable sequence of elements.,Di sequence wey dey immutable sequence of elements.,Computer science
tuple assignment an assignment with a sequence on the right side and a tuple of variables on the left.,tuple assignment na assignment wey get sequence ford right side and tuple of variables ford left.,Computer science
the right side is evaluated and then its elements are assigned to the variables on the left.,Di right side dey evaluated and then im elements dey assigned to di variables on di left.,Computer science
count the number of messages from each person using a dictionary.,count d number of messages from each person using a dictionary.,Computer science
"after all the data has been read, print the person with the most commits by creating a list of(count, email) tuples from the dictionary.","As all di data don read, print di person wit di most commits by create list of(count, email) tuples from di dictionary.",Computer science
then sort the list in reverse order and print out the person who has the most commits.,Di list for reverse order and to show di person wey get di most commits.,Computer science
sample line: from sat jan 509: 14:16 2008 enter a file name: mbox-short. txt 510. 12.,sample line: from sat jan 509: 14:16 2008 enter a file name: mbox-short. txt 510. 12.,Computer science
exercises 129 enter a file name: mbox. txt 195 exercise 2: this program counts the distribution ofthe hour ofthe day for each ofthe messages.,Di program count di distribution of di hour of di day for each of di messages,Computer science
"you can pull the hour from the""from"" line by finding the time string and then splitting that string into parts using the colon character.","E fit pull di hour from di""from"" line by finding di time string and then split di string into parts using di colon character.",Computer science
"once you have accumulated the counts for each hour, print out the counts, one per line, sorted by hour as shown below.","if you don accumulated couts wey dey each hour, print d counts, one per line, sorted by hour as shown below.",Computer science
your program should convert all the input to lower case and only count the letters a-z.,your program suppose convert all d input go lower case and onl,Computer science
"your program should not count spaces, digits, punctuation, or anything other than the letters a-z.","Di program no dey count spaces, digits, punctuation, or any of di letters a-z.",Computer science
find text samples from several different languages and see how letter frequency varies between languages.,you go find text samples from different languages and see how letter frequency varies between languages.,Computer science
we have been using string methods likesplit andfind and using lists and string slicing to extract portions ofthe lines.,We don use string methods likesplit andfind and using lists and string slicing to extract portions of di line,Computer science
this task of searching and extracting is so common that python has avery powerful module called regular expressions that handles many of these tasks quite elegantly.,Di task of searching and extracting na so common say python get powerful module wey dey call regular expressions wey dey handle many of dis tasks quite elegantly.,Computer science
"the reason we have not introduced regular expressions earlier in the book is because while they are very powerful, they area little complicated and their syntax takes some getting used to.","Di reason we no introduc regular expressions earlier for di book dey because while dem dey powerful, dem dey little complicated and dia syntax takes some getting used to.",Computer science
regular expressions are almost their own little programming language for searching and parsing strings.,regular expressions dey almost on their own little programming laguage for searching and parsing strings.,Computer science
"as a matter of fact, entire books have been written on the topic of regular expressions.","As a matter of fact, entire books don write on di topic of regular expressions.",Computer science
the simplest use ofthe regular expression module is the search()function.,Di simplest use of di regular expression module na di search()function.,Computer science
the following program demonstrates a trivial use ofthe search function.,Di following program demonstrate trivial use of di search function.,Computer science
"regular expressions we open the file, loop through each line, and use the regular expression search()to only print outlines that contain the string""from:"".","Di regular expression wey we open file, loop through each line, and use di regular expression search()to only to show line wey contain di string""from""",Computer science
"this program does not use the real power of regular expressions, since we could have just as easily used line. find()to accomplish the same result.","d program no dey used real power of regular expressions, since we fit just easily use line. find()to accomplish same result.",Computer science
the power ofthe regular expressions comes when we add special characters to the search string that allow us to more precisely control which lines match t he string.,Di power of di regular expressions kom when we add special character to di search string wey allow us to more precisely control which line match thin string.,Computer science
adding these special characters to our regular expression allows us to do sophisticated matching and extraction while writing very little code.,to dey add these special character to our regular expression dey allow us do matching and extraction wey make sense while writing very little code,Computer science
"for example, the caret character is used in regular expressions to match""the beginning""of a line.","Di caret character dey use for regular expressions to match""the beginning""of line.",Computer science
this is still avery simple example that we could have done equivalently with the startswith() method from the string module.,E still very simple example wey we go do equivalently wit di startswith() method from di string module.,Computer science
but it serves to introduce the notion that regular expressions contain special action characters that give us more control as to what will match the regular expression.,Di notion say regular expression contain special action character wey give us more control as to we fit match di regular expression.,Computer science
"the most commonly used special character is the period or full stop, which matches any character.","Di most commonly used special character dey di period or full stop, wey match any character.",Computer science
extracting data using regular expressions 133 this is particularly powerful when combined with the ability to indicate that a character can be repeated any number of times using the*or+characters in your regular expression.,Di ability to indicate say character fit repeat any number of times using di*or+characters for your regular expression.,Computer science
"these special characters mean that instead of matching a single character in the search string, they match zero-or-more characters(in the case ofthe asterisk)or one-or-more ofthe characters(in the case ofthe plus sign).","Di special character mean say not dat one match single character for di search string, dem match zero-or-more character(in di case of di asterisk)or one-or-more of di character(in di case of di plus sign)or one-or-more of di character(in di case of di plus sign).",Computer science
so this will match the following line: from: you can think ofthe.+wildcard as expanding to match all the characters between the colon character and the at-sign.,We go think of di.+wildcard as expandin to match all di character between di colon character and di at-sign,Computer science
"from:.+@it is good to think ofthe plus and asterisk characters as ""pushy"" or""greedy.""","E dey good to think of di plus and asterisk character as ""pushy"" or""greedy""",Computer science
"f or example, the following string would match the last at-sign in the string as the.+ pushes outwards, the one in.","Di following string go match di last at-sign for di string as di.+ push outwards, di one for.",Computer science
to make it.,e go make am.,Computer science
your regex will match the very first instance rather than the last instance.,Di regex go match di very first instance no be di last instance,Computer science
"in the example above, using.+?","Di example above, using.+?",Computer science
"for more details, see the python documentation on greedy vs non-greedy quantifiers.","if you dey find more details, look d python documentation for greedy vs non-greedy quantfiers.",Computer science
let's use the example of wanting to extract anything that looks like an email address from any line regardless of format.,We use di example of wanting to extract anything wey dey like email address from any line regardless of format.,Computer science
this following program uses findall() to find the lines with email addresses in them and extract one or more addresses from each of those lines.,Di following program use findall() to find di line wit email addresses for demand extract one or more addresses from each of di line.,Computer science
we are using at wocharacter sequence that matches a non-whitespace character( \s).,We dey use t wocharacter sequence wey match non-whitespace character( \s).,Computer science
"you will notice we've also appended the letter rjust before our regular expression; this tells python to interpret our regular expression as a raw string, and not to treat backslas hes as escape characters(like we use with).","Di letter rjust before awa regular expression; dis tells python to interpret awa regular expression as raw string, and no to treat backslas hin as escape character(like we use wit).",Computer science
"the output ofthe program would be: translating the regular expression, we are looking for substrings that have atleast one non-whitespace character, followed by an at-sign, followed by atleast one more non-whitespace character.","Di regular expression, we dey looking for substrings wey don get t least one non-whitespace character, followed by atleast one more non-whitespace character.",Computer science
the\s+matches as many non-whitespace characters as possible.,d\s+ match pleny non-whitespace characters.,Computer science
"the regular expression would match twice( and), but it would not match the string because there are no non-blank characters before the at-sign.","Di regular expression go match twice( and), but e no match di string bikos e no match di string bikos e no match di string.",Computer science
extracting data using regular expressions 135 we read each line and then extract all the substrings that match our regular expression.,We read each line and then extract all di substring wey match awa regular expression.,Computer science
"since findall() returns a list, we simply check if the number of elements in our returned list is more than zero to print only lines where we found atleast one substring that looks like an email address.",We simply check if di number of elements for awa return list dey more than zero to print only lines wey we find only lines wey dey like email address.,Computer science
let's declare that we are only interested in the portion ofthe string that starts and ends with a letter or a number.,Dem declare say we no interest for di portion of di string wey start and end wit letter or number.,Computer science
"to do this, we use another feature of regular expressions.",We use one feature of regular expressions.,Computer science
square brackets are used to indicate a set of multiple acceptable characters we are willing to consider match- ing.,Di signs wey look like box dey use to indicate set of multiple acceptable character wey dey willing to consider match- ing.,Computer science
"in a sense, the \sis asking to match the set of ""non-whitespace characters"".","Di\sis ask to match di set of ""non-whitespace character"".",Computer science
now we will be a little more explicit in terms ofthe characters we will match.,Na now we go be a little more explicit for terms of di character wey we go dey atch,Computer science
note that we switched from+to* to indicate zero or more non-blank characters since [a-za-z0-9] is already one non-blank character.,We dey switch from+to* to indicate zero or more non-blank character since [a-za-z0-9] dey already one non-blank character,Computer science
remember that the*or+applies to the single character immediately to the left ofthe plus or asterisk.,Di*or+applies to di single character immediately to di left of di plus or asterisk.,Computer science
"this is because when we append [a-za-z]to the end of our regular expression, we are demanding that whatever string the regular expression parser finds must end with a letter.","E dey because when we append [a-za-z]to di end of our regular expression, we dey demand say whatever string di regular expression parser find must end wit letter.",Computer science
also note that the output ofthe program is a python list that has a string as t he single element in the list.,Di output of di program na python list wey don get string as t he single element for di list.,Computer science
we only want to extract numbers from lines that have the above syntax.,We only want to extract numbers from line wey don get di above syntax.,Computer science
we can construct the following regular expression to select the lines:^x-.,We fit construct di following regular expression to select di line:^x-,Computer science
after the space we are looking for one or more characters that are either a digit(0-9) ora period[0-9.,Di space we dey look for one or more character wey dey either digit(0-9) or period[0-9,Computer science
"note that inside the square brackets, the period matches an actual period(i. e, it is not a wildcard between the square brackets).","Dis note say inside di signs wey look like box, di period match actual period(i. e, na wildcard between di signs wey look like box).",Computer science
this is avery tight expression that will pretty much match only the lines we a re interested in as follows:# search for lines that start with /quotesingle. ts1x/quotesingle. ts1 followed by any non# whitespace characters and /quotesingle. ts1:/quotesingle. ts1 #followed by a space and any number.,Di very tight expression wey fit match only di lines wey we dey interest for as follows:,Computer science
but now we have to solve the problem of extracting the numbers.,We go solve di problem of extracting di numbers but now we go solve di problem of extracting di numbers,Computer science
"while it would be simple enough to use split, we can use another feature of regular expressions to both search and parse the line at the same time.",We fit use one feature of regular expressions to both search and parse di line for di same time.,Computer science
parentheses are another special character in regular expressions.,Di parentheses dey special character for regular expressions.,Computer science
"when you add parentheses to a regular expression, they are ignored when matching the string.","For when you add parentheses to regular expression, dem dey ignored when matching di string.",Computer science
"but when you are using findall(), parentheses indicate that while you want the whole expression to match, you only are interested in extracting a portion ofthe substring that matches the regular expression.","Di parentheses indicate say while you dey use findall(), parentheses indicate say while you want di whole expression to match, you only dey interest for extracting portion of di substring wey dey match di regular expression.",Computer science
so we make the following change to our program:# search for lines that start with /quotesingle. ts1x/quotesingle. ts1 followed by any# non whitespace characters and /quotesingle. ts1:/quotesingle. ts1 followed by a space# and any number.,Di to find line wey start wit quotesingle. ts1 follow di space# and any number,Computer science
the number can include a decimal.,Di number dey include decimal,Computer science
"the numbers are still in a list and need to be converted from strings to floating point, but we have used the power of regular expressions to both search and extract the information we found interesting.",We use di power of regular expressions to both search and extract di information wey we find interesting.,Computer science
"we want to find lines that match the entire expression but we only want to extract the integer number at the end ofthe line, so we surround[0-9]+ with parentheses, and we add$to indicate matches specifically at the end ofthe line.","We want find line wey match di entire expression but we only want to extract di integer number for di end of di line, so we add$to indicate matches specifically for di end of di line.",Computer science
"remember that the[0-9]+ is""greedy"" and it tries to make as large a string of digits as possible before extracting those digits.","Di[0-9]+ dey ""greedy""and e tries make as large string of digits as possible before extract dia digits",Computer science
"this""greedy"" behavior is why we get all five digits for each number.","dis""greedy"" behaiour na why we get all five digits for each number.",Computer science
"the regular expression module expands in both directions until it encounters anon-digit, or the beginning or the end of a line.","Di regular expression module expand for both directions until dem encounter non-digit, or di end of a line.",Computer science
combining searching and extracting 139 now we can use regular expressions to redo an exercise from earlier in the book where we were interested in the time of day of each mail message.,We fit use regular expressions to redo exercise from earlier for di book wey we dey interest for di time of day of each mail message.,Computer science
we looked fo r lines ofthe form: from sat jan 509: 14:16 2008 and wanted to extract the hour ofthe day for each line.,we dey find lines of d form: wey start from sat jan 509:14 16 2008 and we wan extract d hour of d day for each line.,Computer science
previously we did this with two calls to split.,We don do dis wit two call wey dey split,Computer science
first the line was split into words and then we pulled out the fifth word and split it again on the colon character to pull out the two characters we were interested in.,We pull out di fifth word and then we pull out di fifth word again on di colon character to pull out di two character wey dey interest for.,Computer science
"while this worked, it actually results in pretty brittle code that is assuming t he lines are nicely formatted.",E actually result for pretty brittle code wey dey assumin t he line dey nicely formatted.,Computer science
"if you were to add enough error checking(or a big try/except block)to ensure that your program never failed when presented with incorrectly formatted lines, the code would balloon to 10-15 lines of code that wa s pretty hard to read.","If you don add enough error checking(or big try except block)to ensure say your program no fail when presented wit incorrectly formatted lines, di code go balloon to 10-15 lines of code wey wa s hard to read.",Computer science
we can do this in afar simpler way with the following regular expression:^from.,we fit do dis in a simple way wit d following regular expression:^from.,Computer science
this is the definition ofthe kinds of lines we are looking for.,Di definition of di kind of line wey we dey look for,Computer science
"in order to pull out only the hour using findall(), we add parentheses around the two digits as follows:^from.","to fit pull out only d hour using findall(), we go add parentheses around d two digits as follows:^from.",Computer science
"regular expressions 11. 4 escape character regular expressions utilize special characters like to match the beginning of a line,$for the end of a line, and. as a wildcard; however, sometimes we want to match those characters literally.","Di regular expressions 11. 4 escape character regular expression utilize special character like to match di end of line,$for di end of line, and. as wildcard; however, sometimes we go match dia character literally.",Computer science
"we need away to indicate that we want to match the actual character such as a caret symbol, dollar sign, or period.","we need way wey we go take indicate say we wan match d actual character such as caret symbol, dollar sign, or period.",Computer science
we can indicate that we want to simply match a character by prefixing that character with a backslash.,We fit indicate say we fit match a character by prefixing say character wit backlash,Computer science
"for example, we can find money amounts with the following regular expression.",We fit find money amount wit di following regular expression.,Computer science
"remember, as we saw above, inside square brackets, characters are not""special"".","Di period dey di""wild-card"" character and match any character.",Computer science
"inside square brackets, the period is a period.","for inside square bracket, d period na period.",Computer science
"they are search strings with special characters in them that communicate your wishes to the regular expression system as to what defines""matching"" and what is extracted from the matched strings.","Diy dey search strings wit special character for dem wey dey communicate your wishes to di regular expression system as to what define""matching"" and what dey extract from di matched strings.",Computer science
here are some of those special characters and character sequences: matches the beginning ofthe line.,Na some of di special character and character sequence wey dey match di beginning of di line,Computer science
"applies to the immediately preceding character(s)and indicates to match zero or more times in""non-greedy mode"".","apply am to d character wey dey immediately before am and indicate make e match zero or more times in""non-greedy mode"".",Computer science
"in this example, it would match""a"", ""e"",""i"", ""o"", or ""u"", but no other characters.","for dis example, E go match""a"", ""e"",""i"", ""o"", or ""u"", but no oda characters.",Computer science
[a-z0-9] you can specify ranges of characters using the minus sign.,Na-z0-9] you fit specify range of character wey dey using di minus sign,Computer science
this example is a single character that must be a lowercase letter or a digit.,Di example dey single character wey must be lowercase letter or digit.,Computer science
"[a-za-z]when the first character in the set notation is a caret, it inverts the logic.","Di first character for di set notation dey caret, e invert di logic.",Computer science
this example matches a single character that is anything other than an uppercase or lowercase letter.,Di example match single character wey dey anything oda than uppercase or lowercase letter.,Computer science
"()when parentheses are added to a regular expression, they are ignored for the purpose of matching, but allow you to extract a particular subset ofthe matched string rather than the whole string when using findall().","Di parentheses dey add to regular expression, dem dey ignored for di purpose of matching, but allow you to extract a particular subset of di matched string no be di whole string wey dey use findall().",Computer science
"matches the empty string, but only at the start or end of a word.","Dem match di empty string, but only for di start or end of word",Computer science
"so if you have a macintosh or linux system, you can try the following commands in your command-line window.","If you go get macintosh or linux system, you go try di following commands for your command-line window.",Computer science
"if you experiment with the grep command a bit and read the documentation for grep, you will find some subtle differences between the regular expression support in python and the regular expression support in grep.","If you experiment wit di grep command a bit and read di documentation for grep, you go find some subtle di difference between di regular expression support for python and di regular expression support for grep.",Computer science
"as an example, grep does not support the non-blank character \sso you will need to use the slightly more complex set notation[ ], which simply means match a character that is anything other than a space.","Di example, grep no support di non-blank character \sso you need use di slightly more complex set notation[ ], wey simply means match a character wey dey anything oda than space.",Computer science
regular expressions 11. 7 debugging python has some simple and rudimentary built-in documentation that can be quite helpful if you need a quick refresher to trigger your memory about the exact name of a particular method.,Di debugging python don get some simple and rudimentary documentation wey dey quite helpful if you need quick refresher to trigger your memory about di exact name of a particular method.,Computer science
this documentation can be viewed in the python interpreter in interactive mode.,Di documentation dey viewed for di python interpreter for interactive mode.,Computer science
you can bring up an interactive help system using help().,Di interactive help system wey dey use help().,Computer science
"we call this""brittle code""because it is easily broken.","We call dis""brittle code"" bikos im dey easily broken",Computer science
greedy matching the notion that the+and*characters in a regular expression expand outward to match the largest possible string.,Di+and*characters for regular expression expand outward to match di largest possible string.,Computer science
grep a command available in most unix systems that searches through text files looking for lines that match regular expressions.,Di command available for most unix systems wey search through text files wey dey to find lines wey match regular expression.,Computer science
"the command name stands for""generalized regular expression parser"".","Di command name stands for""generalized regular expression parser"".",Computer science
exercises 143 regular expression a language for expressing more complex search strings.,Di exercise 143 regular expression a language wey dey express more complex search strings,Computer science
a regular expression may contain special characters that indicate that a search only matches at the beginning or end of a line or many other similar capabilities.,Di regular expression don contain special character wey dey indicate say search only match for di beginning or end of line or many oda similar capabilities.,Computer science
wildcard a special character that matches any character.,Di wild-card character dey di period,Computer science
in regular expressions the wild-card character is the period.,Di wild-card character dey di period,Computer science
compute the average ofthe numbers and print out the average as an integer.,computed average of d numbers and to show d average as an integer.,Computer science
then we will read through the web page data and parse it.,We go read through di web page data and parse am,Computer science
"asocket is much like a file, except that a single socket provides a two-way connection between two programs.","Di socket dey much like file, except say single socket provide two-way connection between two programs.",Computer science
you can both read from and write to the same socket.,E fit both read from and write to di same socket,Computer science
"if you write something to a socket, it is sent to the application at the other end ofthe socket.","If you write something to socket, e dey send to di application for di oda end of di socket.",Computer science
"if you read from the socket, you are given the data which the other application has sent.","If you read from di socket, you go get di data wey di oda application don send.",Computer science
"but if you try to read a socket1when the program on the other end ofthe socket has not sent any data, you just sit and wait.","If you try read socket1when di program on di oda end of di socket no send any data, you just sit and wait.",Computer science
"if the programs on both ends ofthe socket simply wait for some data without sending anything, they will wait for avery longtime, so an important part of programs that communicate over the internet is to have some sort of protocol.",Di important part of programs wey dey communicate over di internet nato get some sort of protocol.,Computer science
"a protocol is a set of precise rules that determine who is to go first, what they are to do, and then what the responses are to that message, and who sends next, and soon.","Di protocol dey set of precise rules wey dey determine who dey go first, how dem go do, and then what di responses dey to dat message, and who send next, and soon.",Computer science
in a sense the two applications at either end ofthe socket are doing a dance and making sure not to step on each other's toes.,Di two applications for either end of di socket dey do dance and make sure no step on each oda toes.,Computer science
there are many documents that describe these network protocols.,Di document wey dey describe dis network protocols.,Computer science
"if you find it interesting, feel free to read it all.",Dem feel free to read am all,Computer science
"to request a document from a web server, we make a connection, e. g.","to fit request document from a kompia wey dey host and serve wesait, wey dey store and manage file and data make dem dey accessible through intanet, we go make connectio, e. g",Computer science
the web server will respond with some header information about the document and a blank line followed by the document content.,"Di kompia wey dey host and serve wesait, wey dey store and manage file and data make dem dey accessible through intanet go respond wit some header information about di document and blank line follow di document content.",Computer science
"since our program is playing the role ofthe ""web browser"", the http protocol says we must send the get command followed by a blank line.","Na since awa program dey play di role of di""web browser"", di http protocol tok say we must send di get command follow blank line.",Computer science
"signifies an eol (end of line), so signifies nothing between two eol sequences.","e go signify eol(end of line), so signify nothing between d two eol sequences.",Computer science
that is the equivalent of a blank line.,Di equivalent of blank line na di equivalent of blank line,Computer science
"once we send that blank line, we write a loop that receives data in 512-character chunks from the socket and prints the data out until there is no more data to read(i. e, the recv() returns an empty string).","Na once we send blank line, we write loop wey dey receive data for 512-character chunks from di socket and prints di data out until no more data to read(i. e, di recv() return empty string).",Computer science
the program produces the following output: http/1.1 200 ok 12.2.,Di program produce di following output:,Computer science
"for example, the content-type header indicates that the document is a plain text document( text/plain).",Di content-type header indicate say di document dey plain text document( text plain).,Computer science
"after the server sends us the headers, it adds a blank line to indicate the end ofthe headers, and then sends the actual data ofthe file romeo. txt.","Di server send us di headers, e add blank line to indicate di end of di headers, and then send di actual data of di file romeo. txt",Computer science
this example shows how to make a low-level network connection with sockets.,"Di sockets dey use to communicate wit a kompia wey dey host and serve wesait, wey dey store and manage file and data make dem dey accessible through intanet or wit mail server or many oda kind of servers.",Computer science
sockets can be used to communicate with a web server or with a mail server or many other kinds of servers.,"Di sockets dey use to communicate wit a kompia wey dey host and serve wesait, wey dey store and manage file and data make dem dey accessible through intanet or wit mail server or many oda kind of servers.",Computer science
all that is needed is to find the document which describes the protocol and write the code to send and receive the data according to the protocol.,Di document wey dey describe di protocol and write di code to send and receive di data according to di protocol.,Computer science
"however, since the protocol that we use most commonly is the http web protocol, python has a special library specifically designed to support the http protocol for the retrieval of documents and data over the web.","Di protocol wey we use most commonly na di http web protocol, python don get special library specifically designed to support di http protocol for di retrieval of document and data over di web.",Computer science
"one ofthe requirements for using the http protocol is the need to send and receive data as bytes objects, instead of strings.","One of di requirements for using di http protocol na di need to send and receive data as bytes objects, not dat one strings.",Computer science
"in the preceding example, the encode() anddecode() methods convert strings into bytes objects and back again.",Di encode() anddecode() methods convert strings into bytes objects and back again.,Computer science
networked programs the next example uses b/quotesingle. ts1/quotesingle. ts1notation to specify that a variable should be stored as a bytes object.,Di next example uses b quotesingle. ts1 quotesingle. ts1notation to specify say a variable dey store as bytes object,Computer science
encode() andb/quotesingle. ts1/quotesingle. ts1are equivalent.,encode() andb quotesingle. ts1 quotesingle. ts1are equivalent.,Computer science
we can use a similar program to retrieve an image using http.,we fit use similar program retrieve image from http.,Computer science
"once the program completes, you can view the image data by opening the file stuff. jpg in an image viewer.","Di program complete, you fit view di image data by opening di file stuff.",Computer science
"as the program runs, you can see that we don't get 5120 characters each time we call the recv() method.","Di program run, you fit see say we no get 5120 character each time we call di recv() method.",Computer science
we get as many characters as have been transferred across the network to us by the web server at the moment we call recv().,"We get as many character wey dey transfer across di network to us by di kompia wey dey host and serve wesait, wey dey store and manage file and data make dem dey accessible through intanet at di moment we call recv()",Computer science
"in this example, we either get as few as 3200 characters each time we request upto 5120 characters of data.","for dis example, we either get small character like 3200 everytime wey we request reach 5120 characters of data.",Computer science
your results maybe different depending on your network speed.,Di results dey different based on your network speed.,Computer science
"also note that on the last call to recv() we get 3167 bytes, which is the end ofthe stream, and in the next call to recv() we get a zero-length string that tells us that the server has called close()on its end ofthe socket and there is no more data forthcoming.","Di last call to recv() we get 3167 bytes, wey dey di end of di stream, and for di next call to recv() we get zero-length string wey tell us say di server don call close()on di end of di socket and nano more data forthcoming.",Computer science
we can slowdown our successive recv() calls by uncommenting the call to time. sleep().,we fit slowdown our successive recv() calls by uncommenting d call to time. sleep().,Computer science
"this way, we wait a quarter of a second after each call so that the server can""get ahead""of us and send more data to us before we call recv() again.","we go wait a quarter of a second after each call so d server go fit""go ahead""of us con help us send more data before we go fit call recv() again.",Computer science
there is a buffer between the server making send()requests and our application making recv() requests.,Di server making send()requests and awa application make recv() request.,Computer science
"when we run the program with the delay in place, at some point the server might fill up the buffer in the socket and be forced to pause until our program starts to empty the buffer.","We run di program wit di delay for place, at some point di server go fill up di buffer for di socket and force to pause until awa program start to empty di buffer",Computer science
"the pausing of either the sending application or the receiving application is called""flow control.""","Di pausing of either di sending application or di receiving application dey call""flow control""",Computer science
"using urllib, you can treat a webpage much like a file.","For urllib, you fit treat a webpage much like file",Computer science
you simply indicate which webpage you would like to retrieve and urllib handles all ofthe http protocol and header details.,Di pipo wey dey like to retrieve and urllib handle all of di http protocol and header details.,Computer science
"the headers are still sent, but the urllib code consumes the headers and only returns the data to us.",Di urllib code consum di headers and only return di data to us.,Computer science
"the data in these files is generally not useful to print out, but you can easily make a copy of a url to a local file on your hard disk using urllib.","Di data for dis files dey generally no useful to show, but you fit make copy of a url to local file for your hard disk using urllib.",Computer science
the wbargument for open()opens a binary file for writing only.,Di wbargument for open()open binary file for writing only.,Computer science
this program will work if the size ofthe file is less than the size ofthe memory of your computer.,Di program go work if di size of di file dey less thin di size of di memory of your computer,Computer science
"however if this is a large audio or video file, this program may crash or at least run extremely slowly when your computer runs out of memory.",Di program go crash or at least run extremely slowly wen your computer run out of memory.,Computer science
"networked programs running out of memory, we retrieve the data in blocks(or buffers)and then write each block to your disk before retrieving the next block.",We retrieve di data for blocks(or buffer)and write each block to your disk before retrieving di next block.,Computer science
this way the program ca n read any size file without using up all ofthe memory you have in your computer.,dis way d program fit read any size file without using up all d memory wey you go get for computer.,Computer science
this program runs as follows: python curl2. py 230210 characters copied.,Di program run as follow: python curl2. py 230210 character copied,Computer science
"web scraping is when we write a program that pretends to be a web browser and retrieves pages, then examines the data in those pages looking for patterns.","We write program wey dey pretend to be web browser and retrieve pages, then examine di data for those pages wey dey looking for pattern.",Computer science
"as an example, a search engine such as google will look at the source of one webpage and extract the links to other pages and retrieve those pages, extracting links, and soon.","Di search engine wey be google go make we look di source of one webpage and extract di link to oda pages and retrieve those pages, extract link, and soon.",Computer science
"using this technique, google spiders its way through nearly all ofthe pages on the web.","Di technique, google spider dia way through nearly all of di pages on di web.",Computer science
"google also uses the frequency of links from pages it finds to a particular page as one measure of how""important"" a page is and how high the page should appear in its search results.","Di frequency of links from pages wey dem find to a particular page as one measure of how""important"" a page dey and how high di page dey appear for its search results.",Computer science
here is a simple webpage: 12. 7.,E dey simple website page:12. 7.7.,Computer science
the question mark behind the[s]?,Di question mark behind di[s]?,Computer science
"indicates to search for the string"" followed by zero or one""s"".","e dey indicate make e to find d string""followed by zero or one""s"".",Computer science
the question mark added to the.+?,Di question mark add to di.+?,Computer science
"indicates that the match is to be done in a""non-greedy"" fashion instead of a""greedy"" fashion.","Di match dey done for non-greedy fashion not dat one a""greedy"" fashion",Computer science
anon-greedy match tries to find the smallest possible matching string and a greedy match tries to find the largest possible matching string.,Di non-greedy match tries to find di smallest possible matching string and greedy match tries to find di smallest possible matching string.,Computer science
theread method returns html source code as a bytes object instead of returning an httpresponse object.,dread method returns html source code as bytes object instead to return an http response object.,Computer science
"the findall regular expression method will give us a list of all ofthe strings that match our regular expression, returning only the link text between the double quotes.","Di findall regular expression method go give us list of all of di strings wey match awa regular expression, return only di link text between di double quote.",Computer science
"but since there area lot of""broken"" html pages out there, a solution only using regular expressions might either miss some valid links or end up with bad data.","since plenty""broken"" html pages dey out there, solution nato use regular expressions fit miss some valid links or end up wit bad data.",Computer science
there area number of python libraries which can help you parse html and extract data from the pages.,Di number of python libraries wey go help you parse html and extract data from di pages,Computer science
each ofthe libraries has its strengths and weaknesses and you can pick one based on your needs.,Di libraries don dey strength and weakness as and you fit pick one based on your needs.,Computer science
"as an example, we will simply parse some html input and extract links using thebeautifulsoup library.","as example, we fit parse some html input con extract links using d beautifulsoup library.",Computer science
beautifulsoup tolerates highly flawed html and still lets you easily extract the data you need.,beautifulsoup dey tolerate html wey no dey perfect and e still dey allow us easily extract d data wey we need.,Computer science
"there is also a curl3. py sample program that does this task a little more effectively, in case you actually want to use this pattern in a program you ar e writing.","Di sample program wey dey do dis task a little more effectively, in case you go use dis pattern for program you dey write.",Computer science
port a number that generally indicates which application you are contacting when you make a socket connection to a server.,Di number wey generally indicate which application you dey contact when you make socket connection to a server.,Computer science
"as an example, web traffic usually uses port 80 while email traffic uses port 25.","as example, web traffic dey use port 80 while email traffic dey use port 25.",Computer science
"networked programs scrape when a program pretends to be a web browser and retrieves a webpage, then looks at the webpage content.","networked programs dey scrape when a program pretend like say hin be web browser and retrieves a webpage, den looks at d webpage content.",Computer science
often programs are following the links in one page to find the next page so they can traverse a network of pages or a social network.,"Di programs dey follow di links for one page to find di next page so dem fit traverse network of pages or netwok wey dey connect pipo or oganization, wey dem dey share tori, do business, or dey as friends, wey dem sabi each oda, no be only for one kain tin, but for plenti kain tin wey dem dey do together.",Computer science
socket a network connection between two applications where the applications can send and receive data in either direction.,Dem socket network connection between two applications wey dem send and receive data for either direction.,Computer science
spider the act of a web search engine retrieving a page and then all the pages linked from a page and soon until they have nearly all ofthe pages on the internet which they use to build their search index.,Di spider di act of a web search engine retrieving page and then all di pages wey dem use to build dia search index.,Computer science
you can use split(/quotesingle. ts1//quotesingle. ts1) to break the url into its component parts so you can extract the host name for the socket connect call.,I go use split( quotesingle. ts1) to break di url into its component parts so you go extract di host name for di socket connect call.,Computer science
add error checking using try andexcept to handle the condition where the user enters an improperly formatted or non-existent url.,we fit do error checking using try and except to handled condition where d user enters format wey no dey correct or wey get url wey no exist.,Computer science
exercise 2: change your socket program so that it counts the number of characters it has received and stops displaying any text after it has shown 3000 characters.,Di exercise 2: change your socket program so say dem count di number of character wey dey receive and stop display any text after dem show 3000 characters.,Computer science
the program should retrieve the entire document and count the total number of characters and display the count ofthe number of characters at the end ofthe document.,Di program go retrieve di entire document and count di total number of character for di end of di document.,Computer science
"exercise 3: useurllib to replicate the previous exercise of(1) retrieving the document from a url,(2) displaying upto 3000 characters, and (3)counting the overall number of characters in the document.","Di exercise 3: useurllib to replicate di previous exercise of(1) retrieving di document from url,(2) display upto 3000 character, and (3)counting di overall number of character for di document.",Computer science
exercise 4: change the urllinks. py program to extract and count paragraph(p) tags from the retrieved html document and display the count ofthe paragraphs as the output of your program.,Di program to extract and count paragraph(p) tags from di retrieved html document and display di count of di paragraph as di output of your program.,Computer science
"do not display the paragraph text, only count them.",Di paragraph text no dey count dem,Computer science
test your program on several small web pages aswell as some larger web pages.,we fit test our program for several small web pages and even large web pages.,Computer science
exercise 5:(advanced) change the socket program so that it only shows data after the headers and a blank line have been received.,Di exercise 5:(advanced) change di socket program so say e only show data after di headers and blank line don receive,Computer science
"remember that recv receives characters (newlines and all), not lines.","Dem remember say recv receive character (newlines and all), no lines",Computer science
there are two common formats that we use when exchanging data across the web.,Dem use two common formats wey we use when exchanging data across di web.,Computer science
extensible markup language(xml) has been in use for avery longtime and is best suited for exchanging document-style data.,Di extensible markup language(xml) don dey use for longtime and dey best suited for exchanging document-style data.,Computer science
we will look at both formats.,we go look both format,Computer science
"each element can have some text, some attributes(e. g, hide), and other nested elements.","Di element fit get some text, some attributes(e. g, hide), and oda nested elements.",Computer science
"if an xml element is empty(i. e, has no content), then it maybe depicted by a self-closing tag(e. g,<email /> ).","Di xml element dey empty(i. e, no content), then e depict di self-closing tag(e. g,<email > ).",Computer science
"often it is helpful to think of an xml document as a tree structure where there is atop element(here: person), and other tags(e. g, phone )are drawn as children of their parent elements.","Di often e dey helpful to think of xml document as tree structure wey di top element(here: person), and oda tags(e. g, phone )dey draw as children of dia parent elements",Computer science
"calling fromstring converts the string representation ofthe xml into a""tree"" of xml elements.","to dey call from string dey convert d string representation of d xml into a""tree"" of xml elements.",Computer science
"when the xml is in a tree, we have a series of methods we can call to extract portions of data from the xml string.",We get series of methods wey we call to extract portions of data from di xml string.,Computer science
the find function searches through the xml tree and retrieves the element that matches the specified tag.,Di find function search through di xml tree and retrieve di element wey match di specified tag,Computer science
"name: chuck attr: yes using an xml parser such as elementtree has the advantage that while the xml in this example is quite simple, it turns out there are many rules regarding 13. 3.","Dem use xml parser such as elementtree don dey advantage say while di xml for dis example dey simple, e turnout many rules regarding 13. 3.3.",Computer science
"looping through nodes 161 valid xml, and using elementtree allows us to extract data from xml without worrying about the rules of xml syntax.",I use elementtree allow us to extract data from xml without worrying about di rules of xml syntax.,Computer science
"then we can write a forloop that looks at each ofthe user nodes, and prints the name andidtext elements aswell as the xattribute from the user node.","We fit write forloop wey make we look each of di usernodes, and prints di name andidtext elements aswell as di xattribute from di user node.",Computer science
"using web services it is important to include all parent level elements in the findall statement except for the top level element(e. g, users/user ).","E dey important to include all parent level elements for di findall statement except for top level element(e. g, users user).",Computer science
"otherwise, python will not find any desired nodes.",Di python no find any desired nodes,Computer science
lst2 looks foruser elements that are not nested within the top level stuff element where there are none.,Di lst2 look foruser elements wey no dey within top level stuff element wey dey where no dey none.,Computer science
user count:2 user count:0 13. 4 javascript object notation- json the json format was inspired by the object and array format used in the javascript language.,Di json format dey inspired by di object and array format wey dey use for di javascript language.,Computer science
"but since python was invented before javascript, python's syntax for dictionaries and lists influenced the syntax of json.","Dem invent python before javascript, python's syntax for dictionaries and lists influence di syntax of json.",Computer science
so the format of json is nearly identical to a combination of python lists and dictionaries.,Di format of json dey nearly identical to combination of python lists and dictionaries.,Computer science
"first, in xml, we can add attributes like""i ntl"" to the""phone"" tag.","We go add attributes like""i ntl"" to di""phone"" tag",Computer science
"in json, we simply have key-value pairs.",We just get key-value pairs.,Computer science
"also the xml""person"" tag is gone, replaced by a set of outer curly braces.","Di xml""person"" tag dey gone, replace di set of outer curly braces.",Computer science
"in general, json structures are simpler than xml because json has fewer capabilities than xml.","E dey general, json structure dey simpler than xml because json don few capabilities than xml.",Computer science
but json has the advantage that it maps directly to some combination of dictionaries and lists.,Di json don dey advantage say e maps directly to some combination of dictionaries and lists.,Computer science
"and since nearly all programming languages have something equivalent to python's dictionaries and lists, json is avery natural format to have two cooperating programs exchange data.","Na since nearly all programming languages get something equivalent to python's dictionaries and lists, json na very natural format to get two cooperating programs exchange data.",Computer science
json is quickly becoming the format of choice for nearly all data exchange between applications because of its relative simplicity compared to xml.,Di json dey quickly becoming di format of choice for nearly all data exchange between applications bikos of its simplicity compare to xml.,Computer science
"in this example, we represent a list of users where each user is a set of key-value pairs(i. e, a dictionary).","Di example, we represent list of users wey dey set of key-value pairs(i. e, a dictionary).",Computer science
so we have a list of dictionaries.,We get list of dictionaries,Computer science
"in the following program, we use the built-in json library to parse the json and read through the data.","ford following program, we dey use built-in json library to parse d json and read through d data.",Computer science
compare this closely to the equivalent xml data and code above.,you go compare dis closely to d equivalent xml data and code above.,Computer science
"the json has less detail, so we must know in advance that we are getting a list and that the list is of users and each user is a set of key-value pairs.",We must know for advance say we get list and say di list dey of users and each user dey set of key-value pairs.,Computer science
the json is more succinct (an advantage)but also is less self-describing(a disadvantage).,Di json dey more succinct (an advantage)but also dey less self-describing(a disadvantage).,Computer science
"once the json has been parsed, we can use the python index operator to extract the various bits of data for each user.",We go use di python index operator to extract di various bits of data for each user.,Computer science
"we don't have to use the json library to dig through the parsed json, since the returned data is simply native python structures.","We don use di json library to dig through di parsed json, since di return data dey simply native python structure.",Computer science
the output of this program is exactly the same as the xml version above.,Di output of dis program dey exactly di same as di xml version above.,Computer science
"because the json is simpler and more directly maps to native data structures we already have in programming languages, the parsing and data extraction code is usually simpler and more direct when using json.","Di json dey simple and more directly maps to native data structure wey dey already have for programming languages, di parsing and data extraction code dey simpler and more direct when using json.",Computer science
but xml is more selfdescriptive than json and so there are some applications where xml retains an advantage.,But xml dey more selfdescriptive than json and so e dey some applications wey xml retain advantage.,Computer science
"for example, most word processors store documents internally using xml rather than json.","for example, most word wey processors dey store documents internally usig xml instead ake dem use json.",Computer science
"the next step is to begin to define and document""contracts"" between applications using these techniques.","Di next step dey begin to define and document""contracts"" between applications wey dey use these techniques.",Computer science
the general name for these application-to-application contracts is application program interfaces (apis).,Di general name for dis application-to-application contracts dey application program interface(apis).,Computer science
"when we use an api, generally one program makes a set of services available for use by other applications and publishes the apis(i. e, the ""rules"")that must be followed to access the services provided by the program.","We use api, generally one program make set of services available for use by oda applications and publish di apis(i. e, di ""rules"") wey dey follow to access di services wey di program.",Computer science
"when we begin to build our programs where the functionality of our program includes access to services provided by other programs, we call the approach a service-oriented architecture (soa).","when we begin build our programs where d functionality of our program go include access to services wey other programs provide, we dey call dis approach service-oriented architecture (soa).",Computer science
an soa approach is one where our overall application makes use ofthe services of other applications.,Di soa approach dey one wey awa overall application to use di services of oda applications,Computer science
a non-soa approach is where the application is a single standalone application which contains all ofthe code necessary to implement the application.,Di application dey single standalone application wey contains all of di code wey need to implement di application.,Computer science
security and api usage 165 auto rental service hotel reservation service airline reservation service travel application api api api figure 13.2: service-oriented architecture we see many examples of soa when we use the web.,We see many examples of soa wey we use di web.,Computer science
"we can goto a single website and book air travel, hotels, and automobiles all from a single site.","We fit goto single website and book air travel, hotels, and automobiles all from single site.",Computer science
the data for hotels is not stored on the airline computers.,Di data for hotels no dey store on di airline computers.,Computer science
"instead, the airline computers contact the services on the hotel computers and retrieve the hotel data and present it to the user.","instead, d airline computers go contact d services wey dey d hotel computers con retrieved hotel data and present to d user.",Computer science
"when the user agrees to make a hotel reservation using the airline site, the airline site uses another web service on the hotel systems to actually make the reservation.","when d user don agree to make hotel reservation using d airline site, d airline site uses another web service on d hotel systems to actually make d reservation.",Computer science
"and when it comes time to charge your credit card for the whole transaction, still other computers become involved in the process.","We dey kom time to charge your credit card for di whole transaction, still oda computers dey involved for di process",Computer science
"a service-oriented architecture has many advantages, including: (1)we always maintain only one copy of data(this is particularly important for things like hotel reservations where we do not want to over-commit)and (2)the owners ofthe data can set the rules about the use of their data.","Di service-oriented architecture don get many advantages, including: (1)we always maintain only one copy of data(in particularly important for thing like hotel reservations wey we no want to overcommit) and(3) di owners of di data go set di rules about di use of dia data",Computer science
"with these advantages, an soa system must be carefully designed to have good performance and meet the user's needs.",Di system must be carefully designed to get good performance and meet di user's needs.,Computer science
"when an application makes a set of services in its api available over the web, we call these web services.",We call dis web services.,Computer science
the general idea is that they want to know who is using their services and how much each user is using.,Di general idea na say dem want know who dey use dia services and how much each user dey use,Computer science
perhaps they have free and pay tiers of their services or have a policy that limits the number of requests that a single individual can make during a particular time period.,Di single individual don get free and pay tiers of dia services or have policy wey limit di number of requests wey a single individual fit make during particular time period.,Computer science
"sometimes once you get your api key, you simply include the key as part of post data or perhaps as a parameter on the url when calling the api.",Dem include di key as part of post data or perhaps as parameter on di url wey call di api.,Computer science
"using web services other times, the vendor wants increased assurance ofthe source ofthe requests and so they expect you to send cryptographically signed messages using shared keys and secrets.",Di vendor want increased assurance of di source of di requests and so dem expect you send cryptographically signed message using shared keys and secrets.,Computer science
avery common technology that is used to sign requests over the internet is called oauth.,Di very common technology wey dey use to sign requests over di internet dey call oauth.,Computer science
thankfully there area number of convenient and free oauth libraries so you can avoid writing an oauth implementation from scratch by reading the specification.,thankfully plenty convenient and free oauth libraries dey so we go fit avoid writing an oauth implementaation from scratch by reading d specification,Computer science
these libraries are of varying complexity and have varying degrees of richness.,Di libraries dey of varying complexity and dey varying degree of richness.,Computer science
t he oauth website has information about various oauth libraries.,Di oauth website don information about different oauth libraries.,Computer science
elementtree a built-in python library used to parse xml data.,Di elementtree built-in python library wey dey use to parse xml data,Computer science
json javascript object notation-a format that allows for the markup of structured data based on the syntax of javascript objects.,Di format wey dey allow for di markup of structured data wey dey based on di syntax of javascript objects.,Computer science
soa service-oriented architecture- when an application is made of components connected across a network.,Soa service-oriented architecture- wen application dey made of component wey dey connect across network,Computer science
xml extensible markup language-a format that allows for the markup of structured data.,Di xml extensible markup language- format wey allow for di markup of structured data.,Computer science
"as we build programs, we design data structures and write code to manipulate those data structures.","as we dey build program, we dey design data structures and write code to change di numbers structures.",Computer science
"there are many ways to write programs and by now, yo u probably have written some programs that are""not so elegant""and other programs that are""more elegant"".","Na many way to write programs and by now, yo u probably don write some programs wey dey no so elegant""and oda programs wey dey more elegant",Computer science
"even though your programs maybe small, you ar e starting to see how there is a bit of art and aesthetic to writing code.","Di program dey small, you dey start to see how art and aesthetic to write code.",Computer science
"as programs get to be millions of lines long, it becomes increasingly important to write code that is easy to understand.",E dey increasingly important to write code wey dey easy to understand.,Computer science
"if you are working on a million-line program, you can never keep the entire program in your mind at the same time.","If you dey work on million-line program, you no fit keep di entire program for your mind at di same time.",Computer science
"we need ways to break large programs into multiple smaller pieces so that we have less to look at when solving a problem, fix a bug, or add anew feature.","We need way to break large programs into multiple smaller pieces so we get less to make we look wen we dey solve problem, fix a bug, or add new feature.",Computer science
"in away, object oriented programming is away to arrange your code so that y ou can zoom into 50 lines ofthe code and understand it while ignoring the other 999, 950 lines of code for the moment.","Di way, one way to write code dey way to arrange your code so say y ou fit zoom into 50 lines of di code and understand am while ignoring di oda 999, 950 line of code for di moment.",Computer science
"object-oriented programming 14.2 getting started like many aspects of programming, it is necessary to learn the concepts of object oriented programming before you can use them effectively.",E dey necessary to learn di concept of one way to write code before you use dem effectively.,Computer science
python provides us with many built-in objects.,python dey give us many built-in objects.,Computer science
here is some simple code where the first few lines should feel very simple and natural to you.,Na some simple code wey dey simple and natural to you.,Computer science
don't worry if the following paragraphs don't make any sense the first time you read them because we have not yet defined all of these terms.,Di following paragraph don make any sense di first time you read dem because we no fit define all of dis terms.,Computer science
"the first line constructs an object of type list, the second and third lines call theappend() method, the fourth line calls the sort()method, and the fifth line retrieves the item at position 0.","Di first line construct an object of type list, di second and third line call di sort()method, di fourth line call di sort()method, di fourth line call di sort()method, di fourth line call di sort()method, and di fifth line retrieve di item for position 0.",Computer science
the sixth line calls the getitem ()method in the stuff list with a parameter of zero.,Di sixth line call di getitem ()method for di stuff list wit parameter of zero,Computer science
"starting with programs 169 the last three lines ofthe program are equivalent, but it is more convenient to simply use the square bracket syntax to look up an item at a particular position in a list.","Di last three lines of di program dey equivalent, but na more convenient to use di square bracket syntax to look up item for a particular position for list.",Computer science
our elevator conversion program demonstrates avery short but complete program showing all three of these steps.,Di elevator conversion program demonstrate very short but complete program show all three of dis steps.,Computer science
the input and output aspects are where the program interacts with the outside world.,Di input and output aspects dey where di program interact wit outside world.,Computer science
within the program we have code and data to accomplish the task the program is designed to solve.,We don code and data to accomplish di task di program dey designed to solve.,Computer science
"one way to think about object-oriented programming is that it separates our program into multiple""zones.""","Di one way to think about object-oriented programming na say e separates awa program into multiple""zones""",Computer science
each zone contains some code and data(like a program)and has well defined interactions with the outside world and the other zones within the program.,Di zone contains some code and data(like a program)and don well define interaction wit di outside world and di oda zone wey dey inside di program.,Computer science
the urllib library uses the socket library to make the actual network connection to retrieve the data.,d urllib dey used socket library to make d network connection to retreive d data,Computer science
we take the string that urllib returns and hand it to beautifulsoup for parsing.,We take di string wey urllib return and hand am to beautifulsoup for parsing,Computer science
beautifulsoup makes use ofthe object html. parser1and returns an object.,beautifulsoup dey used object html. parser1 and e dey return object.,Computer science
we call the tags()method on the returned object that returns a dictionary of tag objects.,We call di tags()method on di returned object wey return dictionary of tag objects,Computer science
we loop through the tags and call theget() method for each tag to print out the href attribute.,we go loop through d tags()and call d get()method for each tag to fit to show d href attribute.,Computer science
we can draw a picture of this program and how the objects work together.,We fit draw picture of dis program and how di objects work together,Computer science
the key here is not to understand perfectly how this program works but to see how we build a network of interacting objects and orchestrate the movement of information between the objects to create a program.,Di key here no dey understand perfectly how dis program works but to see how we build network of interacting objects and orchestrate di movement of information between di objects to create program.,Computer science
it was just lines of code that got the job done.,E dey just line of code wey get di job done,Computer science
"for example, while we need to know how to use the urllib and beautifulsoup code, we do not need to know how those libraries work internally.","for example, even if we need sabi how to used urllib and beautifulsoup code, we no need sabi how d libraries dey work internally.",Computer science
this allows us to focus on the part ofthe problem we need to solve and ignore the other parts ofthe program.,Di allows us focus on di part of di problem wey we need solve and ignore di oda parts of di program.,Computer science
this ability to focus exclusively on the part of a program that we care about and ignore the rest is also helpful to the developers ofthe objects that we use.,Di ability to focus exclusively on di part of a program wey we care about and ignore di rest dey helpful to di developers of di objects wey we use.,Computer science
"for example, the programmers developing beautifulsoup do not need to know or care about how we retrieve our html page, what parts we want to read, or what we plan to do with the data we extract from the webpage.","Di programmers wey dey develop beautifulsoup no need to know or care about how we retrieve awa html page, or how we plan to do wit di data wey we extract from di webpage.",Computer science
defining a function allows us to store a bit of code and give it a name and then later invoke that code using the name ofthe function.,Di function dey allow us to store a bit of code and give am name and later invoke say code wey dey use di name of di function.,Computer science
object-oriented programming string object output input dictionary object string object socket object urllib object html. parser object beautifulsoup object figure 14. 4: ignoring detail when building an object an object can contain a number of functions(which we call methods) aswell as data that is used by those functions.,Di parser object beautifulsoup object figure 14. 4: ignoring detail when building an object wey dey build an object don contain number of functions( we call methods)as well as data wey we call methods.,Computer science
we call data items that are part ofthe object attributes.,We call data items wey dey part of di object attributes,Computer science
we use the class keyword to define the data and code that will makeup each ofthe objects.,We use di class keyword to define di data and code wey go makeup each of di objects,Computer science
the class keyword includes the name ofthe class and begins an indented block of code where we include the attributes(data) and methods(code).,Di class keyword include di name of di class and begin an indented block of code wey we include di attributes(data) and methods(code).,Computer science
the first method is a specially-named method called init ().,Di first method dey specially-named method wey dey call init (),Computer science
this method is called to do any initial setup ofthe data we want to store in the object.,Di method dey call to do any initial setup of di data wey we want store for di object.,Computer science
in this class we allocate the xattribute using dot notation and initialize it to zero.,We allocate di xattribute wey dey use dot notation and initialize am to zero,Computer science
self. x=0 the other method named party.,x=0 di oda method wey dey name party,Computer science
the methods all have a special first parameter that we name by convention self.,Di methods all don get special first parameter wey we name for di normal way self.,Computer science
the first parameter gives us access to the object instance so we can set attributes and call methods using dot notation.,d first parameter go give us access to d object instance so we fit set attributes and call methods using dot notation.,Computer science
"just as the defkeyword does not cause function code to be executed, the class keyword does not create an object.","Di defkeyword no cause function code to be executed, di class keyword no create object.",Computer science
"instead, the class keyword defines a template 14. 6.",Di class keyword define template 14. 6.,Computer science
our first python object 173 figure 14. 5: a class and two objects indicating what data and code will be contained in each object of type partyanimal.,Di first python object 173 figure 14. 5: class and two objects wey dey indicate say data and code go contain for each object of type partyanimal.,Computer science
the class is like a cookie cutter and the objects created using the class are the cookies2.,Di class dey like cookie cutter and di objects wey dey create using di class dey di cookies2.,Computer science
"you don't put frosting on the cookie cutter; you put frosting on the cookies, and you can put different frosting on each cookie.","you no go put frosting for cookie cutter, you go put am for cookies, and you fit put different frosting for different cookie.",Computer science
"if we continue through this sample program, we see the first executable line of code: an=partyanimal() this is where we instruct python to construct(i. e, create) an object orinstance ofthe class partyanimal.","if we continue for dis sample program, we go seed first line of code wey we go fit execute: an=partyanimal() na where we go instruct python make e construct(i. e, create) an object or instance of d class party animal.",Computer science
it looks like a function call to the class itself.,E look like function call to di class wey deyself,Computer science
python constructs the object with the right data and methods and returns the object which is then assigned to the variable an.,Di python construct di object wit di right data and methods and return di object wey dey assigned to di variable an.,Computer science
"in away this is quite similar to the following line which we have been using all along: counts =dict() here we instruct python to construct an object using the dict template(already present in python), return the instance of dictionary, and assign it to the variable counts.","Dem instruct python to construct an object wey dey using di dict template(already present for python), return di instance of dictionary, and assign am to di variable counts.",Computer science
"when the partyanimal class is used to construct an object, the variable anis used to point to that object.","Di partyanimal class dey use to construct an object, di variable anis wey dey use to point to dat object.",Computer science
we use anto access the code and data for that particular instance ofthe partyanimal class.,we fit use anto access d code and data for dat particular instance of d partyanimal class.,Computer science
each partyanimal object/instance contains within it a variable xand a method/function named party.,Di partyanimal object instance contains within di variable xand a method function wey dey named party,Computer science
"we call the party method in this line: an. party()when the party method is called, the first parameter(which we call by convention self)points to the particular instance ofthe partyanimal object that party is called from.","We call di party method for dis line: an. party()wen di party method dey call, di first parameter(we call convention self)points to di particular instance of di party animal object wey party dey call from.",Computer science
object-oriented programming self. x=self. x+1 this syntax using the dotoperator is saying 'the x within self.',Di syntax wey dey use di dotoperator dey say di x within self.,Computer science
"each time party()is called, the internal xvalue is incremented by 1 and the value is printed out.",Di internal xvalue dey incremented by 1 and di value dey to print,Computer science
"the following line is another way to call the party method within the anobject: partyanimal. party(an)in this variation, we access the code from within the class and explicitly pass t he object pointer anas the first parameter(i. e, self within the method).","Di following line dey another way to call di party method within di class and explicitly pass t he object pointer anas di first parameter(i. e, self within di method).",Computer science
you can think of an. party()as shorthand for the above line.,We go think of. party()as shorthand for di above line.,Computer science
"when the program executes, it produces the following output: so far 1 so far 2 so far 3 so far 4 the object is constructed, and the party method is called four times, both incrementing and printing the value for xwithin the anobject.","So far 1 so far 2 so far 3 so far 4 di object dey construct, and di party method dey call four times, both incrementing and printing di value for xwithin di anobject.",Computer science
we can use the built-in dir function to examine the capabilities of a variable.,We fit use di built-in dir function to examine di capabilities of a variable.,Computer science
we can also use type anddir with the classes that we create.,We fit also use type anddir wit di class wey we create.,Computer science
"from the diroutput, you can see both the xinteger attribute and the party method are available in the object.",Di xinteger attribute and di party method dey available for di object.,Computer science
"when the program finishes, all ofthe variables are discarded.","Di program finish, all of di variables dey discarded.",Computer science
"usually, we don't think much about the creation and destruction of variables, but often as our objects become more complex, we need to take some action within the object to set things up as the object is constructed and possibly clean things up as the object is discarded.","We no think much about di creation and destruction of variables, but often as awa objects dey more complex, we need take some action within di object to set things up as di object dey construct and possibly clean things up as di object dey discarded.",Computer science
"object-oriented programming as python constructs our object, it calls our init method to give us a chance to setup some default or initial values for the object.",E call awa init method to give us chance to setup some default or initial value for di object.,Computer science
"when python encounters the line: an = 42 it actually""throws our object away""so it can reuse the anvariable to store the value 42.","As python encounter di line: an = 42 e actually""throw awa object away""so e fit reuse di anvariable to store di value 42.",Computer science
"just at the moment when our anobject is being""destroyed"" our destructor code( del) is called.","Di moment wey awa anobject dey""destroy"" awa destructor code( del) dey call.",Computer science
"we cannot stop our variable from being destroyed, but we can do any necessary cleanup right before our object no longer exists.","we no fit stop our variable make e no spoil, but we fit do any necessary cleanup before our object no go exist.",Computer science
"when developing objects, it is quite common to add a constructor to an object to setup initial values for the object.",E dey common to add constructor to an object to setup initial values for di object.,Computer science
it is relatively rare to need a destructor fo r an object.,E dey rare to need destructor fo r an object.,Computer science
"however, the real power in object-oriented programming happens when we construct multiple instances of our class.",Di real power for object-oriented programming don happen wen we construct multiple instances of awa class.,Computer science
"when we construct multiple objects from our class, we might want to setup different initial values for each ofthe objects.","when we construct multiple objects from our class, we fit wan setup different initial values for each of d objects.",Computer science
"when extending a class, we call the original class the parent class and the new class the child class.",We call di original class di parent class and di new class di child class.,Computer science
"for this example, we move our partyanimal class into its own file.",We move awa partyanimal class into its own file,Computer science
"then, we can 'import' the partyanimal class in anew file and extend it, as follows: from party import partyanimal class cricketfan(partyanimal): def init (self, nam): super().","then, we can 'import' the partyanimal class in anew file and extend it, as follows: from party import partyanimal class cricketfan(partyanimal): def init (self, nam): super().",Computer science
this means that all ofthe variables( x)and methods( party) from the partyanimal class are inherited by the cricketfan class.,Di means say all of di variables( x)and methods( party) from di partyanimal class dey inherited by di cricketfan class.,Computer science
"object-oriented programming within the sixmethod in the cricketfan class, we call the party method from thepartyanimal class.","We call di party method from di partyanimal class, we call di party method from di partyanimal class.",Computer science
we use a special syntax in the init ()method in the cricketfan class to ensure that we call the init ()method in the partyanimal so that whatever setup that partyanimal needs is done in addition to the setup needed for the cricketfan extensions.,We use special syntax for di init ()method for di cricketfan class to ensure say we call di init ()method for di partyanimal so say whatever setup wey dey need for di cricketfan extension.,Computer science
"def init (self, nam): super().","def init (self, nam): super().",Computer science
partyanimal is the super(or parent)class and cricketfan is the sub(or child)class.,Di partyanimal na di super(or parent)class and cricketfan na di sub(or child)class and cricketfan na di sub(or child)class,Computer science
"as the program executes, we create sand jas independent instances of partyanimal andcricketfan.","as d program executes, we go create sand jas independent instances of partyanimal and cricketfan",Computer science
the jobject has additional capabilities beyond thesobject.,Di jobject don additional capabilities beyond disobject,Computer science
at this point you should fully understand what is going on.,Di point you go fully understand what dey goon,Computer science
glossary 179 the first line constructs a list object.,Di first line construct list object.,Computer science
"when python creates the list object, it calls the constructor method(named init ) to setup the internal data attributes that will be used to store the list data.","As python create di list object, e call di constructor method(named init ) to setup di internal data attributes wey go fit store di list data",Computer science
we have not passed any parameters to the constructor.,We no pass any parameters to di constructor.,Computer science
"when the constructor returns, we use the variable stuff to point to the returned instance ofthe list class.",We use di variable stuff to point to di returned instance of di list class.,Computer science
the second and third lines call the append method with one parameter to add anew item at the end ofthe list by updating the attributes within stuff.,d second and third line dey call d append method with one parameter to add new item at d end of d list by updating d attributes within stuff.,Computer science
"then in the fourth line, we call the sort method with no parameters to sort the data within the stuff object.",We call di sort method wit no parameters to sort di data within di stuff object.,Computer science
we then print out the first item in the list using the square brackets which area shortcut to calling the getitem method within the stuff.,We then to show di first item for di list using di signs wey look like box wey dey shortcut to call di getitem method wey dey within di stuff,Computer science
this is equivalent to calling the getitem method in the list class and passing the stuff object as the first parameter and the position we are looking for as the second parameter.,Di equivalent to call di getitem method for di list class and pass di stuff object as di first parameter and di position we dey looking for as di second parameter.,Computer science
"at the end ofthe program, the stuff object is discarded but not before calling thedestructor (named del) so that the object can cleanup any loose ends as necessary.",Di stuff object dey discard but no before call didestructor (named del) so say di object fit cleanup any loose ends as necessary.,Computer science
those are the basics of object-oriented programming.,dis na d basics of object-oriented programming.,Computer science
class a template that can be used to construct an object.,Di class a template wey dey use to construct an object,Computer science
defines the attributes and methods that will makeup the object.,Di attributes and methods wey go makeup di object,Computer science
child class anew class created when a parent class is extended.,Di parent class anew class create wen parent class dey extended.,Computer science
the child class inherits all ofthe attributes and methods ofthe parent class.,d child class dey inherit all d attributes and methds wey dey d parent class.,Computer science
constructor an optional specially named method( init )that is called at the moment when a class is being used to construct an object.,E dey call for di moment wen class dey use to construct an object,Computer science
usually this is used to setup initial values for the object.,E dey use to setup initial values for di object.,Computer science
destructor an optional specially named method( del) that is called at the moment just before an object is destroyed.,Di destructor dey destructor optional specially named method( del) wey dey call for di moment just before di object dey destroy,Computer science
destructors are rarely used.,Di destructors dey rarely use.,Computer science
inheritance when we create anew class(child) by extending an existing class(parent).,We create new class(child) by extend di existing class(parent) by extend di existing class(parent).,Computer science
the child class has all the attributes and methods ofthe parent class plus additional attributes and methods defined by the child class.,Di child class don all di attributes and methods of di parent class plus additional attributes and methods wey dey defined by di child class.,Computer science
method a function that is contained within a class and the objects that are constructed from the class.,Di function wey dey contain within class and di objects wey dey construct from di class.,Computer science
some object-oriented patterns use 'message' instead of 'method' to describe this concept.,Dem use some object-oriented patterns use 'message' forstead of 'method' to describe dis concept,Computer science
object a constructed instance of a class.,Di class dey construct instance of class.,Computer science
an object contains all ofthe attributes and methods that were defined by the class.,Di class contains all of di attributes and methods wey dey define by di class.,Computer science
some object-oriented documentation uses the term 'instance' interchangeably with 'object'.,Some object-oriented documentation use di term 'instance' interchangeably wit 'object',Computer science
object-oriented programming parent class the class which is being extended to create anew child class.,Di class wey dey extend to create new child class.,Computer science
the parent class contributes all of its methods and attributes to the new child class.,d parent class dey contribute all hin methods and attributes to d new child class.,Computer science
adatabase is a file that is organized for storing data.,Adatabase dey file wey dey organize for storing data,Computer science
most databases are organized like a dictionary in the sense that they map from keys to values.,Di most databases dey organize like dictionary for di sense say dem map from keys to value,Computer science
"the biggest difference is that the database is on disk(or other permanent storage), so it persists after the program ends.","Di biggest difference na say di database dey on disk(or oda permanent storage), so e persist for di program end.",Computer science
"because a database is stored on permanent storage, it can store far more data than a dictionary, which is limited to the size ofthe memory in the computer.","Di database dey store on permanent storage, e fit store far more data than dictionary, wey dey limited to di size of di memory for di computer.",Computer science
"like a dictionary, database software is designed to keep the inserting and accessing of data very fast, even for large amounts of data.","Di database software dey designed to keep di inserting and accessing of data very fast, even for large amount of data.",Computer science
database software maintains its performance by building indexes as data is added to the database to allow the computer to jump quickly to a particular entry.,Di database software maintain its performance by building indexes as data dey add to di database to allow di computer to jump quickly to a particular entry.,Computer science
"there are many different database systems which are used for a wide variety of purposes including: oracle, mysql, microsoft sql server, postgresql, and sqlite.","many different database systems dey which we fit use for different purposes wey include: oracle, mysql, microsoft sql server, postgresql, and sqlite.",Computer science
we focus on sqlite in this book because it is avery common database and is already built into python.,We focus on sqlite for dis book bikos e dey very common database and dey build into python,Computer science
sqlite is designed to be embedded into other applications to provide database support within the application.,Di sqlite dey design to be embedded into oda applications to provide database support within di application.,Computer science
"for example, the firefox browser also uses the sqlite database internally as do many other products.",Di firefox browser also use di sqlite database internally as do many oda products.,Computer science
"the primary data structures in a database are: tables, rows, and columns.","Di information wey dem gather direct from where e dey happen, no be from tori wey another person don talk before structure for a database dey: table, row, and columns",Computer science
"in technical descriptions of relational databases the concepts of table, row, and column are more formally referred to as relation, tuple, and attribute, respectively.","Di concept of table, row, and column dey more formally dem dey call relation, tuple, and attribute, respectively.",Computer science
"in a sense, the database browser is similar to a text editor when working with text files.",Di database browser dey similar to di editor for words wey dey work wit ext files,Computer science
"when you want to do one or very few operations on a text file, you can just open it in a text editor and make the changes you want.","when you wan do one or very few operations for text file, you fit just open am for di editor for words and make d changes wey you want.",Computer science
"when you have many changes that you need to do to a text file, often you will write a simple python program.","Di when you go get many change wey you need to do to text file, often you go write simple python program.",Computer science
you will find the same pattern when working with databases.,Di same pattern wey dey work wit databases,Computer science
you will do simple operations in the database manager and more complex operations will be most conveniently done in python.,If you fit do simple operations for di database manager and more complex operations go dey done for python.,Computer science
when we create a database table we must tell the database in advance the names of each ofthe columns in the table and the type of data which we are planning to store in each column.,We must tell di database for advance di names of each of di columns for di table and di type of data wey we dey plan to store for each column,Computer science
"when the database software knows the type of data in each column, it can choose the most efficient way to store and look up the data based on the type of data.","Di database software know di type of data for each column, e fit choose di most efficient way to store and look up di data based on di type of data.",Computer science
creating a database table 183 your program,Di program dey create database table 183 your program,Computer science
"if the file does not exist, it will be created.","Di file no exist, e go create",Computer science
"the reason this is called a""connection"" is that sometimes the database is stored on a separate""database server""from the server on which we are running our application.","Di reason dis dey call a""connection"" na say sometimes di database dey store on separate""database server""from di server wey we dey run awa application.",Computer science
in our simple examples the database will just be a local file in the same directory as the python code we are running.,We dey simple examples di database go just be local file for di same directory as di python code we dey run.,Computer science
acursor is like a file handle that we can use to perform operations on the data stored in the database.,Di cursor dey like file handle wey we use to perform operations on di data store for di database.,Computer science
calling cursor()is very similar conceptually to calling open()when dealing with text files.,Di calling cursor() dey similar conceptually to call open()wen dealing wit text files,Computer science
database commands are expressed in a special language that has been standardized across many different database vendors to allow us to learn a single database language.,Di special language wey dey standardized across many different database vendors to allow us learn single database language,Computer science
the database language is called structured query language orsql for short.,Di database language dey call structured query language orsql for short,Computer science
using databases and sql command that we are adding(such as the table and column names)will be shown in lowercase.,We dey use database and sql command wey we dey adding(such as di table and column names)go show for lowercase.,Computer science
the first sql command removes the track table from the database if it exists.,Di first sql command remove di track table from di database if e exist,Computer science
this pattern is simply to allow us to run the same program to create the track table over and over again without causing an error.,dis pattern dey simple to allow us run d same program to created track table many times without causing an error.,Computer science
cur. execute( /quotesingle. ts1drop table if exists track /quotesingle. ts1 )the second command creates a table named track with a text column named title and an integer column named plays.,Di second command create table wey dey named track wit text column wey dey title and integer column wey play,Computer science
"cur. execute( /quotesingle. ts1create table track(title text, plays integer)/quotesingle. ts1 )now that we have created a table named track, we can put some data into that table using the sql insert operation.","Dem create table track(title text, play integer) quotesingle. ts1) now say we don create table track(title text, play integer) quotesingle. ts1",Computer science
"again, we begin by making a connection to the database and obtaining the cursor.",We begin by making connection to di database and obtain di cursor,Computer science
we can then execute sql commands using the cursor.,We fit execute sql commands using di cursor,Computer science
"the sql insert command indicates which table we are using and then defines anew row by listing the fields we want to include(title, plays)followed by the values we want placed in the new row.","Di sql insert command indicate wich table we dey use and then define anew row by listing di fields wey we dey use and then define anew row by listing di fields wey we dey include(title, play)followed by di value wey we need place for di new row.",Computer science
we specify the values as question marks(?),We specify di value as question marks(?),Computer science
"to indicate that the actual values are passed in as a tuple ( /quotesingle. ts1my way/quotesingle. ts1, 15 ) as the second parameter to the execute()call.","Di actual values dey pass for as a tuple ( quotesingle. ts1, 15)as di second parameter to di execute()call.",Computer science
then we use the select command to retrieve the rows we just inserted from the table.,We use di select command to retrieve di rows wey we just insert from di table.,Computer science
"on the select command, we indicate which columns we would like(title, plays)and indicate which table we want to retrieve the data from.","We indicate wich columns we go like(title, play)and indicate wich table we go retrieve di data from.",Computer science
"after we execute the select statement, the cursor is something we can loop through in a forstatement.","We execute di select statement, di cursor dey something we fit loop through for forstatement",Computer science
"for efficiency, the cursor does not read all ofthe data from the database when we execute the select statement.",Di cursor no read all of di data from di database wen we execute di select statement.,Computer science
"instead, the data is read on demand as we loop through the rows in the forstatement.",Di data dey read on demand as we loop through di rows for di forstatement.,Computer science
"the output ofthe program is as follows: track: (/quotesingle. ts1thunderstruck/quotesingle. ts1, 20) (/quotesingle. ts1my way/quotesingle. ts1, 15) ourforloop finds two rows, and each row is a python tuple with the first value as the title and the second value as the number of plays.","We dey find two row, and each row dey python tuple wit di first value as di title and di second value as di number of plays",Computer science
"at the very end ofthe program, we execute an sql command to delete the rows we have just created so we can run the program over and over.",We execute sql command to delete di rows wey we don create so we fit run di program over and over.,Computer science
the delete command shows the use of a where clause that allows us to express a selection criterion so that we can ask the database to apply the command to only the rows that match the criterion.,Di delete command show di use of where clause wey allow us express selection criterion so we fit ask di database to apply di command to only di row wey match di criterion.,Computer science
in this example the criterion happens to apply to all the rows so we empty the table out so we can run the program repeatedly.,We call commit()to force di data to remove from di database.,Computer science
"after the delete is performed, we also call commit()to force the data to be removed from the database.",Di structured query language(sql) standardized so we fit communicate for portable manner to database systems from multiple vendors.,Computer science
"since there are so many different database vendors, the structured query language(sql) was standardized so we could communicate in a portable manner to database systems from multiple vendors.","Di database wey dey relate, wey dem arrange data into table, with rows and columns, and dem connect all di tables together through one or more field wey dem get in common, so dat you fit follow di connection from one table to anoda dey made up of table, rows, and columns",Computer science
"using databases and sql a relational database is made up of tables, rows, and columns.","Di database wey dey relate, wey dem arrange data into table, with rows and columns, and dem connect all di tables together through one or more field wey dem get in common, so dat you fit follow di connection from one table to anoda dey made up of table, rows, and columns",Computer science
"the columns generally have a type such as text, numeric, or date data.","Di columns generally get type such as text, numeric, or date data.",Computer science
the sql select command is used to retrieve rows and columns from a database.,Di sql select command dey use to retrieve rows and columns from a database.,Computer science
the select statement lets you specify which columns you would like to retrieve aswell as a where clause to select which rows you would like to see.,Di select statement make you specify wich columns wey dey like to retrieve aswell as a where clause to select wich row wey dey see.,Computer science
it also allows an optional order by clause to control the sorting ofthe returned rows.,e dey allow optional order by clause to control d sorting of d returned rows.,Computer science
select*from track where title =/quotesingle. ts1my way/quotesingle. ts1 using*indicates that you want the database to return all ofthe columns for each row that matches the where clause.,Di database dey return all of di columns for each row wey dey match di where clause.,Computer science
"note, unlike in python, in a sql where clause we use a single equal sign to indicate a test for equality rather than a double equal sign.","Di note, unlike for python, for sql wey we use single equal sign to indicate test for equality no be double equal sign.",Computer science
"other logical operations allowed in awhere clause include<,>,<=,>=!","Di logical operations wey dey wed for awhere clause include<,<=,>=,",Computer science
"you can request that the returned rows be sorted by one ofthe fields as follows: select title, plays from track order by title it is possible to update a column or columns within one or more rows in a table using the sql update statement as follows: update track set plays =16where title =/quotesingle. ts1my way/quotesingle. ts1 theupdate statement specifies a table and then a list of fields and values to change after the setkeyword and then an optional where clause to select the rows that are to be updated.",Di update track set plays =16where title= quotesingle. ts1 diupdate statement describe a table and then a list of fields and value wey dey change after di setkeyword and optional where claus wey dey change for di setkeyword,Computer science
a single update statement will change all ofthe rows that match the where clause.,Di single update statement go change all of di rows wey match di where clause.,Computer science
"if a where clause is not specified, it performs the update on all ofthe rows in the table.",E perform di update on all of di rows for di table.,Computer science
"to remove a row, you need a where clause on an sql delete statement.","to remove row, you go need where claus on top sql delete statement.",Computer science
the where clause determines which rows are to be deleted: delete from track where title =/quotesingle. ts1my way/quotesingle. ts1 15. 6.,Dem delete from track wey title= quotesingle. ts1my way quotesingle. ts1 15. 6.6. 6.,Computer science
"multiple tables and basic data modeling 187 these four basic sql commands(insert, select, update, and delete)allow the four basic operations needed to create and maintain data.","Di four basic sql commands(insert, select, update, and delete)allow di four basic operations wey dey need to create and maintain data",Computer science
"we use ""crud"" (create, read, update, and delete)to capture all these concepts in a single term.2 15. 6 multiple tables and basic data modeling the real power of a relational database is when we create multiple tables and make links between those tables.","Dem use ""crud"" (create, read, update, and delete)to capture all dis concepts for single term.",Computer science
the act of deciding how to breakup your application data into multiple tables and establishing the relationships between the tables is called data modeling.,Di act of deciding how to breakup your application data into multiple table and establish di how two things dey related di table dey call data modeling.,Computer science
the design document that shows the tables and their relationships is called a data model.,Di design document wey show di table and dia relationship dey call data model.,Computer science
"a simple approach might be to simply add another column to the database called artist and put the name ofthe artist in the column as follows: drop table if exists track; create table track(title text, plays integer, artist text); then we could insert a few tracks into our table.","Di simple approach go be to add one column to di database wey dey call artist and put di name of di artist for di column as follow: drop table if exist track; create table track(title text, play integer, artist text)",Computer science
sqlite> select* from track; my way|15|frank sinatra new york|25|frank sinatra sqlite> we have made avery bad error in our data modeling.,"Di way,15|frank sinatra new york|25|frank sinatra sqlite> we dey make very bad error for our data modeling.",Computer science
we have violated the rules ofdatabase normalization.,We don viola di rules ofdatabase normalization.,Computer science
"a possible explanation might be to claim that ""crud"" is the""concept"" and sql is the implementation.","Di possible explanation go be to claim say ""crud"" na di""concept"" and sql na di implementation.",Computer science
"another possible explanation is that ""crud"" is more fun to say than ""isud"".","Di possible explanation na say ""crud"" dey more fun to say than ""isud""",Computer science
"using databases and sql while database normalization seems very complex on the surface and contains alot of mathematical justifications, for now we can reduce it all into one simple rule that we will follow.",for now we go reduce am all into one simple rule wey we go follow.,Computer science
we should never put the same string data in a column more than once.,we no fit ever put d same string data for column more dan once.,Computer science
"if we need the data more than once, we create a numeric keyfor the data and reference the actual data using this key.",We create numeric keyfor di data and reference di actual data using dis key.,Computer science
especially if the multiple entries refer to the same object.,Di multiple entries to talk about di Same object.,Computer science
"to demonstrate the slippery slope we are going down by assigning string columns to our database model, think about how we would change the data model if we wanted to keep track ofthe eye color of our artists?","Di slippery slope wey we go down by assign string columns to awa database model, think about how we go change di data model if we go keep track of di eye color of awa artists?",Computer science
would we do this?,We go do dis?,Computer science
and what would happen if we decided his eye color was 'light blue'?,We decide say hin eye color dey light blue?,Computer science
something just does not feel right.,E no dey feel right,Computer science
the correct solution is to create a table for the each artist and store all the data about the artist in that table.,Di correct solution dey create table for di each artist and store all di data about di artist for dat table.,Computer science
and then somehow we need to make a connection between a row in the track table to a row in the artist table.,We need make connection between row for di track table to row for di artist table.,Computer science
"perhaps we could call this""link"" between two""tables"" a""relationship"" between two tables.","We go call dis link between two""tables"" a""relationship"" between two table.",Computer science
and that is exactly what database experts decided to all these links.,E dey exactly what database experts decide to all dis links,Computer science
"to do this, we need what we call 'keys'.","to do dis thing, we go need wetin we call""keys"".",Computer science
these keys will just be integer numbers that we can use to lookup a row indifferent table.,"We need add primary key to di rows inside of table, we need add primary key to di rows inside table.",Computer science
"if we are going to make links to rows inside of a table, we need to add a primary key to the rows in the table.","We need add primary key to di rows inside of table, we need add primary key to di rows inside table.",Computer science
by convention we usually name the primary key column 'id'.,We usually name di primary key column 'id',Computer science
so we alter our track table as follows:15. 7.,Di track table as follow:15. 7.7.,Computer science
we call it a foreign key because it is pointing to a row in a different table.,We call foreign key bikos e dey point to row for different table.,Computer science
"now we are following the rules of database normalization, but when we want to get data out of our database, we don't want to see the 42, we want to see the name and eye color ofthe artist.","We dey follow di rules of database normalization, but wen we go get data out of awa database, we no want to see di name and eye color of di artist.",Computer science
to do this we use the join keyword in our select statement.,We use di join keyword for awa select statement,Computer science
"select title, plays, name, eyes from track join artist ontrack. artist id=artist.","select title, plays, name, eyes from track join artist ontrack. artist id=artist.",Computer science
id; thejoin clause includes an oncondition that defines how the rows are toto be connected.,Dijoin clause includes oncondition wey define how di rows dey connect,Computer science
for each row in track add the data from artist from the row where artist id track table matches the idfrom the artist table.,For each row for track add di data from artist from di row wey artist id track table match di id from di artist table.,Computer science
"the output would be: my way|15|frank sinatra|blue new york|25|frank sinatra|blue while it might seem a little clunky and your instincts might tell you that it would be faster just to keep the data in one table, it turns out the limit on database performance is how much data needs to be scanned when retrieving a query.","My way,15|frank sinatra|blue while e go seem a little clunky and your instincts go tell you say e go faster just to keep di data for one table, e turnout di limit on database performance na how much data needs to dey scanned when retrieving query.",Computer science
"while the details are very complex, integers area lot smaller than strings (especially unicode) and far quicker to move and compare.","d details dey very complex, integers dey smaller dan strings(especially unicode) and far quicker to move and compare.",Computer science
each table is shown as a box with the name ofthe table and its columns.,Di table dey show as box wit di name of di table and its columns,Computer science
then where there is a relationship between two tables a line is drawn connecting the tables with a notation added to the end of each line indicating the nature ofthe relationship.,Di relationship wey dey between two table a line dey draw connect di table wit notation wey dey add to di end of each line indicating di nature of di relationship.,Computer science
"so the track end is shown with the crow's foot spread out indicating it is the""""many"" end.","Di track end dey show wit di crow's foot howe dey far indicating say na di""many"" end",Computer science
"the artist end is shown with a vertical like that indicates""one"".","Di artist end dey show wit vertical like dat indicates""one"".",Computer science
"there will be""m any""artists in general, but the important aspect is that for each artist there will be many tracks.",Di important aspect na say for each artist go fit be many tracks.,Computer science
and each of those artists maybe associated with multiple tracks.,Di artist dey associated wit multiple tracks.,Computer science
"you will note that the column that holds the foreign key likeartist id is on the""many"" end and the primary key is at the""one"" end.","Di column wey dey hold di foreign key likeartist id dey on di""many"" end and di primary key dey for di""one"" end",Computer science
"since the pattern of foreign and primary key placement is so consistent and follows the""many"" and""one"" ends ofthe lines, we never include either the primary or foreign key columns in our diagram ofthe data model as shown in the second diagram as shown in figure 15. 5.","Di pattern of foreign and primary key placement dey so consistent and follow di""many"" and""one"" end of di line, we no include either di primary or foreign key columns for awa diagram of di data model as show for figure 15. 5.",Computer science
"the columns are thought of as""implementation detail""to capture the nature ofthe relationship details and not an essential part ofthe data being modeled.","Di columns dey thought as""implementation detail""to capture di nature of di relationship details and no essential part of di data wey dey model.",Computer science
"however when we are inserting millions or rows, it is nice to have the database automatically generate the values for the id column.",Di database automatically generate di value for di id column.,Computer science
but we then need away to have the database tell us the idvalue for the recently inserted row.,We need way to get di database tell us di idvalue for di recently inserted row,Computer science
one way is to use a select statement to retrieve data from an sqlite built-in-function called last insert rowid().,One way dey use select statement to retrieve data from sqlite built-in-function wey dey call last insert rowid().,Computer science
"as a general strategy, we add these idcolumns to any table we create: sqlite> drop table if exists track; sqlite> create table track(id integer primary key.> title text, plays integer, artist id integer); note that the artist id value is the new auto-assigned row in the artist table and that while we added an integer primary key to the track table, we did not include idin the list of fields on the insert statements into the track table.","Di artist id value dey di new auto-assigned row for di artist table and say while we add integer primary key to di track table, we no include idin di list of fields wey dey insert statement into di track table.",Computer science
again this tells the database to choose a unique value for us for the idcolumn.,Di database tell di database to choose unique value for us for di idcolumn.,Computer science
"later when we are coding in python, we can ask for the idvalue in our code and store it in a variable for later use.",We go ask for di idvalue for awa code and store am for a variable for later use.,Computer science
"using databases and sql since we have two tables and a foreign key between the two tables, our data is well-modeled, but if we are going to have millions of records in the artist table and going to do alot of lookups by artist name, we would benefit if we gave the database a hint about our intended use ofthe name column.","We go use database and sql since we don get two table and foreign key between di two table, we go fit do millions of records for di artist table and go do alot of lookup by artist name, but if we go do alot of lookup by artist name, we go benefit if we give di database hint about awa intended use of di name column.",Computer science
"we do this by adding an""index"" to a text column that we intend to use in where clauses: create index artist name on artist(name); when the database has been told that an index is needed on a column in a table, it stores extra information to make it possible to look up a row more quickly using the indexed field( name in this example).","Di database don tell say index dey need on a column for table, e stores extra information to make e possible to look up row more qu ckly using di indexed field( name for dis example).",Computer science
"once you request that an index be created, there is nothing special that is needed in the sql to access the table.","For once you request say index be create, nothing special wey dey need for di sql to access di table.",Computer science
"the database keeps the index upto date as data is inserted, deleted, and updated, and uses it automatically if it will increase the performance of a database query.","Di database keep di index upto date as data dey insert, deleted, and updated, and use am automatically if e go increase di performance of a database query.",Computer science
"these text columns that are used to find rows based on some information in the""real world""like the name of an artist are called logical keys.",Di text columns wey dey use to find rows wey dey based on some information for di real world like di name of artist dey call logical keys,Computer science
rules)on our database operations.,Di rules)for awa database operations.,Computer science
the most common constraint is a uniqueness constraint which insists that all ofthe values in a column are unique.,Di most common constraint na uniqueness constraint wey insist say all of di values for a column dey unique.,Computer science
"we can add the optional unique keyword, to the create index statement to tell the database that we would like it to enforce the constraint on our sql.","We fit add di optional unique keyword, to di create index statement to tell di database say we go like am to enforce di constraint on awa sql.",Computer science
we can drop andre-create the artist name index with a unique constraint as follows.,We fit drop andre-create di artist name index wit unique constraint as follows.,Computer science
"tit& len rating countalbum name artist name figure 15. 6: tracks, albums, and artists by combining an insert or ignore and a select we can insert anew record if the name is not already there and whether or not the record is already there, retrieve the primary key ofthe record.","Di track, albums, and artists by combining insert or ignore and select we fit insert new record if di name no dey already there and whether or no di record dey already there, retrieve di primary key of di record.",Computer science
this application reads and parses a comma-separated file tracks. csv based on an export from dr. chuck's itunes library.,d application dey read and parse a comma-separated file tracks. csv based on export from dr. chuck's itunes library.,Computer science
"the columns in this file are: title, artist, album, number of plays, rating (0-100) and length in milliseconds.","Na title, artist, album, number of plays, rating (0-100) and length for milliseconds.",Computer science
"using databases and sql create table artist( idinteger primary key, name text unique); create table album( idinteger primary key, artist id integer, title text unique); create table track( idinteger primary key, title text unique, album id integer, leninteger, rating integer, count integer); we are adding the unique keyword to text columns that we would like to have a uniqueness constraint that we will use in insert ignore statements.","We dey create table artist( idinteger primary key, name text unique, album id integer, title text unique; create table track( idinteger primary key, name text unique, album id integer, title text unique; create table track( idinteger primary key, name text unique; create table track( idinteger primary key, name text unique, album id integer, title text unique; create table track( idinteger primary key, title text unique, title text unique",Computer science
this is more succinct than separate create index statements but has the same effect.,Dis dey more succinct than separate create index statement but don get di same effect.,Computer science
we start from artist because we need artist id to insert the album and need the album id to insert the track.,we go start from artist because we need artist id to insert d album and we go need d album id to inseert d track.,Computer science
"if we look at the album table, we can see that the entries were added and assigned aprimary key as necessary as the data was parsed.",We fit see say di entries dey add and assigned primary key as di data dey parsed.,Computer science
we can also see the foreign keypointing to a row in the artist table for each album row.,E show how to use indexes and uniqueness constraints to dey programmetically construct di table and dia relationship.,Computer science
it also shows how to use indexes and uniqueness constraints to programmatically construct the tables and their relationships.,we fit seed foreign keypointing for row in d artist table for each album row.,Computer science
"for example, lets say we are going to build a data model for a course management system.",We tok say we go build data model for course management system.,Computer science
"there will be courses, users, and rosters.","Di courses, users, and rosters",Computer science
a user can be on the roster fo r many courses and a course will have many users on its roster.,Di user fit be on di roster fo r many course and course go get many users on di roster.,Computer science
it is pretty simple to draw a many-to-many relationship as shown in figure 15. 7.,Na simple to draw many-to-many relationship as show for figure 15. 7.7.,Computer science
"we simply draw two tables and connect them with a line that has the""many"" indicator on both ends ofthe lines.","We simply draw two table and connect dem wit line wey don get di""many"" indicator on both ends of di line.",Computer science
the problem is how to implement the relationship using primary keys and foreign keys.,Di problem dey how to implement di relationship using primary keys and foreign keys,Computer science
"before we explore how we implement many-to-many relationships, let's see if we could hack something up by extending a one-to many relationship.","before we fit explore how we go implement many-to-many relationships, make we see if we fit could hack something by extending a one-to-many relationship.",Computer science
"instead of either of these approaches, we model a many-to-many relationship using an additional table that we call a""junction table"",""through table"",""connector table"", or ""join table""as shown in figure 15. 8.","We model many-to-many relationship using additional table wey we call""junction table"",""through table"",""connector table"", or ""join table""as show for figure 15. 8. 8. 8.",Computer science
the purpose of this table is to capture the connection between acourse and astudent.,Di purpose of dis table dey to capture di connection between acourse and astudent.,Computer science
in a sense the table sits between the course anduser table and has a one-to-many relationship to both tables.,d table dey sit between d course and user con get one-to-many relationship to both tables.,Computer science
by using an intermediate table we break a many-to- many relationship into two one-to-many relationships.,if we use intermediate table break a many-to-many relationship into two one-to-many relationships.,Computer science
databases are very good at modeling and processing one-to-many relationships.,Di database dey very good for modeling and processing one-to-many relationships.,Computer science
nosql databases use arrays and data replication but at a cost of database integrity.,Na nosql databases use arrays and data replication but for cost of database integrity.,Computer science
"using databases and sql user id integer, course id integer, primary key(user id, course id)); following our naming convention, member. user id andmember. course id are foreign keys pointing at the corresponding rows in the user andcourse tables.","Di name convention, member. user id andmember. course id dey foreign key wey dey point for di corresponding rows for di user andcourse table.",Computer science
each entry in the member table links a row in the user table to a row in the course table by going through themember table.,Di member table links row for di user table to row for di course table by go through dimember table.,Computer science
"we indicate that the combination ofcourse id anduser id is the primary key for the member table, also creating an uniqueness constraint for a course id /user id combination.","Di combination ofcourse id anduser id dey di primary key for di member table, also create uniqueness constraint for course id user id combination.",Computer science
now lets say we need to insert a number of students into the rosters of a number of courses.,Dem tok say we need insert a number of students into di roster of a number ofcourse.,Computer science
many to many relationships in databases 199 values(?,Na many to many relationships for database 199 values(,Computer science
we use the 'insert or ignore' and 'select' pattern so our code works regardless of whether the record is in the table or not.,We use di'insert or ignore' and 'select' pattern so we fit work regardless of whether di record dey for table or no.,Computer science
our insert into the member table is simply inserting the two integers as anew or existing row depending on the constraint to make sure we do not end up with duplicate entries in the member table for a particular user id/course id combination.,Di insert into di member table dey simply insert di two integers as new or existing row based on di constraint to make sure we no end up wit duplicate entries for di member table for particular user id combination.,Computer science
"using databases and sql 15. 13 modeling data at the many-to-many connection while we have presented the""join table""as having two foreign keys making a connection between rows in two tables, this is the simplest form of a join table.","We don present di""join table""as having two foreign keys make a connection between rows for two table, dis na di simple form of join table.",Computer science
it is quite common to want to add some data to the connection itself.,E dey common to want add some data to di connection wey deyself,Computer science
"continuing with our example of users, courses, and rosters to model a simple learning management system, we will also need to understand the rolethat each user is assigned in each course.","Di example of users, course, and rosters to model simple learning management system, we go need to understand di role wey each user dey assigned for each course.",Computer science
"if we first try to solve this by adding an""instructor"" flag to the user table, we will find that this does not work because a user can be a instructor in one course and a student in another course.","If we first try solve dis by add an""instructor"" flag to di user table, we go find say dis no work because a user fit be instructor for one course and student for another course.",Computer science
if we add an instructor id to the course table it will not work because a course can have multiple instructors.,if we add instructor id ford course table e no go work because a course fit get multiple instructors.,Computer science
and there is noone-to-many hack that can deal with the fact that the number of roles will expand into roles like teaching assistant or parent.,Dino one-to-many hack wey fit deal wit di fact say di number of roles go expand into roles like teaching assistant or parent.,Computer science
"but if we simply add a role column to the member table- we can represent a wide range of roles, role combinations, etc.","If we add role column to di member table- we fit represent wide range of roles, rolecombinations, etc.",Computer science
"lets change our member table as follows: drop table member; create table member( user id integer, course id integer, role integer, primary key(user id, course id)); for simplicity, we will decide that zero in the role means""student"" and one in the role means instructor.","For simplicity, we go decide say zero for di role means""student"" and one for di role means instructor",Computer science
but we can also choose the id value as long as the value is not already in the idcolumn and does not violate the implied unique constaint on primary keys.,We fit also choose di id value as long as di value no already for di idcolumn and no violate di implied unique constaint on primary keys.,Computer science
it is more complicated to write the code to use a database to store data than python dictionaries or flat files so there is little reason to use a database unless your application truly needs the capabilities of a database.,"E dey complicate to write di code to use a database to store data than python dictionaries or flat files na kain file wey dey store data for komputa, e no get structure, e dey like table or list, wey dem organize am well so e no need di capabilities of a database.",Computer science
"the situations where a database can be quite useful are:(1) when your application needs to make many small random updates within a large dataset, (2)when your data is so large it cannot fit in a dictionary and you need to look up information repeatedly, or (3)when you have along-running process that you want to be able to stop and restart and retain the data from one run to the next.","Di situation wey a database fit make many small random updates within large group of related numbers or data wey belong together,(3) when you go get long-running process wey you need to stop and restart and retain di data from one run to di next",Computer science
"using databases and sql you can build a simple database with a single table to suit many application needs, but most problems will require several tables and links/relationships between rows indifferent tables.","We use database and sql you fit build simple database wit single table to suit many application needs, but most problems go require several table and links relationships between rows for different table.",Computer science
"when you start making links between tables, it is important to do some thoughtful design and follow the rules of database normalization to make the best use ofthe database's capabilities.",E dey important to do some thoughtful design and follow di rules of database normalization to make di best use of di database capabilities,Computer science
"since the primary motivation for using a database is that you have a large amount of data to deal with, it is important to model your data efficiently so your programs run as fast as possible.","Di primary motivation for using a database na say you go get large amount of data to deal wit, e dey important to model your data efficiently so your programs run as fast as possible.",Computer science
the browser allows you to quickly check to see if your program is working properly.,Di browser allow you quickly check to see if your program dey work properly,Computer science
you must be careful because sqlite takes care to keep two programs from changing the same data at the same time.,Dem go careful because sqlite take care to keep two programs from changing di same data for di same time.,Computer science
"for example, if you open a database in the browser and make a change to the database and have not yet pressed the""save"" button in the browser, the browser""locks"" the database file and keeps any other program from accessing the file.","If you open a database for di browser and make a change to di database and no dey pressed di""save"" button for di browser, di browser""lock"" di database file and keep any oda program from access di file.",Computer science
"in particular, your python program will not be able to access the file if it is locked.",Di python program no be able to access di file if e dey locked,Computer science
so a solution is to make sure to either close the database browser or use the filemenu to close the database in the browser before you attempt to access the database from python to avoid the problem of your python code failing because the database is locked.,Di solution dey make sure to either close di database browser or use di filemenu to close di database for di browser before you attempt to access di database from python to avoid di problem of your python code fail because di database dey locked.,Computer science
"more commonly called a""column"" or""field"".","Dem call a""column"" or""field""",Computer science
constraint when we tell the database to enforce a rule on a field or a row in a table.,We tell di database to enforce rule on field or row for table.,Computer science
"a common constraint is to insist that there can be no duplicate values in a particular field(i. e, all the values must be unique).","Di common constraint dey to insist say no duplicate values for a particular field(i. e, all di values must be unique).",Computer science
cursor a cursor allows you to execute sql commands in a database and retrieve data from the database.,Di cursor a cursor don allow you to execute sql commands for a database and retrieve data from di database.,Computer science
"a cursor is similar to a socket or file handle for network connections and files, respectively.","Di cursor dey similar to socket or file handle for network connections and files, respectively.",Computer science
database browser apiece of software that allows you to directly connect to a database and manipulate the database directly without writing a program.,Di database browser apiece of software wey allow you directly connect to a database and manipulate di database directly without writing a program.,Computer science
foreign key a numeric key that points to the primary key of a row in another table.,Di foreign key wey dey numeric key wey points to di primary key of row for one table.,Computer science
foreign keys establish relationships between rows stored indifferent tables.,Di foreign keys dey establish how two things dey related rows stored for different table.,Computer science
index additional data that the database software maintains as rows and inserts into a table to make lookups very fast.,Di database software don maintain additional data wey di database software maintain as rows and insert into table to make lookup very fast.,Computer science
"logical key a key that the""outside world""uses to look up a particular row.","logical key a key wey d""outside world""dey use look up a particular row.",Computer science
"for example in a table of user accounts, a person's email address might be a good candidate as the logical key for the user's data.","for example for table of user account, a person's email address go be good candidate as di logical key for di user data.",Computer science
glossary 203 normalization designing a data model so that no data is replicated.,Di glossary 203 normalization design a data model so dat no data dey replicate,Computer science
we store each item of data at one place in the database and reference it elsewhere using a foreign key.,We store each item of data for one place for di database and reference am elsewhere using foreign key,Computer science
primary key a numeric key assigned to each row that is used to refer to one row in a table from another table.,Di primary key wey dey use to talk about one row wey dey table from one table.,Computer science
often the database is configured to automatically assign primary keys as rows are inserted.,Di database dey configured to automatically assign primary keys as row dey insert,Computer science
relation an area within a database that contains tuples and attributes.,Di database wey contains tuples and attributes.,Computer science
"more typically called a""table"".","Di table wey dey call""table""",Computer science
tuple a single entry in a database table that is a set of attributes.,Dem tuple single entry for database table wey dey set of attributes,Computer science
"more typically called""row"".","Na more typically call""row""",Computer science
you might use these applications as sample code to help get you started in solving a real-world problem.,Di application a sample code to help get you start for solving real-world problem.,Computer science
each ofthe applications is a zip file that you can download and extract onto your computer and execute.,Di application dey zip file wey you fit download and extract onto your computer and execute.,Computer science
"if you have alot of data, you might need to stop and restart the lookup process several times.","if you go get plenty data, you fit need stop and restart d lookup process several times.",Computer science
so we break the problem into two phases.,We break di problem into two phases.,Computer science
"in the first phase we take our input""survey"" data in the file where. data and read it one line at a time, and retrieve the geocoded information from google and store it in a database geodata. sqlite.","Di first phase we take awa input""survey"" data for di file wey dey where data and read am one line for a time, and retrieve di geocoded information from google and store am for database geodata.",Computer science
"before we use the geocoding api for each user-entered location, we simply check to see if we already have the data for that particular line of input.","before we go used geocoding api for each user-entered location, we simply check if we already get d data for dat particular line of input.",Computer science
"the database is functioning as a local""cache"" of our geocoding data to make sure we never ask google for the same data twice.","Di database dey function as local""cache"" of awa geocoding data to make sure we no ask google for di same data twice",Computer science
you can restart the process at anytime by removing the file geodata. sqlite.,Di process for anytime by removing di file geodata. sqlite.,Computer science
run the geoload. py program.,run d geoload. py pyrogram.,Computer science
this program will read the input lines in where. data and for each line check to see if it is already in the database.,Di program go read di input line for where data and for each line check to see if e dey already for di database.,Computer science
"visualizing data figure 16.1: an openstreetmap data for the location, it will call the geocoding api to retrieve the data and store it in the database.",Di geocoding api go call di geocoding api to retrieve di data and store am for di database.,Computer science
the first five locations are already in the database and so they are skipped.,Di first five locations dey already for di database and so dem dey skip.,Computer science
the program scans to the point where it finds new locations and starts retrieving them.,Di program scans to di point wey dem find new locations and start retrieving dem,Computer science
"visualizing networks and interconnections 207 thegeoload. py program can be stopped at anytime, and there is a counter that you can use to limit the number of calls to the geocoding api for each run.","Di py program go stop for anytime, and e dey counter wey you go use to limit di number of call to di geocoding api for each run.",Computer science
"given that the where. data only has a few hundred data items, you should not run into the daily rate limit, but if you had more data it might take several runs overs everal days to get your database to have all ofthe geocoded data for your input.","Di data only get few hundred data items, you go no run into di daily rate limit, but if you no run into di daily rate limit, but if you no run into di daily rate limit, but if you no run into di daily rate limit, but if you no run into di daily rate limit, but if you no run into di daily rate limit, but if you no run for everal days to get your database to get all of di geocoded data for your input.",Computer science
"once you have some data loaded into geodata. sqlite, you can visualize the data using the geodump. py program.","As you go get some data loaded into geodata. sqlite, you fit visualize di data using geodump. py program.",Computer science
"this program reads the database and writes the filewhere. js with the location, latitude, and longitude in the form of executable javascript code.",Di program read di database and write di filewhere.,Computer science
the file where. html consists of html and javascript to visualize a google map.,Di file wey be html and javascript to visualize a google map,Computer science
it reads the most recent data in where. js to get the data to be visualized.,I read di most recent data for where.,Computer science
"the syntax f or javascript list constants is very similar to python, so the syntax should be familiar to you.","Di syntax f or javascript list constants dey similar to python, so di syntax go familiar to you.",Computer science
simply open where. html in a browser to see the locations.,html for a browser to see di locations,Computer science
you can hover over each map pinto find the location that the geocoding api returned for the user-entered input.,"Di html file, you go need check di javascript or developer console for your browser",Computer science
"if you cannot see any data when you open the where. html file, you might want to check the javascript or developer console for your browser.","Di page ranking google page rank algorithm to determine which pages dey highly connected, and then visualize di page rank and connectivity of awa small corner of di web.",Computer science
"visualizing data figure 16.2: a page ranking google page rank algorithm to determine which pages are most highly connected, and then visualize the page rank and connectivity of our small corner ofthe web.","Di page ranking google page rank algorithm to determine which pages dey highly connected, and then visualize di page rank and connectivity of awa small corner of di web.",Computer science
you can restart the process at anytime by removing the spider. sqlite file and rerunning spider. py.,Di process for anytime by removing di spider. sqlite file and rerunning spider. py.,Computer science
"if yo u restart the program and tell it to crawl more pages, it will notre-crawl any pages already in the database.","If u restart di program and tell am to crawl more pages, e no re-crawl any pages already for di database.",Computer science
upon restart it goes to a random non-crawled page and starts there.,Di restart dem goto random non-crawled page and start there.,Computer science
so each successive run of spider. py is additive.,Di spider dey additive.,Computer science
the spider chooses randomly amongst all non-visited links across all the webs as the next page to spider.,d spider dey choose randomly amongst all non-visited links across all d webs as d next page to spider.,Computer science
"this shows the number of incoming links, the old page rank, the new page rank, the id ofthe page, and the url ofthe page.","Di number of incoming links, di old page rank, di new page rank, di id of di page, and di url of di page.",Computer science
the spdump. py program only shows pages that have atleast one incoming link to them.,Di Py program only show pages wey dey incoming link to dem,Computer science
"once you have a few pages in the database, you can run page rank on the pages using the sprank. py program.","Di once you go get few pages for di database, you go run page rank on di pages using di sprank. Py program.",Computer science
you simply tell it how many page rank iterations to run.,Di simply tell am how many page rank iterations to run,Computer science
you can run sprank. py as many times as you like and it will simply refine the page rank each time you run it.,Na many times as you like and e go refine di page rank each time you run am,Computer science
you can even run sprank. py a few times and then go spider a few more pages with spider. py and then run sprank. py to reconverge the page rank values.,Dem even run sprank. py few times and then go spider few more pages wit spider,Computer science
a search engine usually runs both the crawling and ranking programs all the time.,d search engine dey usually run both d crawling and ranking programs all d time.,Computer science
"if you want to restart the page rank calculations without respidering the web pages, you can use spreset. py and then restart sprank. py.","if you wan restart d page rank calculations without respidering d web pages, you can use spreset. py and den restart sprank. py",Computer science
the network initially is quite unbalanced and so the individual page rank values change wildly between iterations.,Di network initially dey unbalance and so di individual page rank values change wildly between iterations.,Computer science
"but in a few short iterations, the page rank converges.","Na few short iterations, di page rank converge",Computer science
you should run sprank. py long enough that the page rank values converge.,Dis long enough say di page rank values converge.,Computer science
"if you want to visualize the current top pages in terms of page rank, run spjson. py to read the database and write the data for the most highly linked pages in json format to be viewed in a web browser.","if you waan visualize d current top pages using page rank, run spjson. py make e read d databse and write d data ford most highly linked pages for json format to be viewed for web browser.",Computer science
creating json output on spider. json. how many nodes?,creating json output on spider. json. how many nodes?,Computer science
this shows an automatic layout ofthe nodes and links.,Di show automatic layout of di nodes and links.,Computer science
you can click and drag any node and you can also double-click on a node to find the url that is represented by the node.,Di node go find di url wey dey represent by di node.,Computer science
"if you rerun the other utilities, rerun spjson. py and press refresh in the browser to get the new data from spider. json.",Dem press refresh for di browser to get di new data from spider.,Computer science
now it is time to take our analysis of email data to the next level.,Di time to take awa analysis of email data to di next level.,Computer science
"in the real world, sometimes you have to pull down mail data from servers.","for real world, you go need pull down mail data from servers.",Computer science
"that might take quite sometime and the data might be inconsistent, error-filled, and need alot of cleanup or adjustment.","Di data dey inconsistent, error-filled, and need alot of cleanup or adjustment.",Computer science
the gmane service was very popular with open source projects because it provided a nice searchable archive of their email activity.,Di gmane service dey popular wit open source projects because e provide nice searchable archive of dia email activity.,Computer science
the file readme. txt in the above zip may have instructions as to how you can download a pre-spidered copy ofthe content. sqlite file for a majority ofthe sakai email corpus so you don't have to spider for five days just to run the programs.,Di above zip don get instructions as to how you fit download a pre-spider copy of di content.,Computer science
"if you download the prespidered content, you should still run the spidering process to catch up with more recent messages.",We go still run di spidering process to catch up wit more recent messages,Computer science
the first step is to spider the repository.,Di first step dey to spider di repository,Computer science
the base url is hard-coded in the gmane. py and is hard-coded to the sakai developer list.,Di base url dey hard-coded to di sakai developer list.,Computer science
you can spider another repository by changing that base url.,We go spider one repository by changing dat base url,Computer science
make sure to delete the content. sqlite file if you switch the base url.,E make sure to delete di content if you switch di base url.,Computer science
the gmane. py file operates as a responsible caching spider in that it runs slowly and retrieves one mail message per second so as to avoid getting throttled.,Di gmane. py file operates as responsible caching spider wey dey run slowly and retrieve one mail message per second so as to avoid getting throttled,Computer science
it stores all of its data in a database and can be interrupted and restarted as often as needed.,E dey store all of its data for a database and be interrupted and restarted as often as need.,Computer science
it may take many hours to pull all the data down.,E go take many hours to pull all di data down.,Computer science
so you may need to restart several times.,you may need restart several times.,Computer science
it continues spidering until it has spidered the desired number of messages or it reaches a page that does not appear to be a properly formatted message.,E continue spidering until e don spider di desired number of messages or e dey reach page wey no dey display correct message.,Computer science
sometimes the repository is missing a message.,Di repository dey missing message,Computer science
perhaps administrators can delete messages or perhaps they get lost.,Di administrators don dey delete messages or perhaps dem get lost,Computer science
"if your spider stops, and it seems it has hit a missing message, go into the sqlite manager and add a row with the missing id leaving all the other fields blank and restart gmane. py.","Di spider stop, and e seem say e don hit missing message, go into di sqlite manager and add row wit di missing message, go into di sqlite manager and add row wit di missing id, go into di sqlite manager and add row wit di missing id, go into di sqlite manager and add row wit di missing id, go into di sqlite manager and add row wit di missing id, go into di sqlite manager and add row wit di missing message, go into di sqlite manager and add",Computer science
this will unstick the spidering process and allow it to continue.,Dis go unstick di spidering process and allow am to continue,Computer science
these empty messages will be ignored in the next phase ofthe process.,Di empty message go dey ignored for di next phase of di process.,Computer science
"one nice thing is that once you have spidered all ofthe messages and have them incontent. sqlite, you can run gmane. py again to get new messages as they are sent to the list.","Di one nice thing na say once you go get spider all of di messages and get dem incontent. sqlite, you fit run gmane.",Computer science
"the content. sqlite data is pretty raw, with an inefficient data model, and not compressed.","Di content dey raw, wit inefficient data model, and no compressed",Computer science
this is intentional as it allows you to look at content. sqlite in the sqlite manager to debug problems with the spidering process.,E dey intentional as e allow you to make we look content. sqlite for di sqlite manager to debug problems wit di spidering process,Computer science
"it would be a bad idea to run any queries against this database, as they would be quite slow.","E go be bad idea to run any queries against dis database, as dem go quite slow",Computer science
the second process is to run the program gmodel. py.,Di second process dey run di program gmodel. Py.,Computer science
this program reads the raw data from content. sqlite and produces a cleaned-up and well-modeled version ofthe data in the file index. sqlite.,dis program dey read data from content. sqlite and e dey produce cleaned-up and well-modeled version of d data ford file index. sqlite,Computer science
this file will be much smaller(often 10x smaller)than content. sqlite because it also compresses the header and body text.,dis file go dey smaller(10X smalleer) than conent. sqliite because e dey also compress d header and body text.,Computer science
"each time gmodel. py runs it deletes and rebuilds index. sqlite, allowing you to adjust its parameters and edit the mapping tables in content. sqlite to tweak the data cleaning process.",E dey allow you to adjust dia parameters and edit di mapping table for content.,Computer science
this is a sample run of gmodel. py.,dis na sample run of gmodel. py,Computer science
"it prints a line out each time 250 mail messages are processed so you can see some progress happening, as this program may run for awhile processing nearly a gigabyte of mail data.","As dis program go run for awhile processing nearly gigabyte of mail data, as dis program go run for while processing nearly gigabyte of mail data",Computer science
visualizing mail data 213 thegmodel. py program handles a number of data cleaning tasks.,Dem handle number of data cleaning tasks. Py program handle number of data cleaning tasks,Computer science
"domain names are truncated to two levels for. com. org. edu, and. net.","Di domain name dey truncated to two level for. com. org. edu, and. net",Computer science
other domain names are truncated to three levels.,Di domain name dey truncated to three level,Computer science
"email addresses are also forced to lower case, and some ofthe @gmane. org address like the following are converted to the real address whenever there is a matching real email address elsewhere in the message corpus.",Di following dey convert to di real address wey dey matching real email address for di message corpus.,Computer science
in the mapping. sqlite database there are two tables that allow you to map both domain names and individual email addresses that change over the lifetime ofthe email list.,E dey two table wey allow you map both domain name and individual email addresses wey change over di lifetime of di email list.,Computer science
"for example, steve githens used the following email addresses ashe changed jobs over the life ofthe sakai developer list: we can add two entries to the mapping table in mapping. sqlite sogmodel. py will map all three to one address:-> ->you can also make similar entries in the dnsmapping table if there are multiple dns names you want mapped to a single dns.",steve githens use di following email address as hin change jobs for di life of di sakai developer list:,Computer science
the following mapping was added to the sakai data: iupui. edu ->indiana. edu so all the accounts from the various indiana university campuses are tracked to - gether.,Di following mapping dey add to di sakai data: iupui. edu ->indiana. edu so all di accounts from di various indiana university campuses dey track together,Computer science
"you can rerun the gmodel. py over and over as you look at the data, and add mappings to make the data cleaner and cleaner.","you fit rerun d gmodel. py plenty times as you dey look d data, you fit add mappings to make d data clean.",Computer science
"when you are done, you will have a nicely indexed version ofthe email in index. sqlite.","As you dey done, you go get nicely indexed version of di email for index. sqlite.",Computer science
this is the file to use to do data analysis.,Di file wey dey use to do to study numbers,Computer science
"with this file, data analysis will be really quick.","Di file, to study numbers go be quick.",Computer science
"the first, simplest data analysis is to determine""who sent the most mail?""","Di first, simplest to study numbers dey to determine""who send di most mail?""",Computer science
"and""which organization sent the most mail""?",Di organization send di most mail?,Computer science
this is done using gbasic. py: how many to dump?,we fit do dis one if we use gbasic. py: how many we go dump?,Computer science
"they are all working on the same data, but gbasic. py is using the compressed and normalized data in index. sqlite.",Dem use di compressed and normalized data for index. sqlite.,Computer science
"if you have alot of data to manage, a multistep process like the one in this application may take a little longer to develop, but will save you alot of time when you really start to explore and visualize your data.","Di application go take alot of data to manage, multistep process like di one for dis application go take a little longer to develop, but go save you alot of time wen you start to explore and visualize your data",Computer science
a second visualization is produced by gline. py.,Di second visualization dey produce by gline. py,Computer science
it computes email participation by organizations overtime.,e dey compute email partcipation by organizations overtime.,Computer science
"this is a relatively complex and sophisticated application and has features to do some real data retrieval, cleaning, and visualization.","Di application dey relatively complex and sophisticated application and don feature to do some real data retrieval, cleaning, and visualization.",Computer science
some ofthe translations are available in print and ava lailable for purchase.,Di translations dey available for print and ava lailable for purchase,Computer science
a. 2 contributor list for python for everybody the source for the book is maintained in github and you can find numerous contributors for the book who find and suggest fixes using pull requests.,Di contributor list for python for everybody di source for di book dey maintain for github and you fit find numerous contributors for di book wey find and suggest fixes using pull request.,Computer science
"the failure rate in the class was too high and, even for students who succeeded, the overall level of achievement was too low.","Di failure rate for di class na too high and, even for students wey dey succeeded, di overall level of achievement na too low.",Computer science
one ofthe problems i saw was the books.,Na one of di problems wey i saw na di books,Computer science
"they were too big, with too much unnecessary detail about java, and not enough high-level guidance about how to program.","dem dey to big, with plenty information wey no dey necessary about java, and e no get enough high-level guidance about how hin go plan d program.",Computer science
"the students would get too much new material, too fast, and i would spend the rest ofthe semester picking up the pieces.","d students go get too much new material, too fast, and i go spend d rest of d semester dey pack d pieces.",Computer science
"two weeks before the first day of classes, i decided to write my own book.","two weeks before d first day of class, na hin i decide to write my own book.",Computer science
my goals were: keep it short.,My goal dey: keep am short,Computer science
it is better for students to read 10 pages than not read 50 pages.,E dey better for students to read 10 pages than no read 50 pages,Computer science
"preface for""think python""219 be careful with vocabulary.","Di preface for""think python""219 to dey careful wit vocabulary.",Computer science
"to avoid trap doors, i took the most difficult topics and split them into a series of small steps.",I tok di most difficult topics and split dem into series of small steps.,Computer science
"my first version was rough, but it worked.","Di first version dey rough, but e work.",Computer science
"students did the reading, and they understood enough that i could spend class time on the hard topics, the interesting topics and(most important)letting the students practice.","Dem tok say i go spend class time on hard topics, di interesting topics and(most important) lett di students practice.",Computer science
what happened next is the cool part.,Di cool part.,Computer science
"jeff elkner, a highschool teacher in virginia, adopted my book and translated it into python.","Di highschool teacher for virginia, adopt my book and translate am into python",Computer science
"he sent me a copy of his translation, and i had the unusual experience of learning python by reading my own book.","he send me copy of hin translation, and i get d unusual experience of learing python because say i read my own book.",Computer science
"as green tea press, i published the book and started selling hard copies through amazon. com and college bookstores.",I publish di book and start selling hard copies through amazon. com and college bookstore,Computer science
other books from green tea press are available at greenteapress. com.,E dey available for green tea press. com,Computer science
in 2003 i started teaching at olin college andi got to teach python for the first time.,for 2003 i stat to dey teach for olin college andi dey teach dem python ford first time.,Computer science
the contrast with java was striking.,Di contrast wit java dey striking,Computer science
"students struggled less, learned more, worked on more interesting projects, and generally had alot more fun.","Di students dey struggled less, learn more, work on more interesting projects, and generally get lot more fun",Computer science
"over the last five years i have continued to develop the book, correcting errors, improving some ofthe examples and adding material, especially exercises.","I don continue to develop di book, correct errors, improve some of di examples and add material, especially exercises.",Computer science
"in 2008 i started work on a major revisionat the same time, i was contacted by an editor at cambridge university press who was interested in publishing the next edition.",I contact an editor for cambridge university press wey dey interest for publishing di next edition.,Computer science
"a.4. 2 acknowledgements for""think python""(allen b. downey)first and most importantly, i thank jeff elkner, who translated my java book into python, which got this project started and introduced me to what has turned out to be my favorite language.","I thank jeff elkner, wey translate my java b kom into python, wey get di project start and introduced me to what dey turnout to be my favorite language.",Computer science
contributions i also thank the editors at lulu who worked on how to think like a computer scientist.,Di editors for lulu wey work on how to think like a computer scientist,Computer science
"andi thank my wife, lisa, for her work on this book, and green tea press, and everything else, too.","I thank my wife, lisa, for her work on dis book, and green tea press, and all else, too.",Computer science
"a. 5 contributor list for""think python""(allen b. downey)more than 100 sharp-eyed and thoughtful readers have sent in suggestions and corrections over the past few years.",plenty contributors don send suggestions and corrections for dis book.,Computer science
"their contributions, and enthusiasm for this project, have been a huge help.",Di project don be huge help.,Computer science
"for the detail on the nature of each ofthe contributions from these individuals, see the""think python""text.","For di detail on di nature of each of di contributions from dis individuals, see di""think python""text",Computer science
unfortunately there are many print-on-demand services and very few have as wellconsidered a policy as kdp.,Unfortunately na many print-on-demand services and very few don consider policy as kdp,Computer science
"unfortunately, adding nc limits uses of this material that i would like to permit.","E dey unfortunately, add nc limits wey dey use of dis material wey i go like to allow.",Computer science
"in particular, you will be permitted to sell the resulting translated book commercially.","Di resulting translated book commercially, you go allow you sell di resulting translated book commercially",Computer science
"if you are intending to translate the book, you may want to contact me so we can make sure that you have all ofthe related course materials so you can translate them aswell.",We fit make sure say you go get all of di related course materials so you fit translate dem aswell.,Computer science
"ofcourse, you are welcome to contact me and ask for permission if these clauses are not sufficient.",We dey welcome to contact me and ask for permission if dem no dey sufficient.,Computer science
copyright detail granted as long as there is clear added value or benefit to students or teachers that will accrue as a result ofthe new work.,Di copyright detail grant as long as e dey clear added value or benefit to students or teachers wey go accrue as result of di new work.,Computer science
"think python how to think like a computer scientist 2nd edition, version 2.4. 0 think python how to think like a computer scientist 2nd edition, version 2.4. 0 allen downey green tea press needham, massachusetts copyright 2015 allen downey.","Di think python how to think like a computer scientist 2nd edition, version 2.4. 0 think python how to think like a computer scientist 2nd edition, version 2.4. 0 think python how to think like a computer scientist 2nd edition, version 2.4. 0",Computer science
the original form of this book is latex source code.,Di original form of dis book dey latex source code,Computer science
"compiling this latex source has the effect of generating a device-independent representation of a textbook, which can be converted to other formats and printed.","Di latex source don get di effect of generating device-independent representation of textbook, wey go convert to oda format and printed.",Computer science
"they were too big, with too much unnecessary detail about java, and not enough high-level guidance about how to program.","dem dey too big, with plenty unneccessary details about java, and e no get enough guidance wey we fit use ford program.",Computer science
"preface since then i've continued to develop the book, correcting errors, improving some ofthe examples and adding material, especially exercises.","I continue to develop di book, correct errors, improve some of di examples and add material, especially exercises.",Computer science
"the result is this book, now with the less grandiose title think python.","Di result na dis book, now wit di less grandiose title think python",Computer science
most exercises include a link to my solution.,Di most exercises include link to my solution,Computer science
the second edition of think python has these new features: the book and all supporting code have been updated to python 3.,Di second edition of think python don update dis new features: di book and all support code don update to python 3.,Computer science
"allen b. downey olin college acknowledgments many thanks to jeff elkner, who translated my java book into python, which got this project started and introduced me to what has turned out to be my favorite language.","Di college acknowledgments many thanks to jeff elkner, wey translate my java book into python, wey get di project start and introduced me to what dey turnout to be my favorite language.",Computer science
thanks to the editors at o'reilly media who worked on think python.,Di editor for o'reilly media wey work on think python.,Computer science
thanks to all the students who worked with earlier versions of this book and all the contributors(listed below)who sent in corrections and suggestions.,Di students wey work wit earlier version of dis book and all di contributors wey work wit earlier version of dis book and all di contributors(listed below) wey send in correction and suggestions.,Computer science
contributor list more than 100 sharp-eyed and thoughtful readers have sent in suggestions and corrections over the past few years.,Di contributor list more than 100 sharp-eyed and thoughtful readers don send suggestion and corrections over di past few years.,Computer science
"if you have a suggestion or correction, please send email to.","If you go get suggestion or correction, please send email to.",Computer science
"if i make a change based on your feedback, i will add you to the contributor list(unless you ask to be omitted).","If i make change based on your feedback, i go add you to di contributor list(unless you ask to be omitted).",Computer science
"if you include atleast part ofthe sentence the error appears in, that makes it easy for me to search.","As you include atleast part of di sentence di error appear for, make am easy for me search.",Computer science
their program can now be found on the website.,Di website don find di website.,Computer science
he has submitted numerous corrections.,He don submit numerous corrections.,Computer science
he also fixed the makefile so that it creates an index the first time it is run and helped us setup a versioning scheme.,He also fixed makefile so say makefile create index di first time wey dey run and help us setup versioning scheme.,Computer science
he has contributed several valuable suggestions and corrections.,E don contribute several valuable suggestions and corrections.,Computer science
he has also found several errors in the english version.,E don find several errors for di english version.,Computer science
smith caught several typos and helped us update the book for python 2.2.,d smith catch plenty typos and he help us updated book for python 2.2,Computer science
"this error was in the book for years, but two readers with the same initials reported it on the same day.","Di error dey for di book for years, but two readers wit di same initials report am on di same day.",Computer science
preface mark e. casida isis good at spotting repeated words.,Dem dey good for spotting repeat words.,Computer science
and then sent in a heap of corrections.,Di heap of corrections dey send for heap of corrections.,Computer science
and zim spotted a typo.,Na zim spot typo.,Computer science
"and then found a bunch of typos and a""use before def"".","Di bunch of typos and a""use before def"".",Computer science
"max is one ofthe authors ofthe extraordinary concrete abstractions, which you might want to read when you are done with this book.",Na one of di authors of di extraordinary concrete abstractions wey you fit read wen you dey done wit dis book.,Computer science
and he knows how to spell jane austen.,E know how to spell Jane austen,Computer science
we are deeply grateful!,we dey deeplygateful.,Computer science
"along the way, they sent many corrections and suggestions.",Dem send many corrections and suggestions.,Computer science
"in addition, people who spotted typos or made corrections include czeslaw czapla, dale wilson, francesco carlo cimini, richard fursa, brian mcghie, lokesh kumar makani, matthew shultz, viet le, victor simeone, lars o. d.","For addition, pipo wey spot typos or make correction include czeslaw czapla, dale wilson, francesco carlo cimini, richard fursa, brian mcghie, lokesh kumar makani, matthew shultz, viet le, victor simeone, lars o. d.",Computer science
"christensen, swarup sahoo, alix etienne, kuang he, wei huang, karen barber, and eric ransom.","Christensen, swarup sahoo, Alix etienne, kuang hin, wen huang, karen barber, and eric ransom.",Computer science
"this way of thinking combines some ofthe best features of mathematics, engineering, and natural science.","Di way of thinking combines some of di best features of mathematics, engineering, and natural science.",Computer science
"like mathematicians, computer scientists use formal languages to denote ideas(specifically computations).","For mathematicians, computer scientists use formal languages to denote ideas(specifically computations).",Computer science
"like engineers, they design things, assembling components into systems and evaluating tradeoffs among alternatives.","Di like engineers, dem design things, assembling component into systems and evaluating tradeoffs among alternatives.",Computer science
"like scientists, they observe the behavior of complex systems, form hypotheses, and test predictions.","Dem observe di behavior of complex systems, form hypotheses, and test predictions.",Computer science
the single most important skill for a computer scientist is problem solving.,Di single most important skill for a computer scientist dey problem solving,Computer science
"problem solving means the ability to formulate problems, think creatively about solutions, and express a solution clearly and accurately.","Di ability to formulate problem, think creatively about solutions, and express solution clearly and accurately.",Computer science
"as it turns out, the process of learning to program is an excellent opportunity to practice problem-solving skills.",Di process of learning to program dey excellent opportunity to practice problem-solving skills.,Computer science
"on one level, you will be learning to program, a useful skill by itself.","E go learn to program, one thing wey dey help by itself",Computer science
"on another level, you will use programming as a means to an end.",We go use programming as means to end,Computer science
"as we go along, that end will become clearer.","We go along, say end go become clearer",Computer science
aprogram is a sequence of instructions that specifies how to perform a computation.,Di program dey sequence of instructions wey dey specifi how to perform computation,Computer science
"the computation might be something mathematical, such as solving a system of equations or finding the roots of a polynomial, but it can also be a symbolic computation, such as searching and replacing text in a document or something graphical, like processing an image or playing a video.","Di computation might be something mathematical, such as solving system of equations or finding di roots of polynomial, but e fit also be working with math using symbols instead of just numbers, such as searching and replacing text for document or something graphical, like processing image or play video.",Computer science
"the details look different indifferent languages, but a few basic instructions appear in just about every language: input: get data from the keyboard, a file, the network, or some other device.","Di details look different for different languages, but few basic instructions appear for just about every language: input: get data from di keyboard, file, di network, or some oda device.",Computer science
"output: display data on the screen, save it in a file, send it over the network, etc.","display data on screen, save am for file, send am over di network, etc.",Computer science
math: perform basic mathematical operations like addition and multiplication.,Dem perform basic mathematical operations like addition and multiplication,Computer science
conditional execution: check for certain conditions and run the appropriate code.,Di conditional execution: check for certain conditions and run di appropriate code,Computer science
"the way ofthe program repetition: perform some action repeatedly, usually with some variation.","Di way of di program repetition: perform some action repeatedly, usually wit some variation.",Computer science
"believe it or not, that's pretty much all there is to it.","Di pretty much all wey dey to am, na pretty much all wey dey to am.",Computer science
"every program you've ever used, no matter how complicated, is made up of instructions that look pretty much like these.","Di program wey dey use, no matter how complicated, dey makeup of instructions wey look like those.",Computer science
"so you can think of programming as the process of breaking a large, complex task into smaller and smaller subtasks until the subtasks are simple enough to be performed with one of these basic instructions.","So you fit think of programming as di process of breaking large, complex task into smaller and smaller subtasks until di subtasks dey simple enough to perform wit one of dis basic instructions.",Computer science
"if you are familiar with your operating system, and especially if you are comfortable with the command-line interface, you will have no trouble installing python.","If you dey familiar wit your system wey dey control wetin computer fit do, e dey manage hardware and software, make am possible for apps and services to dey run, e be like brain wey dey direct computer, and especially if you dey familiar wit di command-line interface, you go no get trouble install python",Computer science
"but for beginners, it can be painful to learn about system administration and programming at the same time.",E go painful to learn about system administration and programming for di same time.,Computer science
"to avoid that problem, i recommend that you start out running python in a browser.",I recommend say you start out run python for a browser,Computer science
"later, when you are comfortable with python, i'll make suggestions for installing python on your computer.",i go make suggestions for installing python for your computer later.,Computer science
there area number of web pages you can use to run python.,Di number of web pages you go use to run python,Computer science
"if you already have a favorite, go ahead and use it.","if you don get favorite, you fit use am.",Computer science
otherwise i recommend pythonanywhere.,I recommend pythonanywhere,Computer science
"there are two versions of python, called python 2 and python 3.","Di two version of python, wey call python 2 and python 3.",Computer science
"they are very similar, so if you learn one, it is easy to switch to the other.","If you learn one, e dey easy to switch to di oda",Computer science
"in fact, there are only a few differences you will encounter as a beginner.","For fact, na only few differences you go encounter as a beginner",Computer science
"this book is written for python 3, but i include some notes about python 2.","Di book dey write for python 3, but i include some notes about python 2.",Computer science
the python interpreter is a program that reads and executes python code.,Di python interpreter dey program wey read and executes python code,Computer science
"depending on your environment, you might start the interpreter by clicking on an icon, or by typing python on a command line.","e depend on your environment, you fit start d interpreter by clicking on an icon, or make you type python for di place wey you type command.",Computer science
"but you should check that the version number, which is 3.4. 0 in this example, begins with 3, which indicates that you are running python 3.","Diversion number, wey dey 3.4. 0 for dis example, begin wit 3, which indicates say you dey run python 3.4. 0 for dis example, start wit 3, which indicates say you dey run python 3.4. 0 for dis example, start wit 3, which indicates say you dey run python 3.4.",Computer science
"if it begins with 2, you are running(you guessed it)python 2.",Di pipo dey run(you guess am)python 2.,Computer science
the last line is a prompt that indicates that the interpreter is ready for you to enter code.,Di last line dey prompt wey indicate say di interpreter dey ready for you enter code,Computer science
"from here on, i assume that you know how to start the python interpreter and run code.",I assume say you know how to start di python interpreter and run code,Computer science
"the first program 3 1. 3 the first program traditionally, the first program you write in anew language is called""hello, world!""","Di first program traditionally, di first program wey you write for new language dey call""hello, world!""",Computer science
"because all it does is display the words""hello, world!"".","Di word""hello, world!"".",Computer science
"this is an example of a print statement, although it doesn't actually print anything on paper.",Di example of print statement wey dey suppose print anything on paper,Computer science
it displays a result on the screen.,Di screen dey display result on di screen,Computer science
"in this case, the result is the words hello, world!","Di result na di words hello, world",Computer science
the quotation marks in the program mark the beginning and end ofthe text to be displayed; they don't appear in the result.,Di quotation marks for di program mark di beginning and end of di text to bedisplay; dem no dey display for di result.,Computer science
the parentheses indicate that print is a function.,Di parentheses indicate say print dey function,Computer science
"in python 2, the print statement is slightly different; it is not a function, so it doesn't use parentheses.","Di print statement dey different; e no dey function, so e no use parentheses",Computer science
"this distinction will make more sense soon, but that's enough to get started.","Di distinction go make more sense soon, but na enough to get start.",Computer science
"python provides operators, which are special symbols that represent computations like addition and multiplication.","Di python provide operator operators, wey dey special symbol wey represent computations like addition and multiplication.",Computer science
"the way ofthe program 1. 5 values and types avalue is one ofthe basic things a program works with, like a letter or a number.","Di way of di program 1. 5 values and type avalue dey one of di basic things wey dey work wit, like letter or number.",Computer science
"some values we have seen so far are 2, 42. 0, and 'hello, world!","Di value wey we don see so far na 2, 42. 0, and 'hello, world!",Computer science
"these values belong to different types: 2is an integer, 42. 0 is afloating-point number, and 'hello, world!","Di value belong to different type: 2is integer, 42. 0 dey floating point number, and 'hello, world!",Computer science
"'is astring, so-called because the letters it contains are strung together.","E dey astring, so-called because di letters wey dey contains dey strung together",Computer science
"not surprisingly, integers belong to the type int, strings belong to strand floating-point numbers belong to float.","integers belong to di type int, strings belong to strand floating point numbers belong to float.",Computer science
what about values like'2'and'42. 0 '?,Na what about value like'2'and'42. 0 '?,Computer science
"when you type a large integer, you might be tempted to use commas between groups of digits, as in 1, 000,000.","If you type large integer, you go tempt to use commas between groups of digits, as in 1, 000,000",Computer science
"python interprets 1, 000,000 as a comma-separated sequence of integers.","Di python interpret 1, 000,000 as comma-separated sequence of integers.",Computer science
we'll learn more about this kind of sequence later.,We go learn more about dis kind of sequence later,Computer science
they were not designed by people(although people try to impose some order on them); they evolved naturally.,Dem no dey design by pipo (although pipo try to impose some order on dem),Computer science
formal languages are languages that are designed by people for specific applications.,Di formal languages dey languages wey dey design by pipo for specific applications.,Computer science
"for example, the notation that mathematicians use is a formal language that is particularly good at denoting relationships among numbers and symbols.",Di notation wey mathematicians use dey formal language wey dey good for denoting relationships among numbers and symbols.,Computer science
chemists use a formal language to represent the chemical structure of molecules.,chemists dey use formula language represent d chemical structure of molecules.,Computer science
and most importantly: programming languages are formal languages that have been designed to express computations.,Di formal languages dey formal languages wey dey design to express computations,Computer science
formal and natural languages 5 formal languages tend to have strict syntax rules that govern the structure of statements.,Di formal and natural languages 5 formal languages don get strict syntax rules wey govern di structure of statements.,Computer science
"for example, in mathematics the statement 3+3=6 has correct syntax, but 3+=3$6 does not.","for example, for example, for mathematics di statement 3+3=6 don correct syntax, but 3+=3$6 no dey.",Computer science
"in chemistry h2ois a syntactically correct formula, but 2zzis not.","for chemistry h2o na syntactically correct formula, but 2zz is not.",Computer science
"syntax rules come in two flavors, pertaining to tokens and structure.","syntax rules dey come in two flavors, wey dey related to tokes and structure.",Computer science
"tokens are the basic elements ofthe language, such as words, numbers, and chemical elements.","tokens na basic elements of d language, such as words, numbers, and chemical elements.",Computer science
one ofthe problems with 3+=3$6 is that$ is not a legal token in mathematics(at least as far as i know).,One of di problems wit 3+=3$6 na say$ no legal token for mathematics(at least as for i know).,Computer science
"similarly, 2zzis not legal because there is no element with the abbreviation zz.","For similarly, 2zzi no legal because di element wit di abbreviation zz.",Computer science
the second type of syntax rule pertains to the way tokens are combined.,Di second type of syntax rule pertains to di way tokens dey combined,Computer science
"the equation 3+/3 is illegal because even though+and /are legal tokens, you can't have one right after the other.","Di equation 3+ 3 dey legal because even though+and dey legal tokens, you no get one right after di oda.",Computer science
"similarly, in a chemical formula the subscript comes after the element name, not before.","For chemical formula di subscript kom after di element name, no before.",Computer science
this is @well-structured engli$h sentence with invalid t*kens in it.,E dey well-structured engli$h sentence wit invalid t*kens for am,Computer science
"this sentence all valid tokens has, but invalid structure with.","Di sentence all valid tokens don get, but invalid structure wit.",Computer science
"when you read a sentence in english or a statement in a formal language, you have to figure out the structure(although in a natural language you do this subconsciously).","if you dey read sentence for english or a statement for formal language, you go need sabi wetin dey happen or find solution by dey think amor try different tin d structure(although for natural language you go do dis subcontiously)",Computer science
this process is called parsing.,Di process dey call parsing,Computer science
"although formal and natural languages have many features in commontokens, structure, and syntaxthere are some differences: ambiguity: natural languages are full of ambiguity, which people deal with by using contextual clues and other information.","Di natural languages dey full of ambiguity, wey pipo deal wit by using contextual clues and oda information.",Computer science
"formal languages are designed to be nearly or completely unambiguous, which means that any statement has exactly one meaning, regardless of context.","formal languages dey designed to be nearly or compleetely unambiguouse, which mean say any statement get only one meaning, regardless of d context.",Computer science
"redundancy: in order to makeup for ambiguity and reduce misunderstandings, natural languages employ lots of redundancy.","In order makeup for ambiguity and reduce misunderstandings, natural languages employ lots of redundancy.",Computer science
"as a result, they are often verbose.",Di result dey often verbose.,Computer science
formal languages are less redundant and more concise.,Di formal languages dey less redundant and more concise,Computer science
literalness: natural languages are full of idiom and metaphor.,Natural languages dey full of idiom and metaphor,Computer science
"if i say,""the penny dropped"", there is probably no penny and nothing dropping(this idiom means that someone understood something after a period of confusion).",Di idiom means say someone dey understand something afta period of confusion,Computer science
formal languages mean exactly what they say.,Di formal languages mean exactly what dem say.,Computer science
"because we all grow up speaking natural languages, it is sometimes hard to adjust to formal languages.","because say all of us grow to dey speak natural languages, e dey hard sometimes to adjust to formal languages.",Computer science
"the difference between formal and natural language is like the difference between poetry and prose, but more so: poetry: words are used for their sounds aswell as for their meaning, and the whole poem together creates an effect or emotional response.","Di difference between formal and natural language dey like di difference between poetry and prose, but more so: poetry: words dey use for dia sound aswell as for dia meaning, and di whole poem together create effect or emotional response.",Computer science
ambiguity is not only common but often deliberate.,Di ambiguity no only common but often deliberate.,Computer science
"prose: the literal meaning of words is more important, and the structure contributes more meaning.","Di literal meaning of words dey important, and di structure contribute more meaning",Computer science
prose is more amenable to analysis than poetry but still often ambiguous.,Di prose dey more amenable to analysis than poetry but still often ambiguous,Computer science
"programs: the meaning of a computer program is unambiguous and literal, and can be understood entirely by analysis ofthe tokens and structure.","Di meaning of a computer program dey unambiguous and literal, and dem dey understand entirely by analysis of di tokens and structure.",Computer science
"the way ofthe program formal languages are more dense than natural languages, so it takes longer to read them.","Di way of di program formal languages dey more dense than natural languages, so e take longer to read dem",Computer science
"also, the structure is important, so it is not always best to read from top to bottom, left to right.","Di structure dey important, so e no always best to read from top to bottom, left to right",Computer science
"instead, learn to parse the program in your head, identifying the tokens and interpreting the structure.","Forstead, learn to parse di program for your head, identifying di tokens and interpret di structure.",Computer science
"finally, the details matter.",Di details matter.,Computer science
"small errors in spelling and punctuation, which you can getaway within natural languages, can make a big difference in a formal language.","Di small errors for spelling and punctuation, wey you fit getaway wit natural languages, make big difference for formal languages.",Computer science
"for whimsical reasons, programming errors are called bugs and the process of tracking them down is called debugging.","For whimsical reasons, programming errors dey call bugs and di process of tracking dem down dey call debugging",Computer science
"programming, and especially debugging, sometimes brings out strong emotions.","Di programming, and especially debugging, sometimes bring out strong emotions.",Computer science
"if you are struggling with a difficult bug, you might feel angry, despondent, or embarrassed.","If you dey struggling wit difficult bug, you go feel angry, despondent, or embarrassed.",Computer science
there is evidence that people naturally respond to computers as if they were people.,Di evidence say pipo naturally respond to computers as if dem dey pipo,Computer science
"when they work well, we think of them as teammates, and when they are obstinate or rude, we respond to them the same way we respond to rude, obstinate people(reeves and nass, the media equation: how people treat computers, television, and new media like real people and places).","when dem work well, we go think of dem as teammates, and when dem be dey rude, we go follow dem talk d same way we dey respond to pipo wey dey rude.",Computer science
preparing for these reactions might help you deal with them.,Di reactions go help you deal wit dem,Computer science
"one approach is to think ofthe computer as an employee with certain strengths, like speed and precision, and particular weaknesses, like lack of empathy and inability to grasp the big picture.","one approach nato think of d computer as an employee wey get certain strengths, like speed and precision, and weakness, like lack of empathy and inability to grasp d big picture",Computer science
your job is to be a good manager: find ways to take advantage ofthe strengths and mitigate the weaknesses.,Dem find ways to take advantage of di strength and mitigate di weaknesses.,Computer science
"and find ways to use your emotions to engage with the problem, without letting your reactions interfere with your ability to work effectively.","and find ways wey you fit use your emotions to engage wit d problem, without letting your reactions interfere wit your ability to work.",Computer science
"learning to debug can be frustrating, but it is a valuable skill that is useful for many activities beyond programming.",Di valuable skill wey dey useful for many activities beyond programming.,Computer science
high-level language: a programming language like python that is designed to be easy for humans to read and write.,Di kod langwej wey dem dey use write instruksiyon wey komputa go fit undastand like python wey dey design to be easy for humans to read and write,Computer science
"low-level language: a programming language that is designed to be easy for a computer to run; also called""machine language""or ""assembly language"".","low-level language na kod langwej wey dem dey use write instruksiyon wey komputa go fit undastand wey dey designed to be easy for computer to run: we dey also call am""machine language""or ""assembly language"".",Computer science
portability: a property of a program that can run on more than one kind of computer.,Di property of a program wey dey run on more than one kind of computer,Computer science
interpreter: a program that reads another program and executes it prompt: characters displayed by the interpreter to indicate that it is ready to take input from the user.,Di interpreter: a program wey read one program and dey execute am prompt: character wey dey display by di interpreter to indicate say e fit take input from di user,Computer science
program: a set of instructions that specifies a computation.,Di set of instructions wey dey describe computation,Computer science
exercises 7 print statement: an instruction that causes the python interpreter to display a value on the screen.,Di instruction wey cause di python interpreter to display value on di screen,Computer science
"operator: a special symbol that represents a simple computation like addition, multiplication, or string concatenation.","operator na special symbol wey represents a simple computation like addition, multiplication, or string concatenation.",Computer science
"value: one ofthe basic units of data, like a number or string, that a program manipulates.","One of di basic unit of data, like number or string, wey a program manipulate.",Computer science
type: a category of values.,Di category of values: a category of value,Computer science
"the types we have seen so far are integers(type int), floatingpoint numbers(type float), and strings(type str).","Di type wey we see so far dey integers(type int), floatingpoint numbers(type float), and strings(type str).",Computer science
integer: a type that represents whole numbers.,Di type wey represent whole numbers,Computer science
floating-point: a type that represents numbers with fractional parts.,Di type wey represent numbers wit fractional parts,Computer science
string: a type that represents sequences of characters.,Di type wey represent sequences of character,Computer science
natural language: anyone ofthe languages that people speak that evolved naturally.,Di languages wey pipo speak say evolved naturally,Computer science
"formal language: anyone ofthe languages that people have designed for specific purposes, such as representing mathematical ideas or computer programs; all programming languages are formal languages.","Di languages wey pipo don design for specific purposes, such as represent mathematical ideas or computer programs; all programming languages dey formal languages.",Computer science
"token: one ofthe basic elements ofthe syntactic structure of a program, analogous to a word in a natural language.","One of di basic elements of di syntactic structure of a program, analogous to word for natural language",Computer science
syntax: the rules that govern the structure of a program.,Di rules wey govern di structure of a program,Computer science
parse: to examine a program and analyze the syntactic structure.,To examine a program and analyze di syntactic structure,Computer science
bug: an error in a program.,Di error for a program,Computer science
debugging: the process of finding and correcting bugs.,Di process of finding and correct bugs,Computer science
it is a good idea to read this book in front of a computer so you can try out the examples as you go.,E dey good idea to read dis book for front of a computer so you go try out di examples as you go,Computer science
"whenever you are experimenting with anew feature, you should try to make mistakes.","If you dey experiment wit new feature, you go try make mistakes.",Computer science
"for example, in the""hello, world!""","Di""hello, world!""",Computer science
"program, what happens if you leave out one ofthe quotation marks?","If you leave out one of di quotation marks, what happen if you leave out one of di quotation marks?",Computer science
what if you leave out both?,what if you leave d two?,Computer science
what if you spell print wrong?,what if you spell print wrong?,Computer science
"this kind of experiment helps you remember what you read; it also helps when you are programming, because you get to know what the error messages mean.","Di kind of experiment help you remember what you read; e also help when you dey programming, because you go get know what di error messages mean.",Computer science
it is better to make mistakes now and on purpose than later and accidentally.,e dey better to make mistakes now and on purpose dan later and na by mistake.,Computer science
"in a print statement, what happens if you leave out one ofthe parentheses, or both?","for print statement, wetin go happen if you comot one of d parentheses, or both?",Computer science
"if you are trying to print a string, what happens if you leave out one ofthe quotation marks, or both?","If you dey try print string, what happen if you leave out one of di quotation marks, or both?",Computer science
you can use a minus sign to make a negative number like-2.,you fit use minus sign to make a negative number like-2,Computer science
what happens if you put a plus sign before a number?,wetin go happen if you put plus sign before a number?,Computer science
what about 2++2?,For 2++2?,Computer science
the way ofthe program 4.,Di way of di program 4.,Computer science
"in math notation, leading zeros are ok, as in 09.",As for 09.,Computer science
what happens if you try this in python?,If you try dis for python?,Computer science
what about 011?,For 011?,Computer science
what happens if you have two values with no operator between them?,If you go get two values wit no operator between dem?,Computer science
start the python interpreter and use it as a calculator.,Di python interpreter and use am as calculator,Computer science
how many seconds are therein 42 minutes 42 seconds?,How many seconds dey there for 42 minutes 42 seconds?,Computer science
how many miles are therein 10 kilometers?,How many miles dey there for 10 kilometers?,Computer science
hint: there are 1. 61 kilometers in a mile.,E dey 1. 61 kilometers for mile,Computer science
"if you run a 10 kilometer race in 42 minutes 42 seconds, what is your average pace(time per mile in minutes and seconds)?","If you run 10 kilometer race for 42 minutes 42 seconds, what dey your average pace(time per mile for minute and seconds)?",Computer science
what is your average speed in miles per hour?,Di average speed for miles per hour?,Computer science
the first assigns a string to anew variable named message; the second gives the integer 17ton; the third assigns the(approximate) value of ptopi.,Di second give di integer 17ton; di second give di integer 17ton; di third give di(approximate) value of ptopi,Computer science
a common way to represent variables on paper is to write the name with an arrow pointing to its value.,Di common way to represent variables on paper dey to write di name wit arrow point to its value.,Computer science
this kind of figure is called a state diagram because it shows what state each ofthe variables is in(think of it as the variable's state of mind).,Di kind of figure dey call state diagram bikos e show how state each of di variables dey in(think of it as di variable state of mind).,Computer science
message n pi17'and now for something completely different'3. 1415926535897932 figure 2.1: state diagram.,Di state diagram.,Computer science
"variables, expressions and statements variable names can be as long as you like.","Di variables, expression and statements wey dey as long as you like.",Computer science
"they can contain both letters and numbers, but they can't begin with a number.","Dem fit contain both letters and numbers, but dem no begin wit number",Computer science
"it is legal to use uppercase letters, but it is conventional to use only lower case for variables names.","e dey legal to use uppercase letters, but e dey conventional to use only lower case for dem name wey dey represent figure wey fit change for kompyuta program.",Computer science
"the underscore character, can appear in a name.","Di underscore character, fit appear for name",Computer science
"it is often used in names with multiple words, such as your name orairspeed of unladen swallow.","Di name dey often use for name wit multiple words, such as your name orairspeed of unladen swallow.",Computer science
python 3 has these keywords: false class finally is return none continue for lambda try true def from nonlocal while and del global not with as elif if or yield assert else import pass break except in raise you don't have to memorize this list.,python 3 get keywords: false class finally is return none continue for lambda try true def from nonlocal while and del global not with as elif if or yield assert else import pass break except in raise you no need memorize dis list.,Computer science
"in most development environments, keywords are displayed in a different color; if you try to use one as a variable name, you'll know.","If you try use one as a name of variable, you go know.",Computer science
"in this example, nhas the value 17 and n+25 has the value 42.","Di example, nhas di value 17 and n+25 get di value 42.",Computer science
"astatement is a unit of code that hasan effect, like creating a variable or displaying a value.","Di statement dey unit of code wey dey effect, like create a variable or display value",Computer science
"script mode 11 the first line is an assignment statement that gives a value ton. the second line is a print statement that displays the value of n. when you type a statement, the interpreter executes it, which means that it does whatever the statement says.",Di second line dey print statement wey dey give value ton. di second line dey print statement wey dey display di value of n. di second line dey print statement wey dey display di value of n.,Computer science
"in general, statements don't have values.","For general, statement don get value",Computer science
"interactive mode is a good way to get started, but if you are working with more than a few lines of code, it can be clumsy.","Di interactive mode dey good way to get start, but if you dey work wit more than few lines of code, e fit clumsy.",Computer science
the alternative is to save code in a file called a script and then run the interpreter in script mode to execute the script.,Di alternative nato save code for file wey dey call script and then run di interpreter for script mode to execute di script.,Computer science
the book discusses how to get started in r aswell as giving an introduction to data manipulation and writing scripts.,Di book discuss how to get start for r aswell as give introduction to data manipulation and writing script,Computer science
"after introducing the theory, the book covers the analysis of contingency tables, t-tests, anovas and regression.","As I don explain di theory, di book con cover how to analyze contingency tables, t-tests, anovas and regression.",Computer science
bayesian statistics are covered at the end ofthe book.,Di bayesian statistics dey covered for di end of di book,Computer science
"this means that this book can be reused, remixed, retained, revised and redistributed (including commercially)as long as appropriate credit is given to the authors.","Di means say dis book go reused, remixed, retained, revised and redistributed (including commercially)as long as appropriate credit dey give to di authors.",Computer science
it's a little strange looking back at this actually.,E dey little strange looking back for dis actually.,Computer science
"a few quick comments. weirdly, the book consistently misgenders me, but i suppose i have only myself to blame for that one:-) there's now a brief footnote on page 12 that mentions this issue; in real life i've been working through a gender armation process for the last two years and mostly go by she/her pronouns.","Di book consistently misgender me, but I suppose i get only myself to blame for dat one",Computer science
for version 0. 6 i haven't changed much i've made a few minor changes when people have pointed out typos or other errors.,I don change much i don make few minor change wen pipo don to show typos or oda errors.,Computer science
"the function works ne for the simple examples in the book, but there are de nitely bugs in there that i haven't found time to check!","Di function works na for di simple examples for di book, but na dey bugs wey i don find time to check",Computer science
so please take care with that one.,Di one wey dey take care wit dat one,Computer science
the biggest change really is the licensing!,Di biggest change really na di licensing,Computer science
"i've released it under a creative commons licence(cc by-sa 4. 0, speci cally), and placed all the source les to the associated github repository, if anyone wants to adapt it.","I release am under permission to use something free but with some rules licence(cc by-sa 4. 0, speci cally), and place all di source wey dey to di associated github repository, if anyone wan to adapt am",Computer science
maybe someone would like to write aversion that makes use ofthe tidyverse.,maybe someone go like write version wey dey to use di tidyverse,Computer science
"i've always felt uncomfortable about the fact that all the inferential statistics in the book are presented from an orthodox perspective, even though i almost always present bayesian data analyses in my own work.","I always felt uncomfortable about di fact say all di inferential statistics for di book dey present from orthodox perspective, even though i always present bayesian data analyses for my own work.",Computer science
"now that i've managed to squeeze bayesian methods into the book somewhere, i'm starting to feel better about the book as a whole.","As I don manage to squeeze bayesian methods inside di book for one place, I con begin feel better about di whole book.",Computer science
"dan navarro ix february 16, 2015 preface to version 0. 4a year has gone by since i wrote the last preface.",Di last year don gone by since i write di last preface,Computer science
"there's a few tweaks here and there, and many typo corrections(thank you to everyone who pointed out typos!","Di few tweaks for different places, and many typo corrections(thank you to all wey dey to show typos)",Computer science
the absence of any discussion of repeated measures anova and mixed models more generally really does annoy me.,"Di fact say dem no talk anything about one kind of experiment wey dem dey measure di same pipo many times anova and mixed models at all, really dey vex me.",Computer science
"my excuse for this lack of progress is that my second child was born at the start of 2013, and so i spent most of last year just trying to keep my head above water.","My excuse for dis lack of progress na say my second child dey born for di start of 2013, and so i spend most of last year try to keep my head above water.",Computer science
"as a consequence, unpaid side projects like this book got sidelined in favour of things that actually pay my salary!","as result, unpaid side projects like dis book go sidelined for favour of things wey actually pay my salary",Computer science
"things area little calmer now, so with any luck version 0. 5 will be a bigger step forward.","E dey calmer now, so wit any luck version 0. 5 go be a bigger step forward.",Computer science
one thing that has surprised me is the number of downloads the book gets.,Di one thing wey dey surprise me na di number of downloads di book get,Computer science
that's encouraging: there's atleast a few people who nd the book useful!,Na least few pipo wey nd di book useful,Computer science
"dan navarro february 4, 2014 x preface to version 0. 3 there's apart of me that really doesn't want to publish this book.",Di part of me wey no fit publish dis book,Computer science
it's not nished.,E no dey reach.,Computer science
"and when i say that, i mean it.","I mean say, i mean am",Computer science
"in other words, this book is not nished.",Di book no dey nish.,Computer science
"if i didn't have a looming teaching deadline and a baby due in a few weeks, i really wouldn't be making this available at all.","If i no get looming teaching deadline and a baby due for few weeks, i go make dis available for all.",Computer science
"what this means is that if you are an academic looking for teaching materials, a ph. d. student looking to learn r, or just a member ofthe general public interested in statistics, i would advise you to be cautious.","Wetin dis mean be say, if you be academic wey dey find teaching materials, or ph. d. student wey wan learn R, or just ordinary person wey like statistics, I go advise you make you dey careful.",Computer science
"what you're looking at is a rst draft, and it may not serve your purposes.","Di draft wey you look for dey rst draft, and e no serve your purpose",Computer science
"if we were living in the days when publishing was expensive and the internet wasn't around, i would never consider releasing a book in this form.","I go no consider releasing book for di days wen publishing dey expensive and di internet dey around, i go no consider releasing book for dis form.",Computer science
the thought of someong shelling out$80 for this(which is what a commercial publisher told me it would retail for when they oered to distribute it)makes me feel more than a little uncomfortable.,Di thought of someong shell out$80 for dis(which na what commercial publisher tell me say dem go retail for wen dem oered to distribute am)make me feel more than a little uncomfortable.,Computer science
"however, it's the 21st century, so i can post the pdf on my website for free, and i can distribute hard copies via a print-on-demand service for less than half what a textbook publisher would charge.","Di 21st century, so i fit post di pdf on my website for free, and i fit distribute hard copies via print-on-demand service for less than half wey a textbook publisher go charge.",Computer science
"and so my guilt is assuaged, and i'm willing to share!","Di guilt dey assuaged, and my guilt dey assuaged, andi fit share",Computer science
"if and when it hits version 1.0, i would be willing to stand behind the work and say, yes, this is a textbook that i would encourage other people to use.",Di textbook wey i go encourage oda pipo to use.,Computer science
"at that point, i'll probably start shamelessly ogging the thing on the internet and generally acting like a tool.",I go start shamelessly ogging di thing on di internet and generally acting like tool.,Computer science
"but until that day comes, i'd like it to be made clear that i'm really ambivalent about the work as it stands.","I dey like say dat day kom, i dey like say i dey ambivalent about di work as e stand.",Computer science
"all ofthe above being said, there is one group of people that i can enthusiastically endorse this book to: the psychology students taking our undergraduate research methods classes(drip and drip: a)in 2013.",Di psychology students wey dey take our undergraduate ways to do research class(drip and drip: a)for 2013.,Computer science
"for you, this book is ideal, because it was written to accompany your stats lectures.","Di book dey ideal, because e dey written to accompany your stats lectures.",Computer science
"if a problem arises due to a shortcoming of these notes, i can and will adapt content on they to x that problem.",I fit and fit adapt content on di y to x dat problem.,Computer science
"Effectively, you've got a textbook written specifically for your classes, distributed for free(electronic copy)or at near-cost prices(hard copy).","Na so, you don get textbook wey dem write specially for your class, wey dem dey give free(e-copy) or sell for almost cost price(copy wey dem print).",Computer science
"better yet, the notes have been tested: version 0. 1 of these notes was used in the 2011 class, version 0. 2 was used in the 2012 class, and now you're looking at the new and improved version 0. 3.","Di notes don dey use for 2011 class, version 0. 2 dey use for 2012 class, and now you look for di new and improved version 0.",Computer science
"i'm not saying these notes are titanium plated awesomeness on a stick{ though if youwanted to say soon the student evaluation forms, then you're totally welcome to {because they're not.","I no say dis notes dey titanium plated awesomeness on stick{ though if you need say soon di student evaluation forms, then you go get totally welcome to {because dem no dey no.",Computer science
but i am saying that they've been tried out in previous years and they seem to work okay.,I dey say dem dey try out for previous years and dem seem to work okay,Computer science
"besides, there's a group of us around to troubleshoot if any problems come up, and you can guarantee that atleast oneof your lecturers has read the whole thing cover to cover!","Di group of us around to troubleshoot if any dey problem kom up, and you fit guarantee say atleast one of your lecturers don read di whole thing cover to cover",Computer science
"okay, with all that out ofthe way, i should say something about what the book aims to be.",I go say something about what di book aims to be.,Computer science
"at its core, it is an introductory statistics textbook pitched primarily at psychology students.",Di introductory statistics textbook wey dey pitch primarily for psychology students.,Computer science
"as such, it covers the standard topics that you'd expect of such a book: study design, descriptive statistics, the theory of hypothesis testing, t-tests, 2tests, anova and regression.","So, e cover di normal topics wey you go expect for such book: study design, numbers wey describe, di theory of way to check if your idea be true, t-tests, chi-square tests, anova and regression.",Computer science
"moreover, when you look at the content presented in the book, you'll notice alot of topics that are traditionally swept under the carpet when teaching statistics to psychology students.","As you make we look di content wey dey present for di book, you go notice alot of topics wey dey traditionally swept under di carpet wen teaching statistics to psychology students.",Computer science
The difference between probability xi and density is discussed.,Dem discuss di difference between probability xi and density.,Computer science
"a detailed treatment of type i, ii and iii sums of squares for unbalanced factorial anova is provided.","Dem provide correct detailed treatment of type I, II and III sums of squares for one kind of experiment wey no balance anova.",Computer science
"and if you have a lookin the epilogue, it should be clear that my intention is to add alot more advanced content.",I go clear say my intention dey add alot more advanced content.,Computer science
"my reasons for pursuing this approach are pretty simple: the students can handle it, and they even seem to enjoy it.","Di reasons wey dey pursuing dis approach dey simple: di students fit handle am, and dem even seem to enjoy am",Computer science
"over the last few years i've been pleasantly surprised at just how little diculty i've had in getting undergraduate psych students to learn r. it's certainly not easy for them, and i've found i need to be a little charitable in setting marking standards, but they do eventually get there.",Di last few years i dey surprise at just how little diculty wey i get forgetting undergraduate psych students to learn r.,Computer science
"similarly, they don't seem to have alot of problems tolerating ambiguity and complexity in presentation of statistical ideas, as long as they are assured that the assessment standards will beset in a fashion that is appropriate for them.","Di problem don dey tolerate ambiguity and complexity for presentation of statistical ideas, as long as dem dey assured say di assessment standards fit set for fashion wey dey appropriate for dem.",Computer science
"so if the students can handle it, why notteach it?","Di students go handle am, why no tell am?",Computer science
the potential gains are pretty enticing.,Di potential gains dey pretty enticing.,Computer science
"if they learn r, the students get access to cran, which is perhaps the largest and most comprehensive library of statistical tools in existence.","Di students get access to cran, wey dey perhaps di largest and most comprehensive library of statistical tools for existence.",Computer science
"and if they learn about probability theory in detail, it's easier for them to switch from orthodox null hypothesis testing to bayesian methods if they want to.","And if dem learn di study of chance well-well, e go dey easier for dem to change from orthodox di test of null to bayesian methods if dem wan.",Computer science
"better yet, they learn data analysis skills that they can take to an employer without being dependent on expensive and proprietary software.",Di employer learn to study numbers skills wey dem fit take to employer without being depend on expensive and proprietary software,Computer science
"sadly, this book isn't the silver bullet that makes all this possible.",Di book no dey di silver bullet wey make all dis possible,Computer science
"it's a workin progress, and maybe when it is nished it will be a useful tool.","E dey work for progress, and maybe wen e dey stable e go be useful tool.",Computer science
"one among many, i would think.",I go think.,Computer science
"there area number of other books that try to provide a basic introduction to statistics using r, and i'm not arrogant enough to believe that mine is better.","Di number of oda books wey dey try provide basic introduction to statistics wey dey user, andi no dey arrogant enough to believe say mine dey better",Computer science
"still, i rather like the book, and maybe other people will nd it useful, incomplete though it is.","I rather like di book, and maybe oda pipo go nd am useful, incomplete though",Computer science
"dan navarro january 13, 2013 xii part i.",Di part i.,Computer science
background-1- 1.,Dem dey share-1- 1.,Computer science
why do we learn statistics?,Why we dey learn statistics?,Computer science
"thou shalt not sit with statisticians nor commit a social science""{ w. h.","Make you no sit down with statisticians, nor commit social science.",Computer science
"auden1 1. 1 on the psychology of statistics to the surprise of many students, statistics is a fairly signi cant part of a psychological education.","To di surprise of many students, statistics na really important part of psychology education.",Computer science
"to the surprise of no-one, statistics is very rarely the favourite part of one's psychological education.","Di surprise of no-one, statistic dey rarely di favourite part of one's di learning of psychology.",Computer science
"after all, if you really loved the idea of doing statistics, you'd probably be enrolled in a statistics class right now, not a psychology class.","If you really loved di idea of do statistics, you go dey enrolled for statistics class right now, no psychology class.",Computer science
"so, not surprisingly, there's a pretty large proportion ofthe student base that isn't happy about the fact that psychology has so much statistics in it.",Di student base wey dey happy about di fact say psychology don so much statistics for am,Computer science
"in view of this, i thought that the right place to start might be to answer some ofthe more common questions that people have about stats.",I tok say di right place to start go be to answer some of di more common questions wey pipo get about stats.,Computer science
a big part of this issue at hand relates to the very idea of statistics.,Di issue wey dey hand relates to di idea of statistics.,Computer science
what is it?,We dey e?,Computer science
what's it there for?,We dey there for?,Computer science
and why are scientists so bloody obsessed with it?,For why dey scientists so bloody obsess wit am?,Computer science
"these are all good questions, when you think about it.","Dem dey all good questions, wen you think about am",Computer science
so let's start with the last one.,So make we to start with di last one.,Computer science
"as a group, scientists seem to be bizarrely xated on running statistical tests on everything.","As a group, scientists dey bizarrely xated on running statistical tests on all, scientists dey bizarrely xated on running statistical tests on all.",Computer science
"in fact, we use statistics so often that we sometimes forget to explain to people why we do.",We use statistics so often say we forget to explain to pipo why we do,Computer science
it's a kind of article of faith among scientists{ and especially social scientists{ that your ndings can't be trusted until you've done some stats.,Di kind of article of faith wey dey among scientists{ and especially social scientists wey dey trust until you do some stats.,Computer science
"undergraduate students might be forgiven for thinking that we're all completely mad, because no-one takes the time to answer one very simple question: why do you do statistics?","Di undergraduate students go dey forgiven for thinking say we dey all completely mad, bikos no-one take time to answer one very simple question: why do you do statistics?",Computer science
why don't scientists just use common sense?,Why scientists no fit just use common sense?,Computer science
"it's a naive question in some ways, but most good questions are.","Di naive question for some way, but most good question dey.",Computer science
"there's alot of good answers to it,2 1the quote comes from auden's 1946 poem under which lyre: a reactionary tract for the times, delivered as part of a commencement address at harvard university.","Di quote kom from auden's 1946 poem under which lyre: reactionary tract for di times, deliver as part of a commencement address for harvard university.",Computer science
the history ofthe poem is kind of interesting:. com/2007/11/a-poets-warning. html 2including the suggestion that common sense is in short supply among scientists.,Di history of di poem dey kind of interesting: com 2007 11 a-poets-warning.,Computer science
"we worry that we're human, and susceptible to all ofthe biases, temptations and frailties that humans suer from.","We worry say we dey human, and susceptible to all of di biases, temptations and frailties wey human dey suer from.",Computer science
much of statistics is basically a safeguard.,Di statistics dey a safeguard.,Computer science
"using\common sense""to evaluate evidence means trusting gut instincts, relying on verbal arguments and on using the raw power of human reason to come up with the right answer.","To use""common sense""to check evidence mean say you dey trust your gut, dey rely on talk, and dey use human reason to find di correct answer.",Computer science
most scientists don't think this approach is likely to work.,Di approach dey likely to work,Computer science
"in fact, come to think of it, this sounds alot like a psychological question tome, and since i do workin a psychology department, it seems like a good idea to dig a little deeper here.","Di sounds like a psychological question tome, and since i do work for psychology department, e dey like good idea to dig a little deeper here.",Computer science
"is it really plausible to think that this\common sense""approach is very trustworthy?","Di really plausible to think say dis\common sense""approach dey trustworthy?",Computer science
"verbal arguments have to be constructed in language, and all languages have biases{ somethings are harder to say than others, and not necessarily because they're false(e. g, quantum electrodynamics is a good theory, but hard to explain in words).","E. g, quantum electrodynamics dey good theory, but hard to explain for words).",Computer science
"the instincts of our\gut"" aren't designed to solve scienti c problems, they're designed to handle day today inferences {and given that biological evolution is slower than cultural change, we should say that they're designed to solve the day today problems for a dierent world than the one we live in.","Di instincts of awa \gut""no dey designed to solve di day today problems wey we dey live for.",Computer science
"most fundamentally, reasoning sensibly requires people to engage in\induction"", making wise guesses and going beyond the immediate evidence ofthe senses to make generalisations about the world.","Di main thing be say, to reason well, pipo must do""induction"" —make wise guesses and pass beyond wetin dem see with dia eyes to generalize about di world.",Computer science
"if you think that you can do that without being in uenced by various distractors, well, i have a bridge in brooklyn i'd like to sell you.","I don think say you fit do dat without being in uenced by various distractors, well, i don like to sell you",Computer science
we're certainly smarter than the other species that we share the planet with(though many people might disagree).,We dey certainly smarter than di oda species wey we share di planet wit(though many pipo might disagree).,Computer science
"our minds are quite amazing things, and we seem to be capable ofthe most incredible feats of thought and reason.","We dey quite amazing things, and we dey capable of di most incredible feats of thought and reason.",Computer science
that doesn't make us perfect though.,E no make us perfect though,Computer science
"and among the many things that psychologists have shown over the years is that we really do nd it hard to be neutral, to evaluate evidence impartially and without being swayed by pre-existing biases.","Di many things wey psychologists don show over di years na say we really do neutral, to evaluate evidence impartially and without being swayed by pre-existing biases.",Computer science
"a good example of this is the belief bias eect in logical reasoning: if you ask people to decide whether a particular argument is logically valid(i. e, conclusion would be true if the premises were true), we tend to bein uenced by the believability ofthe conclusion, even when we shouldn't.","If you ask pipo to decide whether a particular argument dey logically valid(i. e, conclusion go be true if di premises dey true), we tend to bein uenced by di believability of di conclusion, even if we dey suppose uenced by di believability of di conclusion.",Computer science
"however, in the second argument, there are good reasons to think that premise 1 is incorrect, and as a result it's probably the case that the conclusion is also incorrect.","Di second argument, e dey good reason to think say premise 1 dey incorrect, and as result e dey probably di case say di conclusion dey incorrect, and as result e dey probably di case say di conclusion dey incorrect",Computer science
but that's entirely irrelevant to the topic at hand: an argument is deductively valid if the conclusion is a logical consequence ofthe premises.,Di argument deductively valid if di conclusion dey logical consequence of di premises.,Computer science
"that is, a valid argument doesn't have to involve true statements.",Di valid argument no dey involve true statements,Computer science
"we'd expect 100%of people to say that the valid arguments are valid, and 0%of people to say that the invalid arguments are valid.","We expect 100%of pipo say di valid arguments dey valid, and 0%of pipo say di valid arguments dey valid, and 0%of pipo say di valid arguments dey valid.",Computer science
"that is, it'd be perfectly okay just to let scientists evaluate data based on their common sense, and not bother with all this murky statistics stu.","Na perfectly okay just to let scientists evaluate data based on dia common sense, and no bother wit all dis murky statistics stu.",Computer science
"however, you guys have taken psych classes, and by now you probably know where this is going.","Di guys don take psych class, and by now you probably know where dis go going",Computer science
"in a classic study, j. s. b. t. evans, barston, and pollard(1983) ran an experiment looking at exactly this.","Di classic study, j. s. b. t. evans, barston, and pollard(1983) ran experiment wey dey make we look exactly dis.",Computer science
"what they found is that when pre-existing biases(i. e, beliefs) were in agreement with the structure ofthe data, everything went the way you'd hope: conclusion feels true conclusion feels false argument is valid 92%say alid"" argument is invalid 8%say alid"" not perfect, but that's pretty good.","Di conclusion feel true conclusion feel true argument dey valid 92%say alid"" argument dey valid 8%say alid"" no perfect, but e dey pretty good.",Computer science
"but look what happens when our intuitive feelings about the truth ofthe conclusion run against the logical structure ofthe argument: conclusion feels true conclusion feels false argument is valid 92%say alid"" 46%say alid"" argument is invalid 92%say alid"" 8%say alid"" oh dear, that's not as good.","Di conclusion feel true conclusion feel true argument dey valid 92%say alid"" 46%say alid"" argument dey valid 92%say alid"" argument dey valid 92%say alid"" 8%say alid""",Computer science
"apparently, when people are presented with a strong argument that contradicts our pre-existing beliefs, we nd it pretty hard to even perceive it to be a strong argument(people only did so 46%of the time).","Di apparently, wen pipo dey present wit strong argument wey contradict awa pre-existing beliefs, we dey hard to even perceive am to be strong argument (pipo only do so 46%of di time).",Computer science
"even worse, when people are presented with a weak argument that agrees with our pre-existing biases, almost no-one can see that the argument is weak(people got that one wrong 92%of the time!","Dem dey present wit weak argument wey agree wit our pre-existing biases, almost no-one fit see say di argument dey weak (pipo get one wrong 92%of di time",Computer science
"overall, people did do better than chance at compensating for their prior biases, since about 60%of people's judgements were correct(you'd expect 50%by chance).","Di overall, pipo don do better than chance for compensating for dia prior biases, since about 60%of pipo's judgements dey correct(you expect 50%by chance).",Computer science
"even so, if you were a professional \evaluator of evidence"", and someone came along and oered you a magic tool that improves your chances of making the right decision from 60%to (say)95%, you'd probably jump at it, right?","If you dey professional \evaluator of evidence"", and someone came along and oered you magic tool wey improve your chances of make di right decision from 60%to (say)95%, you go probably jump at am, right?",Computer science
ofcourse you would.,Di course you go fit.,Computer science
"thankfully, we actually do have a tool that can do this.",We actually don get tool wey fit do dis,Computer science
"but it's not magic, it's statistics.","But e no magic, na statistics",Computer science
so that's reason#1 why scientists love 3in my more cynical moments i feel like this fact alone explains 95%of what i read on the internet.,"Na reason number one why scientists love— for my cynical times, I feel say dis fact alone explain 95%of wetin I dey read for internet.",Computer science
"it's just too easy for us to believe what we want to believe""; so if we want to elieve in the data""instead, we're going to need a bit of help to keep our personal biases under control.","E too easy for us to believe wetin we wan believe; so if we wan believe di data instead, we go need small help to control our personal biases.",Computer science
that's what statistics does: it helps keep us honest.,E help keep us honest,Computer science
"in 1973, the university of california, berkeley had some worries about the admissions of students into their postgraduate courses.","Di university of california, berkeley don some worries about di admission of students into dia postgraduate course.",Computer science
"speci cally, the thing that caused the problem was that the gender breakdown of their admissions, which looked like this.","Di thing wey dey caus di problem na say di gender breakdown of dia admissions, wey look like dis.",Computer science
number of applicants percent admitted males 8442 44%females 4321 35%.,Di number of applicants percent dey admitted male 8442 44%females 4321 35%,Computer science
"and the were worried about being sued. 4given that there were nearly 13, 000 applicants, a dierence of 9%in admission rates between males and females is just way too big to be a coincidence.","Di given say na nearly 13, 000 applicants, di dierence of 9%for admission rate between male and females dey too big to be coincidence.",Computer science
"pretty compelling data, right?","Di data dey pretty compelling data, right?",Computer science
and if i were to say to you that these data actually re ect a weak bias in favour of women(sort of!,If i dey say to you say dis data actually re ect weak bias for favour of women(sort of!)and if i dey say to you say dis data no re ect weak bias for favour of women(sort of!,Computer science
"oddly, it's actually sort of true.",E dey sort of true.,Computer science
"when people started looking more carefully at the admissions data (bickel, hammel, &o'connell, 1975)they told a rather dierent story.","Di admission data (bickel, hammel, &o'connell, 1975)dem tell a rather dierent story.",Computer science
"speci cally, when they looked at it on a department by department basis, it turned out that most ofthe departments actually had a slightly higher success rate for female applicants than for male applicants.","As dem make we look di department by department basis, e tok say most of di departments don get higher success rate for female applicants than for male applicants.",Computer science
yet the overall rate of admission across the university for females was lower than for males.,Di overall rate of admission across di university for females dey lower than for males,Computer science
how can this be?,How dey fit dis be?,Computer science
how can both of these statements be true at the same time?,Di statements dey true for di same time?,Computer science
here's what's going on.,We dey goon.,Computer science
"firstly, notice that the departments are notequal to one another in terms of their admission percentages: some departments(e. g, engineering, chemistry)tended to admit a high percentage ofthe quali ed applicants, whereas others(e. g, english) tended to reject most ofthe candidates, even if they were high quality.","Some departments(e. g, engineering, chemistry)suppose admit high percentage of di candidates, even if dem dey high quality.",Computer science
"so, among the six departments shown above, notice that department a is the most generous, followed by b, c, d, e and f in that order.","Di six departments show above, notice say department a dey di most generous, followed by b, c, d, e and f for dat order",Computer science
"next, notice that males and females tended to apply to dierent departments.","Di next, notice say male and females go apply to dierent department.",Computer science
"if we rank the departments in terms ofthe total number of male applicants, we get abdcfe (the\easy"" departments are in bold).","We get abdcfe (the\easy"" departments dey for bold).",Computer science
"on the whole, males 4earlier versions of these notes incorrectly suggested that they actually were sued{ apparently that's not true.","For di whole, males 4earlier version of dis notes dey suggest say dem no dey sued{ apparently say dem no dey true",Computer science
a big thankyou to wilfried van hirtum for pointing this out tome!,Big thankyou to Wilfried van Hirtum wey point dis out tome!,Computer science
"this gure plots the admission rate for the 85 departments that had atleast one female applicant, as a function ofthe percentage of applicants that were female.","Di gure plot di admission rate for di 85 department wey don get atleast one female applicant, based on di percentage of applicants wey dey female.",Computer science
the plot is a redrawing of figure 1 from bickel et al.,Di plot dey redraw of figure 1 from bickel and al,Computer science
circles plot departments with more than 40 applicants; the area ofthe circle is proportional to the total number of applicants.,Di area of di circle dey plot departments wit more than 40 applicants; di area of di circle dey proportional to di total number of applicants,Computer science
the crosses plot department with fewer than 40 applicants.,Di crosses plot department get less than 40 applicants.,Computer science
tended to apply to the departments that had high admission rates.,Dem suppose apply to di department wey get high admission rate,Computer science
now compare this to how the female applicants distributed themselves.,Now compare dis to how di female applicants distribute themselves.,Computer science
ranking the departments in terms ofthe total number of female applicants produces a quite different ordering.,"If you rank di departments based on total number of female applicants, e go produce different order altogether.",Computer science
"in other words, what these data seem to be suggesting is that the female applicants tended to apply to\harder"" departments.","Di data dey suggest say di female applicants go apply to\harder"" departments.",Computer science
"and in fact, if we look at all figure 1. 1 we see that this trend is systematic, and quite striking.","Di trend dey systematic, and for true, if we make we look all figure 1. 1 we see say dis trend dey systematic, and quite striking.",Computer science
this eect is known assimpson's paradox.,Di eect dey known aspson's paradox.,Computer science
"it's not common, but it does happen in real life, and most people are very surprised by it when they rst encounter it, and many people refuse to even believe that it's real.","E no dey common, but e no dey common, but e no dey happen for real life, and most pipo dey refuse to even believe say e dey real",Computer science
it is very real.,E dey real,Computer science
"and while there are lots of very subtle statistical lessons buried in there, i want to use it to make a much more important point.","Even though plenty small statistical tins dey hide inside there, I wan use am make one much more important point.",Computer science
"doing research is hard, and there are lotsof subtle, counterintuitive traps lying in wait for the unwary.","Na lots of subtle, counterintuitive trap wey dey lying for wait for di unwary",Computer science
"that's reason#2 why scientists love statistics, and why we teach research methods.","Na reason number two why scientists love statistics, and why we dey teach ways to do research.",Computer science
"because science is hard, and the truth is sometimes cunningly hidden in the nooks and crannies of complicated data.","Di science dey hard, and di truth dey sometimes cunningly hidden for di nooks and crannies of complicated data",Computer science
"before leaving this topic entirely, i want to point out something else really critical that is often overlooked in a research methods class.",I wan to show something else really critical wey dey often overlooked for ways to do research class.,Computer science
statistics only solves partof the problem.,Di problem no solve part of di problem.,Computer science
remember that we started-7- all this with the concern that berkeley's admissions processes might be unfairly biased against female applicants.,We remember say we start-7- all dis wit di concern say berkeley admission process dey unfairly bias against female applicants.,Computer science
"when we looked at the ggregated"" data, it did seem like the university was discriminating against women, but when we \disaggregate"" and looked at the individual behaviour of all the departments, it turned out that the actual departments were, if anything, slightly biased in favour of women.","We make we look di ggregated data, e tok say di university dey discriminate against women, but wen we make we look di individual behaviour of all di departments, e tok say di actual departments dey, if anything, slightly biased for favour of women.",Computer science
the gender bias in total admissions was caused by the fact that women tended to self-select for harder departments.,Di gender bias for total admissions dey caused by di fact say women go self-select for harder department.,Computer science
"from a legal perspective, that would probably put the university in the clear.","For legal perspective, wey go probably put di university for di clear.",Computer science
"postgraduate admissions are determined at the level ofthe individual department(and there are good reasons to do that), and at the level of individual departments, the decisions are more or less unbiased(the weak bias in favour of females at that level is small, and not consistent across departments).","For di level of individual department, di decisions dey more or less unbiased(the weak bias for favour of females for dat level dey small, and no dey consistent across departments).",Computer science
"since the university can't dictate which departments people choose to apply to, and the decision making takes place at the level ofthe department it can hardly be held accountable for any biases that those choices produce.","Di university no dictate which departments pipo choose to apply to, and di decision make take place for di level of di department e no fit hold accountable for any biases wey dem produce.",Computer science
"that was the basis for my somewhat glib remarks earlier, but that's not exactly the whole story, is it?","Di basis for my somewhat glib remarks earlier, but dat no exactly di whole story, na am?",Computer science
"after all, if we're interested in this from a more sociological and psychological perspective, we might want to ask whythere are such strong gender dierences in applications.","If we dey interest for dis from more sociological and psychological perspective, we go wan ask why we dey strong gender dierences for applications.",Computer science
"why do males tend to apply to engineering more often than females, and why is this reversed for the english department?","Di why do males dey apply to engineering more often than females, and why dey reversed for di english department?",Computer science
and why is it it the case that the departments that tend to have a female-application bias tend to have lower overall admission rates than those departments that have a male-application bias?,Di case say di departments wey dey get female-application bias don get lower overall admission rate than di departments wey dey get male-application bias?,Computer science
"might this not still re ect a gender bias, even though every single department is itself unbiased?","Dis no still re ect gender bias, even though every single department dey unbiased?",Computer science
"suppose, hypothetically, that males preferred to apply to\hard sciences""and females prefer\humanities"".","Make we suppose, for hypothetical sense, say men prefer to apply for""science wey hard""and women prefer""humanities"".",Computer science
"and suppose further that the reason for why the humanities departments have low admission rates is because the government doesn't want to fund the humanities(ph. d. places, for instance, are often tied to government funded research projects).","Di reason wey di humanities department don dey low admission rate dey because di goment don wan to fund di humanities(ph. d. place, for example, don dey often tied to goment fund research projects).",Computer science
does that constitute a gender bias?,Di gender bias wey dey constitute gender bias?,Computer science
or just an unenlightened view ofthe value ofthe humanities?,Di value of di humanities or just one unenlightened view of di value of di humanities?,Computer science
"what if someone at a high level in the government cut the humanities funds because they felt that the humanities are\useless chick stu"".","If someone for high level for di goment cut di humanities funds bikos dem felt say di humanities dey\useless chick stu"".",Computer science
that seems pretty blatantly gender biased.,E dey pretty blatantly gender biased,Computer science
"none of this falls within the purview of statistics, but it matters to the research project.","Di none of dis fall within di purview of statistics, but e matter to di research project.",Computer science
"if you're interested in the overall structural eects of subtle gender biases, then you probably want to look at both the aggregated and disaggregated data.","If you interested for di overall effects wey come from di structure of small-small gender bias, den you go wan make we look both di aggregated and disaggregated data.",Computer science
if you're interested in the decision making process at berkeley itself then you're probably only interested in the disaggregated data.,"If you dey interest for di proses to chuze di best tin to do, as dem don gada tori and sabi wetin dey suppose do, den dem go yuz am take decide process for berkeley itself then you dey only interest for di disaggregated data.",Computer science
"in short there area lot of critical questions that you can't answer with statistics, but the answers to those questions will have a huge impact on how you analyse and interpret data.","Di critical question wey you no answer wit statistics, but di answer to those questions go get huge impact on how you analyse and interpret data.",Computer science
"and this is the reason why you should always think of statistics as a toolto help you learn about your data, no more and no less.","And na dis reason why you suppose always see statistics as tool wey go help you learn about your data, nothing more, nothing less.",Computer science
"it's a powerful tool to that end, but there's no substitute for careful thought.","E be powerful tool for dat purpose, but nothing fit replace careful thinking.",Computer science
"but i'm guessing that you have alot more questions about what role statistics plays in psychology, and speci cally why psychology classes always devote so many lectures to stats.","I dey guess say you go get lot more questions about how role statistics play for psychology, and speci cally why psychology class devote so many lectures to stats.",Computer science
so here's my attempt to answer a few of them. why does psychology have so much statistics?,"Di attempt to answer few of dem, why does psychology get so much statistics?",Computer science
"to be perfectly honest, there's a few dierent reasons, some of which are better than others.","Di few dierent reasons, some of which dey better than odas",Computer science
the most important reason is that psychology is a statistical science.,Di most important reason na say psychology dey statistical science,Computer science
"what i mean by that is that the hings"" that we study are people.","Di hings"" wey we study na pipo",Computer science
"real, complicated, gloriously messy, infuriatingly perverse people.","Real pipo wey get wahala, wey dey complicated, wey dey messy well-well, wey dey vexing sometimes.",Computer science
"the hings"" of physics include object like electrons, and while there are all sorts of complexities that arise in physics, electrons don't have minds of their own.","Di hings"" of physics include object like electrons, and while e dey all sorts of complexities wey dey arise for physics, electron don get mind of dia own.",Computer science
"they don't have opinions, they don't dier from eachother in weird and arbitrary ways, they don't get bored in the middle of an-8- experiment, and they don't get angry at the experimenter and then deliberately try to sabotage the dataset (not that i've ever done that.","Di experimenter no get opinions, dem don get angry for di experimenter and then deliberately try to sabotage di group of related numbers or data wey belong together",Computer science
"at a fundamental level psychology is harder than physics.5 basically, we teach statistics to you as psychologists because you need to be better at stats than physicists.","For di core level, psychology hard pass physics. Na so, we dey teach statistics to you as psychologists because you need to sabi stats pass physicists.",Computer science
"there's actually a saying used sometimes in physics, to the eect that\if your experiment needs statistics, you should have done a better experiment"".","Di say e dey use sometimes for physics, to di eect say\if your experiment needs statistics, you go do better experiment"".",Computer science
they have the luxury of being able to say that because their objects of study are pathetically simple in comparison to the vast mess that confronts social scientists.,Di luxury of being able to say dia objects of study dey pathetically simple for compare to di vast mess wey confront social scientists.,Computer science
"it's not just psychology, really: most social sciences are desperately reliant on statistics.","E no just psychology, really: most social sciences dey desperately reliant on statistic",Computer science
"not because we're bad experimenters, but because we've picked a harder problem to solve.","We dey bad experimenters, but because we pick hard problem to solve.",Computer science
"we teach you stats because you really, really need it.",We dey teach you stats because you really-really need am.,Computer science
can't someone else do the statistics?,But someone else do di statistics?,Computer science
"to some extent, but not completely.",But no completely.,Computer science
"it's true that you don't need to become a fully trained statistician just to do psychology, but you do need to reach a certain level of statistical competence.","E true say you no need to become full trained statistician just to do psychology, but you must reach one certain level of statistical competence.",Computer science
"in my view, there's three reasons that every psychological researcher ought to be able to do basic statistics:{firstly, there's the fundamental reason: statistics is deeply intertwined with research design.",Di fundamental reason: statistics dey deeply intertwin wit research design.,Computer science
"if you want to be good at designing psychological studies, you need to atleast understand the basics of stats.",I need to understand di basics of stats.,Computer science
but almost every paper in the psychological literature reports the results of statistical analyses.,Elmost every paper for di psychological literature report di results of statistical analyses.,Computer science
"so if you really want to understand the psychology, you need to be able to understand what other people did with their data.","If you really wan to understand di psychology, you need to understand what oda pipo dey do wit dia data.",Computer science
and that means understanding a certain amount of statistics.,And dat mean say you must understand some amount of statistics.,Computer science
"if you ever get bored and want to look up how much the australian government charges for university fees, you'll notice something interesting: statistics is designated as a ational priority""category, and so the fees are much, much lower than for any other area of study.","Di statistics dey designated as a ational priority""category, and so di fees dey much, much lower for any oda area of study.",Computer science
this is because there's a massive shortage of statisticians out there.,Dina because massive shortage of statisticians out there.,Computer science
"so, from your perspective as a psychological researcher, the laws of supply and demand aren't exactly on your side here!",Di laws of supply and demand no dey exactly on your side here,Computer science
"as a result, in almost any real life situation where you want to do psychological research, the cruel facts will be that you don't have enough money to aord a statistician.",Di cruel facts go be say you no get money to aord a statistician.,Computer science
so the economics ofthe situation mean that you have to be pretty self-sucient.,Di economics of di situation mean say you go be self-sucient.,Computer science
note that alot of these reasons generalise beyond researchers.,Note say plenty of dese reasons apply beyond just researchers.,Computer science
"if you want to be a practicing psychologist and stay on top ofthe eld, it helps to be able to read the scienti c literature, which relies pretty heavily on statistics.","If you wan to be practicing psychologist and stay on top of di eld, e help to read di scienti c literature, wey dey relie heavily on statistics.",Computer science
do i need statistics?,I really need statistics?,Computer science
"okay, now you're just messing with me.",Na now you dey mess wit me,Computer science
"still, i think it should matter to you too.",I think e go matter to you too.,Computer science
"statistics should matter to you in the same way that statistics should matter to everyone: we live in the 21st century, and data are everywhere.","We live for di 21st century, and data dey everywhere",Computer science
"frankly, given the world in which we live these days, a basic knowledge of statistics is pretty damn close to a survival tool!","Di world wey we live dis days, basic knowledge of statistics dey pretty damn close to survival tool!",Computer science
"of those 20 articles, it turned out that 8 of them involved a discussion of something that i would call a statistical topic;6 of those made a mistake.",Di turned out say 8 of dem involved discussion of something wey i go call statistical topic;6 of dem make mistake.,Computer science
"the most common error, if you're curious, was failing to report baseline data(e. g, the article mentions that 5%of people in situation x have some characteristic y, but doesn't say how common the characteristic is for everyone else!)","Di article mention say 5%of pipo wey dey situation x get some characteristic y, but dem no say how common di characteristic dey for all else",Computer science
"the point i'm trying to make here isn't that journalists are bad at statistics(though they almost always are), it's that a basic knowledge of statistics is very helpful for trying to gure out when someone else is either making a mistake or even lying to you.","Di point wey i try make here be say journalists dey bad for statistics(though diy always dey), na say basic knowledge of statistics dey helpful for trying to gure out wen someone else dey make mistake or even lying to you.",Computer science
in later versions of this book i'll try to include more anecdotes along those lines.,"For later versions of dis book, I go try include more stories like dat.",Computer science
"to be fair, you wouldn't be far wrong, but research methodology is a broader concept than statistics.",Di research methodology dey broader concept than statistics.,Computer science
"so most research methods courses will cover alot of topics that relate much more to the pragmatics of research design, and in particular the issues that you encounter when trying to do research with humans.","Di ways to do research course go cover alot of topics wey dey relate much more to di pragmatics of research design, and especially di issues wey you dey encounter wen you try to do research wit humans.",Computer science
"however, about 99%of student fears relate to the statistics part ofthe course, so i've focused on the stats in this discussion, and hopefully i've convinced you that statistics matters, and more importantly, that it's not to be feared.","Di however, about 99%of student fears dey relate to di statistics part of di course, so i dey focus on di stats for dis discussion, and hopefully i convinced you say statistics matters, and more importantly, say statistics matters, and more importantly, say im no dey fear.",Computer science
"that being said, it's pretty typical for introductory research methods classes to be very stats-heavy.","Dem tok say, e dey pretty typical for introductory ways to do research class to be very stats-heavy.",Computer science
this is not(usually) because the lecturers are evil people.,Dis no dey(usually) because di lecturers dey evil pipo,Computer science
"quite the contrary, in fact.","Di contrary, for fact.",Computer science
introductory classes focus alot on the statistics because you almost always nd yourself needing statistics before you need the other research methods training.,Di introductory class focus alot on di statistics bikos you always need statistics before you need di oda ways to do research training.,Computer science
"because almost all of your assignments in other classes will rely on statistical training, to a much greater extent than they rely on other methodological tools.","For because almost all of your assignments for oda class go rely on statistical training, to a much great extent than dem rely on oda methodological tools",Computer science
"it's not common for undergraduate assignments to require you to design your own study from the ground up(in which case you would need to know alot about research design), but it iscommon for assignments to ask you to analyse and interpret data that were collected in a study that someone else designed(in which case you need statistics).",E no common for undergraduate assignments to require you to design your own study from di ground up(in which case you need statistics). but e no common for assignments to ask you to analyse and interpret data wey dem collect for study wey someone else designed(in which case you need statistics).,Computer science
"in that sense, from the perspective of allowing you to do well in all your other classes, the statistics is more urgent.","For dat sense, from di perspective of allow you to do well for all your class, di statistics dey urgent.",Computer science
"but note that\urgent"" is dierent from\important"" {they both matter.","Dem note say urgent""dey dierent from\important"" {dem both matter.",Computer science
"however, while statistics has a kind of universality, and provides a set of core tools that are useful for most types of psychological research, the research methods side isn't quite so universal.","For statistics, statistics don get kind of universality, and provide set of core tools wey dey useful for most types of psychological research, di ways to do research side dey quite so universal.",Computer science
"there are some general principles that everyone should think about, but alot of research design is very idiosyncratic, and is speci c to the area of research that you want to engage in.","E dey some general principles wey dem think about, but alot of research design dey very idiosyncratic, and dey speci c to di area of research wey you wan engage for.",Computer science
"to the extent that it's the details that matter, those details don't usually show up in an introductory stats and research methods class.","Di details wey matter, those details don show up for introductory stats and ways to do research class.",Computer science
a brief introduction to research design to consult the statistician after an experiment is nished is often merely to ask him to conduct a post mortem examination.,Di brief introduction to research design to consult di statistician afta an experiment dey nished dey often merely to ask am to conduct post mortem examination.,Computer science
he can perhaps say what the experiment died of.,Di experiment dey die of,Computer science
"it won't give you enough information to allow you to design studies of your own, but it will give you alot ofthe basic tools that you need to assess the studies done by other people.","E no give you enough information to allow you to design studies of your own, but e go give you basic tools wey you need to assess di studies done by oda pipo.",Computer science
"however, since the focus of this book is much more on data analysis than on data collection, i'm only giving avery brief overview.","Di focus of dis book na much more onto study numbers than on data collection, i only give very brief overview.",Computer science
"secondly, it focuses much more heavily on the scienti c problem of research methodology, and much lesson the statistical problem of data analysis.","Secondly, e focus more heavy on di scientific problem of research methodology, and lesson di statistical problem of to study numbers.",Computer science
"nevertheless, the two problems are related to one another, so it's traditional for stats textbooks to discuss the problem in a little detail.","Di two problems dey related to one another, so traditional for stats textbooks to discuss di problem for little detail.",Computer science
later versions will attempt to be more precise in the citations.,Di later version go attempt to be more precise for di citations.,Computer science
"that is, what we're trying to do here is measure something about human behaviour or the human mind.",We dey try to do here na measure something about human behaviour or di human mind.,Computer science
"what do i mean by\measurement""?","Wetin I mean when I say""measurement""?",Computer science
"so, any ofthe following would count as a psychological measurement: myageis33 years.","So, any of dis ones go count as measuring mind tins: my age na 33 years.",Computer science
ido not like anchovies.,Di ido no like anchovies,Computer science
"myself-identi ed gender ismale. 2 in the shortlist above, the bolded part is he thing to be measured"", and the italicised part is he measurement itself"".","Di shortlist above, di bold part na hin thing to measure"", and di italicised part na hin measurement itself",Computer science
"in fact, we can expand on this a little bit, by thinking about the set of possible measurements that could have arisen in each case: myage(in years)could have been 0, 1, 2, 3.","We fit expand on dis little bit, by thinking about di set of possible measurement wey dey arisen for each case: myage(in years)go dey 0, 1, 2, 3.",Computer science
"the upper bound on what my age could possibly be is a bit fuzzy, but in practice you'd be safe in saying that the largest possible age is 150, since no human has ever lived that long.","Di Smallest number wey big pass all odas for one set, wey no odar number fit be small pass am on wetin my age dey 150, since no human don lived dat long.",Computer science
"when asked if i like anchovies, i might have said that i do, ori do not, ori have no opinion, or i sometimes do.","I suppose tok if i like anchovies, i go tok say i no do, or i sometimes do.",Computer science
"mychromosomal gender is almost certainly going to be male (xy) orfemale (xx), but there area few other possibilities.","Di mychromosomal gender dey almost certainly go be male (xy) orfemale (xx), but there dey few oda possibilities.",Computer science
andi imagine there are other possibilities too.,I imagine na oda possibilities too.,Computer science
"myself-identi ed gender is also very likely to be male orfemale, but it doesn't have to agree with my chromosomal gender.","Di myself-identi ed gender dey likely to be male orfemale, but e no fit agree wit my chromosomal gender.",Computer science
"as you can see, for somethings (like age)it seems fairly obvious what the set of possible measurements should be, whereas for other things it gets a bit tricky.","As you see, for somethings (like age), e dey clear wetin di set of possible measurements suppose be, but for other things, e con dey small tricky.",Computer science
"but i want to point out that even in the case of someone's age, it's much more subtle than this.","I wan to show say even for di case of someone's age, na much more subtle than dis.",Computer science
"for instance, in the example above, i assumed that it was okay to measure age in years.",I assum say e dey okay to measure age for years,Computer science
"but if you're a developmental psychologist, that's way too crude, and so you often measure age in years and months(if a child is 2 years and 11 months, this is usually written as;11"").","If you dey developmental psychologist, wey dey way too crude, and so you dey measure age for years and months(if a child dey 2 years and 11 months, dis dey usually written as;11"").",Computer science
"if you're interested in newborns, you might want to measure age in days since birth, maybe even hours since birth.","If you dey interest for newborns, you go wan measure age for days since birth, maybe even hours since birth",Computer science
"in other words, the way in which you specify the allowable measurement values is important.",Di way wey you specify di allowable measurement values dey important.,Computer science
"looking at this a bit more closely, you might also realise that the concept of ge""isn't actually all that precise.","Di concept of ge""no dey actually all dat exacte.",Computer science
"in general, when we say ge""we implicitly mean he length of time since birth"".","We tok say ge""we implicitly mean hin length of time since birth",Computer science
but that's not always the right way to do it.,Di right way to do am,Computer science
suppose you're interested in how newborn babies control their eye movements.,Na suppose you interest for how newborn babies control dia eye movement.,Computer science
"if you're interested in kids that young, you might also start to worry that irth"" is not the only meaningful point in time to care about.","If you dey interest for kids wey young, you go start to worry say irth"" no dey only di only meaningful point for time to care about",Computer science
"if baby alice is born 3 weeks premature and baby bianca is born 1 week late, would it really make sense to say that they are the\same age""if we encountered them hours after birth""?","Di really make sense to say dem dey di\same age""if we encounter dem hours before birth?",Computer science
"in one sense, yes: by social convention, we use birth as our reference point for talking about age in everyday life, since it de nes the amount of time the person has been operating as an independent entity in the world, but from a scienti c perspective that's not the only thing we care about.","Di social convention, we use birth as awa reference point for talking about age for everyday life, since e dey di amount of time di person dey operating as independent entity for di world, but from scienti c perspective wey no dey care about.",Computer science
"when we think about the biology of human beings, it's often useful to think of ourselves as organisms that have been growing and maturing since conception, and from that perspective alice and bianca aren't the same age at all.","We think about di biology of human beings, e dey useful to think of awaselves as organisms wey dey grow and maturing since conception, and from dat perspective Alice and bianca no dey di same age for all.",Computer science
"so you might want to de ne the concept of ge""in two 2well. now this is awkward, isn't it?","Di concept of ge""for two 2well",Computer science
"revisiting this in 2018. well i'm not 33 anymore, but that's not surprising i suppose.","I no dey 33 anymore, but e no dey surprising I suppose.",Computer science
"the self-identi ed gender, on the other hand. ah.","Di self-identi ed gender, on di oda hand",Computer science
"the book has a somewhat distinct authorial voice to it, and i feel like it would be a rather dierent work if i went back and wrote everything as danielle and updated all the pronouns in the work.","Di book don dey somewhat distinct authorial voice to am, and i feel like e go be a rather dierent work if i go back and write all di pronouns for di work.",Computer science
"besides, it would be alot of work, so i've left my name as\dan"" throughout the book, and in ant case\dan"" is a perfectly good nickname for\danielle"", don't you think?","I dey left my name as\dan"" throughout di book, and for ant case\dan"" na perfectly good nickname for\danielle"", don dey think?",Computer science
"in any case, it's not a big deal.",Di big deal no dey big deal,Computer science
"when dealing with adults, it won't make much dierence, but when dealing with newborns it might.","E no make much dierence, but wen dealing wit newborns, e no make much dierence, but wen dealing wit newborns, e no make much dierence, but wen dealing wit newborns e fit make much dierence, but wen dealing wit newborns dey might.",Computer science
"moving beyond these issues, there's the question of methodology.","If we move pass dese issues, na di question of methodology remain.",Computer science
"what speci c\measurement method""are you going to use to nd out someone's age?","Which specific""di way wey you take measure""you go use take to know somebody age?",Computer science
"as before, there are lots of dierent possibilities: you could just ask people\how old are you?""",Di lots of dierent possibilities: you go just ask pipo \how old dey you?,Computer science
"the method of self-report is fast, cheap and easy, but it only works with people old enough to understand the question, and some people lie about their age.","Di method of self-report dey fast, cheap and easy, but e only works wit pipo old enough to understand di question, and some pipo lie about dia age.",Computer science
"you could ask an authority(e. g, a parent)\how old is your child?""","Di authority(e. g, a parent)\how old dey your child?",Computer science
"this method is fast, and when dealing with kids it's not all that hard since the parent is almost always around.","Di method dey fast, and wen dealing wit kids no dey hard since di parent dey always around.",Computer science
"it doesn't work aswell if you want to know ge since conception"", since alot of parents can't say for sure when conception took place.",Di lot of parents no dey say for sure wen conception take place.,Computer science
"for that, you might need a dierent authority(e. g, an obstetrician).","For dat one, you fit need different authority(like obstetrician).",Computer science
"you could look up ocial records, like birth certi cates.","You fit check official record, like birth certificate.",Computer science
"this is time consuming and annoying, but it has its uses(e. g, if the person is now dead).","Dis dey time consuming and annoying, but e don dey use(e. g, if di person dey dead)",Computer science
"to be a bit more precise about the idea, operationalisation is the process by which we take a meaningful but somewhat vague concept, and turn it into a precise measurement.","Di process wey we take a meaningful but somewhat vague concept, and turn am into a precise measurement.",Computer science
the process of operationalisation can involve several dierent things: being precise about what you are trying to measure.,Di process of operationalisation go involve several dierent things: being precise about what you dey try to measure.,Computer science
"for instance, does ge""mean ime since birth""or ime since conception""in the context of your research?","for example,""age"" meantime since dem born person or time wey person carry belle for di context of your research?",Computer science
determining what method you will use to measure it.,Di method wey you use to measure am,Computer science
"will you use self-report to measure age, ask a parent, or look up an ocial record?","You go use self-report to measure age, ask parent, or check official record?",Computer science
"if you're using self-report, how will you phrase the question?","If you use self-report, how fit you phrase di question?",Computer science
de ning the set ofthe allowable values that the measurement can take.,Di set of di allowable values wey di measurement fit take.,Computer science
"note that these values don't always have to be numerical, though they often are.","Di values no dey numerical, though dem dey often dey.",Computer science
"when measuring age, the values are numerical, but we still need to think carefully about what numbers are allowed.","Di value dey numerical, but we still need to think carefully about what numbers dey allowed.",Computer science
"do we want age in years, years and months, days, hours?","We wan age in years, years and months, days, or hours?",Computer science
"for other types of measurements(e. g, gender), the values aren't numerical.","E. g, gender), di value dey numerical",Computer science
"but, just as before, we need to think about what values are allowed.",We need to think about what values dey allowed,Computer science
"if we're asking people to self-report their gender, what options to we allow them to choose between?","We dey ask pipo to self-report dia gender, what option wey we allow dem to choose between?",Computer science
"is it enough to allow only\male"" or emale""?","E dey enough to allow only""male"" or""female""?",Computer science
"do you need an\other"" option?",Di option do you need\other option?,Computer science
"or should we not give people any speci c options, and let them answer in their own words?","We no give pipo any speci c options, and make dem answer for dia own words?",Computer science
"and if you open up the set of possible values to include all verbal response, how will you interpret their answers?","If you to start di set of possible values to include all verbal response, how fit you interpret dia answer?",Computer science
"operationalisation is a tricky business, and there's no\one, true way""to do it.","Di business dey tricky business, and nano \one, true way to do am",Computer science
"the way in which you choose to operationalise the informal concept of ge""or \gender""into a formal measurement depends on what you need to use the measurement for.","Di way wey you choose to operationalise di informal concept of ge""or \gender""into formal measurement depend on what you need use di measurement for.",Computer science
often you'll nd that the community of scientists who workin your area have some fairly well-established ideas for how to go about it.,Di community of scientists wey work for your area don get some fairly well-established ideas for how to go about it,Computer science
"in other words, operationalisation needs to be thought through on a case by case basis.","For oda words, operationalisation need to dey thought through on case by case basis.",Computer science
"nevertheless, while there alot of issues that are speci c to each individual research project, there are some aspects to it that are pretty general.","Di lot of issues wey dey speci c to each individual research project, na some aspects to dey general.",Computer science
"before moving on, i want to take a moment to clear up our terminology, and in the process introduce one more term.","Before we move on, I wan take small time to clear our terminology, and for dat process, introduce one more term.",Computer science
here are four dierent things that are closely related to eachother: -13-a theoretical construct.,Di four dierent things wey dey closely related to each oda:-13- theoretical construct.,Computer science
"this is the thing that you're trying to take a measurement of, like ge"",\gender"" or an\opinion"".","Di thing wey you dey try take measurement of, like ge"",\gender"" or a\opinion"".",Computer science
"a theoretical construct can't be directly observed, and often they're actually a bit vague.","Di theoretical construct don dey directly observe, and often dem dey actually a bit vague.",Computer science
a measure.,Di measure wey dey measure.,Computer science
the measure refers to the method or the tool that you use to make your observations.,Di measure to talk about di method or di tool wey you use make your observations.,Computer science
"a question in a survey, a behavioural observation or a brain scan could all count as a measure.","Question for survey, to watch how person dey behave, or picture of brain all fit count as measure.",Computer science
an operationalisation.,Di operationalisation wey dey operationalisation,Computer science
"the term \operationalisation"" refers to the logical connection between the measure and the theoretical construct, or to the process by which we try to derive a measure from a theoretical construct.","Di term \operationalisation"" to talk about di logical connection between di measure and di theoretical construct, or to di process wey we try to derive measure from theoretical construct.",Computer science
a variable.,Di variable wey dey variable.,Computer science
"finally, a new term.","Di new term dey finally, new term",Computer science
a variable is what we end up with when we apply our measure to something in the world.,We dey end up wit wen we apply awa measure to something for di world.,Computer science
"that is, variables are the actual\data"" that we end up within our data sets.","E dey, variables dey di actual\data"" wey we end up wit for our data sets.",Computer science
"in practice, even scientists tend to blur the distinction between these things, but it's very helpful to try to understand the dierences.","For practice, even scientists don blur di distinction between dis things, but e dey helpful to try to understand di dierences.",Computer science
"but not all variables are ofthe same qualitative type, and it's very useful to understand what types there are.","But no all variables dey of di same qualitative type, and e dey useful to understand what type wey dey.",Computer science
avery useful concept for distinguishing between dierent types of variables is what's known as scales of measurement.,Di very useful concept for distinguishing between dierent type of variables dey wey dey known as scales of measurement,Computer science
"the classic example for this is\eye colour"".",Di one classic example for dis na\colour of eye,Computer science
"eyes can be blue, green and brown, among other possibilities, but none of them is any etter"" than any other one.","Di eyes dey blue, green and brown, among oda possibilities, but none of dem dey any etter"" than any oda one.",Computer science
"as a result, it would feel really weird to talk about an verage eye colour"".","As result, e go dey really weird to talk about""average colour of eye"".",Computer science
"similarly, gender is nominal too: male isn't better or worse than female, neither does it make sense to try to talk about an verage gender"".","Di gender dey nominal too: male no dey better or worse than female, e no make sense to try to talk about verage gender",Computer science
"in short, nominal scale variables are those for which the only thing you can say about the dierent possibilities is that they are dierent.","For short, names wey no need order dey those for which di only thing you go say about di dierent possibilities na say dem dey animal",Computer science
let's take a slightly closer look at this.,She dey take a close look for dis,Computer science
suppose i was doing research on how people commute to and from work.,I dey do research on how pipo dey commute to and from work,Computer science
one variable i would have to measure would be what kind of transportation people use to get to work.,Di one variable wey i go measure would be how kind of transportation pipo use to get work,Computer science
"this ransport type""variable could have quite a few possible values, including: rain"", us"", \car"", icycle"", etc.","Dis""how you dey move""variable fit get plenty possible values, including: ""train"",""bus"", ""car"",""bicycle"", etc.",Computer science
"obviously, the answer here is that there isn't one.",Di answer here dey say e no be one,Computer science
it's a silly question to ask.,Di silly question wey dey ask,Computer science
"you can say that travel by car is the most popular method, and travel by train is the least popular method, but that's about all.","But say travel by car dey di most popular method, and travel by train dey di least popular method, but na about all.",Computer science
"similarly, notice that the order in which i list the options isn't very interesting.",Di order wey i list di options no dey interesting.,Computer science
"an ordinal scale variable is one in which there is a natural, meaningful way to order the dierent possibilities, but you can't do anything else.","Di ordinal scale variable dey one wey dey natural, meaningful way to order di dierent possibilities, but you no fit do anything else.",Computer science
"the usual example given of an ordinal variable is \ nishing position in a race"".",Di usual example wey dey give of di ordinal variable dey\ nishing position for race,Computer science
"you cansay that the person who nished rst was faster than the person who nished second, but you don't know how much faster.","Di person wey nish rst dey faster than di person wey nish second, but you no know how much faster.",Computer science
"as a consequence we know that 1st 2nd, and we know that 2nd 3rd, but the dierence between 1st and 2nd might be much larger than the dierence between 2nd and 3rd.","As consequence, we know say 1st before 2nd, and 2nd before 3rd, but di difference between 1st and 2nd fit dey much bigger than di difference between 2nd and 3rd.",Computer science
here's an more psychologically interesting example.,Here na one more wey dey interesting for mind example.,Computer science
"suppose i'm interested in people's attitudes to climate change, and i ask them to pick one of these four statements that most closely matches their beliefs:(1) temperatures are rising, because of human activity(2) temperatures are rising, but we don't know why(3) temperatures are rising, but not because of humans(4) temperatures are not rising notice that these four statements actually do have a natural ordering, in terms of he extent to which they agree with the current science"".","I ask dem pick one of dis four statements wey most closely match dia beliefs:(1) temperatures dey rising, but we no know why(3) temperatures dey rising, but we no know why(3) temperatures dey rising, but we no know why(3) temperatures dey rising, but we no know why(3) temperatures dey rising, but we no know why(3) temperatures dey rising, but we no know why(3) temperatures dey rising, but we no know why(3) temperatures dey rising, but",Computer science
"statement 1 is a close match, statement 2 is a reasonable match, statement 3 isn't avery good match, and statement 4 is in strong opposition to the science.","Di statement 1 na close match, statement 2 na reasonable match, statement 3 na reasonable match, and statement 5 na strong opposition to di science.",Computer science
"so, in terms ofthe thing i'm interested in(the extent to which people endorse the science), i can order the items as 1234.","Di thing wey i interest for(the extent to which pipo endorse di science), i fit order di items as 1234.",Computer science
"since this ordering exists, it would be very weird to list the options like this.","Di ordering exist, na very weird to list di options like dis.",Computer science
"(3)temperatures are rising, but not because of humans(1) temperatures are rising, because of human activity(4) temperatures are not rising(2) temperatures are rising, but we don't know why.","(3)temperature dey rise, but no be because of humans;(1) temperature dey rise because of human activity;(4) temperature no dey rise;(2) temperature dey rise, but we no know why.",Computer science
"because it seems to violate the natural\structure"" to the question.","E seem to violate di natural\structure"" to di question.",Computer science
"and it's alsoquite reasonable to group(2), (3)and (4)together and say that 49 of 100 people registered atleast some disagreement with the dominant scienti c view.","And e also reasonable to group(2), (3), and (4)together and say 49 out of 100 pipo show atleast small disagreement with di main scientific view.",Computer science
"however, it would be entirely bizarre to try to group(1), (2)and (4)together and say that 90 of 100 people said.","Di suppose be bizarre to try group(1), (2)and (4)together and say 90 of 100 pipo tok say.",Computer science
there's nothing sensible that allows you to group those responses together at all.,Di nothing wey dey sensible wey dey allow you to group those responses together for all.,Computer science
"that said, notice that while we canuse the natural ordering of these items to construct sensible groupings, what we can't do is average them.","Dem tok say while we dey use di natural ordering of dis items to construct sensible groupings, we no dey average dem.",Computer science
"for instance, in my simple example here, the verage"" response to the question is 1. 97.","Di verage"" response to di question na 1. 97.",Computer science
"if you can tell me what that means, i'd love to know.",I dey love to know,Computer science
because that sounds like gibberish tome!,Because dat one sound like nonsense tome!,Computer science
"in the case of interval scale variables, the dierences between the numbers are interpretable, but the variable doesn't have a atural"" zero value.","Di case of interval scale variables, di dierences wey dey between di numbers dey interpretable, but di variable no get atural"" zero value.",Computer science
a good example of an interval scale variable is measuring temperature in degrees celsius.,Di good example of interval scale variable dey measuring temperature for degrees celsius.,Computer science
"for instance, if it was 15yesterday and 18today, then the 3dierence between the two is genuinely meaningful.",Di 3dierence between di two dey genuinely meaningful.,Computer science
"moreover, that 3dierence is exactly the same as the 3dierence between 7and 10.",Di 3dierence dey exactly di same as di 3dierence between 7and 10.,Computer science
"in short, addition and subtraction are meaningful for interval scale variables.3 however, notice that the 0does not mean o temperature at all"": it actually means he temperature at which water freezes"", which is pretty arbitrary.","Di however, notice say di 0 no mean o temperature for all"", e actually mean hin temperature for which water freezes"", wey dey arbitrary for interval scale variables.",Computer science
"as a consequence, it becomes pointless to try to multiply and divide temperatures.",E dey pointless to try to multiply and divide temperatures.,Computer science
"it is wrong to say that 20istwice as hot as 10, just as it is weird and meaningless to try to claim that 20is negative two times as hot as 10.","E dey wrong to say 20istwice as hot as 10, just as e dey weird and meaningless to try to claim say 20is negative two times as hot as 10. just as e dey weird and meaningless to try to claim say 20is negative two times as hot as 10.",Computer science
"again, lets look at a more psychological example.","Again, make we look one more example from psychology.",Computer science
suppose i'm interested in looking at how the attitudes of rst-year university students have changed overtime.,I dey interested for looking at how di attitude of rst-year university students don change overtime.,Computer science
"obviously, i'm going to want to record the year in which each student started.",I go wan to record di year wey each student start,Computer science
this is an interval scale variable.,E dey interval scale variable.,Computer science
a student who started in 2003 did arrive 5 years before a student who started in 2008.,Di student wey start for 2003 don arrive 5 years before student wey start for 2008 don arrive 5 years before student wey start for 2008.,Computer science
"however, it would be completely insane for me to divide 2008 by 2003 and say that the second student started. 0024 times later""than the rst one.","E go completely insane for me to divide 2008 by 2003 and say di second student start.0024 times later""than di rst one",Computer science
that doesn't make any sense at all.,E no make any sense for all.,Computer science
a good psychological example of a ratio scale variable is response time(rt).,"One good example from psychology of scale wey dey measure tins wey get zero point wey be real, and di difference between each point dey equal, so you fit compare dem well variable na how fast person answer(RT).",Computer science
"in alot of tasks it's very common to record the amount of time somebody takes to solve a problem or answer a question, because it's an indicator of how dicult the task is.","Di task dey very common to record di amount of time somebody take solve a problem or answer a question, bikos e dey indicator of how di task dey.",Computer science
"suppose that 3actually, i've been informed by readers with greater physics knowledge than i that temperature isn't strictly an interval scale, in the sense that the amount of energy required to heat something up by 3depends on it's current temperature.","I dey inform readers wit greater physics knowledge than i say temperature no dey strictly interval scale, for di sense say di amount of energy wey dey need to heat something up by 3depend on di current temperature.",Computer science
"so in the sense that physicists care about, temperature isn't actually interval scale.","For di sense say physicists care about, temperature no dey actually interval scale",Computer science
"but it still makes acute example, so i'm going to ignore this little inconvenient truth.",I go ignore dis little inconvenient truth.,Computer science
cells with a tick mark correspond to things that are possible.,Di cells wit a tick mark correspond to things wey dey possible,Computer science
continuous discrete nominal x ordinal x interval xx ratio xx.,Continuous: yes; Discrete: yes; Nominal: x; Ordinal: x; Interval: yes-yes; Ratio: yes-yes.,Computer science
"alan takes 2. 3 seconds to respond to a question, whereas ben takes 3. 1 seconds.","Alan take 2.3 seconds to respond to question, whereas Ben take 3.1 seconds.",Computer science
"as with an interval scale variable, addition and subtraction are both meaningful here.","Di interval scale variable, addition and subtraction dey meaningful here.",Computer science
ben really did take 3:12: 30:8 seconds longer than alan did.,Dem go take 3:12: 30:8 seconds longer than alan go.,Computer science
"however, notice that multiplication and division also make sense here too: ben took 3:1{2: 31:35 times as long as alan did to answer the question.",Dem tok say multiplication and division make sense here too: Ben tok 3:1{2: 31:35 times as alan go answer di question.,Computer science
"and the reason why you can do this is that, for a ratio scale variable such as rt,\zero seconds""really does mean o time at all"".","Di reason wey you fit do dis na say, for scale wey dey measure tins wey get zero point wey be real, and di difference between each point dey equal, so you fit compare dem well variable such as rt,\zero seconds""go mean o time for all",Computer science
this is the distinction between continuous variables and discrete variables.,Na dis be di difference between variables wey dey continuous and variables wey dey separate.,Computer science
"the dierence between these is as follows: acontinuous variable is one in which, for any two values that you can think of, it's always logically possible to have another value in between.","Aontinuous variable dey one for which, for any two values wey you dey think of, always logically possible to get one value for between.",Computer science
"adiscrete variable is, in eect, a variable that isn't continuous.","Adiscrete variable dey, for eect, a variable wey dey continuous.",Computer science
"for a discrete variable, it's sometimes the case that there's nothing in the middle.","Di case say nothing for di middle, na sometimes di case say nothing for di middle.",Computer science
"these de nitions probably seem a bit abstract, but they're pretty simple once you see some examples.","Dese definitions fit seem small abstract, but dem dey simple once you see some examples.",Computer science
"for instance, response time is continuous.","for example, how fast person answer dey continuous",Computer science
"if alan takes 3. 1 seconds and ben takes 2. 3 seconds to respond to a question, then it's possible for cameron's response time to lie in between, by taking 3. 0 seconds.","E dey possible for cameron's how fast person answer to lie for between, by taking 3. 0 seconds.",Computer science
"and ofcourse it would also be possible for david to take 3. 031 seconds to respond, meaning that his rt would lie in between cameron's and alan's.",Dirt go lie for cameron's and alan's,Computer science
"and while in practice it might be impossible to measure rt that precisely, it's certainly possible in principle.","Di practice dey impossible to measure rt dat exactly, e dey possible for principle.",Computer science
"because we can always nd anew value for rt in between any two other ones, we say that rt is continuous.","We tok say rt dey continuous, we tok say rt dey continuous.",Computer science
discrete variables occur when this rule is violated.,Di rule dey violated.,Computer science
"for example, nominal scale variables are always discrete: there isn't a type of transportation that falls\in between""trains and bicycles, not in the strict mathematical way that 2. 3 falls in between 2 and 3.","Di type of transportation wey falls between""trains and bicycles, no for district mathematical way say 2. 3 falls for between 2 and 3.",Computer science
so transportation type is discrete.,So transportation type dey discrete.,Computer science
"similarly, ordinal scale variables are always discrete: although nd place""does fall between st place""and rd place"", there's nothing that can logically fall in between st place""and nd place"".","Although nd place""don fall between st place""and rd place"", nothing wey dey go fall for between st place""and nd place",Computer science
interval scale and ratio scale variables can go either way.,Dem go either way.,Computer science
"as we saw above, response time(a ratio scale variable)is continuous.","We saw above, how fast person answer(scale wey dey measure tins wey get zero point wey be real, and di difference between each point dey equal, so you fit compare dem well variable)dey continuous.",Computer science
temperature in degrees celsius(an interval scale variable)is also continuous.,Di interval scale variable)dey also continuous,Computer science
"however, the year you went to school(an interval scale variable)is discrete.",Di year you go school(an interval scale variable)dey discrete.,Computer science
there's no year in between 2002 and 2003.,Di year wey dey between 2002 and 2003.,Computer science
"i'm trying to hammer this point home, because (a)some textbooks get this wrong, and (b)people very often say things like\discrete variable""when they mean ominal scale variable"".","I try to hammer dis point home, because (a)some textbooks get dis wrong, and (b) pipo very often say things like\discrete variable""wen dem mean ominal scale variable"".",Computer science
it's very unfortunate.,E dey unfortunate,Computer science
the real world is much messier than this little classi cation scheme suggests.,Di real world dey much messier than dis little classi cation scheme suggest.,Computer science
"very few variables in real life actually fall into these nice neat categories, so you need to be kind of careful not to treat the scales of measurement as if they were hard and fast rules.","Di very few variables for real life don fall into dis nice neat categories, so you need to careful no treat di scales of measurement as if dem dey hard and fast rules.",Computer science
"it doesn't work like that: they're guidelines, intended to help you think about the situations in which you should treat dierent variables dierently.",Di guidelines wey dey suppose help you think about di situation wey you go treat dierent variables dierently.,Computer science
"so let's take a classic example, maybe theclassic example, of a psychological measurement tool: the likert scale.","So make we take one classic example, maybe di one classic example, of tool wey dem use for mind measurement: di one kind of scale.",Computer science
the humble likert scale is the bread and butter tool of all survey design.,Di humble one kind of scale na di main tool of all how to design survey.,Computer science
"you yourself have lled out hundreds, maybe thousands of them, and odds are you've even used one yourself.","Di odds dey say you don lle out hundreds, maybe thousands of dem, and odds dey you dey use one yourself.",Computer science
"suppose we have a survey question that looks like this: which ofthe following best describes your opinion ofthe statement that ll pirates are freaking awesome"".",Di following best describe your opinion of di statement say ll pirates dey freaking awesome,Computer science
"however, it's not necessary that all items be explicitly described.",E no necessary say all items be explicitly described,Computer science
"the question is, what kind of variable are they?","Di question dey, what kind of variable dey diy?",Computer science
"they're obviously discrete, since you can't give a response of 2.5.",I no get response of 2.5. 5.,Computer science
"they're obviously not nominal scale, since the items are ordered; and they're not ratio scale either, since there's no natural zero.","Di items dey ordered; and dem no dey scale wey dey measure tins wey get zero point wey be real, and di difference between each point dey equal, so you fit compare dem well, since di items dey ordered; and dem no dey scale wey dey measure tins wey get zero point wey be real, and di difference between each point dey equal, so you fit compare dem well, since di items dey ordered; and dem no dey scale wey dey measure tins wey get zero point wey be real, and di difference between each point dey equal, so you fit compare dem well either, since dem no dey natural zero",Computer science
but are they ordinal scale or interval scale?,But na dem ordinal scale or interval scale?,Computer science
"one argument says that we can't really prove that the dierence between\strongly agree""and gree"" is ofthe same size as the dierence between gree"" and either agree nor disagree"".","One argument tok say we no prove say di dierence between gree"" and gree"" dey of di same size as di dierence between gree"" and either agree nor disagree",Computer science
"in fact, in everyday life it's pretty obvious that they're not the same at all.",Di everyday life dey pretty obvious say dem no dey di same for all.,Computer science
so this suggests that we ought to treat likert scales as ordinal variables.,Di suggest say we go treat one kind of scale as ordinal variables.,Computer science
"on the other hand, in practice most participants do seem to take the whole\on a scale from 1 to 5""part fairly seriously, and they tend to act as if the dierences between the ve response options were fairly similar to one another.","On di other hand, for practice, most participants seem to take di whole""on scale from 1 to 5""part seriously, and dem dey act as if di differences between di five di choices wey dem fit pick dey similar to one another.",Computer science
"as a consequence, a lot of researchers treat likert scale data as if it were interval scale.",Di lot of researchers treat one kind of scale data as if dem dey interval scale.,Computer science
"it's not interval scale, but in practice it's close enough that we usually think of it as being quasi-interval scale.","Di practice dey close enough say we dey think of di as being quarrel scale, but for real life e dey close enough say we dey think of di as being quarrel scale",Computer science
"at this point, we should start discussing the obvious question: is the measurement any good?",We go start discuss di obvious question: na di measurement any good?,Computer science
we'll do this in terms of two related ideas: reliability and validity.,We go do dis using two related ideas: reliability and validity.,Computer science
"put simply, the reliability of a measure tells you how precisely you are measuring something, whereas the validity of a measure tells you how accurate the measure is.","Di reliability of a measure tell you how exactly you dey measur something, whereas di validity of a measure tell you how accurate di measure dey.",Computer science
reliability is actually avery simple concept: it refers to the repeatability or consistency of your measurement.,E to talk about di repeatability or consistency of your measurement,Computer science
"the measurement of my weight by means of a athroom scale""is very reliable: if i step on and o the scales over and over again, it'll keep giving me the same answer.","If i step on and o di scales many times, e go keep giving me di same answer.",Computer science
"measuring my intelligence by means of sking my mum""is very unreliable: some days she tells me i'm a bit thick, and other days she tells me i'm a complete moron.","Some days she tell me i'm bit thin, and oda days she tell me i'm complete moron.",Computer science
notice that this concept of reliability is dierent to the question of whether the measurements are correct(the correctness of a measurement relates to it's validity).,Di concept of reliability dey animal to di question of whether di measurements dey correct(the correctness of a measurement relates to di validity).,Computer science
"if i'm holding a sack of potatos when i step on and o ofthe bathroom scales, the measurement will still be reliable: it will always give me the same answer.",I go always give me di same answer.,Computer science
"however, this highly reliable answer doesn't matchup to my true weight at all, therefore it's wrong.","Di highly reliable answer no matchup to my true weight for all, therefore e dey wrong.",Computer science
"in technical terms, this is a reliable but invalid measurement.",E dey reliable but invalid measurement,Computer science
"similarly, while my mum's estimate of my intelligence is a bit unreliable, she might be right.","Di mum's estimate of my intelligence dey a bit unreliable, she go right.",Computer science
"maybe i'm just not too bright, and so while her estimate of my intelligence uctuates pretty wildly from day today, it's basically right.","Di estimate of my intelligence uctuates pretty wildly from day today, dey basically right.",Computer science
so that would bean unreliable but valid measure.,Di suppose be unreliable but valid measure.,Computer science
"ofcourse, to some extent, notice that if my mum's estimates are too unreliable, it's going to be very hard to gure out which one of her many claims about my intelligence is actually the right one.","Di mum's estimates dey too unreliable, na very hard to gure out which one of her many claims about my intelligence dey actually di right one.",Computer science
"to some extent, then, avery unreliable measure tends to end up being invalid for practical purposes; so much so that many people would say that reliability is necessary(but not sucient) to ensure validity.",Di very unreliable measure dey suppose end up being invalid for practical purposes; so much so say many pipo go say reliability dey necessary(but no sucient) to ensure validity,Computer science
"okay, now that we're clear on the distinction between reliability and validity, let's have a think about the dierent ways in which we might measure reliability: test-retest reliability.","We dey clear on di distinction between reliability and validity, make we think about di dierent way wey we go measure reliability: test-retest reliability",Computer science
"this relates to consistency overtime: if we repeat the measurement at a later date, do we get a the same answer?","If we repeat di measurement for later date, do we get di same answer?",Computer science
inter-rater reliability.,Inter-rater reliability.,Computer science
"this relates to consistency across people: if someone else repeats the measurement(e. g, someone else rates my intelligence)will they produce the same answer?","If someone else repeat di measurement(e. g, someone else rate my intelligence)go dey produce di same answer?",Computer science
parallel forms reliability.,how different versions of test compare.,Computer science
"this relates to consistency across theoretically-equivalent measurements: if i use a dierent set of bathroom scales to measure my weight, does it give the same answer?","Dis one relate to consistency across measurements wey be di same for theory: if I use different set of bathroom scale to measure my weight, e go give di same answer?",Computer science
internal consistency reliability.,how inside parts agree reliability.,Computer science
"if a measurement is constructed from lots of dierent parts that perform similar functions(e. g, a personality questionnaire result is added up across several questions)do the individual parts tend to give similar answers.","E. g, a personality questionnaire result dey add up across several questions)do di individual parts go give similar answer.",Computer science
not all measurements need to possess all forms of reliability.,Di measurement need to possess all form of reliability.,Computer science
"for instance, educational assessment can be thought of as a form of measurement.","for example, to check student learning fit be seen as form of measurement.",Computer science
"one ofthe subjects that i teach, computational cognitive science, hasan assessment structure that has a research component and an exam component(plus other things).","Di subject wey i teach, computational cognitive science, don get assessment structure wey don get research component and exam component(plus oda things).",Computer science
"the exam component is intended to measure something dierent from the research component, so the assessment as a whole has low internal consistency.","Di exam component dey intended to measure something dierent from di research component, so di assessment as a whole get low how inside parts agree.",Computer science
"however, within the exam there are several questions that are intended to(approximately) measure the same things, and those tend to produce similar outcomes; so the exam on its own has a fairly high internal consistency.","Di exam na several questions wey dey intended to measure di same things, and those dey tend to produce similar outcomes; so di exam on its own don get fairly high how inside parts agree.",Computer science
which is as it should be.,Di suppose be.,Computer science
you should only demand reliability in those situations where you want to be measure the same thing!,I go only demand reliability for those situation wey you wan to measure di same thing,Computer science
note that this book will tend to avoid the classical terminology in favour ofthe newer names.,Di book go avoid di classical terminology for favour of di newer names.,Computer science
"role ofthe variable classical name modern name o be explained""dependent variable(dv) outcome o do the explaining""independent variable(iv) predictor.","Role of variable: di old name= ""to be explained"" (wetin dey depend on something, DV, outcome); di new name= ""to do di explaining"" (wetin dey explain, IV, predictor).",Computer science
"normally, when we do some research we end up with lots of dierent variables.","Normally, when we do research, we end up with plenty different variables.",Computer science
"then, when we analyse our data we usually try to explain some ofthe variables in terms of some ofthe other variables.",We usually try to explain some of di variables for terms of some of di oda variables.,Computer science
"it's important to keep the two roles hing doing the explaining""and hing being explained""distinct.","Di important to keep di two roles hin do di explaining""and hin dey explained""distinct.",Computer science
so let's be clear about this now.,E dey clear about dis now,Computer science
"firstly, we might aswell get used to the idea of using mathematical symbols to describe variables, since it's going to happen over and over again.","First, we fit aswell get used to using signs wey dem use for math to describe variables, because e go happen again and again.",Computer science
"let's denote theo be explained""variable y, and denote the variables\doing the explaining""as x1, x2, etc.","Dem denote di o be explained""variable y, and denote di variables wey dey explained""as x1, x2, etc.",Computer science
"now, when we doing an analysis, we have dierent names for xandy, since they play dierent roles in the analysis.","for now, we don do analysis, we don play dia name for xandy, since dem play dia role for di analysis",Computer science
the classical names for these roles are independent variable(iv) and dependent variable(dv).,Di classical names for dis role dey wetin dey explain(iv) and wetin dey depend on something(dv).,Computer science
"the iv is the variable that you use to do the explaining(i. e, x) and the dv is the variable being explained(i. e, y).","Di iv na di variable wey you use to do di explaining(i. e, x) and di dv na di variable wey you use to do di explaining(i. e, y).",Computer science
"the logic behind these names goes like this: if there really is a relationship betweenxandythen we can say that ydepends on x, and if we have designed our study\properly"" thenxisn't dependent on anything else.","If e dey relationship betweenxandythen we go tok say ydepend on x, and if we don designed awa study\properly"" thenxisn't depend on anything else.",Computer science
"however, i personally nd those names horrible: they're hard to remember and they're highly misleading, because (a)the iv is never actually\independent of everything else""and (b)if there's no relationship, then the dv doesn't actually depend on the iv.","I personally nd say di iv no dey independent of all else""and (b)if no dey relationship, then di dv no dey depend on di iv.",Computer science
"and in fact, because i'm not the only person who thinks that iv and dv are just awful names, there area number of alternatives that i nd more appealing.","Di only person wey think say iv and dv dey just awful names, na number of alternatives wey i dey appealing.",Computer science
the terms that i'll use in these notes are predictors and outcomes.,Di terms wey i use for dis notes dey predictors and outcomes.,Computer science
the idea here is that what you're trying to do is use x(the predictors) to make guesses abouty(the outcomes). 4this is summarised in table 2.2.,Di idea here na say what you dey try to do na use x(the predictors) make guesses abouty(the outcomes).,Computer science
"when we make this distinction, what we're really talking about is the degree of control that the researcher exercises over the people and events in the study.",Di degree of control wey di researcher exercise over di pipo and events for di study.,Computer science
"this sort of terminological confusion is very common, i'm afraid.","Di sort of terminological confusion dey very common, i'm afraid",Computer science
"in particular, the researcher manipulates or varies the predictor variables (ivs), and then allows the outcome variable(dv) to vary naturally.","Especially, di researcher dey manipulate or change di predictor variables (IVs), and den allow di outcome variable(DV) to change naturally.",Computer science
the idea here is to deliberately vary the predictors (ivs) to see if they have any causal eects on the outcomes.,Di idea here dey to deliberately vary di predictors (iv)to see if dem get any causal eects for di outcomes.,Computer science
"moreover, in order to ensure that there's no chance that something other than the predictor variables is causing the outcomes, everything else is kept constant or is in some other way alanced"" to ensure that they have no eect on the results.","Di predictor variables dey caus di outcomes, all else dey kept constant or dey in some oda way alanced to ensure say dem no get eect on di results.",Computer science
"in practice, it's almost impossible to think of everything else that might have an in uence on the outcome of an experiment, much less keep it constant.","E dey impossible to think of all else wey fit get in uence on di outcome of an experiment, much less keep am constant.",Computer science
"the standard solution to this is randomisation: that is, we randomly assign people to dierent groups, and then give each group a dierent treatment(i. e, assign them dierent values ofthe predictor variables).","Na, we randomly assign pipo to dierent groups, and then give each group a dierent treatment(i. e, give dia group a dierent treatment).",Computer science
"we'll talk more about randomisation later in this course, but for now, it's enough to say that what randomisation does is minimise(but not eliminate)the chances that there are any systematic dierence between groups.","We go talk more about randomisation later for discourse, but for now, e dey enough to say what randomisation does dey minimise(but no eliminate)di chances wey dey any systematic dierence between groups",Computer science
"let's consider avery simple, completely unrealistic and grossly unethical example.","Make we consider one very simple, no be real at all, and very unethical example.",Computer science
suppose you wanted to nd out if smoking causes lung cancer.,Suppose you wan to know if smoking cause cancer for lung.,Computer science
"one way to do this would be to nd people who smoke and people who don't smoke, and look to see if smokers have a higher rate of lung cancer.","Di one way to do dis go be to nd pipo wey dey smoke and pipo wey no dey smoke, and look to see if smokers don get higher rate of cancer for lung.",Computer science
"this is not a proper experiment, since the researcher doesn't have alot of control over who is and isn't a smoker.",Di researcher no get alot of control over who dey and dey no dey smoker,Computer science
"and this really matters: for instance, it might be that people who choose to smoke cigarettes also tend to have poor diets, or maybe they tend to workin asbestos mines, or whatever.","for example, e suppose be say pipo wey dey choose to smoke cigarettes also tend to get poor diets, or maybe dem dey tend to work for asbestos mines, or maybe dem fit work for asbestos mines, or whatever.",Computer science
"the point here is that the groups(smokers and non-smokers)actually dier on lots of things, not justsmoking.","Di point here na say di groups(smokers and non-smokers)actually dier on lots of things, no justsmoking.",Computer science
"so it might be that the higher incidence of lung cancer among smokers is caused by something else, not by smoking per se.","Di higher incidence of cancer for lung among smokers dey caused by something else, no by smoking per se.",Computer science
"in technical terms, these other things(e. g.","For di special words, dese other things(e. g.)",Computer science
"diet)are called \confounds"", and we'll talk about those in just a moment.",We go talk about those for just a moment.,Computer science
"in the meantime, let's now consider what a proper experiment might look like.","For di meantime, make we now think of how one correct experiment fit look like.",Computer science
recall that our concern was that smokers and non-smokers might dier in lots of ways.,Dem recall say awa concern na say smokers and non-smokers go dier for lots of way.,Computer science
"the solution, as long as you have no ethics, is to control who smokes and who doesn't.","Di solution, as long as you go get no ethics, na to control who smokes and who no dey.",Computer science
"speci cally, if we randomly divide participants into two groups, and force half of them to become smokers, then it's very unlikely that the groups will dier in any respect other than the fact that half of them smoke.","If we randomly divide participants into two groups, and force half of dem to become smokers, then e dey very unlikely say di groups go di group go dier for any respect oda than di fact say half of dem smoke.",Computer science
"that way, if our smoking group gets cancer at a higher rate than the non-smoking group, then we can feel pretty con dent that(a) smoking does cause cancer and(b) we're murderers.","If awa smoking group get cancer for higher rate than di non-smoking group, then we fit feel pretty con dent say(a) smoking don cause cancer and(b) we dey murderers.",Computer science
"obviously, control is something that scientists like to have, but as the previous example illustrates, there are lots of situations in which you can't or shouldn't try to obtain that control.","As di for di before example dey illustrate, control dey something wey scientists like to have, but as di for di before example dey illustrate, lots of situations wey you no fit or no fit try to obtain dat control.",Computer science
"since it's grossly unethical(and almost certainly criminal)to force people to smoke in order to nd out if they get cancer, this is a good example of a situation in which you really shouldn't try to obtain experimental control.","E dey good example of a situation wey you dey suppose dey unthical (and almost certainly criminal)to force pipo to smoke for order to nd out if dem get cancer, dis na good example of a situation wey dem get cancer.",Computer science
but there are other reasons too.,Di reasons too.,Computer science
"even leaving aside the ethical issues, our \smoking experiment""does have a few other issues.","Di smoking experiment""don get few oda issues.",Computer science
"for instance, when i suggested that we orce"" half ofthe people to become smokers, i must have been talking about starting with a sample of non-smokers, and then forcing them to become smokers.","for example, wen i suggest say we orce"" half of di pipo to become smokers, i must dey talk about starting wit sample of non-smokers, and then forcing dem to become smokers.",Computer science
"while this sounds like the kind of solid, evil experimental design that a mad scientist would love, it might not be avery sound way of investigating the eect in the real world.","Di kind of solid, evil experimental design wey mad scientist go love, e no be very sound way of investigating di eect for di real world.",Computer science
"for instance, suppose that smoking only causes lung cancer when people have poor diets, and suppose also that people who normally smoke do tend to have poor diets.","for example, suppose say smoking only cause cancer for lung wen pipo get poor diets, and suppose also say pipo wey normally smoke no fit get poor diets.",Computer science
"however, since the\smokers"" in our experiment aren't atural"" smokers(i. e, we forced non-smokers to become smokers; they didn't take on all ofthe other normal, real life characteristics that smokers might tend to possess)they probably have better diets.","Dem force non-smokers to become smokers(i. e, we force non-smokers to become smokers(i. e, we force non-smokers to become smokers; dem no take on all of di oda normal, for real life characteristics wey dem fit possess)dem probably get better diet.",Computer science
"as such, in this silly example they-21- wouldn't get lung cancer, and our experiment will fail, because it violates the structure ofthe atural"" world(the technical name for this is an rtifactual"" result; see later).","Di silly example dem-21- no get cancer for lung, and awa experiment go fail, because dem violate di structure of di atural world(the technical name for dis na rtifactual"" result; see later).",Computer science
one distinction worth making between two types of non-experimental research is the dierence between quasi-experimental research andcase studies.,One difference wey worth making between two types of non-experimental research na di difference between quasi-experimental research and study of one or few examples.,Computer science
"the example i discussed earlier{ in which we wanted to examine incidence of lung cancer among smokers and non-smokers, without trying to control who smokes and who doesn't{ is a quasi-experimental design.","Di example wey we discuss earlier{ for which we waned to examine incidence of cancer for lung wey dey among smokers and non-smokers, without try to control who smokes and who no dey",Computer science
"that is, it's the same as an experiment, but we don't control the predictors (ivs).",We no control di predictors (iv),Computer science
"we can still use statistics to analyse the results, it's just that we have to be alot more careful.","We go still use statistics to analyse di results, e just say we go get lot more careful.",Computer science
"the alternative approach, case studies, aims to provide avery detailed description of one or a few instances.","Di other approach, study of one or few examples, dey aim to give very thorough description of one or few examples.",Computer science
"in general, you can't use statistics to analyse the results of case studies, and it's usually very hard to draw any general conclusions about\people in general""from a few isolated examples.","E no use statistics to analyse di results of study of one or few examples, and e dey hard to draw any general conclusion about \pipo for general""from few isolated examples.",Computer science
"however, case studies are very useful in some situations.",Di study of one or few examples dey useful for some situation.,Computer science
"firstly, there are situations where you don't have any alternative: neuropsychology has this issue alot.",Di situation wey you no get any alternative: neuropsychology don get dis issue alot.,Computer science
"sometimes, you just can't nd alot of people with brain damage in a speci c area, so the only thing you can do is describe those cases that you do have in as much detail and with as much care as you can.",Di only thing you go do dey describe those case wey you don get in as much detail and wit as much care as you fit.,Computer science
"however, there's also some genuine advantages to case studies: because you don't have as many people to study, you have the ability to invest lots of time and eort trying to understand the speci c factors at playin each case.","Di advantage wey you don get as many pipo to study, you go get di ability to invest lots of time and eort try to understand di speci c factors wey dey play for each case.",Computer science
this is avery valuable thing to do.,Dis na very valuable thing to do.,Computer science
"as a consequence, case studies can complement the more statistically-oriented approaches that you see in experimental and quasi-experimental designs.",Di study of one or few examples fit complement di more statistically-oriented approach wey you see for experimental and quasi-experimental designs.,Computer science
"we won't talk much about case studies in these lectures, but they are nevertheless very valuable tools!","We go talk much about study of one or few examples for dis lectures, but dem no dey valuable tools",Computer science
the conceptual idea behind validity is very simple: can you trust the results of your study?,Di conceptual idea wey dey behind validity dey simple: can you trust di results of your study?,Computer science
"if not, the study is invalid.","Di study dey invalid, di study dey invalid",Computer science
"however, while it's easy to state, in practice it's much harder to check validity than it is to check reliability.","For practice, while e easy to state, for real life e dey harder to check validity than e dey check reliability",Computer science
"and in all honesty, there's no precise, clearly agreed upon notion of what validity actually is.","Dino exacte, clearly agree upon notion of what validity actually dey.",Computer science
"in fact, there's lots of dierent kinds of validity, each of which raises it's own issues, and not all forms of validity are relevant to all studies.","Di lots of dierent kinds of validity, each of which raises im own issues, and no all form of validity dey relevant to all studies.",Computer science
i'm going to talk about ve dierent types: internal validity external validity construct validity face validity ecological validity to give you a quick guide as to what matters here.,"I go talk about five different types: wetin dey inside, how di study fit apply outside, whether di test measure wetin e suppose measure, whether e look like wetin e suppose be, whether e fit work for real world— to give you quick guide on wetin matter here.",Computer science
"(1)internal and external validity are the most important, since they tie directly to the fundamental question of whether your study really works.","Di fundamental question of whether your study really works, since dem tie directly to di fundamental question of whether your study really works.",Computer science
(2)construct validity asks whether you're measuring what you think you are.,Di whether di test measure wetin e suppose measure ask whether you dey measuring what you think you dey.,Computer science
"(3)face validity isn't terribly important except insofar as you care about ppearances"".",Di(3) whether e look like wetin e suppose be dey important except insofar as you care about appearances,Computer science
(4)ecological validity is a special case of face validity that corresponds to a kind of appearance that you might care about alot.,whether e fit work for real world dey special case of whether e look like wetin e suppose be wey dey correspond to kind of appearance wey you go care about alot.,Computer science
"it's called\internal"" because it refers to the relationships between-22- things\inside"" the study.","E dey call\internal"" bikos e to talk about di how two things dey related 22 things\inside"" di study.",Computer science
let's illustrate the concept with a simple example.,Di concept wit simple example.,Computer science
suppose you're interested in nding out whether a university education makes you write better.,Di suppose you interest for nding out whether university education make you write better,Computer science
"to do so, you get a group of rst year students, ask them to write a 1000 word essay, and count the number of spelling and grammatical errors they make.","Di group of rst year students, ask dem write 1000 word essay, and count di number of spelling and grammatical errors dem make.",Computer science
"then you nd some third-year students, who obviously have had more of a university education than the rst-years, and repeat the exercise.","Dem nd some third-year students, wey no get more of university education than di rst-years, and repeat di exercise.",Computer science
and let's suppose it turns out that the third-year students produce fewer errors.,Dem suppose turnout say di third-year students produce fewer errors,Computer science
and so you conclude that a university education improves writing skills.,E conclude say university education improve writing skills,Computer science
"except. the big problem that you have with this experiment is that the third-year students are older, and they've had more experience with writing things.","Di big problem wey you go get wit dis experiment na say di third-year students dey older, and dem get more experience wit writing things",Computer science
so it's hard to know for sure what the causal relationship is: do older people write better?,Di how one thing cause another dey: do older pipo write better?,Computer science
or people who have had more writing experience?,For pipo wey don get more writing experience?,Computer science
or people who have had more education?,Di pipo wey don get more education?,Computer science
which ofthe above is the true cause ofthe superior performance ofthe third-years?,Di above na di true cause of di superior performance of di third-years?,Computer science
you can't tell.,Dem no tell.,Computer science
"this is an example of a failure of internal validity, because your study doesn't properly tease apart the causal relationships between the dierent variables.","Di example of failure of wetin dey inside, because your study no fit tease apart di causal relationships between di dierent variables.",Computer science
"that is, to what extent do you expect to see the same pattern of results in eal life""as you saw in your study.","Di same pattern of results for eal life""as you saw for your study.",Computer science
"to put it a bit more precisely, any study that you doin psychology will involve a fairly speci c set of questions or tasks, will occur in a speci c environment, and will involve participants that are drawn from a particular subgroup.","Di study wey you do for psychology go involve fairly speci c set of questions or tasks, go occur for speci c environment, and go involve participants wey dey draw from particular subgroup.",Computer science
"so, if it turns out that the results don't actually generalise to people and situations beyond the ones that you studied, then what you've got is a lack of external validity.","If e turnout say di results don actually generalise to pipo and situation beyond di ones wey you studie, then we go get lack of how di study fit apply outside.",Computer science
the classic example of this issue is the fact that avery large proportion of studies in psychology will use undergraduate psychology students as the participants.,Di one classic example of dis issue na di fact say very large proportion of studies for psychology go use undergraduate psychology students as di participants.,Computer science
"obviously, however, the researchers don't care only about psychology students; they care about people in general.",Di researchers don care only about psychology students; dem care about pipo for general.,Computer science
"given that, a study that uses only psych students as participants always carries a risk of lacking external validity.",Di study wey dey use only psych students as participants always get risk of lacking how di study fit apply outside.,Computer science
"that is, if there's something\special"" about psychology students that makes them dierent to the general populace in some relevant respect, then we may start worrying about a lack of external validity.","If e dey something\special"" about psychology students wey make dem dierent to di general populace for some relevant respect, then we go start worrying about lack of how di study fit apply outside.",Computer science
"that said, it is absolutely critical to realise that a study that uses only psychology students does not necessarily have a problem with external validity.",E dey critical to realise say a study wey use only psychology students no need a problem wit how di study fit apply outside.,Computer science
"i'll talk about this again later, but it's such a common mistake that i'm going to mention it here.","I go talk about dis again later, but e dey such common mistake wey i go mention am here.",Computer science
"the external validity is threatened by the choice of population if(a) the population from which you sample your participants is very narrow(e. g, psych students), and (b)the narrow population that you sampled from is systematically dierent from the general population, in some respect that is relevant to the psychological phenomenon that you intend to study.","Di how di study fit apply outside dey threatened by di choice of population if(a) di population wey you sample from dey very narrow(e. g, psych students), and (b)di narrow population wey you sample from dey very narrow(e. g, psych students), and (b)di narrow population wey you sample from dey very narrow(e. g, psych students), and (b)di narrow population wey you sample from dey very narrow(e",Computer science
"the italicised part is the bit that lots of people forget: it is true that psychology undergraduates dier from the general population in lots of ways, and so a study that uses only psych students may have problems with external validity.","E dey true say psychology undergraduates di general population for lots of way, and so a study wey dey use only psych students go get problems wit how di study fit apply outside.",Computer science
"however, if those dierences aren't very relevant to the phenomenon that you're studying, then there's nothing to worry about.","If those dierences no dey relevant to di phenomenon wey you dey study, then nothing to worry about.",Computer science
"to make this a bit more concrete, here's two extreme examples: you want to measure ttitudes ofthe general public towards psychotherapy"", but all of your participants are psychology students.","Di two extreme examples: you wan measure ttitudes of di general public towards psychotherapy"", but all of your participants dey psychology students.",Computer science
this study would almost certainly have a problem with external validity.,Di study go almost certainly get problem wit how di study fit apply outside.,Computer science
"you want to measure the eectiveness of a visual illusion, and your participants are all psychology students.","Dem wan measure di eectiveness of visual illusion, and your participants dey all psychology students",Computer science
"this study is very unlikely to have a problem with external validity having just spent the last couple of paragraphs focusing on the choice of participants(since that's the big issue that everyone tends to worry most about), it's worth remembering that external validity is a broader concept.","Di study dey very unlikely to get problem wit how di study fit apply outside having just spend di last couple of paragraphs focus on di choice of participants(since dat's di big issue wey dem dey worry most about), e dey worth remember say how di study fit apply outside dey broader concept.",Computer science
"the following are also examples of things that might pose a threat to external validity, depending on what kind of study you're doing: people might answer a\psychology questionnaire""in a manner that doesn't re ect what they would-23- doin real life.","Di following dey also examples of things wey dey pose threat to how di study fit apply outside, based on what kind of study you dey do.",Computer science
"your lab experiment on(say) \human learning""has a dierent structure to the learning problems people face in real life.","Di lab experiment on(say) \human learning""don a dierent structure to di learning problems pipo face for real life.",Computer science
"a measurement has good construct validity if it is actually measuring the correct theoretical construct, and bad construct validity if it doesn't.","Di measurement don get good whether di test measure wetin e suppose measure if e dey measurin di correct theoretical construct, and bad whether di test measure wetin e suppose measure if e no dey measurin di correct theoretical construct, and bad whether di test measure wetin e suppose measure if e no dey measurin di correct theoretical construct, and bad whether di test measure wetin e suppose measure if e no dey measurin di correct theoretical construct, and bad whether di test measure wetin e suppose measure if e no dey actually measurin di correct theoretical construct, and bad whether di test measure wetin e suppose measure if e no dey measurin di correct theoretical construct, and bad",Computer science
"to give very simple(if ridiculous)example, suppose i'm trying to investigate the rates with which university students cheat on their exams.",I try to investigate di rate wit which university students cheat on dia exams.,Computer science
and the way i attempt to measure it is by asking the cheating students to stand up in the lecture theatre so that i can count them.,Di way i attempt to measure am na by asking di cheating students to stand up for lecture theatre so e fit count dem,Computer science
"when i do this with a class of 300 students,0 people claim to be cheaters.","When I do dis with class of 300 students,0 pipo claim say dem be cheaters.",Computer science
so i therefore conclude that the proportion of cheaters in my class is 0%.,I conclude say di proportion of cheaters for my class dey 0%,Computer science
clearly this is a bit ridiculous.,E dey ridiculous,Computer science
"but the point here is not that this is avery deep methodological example, but rather to explain what construct validity is.","Di point here dey no say dis na very deep methodological example, but rather to explain what whether di test measure wetin e suppose measure dey.",Computer science
"the problem with my measure is that while i'm trying to measure he proportion of people who cheat""what i'm actually measuring is he proportion of people stupid enough to own upto cheating, or bloody minded enough to pretend that they do"".","Di problem wit my measure na say while i try to measure hin proportion of pipo wey cheat, or bloody minded enough to pretend say dem do"".",Computer science
"obviously, these aren't the same thing!",Dem no dey di same thing,Computer science
"so my study has gone wrong, because my measurement has very poor construct validity.","Di study don go wrong, because my measurement don very poor whether di test measure wetin e suppose measure.",Computer science
"if i design a test of intelligence, and people look at it and they say o, that test doesn't measure intelligence"", then the measure lacks face validity.","I design test of intelligence, and pipo make we look am and dem say o, say test no measure intelligence"", then di measure lack whether e look like wetin e suppose be.",Computer science
it's as simple as that.,E dey simple as dat,Computer science
"obviously, face validity isn't very important from a pure scienti c perspective.","E no matter, whether e look like wetin e suppose be no dey important from a pure scienti c perspective.",Computer science
"after all, what we care about is whether or not the measure actually does what it's supposed to do, not whether it looks like it does what it's supposed to do.","We care about na whether or no di measure wey dey suppose do, no whether e look like e fit do, no whether e look like e fit do what we dey suppose do.",Computer science
"as a consequence, we generally don't care very much about face validity.",We generally don care very much about whether e look like wetin e suppose be.,Computer science
"that said, the concept of face validity serves three useful pragmatic purposes: sometimes, an experienced scientist will have a\hunch"" that a particular measure won't work.","But still, di concept of whether e look like wetin e suppose be serve three useful practical purposes: sometimes, scientist wey don do am before go get""hunch"" say one particular measure no go work.",Computer science
"while these sorts of hunches have no strict evidentiary value, it's often worth paying attention to them.","Di sort of hunches don no strict howe dey show evidence, e dey often worth pay attention to dem",Computer science
"because oftentimes people have knowledge that they can't quite verbalise, so there might be something to worry about even if you can't quite say why.","Di oftentimes pipo get knowledge say dem no quite verbalise, so e fit be something to worry about even if you no quite say why.",Computer science
"in other words, when someone you trust criticises the face validity of your study, it's worth taking the time to think more carefully about your design to see if you can think of reasons why it might go awry.","As someone you trust criticise di whether e look like wetin e suppose be of your study, e dey worth take di time to think more carefully about your design to see if you fit think of reasons wey dey go awry.",Computer science
"mind you, if you don't nd any reason for concern, then you should probably not worry: after all, face validity really doesn't matter much.","For all, whether e look like wetin e suppose be no dey matter much.",Computer science
"often(very often), completely uninformed people will also have a\hunch"" that your research is crap.",Di research dey crap.,Computer science
and they'll criticise it on the internet or something.,Diy go criticise am on di internet or something,Computer science
"on close inspection, you'll often notice that these criticisms are actually focused entirely on how the study\looks"", but not on anything deeper.","Di criticisms dey focus entirely on how di study\looks"", but noon anything deeper.",Computer science
the concept of face validity is useful for gently explaining to people that they need to substantiate their arguments further.,Di concept of whether e look like wetin e suppose be dey useful for gently explain to pipo say dem need to substantiate dia argument further,Computer science
"expanding on the last point, if the beliefs of untrained people are critical(e. g, this is often the case for applied research where you actually want to convince policymakers of something or other)then you have to care about face validity.","For di last point, if di beliefs of untrained pipo dey critical(e. g, dis dey often di case for apply research wey you suppose convince policymakers of something or oda)then you go care about whether e look like wetin e suppose be.",Computer science
simply because{ whether you like it or not{a lot of people will use face validity as a proxy for real validity.,Di lot of pipo go use whether e look like wetin e suppose be as proxy for real validity.,Computer science
"if you want the government to change a law on scienti c, psychological grounds, then it won't matter how good your studies eally"" are.","If you wan di goment change law on scienti c, psychological grounds, then e no matter how good your studies eally"" dey.",Computer science
"if-24- they lack face validity, you'll nd that politicians ignore you.",Di politicians dey ignore you,Computer science
"ofcourse, it's somewhat unfair that policy often depends more on appearance than fact, but that's how things go.","E dey unfair say policy often depend more on appearance than fact, but say how things go.",Computer science
"the idea is that, in order to be ecologically valid, the entire setup ofthe study should closely approximate the real world scenario that is being investigated.","Di idea na say, in order to be ecologically valid, di entire setup of di study go closely approximate di real world scenario wey dey investigate.",Computer science
"in a sense, ecological validity is a kind of face validity{ it relates mostly to whether the study\looks"" right, but with a bit more rigour to it.","whether e fit work for real world dey kind of whether e look like wetin e suppose be wey dey relate mostly to whether di study\look right, but wit a bit more rigour to am.",Computer science
"to be ecologically valid, the study has to look right in a fairly speci c way.",Di study don look right for a fairly speci c way.,Computer science
the idea behind it is the intuition that a study that is ecologically valid is more likely to be externally valid.,Di idea wey dey behind di idea na di intuition say study wey dey ecologically valid dey more likely to be externally valid,Computer science
"it's no guarantee, of course.","E no be guarantee, of course.",Computer science
but the nice thing about ecological validity is that it's much easier to check whether a study is ecologically valid than it is to check whether a study is externally valid.,Di nice thing about whether e fit work for real world na say e dey much easier to check whether a study dey ecologically valid than e dey check whether a study dey externally valid,Computer science
an simple example would be eyewitness identi cation studies.,One simple example nato identify wey see am studies.,Computer science
"most of these studies tend to be done in a university setting, often with fairly simple array of faces to look at rather than a lineup.","Di study dey done for university setting, often wit fairly simple array of faces to make we look no be lineup.",Computer science
"the length of time between seeing the\criminal"" and being asked to identify the suspect in the\line up""is usually shorter.","Di length of time wey between seeing di\criminal"" and being asked to identify di suspect for di\line up""dey shorter.",Computer science
"the\crime"" isn't real, so there's no chance that the witness being scared, and there's no police ocers present, so there's not as much chance of feeling pressured.","Di\crime"" no dey real, so no chance say di witness dey scared, and no police ocers present, so no chance say di witness dey scared, and no police ocers present, so no chance say di witness dey scared, and no police ocers present, so no chance say di witness being scared, and no police ocers present.",Computer science
these things all mean that the study de nitely lacks ecological validity.,Dese things all mean say di study really lack whether e fit work for real world.,Computer science
they might(but might not)mean that it also lacks external validity.,Dem might(but might no)mean say di how di study fit apply outside also lack how di study fit apply outside.,Computer science
"these two terms are de ned in the following way: confound: a confound is an additional, often unmeasured variable5that turns out to be related to both the predictors and the outcomes.",Di two terms dey related to both di predictors and di outcomes.,Computer science
"the existence of confounds threatens the internal validity ofthe study because you can't tell whether the predictor causes the outcome, or if the confounding variable causes it, etc.","Di existence of confounds dey threaten di wetin dey inside of di study because you no fit tell whether di predictor cause di outcome, or di oda thing wey fit affect am cause am, or wetin.",Computer science
"artifact: a result is said to be rtifactual"" if it only holds in the special situation that you happened to test in your study.",Di result dey tok say be rtifactual if e only hold for di special situation wey you go test for your study.,Computer science
"the possibility that your result is an artifact describes a threat to your external validity, because it raises the possibility that you can't generalise your results to the actual population that you care about.","Di possibility say your result na artifact describe threat to your how di study fit apply outside, bikos e raise di possibility say you no generalise your results to di actual population wey you care about.",Computer science
"as a general rule confounds area bigger concern for non-experimental studies, precisely because they're not proper experiments: by de nition, you're leaving lots of things uncontrolled, so there's alot of scope for confounds working their way into your study.","Di nition, you dey leaving lots of things uncontrolled, so e dey alot of scope for confounds work dia way into your study.",Computer science
"experimental research tends to be much less vulnerable to confounds: the more control you have over what happens during the study, the more you can prevent confounds from appearing.","Di more control you go get over what wey dey during di study, di more you go prevent confounds from appearing.",Computer science
"however, there's always swings and roundabouts, and when we start thinking about artifacts rather than confounds, the shoe is very rmly on the other foot.","Di shoe dey always swing and roundabouts, and wen we start thinking about artifacts no be confounds, di shoe dey very rmly on di oda foot.",Computer science
"for the most part, artifactual results tend to be a concern for experimental studies than for non-experimental studies.","For most part, results wey come by mistake dey concern more for experimental studies than non-experimental ones.",Computer science
"to see this, it helps to realise 5the reason why i say that it's unmeasured is that if you have measured it, then you can use some fancy statistical tricks to deal with the confound.","I help to realise 5the reason wey i tok say im dey unmeasured na say if you don measure am, then you go use some fancy statistical tricks to deal wit di confound.",Computer science
"because ofthe existence of these statistical solutions to the problem of confounds, we often refer to a confound that we have measured and dealt with as a covariate.","Di existence of dis statistical solution to di problem of confounds, we dey to talk about confound wey we don measure and dealt wit as covariate.",Computer science
"dealing with covariates is a topic for a more advanced course, but i thought i'd mention it in passing, since it's kind of comforting to atleast know that this stu exists.","I thought i mention am for passing, since e kind of comforting to atleast know say dis tru exist, since e kind of comforting to atleast know say dis tru exist.",Computer science
"by working in a more real-world context, you lose experimental control(making yourself vulnerable to confounds) but because you tend to be studying human psychology\in the wild""you reduce the chances of getting an artifactual result.","For di wild""you lose experimental control(making you vulnerable to confound) but because you go lose experimental control(making you vulnerable to confound) but because you go lose experimental control(making you vulnerable to confounds) but because you go lose experimental control(making you vulnerable to confounds) but because you go lose experimental control(making you vulnerable to confounds) but because you go lose experimental control(making you vulnerable to confounds) but because you go lose experimental",Computer science
"or, to put it another way, when you take psychology out ofthe wild and bring it into the lab(which we usually have to do to gain our experimental control), you always run the risk of accidentally studying something dierent than you wanted to study: which is more or less the de nition of an artifact.","As you take psychology out of di wild and bring am into di lab(which we go do to gain awa experimental control), you run di risk of accidentally study something dierent wey we dey suppose study: which dey more or less di de nition of an artifact.",Computer science
be warned though: the above is a rough guide only.,Di above dey rough guide only,Computer science
"it's absolutely possible to have confounds in an experiment, and to get artifactual results with non-experimental studies.","E dey possible to get confounds for experiment, and to get results wey come by mistake wit non-experimental studies.",Computer science
"this can happen for all sorts of reasons, not least of which is researcher error.","Di can happen for plenty different tins, no least of which dey researcher error.",Computer science
"in practice, it's really hard to think everything through ahead of time, and even very good researchers make mistakes.","For practice, e really hard to think everything finish before time, and even very good researchers dey make mistakes.",Computer science
"but other times it's unavoidable, simply because the researcher has ethics(e. g, see \dierential attrition"").","Di researcher don get ethics(e. g, see \dierential attrition"").",Computer science
there's a sense in which almost any threat to validity can be characterised as a confound or an artifact: they're pretty vague concepts.,Di sense wey almost any threat to validity go characterise as confound or artifact: dem dey pretty vague concepts.,Computer science
so let's have a look at some ofthe most common examples.,We go make we look some of di most common examples.,Computer science
"for instance, something might happen in between a pre-test and a posttest.","for example, something fit happen between pre-test and post-test.",Computer science
"or, in between testing participant 23 and participant 24.","Or, between to test person 23 and participant 24.",Computer science
"alternatively, it might be that you're looking at an older study, which was perfectly valid for its time, but the world has changed enough since then that the conclusions are no longer trustworthy.","E might be say you look for older study, wey dey perfectly valid for its time, but di world don change enough since then say di conclusions no dey trustworthy.",Computer science
examples of things that would count as history eects: you're interested in how people think about risk and uncertainty.,You dey interest for how pipo think about risk and uncertainty,Computer science
you started your data collection in december 2010.,Di data collection for december 2010.,Computer science
"but nding participants and collecting data takes time, so you're still nding new people in february 2011.","But to find participants and collect data take time, so you still dey find new pipo for February 2011.",Computer science
"unfortunately for you(and even more unfortunately for others), the queensland oods occurred in january 2011, causing billions of dollars of damage and killing many people.","Di queensland ood occur for january 2011, causing billions of dollars of damage and kill many pipo.",Computer science
"not surprisingly, the people tested in february 2011 express quite dierent beliefs about handling risk than the people tested in december 2010.",Di pipo tested for february 2011 express quite dierent beliefs about handling risk than di pipo tested for december 2010.,Computer science
"which(if any)of these re ects the rue""beliefs of participants?","if any dey)of dis re ect di rue""beliefs of participants?",Computer science
"the key thing here is that the\history"" ofthe people tested in february is quite dierent to people tested in december.","Di key thing here na say di\history"" of di pipo tested for february dey quite dierent to pipo tested for december.",Computer science
you're testing the psychological eects of anew anti-anxiety drug.,You dey test di psychological effects of one new anti-anxiety drug.,Computer science
"so what you do is measure anxiety before administering the drug(e. g, by self-report, and taking physiological measures, let's say), then you administer the drug, and then you take the same measures afterwards.","So what you do dey measure anxiety before administer di drug(e. g, by self-report, and take physiological measures, let say), then you take di same measures afterwards.",Computer science
"in the middle, however, because your labs are in los angeles, there's an earthquake, which increases the anxiety ofthe participants.","Di lab dey for los angeles, na earthquake, wey dey increase di anxiety of di participants.",Computer science
"however, maturation eects aren't in response to speci c events.","Di however, maturation eects no dey response to speci c events.",Computer science
"rather, they relate to how people change on their own overtime: we get older, we get tired, we get bored, etc.","Rather, dem relate to how pipo dey change by demself as time dey go: we dey old, we dey tire, we dey bored, etc.",Computer science
"some examples of maturation eects: when doing developmental psychology research, you need to be aware that children grow up quite rapidly.","For developmental psychology research, you need to aware say children grow up quite rapidly",Computer science
"so, suppose that you want to nd out whether some educational trick helps with vocabulary size among 3 year olds.","So, make you suppose say you wan to know whether someone teaching way help with how many words you know for 3-year-old pikin.",Computer science
"one thing that you need to be aware of is that the vocabulary size of children-26- that age is growing at an incredible rate(multiple words per day), all on its own.","Di one thing wey you need to know na say di how many words you know of children-26- dat age dey grow for incredible rate(multiple words per day), all on its own",Computer science
"if you design your study without taking this maturational eect into account, then you won't be able to tell if your educational trick works.","If you design your study without considering dis effect of growing, den you no go fit know whether your one teaching way really work.",Computer science
"when running avery long experiment in the lab(say, something that goes for 3 hours), it's very likely that people will begin to get bored and tired, and that this maturational eect will cause performance to decline, regardless of anything else going on in the experiment 2.7. 3 repeated testing eects an important type of history eect is the eect of repeated testing.",Di important type of history eect na di eect of repeated testing eect na di eect of repeated testing.7. 3 repeated testing eect dey important type of history eect na di eect of repeated testing.,Computer science
"suppose i want to take two measurements of some psychological construct(e. g, anxiety).","Suppose I wan take two measurements of one mental idea(e. g, anxiety).",Computer science
one thing i might be worried about is if the rst measurement hasan eect on the second measurement.,Di one thing wey i dey worried about is if di rst measurement don eect on di second measurement.,Computer science
"in other words, this is a history eect in which the\event"" that in uences the second measurement is the rst measurement itself!",Di history wey dey eect for which di second measurement dey di rst measurement,Computer science
this is not at all uncommon.,Dis no dey for all uncommon,Computer science
"examples of this include: learning and practice: e. g, \intelligence""at time 2 might appear to go up relative to time 1 because participants learned the general rules of how to solve\intelligence-test-style"" questions during the rst testing session.","E. g, \intelligence""for time 2 go up relative to time 1 bikos participants learn di general rules of how to solve\intelligence-test-style"" questions during di rst testing session.",Computer science
"familiarity with the testing situation: e. g, if people are nervous at time 1, this might make performance go down; after sitting through the rst testing situation, they might calm down alot precisely because they've seen what the testing looks like.","E. g, if pipo dey nervous for time 1, dis go make performance go down; after sitting through di rst testing situation, dem go calm down alot precisely because dem see what di testing look like.",Computer science
"auxiliary changes caused by testing: e. g, if a questionnaire assessing mood is boring, then mood at measurement at time 2 is more likely to become ored"", precisely because ofthe boring measurement made at time 1.","E. g, if a questionnaire assessing mood dey boring, then mood for measurement for time 2 dey more likely to become ored"", e. g, if a questionnaire assessing mood for time 2 dey more likely to become ored",Computer science
"suppose that you're running an experiment with two groups of participants, where each group gets a dierent reatment"", and you want to see if the dierent treatments lead to dierent outcomes.","Di suppose say you run experiment wit two groups of participants, wey each group get a dierent reatment"", and you wan see if di dierent treatment lead to dia outcomes.",Computer science
"however, suppose that, despite your best eorts, you've ended up with a gender imbalance across groups(say, group a has 80%females and group b has 50%females).","Di best eorts, suppose say, despite your best eorts, you dey end up wit gender imbalance across groups(say, group a get 80%females and group b get 50%females).",Computer science
"it might sound like this could never happen, but trust me, it can.","Di suppose sound like dis could never happen, but trust me, e fit.",Computer science
"this is an example of a selection bias, in which the people\selected into""the two groups have dierent characteristics.","Di example of a selection bias, wey di pipo \selected into""di two groups don dey dierent characteristics.",Computer science
"if any of those characteristics turns out to be relevant(say, your treatment works better on females than males)then you're in alot of trouble.",Di treatment fit work better on females than males)then you dey in alot of trouble.,Computer science
"suppose that, for the rst time ever in the history of psychology, i manage to nd the perfectly balanced and representative sample of people.","Di rst time ever for di history of psychology, i manage to nd di perfectly balanced and representative sample of pipo.",Computer science
"so, suppose that \dan's incredibly long and tedious experiment""has avery high dropout rate.","So, suppose say \dan's incredibly long and tedious experiment""don very high dropout rate",Computer science
what do you suppose the odds are that this dropout is random?,Di odds na say dis dropout dey random?,Computer science
"almost certainly, the people who remain are more conscientious, more tolerant of boredom etc than those that leave.","Di pipo wey remain dey more conscientious, more tolerant of boredom etc than those wey dey leave.",Computer science
"to the extent that(say) conscientiousness is relevant to the psychological phenomenon that i care about, this attrition can decrease the validity of my results.","Di extent say(say) conscientiousness dey relevant to di psychological phenomenon wey i care about, dis attrition go decrease di validity of my results.",Computer science
"when thinking about the eects of dierential attrition, it is sometimes helpful to distinguish between two dierent types.","We dey think about di eects of di dierential attrition, e dey sometimes helpful to distinguish between two dierent type.",Computer science
"the rst is homogeneous attrition, in which the attrition eect is the same for all groups, treatments or conditions.","Di rst dey homogeneous attrition, in which di attrition eect dey di same for all groups, treatment or conditions.",Computer science
"in the example i gave above, the dierential attrition would be homogeneous if(and only if)the easily bored participants are dropping out of all ofthe conditions in my experiment at about the same rate.",Di dierential attrition go be homogeneous if(and only if)di easily bored participants dey dropout of all of di conditions for my experiment at about di same rate.,Computer science
"in general, the main eect of homogeneous attrition is likely to be that it makes your sample unrepresentative.",Di main eect of homogeneous attrition dey likely to be say e make your sample unrepresentative.,Computer science
"as such, the biggest worry that you'll have is that the generalisability ofthe results decreases: in other words, you lose external validity.","Di biggest worry wey you go get na say di generalisability of di results decrease, in oda words, you lose how di study fit apply outside",Computer science
"the second type of dierential attrition is heterogeneous attrition, in which the attrition eect is dierent for dierent groups.","Di second type of dierential attrition dey heterogeneous attrition, wey di attrition dey heterogeneous attrition, wey di attrition eect na dierent groups.",Computer science
"this is a much bigger problem: not only do you have to worry about your external validity, you also have to worry about your internal validity too.","But no only do you go get to worry about your how di study fit apply outside, you also get to worry about your wetin dey inside too",Computer science
"to see why this is the case, let's consider avery dumb study in which i want to see if insulting people makes them actin a more obedient way.",Dem consider very dumb study wey i wan to see if insulting pipo make dem act for more obedient way.,Computer science
"why anyone would actually want to study that i don't know, but let's suppose i really, deeply cared about this.","Na why anyone go actually wan study say i no know, but make we suppose e deeply care about dis.",Computer science
"so, i design my experiment with two conditions.","So, I design my experiment with two conditions.",Computer science
"in the reatment"" condition, the experimenter insults the participant and then gives them a questionnaire designed to measure obedience.",Di experimenter insult di participant and give dem questionnaire designed to measure obedience.,Computer science
"in the\control"" condition, the experimenter engages in a bit of pointless chitchat and then gives them the questionnaire.",Di experimenter engage for bit of pointless chitchat and then give dem di questionnaire.,Computer science
"leaving aside the questionable scienti c merits and dubious ethics of such a study, let's have a think about what might go wrong here.","Make we leave aside di questionable scientific merit and doubtful ethics of such study, make we just think of wetin fit go wrong here.",Computer science
"as a general rule, when someone insults me to my face, i tend to get much less co-operative.","As general rule, when somebody insult me for my front, I dey become less cooperative.",Computer science
"so, there's a pretty good chance that alot more people are going to dropout ofthe treatment condition than the control condition.",Di pretty good chance say alot more pipo go dropout of di treatment condition than di control condition.,Computer science
and this dropout isn't going to be random.,Di dropout no go be random.,Computer science
the people most likely to dropout would probably be the people who don't care all that much about the importance of obediently sitting through the experiment.,Di pipo most likely to dropout go probably be di pipo wey don care all dat much about di importance of obediently sitting through di experiment.,Computer science
"since the most bloody minded and disobedient people all left the treatment group but not the control group, we've introduced a confound: the people who actually took the questionnaire in the treatment group were already more likely to be dutiful and obedient than the people in the control group.","Di pipo wey dey carry di questionnaire for di treatment group but no di control group, we dey introduced confound: di pipo wey dey carry di questionnaire for di treatment group but no di control group.",Computer science
"in short, in this study insulting people doesn't make them more obedient: it makes the more disobedient people leave the experiment!",Di study dey insult pipo no make dem more obedient: na di more disobedient pipo leave di experiment,Computer science
the internal validity of this experiment is completely shot.,Di wetin dey inside of dis experiment dey completely shot,Computer science
the simplest version ofthe problem goes like this.,Di simple version of di problem go like dis.,Computer science
"you mail out a survey to 1000 people, and only 300 of them reply.","Dem send out survey to 1000 pipo, and only 300 of dem reply",Computer science
the 300 people who replied are almost certainly not a random subsample.,Di 300 pipo wey dey respond na almost certainly no dey random subsample,Computer science
people who respond to surveys are systematically dierent to people who don't.,Di pipo wey dey respond to surveys dey systematically dierent to pipo wey no dey.,Computer science
"this introduces a problem when trying to generalise from those 300 people who replied, to the population at large; since you now have avery non-random sample.","Dis introduces problem wen try to generalise from 300 pipo wey dey repli, to di population at large; since you now don get very non-random sample.",Computer science
"the issue of non-response bias is more general than this, though.",Di issue of non-response bias dey more general than dis.,Computer science
"among the(say) 300 people that did respond to the survey, you might nd that not everyone answers every question.","Di(say) 300 pipo wey dey respond to di survey, you might nd say no all answer every question.",Computer science
"if(say) 80 people chose not to answer one of your questions, does this introduce problems?","As 80 pipo no answer one of your question, does dis introduce problems?",Computer science
"as always, the answer is maybe.",Di answer dey maybe.,Computer science
"if the question that wasn't answered was on the last page ofthe questionnaire, and those 80 surveys were returned with the last page missing, there's a good chance that the missing data isn't a big deal: probably the pages just fell o.","Na good chance say di question wey dey answer na on di last page of di questionnaire, and those 80 surveys dey return wit di last page missing, probably di pages don fall o.",Computer science
"however, if the question that 80 people didn't answer was the most confrontational or invasive personal question in the questionnaire, then almost certainly you've got a problem.","If di question say 80 pipo no answer na di most confrontational or invasive personal question for di questionnaire, then almost certainly you go get problem.",Computer science
"in essence, what you're dealing with here is what's called the problem of missing data.",Di problem wey you dey dealing wit here na di problem of missing data,Computer science
"if the data that is missing was\lost"" randomly, then it's not a big problem.","Di data wey dey missing na\lost"" randomly, then na big problem",Computer science
"if it's missing systematically,-28- then it can be a big problem.",E fit be big problem.,Computer science
it refers to any situation where you select data based on an extreme value on some measure.,E to talk about any situation where you choose data based on one value wey too high or too low for some measure.,Computer science
"because the measure has natural variation, it almost certainly means that when you take a subsequent measurement, that later measurement will be less extreme than the rst one, purely by chance.","Di measure don natural variation, e almost certainly mean say when you take subsequent measurement, dat later measurement go be less extreme than di rst one, purely by chance.",Computer science
here's an example.,Na one example wey dey suppose see,Computer science
suppose i'm interested in whether a psychology education hasan adverse eect on very smart kids.,Di suppose i interest for whether a psychology education don adverse eect on very smart kids,Computer science
"to do this, i nd the 20 psych i students with the best highschool grades and look at how well they're doing at university.",I nd di 20 psych i students wit di best highschool grades and make we look how well dem dey do for university,Computer science
"it turns out that they're doing alot better than average, but they're not topping the class at university, even though they did top their classes at highschool.","Di turnout say dem don do lot better than average, but dem no top dia class for highschool, even though dem no top dia class for highschool.",Computer science
what's going on?,We dey goon?,Computer science
the natural rst thought is that this must mean that the psychology classes must behaving an adverse eect on those students.,Di natural rst thought na say dis must mean say di psychology class must be adverse eect on those students.,Computer science
"however, while that might very well be the explanation, it's more likely that what you're seeing is an example of egression to the mean"".","Di explanation dey very well be di explanation, e dey more likely say what you see na example of egression to di mean"".",Computer science
"to see how it works, let's take a moment to think about what is required to get the best mark in a class, regardless of whether that class beat highschool or at university.","E take moment to think about howe work, let take moment to think about howe fit get di best mark for class, regardless of whether dat class be highschool or university.",Computer science
"when you've got a big class, there are going to be lotsof very smart people enrolled.","For when you go get big class, na lots of very smart pipo dey join.",Computer science
"to get the best mark you have to be very smart, work very hard, and be a bit lucky.","E go get di best mark you go fit work very hard, and be bit lucky.",Computer science
"the exam has to ask just the right questions for your idiosyncratic skills, and you have to not make any dumb mistakes(we all do that sometimes)when answering them.","Di exam don ask just di right questions for your idiosyncratic skills, and you no make any dumb mistakes(we all do sometimes)wen dem answer dem.",Computer science
and that's the thing: intelligence and hard work are transferrable from one class to the next.,Di thing: intelligence and hard work dey transferrable from one class to di next.,Computer science
the people who got lucky in highschool won't be the same as the people who get lucky at university.,Di pipo wey get lucky for highschool no be di same as di pipo wey get lucky for university.,Computer science
"that's the very de nition of\luck"".","Na dat be di real definition of""luck"".",Computer science
"the consequence of this is that, when you select people at the very extreme values of one measurement(the top 20 students), you're selecting for hard work, skill and luck.","Di consequence of dis na say, wen you select pipo for di extreme values of one measurement(the top 20 students), you dey select for hard work, skill and luck.",Computer science
"but because the luck doesn't transfer to the second measurement(only the skill and work), these people will all be expected to drop a little bit when you measure them a second time(at university).","Di luck no transfer to di second measurement(only di skill and work), dis pipo go drop a little bit wen you measure dem second time(at university).",Computer science
"so their scores fall back a little bit, back towards everyone else.","Di score fall back a little bit, back towards all else",Computer science
this is regression to the mean.,E dey regression to di mean,Computer science
regression to the mean is surprisingly common.,Di mean na surprisingly common.,Computer science
"for instance, if two very tall people have kids, their children will tend to be taller than average, but not as tall as the parents.","If two very tall pipo don get kids, dia children go dey taller than average, but no as tall as di parents.",Computer science
"the reverse happens with very short parents: two very short parents will tend to have short children, but nevertheless those kids will tend to be taller than the parents.","One very short parents go get short children, but nevertheless those kids go dey taller than di parents.",Computer science
it can also be extremely subtle.,E fit also be extremely subtle,Computer science
"for instance, there have been studies done that suggested that people learn better from negative feedback than from positive feedback.",Di study wey dey done say pipo learn better from positive feedback than from positive feedback.,Computer science
"however, the way that people tried to show this was to give people positive reinforcement whenever they did good, and negative reinforcement when they did bad.","Di way wey pipo tried to show dis nato give pipo positive reinforcement whenever dem do good, and negative reinforcement wey dem don bad.",Computer science
"and what you see is that after the positive reinforcement, people tended to do worse; but after the negative reinforcement they tended to do better.","Di positive reinforcement, pipo suppose do worse; but after di positive reinforcement dem suppose do better; but after di negative reinforcement dem go do better",Computer science
"notice that there's a selection bias here: when people do very well, you're selecting for\high"" values, and so you should expect(because of regression to the mean)that performance on the next trial should be worse, regardless of whether reinforcement is given.","For pipo dey well, you dey select for\high"" value, and so you go expect(because of regression to di mean)say performance on di next trial go worse, regardless of whether reinforcement dey give.",Computer science
"similarly, after a bad trial, people will tend to improve all on their own.","For bad trial, pipo go tend to improve all on dia own",Computer science
"the apparent superiority of negative feedback is an artifact caused by regression to the mean(see kahneman & tversky, 1973, for discussion).","Di apparent superiority of negative feedback na artifact wey dey caused by regression to di mean(see kahneman & tversky, 1973, for discussion).",Computer science
"the basic idea is that the experimenter, despite the best of intentions, can accidentally end up in uencing the results ofthe experiment by subtly communicating the ight answer""or the\desired behaviour""to the participants.","Di basic idea na say di experimenter, despite di best of intentions, go accidentally end up for uencing di results of di experiment by subtly communicating di ight answer""or di desired behaviour""to di participants.",Computer science
"typically, this occurs because the experimenter has special knowledge that the participant does not{ either the right answer to the questions being asked, or knowledge ofthe expected pattern of performance for the condition that the participant is in, and soon.","Dis occur because di experimenter don special knowledge say di participant no be {either di right answer to di question wey dem ask, or knowledge of di expected pattern of performance for di condition wey di participant dey for, and soon.",Computer science
"the classic example of this happening is the case study of\clever hans"", which dates back to 1907 (pfungst, 1911; hothersall, 2004).","Di one classic example of dis happening na di Case study na di study of one example of\clever hin"", wey dates back to 1907 (pfungst, 1911; hothersall, 2004).",Computer science
"clever hans was a horse that apparently was-29- able to read and count, and perform other human like feats of intelligence.","Clever hin dey horse wey apparently dey-29- able to read and count, and perform oda human like feats of intelligence.",Computer science
"after clever hans became famous, psychologists started examining his behaviour more closely.",Di psychologists start examining hin behaviour more closely.,Computer science
it turned out that{ not surprisingly{ hans didn't know how to do maths.,Dem turnout say hin no know how to do maths,Computer science
"rather, hans was responding to the human observers around him.",Dem respond to di human observers around hin,Computer science
"because they did know how to count, and the horse had learned to change its behaviour when people changed theirs.","Di horse don learn how to count, and di horse don learn how to change dia behaviour wen pipo change dia behaviour wen pipo change dia behaviour.",Computer science
"the general solution to the problem of experimenter bias is to engage in double blind studies, where neither the experimenter nor the participant knows which condition the participant is in, or knows what the desired behaviour is.","Di general solution to di problem of experimenter bias nato engage for double blind studies, wia neither di experimenter nor di participant know which condition di participant dey in, or know say di desired behaviour dey.",Computer science
"this provides avery good solution to the problem, but it's important to recognise that it's not quite ideal, and hard to pull o perfectly.","Dis give very good solution to di problem, but e important to know say e no be perfect, and e hard to do am perfectly.",Computer science
"for instance, the obvious way that i could try to construct a double blind study is to have one of my ph. d. students(one who doesn't know anything about the experiment)run the study.",Di obvious way wey i go try construct double blind study dey to get one of my ph. d. students(one wey no know anything about di experiment)run di study.,Computer science
that feels like it should be enough.,Dem feel like e fit be enough,Computer science
"the only person(me) who knows all the details(e. g, correct answers to the questions, assignments of participants to conditions)has no interaction with the participants, and the person who does all the talking to people(the ph. d. student)doesn't know anything.","Di only person(me) wey know all di details(e. g, correct answer to di questions, assignments of participants to conditions)no know anything.",Computer science
"except, that last part is very unlikely to be true.",Di last part dey unlikely to be true,Computer science
"in order for the ph. d. student to run the study eectively, they need to have been briefed by me, the researcher.","Di researcher need to brief me, di researcher.",Computer science
"and, as it happens, the ph. d. student also knows me, and knows a bit about my general beliefs about people and psychology(e. g, i tend to think humans are much smarter than psychologists give them credit for).","Di ph. d. student also know me, and know a bit about my general beliefs about pipo and psychology(e. g, i go think humans dey much smarter than psychologists give dem credit for).",Computer science
"as a result of all this, it's almost impossible for the experimenter to avoid knowing a little bit about what expectations i have.",E dey impossible for di experimenter to avoid knowing a little bit about what expectations wey i get,Computer science
and even a little bit of knowledge can have an eect: suppose the experimenter accidentally conveys the fact that the participants are expected to do well in this task.,Di experimenter accidentally conveys di fact say di participants dey expect to do well for dis task.,Computer science
"well, there's a thing called the \pygmalion eect"": if you expect great things of people, they'll rise to the occasion; but if you expect them to fail, they'll do that too.","Di thing wey dey call di \pygmalion eect"", if you expect great things of pipo, dem go rise to di occasion; but if you expect dem fail, dem go do dat too.",Computer science
"in other words, the expectations become a self-ful lling prophesy.",Di expectations dey self-ful lling prophesy,Computer science
"however, even if you manage to stop this from happening, it's almost impossible to stop people from knowing that they're part of a psychological study.",E dey suppose stop pipo from know say dem dey part of a psychological study.,Computer science
and the mere fact of knowing that someone is watching/studying you can have a pretty big eect on behaviour.,Di mere fact of know say someone dey watch studying you fit get big eect on behaviour.,Computer science
this is generally referred to as reactivity ordemand eects.,Dis dey generally dem dey call reactivity ordemand eects,Computer science
the basic idea is captured by the hawthorne eect: people alter their performance because ofthe attention that the study focuses on them.,Di basic idea dey captured by di hawthorne eect: pipo change dia performance because of di attention wey di study focus on dem.,Computer science
"the eect takes its name from a the\hawthorne works""factory outside of chicago(see adair, 1984).","Di effect get im name from""Hawthorne Works""factory outside Chicago(see Adair, 1984).",Computer science
"a study done in the 1920s looking at the eects of lighting on worker productivity at the factory turned out to bean eect ofthe fact that the workers knew they were being studied, rather than the lighting.","Di study wey dey done for di 1920s wey dey make we look di eect of lighting on worker productivity for di factory turnout to be eect of di fact say di workers know dem dey studied, no be di lighting.",Computer science
"to get a bit more speci c about some ofthe ways in which the mere fact of being in a study can change how people behave, it helps to think like a social psychologist and look at some ofthe roles that people might adopt during an experiment, but might not adopt if the corresponding events were occurring in the real world: the good participant tries to be too helpful to the researcher: he or she seeks to gure out the experimenter's hypotheses and con rm them.","Di good participant tries to get a bit more speci c about some of di ways wey di mere fact of being in a study fit change how pipo behave, but might no adopt if di corresponding events dey occur for di real world: di good participant tries to think like social psychologist and make we look some of di roles wey pipo go adopt during di experiment, but might no adopt if di corresponding events dey occur for di real world",Computer science
the negative participant does the exact opposite ofthe good participant: he or she seeks to break or destroy the study or the hypothesis in some way.,He or she seeks to break or destroy di study or di hypothesis for some way.,Computer science
"the faithful participant is unnaturally obedient: he or she seeks to follow instructions perfectly, regardless of what might have happened in a more realistic setting.","Di person wey dey obey too much dey obey too much wey no be natural: e dey try follow instructions perfectly, no matter wetin fit happen for more real situation.",Computer science
"the apprehensive participant gets nervous about being tested or studied, so much so that his or her behaviour becomes highly unnatural, or overly socially desirable.","Di participant wey dey anxious dey get nervous because dem dey test or study am, so much so say im behavior become very unnatural, or too much wey society like.",Computer science
it refers to the situation where the mere fact of being treated causes an improvement in outcomes.,Di situation wey di mere fact of being treated cause improvement for outcomes.,Computer science
"the classic example comes from clinical trials: if you give people a completely chemically inert drug and tell them that it's a cure for a disease, they will tend to get better faster than people who aren't treated at all.","If you give pipo completely chemically inert drug and tell dem say e dey cure for disease, dem go tend to get better faster than pipo wey dey treated for all.",Computer science
"in other words, it is people's belief that they are being treated that causes the improved outcomes, not the drug.","E dey pipo's belief say dem dey treated say dem dey cause di improved outcomes, no di drug.",Computer science
"they refer to the fact that the choice of subpopulation from which you draw your participants, the location, timing and manner in which you run your study(including who collects the data)and the tools that you use to make your measurements might all bein uencing the results.","Di fact say di choice of subpopulation from which you draw your participants, di location, timing and manner wey you run your study(including who collect di data)and di tools wey you use to make your measurements fit all be for uencing di results.",Computer science
"speci cally, the worry is that these things might bein uencing the results in such away that the results won't generalise to a wider array of people, places and measures.","Di worry na say dis things go dey in uencing di results for such way say di results go generalise to a wider array of pipo, place and measures.",Computer science
"while reading what the textbooks often have to say about assessing the validity ofthe study, i couldn't help but notice that they seem to make the assumption that the researcher is honest.","Di textbooks often don say about assessing di validity of di study, i no fit help but notice say dem make di assumption say di researcher dey honest.",Computer science
"while the vast majority of scientists are honest, in my experience atleast, some are not. 6not only that, as i mentioned earlier, scientists are not immune to belief bias{ it's easy for a researcher to end up deceiving themselves into believing the wrong thing, and this can lead them to conduct subtly awed research, and then hide those aws when they write it up.","As i mention earlier, scientists no dey immune to belief bias, and dis fit lead dem to conduct subtly awed research, and e fit lead dem to conduct subtly awed research, and then hide dia aws wen dem write am up.",Computer science
"so you need to consider not only the(probably unlikely)possibility of outright fraud, but also the(probably quite common)possibility that the research is unintentionally \slanted"".","As you need consider no only di(probably unlikely)possibility of outright fraud, but also di(probably quite common)possibility say di research dey unintentionally \slanted",Computer science
"sometimes, people just makeup the data.",Di pipo just makeup di data,Computer science
"this is occasionally done with\good"" intentions.","Di dey occasionally done wit\good"" intentions.",Computer science
"for instance, the researcher believes that the fabricated data do re ect the truth, and may actually re ect\slightly cleaned up""versions of actual data.","Di researcher believe say di fabricated data don re ect di truth, and actually re ect\slightly cleanup"" version of actual data.",Computer science
"on other occasions, the fraud is deliberate and malicious.",Di fraud dey deliberate and malicious,Computer science
"some high-pro le examples where data fabrication has been alleged or shown include cyril burt(a psychologist who is thought to have fabricated some of his data), andrew wake eld (who has been accused of fabricating his data connecting the mmr vaccine to autism)and hwang woo-suk (who falsi ed alot of his data on stem cell research).","Di high-pro le examples wey data fabrication don allege or show include cyril Burt(a psychologist wey dey thought to fabric some of hin data), andrew wake eld (who dey accused of fabricating hin data connect di mmr vaccine to autism)and hwang woo-suk (who dey fake alot of hin data on stem cell research).",Computer science
"hoaxes share alot of similarities with data fabrication, but they dier in the intended purpose.","Di hoaxes share alot of similarities wit data fabrication, but dem dey di intended purpose.",Computer science
"a hoax is often a joke, and many of them are intended to be(eventually) discovered.","Di hoax dey often joke, and many of dem dey intended to be(eventually) discovered.",Computer science
"which does have some truth to it i guess, but that's disingenuous (google the\no true scotsman"" fallacy).","E dey disingenuous (google di\no true scotsman"" fallacy)",Computer science
"the fact is that there are lots of people who are employed ostensibly as scientists, and whose work has all ofthe trappings of science, but who are outright fraudulent.","Di fact na say lots of pipo wey dey employ ostensibly as scientists, and wey dey work don all of di trappings of science, but wey dey outright fraudulent.",Computer science
pretending that they don't exist by saying that they're not scientists is just childish.,Dem no exist by say dem no exist by say dem no exist by say dem no exist by say dem no exist by say dem no exist by say dem no exist.,Computer science
"there's quite a few well known scienti c hoaxes that have occurred over the years(e. g, piltdown man)some of were deliberate attempts to discredit particular elds of research(e. g, the sokal aair).","E. g, piltdown man)some of dey one try wey you plan to discredit particular elds of research(e. g, di sokal aair).",Computer science
data misrepresentation.,Di data misrepresentation wey dey misrepresentation,Computer science
"while fraud gets most ofthe headlines, it's much more common in my experience to see data being misrepresented.","E dey common for my experience to see data wey fraud get most of di headlines, e dey much more common for my experience to see data wey dey misrepresented",Computer science
"when i say this, i'm not referring to newspapers getting it wrong(which they do, almost always).","I no tok say dis, i no to talk about newspapers wey dey get am wrong(which dem do, almost always).",Computer science
"i'm referring to the fact that often, the data don't actually say what the researchers think they say.","I dey to talk about di fact say often, di data don actually say what di researchers think dem say.",Computer science
"my guess is that, almost always, this isn't the result of deliberate dishonesty, it's due to a lack of sophistication in the data analyses.","My guess na say, almost always, dis no be di result of deliberate wuruwuru, e dey due to lack of sophistication for di data analyses.",Computer science
"for instance, think back to the example of simpson's paradox that i discussed in the beginning of these notes.","for example, think back to di example of simpson's paradox wey i discuss for di beginning of dis notes.",Computer science
"it's very common to see people present ggregated"" data of some kind; and sometimes, when you dig deeper and nd the raw data yourself, you nd that the aggregated data tell a dierent story to the disaggregated data.","Every common to see pipo present""aggregated"" data of some kind; and sometimes, when you to check well and find di first numbers yourself, you go see say di wey dem put together tell different story from di disaggregated data.",Computer science
"alternatively, you might nd that some aspect ofthe data is being hidden, because it tells an inconvenient story(e. g, the researcher might choose not to refer to a particular variable).","Di researcher go choose say some aspect of di data dey hidden, because di researcher go choose no to talk about particular variable",Computer science
there's alot of variants on this; many of which are very hard to detect.,Di lot of variants on dis; many of which dey hard to detect; many of which dey hard to detect.,Computer science
"study \misdesign"".","Di study \misdesign""",Computer science
"okay, this one is subtle.","Di one dey subtle, dis one dey subtle.",Computer science
"basically, the issue here is that a researcher designs a study that has built-in aws, and those aws are never reported in the paper.","Di issue here dey say researcher design study wey don build-in aws, and those aws no dey report for paper.",Computer science
"the data that are reported are completely real, and are correctly analysed, but they are produced by a study that is actually quite wrongly put together.","Di data wey dem report dey completely real, and dey correctly analysed, but dem dey produce by study wey dey actually wrongly put together.",Computer science
"the researcher really wants to nd a particular eect, and so the study is setup in such away as to make it\easy"" to (artifactually) observe that eect.","Di researcher really wan to nd a particular eect, and so di study dey setup for such way as to make am\easy"" to observe say eect.",Computer science
"one sneaky way to do this{ in case you're feeling like dabbling in a bit of fraud yourself{ is to design an experiment in which it's obvious to the participants what they're\supposed"" to be doing, and then let reactivity work its magic for you.","For case you dey feeling like dabbling for a bit of fraud wey dey do, and then let reactivity work im magic for you.",Computer science
"if you want, you can add all the trappings of double blind experimentation etc.",We fit add all di trappings of double blind experimentation etc.,Computer science
"it won't make a dierence, since the study materials themselves are subtly telling people what you want them to do.",Di study materials themselves dey subtly tell pipo what you wan dem do.,Computer science
"when you write up the results, the fraud won't be obvious to the reader: what's obvious to the participant when they're in the experimental context isn't always obvious to the person reading the paper.",Di fraud no dey obvious to di participant wen dem dey in di experimental context no dey obvious to di person reading di paper.,Computer science
"ofcourse, the way i've described this makes it sound like it's always fraud: probably there are cases where this is done deliberately, but in my experience the bigger concern has been with unintentional misdesign.","Di way i described dis make e sound like fraud, but for my experience di bigger concern don dey wit unintentional misdesign.",Computer science
the researcher believes.,Di researcher believe.,Computer science
"and so the study just happens to end up with a built in aw, and that aw then magically erases itself when the study is written up for publication.","Di study just dey end up wit built for aw, and say aw dey magically eras imself wen di study dey write up for publication.",Computer science
data mining& post hoc hypothesising.,"Di way dem dey use machine take find pattern and connection for inside boku data, dey use am find beta tori wey go help dem make better decision and to invent hypothesis after seeing di data.",Computer science
"another way in which the authors of a study can more or less lie about what they found is by engaging in what's referred to as\data mining"".","Di authors of a study fit more or less lie about what dem find am as\Di way dem dey use machine take find pattern and connection for inside boku data, dey use am find beta tori wey go help dem make better decision",Computer science
"as we'll discuss later in the class, if you keep trying to analyse your data in lots of dierent ways, you'll eventually nd something that\looks"" like a real eect but isn't.","We go discuss later for di class, if you keep try to analyse your data for lots of dierent way, you go eventually nd something wey dey like real eect but no dey.",Computer science
"this is referred to as\data mining"".","Dis dey dem dey call Di way dem dey use machine take find pattern and connection for inside boku data, dey use am find beta tori wey go help dem make better decision",Computer science
"it used to be quite rare because data analysis used to take weeks, but now that everyone has very powerful statistical software on their computers, it's becoming very common.","But now say e get powerful software for statistics for dia computers, e dey be very common.",Computer science
"data mining per se isn't\wrong"", but the more that you do it, the bigger the risk you're taking.","Di more dat you do am, di bigger di risk wey you dey take.",Computer science
"the thing that is wrong, and i suspect is very common, is unacknowledged data mining.","Di thing wey dey wrong, and i suspect dey very common, na unacknowledged Di way dem dey use machine take find pattern and connection for inside boku data, dey use am find beta tori wey go help dem make better decision.",Computer science
"that is, the researcher run every possible analysis known to humanity, nds the one that works, and then pretends that this was the only analysis that they ever conducted.","Di researcher run every possible analysis wey dem dey known to humanity, nds di one wey dey work, and then pretend say dis na di only analysis wey dem dey conduct.",Computer science
"worse yet, they often\invent"" a hypothesis after looking at the data, to cover up the data mining.","Worse still, dem often""invent"" hypothesis after dem don see di data, just to cover up di way dem dey use machine take find pattern and connection for inside boku data, dey use am find beta tori wey go help dem make better decision.",Computer science
"to be clear: it's not wrong to change your beliefs after looking at the data, and to reanalyse your data using your new\post hoc"" hypotheses.","Make e clear: e no be wrong to change your mind after seeing di data, and to reanalyse your data using your new""post hoc"" hypotheses.",Computer science
"what is wrong(and, i suspect, common) is failing to acknowledge that you've done so.","I suspect, common) dey fail to acknowledge say you don done so",Computer science
"if you acknowledge that you did it, then other researchers are able to take your behaviour into account.",Di researchers dey able to take your behaviour into account.,Computer science
"if you don't, then they can't.","Diy no dey, then dem no dey.",Computer science
and that makes your behaviour deceptive.,Di behaviour deceptive and make your behaviour deceptive,Computer science
publication bias& self-censoring.,bias for wetin dem publish and self-censoring.,Computer science
"finally, a pervasive bias is on-reporting""of negative results.","Di pervasive bias dey on-reporting""of negative results",Computer science
this is almost impossible to prevent.,Dis dey impossible to prevent.,Computer science
"journals don't publish every article that is submitted to them: they prefer to publish articles that nd\something"".",Di journal don publish every article wey dem dey submit to dem: dem prefer to publish articles wey dey nd\something,Computer science
"so, if 20 people run an experiment looking at whether reading finnegans wake causes insanity in humans, and 19 of them nd that-32- it doesn't, which one do you think is going to get published?","If 20 pipo run experiment wey dey looking at whether reading finnegan wake cause insanity for humans, and 19 of dem nd say-32- e no fit, which one do you think dey go get published?",Computer science
"obviously, it's the one study that did nd that finnegans wake causes insanity7.",Di one study wey don nd say finnegan wake cause insanity7,Computer science
"this is an example of a publication bias: since no-one ever published the 19 studies that didn't nd an eect, a naive reader would never know that they existed.","Di example of a bias for wetin dem publish: since noone ever publish di 19 studies wey no dey nd eect, naive reader go never know say dem exist.",Computer science
"worse yet, most researchers \internalise"" this bias, and end up self-censoring their research.","Worse still, most researchers ""internalise"" dis bias, and dem end up self-censoring dia own research.",Computer science
"knowing that negative results aren't going to be accepted for publication, they never even try to report them.","Dem know say negative results no go accept for publication, dem no even try to report dem.",Computer science
"as a friend of mine says or every experiment that you get published, you also have 10 failures"".","As a friend of mine tok say or every experiment wey you go get publish, you also get 10 failures",Computer science
and she's right.,She dey right,Computer science
"the catch is, while some(maybe most)of those studies are failures for boring reasons(e. g.","Di catch dey, while some(maybe most)of those studies dey fail for boring reasons(e. g.",Computer science
"you stued something up)others might be genuine ull"" results that you ought to acknowledge when you write up the\good"" experiment.","Di genuine ull"" results wey you go acknowledge wen you write up di\good"" experiment.",Computer science
and telling which is which is often hard to do.,E dey always hard to do.,Computer science
"a good place to start is a paper by ioannidis (2005)with the depressing title\why most published research ndings are false"".",Di good place to start na paper by ioannidis (2005)wit di depressing title why most published research ndings dey true,Computer science
"i'd also suggest taking a look at work by k uhberger, fritz, and scherndl (2014)presenting statistical evidence that this actually happens in psychology.","I also suggest make you check work by Uhberger, Fritz, and Scherndl (2014) wey give evidence from statistics say dis thing really dey happen for psychology.",Computer science
"there's probably alot more issues like this to think about, but that'll do to start with.","Di probably alot more issues like dis to think about, but dat fit do to start wit.",Computer science
"what i really want to point out is the blindingly obvious truth that real world science is conducted by actual humans, and only the most gullible of people automatically assumes that everyone else is honest and impartial.","Di blindingly obvious truth say real world science dey conduct by actual humans, and only di most gullible of pipo automatically assum say evri pipo dey honest and impartial.",Computer science
"actual scientists aren't usually thatnaive, but for some reason the world likes to pretend that we are, and the textbooks we usually write seem to reinforce that stereotype.","For some reason di world like to pretend say we dey, and di textbooks wey we usually write seem to reinforce say stereotype.",Computer science
"however, in real life statistics and study design are tightly intertwined, so it's very handy to discuss some ofthe key topics.","However, for real life, statistics and study design dey connected well-well, so every useful to discuss some of di important tins.",Computer science
what does it mean to operationalise a theoretical construct?,Di suppose mean to operationalise theoretical construct?,Computer science
what does it mean to have variables and take measurements?,Di suppose mean to have variables and take measurement?,Computer science
"remember that there are twodierent distinctions here: there's the dierence between discrete and continuous data, and there's the dierence between the four dierent scale types(nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio).","Remember say two different distinctions dey here: di difference between discrete and continuous data, and di difference between di four different scales(nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio).",Computer science
"if i measure the\same"" thing twice, should i expect to see the same result?",I expect to see di same result?,Computer science
only if my measure is reliable.,Di measure dey reliable,Computer science
"but what does it mean to talk about doing the\same"" thing?","Di suppose mean to talk about doing di\same"" thing?",Computer science
"well, that's why we have dierent types of reliability.",E dey why we get dierent type of reliability,Computer science
make sure you remember what they are.,E make sure you remember what dem dey,Computer science
what roles do variables playin an analysis?,Di role do variables play for analysis?,Computer science
can you remember the dierence between predictors and outcomes?,You fit remember di difference between predictors and outcomes?,Computer science
dependent and independent variables?,Dependent and independent variables?,Computer science
what makes an experiment an experiment?,Di experiment wey make experiment an experiment?,Computer science
"is it a nice white lab coat, or does it have something to do with researcher control over variables?","Ea nice white lab coat, or e don get something to do wit researcher control over variables?",Computer science
does your study measure what you want it to?,Di study measure wey you wan to?,Computer science
how might things go wrong?,How things fit go wrong?,Computer science
"and is it my imagination, or was that avery long list of possible ways in which things can go wrong?","Di imagination, or na very long list of possible way wey things go wrong?",Computer science
all this should make clear to you that study design is a critical part of research methodology.,Dem make clear to you say study design dey critical part of research methodology.,Computer science
spend a few minutes with your favourite search engine and you'll nd dozens.,"Spend few minutes with your favorite search engine, you go find plenty.",Computer science
an introduction to r-35- 3.,first lesson about R—35 — 3.,Computer science
getting started with r robots are nice to work with.,E dey nice to work wit r robots dey nice to work wit,Computer science
"to do this, we'll spend a bit of time using ras a simple calculator, since that's the easiest thing to do with r. in doing so, you'll get a bit of a feel for what it's like to workin r. from there i'll introduce some very basic programming ideas: in particular, i'll talk about the idea of de ning variables to store information, and a few things that you can do with these variables.","I go talk about di idea of de ning variables to store information, and few things wey you fit do wit r.",Computer science
"however, before going into any ofthe speci cs, it's worth talking a little about why you might want to use rat all.","Di however, before going into any of di speci cs, e dey worth talking a little about how you go use rat all.",Computer science
"given that you're reading this, you've probably got your own reasons.","E dey given say you dey reading dis, you go get your own reasons.",Computer science
"however, if those reasons are ecause that's what my stats class uses"", it might be worth explaining a little why your lecturer has chosen to use rfor the class.","If those reasons dey ecause say my stats class use"", e suppose explain a little why your lecturer go use rfor di class.",Computer science
"ofcourse, i don't really know why other people choose r, so i'm really talking about why i use it.","I no know why oda pipo choose r, so i dey really talk about why i use am",Computer science
"it's sort of obvious, but worth saying anyway: doing your statistics on a computer is faster, easier and more powerful than doing statistics by hand.","E dey somehow obvious, but worth to talk am anyway: to do your statistics for computer dey faster, easier, and more powerful than to do am by hand.",Computer science
"computers excel at mindless repetitive tasks, and alot of statistical calculations are both mindless and repetitive.","Di computers excel for mindless repetitive tasks, and alot of calculations for statistics dey both mindless and repetitive.",Computer science
"for most people, the only reason to ever do statistical calculations with pencil and paper is for learning purposes.","For most pipo, di only reason to ever do statistical calculation with pencil and paper na for learning.",Computer science
"in my class i do occasionally suggest doing some calculations that way, but the only real value to it is pedagogical.","I do occasionally suggest do some calculations say way, but di only real value to am dey pedagogical.",Computer science
"it does help you to get a eel""for statistics to do some calculations yourself, so it's worth doing it once.","E no help you to get eel""for statistics to do some calculations, so e dey worth do am once.",Computer science
but only once!,But only one time!,Computer science
"doing statistics in a spreadsheet(e. g, microsoft excel)is generally a bad idea in the long run.",Na bad idea for di long run.,Computer science
"although many people are likely feel more familiar with them, spreadsheets are very limited in terms of what analyses they allow you do.","As many pipo dey likely feel familiar wit dem, spreadsheets dey very limited for terms of what analyses dem allow you do.",Computer science
"if you get into the habit of trying to do your real life data analysis using spreadsheets, then you've dug yourself into avery deep hole.","If you enter di habit of trying to do your for real life to study numbers with spreadsheets, den you don dig yourself into one deep hole.",Computer science
avoiding proprietary software is avery good idea.,Di idea dey avoid proprietary software na good idea.,Computer science
"there area lot of commercial packages out there that you can buy, some of which i like and some of which i don't.","Di lot of commercial package out there wey you fit buy, some of which i like and some of which i don buy.",Computer science
"they're usually very glossy in their appearance, and generally very powerful(much more powerful than spreadsheets).","Dem dey usually glossy for dia appearance, and generally very powerful(much more powerful than spreadsheets).",Computer science
"however, they're also very expensive: usually, the company sells\student versions""(crippled versions ofthe real thing)very cheaply; they sell full powered\educational versions""at a price that makes me wince; and they sell commercial licences with a staggeringly high price tag.","Di company sell\student version""(crippled version of di real thing)very cheaply; dem sell commercial licences wit staggeringly high price tag.",Computer science
"the business model here is to suck you in during your student days, and then leave you dependent on their tools when you 1source: dismal light(1968).","Di business model here dey to suck you for during your student days, and leave you dependent on dia tools wen you 1source: dismal light(1968).",Computer science
"it's hard to blame them for trying, but personally i'm not in favour of shelling out thousands of dollars if i can avoid it.",I no dey favour of shelling out thousands of dollars if i fit avoid am,Computer science
"and you can avoid it: if you make use of packages likerthat are open source and free, you never get trapped having to pay exorbitant licensing fees.","If you to use package liker wey dey open source and free, you no get trapped having to pay exorbitant licensing fees.",Computer science
"something that you might not appreciate now, but will love later on if you do anything involving data analysis, is the fact that ris highly extensible.","Di fact say you no appreciate now, but go love later on if you do to study numbers, na di fact wey dey highly extensible.",Computer science
"when you download and install r, you get all the basic\packages"", and those are very powerful on their own.","As you download and install r, you go get all di basic\packages"", and dem dey powerful on dia own",Computer science
"however, because ris so open and so widely used, it's become something of a standard tool in statistics, and so lots of people write their own packages that extend the system.","Di ris so open and so widely use, e be something of standard tool for statistics, and so lots of pipo write dia own package wey extend di system.",Computer science
and these are freely available too.,E dey freely available too,Computer science
"one ofthe consequences of this, i've noticed, is that if you open up an advanced textbook(a recent one, that is)rather than introductory textbooks, is that a lotof them user. in other words, if you learn how to do your basic statistics in r, then you're alot closer to being able to use the state ofthe art methods than you would be if you'd started out with a\simpler"" system: so if you want to become a genuine expert in psychological data analysis, learning ris avery good use of your time.","If you learn how to do your basic statistics for r, e dey alot closer to being able to use di state of di art methods wey you dey user.",Computer science
related to the previous point: ris a real programming language.,Related to di previous point: R na real kod langwej wey dem dey use write instruksiyon wey komputa go fit undastand.,Computer science
"as you get better at using rfor data analysis, you're also learning to program.","As you dey improve for using R for to study numbers, you dey also learn to program.",Computer science
"to some people this might seem like a bad thing, but in truth, programming is a core research skill across alot ofthe social and behavioural sciences.","For truth, programming dey core research skill wey dey across alot of di social and behavioural sciences.",Computer science
"think about how many surveys and experiments are done online, or presented on computers.","Think about how plenty surveys and experiments dem dey do online, or present for computer.",Computer science
think about all those online social environments which you might be interested in studying; and maybe collecting data from in an automated fashion.,I think about all those online social environment wey you dey interest for studying; and maybe collect data from in automated fashion.,Computer science
"think about arti cial intelligence systems, computer vision and speech recognition.","Think about artificial intelligence systems, computer vision, and speech recognition.",Computer science
"if any of these are things that you think you might want to be involved in { as someone\doing research in psychology"", that is {you'll need to know a bit of programming.","As someone\doing research for psychology"", dat na {you need to know a bit of programming.",Computer science
"and if you don't already know how to program, then learning how to do statistics using ris a nice way to start.","And if you no already know how to program, den to learn how to do statistics using R na fine way to begin.",Computer science
"those are the main reasons i user. it's not without its aws: it's not easy to learn, and it has a few very annoying quirks to it that we're all pretty much stuck with, but on the whole i think the strengths outweigh the weakness; more so than any other option i've encountered so far.","E no dey easy to learn, and e no dey easy to learn, but on di whole i think di strength outweigh di weakness; more so than any oda option wey i dey encounter so far.",Computer science
let's get started.,We go get start,Computer science
"just as with any piece of software, rneeds to be installed on a\computer"", which is a magical box that does cool things and delivers free ponies.","As wit any piece of software, r need to install on a\computer"", wey be magical box wey dey cool things and deliver free ponies",Computer science
or something along those lines: i maybe confusing computers with the ipad marketing campaigns.,I go confuse computers wit di ipad marketing campaigns.,Computer science
"if you follow the relevant link, you'll see that the online instructions are pretty self-explanatory, but i'll walk you through the installation anyway.","Di online instructions dey pretty self-explanatory, but i fit walk you through di installation anyway.",Computer science
"as of this writing, the current version of ris 3. 0. 2 (\frisbee sailing""), but they usually issue updates every six months, so you'll probably have a newer version.2 2although ris updated frequently, it doesn't usually make much of a dierence for the sort of work we'll doin this book.","Di current version of ris 3. 0. 2 (\frisbee sailing""), but dem usually issue updates every six months, so you go get newer version.",Computer science
but it's not dicult to nd what you're after.,E no dey dicult to nd what you dey after,Computer science
"in general you'll nd a link at the top ofthe page with the text\download r for windows"".",For general you go nd link for top of di page wit di text\download r for windows,Computer science
"if you click on that, it will take you to a page that oers you a few options.",I go take you to page wey oers you few options.,Computer science
"again, at the very top ofthe page you'll be told to click on a link that says to click here if you're installing rfor the rst time.",Di very top of di page you go tell you to press link wey e tok say you dey install rfor di rst time.,Computer science
that's probably what you want.,E dey probably what you wan,Computer science
"this will take you to a page that has a prominent link at the top called\download r 3. 0. 2 for windows"".","Di go take you to a page wey don get prominent link for top called\download r 3. 0. 2 for windows"".",Computer science
that's the one you want.,Di one wey dey wan,Computer science
"click on that and your browser should start downloading a le called r-3. 0. 2-win. exe, or whatever the equivalent version number is by the time you read this.","Di browser go start download a le called r-3. 0. 2-win. exe, or whatever di equivalent version number dey by di time you read dis.",Computer science
"the le for version 3. 0. 2 is about 54mb in size, so it may take sometime depending on how fast your internet connection is.","Di le for version 3. 0. 2 dey about 54mb for size, so e go take sometime based on how fast your how your internet be dey.",Computer science
"once you've downloaded the le, double click to install it.","Di le, double click to install am",Computer science
"as with any software you download online, windows will ask you some questions about whether you trust the le and soon.","As e be with any software you download online, Windows go ask you some questions about whether you trust di file and soon.",Computer science
"after you click through those, it'll ask you where you want to install it, and what components you want to install.","As you to click through those, e go ask you where you wan install am, and how component you wan to install",Computer science
"the default values should be ne for most people, so again, just click through.","Di normal values suppose to be fine for most pipo, so again, just dey to click through.",Computer science
"once all that is done, you should have rinstalled on your system.","For once all wey dey done, you go get rinstalled on your system.",Computer science
"you can access it from the start menu, or from the desktop if you asked it to add a shortcut there.","Di start menu, or from di desktop if you asked am to add shortcut there.",Computer science
"you can now open up rin the usual way if you want to, but what i'm going to suggest is that instead of doing that you should now install rstudio.","I go suggest na say not dat one do say you goto start rin di usual way if you wan to, but what i go suggest na say not dat one do say you go now install rstudio.",Computer science
"the vast majority of mac users will have a fairly recent version ofthe operating system: as long as you're running macos x 10. 6(snow leopard)or higher, then you'll be ne. 3there's a fairly prominent link on the page called\r-3. 0. 2. pkg"", which is the one you want.","Di most part of mac users go get fairly recent version of di system wey dey control wetin computer fit do, e dey manage hardware and software, make am possible for apps and services to dey run, e be like brain wey dey direct computer: as long as you run macos x 10. 6(snow leopard)or higher, then you fit be ne",Computer science
"click on that link and you'll start downloading the installer le, which is(not surprisingly)called r-3. 0. 2. pkg.","Di installer le, wey dey(no surprise)called r-3. 0. 2. pkg.",Computer science
"it's about 61mb in size, so the download can take awhile on slower internet connections.","E dey about 61mb for size, so di download go take while on slower how your internet be.",Computer science
"once you've downloaded r-3. 0. 2. pkg, all you need to do is open it by double clicking on the package le.","Di pkg, all you need to do dey open am by double to press di package le.",Computer science
the installation should go smoothly from there: just follow all the instructions just like you usually do when you install something.,Di installation go smoothly from there: just follow all di instructions wey you dey like you usually do when you install something,Computer science
"once it's nished, you'll nd a le called r. app in the applications folder.",We go call r. app for di application folder,Computer science
"you can now open up rin the usual way4if you want to, but what i'm going to suggest is that instead of doing that you should now install rstudio.","I go suggest na say not dat one doing say you goto start rin di usual way4if you wan to, but what i go suggest na say not dat one do say you go now install rstudio",Computer science
"you can compile rfrom source yourself if you want, or install it through your package management system, which will probably have rin it.","I go compile rfrom source yourself if you wan, or install am through your package management system, wey go probably get rin am",Computer science
"alternatively, the cran site has precompiled binaries for debian, red hat, suse and ubuntu and has separate instructions for each.","Di cran site don precompile binaries for debian, red hat, suse and ubuntu and don separate instructions for each.",Computer science
"once you've got rinstalled, you can run it from the command line just by typing r. however, if you're feeling envious of windows and mac users for their fancy guis, you can download rstudio too.","If you dey feeling envious of windows and mac users for dia fancy guis, you fit run am from di place wey you type command just by writing r.",Computer science
you should be able to nd the installer le that you need at the bottom ofthe page.,Di installer le wey you need for di bottom of di page.,Computer science
you can run rfrom the terminal if you want to.,I go run rfrom di terminal if you wan to.,Computer science
"the command is just\r"".","Di command dey just\r"".",Computer science
"it behaves like the normal desktop version, except that help documentation behaves like a\man"" page instead of opening in anew window.","Di documentation dey like di normal desktop version, except say di papers wey dey help dey like a\man"" page forstead of opening for new window",Computer science
"to understand why i've suggested this, you need to understand a little bit more about ritself.","to know why I don suggest dis, you need to understand small more about R itself.",Computer science
the term rdoesn't really refer to a speci c application on your computer.,Di term r no dey to talk about a speci c application on your computer,Computer science
"rather, it refers to the underlying statistical language.",E to talk about di underlying statistical language,Computer science
you can use this language through lots of dierent applications.,You fit use dis language through plenty different applications.,Computer science
"when you install rinitially, it comes with one application that lets you do this: it's ther. exe application on a windows machine, and ther. app application on a mac.","Dir. exe application for one computer wey get Windows, and dir. app application for mac.",Computer science
but that's not the only way to do it.,Dem no dey only di only way to do am,Computer science
"there are lots of dierent applications that you can use that will let you interact with r. one of those is called rstudio, and it's the one i'm going to suggest that you use.","Di one of those dey call rstudio, and e dey di one wey i go suggest say you use.",Computer science
"rstudio provides a clean, professional interface to rthat i nd much nicer to work with than either the windows or mac defaults.",RStudio provide clean and professional way to work to R wey I find much nicer to work with than either di Windows or Mac defaults.,Computer science
"like r itself, rstudio is free software: you can nd all the details on their webpage.",Di rstudio dey free software: you fit nd all di details for dia webpage,Computer science
when you click on the download button on the homepage it will ask you to choose whether you want the desktop version or the server version.,We go ask you to choose whether you wan di desktop version or di server version.,Computer science
you want the desktop version.,Di desktop version.,Computer science
"however, the nice people at rstudio have designed the webpage so that it automatically recommends the download that is most appropriate for your computer.",Di nice pipo for rstudio don design di webpage so say e automatically recommend di download wey dey most appropriate for your computer,Computer science
"click on the appropriate link, and the rstudio installer le will start downloading.",Di rstudio installer lego start downloading,Computer science
"once it's nished downloading, open the installer le in the usual way to install rstudio.",Di installer le for di usual way to install rstudio.,Computer science
"after it's nished installing, you can start rby opening rstudio.",We go start rby opening rstudio.,Computer science
you don't need to open r. app orr. exe in order to access r. rstudio will take care of that for you.,You no need to open R. app or R. exe to access R. RStudio go take care of dat one for you.,Computer science
"to illustrate what rstudio looks like, figure 3. 1 shows a screenshot of an rsession in progress.",Di figure 3. 1 show a screenshot of rsession for progress,Computer science
"in this screenshot, you can see that it's running on a mac, but it looks almost identical no matter what operating system you have.","Di screenshot, you fit see say e dey running on mac, but e look almost identical no matter which system wey dey control wetin computer fit do, e dey manage hardware and software, make am possible for apps and services to dey run, e be like brain wey dey direct computer you go get.",Computer science
"the windows version looks more like a windows application(e. g, the menus are attached to the application window and the colour scheme is slightly dierent), but it's more or less identical.","Di windows version look more like windows application(e. g, di menus dey attach to di application window and di colour scheme dey slightly dierent), but e dey more or less identical",Computer science
"there area few minor dierences in where things are located in the menus(i'll point them out as we go along)and in the shortcut keys, because rstudio is trying to eel""like a proper mac application or a proper windows application, and this means that it has to change its behaviour a little bit depending on what computer it's running on.","Di means say rstudio dey try to eel""like proper mac application or a proper windows application, and dis mean say e don change dia behaviour a little bit based on what computer wey dey running on.",Computer science
"even so, these dierences are very small: i started out using the mac version of rstudio and then started using the windows version aswell in order to write these notes.",I start out using di mac version of rstudio and then start using di windows version aswell for order to write notes,Computer science
"the only \shortcoming"" i've found with rstudio is that{ as of this writing{ it's still a workin progress.","Di only \shortcoming"" wey i find wit rstudio na say{ as of dis writing{e still work for progress",Computer science
"the current version as i type this is 0. 98. 501, which means that it's in beta testing(the ocial release is version 1.0).","Di current version as i type dis na 0. 98. 501, wey mean say beta testing(the ocial release na version 1.0).",Computer science
"even so, i think that the beta version of rstudio provides a better user experience than anything else i've tried: it really is the best option available in my opinion.",I think say beta version of rstudio provide better user experience than anything else i dey tried,Computer science
"the\problem"" is that they keep improving it.","Di problem""na say dem keep improving am",Computer science
"new features keep turning up the more recent releases, so there's a good chance that by the time you read this book there will be aversion out that has some really neat things that weren't in the version that i'm using now.","Na good chance say by di time you read dis book e go be version out wey dey really neat things wey no dey for diversion wey i use now, so na good chance say by di time you read dis book go dey turn up di more recent release, so e go dey good chance say by di time you read dis book e go get some really neat things wey no dey for diversion wey i use now.",Computer science
and sometimes they almost seem to forget that there's an actual human user at the end.,Di human user almost seem to forget say there's actual human user for di end,Computer science
the people who design and distribute rstudio are focused on user interface.,"Di pipo wey design and distribute rstudio dey focus on di place wey person dey talk with kompyuta, including all di tins wey dem see, di command wey dem give, and di way kompyuta take respond, wey make person fit use am.",Computer science
they want to make ras usable as possible.,Dem wan make ras usable as possible,Computer science
the two websites re ect that dierence.,Di two websites reflect dat difference.,Computer science
"the picture shows rstudio running on a mac, but the windows interface is almost identical.","Di picture show rstudio running on mac, but di windows interface dey identical",Computer science
"using rstudio, or the default gui, or even the command line, it's time to open rand get started.",Na time to open Rand begin.,Computer science
"when you do that, the rst thing you'll see(assuming that you're looking at the rconsole, that is)is a whole lot of text that doesn't make much sense.","Di rst thing you dey see(assuming say you dey look for di rconsole, dat dey)na whole lot of text wey no make much sense.",Computer science
you are welcome to redistribute it under certain conditions.,We dey welcome to redistribute am under certain conditions.,Computer science
natural language support but running in an english locale r is a collaborative project with many contributors.,Di collaborative project wit many contributors.,Computer science
type 'contributors()'for more information and 'citation()'on how to cite r or r packages in publications.,"Type 'contributors()'for more info, and 'citation()'for how to cite R or R packages for publications.",Computer science
"type 'demo()'for some demos,'help()' for on-line help, or 'help. start()'for an html browser interface to help.","Type 'demo()'for some demos,'help()' for help for internet, or 'help. start()' for one way to see help for browser to help.",Computer science
"type 'q()'to quit r.-41- >most of this text is pretty uninteresting, and when doing real data analysis you'll never really pay much attention to it.","Di text dey interesting, and wen dey do real to study numbers you no go pay much attention to am",Computer science
the important part of it is this.>. which has a ashing cursor next to it.,Di important part of di important part of dis na dis,Computer science
that's the command prompt.,Di place wey you type command.,Computer science
"when you see this, it means thatris waiting patiently for you to do something!","When you see dis, e mean say R dey wait patiently for you to do something!",Computer science
"for instance, try typing 10 + 20, and hitting enter. 6when you do this, you've entered a command, and rwill \execute""that command.","for example, try type 10 +20, and press enter. When you do dis, you don enter command, and R go""execute"" dat command.",Computer science
what you see on screen now will be this:> 10 + 20[1] 30 not alot of surprises in this extract.,Di 10 + 20[1] 30 no alot of surprises for dis extract,Computer science
"but there's a few things worth talking about, even with such a simple example.","Di few things wey dey worth talking about, even wit such simple example.",Computer science
"firstly, it's important that you understand how to read the extract.",E important say you understand how to read di extract,Computer science
"in this example, what ityped was the 10 + 20 part.","Di example, wey itype na di 10 + 20 part",Computer science
and neither did i type the[1] 30 part.,I type di[1] 30 part.,Computer science
that's what rprinted out in response to my command.,Di command dey rprinted out for response to my command,Computer science
"secondly, it's important to understand how the output is formatted.",E important to understand how di output dey formatted,Computer science
"obviously, the correct answer to the sum 10 + 20 is30, and not surprisingly rhas printed that out as part of its response.","Obviously, di correct answer to 10 + 20 na 30, and no surprise say R don print am as part of im response.",Computer science
"but it's also printed out this[1]part, which probably doesn't make alot of sense to you right now.","Dem also to print dis[1]part, wey probably no make sense to you right now.",Computer science
you're going to see that alot.,E go see say alot,Computer science
"i'll talk about what this means in a bit more detail later on, but for now you can think of[1] 30 as ifrwere saying he answer to the 1st question you asked is 30"".","I go talk about what dis means for a bit more detail later on, but for now you go think of[1] 30 as ifrwere say hin answer to di 1st question you asked na 30",Computer science
"that's not quite the truth, but it's close enough for now.","Di truth no dey quite di truth, but dey close enough for now.",Computer science
"and in any case it's not really very interesting at the moment: we only asked rto calculate one thing, so obviously there's only one answer printed on the screen.","We only ask rto calculate one thing, so obviously na only one answer wey dey printed on screen",Computer science
"later on this will change, and the[1]part will start to make a bit more sense.",Di[2]part go start to make a bit more sense.,Computer science
"for now, i just don't want you to get confused or concerned by it.","for now, I just no wan you to get confused or worried by am.",Computer science
"the rst thing is that, while ris good software, it's still software.","Di rst thing na say, while dey ris good software, na still software",Computer science
"it's pretty stupid, and because it's stupid it can't handle typos.","E dey pretty stupid, and because e dey stupid e fit handle typos.",Computer science
it takes it on faith that you meant to type exactly what you did type.,I take am on faith say you meant to type exactly wey you fit type.,Computer science
"for example, suppose that you forgot to hit the shift key when trying to type+, and as a result your command ended up being 10 = 20 rather than 10 + 20.","for example, suppose say you dey hit di shift button wen try type+, and as result your command ended up being 10 = 20 no be 10 + 20",Computer science
here's what happens: 6seriously.,Na 6seriously,Computer science
"if you're in a position to do so, open up rand start typing.","If you dey in position to do so, to start rand start typing",Computer science
"the simple act of typing it rather than\just reading""makes a big dierence.","Di simple action of typing am, not dat one""just reading"", dey make big difference.",Computer science
"it makes the concepts more concrete, and it ties the abstract ideas(programming and statistics)to the actual context in which you need to use them.","Di concepts more concrete, and di ties di abstract ideas(programming and statistics)to di actual context wey you need use dem.",Computer science
"statistics is something you do, not just something you read about in a textbook.","Di statistics dey something you do, no just something you read about for textbook",Computer science
"when a human looks at this, and then looks down at his or her keyboard and sees that+and =are on the same key, it's pretty obvious that the command was a typo.","For when human make we look dis, and then look down for hin or her keyboard and sees say+and =are on di same key, na very obvious say di command na typo.",Computer science
"but rdoesn't know this, so it gets upset.","But r no know dis, so e get upset",Computer science
"and, if you look at it from its perspective, this makes sense.","And if you make we look am from R im own side, dis one dey make sense.",Computer science
"all that r\knows""is that 10is a legitimate number, 20is a legitimate number, and =isa legitimate part ofthe language too.","Di all wey r\knows""na say 10is legitimate number, 20is legitimate number, and =is legitimate part of di language too.",Computer science
"in other words, from its perspective this really does look like the user meant to type 10 = 20, since all the individual parts of that statement are legitimate and it's too stupid to realise that this is probably a typo.","Dis really look like di user wey dey type 10 = 20, since all di individual parts of dat statement dey legitimate and e too stupid to realise say dis na typo.",Computer science
"therefore, rtakes it on faith that this is exactly what you meant. it only\discovers"" that the command is nonsense when it tries to follow your instructions, typo and all.","Di command dey nonsense wen e go follow your instructions, typo and all.",Computer science
"and then it whinges, and spits out an error.","Di error dey reach, and e to give error.",Computer science
"even more subtle is the fact that some typos won't produce errors at all, because they happen to correspond to\well-formed"" rcommands.","Di fact say some typos no produce errors for all, because dem go correspond to\well-formed"" rcommands.",Computer science
"for instance, suppose that not only did i forget to hit the shift key when trying to type 10 + 20, i also managed to press the key next to one i meant do.","for example, suppose say I no only forget to press di shift button when I dey try type 10 +20, I even press di wrong key next to di one I wan.",Computer science
the resulting typo would produce the command 10 - 20.,Di resulting typo go produce di command 10 - 20,Computer science
"clearly, rhas no way of knowing that you meant toadd20 to 10, not subtract 20 from 10, so what happens this time is this:> 10 - 20[1] -10 in this case, rproduces the right answer, but to the the wrong question.","Di 10 - 20[1] -10 for dis case, rproduce di right answer, but to di wrong question.",Computer science
"to some extent, i'm stating the obvious here, but it's important.","I dey stat di obvious here, but na important.",Computer science
the people who wrote rare smart.,Di pipo wey write rare smart,Computer science
"you, the user, are smart.","Di user, dey smart",Computer science
but ritself is dumb.,But ritself dey dumb but ritself dey dumb,Computer science
"and because it's dumb, it has to be mindlessly obedient.","Di dumb, e get mindlessly obedient",Computer science
it does exactly what you ask it to do.,E no dey exactly what you ask am to do.,Computer science
"there is no equivalent to utocorrect"" in r, and for good reason.","No be any ""autocorrect"" for R, and e get good reason.",Computer science
when doing advanced stu{ and even the simplest of statistics is pretty advanced in alot of ways{ it's dangerous to let a mindless automaton like rtry to overrule the human user.,E dey dangerous to let mindless automaton like rtry to overrule di human user.,Computer science
"but because of this, it's your responsibility to be careful.",E dey your responsibility to dey careful,Computer science
always make sure you type exactly what you mean.,Always make sure say you type exactly wetin you mean.,Computer science
"when dealing with computers, it's not enough to type pproximately"" the right thing.","Di right thing wey dey dealing wit computers, no enough to type approximately""di right thing",Computer science
"in general, you absolutely must be precise in what you say tor. like all machines it is too stupid to be anything other than absurdly literal in its interpretation.","Di absolutely must be precise for what you say tor. like all machines, e dey too stupid to be anything oda than absurdly literal for its interpretation.",Computer science
"or, more accurately, there are some situations in which rdoes show a bit more exibility than my previous description suggests.",Na some situation wey dey show a bit more exibility than my previous description suggest.,Computer science
the rst thing ris smart enough to do is ignore redundant spacing.,Di rst thing wey dey intelligent enough to do na ignore redundant spacing.,Computer science
"what i mean by this is that, when i typed 10 + 20 before, i could equally have done this> 10 + 20[1] 30 or this> 10+20[1] 30 andi would get exactly the same answer.","For when i type 10 + 20 before, i go get exactly di same answer.",Computer science
"however, that doesn't mean that you can insert spaces in any old place.",Dem no mean say you fit insert space for any old place.,Computer science
r: a language and environment for statistical computing.,R: language and environment for computer for statistics.,Computer science
"r foundation for statistical computing, vienna, austria.","R Foundation for computer for statistics, Vienna, Austria.",Computer science
"blah blah blah we have invested alot of time and effort in creating r, please cite it when using it for data analysis.","We don invest alot of time and effort for creating r, please cite am for to study numbers.",Computer science
see also?,Dem see also?,Computer science
for citing r packages.,For citing R packages.,Computer science
"obviously, the blah blah blah part isn't actually part of what rprints out: when you see that it means that i've chopped out some parts ofthe output that i don't think are very interesting or relevant.",Di and soon part no dey part of di output wey i don think dey interesting or relevant.,Computer science
i'll do that alot.,I go do dat lot,Computer science
"anyway, getting back to my original point, let's see what happens when i try changing the spacing.","I get back to my original point, let see how i try changing di spacing",Computer science
"if i insert spaces in between the word and the parentheses, or inside the parentheses themselves, then all is well.","If i insert space inside di word and di parentheses, or inside di parentheses themselves, then all dey well.",Computer science
"that is, either of these two commands> citation() >citation( )will produce exactly the same response.",Di two commands> citation() >citation() go produce exactly di same response.,Computer science
"however, what i can't do is insert spaces in the middle ofthe word.","Na however, wetin i fit do dey insert space for di middle of di word",Computer science
"if i try to do this, rgets upset:> citation() error: unexpected symbol in ""citation"" throughout this book i'll vary the way i use spacing a little bit, just to give you a feel for the dierent ways in which spacing can be used.","Unexpected symbol for ""citation"" throughout dis book i dey vary di way i use spacing a little bit, just to give you feel for di dierent ways wey spacing go use.",Computer science
"i'll try not to do it too much though, since it's generally considered to be good practice to be consistent in how you format your commands.","I go try no to do am too much, because e dey considered good practice to be consistent for how you format your commands.",Computer science
"if you hit enter in a situation where it's\obvious"" to rthat you haven't actually nished typing the command, ris just smart enough to keep waiting.","As you to press enter for situation wey dey\obvious"" to r say you don actually nish typ di command, ris just smart enough to keep waiting.",Computer science
"for example, if you type 10 +and then press enter, even ris smart enough to realise that you probably wanted to type in another number.","Di example, if you type 10 +and then press enter, even rise know say more must dey come say you go type for one number.",Computer science
so here's what happens:> 10++ and there's a blinking cursor next to the plus sign.,Di 10++ and di blinking cursor next to di plus sign,Computer science
what this means is that ris still waiting for you to nish.,Di means na say ris still wait for you to nish,Computer science
"it hinks"" you're still typing your command, so it hasn't tried to execute it yet.","Di command no hinks"" you still typ your command, so e no fit execute am yet.",Computer science
"in other words, this plus sign is actually another command prompt.",Di plus sign dey actually one di place wey you type command.,Computer science
"it's dierent from the usual one(i. e, the >symbol)to remind you that ris going todd"" whatever you type now to what you typed last time.","Di usual one(i. e, di >symbol)to remind you say ris go dd""whatever you type last time.",Computer science
"for example, if i then goon to type 3and hit enter, what i get is this:> 10++ 20[1] 30-44- and as far as ris concerned, this is exactly the same as if you had typed 10 + 20.","for example, if i goon to type 3 and to press enter, dat na exactly di same as if you go type 10 + 20",Computer science
suppose you hit enter after typing citation(.,Suppose you press enter after you type citation(,Computer science
"once again, ris smart enough to realise that there must be more coming{ since you need to add the)character { so it waits.","one more time, R smart enough to know say more must dey come— because you need add di )character — so e dey wait.",Computer science
"alot ofthe commands that we'll have to type are pretty long, and they're visually a bit easier to read if i break it up over several lines.","Di command wey we fit type dey long, and dem dey visually easier to read if i break am up over several lines.",Computer science
"if you start doing this yourself, you'll eventually get yourself in trouble(it happens to us all).",I dey happen to us all).,Computer science
"maybe you start typing a command, and then you realise you've screwed up.","Maybe you start typing command, and den you realise say you don mess up.",Computer science
"for example,> citblation( + +you'd probably prefer rnot to try running this command, right?","for example,> citblation( + +you go prefer R not to try run dis command, right?",Computer science
"if you want to get out of this situation, just hit the`escape' key. 7rwill return you to the normal command prompt(i. e.","If you wan comot from dis situation, just press di'escape' key. E go return you to di normal sign wey dey wait for command(i. e.",Computer science
"that being said, it's not often the case that ris smart enough to tell that there's more coming.",E no often di case wey dey ris smart enough to tell say na more coming,Computer science
"for instance, in the same way that i can't add a space in the middle of a word, i can't hit enter in the middle of a word either.","Di same way say i don add space for di middle of a word, i fit to press enter for di middle of a word either.",Computer science
"if i hit enter after typing citat i get an error, because rthinks i'm interested in an\object"" called citat and can't nd it:> citat error: object 'citat' not found what about if i typed citation and hit enter?",Di citat error: object 'citat' no find what about if i type citation and to press enter?,Computer science
"in this case we get something very odd, something that we de nitely don't want, at least at this stage.","Di case we get something very odd, something wey we dey nitely don wan, at least for dis stage.",Computer science
"this incomprehensible output can be quite intimidating to novice users, and unfortunately it's very easy to forget to type the parentheses; so almost certainly you'll do this by accident.","Di incomprehensible output dey quite intimidating to novice users, and unfortunately e dey easy to forget to type di parentheses; so almost certainly you go do dis by accident.",Computer science
do not panic when this happens.,Dem no panic wen dis happen,Computer science
simply ignore the gibberish.,Just ignore di nonsense.,Computer science
"as you become more experienced this gibberish will start to make sense, and you'll nd it quite handy to print this stu out.8 but for now just try to remember to add the parentheses when typing your commands.",Di but for now just try to remember to add di parentheses wey dey typing your commands.8 but for now just try to remember to add di parentheses wey dey type your commands.,Computer science
operation operator example input example output addition+ 10+2 12 subtraction -9-36 multiplication*5*5 25 division/ 10/33 power^5^2 25.,"Operation: addition(+), one example wey you give 10+2, output 12; subtraction (-),9-3, 6; multiplication (),55, 25; division ( ),10 3, 3.333; power(^), 5^2, 25.",Computer science
"so far, all we know how to do is addition.",All we know how to do na addition.,Computer science
"clearly, a calculator that only did addition would be a bit stupid, so i should tell you about how to perform other simple calculations using r. but rst, some more terminology.","Clearly, calculator wey only fit do addition go be somehow stupid, so I suppose tell you how to do other simple calculations with R. But first, small more terminology.",Computer science
"addition is an example of an\operation"" that you can perform (speci cally, an arithmetic operation), and the operator that performs it is+.","Di addition na example of an\operation"" wey you fit perform (speci cally, arithmetic operation), and di operator wey perform am na+.",Computer science
"to people with a programming or mathematics background, this terminology probably feels pretty natural, but to other people it might feel like i'm trying to make something very simple(addition) sound more complicated than it is(by calling it an arithmetic operation).","Di terminology no feel natural, but to oda pipo wey dey programming or mathematics background, dis terminology probably feel like i try make something very simple(addition) sound more complicated than e dey(by call am arithmetic operation).",Computer science
"to some extent, that's true: if addition was the only operation that we were interested in, it'd be a bit silly to introduce all this extra terminology.","If addition dey di only operation wey we dey interest for, e go be bit silly to introduce all dis extra terminology.",Computer science
"however, as we go along, we'll start using more and more dierent kinds of operations, so it's probably a good idea to get the language straight now, while we're still talking about very familiar concepts like addition!","But as we dey go, we go start use more different kinds of operations, so e good to get di language correct now, while we still dey talk about familiar concepts like addition!",Computer science
"as you can see, ruses fairly standard symbols to denote each ofthe dierent operations you might want to perform: addition is done using the+operator, subtraction is performed by the-operator, and soon.","E dey done using di+operator, subtraction dey performed by di-operator, and soon.",Computer science
so if i wanted to nd out what 57 times 61 is(and who wouldn't?,"So if I wan to know wetin 57 times 61 be(and who no go wan?),",Computer science
"for those of you who can still remember your highschool maths, this should be familiar.","For those of you wey still remember your secondary school maths, dis one suppose to dey familiar.",Computer science
"but for some people highschool maths was along time ago, and others of us didn't listen very hard in highschool.","For some pipo di math wey you learn for secondary school dey longtime ago, and odas of us no listen very hard for highschool",Computer science
it's not complicated.,E no complicate.,Computer science
"as i'm sure everyone will probably remember the moment they read this, the act of multiplying a number xby itselfntimes is called aising xto then-th power"".","Di act of multiplying number xby itselfntimes dey call aising xto then-th power"".",Computer science
"mathematically, this is written as xn.",E dey write as xn,Computer science
"some values of nhave special names: in particular x2is calledx-squared, and x3is calledx-cubed.","Some values of n get special names: especially, x2 dey called x-squared, and x3 dey called x-cubed.",Computer science
"so, the 4th power of 5 is calculated like this: 545555 one way that we could calculate 54inrwould be to type in the complete multiplication as it is shown in the equation above.",Di 4th power of 5 dey calculat like dis: 545555 one way we go calculate 54inr go be to type for complete multiplication as e dey show for di equation above.,Computer science
"that is, we could do this>5*5*5*5 [1]625 but it does seem a bit tedious.",We go do dis>5*5*5,Computer science
"it would be very annoying indeed if you wanted to calculate 515, since the command would end up being quite long.","Di command go end up being quite long, since di command go end up being quite long.",Computer science
"therefore, to make our lives easier, we use the power operator instead.",We use power operator forstead.,Computer science
"when we do that, our command to calculate 54goes like this:>5^4 [1]625 much easier.",Di command to calculate 54 go like dis:>5^4 [1]625 much easier,Computer science
"at this point, you know how to take one ofthe most powerful pieces of statistical software in the world, and use it as a $2 calculator.","At dis point, you know how to take one of di most powerful software for statistics for di world, and use am as$2 calculator.",Computer science
"and as a bonus, you've learned a few very basic programming concepts.","And as bonus, you don learn small di first things for coding concepts.",Computer science
"that's not nothing(you could argue that you've just saved yourself$2) but on the other hand, it's not very much either.","Di oda hand, e no dey very much either.",Computer science
"in order to use rmore eectively, we need to introduce more programming concepts.","For useR more effectively, we need introduce more basic programming ideas.",Computer science
"in most situations where you would want to use a calculator, you might want to do multiple calculations.","Di situation wey you go wan use calculator, you go wan to do multiple calculations.",Computer science
"rlets you do this, just by typing in longer commands.","R let you do dis, just by writing longer commands.",Computer science
"in fact, we've already seen an example of this earlier, when i typed in 5*5*5*5.","We don see example of dis earlier, wen i type for 5*5*5",Computer science
"however, let's try a slightly dierent example:>1+2*4 [1]9 clearly, this isn't a problem for reither.",E no dey problem for reither.,Computer science
"however, it's worth stopping for a second, and thinking about what rjust did.","E dey worth stop for second, and thinking about what rjust don do.",Computer science
"clearly, since it gave us an answer of 9it must have multiplied 2*4(to get an interim answer of 8)and then added 1 to that.",Di answer of 9it must have multipli 2*4(to get interim answer of 8)and then add 1 to dat.,Computer science
"but, suppose it had decided to just go from left to right: if r had decided instead to add 1+2(to get an interim answer of 3)and then multiplied by 4, it would have come up with an answer of 12.","If r don decide forstead to add 1+2(to get interim answer of 3)and then multiplied by 4, e go kom up wit an answer of 12.",Computer science
"to answer this, you need to know the order of operations thatruses.","Di order of operations wey dey use, you need know di order of operations wey dey use.",Computer science
"if you remember back to your highschool maths classes, it's actually the same order that you got taught when you were at school: the edmas ""order. 9that is, rst calculate things inside brackets(), then calculate exponents ^, then 9for advanced users: if you want a table showing the complete order of operator precedence in r, type?","If you wan table show di complete order of operator precedence for r, type?",Computer science
"besides, in practice most people seem to gure it out from seeing examples: until writing this book i never looked at the formal statement of operator precedence for any language i ever coded in, and never ran into any diculties.","Di book i no make we look di formal statement of operator precedence for any language wey dey coded for, and no dey run into any di diculties.",Computer science
"so, to continue the example above, if we want to force rto calculate the 1+2part before the multiplication, all we would have to do is enclose it in brackets:> (1 + 2)*4 [1]12 this is a fairly useful thing to be able to do.","For continue di example above, if we wan force rto calculate di 1+2part before di multiplication, all we go fit do dey enclose am for brackets:",Computer science
"the only other thing i should point out about order of operations is what to expect when you have two operations that have the same priority: that is, how doesrresolve ties?","Di only one thing wey i goto show about order of operations na how to expect when you go get two operations wey dey get di same priority: dat na, how e dey resolve ties?",Computer science
"for instance, multiplication and division are actually the same priority, but what should we expect when we give ra problem like 4/2*3 to solve?","for example, multiplication and division get di same priority, but wetin we suppose expect when we giveR problem like 42*3 to solve?",Computer science
"if it evaluates the multiplication rst and then the division, it would calculate a value of two-thirds.","I go evaluate di multiplication rst and then di division, e go calculate value of two-thirds",Computer science
but if it evaluates the division rst it calculates a value of 6.,If e evaluate di division rst e calculat a value of 6.,Computer science
"the answer, in this case, is that rgoes from left to right, so in this case the division step would come rst: >4/2*3[1] 6 all ofthe above being said, it's helpful to remember that brackets always come rst.","Di answer, for dis case, na say rgoes from left to right, so for dis case di division step go kom rst",Computer science
"so, if you're ever unsure about what order rwill do things in, an easy solution is to enclose the thing youwant it to do rst in brackets.","If you no dey unsure about what order rwill do things for, easy solution dey to enclose di thing wey dey do rst for brackets.",Computer science
there's nothing stopping you from typing(4 / 2)*3.,Di nothing stop you from typing(4 2)*3,Computer science
by enclosing the division in brackets we make it clear which thing is supposed to happen rst.,Di division for brackets we make dem clear which thing dey suppose happen rst.,Computer science
"in this instance you wouldn't have needed to, since rwould have done the division rst anyway, but when you're rst starting out it's better to make sure rdoes what you want!","Di instance you go need to, since r go do di division rst anyway, but wen you dey start out e dey better to make sure r do what you wan",Computer science
"at a conceptual level you can think of a variable as label for a certain piece of information, or even several dierent pieces of information.","For conceptual level, you fit think of variable as label for one piece of information, or even several different pieces.",Computer science
"when doing statistical analysis in rall of your data(the variables you measured in your study)will be stored as variables in r, but aswell see later in the book you'll nd that you end up creating variables for other things too.",Aswell see later for di book you go nd say you end upto create variable for oda things too.,Computer science
"however, before we delve into all the messy details of data sets and statistical analysis, let's look at the very basics for how we create variables and work with them.","But before we go inside all di wahala details of data sets and analysis of data, make we look di very basics of how we to create variable and work with dem.",Computer science
"and since most people like concrete examples, let's invent one.","Di pipo like concrete examples, let invent one",Computer science
suppose i'm trying to calculate how much money i'm going to make from this book.,Na suppose i try to calculate how much money i go make from dis book,Computer science
there's several dierent numbers i might want to store.,Na several dierent numbers wey i go wan to store,Computer science
"firstly, i need to gure out how many copies i'll sell.",I need to gure out how many copies wey i sell,Computer science
"this isn't exactly harry potter, so let's assume i'm only going to sell one copy per student in my class.","E no dey exactly harry potter, so let's assume i no go sell one copy per student for my class.",Computer science
"that's 350 sales, so let's create a variable called sales.",Dem create a variable wey dey call sales.,Computer science
"what i want to do is assign a value to my variable sales, and that value should be 350.","Di value wey i wan to do na assign value to my variable sales, and dat value should be 350",Computer science
"we do this by using the assignment operator, which is<-.","We do dis by using di assignment operator, wey dey<-",Computer science
"here's how we do it:> sales<- 350-48- when you hit enter, rdoesn't print out any output. 10it just gives you another command prompt.","Na so we do am:> sales<- 350. When you press enter, R no print any output. E just give you another di place wey you type command.",Computer science
"however, behind the scenes rhas created a variable called sales and given it a value of 350.",Di scene rhas create a variable wey dey call sales and give am value of 350,Computer science
you can check that this has happened by asking rto print the variable on screen.,We go check say dis don happen by asking rto print di variable on screen,Computer science
and the simplest way to do thatis to type the name ofthe variable and hit enter11 >sales [1]350 so that's nice to know.,And di simplest way to do dat one nato type di name of di variable and press enter.> sales[1] 350. So dat one good to know.,Computer science
"anytime you can't remember what rhas got stored in a particular variable, you can just type the name ofthe variable and hit enter.","If anytime you no remember what rhas go store for particular variable, you fit just type di name of di variable and to press enter.",Computer science
"okay, so now we know how to assign variables.",We know how we dey assign variables,Computer science
"actually, there's a bit more you should know.",Di bit more you need know.,Computer science
"firstly, one ofthe curious features of ris that there are several dierent ways of making assignments.",One of di curious features of ris say na several dierent ways of make assignments.,Computer science
"as you might expect from just looking at the symbol, it's almost identical to<-.","As you go expect from just looking at di symbol, e dey almost identical to<-",Computer science
"it's just that the arrow(i. e, the assignment)goes from left to right.","Di arrow(i. e, di assignment)go from left to right",Computer science
"so if i wanted to de ne my sales variable using->, i would write it like this:> 350-> sales this has the same eect: and it stillmeans that i'm only going to sell 350copies.",I go write am like dis:350 ->sales na di same eect: and e still mean say i no go sell 350copies,Computer science
"apart from this super cial dierence, <-and->are identical.","Di super cial dierence, <-and-> dey identical",Computer science
"in fact, as far as ris concerned, they're actually the same operator, just in a\left form""and a ight form"".13 3.4. 2 doing calculations using variables okay, let's get back to my original story.","as for ris concerned, dem dey actually di same operator, just for a\left form""and ight form"".13 3.4. 2 do calculations wey dey okay, let's get back to my original story",Computer science
"in my quest to become rich, i've written this textbook.",I write dis textbook.,Computer science
"to gure out how good a strategy is, i've started creating some variables in r. in addition to de ning asales variable that counts the number of copies i'm going to sell, i can also create a variable called royalty, indicating how much money i get per copy.","I start create some variables wey dey count di number of copies wey dey sell, i fit create a variable wey dey royalty, indicating how much money i get per copy.",Computer science
"let's say that my royalties are about$7 per book:> sales<- 350> royalty<- 7 the nice thing about variables(in fact, the whole point of having variables)is that we can do anything with a variable that we ought to be able to do with the information that it stores.","Di nice thing about variables(for true, di whole point of having variables)na say we go do anything wit a variable wey we go do wit di information wey dey store.",Computer science
"that is, since rallows me to multiply 350by7 >350 *7[1] 2450 it also allows me to multiply sales byroyalty 10if you are using rstudio, and the\environment"" panel(formerly known as the \workspace"" panel)is visible when you typed the command, then you probably saw something happening there.","Di\environment"" panel(formerly known as di \workspace"" panel)dey visible wen you type di command, and di \workspace"" panel dey visible when you type di command, then you probably see something wey dey happen there.",Computer science
"that's to be expected, and is quite helpful.",E dey quite helpful,Computer science
"however, there's two things to note here(1) i haven't yet explained what that panel does, so for now just ignore it, and (2)this is one ofthe helpful things rstudio does, not apart of ritself.","Di two things wey dey note here, na one of di helpful things wey rstudio don do, so for now just ignore am, and (3)dis dey one of di helpful things wey rstudio does, no dey part of ritself.",Computer science
"however, we won't be using these at all in this book.",We no dey use dis for all for dis book,Computer science
"that is, if you type- >or<-, rwill interpret your command the wrong way.","Dat mean say, if you type-> or<-, R go understand your command di wrong way.",Computer science
andi will cry.,I go cry,Computer science
"not surprisingly, i can assign the output of this calculation to anew variable, which i'll call revenue.","I fit assign di output of dis calculation to new variable, wey i call revenue.",Computer science
"and when we do this, the new variable revenue gets the value 2450.","We do dis, di new variable revenue get di value 2450",Computer science
"so let's do that, and then get rto print out the value of revenue so that we can verify that it's done what we asked:> revenue<- sales* royalty> revenue[1] 2450 that's fairly straightforward.",Di revenue<- sales* royalty> revenue[1] 2450 wey dey fairly straightforward,Computer science
"a slightly more subtle thing we can do is reassign the value of my variable, based on its current value.","We go do dey reassign di value of my variable, based on its current value.",Computer science
"for instance, suppose that one of my students(no doubt under the in uence of psychotropic drugs)loves the book so much that he or she donates mean extra$550.","for example, suppose say one of my students(without question under di in uence of psychotropic drugs)love di book so much say hin or she donat am extra$550.",Computer science
"the simplest way to capture this is by a command like this:> revenue<- revenue+ 550> revenue[1] 3000 in this calculation, rhas taken the old value of revenue(i. e, 2450) and added 550 to that value, producing a value of 3000.","Dis calculation, rhas take di old value of revenue(i. e, 2450) and add 550 to dat value, producing value of 3000",Computer science
"this new value is assigned to the revenue variable, overwriting its previous value.","Di new value dey assigned to di revenue variable, overwriting dia bifor worth wey dey before dis one wey we dey see now, e dey happen for place like kompyuta storage, kodin, or wetin dem dey call statistics, where dem dey tok about wetin bin dey before.",Computer science
"in any case, we now know that i'm expecting to make $3000 o this.",We now know say i expect make $3000 o dis.,Computer science
"pretty sweet, i thinks to myself.",I think for my head.,Computer science
"or atleast, that's what i thinks until i do a few more calculation and workout what the implied hourly wage i'm making o this looks like.",I think until i do few more calculation and workout what di implied hourly wage wey i make o dis look like.,Computer science
"however, rallows alot more exibility when it comes to naming your variables, as the following list of rules14illustrates: variable names can only use the upper case alphabetic characters a-zas well as the lower case characters a-z.",Di following list of rules14illustrates: name of variable no use di upper case alphabetic character a-zas well as di lower case character a-z,Computer science
"you can also include numeric characters 0-9in the variable name, as well as the period. or underscore character.","Di numeric character wey dey 0-9in di name of variable, as well as di period.",Computer science
"in other words, you can use sal. es as a variable name(though i can't think why you would want to), but you can't use sales?","Es as a name of variable(though i no think why you go wan to), but you no fit use sales?",Computer science
"variable names cannot include spaces: therefore my sales is not a valid name, but my. sales is.","Di sales no dey valid name, but my. sales no dey.",Computer science
"variable names are case sensitive: that is, sales and sales aredierent variable names.","Na, sales and sales dey dierent name of variable.",Computer science
variable names must start with a letter or a period.,Di name of variable must start wit letter or period.,Computer science
you can't use something like sales or1sales as a variable name.,You no fit use something like sales or 1sales as name of variable.,Computer science
"you can use. sales as a variable name if you want, but it's not usually a good idea.","As a name of variable if you wan, but e no dey good idea",Computer science
"by convention, variables starting with a. are used for special purposes, so you should avoid doing so.","Di variables wey start wit a. dey use for special purposes, so you go avoid do so.",Computer science
variable names cannot be one ofthe reserved keywords.,Dem no be one of di reserved keywords,Computer science
"these are special names that rneeds to keep\safe"" from us mere users, so you can't use them as the names of variables.","Dem dey special names wey dey need to keep\safe"" from us mere users, so you no use dem as di name of variables.",Computer science
"the keywords are: if, else, repeat, while, function, for, in, next, break, true, false, null, inf, nan, na, na integer, 14actually, you can override any of these rules if you want to, and quite easily.","Di keywords na: if, else, repeat, while, function, for, in, next, break, TRUE, FALSE, NULL, Inf, NaN, NA, NA integer. Actually, you fit change any of dese rules if you wan, and e easy to do.",Computer science
all you have to do is add quote marks or backticks around your non-standard variable name.,Di all you go do dey add di small marks for around words or backticks around your non-standard name of variable.,Computer science
"for instance`) my sales>`<- 350 would work just ne, but it's almost never a good idea to do this.","for example`) my sales>'<- 350 go work just ne, but e no dey good idea to do dis.",Computer science
"don't feel especially obliged to memorise these: if you make a mistake and try to use one ofthe keywords as a variable name, rwill complain about it like the whiny little automaton it is.","If you make mistake and try use one of di keywords as a name of variable, rwill complain about am like di whiny little automaton im dey.",Computer science
"in addition to those rules that renforces, there are some informal conventions that people tend to follow when naming variables.",E dey some formal convention wey pipo dey follow when dey naming variables.,Computer science
"one of them you've already seen: i. e, don't use variables that start with a period.","I. e, don use variables wey start wit period",Computer science
but there are several others.,E dey several oda,Computer science
"you aren't obliged to follow these conventions, and there are many situations in which it's advisable to ignore them, but it's generally a good idea to follow them when you can: use informative variable names.","Di conventions dey advisable to follow these conventions, and there dey many situations wey dey advisable to follow dem, but e dey generally good idea to follow dem when you fit follow dem, but e dey generally good idea to follow dem when you fit follow dem.",Computer science
"as a general rule, using meaningful names like sales and revenue is preferred over arbitrary ones like variable1 and variable2.","As general rule, to use names wey get meaning like sales and revenue dey better pass names wey no get meaning like variable1 and variable2.",Computer science
use short variable names.,We use short name of variable,Computer science
typing is a pain and no-one likes doing it.,Di typing dey pain and no-one like to do am,Computer science
so we much prefer to use a name like sales over a name like sales. for. this. book. that. you. are. reading.,"So we prefer to use name like sales, not name like sales. for. this. book. that. you. are. reading.",Computer science
"obviously there's a bit of a tension between using informative names(which tend to belong) and using short names(which tend to be meaningless), so use a bit of common sense when trading o these two conventions.","Di tension wey dey between using informative names(which dey long)and using short names(which dey meaningless), so use a bit of common sense wen trading o dis two conventions.",Computer science
use one ofthe conventional naming styles for multi-word variable names.,Use one of di normal naming styles for dem name wey dey represent figure wey fit change for kompyuta program wey get multiple words.,Computer science
"suppose i want to name a variable that stores\my new salary"".","Na suppose i wan name a variable wey stores\my new salary"".",Computer science
"obviously i can't include spaces in the variable name, so how should i do this?","I no fit include spaces for di name of variable, so how i go do dis?",Computer science
there are three dierent conventions that you sometimes see rusers employing.,Di three dierent convention wey you sometimes dey see rusers employ.,Computer science
"firstly, you can separate the words using periods, which would give you my. new. salary as the variable name.","I go separate di words using periods, wey go give you my new salary as di name of variable.",Computer science
"alternatively, you could separate words using underscores, as in my new salary.","I go separate words wey dey use underscores, as for my new salary.",Computer science
"finally, you could use capital letters at the beginning of each word(except the rst one), which gives you mynewsalary as the variable name.","We go use capital letters for di beginning of each word(except di rst one), wey give you mynewsalary as di name of variable.",Computer science
"as we've seen, you can do quite alot of calculations just by using these operators.","We see, you fit do quite alot of calculation just by using dis operator.",Computer science
"to get started, suppose i wanted to take the square root of 225.","I wan to take di numba wey if you multiply am by itself, e go give you the original numba, we dey call am squa root, but for pidgin, we fit say 'numba wey e be root of anoda numba' of 225",Computer science
"the square root, in case your highschool maths is a bit rusty, is just the opposite of squaring a number.","Di numba wey if you multiply am by itself, e go give you the original numba, we dey call am squa root, but for pidgin, we fit say 'numba wey e be root of anoda numba', in case your di math wey you learn for secondary school dey rusty, na just di opposite of squaring a number",Computer science
"so, for instance, since squared is 25""i can say that is the square root of 25"".","for example, since squared na 25""i go say na di numba wey if you multiply am by itself, e go give you the original numba, we dey call am squa root, but for pidgin, we fit say 'numba wey e be root of anoda numba' of 25"".",Computer science
the usual notation for this is?,Di normal signs for dis na?,Computer science
"if you're naming a function, don't use. in the name unless you are intending to make use ofthe s3 object oriented programming system in r. if you don't know what s3 is, then you de nitely don't want to be using it!","Di name unless you don know what s3 dey, then you dey intend to use di s3 one way to write code system for r.",Computer science
"for function naming, there's been a trend among rusers to prefer myfunctionname.",Di trend wey dey among rusers to prefer myfunctionname.,Computer science
"technically speaking, operators arefunctions in r: the addition operator+is actually a convenient way of calling the addition function`+`().","technically speaking, operator dey function for r: di addition operator na convenient way of call di addition function`+`().",Computer science
"thus 10+20 is equivalent to the function call`+`(20, 30).","Di function call`+'(20, 30)",Computer science
"not surprisingly, no-one ever uses this version.","But surprisingly, no one ever use dis version",Computer science
because that would be stupid.,Di suppose be stupid,Computer science
"personally, i've never found this to be terribly meaningful psychologically, though i have to admit it's quite convenient mathematically.","I never find dis to be very meaningful psychologically, though i don admit say e dey quite convenient mathematically.",Computer science
"anyway, it's not important.",E no important.,Computer science
"what is important is that you remember what a square root is, since we're going to need it later on.","Di important na say you remember what numba wey if you multiply am by itself, e go give you the original numba, we dey call am squa root, but for pidgin, we fit say 'numba wey e be root of anoda numba' dey, since we go need am later on.",Computer science
"to calculate the square root of 25, i can do it in my head pretty easily, since i memorised my multiplication tables when i was a kid.","I fit calculate di numba wey if you multiply am by itself, e go give you the original numba, we dey call am squa root, but for pidgin, we fit say 'numba wey e be root of anoda numba' of 25, i fit do am for my head pretty easily, since i memorise my multiplication table wen i dey kid.",Computer science
"it gets harder when the numbers get bigger, and pretty much impossible if they're not whole numbers.","E get harder wen di numbers get bigger, and pretty much impossible if dem no get whole numbers.",Computer science
this is where something like rcomes in very handy.,E dey wia something like rcomes for very handy,Computer science
let's say i wanted to calculate?,Make I say I waned to calculate?,Computer science
"there's two ways i could do this using r. firstly, since the square root of 255 is the same thing as raising 225 to the power of 0. 5, i could use the power operator^, just like we did earlier:> 225^ 0. 5[1] 15 however, there's a second way that we can do this, since ralso provides a square root function, sqrt().","Di numba wey if you multiply am by itself, e go give you the original numba, we dey call am squa root, but for pidgin, we fit say 'numba wey e be root of anoda numba' of 255 dey di same thing as raise 225 to di power of 0. 5",Computer science
"to calculate the square root of 255 using this function, what i do is insert the number 225in the parentheses.","I go calculate di numba wey if you multiply am by itself, e go give you the original numba, we dey call am squa root, but for pidgin, we fit say 'numba wey e be root of anoda numba' of 255 using dis function, wey i go insert di number 225in di parentheses.",Computer science
"that is, the command i type is this:> sqrt( 225) [1]15 and as you might expect from our previous discussion, the spaces in between the parentheses are purely cosmetic.","As you go expect from awa previous discussion, di spaces wey dey between di parentheses dey cosmetic.",Computer science
"when we use a function to do something, we generally refer to this as calling the function, and the values that we type into the function(there can be more than one)are referred to as the arguments of that function.","We generally to talk about dis as calling di function, and di value wey we type into di function(there fit be more than one)dey to talk about as di arguments of dat function.",Computer science
"obviously, the sqrt() function doesn't really give us any new functionality, since we already knew how to do square root calculations by using the power operator^, though i do think it looks nicer when we use sqrt().","Di sqrt() function no dey give us any new functionality, since we no know how to do numba wey if you multiply am by itself, e go give you the original numba, we dey call am squa root, but for pidgin, we fit say 'numba wey e be root of anoda numba' calculations by using power operator^, though i do think e look nicer wen we use sqrt().",Computer science
"however, there are lots of other functions in r: in fact, almost everything of interest that i'll talk about in this book is an rfunction of some kind.","For fact, almost all of interest wey i dey talk about for dis book dey rfunction of some kind.",Computer science
"for example, one function that we will need to use in this book is the absolute value function.","for example, one function wey we need use for dis book dey di fonksiyon wey dey show yi magnitude, no matta yi sign, e mean say if yi get 5 or-5, e go still show 5",Computer science
"compared to the square root function, it's extremely simple: it just converts negative numbers to positive numbers, and leaves positive numbers alone.","Di numba wey if you multiply am by itself, e go give you the original numba, we dey call am squa root, but for pidgin, we fit say 'numba wey e be root of anoda numba' function dey extremely simple: negative numbers to positive numbers, and leave positive numbers alone.",Computer science
"mathematically, the absolute value of xis written|x|or sometimes abs pxq.","For mathematics, di distance wey number dey from zero for number line, no matter whether e be positive or negative, we dey call am absolute value, but for pidgin, we fit say 'distance from zero', or 'how far number reach from zero' of x dey written as|x| or sometimes as abs(x).",Computer science
"calculating absolute values in ris pretty easy, since rprovides the abs()function that you can use for this purpose.","Di abs()function wey you fit use for dis purpose, since rprovides di abs()function wey you fit use for dis purpose",Computer science
when you feed it a positive number.> abs(21 )[1] 21 the absolute value function does nothing to it at all.,"Di fonksiyon wey dey show yi magnitude, no matta yi sign, e mean say if yi get 5 or-5, e go still show 5 don nothing to am for all.",Computer science
"but when you feed it a negative number, it spits out the positive version ofthe same number, like this:> abs(-13 )[1] 13 in all honesty, there's nothing that the absolute value function does that you couldn't do just by looking at the number and erasing the minus sign if there is one.","Di fonksiyon wey dey show yi magnitude, no matta yi sign, e mean say if yi get 5 or-5, e go still show 5 does say you no fit do just by looking at di number and erasing di minus sign if there dey one.",Computer science
"however, there's a few places later in the book where we have to use absolute values, so i thought it might be a good idea to explain the meaning ofthe term early on.","I tok say, there's few place later for di book wey we get use absolute values, so i think e go explain di meaning of di term early on.",Computer science
"before moving on, it's worth noting that{ in the same way that rallows us to put multiple operations together into a longer command, like 1+2*4 for instance{ it also lets us put functions together and even combine functions with operators if we so desire.","Di same way wey dey rallows us to put multiple operations together into longer command, like 1+2*4 for example, e also make us put functions together and even combine functions wit operator if we so desire.",Computer science
"having done so, the command simpli es to sqrt( 1+8).",Di command simplies to sqrt( 1+8),Computer science
"to solve the square root17it rst needs to add 1+8 to get 9, at which point it evaluates sqrt(9), and so it nally outputs a value of 3.","To solve di numba wey if you multiply am by itself, e go give you the original numba, we dey call am squa root, but for pidgin, we fit say 'numba wey e be root of anoda numba', e first need add 1+8 to get 9, den e evaluate sqrt(9), and e finally output value 3.",Computer science
"not surprisingly, that's not to say that this is the last we'll hear about how functions work, but they are the last things we desperately need to discuss in order to get you started.","Di last wey dey hear about how function work, but di last things we dey desperately need to discuss for order to get you start",Computer science
"to understand what these two concepts are all about, i'll introduce another function.",I go introduce another function.,Computer science
the round()function can be used to round some value to the nearest whole number.,Di round()function fit use to round some value to di nearest whole number.,Computer science
"for example, i could type this:> round(3. 1415 )[1] 3 pretty straightforward, really.","I go type di round(3. 1415) [1]3 straightforward, really.",Computer science
"however, suppose i only wanted to round it to two decimal places: that is, i want to get 3. 14 as the output.","Na, suppose i only wan to round am to two decimal place: dat na, i wan to get 3. 14 as di output.",Computer science
"the round()function supports this, by allowing you to input a second argument to the function that species the number of decimal places that you want to round the number to.","Di round()function support dis, by allow you to input second argument to di function wey dey species di number of decimal place wey you wan round di number to.",Computer science
"in this simple example, it's quite easy to remember which one argument comes rst and which one comes second, but for more complicated functions this is not easy.","Di simple example, na easy to remember wich one argument kom rst and wich one kom second, but for more complicated functions dis no easy.",Computer science
"fortunately, most rfunctions make use of argument names.",Di rfunction make use di names for di function.,Computer science
"for the round()function, for example the number that needs to be rounded is speci ed using the xargument, and the number of decimal points that you want it rounded to is speci ed using the digits argument.","for di round()function, for example di number wey dey rounded dey speci ed using di xargument, and di number of decimal points wey you need rounded to dey speci ed using di digit argument.",Computer science
"because we have these names available to us, we can specify the arguments to the function by name.","Di name wey we get available to us, we fit specify di arguments to di function by name.",Computer science
in both cases we're specifying speci c values to be associated with a label.,We dey specify speci c values wey dey associated wit label,Computer science
"however, there are some dierences between what i was doing earlier on when creating variables, and what i'm doing here when specifying arguments, and so as a consequence it's important that you use=in this context.","E dey some dierences wey i dey do earlier on when to create variable, and what i dey do here wen dey specifying argument, and so as result e important say you use=in dis context.",Computer science
"by default, the square root of a negative number is treated as unde ned: sqrt(-9) will produce nan(not a number)as its output.","Di numba wey if you multiply am by itself, e go give you the original numba, we dey call am squa root, but for pidgin, we fit say 'numba wey e be root of anoda numba' of negative number dey dem take am as unde ned: sqrt(-9) go produce nan(not number)as im output",Computer science
"to get complex numbers, you would type sqrt(-9+0i) andrwould now return 0+3i.",E go type sqrt(-9+0i) andr go return 0+3i,Computer science
"however, since we won't have any need for complex numbers in this book, i won't refer to them again.","We no get any need for complex numbers for dis book, i no to talk about dem again",Computer science
"because of this, the commands in this book will usually specify arguments by name, 18since that makes it clearer to you what i'm doing.","Di commands for dis book go usually specify arguments by name, 18since say make dem clearer to you what i dey do.",Computer science
"however, one important thing to note is that when specifying the arguments using their names, it doesn't matter what order you type them in.","One important thing to note na say when dey specifying di argument wey dey use dia name, e no matter which order you type dem for.",Computer science
"but if you don't use the argument names, then you have to input the arguments in the correct order.","If you no use di names for di function, then you go input di arguments for di right way.",Computer science
"however, if you're ever unsure, it's probably best to actually type in the argument name.",Di argument name dey probably best to actually type for di argument name,Computer science
"okay, so that's the rst thing i said you'd need to know: argument names.",Di rst thing wey i tok say you need know: di names for di function,Computer science
the second thing you need to know about is default values.,Di second thing you need know about na di normal number,Computer science
"notice that the rst time i called the round()function i didn't actually specify the digits argument at all, and yet rsomehow knew that this meant it should round to the nearest whole number.","Di rst time i call di round()function i no actually specify di digit argument for all, and yet rsomehow know say dis meant e go round to di nearest whole number.",Computer science
how did that happen?,How do dat happen?,Computer science
"the answer is that the digits argument has a default value of0, meaning that if you decide not to specify a value for digits thenrwill act as if you had typed digits=0.","Di answer dey say di digit argument don get di normal number of 0, meaning say if you decide not to specify value for digits, e dey act as if you type digits=0",Computer science
"this is quite handy: the vast majority ofthe time when you want to round a number you want to round it to the nearest whole number, and it would be pretty annoying to have to specify thedigits argument every single time.","Di most part of di time wey you wan round a number wey you wan round am to di nearest whole number, and e go dey quite annoying to get to specify didigit argument every single time.",Computer science
"on the other hand, sometimes you actually do want to round to something other than the nearest whole number, and it would be even more annoying if rdidn't allow this!","Di oda hand, sometimes you go wan round to something oda than di nearest whole number, and e go even more annoying if rdidn't allow dis",Computer science
"thus, by having digits=0 as the default value, we get the best of both worlds.","So, by using digits=0 as di normal number, we get di best of both sides.",Computer science
"at this stage you know how to type in basic commands, including how to userfunctions.","For dis stage, you know how to type simple commands, including how to use functions.",Computer science
"and it's probably beginning to dawn on you that there area lotofrfunctions, all of which have their own arguments.","Di probably start to dawn on you say there dey lotofrfunctions, all of which don dey own arguments.",Computer science
you're probably also worried that you're going to have to remember all of them!,Di probably also worried say you go get to remember all of dem,Computer science
"thankfully, it's not that bad.",E no dey bad,Computer science
"in fact, very few data analysts bother to try to remember all the commands.","For fact, very few data analysts dey try to remember all di commands.",Computer science
what they really do is use tricks to make their lives easier.,We dey use tricks to make dia lives easier,Computer science
the rst (and arguably most important one)is to use the internet.,Di rst (and arguably most important one)dey use di internet,Computer science
"if you don't know how a particular rfunction works, google it.","If you no know how one particular R function dey work, google am.",Computer science
"second, you can look up the rhelp documentation.","Second, you fit check di R di papers wey dey help.",Computer science
but right now i want to call your attention to a couple of simple tricks that rstudio makes available to you.,I wan call your attention to couple of simple tricks wey rstudio make available to you.,Computer science
so i could have typed something like sqrt(x =225) orabs(x =-13) earlier.,So I fit don type something like sqrt(x =225) or abs(x= -13)earlier.,Computer science
"the fact that all these functions use xas the name ofthe argument that corresponds the\main"" variable that you're working with is no coincidence.",Di fact say all dis functions use xas di name of di argument wey you dey work wit no coincidence.,Computer science
that's a fairly widely used convention.,Dat one na fairly common convention.,Computer science
"quite often, the writers of rfunctions will try to use conventional names like this to make your life easier.","Plenty times, di pipo wey writeR functions go try use normal names like dis to make your way easy.",Computer science
or atleast that's the theory.,Di theory.,Computer science
in practice it doesn't always work aswell as you'd hope.,Di practice no dey work aswell as you dey hope,Computer science
"rstudio brings up a little dialog box like this one that lets you select the one you want, and even prints out a little information about it.","Di rstudio bring up a little small window wey show like dis one wey make you select di one you wan, and even to write for screen a little information about am",Computer science
"this time around, start typing the name ofthe function that you want, and then hit the ab""key.","Di time around, start typing di name of di function wey you wan, and then hit di ab""key",Computer science
rstudio will then display a little window like the one shown in figure 3.2.,Di rstudio go display small window like di one show for figure 3.,Computer science
"in this gure, i've typed the letters ro at the command line, and then hit tab.","I type di letters ro for di place wey you type command, and then hit tab",Computer science
the window has two panels.,Di window don get two panels,Computer science
"on the left, there's a list of variables and functions that start with the letters that i've typed shown in black text, and some grey text that tells you where that variable/function is stored.","Di list of variables and functions wey start wit di letters wey i type for black text, and some grey text wey tell you where dat variable function dey store.",Computer science
"in figure 3. 2 you can see that there's quite a few things that start with the letters ro: there's something called rock, something called round, something called round.","Na few things wey start wit di letters ro: there's something called rock, something called round, something called round.",Computer science
date and soon.,Date and soon.,Computer science
"the one we want is round, but if you're typing this yourself you'll notice that when you hit the tab key the window pops up with the top entry(i. e, rock) highlighted.","Di one we wanna round, but if you dey type dis yourself, you go notice say when you press tab, di window goto show with di top entry(like rock)highlighted.",Computer science
you can use the up and down arrow keys to select the one that you want.,Di up and down arrow keys to select di one wey you wan,Computer science
"or, if none ofthe options look right to you, you can hit the escape key (\esc"") or the left arrow key to make the window go away.","If none of di options look right to you, you fit hit di escape button (\esc"") or di left arrow key make di window go away",Computer science
"in our case, the thing we want is the round option, so we'll select that.","Di thing we wanna di round option, so we fit select dat.",Computer science
"when you do this, you'll see that the panel on the right changes.","Di panel on di right change, you go see say di panel on di right change.",Computer science
"previously, it had been telling us something about the rock dataset (i. e, \measurements on 48 rock samples."")that is distributed as part of r. but when we select round, it displays information about the round()function, exactly as it is shown in figure 3.2.","E don tell us something about di rock group of related numbers or data wey belong together(i. e,\measurements on 48 rock samples."") wey dey distributed as part of r. but wen we select round, e dey show di round()function, exactly as e dey show for figure 3.2.",Computer science
this display is really handy.,Di display dey really handy,Computer science
"the very rst thing it says is round(x, digits = 0): what this is telling you is that the round()function has two arguments.","Di very rst thing wey dey tok say round(x, digits = 0)",Computer science
"the rst argument is called x, and it doesn't have a default value.","Di rst argument dey call x, and e no get di normal number",Computer science
"the second argument is digits, and it has a default value of 0.","Di second argument dey digits, and e get di normal number of 0",Computer science
"in alot of situations, that's all the information you need.","For alot of situation, na all di information wey you need",Computer science
"but rstudio goes a bit further, and provides some additional information about the function underneath.","But RStudio go small further, and e give some extra information about di function underneath.",Computer science
"sometimes that additional information is very helpful, sometimes it's not: rstudio pulls that text from the rhelp documentation, and my experience is that the helpfulness of that documentation varies wildly.","rstudio pull say text from di R help wey dey inside, and my experience dey say di helpfulness of dat documentation varies wildly.",Computer science
"anyway, if you've decided that round()is the function that you want to use, you can hit the right arrow or the enter key, and rstudio will nish typing the rest ofthe function name for you.","If you decide say round()na di function wey you wan use, you fit hit di right arrow or di enter key, and rstudio go nish typ di rest of di function name for you.",Computer science
"if you're running r in a terminal window, tab autocomplete still works, and does so in exactly the way you'd expect.","If you dey run R for one window wey dey show text, way to finish your word still dey work, and e do am exactly as you expect.",Computer science
"it's not as visually pretty as the rstudio version, of course, and lacks some ofthe cooler features that rstudio provides.","E no be visually pretty as di rstudio version, of course, and lack some of di cooler feature wey rstudio provide.",Computer science
"this one lists all the arguments to the function on the left, and information about each argument on the right.","Dis one list all di arguments to di function for left, and wetin each argument mean for right.",Computer science
the rstudio autocomplete tool works slightly dierently if you've already got the name ofthe function typed and you're now trying to type the arguments.,Di rstudio autocomplete tool works slightly dierently if you go get di name of di function type and you dey try to type di argument.,Computer science
"for instance, suppose i've typed round(into the console, and then i hit tab.","suppose i type round(into di console, and then i hit tab",Computer science
"rstudio is smart enough to recognise that i already know the name ofthe function that i want, because i've already typed it!","Di rstudio dey smart enough to recognise say i already know di name of di function wey i wan, because i don type am",Computer science
"instead, it gures that what i'm interested in is the arguments to that function.",Di arguments wey i dey interest for dey di arguments to dat function,Computer science
so that's what pops up in the little window.,So dat's wey dey to show for di little window.,Computer science
you can see this in figure 3.3.,Di figure 3.3.,Computer science
"again, the window has two panels, and you can interact with this window in exactly the same way that you did with the window shown in figure 3.2.","Di window don get two panels, and you fit interact wit dis window for exactly di same way wey you do wit di window show for figure 3.",Computer science
"on the left hand panel, you can see a list ofthe argument names.","Di right hand panel, you go see list of di names for di function",Computer science
"on the right hand side, it displays some information about what the selected argument does.",Di right side dey display some information about what di selected argument does.,Computer science
"that is, it remembers all the commands that you've previously typed.","E remember all di command wey you dey type, remember all di command wey you dey type.",Computer science
you can access this history in a few dierent ways.,Di history for few dierent ways.,Computer science
the simplest way is to use the up and down arrow keys.,Di simple way dey use di up and down arrow keys,Computer science
"if you hit the up key, the rconsole will show you the most recent command that you've typed.",Di rconsole goto show you di most recent command wey you type.,Computer science
"hit it again, and it will show you the command before that.",E goto show you di command before dat.,Computer science
"if you want the text on the screen to go away, hit escape20using the up and down keys can be really handy if you've typed along command that had one typo in it.","Di up and down keys go really handy if you wan di text on di screen go away, hit escape20using di up and down keys go really handy if you need di text on di screen go away.",Computer science
"rather than having to type it all again from scratch, you can use the up key to bring up the command and x it.",Di up key to bring up di command and x am.,Computer science
the second way to get access to your command history is to look at the history panel in rstudio.,Di second way to get access to your command history dey make we look di history panel for rstudio.,Computer science
"on the upper right hand side ofthe rstudio window you'll see a tab labelled\history"".","For di top right side of di RStudio window, you go see one tab wey dem label""History"".",Computer science
"click on that, and you'll see a list of all your recent commands displayed in that panel: it should look something like figure 3.4.",E go look something like figure 3.4. 4.,Computer science
"if you double click on one ofthe commands, it will be copied to the rconsole.","If you double to press one of di commands, e go copy to di rconsole",Computer science
(you can achieve the same result by selecting the command you want with the mouse and then clicking the\to -56-figure 3.4: the history panel is located in the top right hand side ofthe rstudio window.,Di history panel dey located for top di right side of di RStudio window.,Computer science
"click on the word\history"" and it displays this panel.","Di word\history"" and e display dis panel.",Computer science
in rthe name for a variable that can store multiple values is a vector.,Di name for a variable wey fit store multiple values na vector.,Computer science
so let's create one.,We dey create one,Computer science
"suppose the textbook company(if i actually had one, that is)sends me sales data on a monthly basis.","Di textbook company(if i actually get one, dat dey)send me sales data on monthly basis.",Computer science
"since my class start in late february, we might expect most ofthe sales to occur towards the start ofthe year.","Di class start for late february, we go expect most of di sales to occur towards di start of di year.",Computer science
"let's suppose that i have 100 sales in february,200 sales in march and 50 sales in april, and no other sales for the rest ofthe year.","Na let suppose say i get 100 sales for february,200 sales for march and 50 sales for April, and no oda sales for di rest of di year.",Computer science
what i would like to do is have a variable{ let's call it sales. by. month{ that stores all this sales data.,Dem call am sales. by month{ dat stores all dis sales data.,Computer science
"the rst number stored should be 0since i had no sales in january, the second should be 100, and soon.","I get no sales for january, di second na 100, and soon.",Computer science
"the simplest way to do this in ris to use the combine function, c().","Di simple way to do dis for ris to use di combine function, c().",Computer science
"to do so, all we have to do is type all the numbers you want to store in a comma separated list, like this:22 20incidentally, that always works: if you've started typing a command and you want to clear it and start again, hit escape.","To do dat, all we need do nato type all di numbers you wan keep for one comma-separated list. And by di way, if you don start type command and you wan clear am to start again, press escape.",Computer science
this will bring up a window showing all your recent commands that started with the same text as what you've currently typed.,Di window go bring up window show all your recent command wey dey start wit di same text as wey you dey type.,Computer science
that can come in quite handy sometimes.,E dey quite handy sometimes,Computer science
the c()function is one of those cases where we don't use names.,Di c()function dey one of those case wey we no use name,Computer science
"we just type all the numbers, and rjust dumps them all in a single variable.","We just type all di numbers, and rjust dump dem all for single variable.",Computer science
"however, before i do so it's worth taking a slight detour.","But before I do dat, e worth to take small detour.",Computer science
"if you've been following along, typing all the commands into ryourself, it's possible that the output that you saw when we printed out the sales. by. month vector was slightly dierent to what i showed above.",E dey possible say di output wey you see when we to print di sales. by month vector dey slightly animal to what i show above.,Computer science
"this would have happened if the window(or the rstudio panel)that contains the rconsole is really, really narrow.","Di window(or di rstudio panel) wey contains di rconsole dey really, really narrow.",Computer science
"if that were the case, you might have seen output that looks something like this:> sales. by. month[1] 0 100 200 50 0000[9] 0000 because there wasn't much room on the screen, rhas printed out the results over two lines.","If dat be di case, you fit don see output wey look like dis:> sales. by. month [1]0 100 200 50 0[9] 0. Because screen no get plenty space, R don print di results for two lines.",Computer science
but that's not the important thing to notice.,Di important thing wey dey notice,Computer science
"the important point is that the rst line has a[1]in front of it, whereas the second line starts with[9].","Di important point na say di rst line get a[1]in front of am, whereas di second line start wit[9]",Computer science
it's pretty clear what's happening here.,E dey clear wetin dey happen here,Computer science
"for the rst row, rhas printed out the 1st element through to the 8th element, so it starts that row with a[1].","For di first row, R don print di 1st element to di 8th element, so e start dat row with[1].",Computer science
"for the second row, rhas printed out the 9th element ofthe vector through to the 12th one, and so it begins that row with a[9]so that you can tell where it's upto at a glance.","Di second line, rhas to print di 9th element of di vector through to 12th one, and so e begin say row wit[9]so wey you fit tell where dey upto at glance.",Computer science
"it might seem a bit odd to you that rdoes this, but in some ways it's a kindness, especially when dealing with larger data sets!","Di might seem a bit odd to you say rdoes dis, but for some ways e dey kindness, especially wen dealing wit small data sets",Computer science
"at this point, you might have a sneaking suspicion that the answer has something to do with the[1]and [9]things that rhas been printing out.","Di point, you go get sneak suspicion say di answer don do wit di[1]and [9]things wey rhas printing out.",Computer science
and ofcourse you are correct.,For course you dey correct,Computer science
suppose i want to pull out the february sales data only.,I suppose pull out di february sales data only.,Computer science
"february is the second month ofthe year, so let's try this:> sales. by. month[2][1] 100 yep, that's the february sales all right.","Di sales. by month[2][1] 100 yep, dat's di february sales all right",Computer science
"but there's a subtle detail to be aware of here: notice that routputs [1]100, not [2]100.","Di subtle detail wey dey notice say routputs [1]100, no dey[2] 100",Computer science
this is because ris being extremely literal.,Dis dey because ris dey extremely literal,Computer science
"when we typed in sales. by. month[2], we asked rto nd exactly onething, and that one thing happens to be the second element of our sales. by. month vector.","We ask rto nd exactly onething, and say one thing go be di second one of our sales. by month vector.",Computer science
"so, when it outputs[1] 100 what ris saying is that the rst number that we just asked for is100.",Di rst number wey we just ask for is100,Computer science
this behaviour makes more sense when you realise that we can use this trick to create new variables.,Di behaviour make more sense wen you realise say we go use dis trick to create new variables.,Computer science
the fact that this also happens to be the value ofthe second element of sales. by. month is irrelevant.,Di fact say dis no be di value of di second one of sales. by month dey irrelevant.,Computer science
imagine my surprise when the publisher rings me upto tell me that the sales data for may are wrong.,I imagine my surprise wen di publisher ring me upto tell me say di sales data for dey wrong,Computer science
"there were actually an additional 25 books sold in may, but there was an error or something so they hadn't told me about it.",Di error or something wey dem don tell me about am.,Computer science
how can ix my sales. by. month variable?,How I fit fix my sales. by. month variable?,Computer science
"one possibility would be to assign the whole vector again from the beginning, using c().","one way wey e fit be nato assign di whole vector again from di start, using c().",Computer science
but that's alot of typing.,Na lot of typing but na lot of typing but na lot of typing but na lot of typing but na lot of typing,Computer science
"also, it's a little wasteful: why should rhave to rede ne the sales gures for all 12 months, when only the 5th one is wrong?","why rhave to rede ne di sales gures for all 12 months, wen only di 5th one dey wrong?",Computer science
"firstly, you often nd yourself wanting to know how many elements there are in a vector(usually because you've forgotten).","Di firstly, you dey wan to know how many elements wey dey for vector(usually because you dey forgotten).",Computer science
you can use the length()function to do this.,Di length()function go do dis,Computer science
"it's quite straightforward:> length(x= sales. by. month) [1]12 secondly, you often want to alter all ofthe elements of a vector at once.",Di length(x= sales. by month),Computer science
"for instance, suppose i wanted to gure out how much money i made in each month.",I suppose go gure out how much money i make for each month.,Computer science
"since i'm earning an exciting$7 per book(no seriously, that's actually pretty close to what authors get on the very expensive textbooks that you're expected to purchase), what i want to do is multiply each element in the sales. by. month vector by 7. r makes this pretty easy, as the following example shows:> sales. by. month*7 [1]0 350 00000000 in other words, when you multiply a vector by a single number, all elements in the vector get multiplied.","Di following example show say, when you multiply a vector by just one number, all elements for di sales. by month vector by 7. r make dis easy, as di following example show:",Computer science
"the same is true for addition, subtraction, division and taking powers.","Di same dey true for addition, subtraction, division and take power",Computer science
so that's neat.,As e dey neat,Computer science
"on the other hand, suppose i wanted to know how much money i was making per day, rather than per month.","I suppose know how much money i dey make per day, no be every month.",Computer science
"since not every month has the same number of days, i need to do something slightly dierent.","Since no be every month get di same how many days, I need do something small different.",Computer science
"firstly, i'll create two new vectors:> days. per. month<- c(31, 28, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31)> profit<- sales. by. month*7 obviously, the profit variable is the same one we created earlier, and the days. per. month variable is pretty straightforward.","Firstly, I goto create two new vectors:> days. per. month <-c(31, 28, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31)> profit<- sales. by. month * 7. Obviously, di profit variable na di same one we create earlier, and di days. per. month variable dey straightforward.",Computer science
what i want to do is divide every element of profit by the corresponding element of days. per. month.,I wan to do na divide every element of profit by di corresponding element of days. every month.,Computer science
"again, rmakes this pretty easy:-59- >profit /days. per. month[1] 0.00000 25. 00000 45. 16129 11. 66667 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 [10]0. 000000. 000000. 00000 i still don't like all those zeros, but that's not what matters here.","Again, R make dis one pretty easy:> profit days. per. month [1]0.00000 25.00000 45.16129 11.66667 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000[10] 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000. I still no like all those zeros, but dat no be wetin matter here.",Computer science
"notice that the second element ofthe output is 25, because rhas divided the second element of profit(i. e.","Di second one of di output dey 25, because rhas divide di second one of profit(i. e.",Computer science
"similarly, the third element ofthe output is equal to 1400 divided by 31, and soon.","Di second one of di output dey equal to 1400 divide by 31, and soon.",Computer science
"sometimes your data really needs to be described using text, not using numbers.","Di data dey described using text, no use numbers.",Computer science
"to address this, we need to consider the situation where our variables store text.",We need consider di situation wey awa variables store text.,Computer science
"they're just something that we use to make sure that rknows to treat the characters that they enclose as apiece of text data, known as a character string.","We use make sure say rknow to treat di character wey dey enclose as piece of text data, wey we use make sure say rknow to treat di character wey dey enclose as apiece of text data, wey dey known as character string",Computer science
"in other words, rtreats ""hello""as a string containing the word\hello""; but if i had typed hello instead, rwould go looking for a variable by that name!","For oda words, rtreat ""hello""as string wey dey containing di word\hello""; but if i don type hello forstead, r go look for a variable by dat name",Computer science
you can also use 'hello' to specify a character string.,We go use 'hello' to specify character string,Computer science
"okay, so that's how we store the text.",We dey store di text,Computer science
"next, it's important to recognise that when we do this, rstores the entire word""hello"" as a single element: our greeting variable is not a vector of ve dierent letters.","E important to recognise say wen we do dis, rstores di entire word""hello"" as single element: awa greeting variable no dey vector of ve dierent letters.",Computer science
"rather, it has only the one element, and that element corresponds to the entire character string""hello"".","Di one element, and say element correspond to di entire character string""hello""",Computer science
"to illustrate this, if i actually ask rto nd the rst element of greeting, it prints the whole string:> greeting[1][1] ""hello""of course, there's no reason why i can't create a vector of character strings.","If i actually ask rto nd di rst element of greeting, e prints di whole string",Computer science
"so if i wanted rto tell me the name ofthe fourth month, all i would do is this:> months[4][1] ""april"" 23though actually there's no real need to do this, since rhas an inbuilt variable called month. name that you can use for this purpose.","If i waned rto tell me di name of di fourth month, all i go do for dis purpose.",Computer science
the only other thing i want to do before moving on is show you an example of a function that can be applied to text data.,Di only one thing wey i wan to do before we go dey to show you example of a function wey fit be applied to text data.,Computer science
so it might be nice to see an example of a function that can be applied to text.,Di might be nice to see example of a function wey fit be applied to text.,Computer science
"the function i'm going to introduce you to is called nchar(), and what it does is count the number of individual characters that makeup a string.","Di function wey i go introduce you to dey call nchar(), and howe dey count di number of individual character wey makeup string",Computer science
"recall earlier that when we tried to calculate the length()of our greeting variable it returned a value of 1: the greeting variable contains only the one string, which happens to be""hello"".","Di greeting variable dey contains only di one string, wey dey""hello"".",Computer science
but what if i want to know how many letters there are in the word?,I wan know how many letters wey dey for di word? but what if i wan to know how many letters wey dey for di word? but what if i wan to know how many letters wey dey for di word? but what if i wan to know how many letters wey dey for di word? but what if i wan to know how many letters wey dey for di word? but what if i wan to know how many letters wey dey for di word? but what if i wan to know how many letters,Computer science
"sure, i could count them, but that's boring, and more to the point it's a terrible strategy if what i wanted to know was the number of letters in war and peace.","I suppose count dem, but na boring, and more to di pointe dey terrible strategy if wey i go know na di number of letters for war and peace.",Computer science
"better yet, you can apply nchar() to whole vectors.",E fit apply nchar() to whole vectors,Computer science
"so, for instance, if i want rto tell me how many letters there are in the names of each ofthe 12 months, i can do this:> nchar( x=months )[1] 7 8 5 5 3 4 4 6 9 788 so that's nice to know.","for example, if i wan rto tell me how many letters wey dey for di name of each of di 12 months, i fit do dis:",Computer science
"the nchar() function can do a bit more than this, and there's alot of other functions that you can do to extract more information from text or do all sorts of fancy things.","Di nchar() function fit do a bit more than dis, and na lot of oda function wey you fit do to extract more information from text or do all sorts of fancy things",Computer science
"however, the goal here is not to teach any of that!",Di goal here no dey teach any of dat,Computer science
the goal right now is just to see an example of a function that actually does work when applied to text.,Di goal right now dey just to see example of a function wey dey work when applied to text,Computer science
a key concept in that alot of rrelies on is the idea of a logical value.,Di key concept for say alot of rrelies on dey di idea of logical value.,Computer science
a logical value is an assertion about whether something is true or false.,Di logical value dey assertion about whether something dey true or true,Computer science
this is implemented inrin a pretty straightforward way.,Dis dey implement inrin ae dey clear way.,Computer science
"there are two logical values, namely true and false.","Two true or false dey, wey be TRUE and FALSE.",Computer science
"despite the simplicity, a logical values are very useful things.","Di simplicity, logical value dey useful things.",Computer science
let's see how they work.,She dey see how dem work,Computer science
"it's a terrifying thought, especially when the protagonist winston smith nally breaks down under torture and agrees to the proposition.","E be one idea wey dey fear person, especially when di protagonist Winston Smith finally breakdown under torture and agree to di proposition.",Computer science
"i'm pretty sure that this isn't true of humans24but it's de nitely 24i oer up my teenage attempts to be\cool"" as evidence that somethings just can't be done.","I dey sure say dis no be true of humans24but e dey nitely 24i oer up my teenage attempt to be\cool"" as evidence say somethings no fit do.",Computer science
"it has rather rm opinions on the topic of what is and isn't true, at least as regards basic mathematics.","E don rather rm opinions on di topic of what dey and dey true, at least as regards basic mathematics.",Computer science
"if i ask it to calculate 2+2, it always gives the same answer, and it's not bloody 5:>2+2 [1]4 ofcourse, so far ris just doing the calculations.","As i ask am to calculate 2+2, e no give di same answer, and e no dey bloody 5:>2+2",Computer science
freedom and ponies for all!,Freedom and ponies for everybody!,Computer science
or something like that.,E dey like dat,Computer science
"anyway, it's worth having a look at what happens if i try to force rto believe that two plus two is ve by making an assignment statement like 2+2=5 or2 +2<- 5.",E dey worth having make we look wen two plus two dey ve by make assignment statement like 2+2=5 or2 +2<- 5,Computer science
"when i do this, here's what happens:>2+2=5 error in 2+2=5: target of assignment expands to non-language object rdoesn't like this very much.",Di 2+2=5: target of assignment expand to non-language object no dey like dis very much,Computer science
"it recognises that 2+2 isnota variable(that's what the on-language object""part is saying), and it won't let you try to eassign"" it.","I recognises say 2+2 nanota variable(that's what dion-language object""part dey say), and e no go eassign"" am",Computer science
"while ris pretty exible, and actually does let you do some quite remarkable things to rede ne parts of ritself, there are just some basic, primitive truths that it refuses to give up.","E dey just some basic, primitive truth wey dey refuse to give up.",Computer science
"it won't change the laws of addition, and it won't change the de nition ofthe number 2.","Di laws of addition, and di dey change di de nition of di number 2.",Computer science
that's probably for the best.,Di best wey dey for di best,Computer science
"be especially cautious with this{ i've been programming in various languages since i was a teenager, and i stillscrew this up alot.","I dey cautious wit dis{i dey programming for different languages since i dey teenager, and i stillscrew dis up alot",Computer science
and why i'm still not cool.,I still no cool,Computer science
"technically i should be calling these inary relational operators"", but quite frankly i don't want to.","I go call dis inary relational operator"", but to be honest i don wan to call dis inary relational operator"", but to be honest i don wan to.",Computer science
it's my book so no-one can make me.,Di book dey my book so no-one fit make me,Computer science
"not only that, but as table 3. 2 illustrates, there are several other logical operators that you can use, corresponding to some basic mathematical concepts.","Di logical operator wey you fit use, corresponding to some basic mathematical concepts.",Computer science
"hopefully these are all pretty self-explanatory: for example, the less than operator<checks to see if the number on the left is less than the number on the right.","for example, di less than operator<check to see if di number on di left dey less than di number on di right",Computer science
it returns a value of true if the number ofthe left hand side is less than or equal to the number on the right hand side.,Di number of di left hand side dey less than or equal to di number on di right side.,Computer science
next on the list of logical operators is the not equal to operator!,Di list of logical operator no dey equal to operator,Computer science
it returns a value of true when things on either side are not identical to eachother.,"E di tin wey dey come out from function, dem dey call am return value, but make we tok am well, na di result wey function dey bring out after e don finish im work of true wen things on either side no dey identical to each oda",Computer science
"therefore, since 2","Therefore, since 2.",Computer science
"there are three more logical operations that are worth knowing about, listed in table 3.3.","Di three more logical operations wey dey worth know about, listed for table 3.3.",Computer science
"these are the notoperator,",Dis dey di notoperator!,Computer science
"the and operator&, and the oroperator |.","Di and operator&, and di oroperator",Computer science
"like the other logical operators, their behaviour is more or less exactly what you'd expect given their names.",Di behaviour dey more or less exactly wey you expect given dia name.,Computer science
"for instance, if i ask you to assess the claim that\either 2",If i ask you to assess di claim say\either 2,Computer science
"since it's an\either-or"" statement, all we need is for one ofthe two parts to be true.",Di two parts we need dey true,Computer science
that's what the| operator does:-63- table 3.3: some more logical operators.,Na wetin di operator dey do. Table 3.3: some more signs wey dey compare true.,Computer science
operation operator example input answer not!,Di operator one example wey you give answer no!,Computer science
since this is an andstatement we need both parts to be true.,Dina andstatement we need both parts to be true,Computer science
if i ask you to assess my claim that\it is not true that 2,I ask you to assess my claim say\it no true say 2,Computer science
and i'm right.,I dey right,Computer science
if we write this as an rcommand we get this:>!,Di rcommand we get,Computer science
"essentially, what we've really done is claim that ot false""is the same thing as rue"".","Na essentially, we dey suppose claim say ot false""na di same thing as rue"".",Computer science
"obviously, this isn't really quite right in real life.",E no dey right for real life,Computer science
but rlives in a much more black or white world: for reverything is either true or false.,For reverything dey true or true.,Computer science
no shades of gray are allowed.,Nano shade of gray dey allow.,Computer science
"we can actually see this much more explicitly, like this:>!","We go see dis much more explicitly, like dis:",Computer science
"false[1] true ofcourse, in our 2","Di 2 false ofcourse, for our 2",Computer science
"we could have just used the ot equals to""operator!","We go just use di ot equals to""operator!",Computer science
"so you might not be surprised to discover that these true and false values that rhas been 26a note for those of you who have taken a computer science class: yes, rdoes have a function for exclusive-or, namely xor().","Di true and false values wey rha dey 26a note for those of you wey don take computer science class: yes, r no get function for exclusive-or, namely xor().",Computer science
"also worth noting is the fact that rmakes the distinction between element-wise operators&and |and operators that look only at the rst element ofthe vector, namely &&and||.","Di fact say r make di distinction between element-wise operators and operators wey look only at di rst element of di vector, namely &&and||",Computer science
"if this doesn't mean anything to you, ignore this footnote entirely.",Di footnote entirely.,Computer science
it's not important for the content of this book.,E no important for di content of dis book,Computer science
"this might not make alot of sense to you, so let's unpack it slowly.","Dem no make alot of sense to you, so let's unpack am slowly",Computer science
"first, let's suppose we have a vector of numbers(i. e, a on-logical vector"").","First, make we suppose say we get one group of numbers (wey be""non-logical vector"").",Computer science
"suppose i wanted rto tell me, for each month ofthe year, whether i actually sold a book in that month.","I suppose tell me, for each month of di year, wen i sell book for dat month.",Computer science
"true and false are reserved keywords in r, so you can trust that they always mean what they say they do.","Di true and false dey reserved keywords for r, so you fit trust say dem no mean what dem say dem do.",Computer science
"unfortunately, the shortcut versions tand fdo not have this property.","Unfortunately, di shortcut version tok fdo no get di property",Computer science
"it's even possible to create variables that setup the reverse meanings, by typing commands like t <-false and f <-true.","E even possible to create variable wey setup di reverse meanings, by typing command like t <-true and f <-true",Computer science
"this is kind of insane, and something that is generally thought to be a design aw in r. anyway, the long and short of it is that it's safer to use true and false.","Dis kind of insane, and something wey dey generally thought to be design aw for r.",Computer science
"for instance, since i sold zero books in january, the rst element is false.",Di rst element dey true,Computer science
it's just that we need to be a bit more careful in understanding how rinterprets the dierent operations.,E just say we need to be more careful for understanding how di dierent operations,Computer science
"okay, let's see how it works.","Na okay, let's see how dey work",Computer science
"in one sense, it's very simple.",E dey simple.,Computer science
"however, what you need to keep in mind is that ris not at all tolerant when it comes to grammar and spacing.",We need to remember na say ris no for all tolerant wey dey kom to grammar and spacing.,Computer science
"so far, whenever i've had to get information out of a vector, all i've done is typed something like months[4]; and when i do this rprints out the fourth element ofthe months vector.","Wetin i get information out of a vector, all i don do dey type something like months[4]; and wen i do dis rprints out di fourth element of di months vector.",Computer science
"in the previous example, we only used a single number(i. e,2) to indicate which element we wanted.","For di before example, we only use just one number(like 2)to show which element we wan.",Computer science
"alternatively, we can use a-66- vector.",We fit use a-66 vector,Computer science
"so, suppose i wanted the data for february, march and april.","So, suppose I wan di data for February, March, and April.",Computer science
"what i could do is use the vector c(2, 3, 4)to indicate which elements i want rto pull out.","I go use di vector c(2, 3, 4)to indicate which elements wey i wan pull out",Computer science
"that is, i'd type this:> sales. by. month[c(2, 3, 4) ][1] 100 200 50 notice that the order matters here.","I type dis:> sales. by month[c(2, 3, 4) ]",Computer science
"for instance, suppose that i wanted to extract everything from the 2nd month through to the 8th month.",I suppose extract all from di 2nd month through to di 8th month.,Computer science
"one way to do this is to do the same thing i did above, and use the vector c(2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8)to indicate the elements that i want.","Di one way to do dis nato do di same thing wey i dey above, and use di vector c(2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8)to indicate di elements wey i wan.",Computer science
"that works just ne >sales. by. month[c(2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8) ][1] 100 200 50 0000 but it's kind of alot of typing.","Di month[c(2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8) ]",Computer science
"to help make this easier, rlets you use 2: 8as shorthand for c(2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8), which makes things alot simpler.","E dey use 2: 8as shorthand for c(2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8), wey make things easier, rlets you use 2: 8as shorthand for c(2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8), wey make things easy",Computer science
"however, that big long list of trues and false s is a little bit hard to read, so what i'd like to do is to have rselect the names ofthe months for which i sold any books.","Di big long list of true and false s dey a little bit hard to read, so what i like to do nato get rselect di names of di months wey i sell any books.",Computer science
"earlier on, i created a vector months that contains the names of each ofthe months.",I create vector months wey dey contains di names of each of di months,Computer science
this is where logical indexing is handy.,Dis dey where to choose using true dey handy,Computer science
"in order to gure out which elements of months to include in the output, what rdoes is look to see if the corresponding element in any. sales. this. month istrue.","For order to gure out wich elements of months wey dey include for di output, what rdo look to see if di corresponding element for any. sales",Computer science
"thus, since element 1 of any. sales. this. month isfalse, rdoes not include""january"" as part ofthe output; but since element 2 of any. sales. this. month istrue, rdoes include""february"" in the output.","Di month deyfalse, r no include""january"" as part of di output; but since element 2 of any. sales. dis month dey true, r no include""january"" as part of di output; but since element 2 of any. sales. dis month dey true, r no include""february"" as part of di output",Computer science
note that there's no reason why i can't use the same trick to nd the actual sales numbers for those months.,Dino reason why i no use di same trick to nd di actual sales numbers for dis months.,Computer science
"the command to do that would just be this:> sales. by. month[ sales. by. month>0] [1]100 200 50 25 in fact, we can do the same thing with text.",We go do di same thing wit text.,Computer science
suppose that{ to continue the saga ofthe textbook sales{i later nd out that the bookshop only had sucient stocks for a few months ofthe year.,Di bookshop only get sucient stocks for few months of di year.,Computer science
"they tell me that early in the year they had""high"" stocks, which then dropped to""low"" levels, and in fact for one month they were""out"" of copies ofthe book for awhile before they were able to replenish them.","Diy tell me say early for di year dem don get""high stocks, wey dey drop to""low"" level, and for one month dem dey able to replenish dem",Computer science
"at this point, i hope you can see why logical indexing is such a useful thing.",I hope you see why to choose using true dey such useful thing.,Computer science
"it's avery basic, yet very powerful way to manipulate data.","E be very basic, but very powerful way to change di numbers.",Computer science
"it does take a bit of practice to become completely comfortable using logical indexing, so it's a good idea to play around with these sorts of commands.","E no take a bit of practice to become completely comfortable using to choose using true, so e dey good idea to play around wit dis sort of commands.",Computer science
"try creating a few dierent variables of your own, and then ask yourself questions like\how do i get rto spit out all the elements that are[blah]"".","I try create few dierent variables of your own, and then ask yourself questions like\how do i get rto spit out all di elements wey dey [blah]",Computer science
"practice makes perfect, and it's only by practicing logical indexing that you'll perfect the art of yelling frustrated insults at your computer.28 -68-figure 3.5: the dialog box that shows up when you try to close rstudio.",Di small window wey show wey dey show up wen you try close rstudio.,Computer science
"assuming you're running rin the usual way(i. e, through rstudio or the default gui on a windows or mac computer), then you can just shutdown the application in the normal way.","I. e, through rstudio or di normal way on a windows or mac computer), then you fit shutdown di application for di normal way.",Computer science
"however, ralso has a function, called q()that you can use to quit, which is pretty handy if you're running rin a terminal window.","For however, ralso get function, wey dey call q()say you fit use quit, wey dey handy if you run rin one window wey dey show text.",Computer science
"regardless of what method you use to quit r, when you do so for the rst time rwill probably ask you if you want to save the \workspace image"".",For di rst time rwill ask you if you wan to save di \workspace image,Computer science
"if you're using rstudio, you'll see a dialog box that looks like the one shown in figure 3.5.",Di small window wey show wey dey look like di one show for figure 3.5. 5.,Computer science
if you're using a text based interface you'll see this:> q()save workspace image?,"If you dey use text-based interface, you go see dis:> q()to keep your work for later?",Computer science
"type yif you want to save, nif you don't, and cif you've changed your mind and you don't want to quit after all.","Di type yif you wan save, nif you don save, nif you don fit, and cif you don change your mind and you don wan to quit after all.",Computer science
what does this actually mean?,Di actually mean?,Computer science
"what's going on is that rwants to know if you want to save all those variables that you've been creating, so that you can use them later.","We dey goon na say rwans to know if you wan to save all those variables wey you dey create, so say you fit use dem later.",Computer science
"this sounds like a great idea, so it's really tempting to type yor click the\save"" button.","Di idea sounds like great idea, so e dey tempting to type yor click di\save"" button.",Computer science
"to be honest though, i very rarely do this, and it kind of annoys me a little bit. what risreally asking is if you want it to store these variables in a\default"" data le, which it will automatically reload for you next time you open r. and quite frankly, if i'd wanted to save the variables, then i'd have already saved them before trying to quit.","I very rarely do dis, and e kind of annoy me a little bit, if i wan to save di variables, then i get already saved dem before try to quit.",Computer science
"not only that, i'd have saved them to a location of mychoice, so that i can nd it again later.","I don save dem to location of mychoice, so say i fit nd am again later",Computer science
so i personally never bother with this.,I personally never bother wit dis,Computer science
"in fact, every time i install ron anew machine one ofthe rst things i do is change the settings so that it never asks me again.","For fact, every time i install ron new machine one of di rst things wey i do dey change di settings so say e no ask me again",Computer science
"you can do this in rstudio really easily: use the menu system to nd the rstudio option; the dialog box that comes up will give you an option to tell rnever to whine about 28well, i say that. but in my personal experience it wasn't until i started learning egular expressions""that my loathing of computers reached its peak.","Di menu system to nd di rstudio option; di small window wey show wey kom up go give you option to tell rnever to whine about 28well, i tok say",Computer science
"on a mac, you can open this window by going to the \rstudio"" menu and selecting\preferences"".","Di window by going to di \rstudio"" menu and select preferences",Computer science
"on a windows machine you goto the\tools"" menu and select\global options"".","For one computer wey get Windows, you goto ""Tools""menu and select""di big choices"".",Computer science
this again(see figure 3.6).,Dis one again(check di picture 3.6).,Computer science
"under the\general"" tab you'll see an option that reads\save workspace to. rdata on exit"".","Di\general"" tab you see option wey read\save workspace to. rdata on exit",Computer science
"by default this is set to sk"".",Dem set to sk,Computer science
"if you want rto stop asking, change it to ever"".","If you wan R stop to dey ask you, change am to""never"".",Computer science
"in doing so, we talked a bit about how argument names work, and learned about default values for arguments.","For doing dat, we talk small about how di names for di function dey work, and we learn about di normal tins wey function dey take.",Computer science
we also learned how to create vectors using the combine function c().,We also learn how to create one group of numbers using di combine function c().,Computer science
"learned the distinction between numeric, character and logical data; including the basics of how to enter and use each of them.","Dis learn di distinction between numeric, character and true and false things; including di basics of how to enter and use each of dem",Computer science
and learned how to use logical indexing.,And we learn how to use to choose using true.,Computer science
"however, there's still quite a few things that i need to talk about now, otherwise we'll run into problems when we start trying to work with data and do statistics.","Di still quite few things wey i need talk about now, odawise we go run into problems wen we start try work wit data and do statistics.",Computer science
"in the second half, i'll talk more about what kinds of variables exist in r, and introduce three new kinds of variables: factors, data frames and formulas.","For di second half, I go talk more about which kinds of variables dey for R, and introduce three new kinds: factors, tables, and formulas.",Computer science
i'll nish up by talking a little bit about the help documentation in ras well as some other avenues for nding assistance.,"I go finish by talking small about di papers wey dey help for R, and some other ways to find help.",Computer science
it has a simple meaning: it tells rto ignore everything else you've written on this line.,E don tell rto ignore all else wey dey write on dis line.,Computer science
"however, while you don't need to use it, i want to be able to include comments in my rextracts.",I wan to include comments for my rextracts.,Computer science
"later on in the text i'll sometimes use the print()function to display things because i think it helps make clear what i'm doing, but in practice people rarely do this.","I go use di print()function to display things bikos i think e help make clear what i dey do, but for practice pipo rarely do dis.",Computer science
"these are still perfectly legitimate commands, since r knows that it should ignore the#character and everything after it.","E still perfectly legitimate commands, since r know say e go ignore di#character and all afta am.",Computer science
but hopefully they'll help make things a little easier to understand.,We hopefully dem help make things easier to understand,Computer science
"a package is basically just a big collection of functions, data sets and other robjects that are all grouped together under a common name.","Di package dey just big collection of functions, data sets and oda robjects wey dey group together under common name.",Computer science
"some packages are already installed when you put ron your computer, but the vast majority of them of rpackages are out there on the internet, waiting for you to download, install and use them.","Di most part of dem of rpackages dey already install when you put ron your computer, but di most part of dem of rpackages dey out for di internet, waiting for you to download, install and use dem",Computer science
"it's not actually terribly hard to work with packages that way, but it's clunky and unpleasant.","E no dey actually hard to work wit package wey way, but e dey clunky and unpleasant.",Computer science
"fortunately, we don't have to do things that way anymore.",We no get to do things anymore,Computer science
"along the way, you'll see that whenever you get rstudio to do something(e. g, install a package), you'll actually see ther commands that get created.","Di way, you go see say whenever you go get rstudio to do something(e. g, install package), you go see di r command wey dey create.",Computer science
"i'll explain them as we go, because i think that helps you understand what's going on.","I go explain dem as we go, because i think say help you understand what's goon",Computer science
"however, before we get started, there's a critical distinction that you need to understand, which is the dierence between having a package installed on your computer, and having a package loaded in r. as of this writing, there are just over 5000 rpackages freely available\out there""on the internet.2 when you install ron your computer, you don't get all of them: only about 30 or so come bundled with the basic rinstallation.","Di writing, e dey critical distinction wey you need understand, which dey di dierence between having package installed on your computer, and having package loaded for r.",Computer science
"so right now there are about 30 packages\installed"" on your computer, and another 5000 or so that are not installed.","But right now na about 30 package\installed"" on your computer, and another 5000 or so wey no dey installed.",Computer science
"so that's what installed means: it means\it's on your computer somewhere"".","So dat na wetin ""installed""mean: e mean say""e dey for your computer somewhere"".",Computer science
the critical thing to remember is that just because something is on your computer doesn't mean rcan use it.,Di critical thing to remember na say just because something dey on your computer no mean rcan use am,Computer science
"in order for rto be able to useone of your 30 or so installed packages, that package must also be\loaded"".","Before R fit use one of your 30 or so installed packages, dat package must also be""loaded"".",Computer science
"generally, when you open up r, only a few of these packages(about 7 or 8)are actually loaded.","Di generally, wen you to start r, only few of dis package(about 7 or 8)dey loaded.",Computer science
basically what it boils down to is this: a package must be installed before it can be loaded.,Di package must be installed before e go loaded,Computer science
a package must be loaded before it can be used.,Di package must be loaded before e go use,Computer science
"this two step process might seem a little odd at rst, but the designers of rhad very good reasons to do it this way, 3and you get the hang of it pretty quickly.","Dis two-step process fit seem small odd at first, but di pipo wey makeR get very good reason to do am dis way, and you go master am pretty quickly.",Computer science
"the rst thing you need to do is lookin the lower right hand panel in 2more precisely, there are 5000 or so packages on cran, the comprehensive r archive network.","Di rst thing you need to do dey look for di lower right hand panel for 2more precisely, na 5000 or so packages on cran, di comprehensive r archive network.",Computer science
keeping the installation separate from the loading minimizes the chances that two packages will interact with eachother in a nasty way.,Di installation separate from di loading minimize di chances say two package go interact wit each oda for nasty way.,Computer science
"you'll see a tab labelled\packages"".","You go see tab wey dem label""Packages"".",Computer science
"click on the tab, and you'll see a list of packages that looks something like figure 4.1.",Di list of package wey look something like figure 4.,Computer science
"every row in the panel corresponds to a dierent package, and every column is a useful piece of information about that package. 4going from left to right, here's what each column is telling you: the check box on the far left column indicates whether or not the package is loaded.",Di check box on di far left column dey telling you: di check box on di far left column dey telling you: di check box on di far left column indicate whether or no di package dey loaded.,Computer science
the one word of text immediately to the right ofthe check box is the name ofthe package.,Di one word of text immediately to di right of di check box dey di name of di package,Computer science
the short passage of text next to the name is a brief description ofthe package.,Di short passage of text next to di name na brief description of di package.,Computer science
the number next to the description tells you what version ofthe package you have installed.,Di number next to di description tell you what version of di package you don install,Computer science
the little x-mark next to the version number is a button that you can push to uninstall the package from your computer(you almost never need this).,Di little x-mark next to diversion number na button wey you fit push to uninstall di package from your computer(you almost never need dis).,Computer science
"for this example, i'll use the foreign package.",I go use di special package,Computer science
"the foreign package is a collection of tools that are very handy when r needs to interact with les that are produced by other software packages(e. g, spss).","Di special package dey collection of tools wey dey very handy wen r need to interact wit les wey dey produce by oda software package(e. g, spss).",Computer science
"it comes bundled withr, so it's one ofthe ones that you have installed already, but it won't be one ofthe ones loaded.","Na one of di ones wey you don install already, but e no be one of di ones wey you don install already, but e no be one of di ones wey you dey loaded.",Computer science
inside the foreign package is a function called read. spss().,Di special package dey a function wey read. spss(),Computer science
"it's a handy little function that you can use 4if you're using the command line, you can get the same information by typing library()at the command line.","Di handy little function wey you fit use 4if you dey use di place wey you type command, you fit get di same information by typing library()for di place wey you type command.",Computer science
"currently, the foreign package isn't loaded, so if i ask rto tell me if it knows about a function called read. spss() it tells me that there's no such thing.> exists(""read. spss"" )[1] false now let's load the package.",If i ask rto tell me if e know about a function wey dey read. spss,Computer science
"in rstudio, the process is dead simple: goto the package tab, nd the entry for the foreign package, and check the box on the left hand side.","Di process dey dead simple: goto di package tab, nd di entry for di special package, and check di box on di left hand side.",Computer science
what i've shown you above is the mac version.,I to show you above na di mac version.,Computer science
the lib. loc bit is almost always unnecessary.,Di lib. loc bit dey always unnecessary.,Computer science
unless you've taken to installing packages in idiosyncratic places(which is something that you can do if you really want)r already knows where to look.,Dem take to install packages for idiosyncratic place(which dey something wey you fit do if you really wan)r already know where to look.,Computer science
"so in the vast majority of cases, the command to load the foreign package is just this:> library(""foreign"")throughout this book, you'll often see me typing in library()commands.","For di most part of cases, di command to load di special package dey just dis:",Computer science
you don't actually have to type them in yourself: you can use the rstudio package panel to do all your package loading for you.,You no actually need type dem yourself: you fit use di panel for packages to do all your to bring package inside for you.,Computer science
the only reason i include the library()commands sometimes is as a reminder to you to make sure that you have the relevant package loaded.,Di only reason i include di library()commands sometimes dey as reminder to you make sure say you go get di relevant package loaded.,Computer science
"oh, and i suppose we should check to see if our attempt to load the package actually worked.",I suppose check to see if awa attempt to load di package actually work,Computer science
"let's see if rnow knows about the existence ofthe read. spss() function.> exists(""read. spss"" )[1] true yep.",Na rnow know about di existence of di read. spss() function,Computer science
the rstudio package panel makes this exactly as easy as loading the package in the rst place.,Di panel for packages make dis exactly as easy as loading di package for di rst place.,Computer science
"find the entry corresponding to the package you want to unload, and uncheck the box.","Di entry wey dey correspond to di package you wan to unload, and uncheck di box.",Computer science
"when you do that for the foreign package, you'll see this command appear on screen:> detach(""package: foreign"", unload=true) and the package is unloaded.","Di command detach(""package: foreign"", unload=true) and di package dey unloaded",Computer science
de nitely gone.,E dey nitely gone,Computer science
"however, there's a couple of other details that i want to draw your attention to.",Di couple of details wey i wan to draw your attention to.,Computer science
a concrete example is the best way to illustrate.,One real example na di best way to illustrate.,Computer science
"one ofthe other packages that you already have installed on your computer is the matrix package, so let's load that one and see what happens:> library(matrix )loading required package: lattice this is slightly more complex than the output that we got last time, but it's not too complicated.","Lattice dis dey slightly complex than di output wey we get last time, but e no dey complicate.",Computer science
"the matrix package makes use of some ofthe tools in the lattice package, and rhas kept track of this dependency.","Di matrix package make use some of di tools for di lattice package, and rhas keep track of dis dependency.",Computer science
"so when you try to load the matrix package, rrecognises that you're also going to need to have the lattice package loaded too.","As you try to load di matrix package, rrecognises say you go need to get di lattice package loaded too.",Computer science
"as a consequence, both packages get loaded, and rprints out a helpful little note on screen to tell you that it's done so.","As consequence, both packages dey load, and R print small helpful note for screen to tell you say e don do am.",Computer science
ris pretty aggressive about enforcing these dependencies.,We dey aggressive about enforcing dis dependencies.,Computer science
"suppose, for example, i try to unload the lattice package while the matrix package is still loaded.","for example, i try unload di lattice package while di matrix package dey still loaded",Computer science
"this is easy enough to try: all i have to do is uncheck the box next to\lattice"" in the packages panel.","Di easy to try: all i don do dey uncheck di box next to\lattice"" for di package panel.",Computer science
"this can be quite useful, since it stops you from accidentally removing something that you still need.","E dey useful, since e stop you from accidentally removing something wey you still need.",Computer science
"so, if i want to remove both matrix and lattice, i need to do it in the correct order something else you should be aware of.","So, if I wan remove both matrix and lattice, I need do am for di right way— something else you suppose know.",Computer science
"sometimes you'll attempt to load a package, and rwill print out a message on screen telling you that something or other has been\masked"".","Di sometimes you fit attempt to load package, and rwill to show message on screen telling you say something or oda don dey \masked"".",Computer science
"this will be confusing to you if i don't explain it now, and it actually ties very closely to the whole reason why rforces you to load packages separately from installing them.","E go confuse to you if i don explain am now, and e actually ties closely to di whole reason wey rforce you to load package separately from install dem.",Computer science
two ofthe package that i'll refer to alot in this book are called carand psych.,Di package wey i dey to talk about alot for dis book dey call carand psych,Computer science
"the carpackage is short for\companion to applied regression""(which is a really great book, i'll add), and it has alot of tools that i'm quite fond of.","Di carpackage dey short for\companion to apply regression""(which dey really great book, i fit add), and e don get lot of tools wey i dey quite fond of.",Computer science
"the carpackage was written by a guy called john fox, who has written alot of great statistical tools for social science applications.","Di carpackage dey written by a guy wey dey call john fox, wey don write alot of great statistical tools for social science applications.",Computer science
"the psych package was written by william revelle, and it has alot of functions that are very useful for psychologists in particular, especially in regards to psychometric techniques.","Di psych package dey written by william revelle, and e don get lot of functions wey dey useful for psychologists for particular, especially for regards to psychometric technique",Computer science
"for the most part, carand psych are quite unrelated to eachother.","Di most part, carand psych dey quite unrelated to each oda.",Computer science
"they do dierent things, so not surprisingly almost all ofthe function names are dierent.","Di function name dey dierent, so no surprisingly almost all of di function name dey dierent.",Computer science
but. there's one exception to that.,Di one exception to dat.,Computer science
the carpackage and the psych package both contain a function called logit(). 5this creates a naming con ict.,Di car package and di psych package both get function wey dem call logit(). Dis one create two different things wey share name.,Computer science
"if i load both packages into r, an ambiguity is created.",Di ambiguity dey create.,Computer science
"if the user types in logit(100), should ruse the logit() function in the carpackage, or the one in the psych package?","Dem ruse di logit() function for di carpackage, or di one for di psych package?",Computer science
"the answer is: ruses whichever package you loaded most recently, and it tells you this very explicitly.","Di answer na: ruses wey dey loaded most recently, and e tell you dis very explicitly.",Computer science
"it's been hidden(or \masked"")from you by the one in the psych package.6 4.2. 5 downloading new packages one ofthe main selling points for ris that there are thousands of packages that have been written for it, and these are all available online.","For 6 4.2. 5 download new packages one of di main selling points for ris say thousands of packages wey dey written for am, and dem dey all available online.",Computer science
"so whereabouts online are these packages to be found, and how do we download and install them?","Di packages wey dey find, and how do we download and install dem?",Computer science
"there is a big repository of packages called the\comprehensive r archive network"" (cran), and the easiest way of getting and installing anew package is from one ofthe many cran mirror sites.","Di big repository of package wey dey call di\comprehensive r archive network"" (cran), and di easiest way of getting and install new package from one of di many cran mirror sites.",Computer science
"conveniently for us, rprovides a function called install. packages()that you can use to do this.","For us, rprovides a function wey dey install. packages() wey you fit use to do dis",Computer science
"even more conveniently, the rstudio team runs its own cran mirror and rstudio has a clean interface that lets you install packages without having to learn how to use the install. packages() command7 using the rstudio tools is, again, dead simple.","Di rstudio team run its own cran mirror and rstudio don get clean interface wey make you use di install. packages() command7 using di rstudio tools dey, again, dead simple.",Computer science
"in the top left hand corner ofthe packages panel(figure 4.1) you'll see a button called\install packages"".","Di top left hand corner of di package panel(figure 4.1) you go see button wey dey call\install packages""",Computer science
"if you click on that, it will bring up a window like the one shown in figure 4. 2a.",I go bring up window like di one show for figure 4. 2a.,Computer science
there area few dierent buttons and boxes you can play with.,Di few dierent buttons and box wey dey play wit,Computer science
ignore most of them.,Dem ignore most of dem,Computer science
"just goto the line that says\packages"" and start typing the name ofthe package that you want.","Di line wey says\packages"" and start typing di name of di package wey you wan",Computer science
"as you type, you'll see a dropdown menu appear(figure 4. 2b), listing names of packages that start with the letters that you've typed so far.","Di dropdown menu appear(figure 4. 2b), listing names of package wey start wit di letters wey you type so far.",Computer science
"you can select from this list, or just keep typing.","You fit select from dis list, or just continue typing.",Computer science
"either way, once you've got the package name that you want, click on the install button at the bottom ofthe window.","Di package name wey you wan, to press di install button for di bottom of di window.",Computer science
"when you do, you'll see the following command appear in the rconsole: >install. packages(""psych"")this is the rcommand that does all the work.",Di command wey go follow appear for di rconsole:,Computer science
"rthen goes o to the internet, has a conversation with cran, downloads some stu, and installs it on your computer.","Di rthen go o to di internet, get conversation wit cran, downloads some stu, and install am on your computer",Computer science
"the updated versions often add new functionality, x bugs, and soon.","Di new one often to add new work, to repair small problems, and soon.",Computer science
it's generally a good idea to update your packages periodically.,E generally good idea to bring new packages from time to time.,Computer science
"you can get rto use the one from the carpackage by using car:: logit() as your command rather than logit(), since the car:: part tells rexplicitly which package to use.","You fit makeR use di one from car package by using car:: logit() as your command not dat one logit(), because di car:: part tell R exactly which package to use.",Computer science
"see also::: if you're especially keen to force rto use functions it otherwise wouldn't, but take care, since::: can be dangerous.","If you dey especially keen to force rto use functions, but take care, since",Computer science
"when you start typing, you'll see a dropdown menu suggest a list of possible packages that you might want to install(panel b).","If you start typing, you go see dropdown menu suggest list of possible package wey you go fit install(panel b)",Computer science
"there's an update. packages()function that you can use to do this, but it's probably easier to stick with the rstudio tool.","Di packages()function wey you fit use to do dis, but e dey easier to stick wit di rstudio tool.",Computer science
"in the packages panel, click on the\update packages""button.","For di place for packages, to press di""Update Packages""button.",Computer science
this will bring up a window that looks like the one shown in figure 4.3.,Dis go bring up window wey look like di one show for figure 4.3.,Computer science
"in this window, each row refers to a package that needs to be updated.","For dis window, each row to talk about package wey need to update",Computer science
you can to tell rwhich updates you want to install by checking the boxes on the left.,E fit tell rwhich updates you wan to install by check di box on di left.,Computer science
"if you're feeling lazy and just want to update everything, click the\select all""button, and then click the\install updates""button.","We dey feeling lazy and just wan to update all, click di\select all""button, and then click di\install updates""button",Computer science
"rthen prints out a lotof garbage on the screen, individually downloading and installing all the new packages.","For di screen, individually download and install all di new packages.",Computer science
this might take awhile to complete depending on how good your internet connection is.,"Dis one fit take time to finish, based on how good your how your internet be.",Computer science
go make a cup of coee.,Go make cup of coffee.,Computer science
"comeback, and all will be well.","E go dey well, and all go dey well",Computer science
"about every six months or so, a new version of ris released.",Di new version of ris release.,Computer science
"you can't update rfrom within rstudio (not to my knowledge, at least): to get the new version you can goto the cran website and download the most recent version of r, and install it in the same way you did when you originally installed ron your computer.","To get di new version you goto di cran website and download di most recent version of r, and install am for di same way you do when you originally install ron your computer.",Computer science
"this used to be a slightly frustrating event, because whenever you downloaded the new version of r, you would lose all the packages that you'd downloaded and installed, and would have to repeat the process of re-installing them.","Dis use to be a slightly frustrating event, because whenever you download di new version of r, you go lose all di package wey you dey download and installed, and go get to repeat di process of re-installing dem",Computer science
"this was pretty annoying, and there were some neat tricks you could use to get around this.","Di dey pretty annoying, and na some neat tricks wey dey use to get around dis",Computer science
"however, newer versions of rdon't have this problem so i no longer bother explaining the workarounds for that issue.",Di newer version of rdon don get dis problem so i no dey bother explain di workaround for dat issue.,Computer science
there are several packages that i make use of in this book.,E dey several package wey i make use for dis book,Computer science
the most prominent ones are: lsr.,Di most prominent ones dey: lsr,Computer science
this is the learning statistics with r package that accompanies this book.,Di learning statistics wit r package wey dey accompanies dis book,Computer science
it doesn't have alot of interesting high-powered tools: it's just a small collection of handy little things that i think can be useful to novice users.,Di small collection of handy little things wey i think dey useful to novice users.,Computer science
as you get more comfortable with rthis package should start to feel pretty useless to you.,"As you dey get more comfortable with R, dis package go start to feel like e no dey help to you.",Computer science
"this package, written by william revelle, includes alot of tools that are of particular use to psychologists.","Di package, written by william revelle, includes lot of tools wey dey of particular use to psychologists.",Computer science
"in particular, there's several functions that are particularly convenient for producing analyses or summaries that are very common in psych, but less common in other disciplines.","Di plenty ways wey dey convenient for producing analyses or summaries wey dey very common for psych, but less common for oda disciplines.",Computer science
"this is the companion to applied regression package, which accompanies the excellent book ofthe same name by fox and weisberg (2011).","Di companion to apply regression package, wey dey accompanies di excellent book of di same name by fox and weisberg (2011)",Computer science
"it provides alot of very powerful tools, only some of which we'll touch in this book.","Di book dey provide very powerful tools, only some of wey we dey touch for dis book",Computer science
"besides these three, there area number of packages that i use in a more limited fashion: gplots, sciplot, foreign, effects, r. matlab, gdata, lmtest, and probably one or two others that i've missed.","Di three, na number of package wey i use for more limited fashion: gplots, sciplot, foreign, effects, r. matlab, lmtest, and probably one or two odas wey i miss.",Computer science
"there are also a number of packages that i refer to but don't actually use in this book, such as reshape, compute. es, histdata and multcomp among others.","Di number of package wey i to talk about but no dey use for dis book, such as reshape, compute.",Computer science
"finally, there area number of packages that provide more advanced tools that i hope to talk about in future versions ofthe book, such as sem, ez, nlme and lme4.","Di number of package wey dey provide more advanced tools wey I hope to talk about for next one of di book, such as sem, ez, nlme and lme4",Computer science
"in any case, whenever i'm using a function that isn't in the core packages, i'll make sure to note this in the text.","For any case, wen i use a function wey no dey for di core package, i go make sure to note dis for di text.",Computer science
"as a result, you currently have three variables; seeker, lover, and keeper.","As result, you currently get three variables: seeker, lover, and keeper.",Computer science
"the view shown above is the\list"" view.","Di view wey dey show above na di\list"" view",Computer science
"to switch to the grid view, click on the menu item on the top right that currently reads\list"".","Di menu item on top right wey currently read\list"".",Computer science
"select\grid"" from the dropdown menu, and then it will switch to a view like the one shown in figure 4.5.","I go select grid""from di dropdown menu, and e go switch to view like di one show for figure 4.5. 5.",Computer science
in the top right hand corner.,Di top right hand corner for top right hand corner,Computer science
"click on that, and you'll see a list that looks very much like the one shown in figures 4. 4 and 4.5.",Di list wey look very much like di one show for figure 4. 4 and 4.5. 5.,Computer science
"moreover there are also several other functions that you can use, including ls()which is pretty much identical to objects(), and ls. str()which you can use to get a fairly detailed description of all the variables in the workspace.","E dey also several different functions wey you fit use, including ls() wey dey identical to objects(), and ls. str() wey dey identical to objects(), and ls. str",Computer science
"in fact, the lsrpackage actually includes its own function that you can use for this purpose, called who().","Di lsrpackage actually include its own function wey you fit use for dis purpose, called who().",Computer science
"the reason for using the who()function is pretty straightforward: in my everyday work i nd that the output produced by the objects()command isn't quite informative enough, because the only thing it prints out is the name of each variable; but the ls. str()function is tooinformative, because it prints out alot of additional information that i really don't like to look at.","For my everyday work i nd say di output produce by di objects()command no dey informative enough, because di only thing wey dey to show na di name of each variable; but di ls. str()function no dey quite informative, because di only thing wey i don like to make we look.",Computer science
the who()function is a compromise between the two.,Di who()function dey compromise between di two,Computer science
"personally, i nd this output much easier more useful than the very compact output ofthe objects()function, but less overwhelming than the extremely verbose ls. str()function.","Personally, I find dis output much easier and more useful than di very di small answer of objects()function, but less overwhelming than di wey dey use plenty words ls. str() function.",Computer science
"compare this\grid"" view to the\list"" view in figure 4.4.","Di grid""view to di\list"" view for figure 4.4.",Computer science
"you don't have to use it yourself: in fact, i suspect you'll nd it easier to look at the rstudio environment panel.","Di fact, i suspect say you no go use easier to make we look di rstudio di place wey show your things",Computer science
"but for the purposes of writing a textbook i found it handy to have a nice text based description: otherwise there would be about another 100 or so screenshots added to the book.8 4.3. 2 removing variables from the workspace looking over that list of variables, it occurs tome that i really don't need them anymore.",For di purpose of writing textbook i find handy to get nice text based description: odawise na about 100 or so screenshots wey dey add to di book.,Computer science
"i'll show you how to do this, but rst i want to warn you{ there's no\undo"" option for variable removal.","I goto show you how to do dis, but first I wan to tell you make you know— no""undo"" option for to take variable away.",Computer science
"once a variable is removed, it's gone forever unless you save it to disk.","For once a variable dey remove, e go forever unless you save am to disk.",Computer science
"in rstudio, the easiest way to remove variables is to use the environment panel.",Di easiest way to takeaway variables dey use di place wey show your things.,Computer science
"assuming that you're ingrid view(i. e, figure 4.5), check the boxes next to the variables that you want to delete, then click on the\clear"" button at the top ofthe panel.","I. e, figure 4.5), check di boxes next to di variables wey you wan to delete, then to press di\clear"" button for top of di panel.",Computer science
"when you do this, rstudio will show a dialog box asking you to con rm that you really do want to delete the variables.",Di rstudio go show small window wey show asking you to con rm say you go delete di variables.,Computer science
"it's always worth checking that you really do, because as rstudio is at pains to point out, you can't undo this.","Di always worth check say you dey do, because as rstudio dey pain to show, you no dey undo dis",Computer science
"once a variable is deleted, it's gone.9 in any case, if you click\yes"", that variable will disappear from the workspace: it will no longer appear in the environment panel, and it won't show up when you use the who()command.","For any case, if you click\yes"", dat variable no appear from di workspace, and e no show up when you use di who()command.",Computer science
"suppose you don't access to rstudio, and you still want to remove variables.","Suppose you no get to get RStudio, and you still wan to takeaway variables.",Computer science
this is where the remove function rm()comes in handy.,Dis dey where di remove function rm() kom for handy.,Computer science
the simplest way to use rm()is just to type in a(comma separated)list of all the variables you want to remove.,Di simplest way to use rm() dey just to type for(comma separated)list of all di variables you wan remove.,Computer science
"let's say i want to get rid of seeker and lover, but i would like to keep keeper.","Make I say I wan remove seeker and lover, but I wan keep keeper.",Computer science
"to do this, all i have to do is type:> rm(seeker, lover) there's no visible output, but if i now inspect the workspace 8this would be especially annoying if you're reading an electronic copy ofthe book because the text displayed by the who()function is searchable, whereas text shown in a screenshot isn't!","Di rm(seeker, lover)no dey visible output, but if i now inspect di workspace 8",Computer science
"if you've got the data saved to le somewhere, then that leis perfectly safe.","If you don save di data to file somewhere, den dat file dey very safe.",Computer science
"as you can see, rm() can be very handy for keeping the workspace tidy.","As you see, rm() fit be very handy for keeping di workspace tidy",Computer science
"it's not a terribly interesting topic, but it's useful.","E no dey interesting topic, but e dey useful.",Computer science
"once upon a time everyone who used computers could safely be assumed to understand how the le system worked, because it was impossible to successfully use a computer if you didn't!","Di le system work, bikos e dey impossible to successfully use a computer if you no fit use",Computer science
"however, modern operating systems are much more\user friendly"", and as a consequence of this they goto great lengths to hide the le system from users.","Di modern system wey dey control komputa hardware and give chance to odas programs to run well, make dem function as dem suppose dey much more\user friendly"", and as result of dis dem goto great lengths to hide di le system from users.",Computer science
so these days it's not at all uncommon for people to have used computers most of their life and not be familiar with the way that computers organise les.,Di days no dey all uncommon for pipo to use computers most of dia life and no be familiar wit di way wey computers organise,Computer science
"otherwise, read on.",Dem read on.,Computer science
i'll try to give a brief introduction that will be useful for those of you who have never been forced to learn how to navigate around a computer using a dos or unix shell.,I go try give brief introduction wey dey useful for those of you wey no dey force to learn how to navigate around a computer using dos or unix shell.,Computer science
"regardless of whether you're using window, mac os or linux, every leon the computer is assigned a(fairly) human readable address, and every address has the same basic structure: it describes a path that starts from a root location, through as series of folders(or if you're an old-school computer user, directories ), and nally ends up at the le.","Di path wey start from root location, through as series of folders(or if you dey old-school computer user, directories), and nally end up for di le.",Computer science
"on a windows computer the root is the physical drive10on which the le is stored, and for most home computers the name ofthe hard drive that stores all your les is c: and therefore most le names on windows begin with c:.","Di root na di physical drive10on wey di le dey store, and for most home computers di name of di hard drive wey di le dey store, and for most home computers di name of di hard drive wey dey store all your les na c:",Computer science
"after that comes the folders, and on windows the folder names are separated by a\symbol.",Di folder name dey separated by a\symbol,Computer science
"so, the complete path to this book on my windows computer might be something like this: c:\users\dan\rbook\lsr. pdf and what that means is that the book is called lsr. pdf, and it's in a folder called rbook which itself is in a folder called danwhich itself is. well, you get the idea.","C:\users\dan\rbook\lsr. pdf and what dat means na say di book dey called lsr. pdf, and e dey in a folder wey dey called dan. pdf, and e dey in folder wey dey called dan.",Computer science
"on linux, unix and macos systems, the addresses look a little dierent, but they're more or less identical in spirit.","Di addresses look a little dierent, but dem dey more or less identical for spirit.",Computer science
"instead of using the backslash, folders are separated using a forward slash, and unlike windows, they don't treat the physical drive as being the root ofthe le system.","Di folders dey separated using forward slash, and unlike windows, dem don treat di physical drive as di root of di le system",Computer science
"so, the path to this book on my mac might be something like this: /users/dan/rbook/lsr. pdf so that's what we mean by the\path"" to ale.",Di path to dis book on my mac go be something like dis: users dan rbook lsr.,Computer science
the next concept to grasp is the idea of a working directory and how to change it.,Di next concept to grasp na di idea of work directory and how to change am,Computer science
"for those of you who have used command line interfaces previously, 10well, the partition, technically.","For those of you wey use di place wey you type command interface previously, 10well, di partition, technically.",Computer science
"but if not, here's what i mean.","But if no, here's wetin I mean.",Computer science
"the working directory is just\whatever folder i'm currently looking at"".","Di work directory dey just\whatever folder wey dey currently make we look"".",Computer science
suppose that i'm currently looking for les in explorer(if you're using windows)or using finder(on a mac).,I suppose say i dey looking for les for explorer(if you dey use windows)or using finder(on mac).,Computer science
"the folder i currently have open is my user directory(i. e, c:\users\dan or/users/dan).",Di folder wey I get open now na my your own folder(like C:\Users\dan or Users dan).,Computer science
that's my current working directory.,E dey my current work directory,Computer science
"the fact that we can imagine that the program is\in"" a particular directory means that we can talk about moving from our current location toa new one.","Di fact say we fit imagine say di program dey\in"" particular directory means say we fit talk about moving from our di place wey you dey now to new one.",Computer science
what that means is that we might want to specify anew location in relation to our current location.,We go wan to specify new location for relation to awa di place wey you dey now.,Computer science
"to do so, we need to introduce two new conventions.","To do dat, we need to show two new ways.",Computer science
"regardless of what operating system you're using, we use. to refer to the current working directory, and. to refer to the directory above it.","We use. to talk about di current work directory, and. to talk about di current work directory, and.",Computer science
"this allows us to specify a path to anew location in relation to our current location, as the following examples illustrate.","Dis one allow us to specify path to new location based on where we dey now, as di ones wey go follow show.",Computer science
"let's assume that i'm using my windows computer, and my working directory is c:\users\dan\rbook ).","I go assume say i dey use my windows computer, and my work directory dey c:\users\dan\rbook",Computer science
"the table below shows several addresses in relation to my current one: absolute path relative path(i. e, from root)(i. e.","Di table below show several addresses based on my current one: di full address(from root), di address from here(from di place wey you dey now).",Computer science
it's quite common on computers that have multiple users to de ne~to be the user's home directory.,E dey common on computers wey don get multiple users to dey home directory,Computer science
"on my mac, for instance, the home directory~for the\dan"" user is\users\dan\.","Di home directory for di\dan"" user dey\users\dan",Computer science
"and so, not surprisingly, it is possible to de ne other directories in terms of their relationship to the home directory.",E dey possible to dey oda directories for terms of dia relationship to di home directory.,Computer science
"for example, an alternative way to describe the location ofthe lsr. pdf leon my mac would be ~\rbook\lsr. pdf that's about all you really need to know about le paths.","for example, another way to describe where di lsr. pdf file dey for my Mac be ~ rbook lsr. pdf. Dat about all you really need know about file paths.",Computer science
"okay, let's get started.","Na okay, let's start",Computer science
when you want to load or save a le in rit's important to know what the working directory is.,Di work directory dey important to know what di work directory dey.,Computer science
you can nd out by using the getwd() command.,Di getwd() command.,Computer science
"for the moment, let's assume that i'm using macos or linux, since there's some subtleties to windows.","For di moment, let's assume say i dey use macos or linux, since na some subtleties to windows.",Computer science
"the setwd() function has only the one argument, dir, is a character string specifying a path to a directory, or a path relative to the working directory.","Di setwd() function don only di one argument, dir, na character string specifying path to a directory, or a path wey dey relative to di work directory.",Computer science
"in any case, there's only one more thing i want to make a note of, which is that ralso makes use ofthe home directory.","Di only one more thing wey i wan make note of, wey dey say ralso to use di home directory",Computer science
"the only reason i'm even bothering to mention it at all is that when you use rstudio to open ale, you'll see output on screen that de nes the path to the le relative to the~directory.","Di only reason wey i dey tok say when you use rstudio to open ale, you go see output on screen wey dey relative to di~directory.",Computer science
i'd prefer you not to be confused when you see it.11 4.4. 3 why do the windows paths use the wrong slash?,Di windows paths use di wrong slash?,Computer science
let's suppose i'm on windows.,Dem suppose i'm on windows,Computer science
"if you're deeply wedded to the idea of specifying a path using the windows style slashes, then what you need to do is to type\whenever you mean.","If you really like to use Windows style backslashes for path, den wetin you need do nato type\ whenever you mean.",Computer science
"suppose you want to load a le and you don't quite remember where it is, but would like to browse for it.","Di suppose you wan load a le and you no dey remember where am dey, but go like to browse for am",Computer science
"typing file. choose()at the command line will open a window in which you can browse to nd the le; when you click on the le you want, rwill print out the full path to that le.","Di place wey you type command go open window wey you fit browse to nd di le; wen you to press di le you wan, rwill to show di full path to dat le.",Computer science
this is kind of handy.,Na kind of handy.,Computer science
it provides avery easy way to browse and navigate your computer using r. see main text for details.,E provide very easy way to look and move your computer using R. Check main text for more small tins.,Computer science
"for our purposes, the easiest way to navigate the le system is to make use of rstudio's built in tools.",Di easiest way to navigate di le system dey to use rstudio's build for tools.,Computer science
"the\ le""panel {the lower right hand area in figure 4.6{ is actually a pretty decent le browser.","Di \le"" panel{ di lower right hand area for figure 4.6{ na really decent le browser.",Computer science
"not only can you just point and click on the names to move around the le system, you can also use it to set the working directory, and even load les.","Di system no only fit you point and to press di name to move around di le system, you fit use am to set di work directory, and even load les.",Computer science
here's what you need to do to change the working directory using the le panel.,Dem need to change di work directory using di le panel.,Computer science
let's say i'm looking at the actual screen shown in figure 4.6.,I dey look for di actual screen show for figure 4.6. 6.,Computer science
"at the top ofthe le panel you see some text that says\home rbookdata"".","Di top of di le panel you see some text wey says\home rbookdata"".",Computer science
what that means is that it's displaying the les that are stored in the /users/dan/rbook/data directory on my computer.,Di means na say di display di les wey dey store for di users dan rbook data directory for my computer.,Computer science
it does notmean that this is the rworking directory.,Di rworking directory no dey nomean say di rworking directory,Computer science
"if you want to change therworking directory, using the le panel, you need to click on the button that reads\more"".","If you wan change dirworking directory, using di le panel, you need to press di button wey read\more",Computer science
"this will bring up a little menu, and one ofthe options will be\set as working directory"".","Dis go bring up small menu, and one of di options go be""to make am di place wey you dey work"".",Computer science
"if you select that option, then rreally will change the working directory.",Di work directory go change di work directory.,Computer science
the le panel can be used to do other things too.,Di le panel go use to do oda things too.,Computer science
"to move to a subfolder, click on the name ofthe folder that you want to open.","Di name of di folder wey you wan open, to press di name of di folder wey you wan open",Computer science
you can open some types of le by clicking on them.,Dem go open some type of le by to press dem,Computer science
"you can delete les from your computer using the\delete"" button, rename them with the ename"" button, and soon.","Di ename"" button, rename dem wit di ename"" button, and soon.",Computer science
"as you can tell, the le panel is avery handy little tool for navigating the le system.",Di le panel dey very handy little tool for navigating di le system.,Computer science
but it can do more than just navigate.,But e fit do more than just navigate,Computer science
"as we'll see later, it can be used to open les.","We go see later, e fit use open les",Computer science
"and if you look at the buttons and menu options that it presents, you can even use it to rename, delete, copy or move les, and create new folders.","If you make we look di buttons and menu options wey dey present, you fit use am to rename, delete, copy or move les, and create new folders.",Computer science
"however, since most of that functionality isn't critical to the basic goals of this book, i'll let you discover those on your own.","Di functionality no dey critical to di basic goals of dis book, i go let you discover those on your own",Computer science
there are three in particular that are especially important from the perspective of this book: workspace les are those with a. rdata le extension.,Na three for particular wey dey important from di perspective of dis book: workspace le dey wit a. rdata le extension.,Computer science
this is the standard kind of le that ruses to store data and variables.,Di standard kind of le wey dey suppose store data and variables.,Computer science
"they're called \workspace les""because you can use them to save your whole workspace.","Dem call \workspace les"" bikos you fit use dem to save your whole workspace",Computer science
comma separated value (csv) les are those with a. csv le extension.,For csv le extension.,Computer science
"these are just regular old text les, and they can be opened with almost any software.","Dis dey just regular old text les, and dem go open wit almost any software.",Computer science
"it's quite typical for people to store data in csv les, precisely because they're so simple.","E dey quite typical for pipo to store data for csv les, precisely because dem dey so simple.",Computer science
script les are those with a. r le extension.,Di extension dey suppose dey a. r le extension,Computer science
"these aren't data les at all; rather, they're used to save a collection of commands that you want rto execute later.","Dem no dey data for all; rather, dem use to save collection of commands wey you wan execute later.",Computer science
"there are also several other types of le that rmakes use of, 12but they're not really all that central to our interests.","Di types of le wey dey to use, 12but dem no really all wey dey central to awa interest.",Computer science
"there are also several other kinds of data le that you might want to import into r. for instance, you might want to open microsoft excel spreadsheets (. xls les), or data les that have been saved in the native le formats for other statistics software, such as spss, sas, minitab, stata or systat.","for example, you go need open microsoft excel spreadsheets ( xls les), or data le wey dey saved for di native le format for oda statistics software, such as spss, sas, minitab, stata or systat.",Computer science
"finally, you might have to handle databases.",I go get to handle databases.,Computer science
"rtries hard to play nicely with other software, so it has tools that let you open and work with any of these and many others.","Di rtries hard to play nicely wit oda software, so e get tools wey make you open and work wit any of dis and many odas.",Computer science
let's say i want to load the data 12notably those with. rda.,"E tok say i wan to load di data 12notably wit. rda,",Computer science
rhistory. rdb and. rdx extensions-87- from this le into my workspace.,. Rhistory. rdb and. rdx extensions from dis file into my workspace.,Computer science
the way i do this is with the load()function.,Di way i do dis dey wit di load()function,Computer science
"there are two arguments to this function, but the only one we're interested in is file.","Di only one wey dey interest for dis function, but di only one we dey interest for file",Computer science
this should be a character string that species a path to the le that needs to be loaded.,Di should be character string wey dey species a path to di le wey need to loaded.,Computer science
you can use an absolute path or a relative path to do so.,You fit use di full address or di address from here to do am.,Computer science
"throughout this book, whenever you see me loading ale, i will assume that the le is actually stored in the working directory, or that you've changed the working directory so that ris pointing at the directory that contains the le.","Di book, wenever you see me loading ale, i go assume say di le dey store for di work directory, or say you dey change di work directory wey dey contains di le.",Computer science
"obviously, youdon't need type that command yourself: you can use the rstudio le panel to do the work.",Di rstudio le panel to do di work.,Computer science
it's terribly simple.,E dey terribly simple,Computer science
"first, use the le panel to nd the folder that contains the le you want to load.","For first, use di le panel to nd di folder wey dey contains di le you wan load",Computer science
"if you look at figure 4.6, you can see that there are several. rdata les listed.","If you make we look figure 4.6, you fit see say na several. rdata wey dey listed.",Computer science
let's say i want to load the booksales.,I tok say i wan to load di booksales,Computer science
all i have to do is click on the le name.,Di le name wey i don do dey to press di le name,Computer science
rstudio brings up a little dialog box asking me to con rm that i do want to load this le.,RStudio bring up small window wey show wey dey ask me to confirm say I really wan load dis file.,Computer science
"csv les are just plain old-fashioned text les, and what they store is basically just a table of data.","Di csv dem dey just old-fashioned text, and wey dem store na just table of data.",Computer science
"this is illustrated in figure 4.7, which shows a le called booksales. csv that i've created.","E dey illustrated for figure 4.7, wey show a le called booksales. csv wey i create",Computer science
"as you can see, each row corresponds to a variable, and each row represents the book sales data for one month.","As you see, each column correspond to one variable, and each row represent di numbers for book wey dem sell for one month.",Computer science
the rst row doesn't contain actual data though: it has the names ofthe variables.,Di rst row no dey contain actual data though: na di name of di variables,Computer science
"if rstudio were not available to you, the easiest way to open this le would be to use the read. csv() -88-figure 4.7: the booksales. csv data le.",Di easiest way to open dis lego be to use di read. csv data le.,Computer science
"on the left, i've opened the le in using a spreadsheet program (openoce), which shows that the le is basically a table.","I dey open di le for using spreadsheet program (openoce), wey show say di le dey basically table",Computer science
"on the right, the same le is open in a standard text editor(the textedit program on a mac), which shows how the le is formatted.","Di same le dey open for standard di editor for words(the textedit program on a mac), wey show how di le dey formatted",Computer science
the entries in the table are wrapped in quote marks and separated by commas.,Di entry for di table dey wrapped in di small marks for around words and separated by commas.,Computer science
this is a logical value indicating whether or not the rst row ofthe le contains variable names.,Di logical value wey dey indicating whether or no di rst row of di le contains dem name wey dey represent figure wey fit change for kompyuta program.,Computer science
the default value is true.,Di normal number na true,Computer science
"therefore, to import the csv le, the command i need is:> books<- read. csv( file= ""booksales. csv"" )there are two very important points to notice here.","Di command i need na:> books<- read. csv( file= ""booksales. csv""",Computer science
"firstly, notice that i didn't try to use the load()function, because that function is only meant to be used for. rdata les.","Di firstly, notice say i no try use di load()function, because say function no dey use for. rdata les.",Computer science
"if you try to use load()on other types of data, you get an error.","If you try use load()for other types of data, you go get error.",Computer science
"secondly, notice that when i imported the csv le i assigned the result to a variable, which i imaginatively called books. 14let's have a look at what we've got:> print(books )month days sales stock.","Di 14let don notice say when i import di csv le i assigned di result to a variable, wey i imaginatively call books",Computer science
levels 1 january 31 0 high 13in alot of books you'll see the read. table()function used for this purpose instead of read. csv().,Di levels 1 january 31 0 high 13in alot of books wey dey see di read. table()function wey dey use for dis purpose forstead of read. csv(),Computer science
"they're more or less identical functions, with the same arguments and everything.",Di same arguments and all.,Computer science
they dier only in the default values.,Di normal values dey di normal values.,Computer science
there's a reason for this.,Di reason wey dey for dis,Computer science
the idea behind an. rdata le is that it stores a whole workspace.,Di idea wey dey behind a. rdata le dey say e store whole workspace,Computer science
"so, if you had the ability to look inside the le yourself you'd see that the data le keeps track of all the variables and their names.",Di ability to look inside di le yourself you see say di data le keep track of all di variables and dia names.,Computer science
"so when you load()the le, rrestores all those original names.","Di le, rrestore all di original name.",Computer science
"csv les are treated dierently: as far as ris concerned, the csv only stores onevariable, but that variable is big table.","as for ris concerned, di csv only stores onevariable, but dat variable dey big table.",Computer science
"so when you import that table into the workspace, rexpects youto give it a name.","For when you import dat table into workspace, rexpect you to give am name",Computer science
we haven't seen anything like this before.,We don see anything like dis before,Computer science
"for now, let's just be happy that we imported the data and that it looks about right.",E just be happy say we imported di data and say e look about right,Computer science
"in the environment panel in rstudio you should see a button called\import dataset"".",Di place wey show your things for rstudio you go see a button wey dey call\import dataset,Computer science
"click on that, and it will give you a couple of options: select the\from text file.""option, and it will open up avery familiar dialog box asking you to select ale: if you're on a mac, it'll look like the usual finder window that you use to choose ale; on windows it looks like an explorer window.","If you dey on mac, e fit look like di usual finder window wey you use to select ale; on windows e look like explorer window.",Computer science
an example of what it looks like on a mac is shown in figure 4.8.,Di example of what e look like on mac dey show for figure 4.8. 8.,Computer science
"i'm assuming that you're familiar with your own computer, so you should have no problem nding the csv le that you want to import!","I dey assum say you dey familiar wit your own computer, so you need no wahala nding di csv le wey you wan import",Computer science
"find the one you want, then click on the\open"" button.","Find di one you wan, den to press di""Open"" button.",Computer science
"when you do this, you'll see a window that looks like the one in figure 4.9.",Dem see window wey look like di one for figure 4.9. 9. 9. 9.,Computer science
the import dataset window is relatively straightforward to understand.,Di import group of related numbers or data wey belong together window dey straightforward to understand,Computer science
"in the top left corner, you need to type the name ofthe variable you rto create.","Di top left corner, you need to type di name of di variable wey you create",Computer science
"by default, that will be the same as the le name: our le is called booksales. csv, so rstudio suggests the name booksales.",We dey call booksales.,Computer science
"if you're happy with that, leave it alone.","If you dey happy wit dat, leave am alone",Computer science
"if not, type something else.",Dem type something else,Computer science
immediately below this area few things that you can tweak to make sure that the data gets imported correctly: heading.,Di few things wey you fit tweak to make sure say di data get imported correctly,Computer science
"does the rst row ofthe le contain raw data, or does it contain headings for each variable?","Di first row of di file contain di first numbers, or e contain di names for each column?",Computer science
"the booksales. csv le has a header at the top, so i selected\yes"".","csv le don get header for top, so i select\yes"".",Computer science
what character is used to separate dierent entries?,Di character dey use to separate dierent entries?,Computer science
"in most csv les this will be a comma(it is\comma separated""after all).","Di comma be comma(it dey \comma separated""after all).",Computer science
but you can change this if your le is dierent.,But you fit change dis if your le dey dierent,Computer science
what character is used to specify the decimal point?,Di character dey use to specify di decimal point?,Computer science
"in english speaking countries, this is almost always a period(i. e.",Di period dey always a period(i. e.,Computer science
that's not universally true: many european countries use a comma.,Dat one no be true for everywhere: plenty kontris for Europe dey use comma.,Computer science
so you can change that if you need to.,As you fit change dat if you need to.,Computer science
what character is used to denote a block of text?,Di character dey use to denote block of text?,Computer science
that's usually going to be a double quote mark.,Di double quote mark dey usually go be double quote mark,Computer science
"it is for the booksales. csv le, so that's what i selected.","E dey for di booksales. csv le, so dat's what i selected.",Computer science
"the nice thing about the rstudio window is that it shows you the raw data le at the top ofthe window, and it shows you a preview ofthe data at the bottom.","Di nice thing about di RStudio window na say e to show you di first numbers le for top of di window, and e to show you preview of di data for di top.",Computer science
"if the data at the bottom doesn't look right, try changing some ofthe settings on the left hand side.","Di data for di bottom no look right, try change some of di settings for di left hand side.",Computer science
"once you're happy, click \import"".","For once you dey happy, click \import"".",Computer science
mac users will recognise this immediately: it's the usual way in which a mac asks you to nd ale.,Di usual way wey a mac ask you to nd a le,Computer science
windows users won't see this: they'll see the usual explorer window that windows always gives you when it wants you to select ale.,Di usual explorer window wey windows always give you wen dey wan you select a le,Computer science
the rst of these commands is the one that loads the data.,Di rst of dis commands dey di one wey dey load di data,Computer science
the second one will display a pretty table showing the data in rstudio.,Di second one go display table show di data for rstudio.,Computer science
"although rstudio provides a simple way to save les(see below), it's worth understanding the actual commands involved.","Di rstudio provide simple way to save les(see below), e dey worth understanding di actual commands involved.",Computer science
"there are two commands you can use to do this, save() and save. image().","Di command wey dey use to do dis, save() and save. image()",Computer science
"if you're happy to save allof the variables in your workspace into the data le, then you should use save. image().","If you go save all of di variables for your workspace into di data le, then you go use save. image().",Computer science
"suppose, however, i have several variables in my workspace, andi only want to save some of them.","I get several variables for my workspace, andi only wan to save some of dem",Computer science
"but i don't want to delete junk right now, because i want to use it for something else later on.","I no wan to delete junk right now, but i don wan to use am for something else later on",Computer science
"this is where the save()function is useful, since it lets me indicate-91- figure 4.9: the rstudio window for importing a csv le into r.","Di save()function dey useful, since di RStudio window dey import csv le into r.",Computer science
exactly which variables i want to save.,di ones wey you want I wan save.,Computer science
"here is one way i can use the save function to solve my problem:> save(data, handy, file= ""myfile.","Na one way i fit use di save function to solve my problem:> save(data, handy, file= ""myfile",Computer science
"rdata"") importantly, you must specify the name ofthe file argument.",Di name of di file argument.,Computer science
"the reason is that if you don't do so, rwill think that ""myfile.","Di reason na say if you don do so, rwill think say ""myfile",Computer science
"rdata"" is actually a variable that you want to save, and you'll get an error message.","Di rdata"" dey actually a variable wey you wan save, and you go get error message",Computer science
"finally, i should mention a second way to specify which variables the save()function should save, which is to use the list argument.","I go mention second way to specify which variables di save()function go save, wey dey use di list argument.",Computer science
"in the environment panel(figures 4. 4 and 4.5) you can see the\save"" button.","For di place wey show your things(Figures 4.4 and 4.5), you fit see di""Save"" button.",Computer science
"there's no text, but it's the same icon that gets used on every computer everywhere: it's the one that looks like a oppy disk.",Di one wey dey look like oppy disk,Computer science
"you know, those things that haven't-92- been used in about 20 years.",Di things wey don-92- don use for about 20 years.,Computer science
"alternatively, go to the\session"" menu and click on the\save workspace as.""option. 15this will bring up the standard\save"" dialog box for your operating system(e. g, on a mac it'll look a little bit like the loading dialog box in figure 4.8).","Or, go to""Session"" menu and to press""to keep your work with new name.""option. Dis go bring up di standard""Save"" small window wey show for your system wey dey control wetin computer fit do, e dey manage hardware and software, make am possible for apps and services to dey run, e be like brain wey dey direct computer(e. g, for Mace go look small like di loading small window wey show for Figure 4.8).",Computer science
"type in the name ofthe le that you want to save it to, and all the variables in your workspace will be saved to disk.","Di name of di le wey you wan save am to, and all di variables for your workspace go save am to, and all di variables for your workspace go save to disk",Computer science
"you'll see an rcommand like this one> save. image(""~/desktop/untitled.","Di rcommand like dis one wey dey save. image(""~desktop untitled",Computer science
"rdata"") pretty straightforward, really.",". Rdata —e dey clear, really.",Computer science
other things you might want to save include: the output.,Di output.,Computer science
"sometimes you might also want to keep a copy of all your interactions with r, including everything that you typed in and everything that rdid in response.","Di sometimes you go also wan to keep copy of all your interaction wit r, including all your interaction wit r, including all things wey you type for and everything wey rdid for response.",Computer science
"there are some functions that you can use to get rto write its output to a le rather than to print onscreen (e. g, sink()), but to be honest, if you do want to save the routput, the easiest thing to do is to use the mouse to select the relevant text in the rconsole, goto the\edit"" menu in rstudio and select\copy"".","Di easiest thing to do nato use di mouse to select di relevant text for di rconsole, goto di\edit"" menu for rstudio and select\copy"".",Computer science
the output has now been copied to the clipboard.,Di output don now copied to di clipboard,Computer science
"now open up your favourite text editor or word processing software, and paste it.","Now open your favorite di editor for words or software for writing papers, and paste am.",Computer science
and you're done.,Di dey done and you dey done,Computer science
we'll talk about saving images later on.,We go talk about to keep pictures later.,Computer science
a script.,Di script.,Computer science
"while it is possible{ and sometimes handy{ to save the routput as a method for keeping a copy of your statistical analyses, another option that people use alot (especially when you move beyond simple oy""analyses) is to write scripts.","Di option wey pipo use alot (especially wen you move beyond simple oy""analyses) nato write codes.",Computer science
a script is a text le in which you write out all the commands that you want rto run.,Di script dey text le for which you write out all di command wey you wan run.,Computer science
you can write your script using whatever software you like.,You fit to write your commands using any software you like.,Computer science
in real world data analysis writing scripts is a key skill{ and as you become familiar with ryou'll probably nd that most of what you do involves scripting rather than typing commands at ther prompt.,For real numbers work writing scripts dey key skill{ and as you dey familiar wit ryou'll probably nd say most of wey you dey involve scripting no be typing commands for di r prompt.,Computer science
that's not a surprise ofcourse.,Na surprise ofcourse.,Computer science
"however, some of those issues are worth drawing your attention to now.",Di issue dey worth drawing your attention to now,Computer science
"if you lookin the\file"" menu you will see\save"" and\save as.""options, but they don't save the workspace.","If you look for di\file"" menu you go see\save"" and\save as.""options, but dem no save di workspace",Computer science
"those options are used for dealing with scripts, and so they'll produce. r les.","Di options dey use for dealing wit scripts, and so dem produce.",Computer science
"most likely you'll see them in situations where you were expecting a number, but there are quite a few other ways you can encounter them.","Di most likely you see dem for situation wey you dey expect number, but e dey quite few oda way you fit encounter dem.",Computer science
"these values are inf, nan, naand null.","Di value dey inf, nan, naand null",Computer science
"these values can crop up in various dierent places, and so it's important to understand what they mean.","Di value go crop up for different dierent place, and so e important to understand what dem mean.",Computer science
in nity (inf).,For nity (inf).,Computer science
"the easiest ofthe special values to explain is inf, since it corresponds to a value that is in nitely large.","Di easiest of di special values to explain na inf, since e dey correspond to value wey dey in nitely large",Computer science
you can also have-inf.,I go also get-inf,Computer science
"the easiest way to get infis to divide a positive number by 0:>1/0 [1]inf in most real world data analysis situations, if you're ending up within nite numbers in your data, then something has gone awry.","Di easiest way to get Inf nato divide positive number by 0:>10 [1]Inf. For normal work with numbers, if you dey end up with infinite numbers for your data, den something don spoil.",Computer science
hopefully you'll never have to see them.,Di hopefully you no get to see dem,Computer science
not a number(nan).,Di number(nan) no be number(nan).,Computer science
"the special value of nanis short for ot a number"", and it's basically a reserved keyword that means here isn't a mathematically de ned number for this"".","Di special value of nanis short for ot a number"", and e dey basically a reserved keyword wey dey means here no dey mathematically dey number for dis",Computer science
"if you can remember your highschool maths, remember that it is conventional to say that 0 {0 doesn't have a proper answer: mathematicians would say that 0 {0 isunde ned. rsays that it's not a number:>0/0 [1]nan nevertheless, it's still treated as a umeric"" value.",Di mathematicians go tok say 0 {0 no get proper answer,Computer science
"to oversimplify, nancorresponds to cases where you asked a proper numerical question that genuinely has no meaningful answer.",Nacorrespond to case wey you asked proper numerical question wey no dey meaningful answer.,Computer science
"not available(na). naindicates that the value that is\supposed"" to be stored here is missing.",Naindicate say di value wey dey suppose store here no dey available(na). naindicate say di value wey dey suppose store here no dey available,Computer science
"to understand what this means, it helps to recognise that the navalue is something that you're most likely to see when analysing data from real world experiments.",E help to recognise say di navalue dey something wey you dey like to see when analyse data from real world experiments.,Computer science
"sometimes you get equipment failures, or you lose some ofthe data, or whatever.","Sometimes equipment dey fail, or you lose some of di data, or wetin ever.",Computer science
"the point is that some ofthe information that you were\expecting"" to get from your study is just plain missing.",Di point na say some of di information wey you dey expect to get from your study na just plain missing.,Computer science
note the dierence between naand nan.,Di dierence between naand na,Computer science
"for nan, we really do know what's supposed to be stored; it's just that it happens to correspond to something like 0 {0 that doesn't make any sense at all.",We no know what's suppose to dey store; e just say e dey suppose to correspond to something like 0 {0 wey no fit make any sense for all.,Computer science
"in contrast, naindicates that we actually don't know what was supposed to be there.",Naindicate say we no know what we dey suppose be there,Computer science
the information is missing.,Di information dey missing,Computer science
no value(null).,Na value(null),Computer science
"the null value takes this bsence"" concept even further.","Di one wey mean no dey take dis""absence"" concept even further.",Computer science
it basically asserts that the variable genuinely has no value whatsoever.,E basically assert say di variable genuinely get no value wey dey suppose.,Computer science
this is quite dierent to both nanand na.,Dis dey quite dierent to both naand na.,Computer science
"for nan we actually know what the value is, because it's something insane like 0{0.","We actually know say di value dey, because e dey something insane like 0 {0",Computer science
"for na, we believe that there is supposed to be a value\out there"", but a dog ate our homework and so we don't quite know what it is.","We believe say there dey suppose be value\out there"", but a dog ate awa homework and so we no know what dey",Computer science
but for null we strongly believe that there is no value at all.,We strongly believe say no value for all.,Computer science
here's what i mean.,I mean say i mean,Computer science
suppose i've got data reporting the quarterly pro ts for some company.,Suppose I get data wey dey report di quarterly profit for some company.,Computer science
"if i just create a no-frills vector, i have to rely on memory to know which element corresponds to which event.","If I just create plain vector, I goto remember to know which element correspond to which event.",Computer science
"in general, it can be quite dicult.",E dey quite dicult.,Computer science
this is where it can be helpful to assign names to each ofthe elements.,E dey where e dey helpful to assign names to each of di elements,Computer science
all we're doing is assigning a vector of labels(character strings)to names(profit).,Di all we dey do dey assign vector of labels(character string)to name(profit),Computer science
you can always delete the names again by using the command names(profit)<- null.,Di command name(profit)<- null,Computer science
it's also worth noting that you don't have to do this as a two stage process.,E dey also worth not say you no go do dis as two stage process,Computer science
the value ofprofit[1] is still 3.1; all i've done is added a name to profit[1]as well.,Di value of profit[1]dey still 3.1; all i don done dey add name to profit[1]as well.,Computer science
"nevertheless, names aren't purely cosmetic, since rallows you to pull out particular elements ofthe vector by referring to their names:> profit[""q1""] q1 3. 1 and if i ever need to pull out the names themselves, then i just type names(profit).","Di name no dey cosmetic, since e no need to pull out di name themselves, then e just type name(profit).",Computer science
"in particular, the variables we've de ned so far have either been character data(text), numeric data, or logical data. 16it's important that we remember what kind of information each variable stores(and even more important that rremembers) since dierent kinds of variables allow you to do dierent things to them.","We dey important say we remember what kind of information wey each variable store(and even more important say e dey remember)since di variables wey dey words(text), numbers, or true and false things.",Computer science
but let's ignore functions for the moment.,But let's ignore functions for di moment but let's ignore functions for di moment,Computer science
"it knows this because the quote marks are indicators that the variable is supposed to be treated as text, not as a number.","Di small marks for around words dey indicator say di variable dey suppose dey dem take am as text, no as number",Computer science
"this is quite useful, but notice that it means that rmakes a big distinction between 5and ""5"".","Dis dey useful, but notice say e mean say r make big distinction between 5and ""5"".",Computer science
"without quote marks, rtreats 5as the number ve, and will allow you to do calculations with it.","For di small marks for around words, rtreat 5as di number ve, and go allow you to do calculation wit am",Computer science
"with the quote marks, rtreats ""5""as the textual character ve, and doesn't recognise it as a number anymore than it recognises""p""or""five"" as numbers.","With di small marks for around words, R treat""5"" as di text character""five"", and e no recognise am as number, same as e no recognise""p"" or""five"" as numbers.",Computer science
"as a consequence, there's a big dierence between typing x <- 5 and typing x <-""5"".","Di big dierence wey dey between typing x <- 5 and typing x <-""5""",Computer science
"in the former, we're storing the number 5; in the latter, we're storing the character""5"".","We dey storing di number 5; for di former, we dey storing di character""5"".",Computer science
rprovides a function that will let us nd out.,Di rprovides function wey go let us nd out,Computer science
"or, more precisely, it provides three functions: class(), mode()and typeof().","Or, more precisely, e provide three functions: class(), mode(), and typeof().",Computer science
"why the heck does it provide three functions, you might be wondering?","Na why di heck go provide three functions, you go wonder?",Computer science
"basically, because ractually keeps track of three dierent kinds of information about a variable:1.",Dem keep track of three dierent kinds of information about a variable:,Computer science
"the class of a variable is a\high level"" classi cation, and it captures psychologically(or statistically)meaningful distinctions.","Di class of variable na""high level""classification, and e capture meaningful distinctions for psychology(or statistics).",Computer science
"for instance""2011-09-12"" and""my birthday""are both text strings, but there's an important dierence between the two: one of them is a date.","for example""2011-09-12"" and""my birthday""na both text strings, but e dey important dierence between di two: one of dem dey date",Computer science
"so it would be nice if we could get rto recognise that""2011-09-12"" is a date, and allow us to do things like add or subtract from it.","Na nice if we go get rto recognise say""2011-09-12"" na date, and allow us to do things like add or subtract from it",Computer science
the class of a variable is what ruses to keep track of things like that.,Di class of a variable dey what dey ruses to keep track of things like dat.,Computer science
"because the class of a variable is critical for determining what rcan or can't do with it, the class()function is very handy.",Di class()function dey very handy.,Computer science
the mode of a variable refers to the format ofthe information that the variable stores.,Di mode of a variable to talk about di format of di information wey di variable stores.,Computer science
"it tells you whether rhas stored text data or numeric data, for instance, which is kind of useful, but it only makes these\simple"" distinctions.","I tell you whether rhas store text data or numbers, for example, wey dey kind of useful, but e only make those\simple"" distinctions.",Computer science
"it can be useful to know about, but it's not the main thing we care about.","Di main thing we dey care about, but na di main thing we dey care about.",Computer science
so i'm not going to use the mode()function very much.17 3.,I no go use di mode()function very much,Computer science
the type of a variable is avery low level classi cation.,Di type of a variable dey low level classi cation.,Computer science
"we won't use it in this book, but (for those of you that care about these details)this is where you can see the distinction between integer data, double precision numeric, etc.","For those of you wey care about di details)dis dey where you fit see di distinction between integer data, double precision numeric, etc.",Computer science
"almost none of you actually will care about this, so i'm not even going to bother demonstrating the typeof() function.","almost nobody of you go actually care about dis, so I no even go bother to demonstrate di typeof() function.",Computer science
"for purposes, it's the class()of the variable that we care most about.",Di class()of di variable wey we care most about.,Computer science
"that's a useful skill for real world data analysis, but it's not something that we need right now.","Dat one na one thing wey dey help for real numbers work, but e no be something we need right now.",Computer science
"in particular, we commonly make the distinction between nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scale data.","Especially, we dey often make distinction between nominal, ordinal, interval, and numbers wey start for zero.",Computer science
how do we capture this distinction in r?,How we take capture dis distinction for R?,Computer science
"currently, we only seem to have a single numeric data type.",We only seem to get single numbers type,Computer science
a little thought suggests that the numeric variable class in ris perfectly suited for capturing ratio scale data.,Small thinking suggest say di numeric variable class for R dey just right for to capture numbers wey start for zero.,Computer science
"for instance, if i were to measure response time(rt) for ve dierent events, i could store the data in rlike this:> rt<- c(342, 401, 590, 391, 554)where the data here are measured in milliseconds, as is conventional in the psychological literature.","If i dey measure how fast person answer(rt) for ve dierent events, i go store di data for milliseconds, as dey conventional for di psychological literature.",Computer science
"it's perfectly sensible to talk about wice the response time"",2 rt, or the esponse time plus 1 second"", rt","E dey e good to talk about""twice di how fast person answer""(2 ×RT), or""di how fast person answer plus 1 second""(RT +1).",Computer science
it is for this reason that rhasfactors.,E dey for dis reason say rhasfactors dey for dis reason say rhasfactors.,Computer science
"arguably, a rock has zero intelligence.",Di rock don zero intelligence.,Computer science
but it doesn't make sense to say that the iq of a rock is 0 in the same way that we can say that the average human hasan iq of 100.,E no make sense say di iq of a rock dey 0 for di same way we go say di average human get iq of 100,Computer science
"and without knowing what the iq value is that corresponds to a literal absence of any capacity to think, reason or learn, then we really can't multiply or divide iq scores and expect a meaningful answer.","Di iq value dey suppose correspond to literal absence of any capacity to think, reason or learn, then we no fit multiply or divide iq scores and expect meaningful answer.",Computer science
"each group of people were asked to complete the same task, but each group received dierent instructions.","Di group of pipo dey ask to complete di same task, but each group receive dierent instructions.",Computer science
"not surprisingly, i might want to have a variable that keeps track of what group people were in.",I go wan to get a variable wey dey keep track of what group pipo dey for,Computer science
"so i could type in something like this> group<- c(1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3)so that group[i]contains the group membership ofthe i-th person in my study.","So I fit type something like dis:> group<- c(1,1,1,2,2,2,3,3,3) so dat group[i]contain di which group person dey of di i-th person for my study.",Computer science
"clearly, this is numeric data, but equally obviously this is a nominal scale variable.","Di dey numbers, but equally obviously dis dey nominal scale variable.",Computer science
"unfortunately, ris too stupid to know any better: it thinks that 3is an ordinary number in this context, so it sees no problem in calculating 3+2.","E think say 3 na ordinary number for dis context, so e no dey solve any better.",Computer science
"but since we're not that stupid, we'd like to stoprfrom doing this.","Na since we no dey stupid, we dey like to stop from do dis.",Computer science
we can do so by instructing rto treat group as a factor.,We fit do so by instructing rto treat group as factor.,Computer science
my memory is not in nite in capacity; and it seems to be getting worse as i get older.,Di memory no dey in nite for capacity; and e seem to get worse as i get older,Computer science
"so it kind of annoys me when i get data sets where there's a nominal scale variable called 20once again, this is an example of coercing a variable from one class to another.","Di example of coercing a variable from one class to another, na example of coercing a variable from one class to another.",Computer science
but when i goto print out the variable i get something like this:> gender[1] 1 1 1 1 1 2 222 levels:12 okaaaay.,"But when I go print di variable, I get something like dis:> gender[1] 12 Levels:1 2. Okaaaay.",Computer science
"that's not helpful at all, and it makes me very sad.","E no dey helpful for all, and e make me sad",Computer science
which number corresponds to the males and which one corresponds to the females?,Di number correspond to di male and which one correspond to di females and which one correspond to di females,Computer science
wouldn't it be nice if rcould actually keep track of this?,E no be nice if r go actually keep track of dis?,Computer science
it's way too hard to remember which number corresponds to which gender.,E too hard to remember which number correspond to which gender.,Computer science
"and besides, the problem that this causes is much more serious than a single sad nerd. because rhas no way of knowing that the1s in the group variable area very dierent kind of thing to the 1s in the gender variable.","Di problem say dis cause dey more serious than single sad nerd, because rha no way know say di1s for di group variable dey very animal kind of thing to di 1s for di gender variable",Computer science
"even though you've declared both group and gender to be factors, it still assumes that a 1is a 1no matter which variable it appears in.","As you declare both group and gender to be factor, e still assum say 1is a 1no matter wey dey appear for.",Computer science
"to x both of these problems(my memory problem, and r's infuriating literal interpretations), what we need to do is assign meaningful labels to the dierent levels of each factor.","To fix both of dese problems(my memory problem, and R im annoying literal interpretation), wetin we need do nato put names wey get meaning to di different groups of each factor.",Computer science
and there are lots of nominal scale variables out there.,And plenty names wey no need order dey out there.,Computer science
the reason is that sometimes you really do have dierent factors that have the same levels.,Di reason na say sometimes you go get dierent factors wey don get di same level.,Computer science
"for instance, if i was analysing data associated with football games, i might have a factor called home. team, and another factor called winning. team.","for example, if i dey analyse data wey dey associated wit football games, i go get factor wey dey call home. team, and another factor wey dey call winning. team",Computer science
"apparently we succeeded in loading the data, but it came to us in avery odd looking format.","Di apparently we dey suppose loading di data, but e kom to us for very odd looking format.",Computer science
"at the time, i told you that this was a data frame.",I tell you say dis na one kind of table,Computer science
now i'd better explain what that means.,I dey better explain what dat means,Computer science
"and it just so happens that all four of them are the same size(i. e, they're all vectors with 9 elements).","Di just so happen say all four of dem dey di same size(i. e, dem dey all vector wit 9 elements).",Computer science
"aaaand it just so happens that age[1]corresponds to the age ofthe rst person, and gender[1]is the gender of that very same person, etc.","Di just so happen say age[1]correspond to di age of di rst person, and gender[1]na di gender of dat very same person, etc.",Computer science
"in other words, you andi both know that all four of these variables correspond to the same dataset, and all four of them are organised in exactly the same way.","You andi both know say all four of dis variables correspond to di same group of related numbers or data wey belong together, and all four of dem dey organised for exactly di same way.",Computer science
"however, rdoesn't know this!",E no know dis!,Computer science
"as far as it's concerned, there's no reason why the agevariable has to be the same length as the gender variable; and there's no particular reason to think that age[1]has any special relationship to gender[1]any more than it has a special relationship to gender[4].",Di agevariable don be di same length as di gender variable; and nano reason why di agevariable don be di same length as di gender variable; and nano reason why di agevariable don be di same length as di gender variable; and nano reason say age[1]don be special relationship to gender[4],Computer science
"in other words, when we store everything in separate variables like this, rdoesn't know anything about the relationships between things.","We dey store things for separate variables like dis, r no know any about di relationship wey dey between things",Computer science
it doesn't even really know that these variables actually refer to a proper dataset.,E no even know say dis variables dey to talk about proper group of related numbers or data wey belong together.,Computer science
"the data frame xes this: if we store our variables inside a data frame, we're telling rto treat these variables as a single, fairly coherent dataset.","If we store awa variables inside one kind of table, we tell rto treat dis variables as single, fairly coherent group of related numbers or data wey belong together.",Computer science
"to see how they do this, let's create one.",E dey create one,Computer science
so how do we create a data frame?,We create one kind of table so how we create one kind of table?,Computer science
"one way we've already seen: if we import our data from a csv le, rwill store it as a data frame.","If we import awa data from csv le, rwill store am as one kind of table.",Computer science
a second way is to create it directly from some existing variables using the data. frame()function.,Di second way dey create am directly from some existing variables using di data. frame()function.,Computer science
all you have to do is type a list of variables that you want to include in the data frame.,Di all you go do dey type list of variables wey you wan to include for di one kind of table.,Computer science
"the output of a data. frame()command is, well, a data frame.","Di frame()command dey, well, one kind of table",Computer science
"so, if i want to store all four variables from my experiment in a data frame called expt i can do so like this:-100- > expt <-data. frame( age, gender, group, score ) > expt age gender group score 1 17 male group 1 12 2 19 male group 1 10 3 21 male group 1 11 4 37 male group 2 15 5 18 male group 2 16 6 19 female group 2 14 7 47 female group 3 25 8 18 female group 3 21 9 19 female group 3 29 note that expt is a completely self-contained variable.",If i wan to store all four variables from my experiment for one kind of table wey e call expt age gender group score 1 17 male group 1 12 2 19 male group 1 10 3 21 male group 1 10 3 21 male group 1 11 4 37 male group 2 16 6 19 female group 2 16 6 19 female group 3 21 9 19 female group 3 21 9 19 female group 3 21 9 19 female group 3 21 9 19 female group 3 21 9 19 female group 3 21 9 19 female group 3 21 9 19 female group 3 21 9 19 female group 3,Computer science
"once you've created it, it no longer depends on the original variables from which it was constructed.","Di original variables wey dey construct am, no depend on di original variables wey dey construct am",Computer science
"that is, if we make changes to the original age variable, it will notlead to any changes to the age data stored in expt.","If we make change to di original age variable, e no lead to any change to di age data wey we dey store for expt",Computer science
"but as we can see when we told rto print the variable out, this data frame contains 4 variables, each of which has 9 observations.","As we fit see wen we tell rto print di variable out, dis one kind of table contains 4 variables, each of which get 9 observations.",Computer science
so how do we get this information out again?,Na how do we get dis information out again?,Computer science
"after all, there's no point in storing information if you don't use it, and there's no way to use information if you can't access it.","Nano point for storing information if you no use am, and nano way to use information if you no use am.",Computer science
so let's talk a bit about how to pull information out of a data frame.,So make we talk small about how to get tins from inside of one kind of table.,Computer science
"the rst thing we might want to do is pull out one of our stored variables, let's say score.","Di rst thing we go wan to do na pull out one of awa stored variables, let say score.",Computer science
one thing you might try to do is ignore the fact that score is locked up inside the expt data frame.,One thing you go try to do na ignore di fact say score dey locked up inside di expt one kind of table.,Computer science
"for instance, you might try to print it out like this:> score error: object 'score' not found this doesn't work, because rdoesn't go \peeking"" inside the data frame unless you explicitly tell it to do so.","Di score error: object 'score' no find dis no work, because r no go \peeking"" inside di one kind of table unless you explicitly tell am to do so",Computer science
"there's actually avery good reason for this, which i'll explain in a moment, but for now let's just assume rknows what it's doing.","I go explain for moment, but for now let's just assume rknow what e dey do.",Computer science
how do we tell rto look inside the data frame?,How we take to tell R to check inside di one kind of table?,Computer science
as is always the case withrthere are several ways.,As dey always di case witrthere dey several way.,Computer science
"the simplest way is to use the$operator to extract the variable you're interested in, like this:> expt$score [1]12 10 11 15 16 14 25 21 294. 8. 3 getting information about a data frame one problem that sometimes comes up in practice is that you forget what you called all your variables.","Di simple way dey use di$operator to extract di variable wey you dey interest for, like dis:",Computer science
"normally you might try to type objects() orwho(), but neither of those commands will tell you what the names are for those variables inside a data frame!","Na normally you go try type objects() orwho(), but neither of those commands go tell you what di name dey for di one kind of table.",Computer science
"if you set expand= true then it will not only list the variables in the workspace, but it will\expand"" any data frames that you've got in the workspace, so that you can see what they look like.","Di workspace no only list di variables for di workspace, but e go\expand"" anyone kind of table wey you go get for di workspace, so say you fit see what dem look like.",Computer science
i'll do that alot in this book.,I go do dat lot for dis book,Computer science
"there's alot more that can be said about data frames: they're fairly complicated beasts, and the longer you use rthe more important it is to make sure you really understand them.","Dem dey complicated beasts, and di longer you use rthe more important e dey make sure you understand dem",Computer science
"lists are an extremely fundamental data structure inr, and as you start making the transition from a novice to a savvy ruser you will use lists all the time.",As you start making di transition from novice to savvy ruser you go use list all di time.,Computer science
"because lists are so important to how rstores things, it's useful to have a basic understanding of them.","Di lists dey important to how rstores things, e dey useful to get basic understanding of dem",Computer science
"okay, so what is a list, exactly?","Di list, exactly?",Computer science
"like data frames, lists are just\collections of variables.""","For one kind of table, lists dey just\collections of variables",Computer science
"however, unlike data frames{ which are basically supposed to look like a nice ectangular"" table of data{ there are no constraints on what kinds of variables we include, and no requirement that the variables have any particular relationship to one another.","Di like one kind of table wey dey suppose look like nice ectangular"" table of data wey dey suppose look like a nice ectangular"" table of data, and no requirement say di variables get any particular relationship to one another.",Computer science
"in order to understand what this actually means, the best thing to do is create a list, which we can do using the list()function.","Di best thing to do na create list, wey we fit do using di list()function.",Computer science
"notice, that the parents variable is longer than the others.",Di parents variable dey longer than di oda.,Computer science
"this is perfectly acceptable for a list, but it wouldn't be for a data frame.","Dis dey perfectly acceptable for list, but e no fit be for one kind of table",Computer science
"so you will(i hope)be entirely unsurprised and probably quite bored when i tell you that you can extract the variables from the list using the$operator, like so:> dan$nerd[1] true if you need to add new entries to the list, the easiest way to do so is to again use$, as the following example illustrates.","Di following example dey illustrate say if you need add new entries to di list, di easiest way to do so nato again use$, as di following example illustrate.",Computer science
"if i type a command like this> dan$children<- ""alex"" thenrcreates anew entry to the end ofthe list called children, and assigns it a value of""alex"".","Di command like dis> dan$children<- ""alex""don create new entry to di end of di list wey dey call children, and assign am value of""alex"".",Computer science
"if i were now to print()this list out, you'd see anew entry at the bottom ofthe printout.","Di bottom of di printout, you see new entry for di top of di printout",Computer science
"finally, it's actually possible for lists to contain other lists, so it's quite possible that i would end up using a command like dan$children$age to nd out how old my son is.","E dey possible for lists to contain oda lists, so e dey possible say i go end up using command like dan$children$age to nd out how old my son dey",Computer science
or i could try to remember it myself i suppose.,"Or I fit try to remember am myself, I suppose.",Computer science
"formulas are now used in alot of dierent contexts, so it makes sense to introduce them early.","E make sense to introduce dem early, so e make sense to introduce dem early",Computer science
"stated simply, a formula object is a variable, but it's a special type of variable that species a relationship between other variables.","Di formula object dey a variable, but e dey special type of variable wey dey species how two things dey related oda variables.",Computer science
"a formula is speci ed using the ilde operator""~.","Di Ilde operator""",Computer science
"that said, although the simplest and most common form of a formula uses the\one variable on the left, one variable on the right""format, there are others.","Di simplest and most common form of a formula use di\one variable on di left, one variable on di right""format, na odas.",Computer science
"formulas are pretty exible things, and so dierent functions will make use of dierent formats, depending on what the function is intended to do.","Di function dey exible things, and so di function dey to use dierent formats, based on how di function dey do.",Computer science
"the thing that makes generics dierent from the other functions is that their behaviour changes, often quite dramatically, depending on the class()of the input you give it.","Di thing wey dey make generics dierent from di oda function dey say dia behaviour change, based on di class()of di input you give am.",Computer science
the easiest way to explain the concept is with an example.,Di easiest way to explain di concept na wit example,Computer science
"with that in mind, lets take a closer look at what the print()function actually does.",Dem take close make we look what di print()function actually do.,Computer science
"i'll do this by creating a formula, and printing it out in a few dierent ways.","I go do dis by create a formula, and printing am out for few dierent way.",Computer science
but there's actually alot going on behind the scenes here.,Na actually alot going on behind di scenes here.,Computer science
"when i type print(my. formula), what actually happens is the print()function checks the class ofthe my. formula variable.",Di print()function check di class of di my. formula variable.,Computer science
"when the function discovers that the variable it's been given is a formula, it goes looking for a function called print. formula(), and then delegates the whole business of printing out the variable to the print. formula()function. 23for what it's worth, the name for a\dedicated"" function like print. formula()that exists only to be a special case of a generic function like print()is amethod, and the name for the process in which the generic function passes o all the hard work onto a method is called method dispatch.","Di name for a generic function like print()dey amethod, and di name for di process wey di generic function pass o all di generic function.",Computer science
"you won't need to understand the details at all for this book, but you do need to know the gist of it; if only because alot ofthe functions we'll use are actually generics.","But you no need to understand di details for all for dis book, but you need to know di details for all for dis book, but you need to know di gist of am; if only because alot of di function wey we go use dey generics.",Computer science
"anyway, to help expose a little more ofthe workings to you, let's bypass the print()function entirely and call the formula method directly:> print. formula(my. formula) #print it out using the print. formula()method blah~ blah. blah there's no dierence in the output at all.",Di print. formula(my. formula)# print am out using di print. formula()method blah,Computer science
but this shouldn't surprise you because it was actually the print. formula()method that was doing all the hard workin the rst place.,Dem no surprise you because di print. formula()method wey dey do all di hard work for di rst place.,Computer science
the print()function itself is a lazy bastard that doesn't do anything other than select which ofthe methods is going to do the actual printing.,Di print()function itself dey lazy bastard wey no dey do any of di methods wey dey go do di actual printing.,Computer science
"okay, fair enough, but you might be wondering what would have happened if print. formula()didn't exist?",Di suppose wonder say e go do if print. formula()no exist?,Computer science
"that is, what happens if there isn't a speci c method de ned for the class of variable that you're using?",For di class of variable wey you dey use?,Computer science
"in that case, the generic function passes o the hard work to a\default"" method, whose name in this case would be print. default().","Di generic function pass o di hard work to a default""method, wey dey print. default()",Computer science
"however, you should be aware that rhas two entirely distinct systems for doing object oriented programming, known as s3 and s4.","However, you suppose know say R get two entirely different systems for doing object-oriented programming, wey dem know as two different ways.",Computer science
"ofthe two, s3 is simpler and more informal, whereas s4 supports all the stu that you might expect of a fully object oriented language.","For di two, S3 dey more simple and free, while S4 support all di stuff wey you fit expect from full object-oriented language.",Computer science
"most ofthe generics we'll run into in this book use the s3 system, which is convenient for me because i'm still trying to gure out s4.","Di generic wey dey run into for dis book use di s3 system, wey dey convenient for me because i still try to gure out s4",Computer science
"you can kind of see that it is trying to print out the same formula, but there's a bunch of ugly low-level details that have also turned upon screen.","We go kind of see say e dey try to show di same formula, but na bunch of ugly low-level details wey dey turn upon screen.",Computer science
"this is because the print. default()method doesn't know anything about formulas, and doesn't know that it's supposed to be hiding the obnoxious internal gibberish that rproduces sometimes.","Di print. default()method no know anything about formulas, and no know say e go hid di obnoxious internal gibberish wey dey rproduce sometimes.",Computer science
"at this stage, this is about as much as we need to know about generic functions and their methods.",E dey about as much as we need know about generic functions and dia methods.,Computer science
"in fact, you can get through the entire book without learning anymore about them than this, so it's probably a good idea to end this discussion here.","For fact, you fit get through di entire book without learning anymore about dem than dis, so na good idea to end dis discussion here",Computer science
"obviously, i've tried to make this book as helpful as possible, but it's not even close to being a comprehensive guide, and there's thousands of things it doesn't cover.","I dey try make dis book as helpful as possible, but e no dey close to being comprehensive guide, and thousands of things wey dey cover.",Computer science
so where should you go for help?,We go for help?,Computer science
"on the minus side, there's alot of it, and it's very thorough.",Di minus side dey very thorough.,Computer science
"there's so much help documentation that it sometimes doesn't help, and most of it is written with an advanced user in mind.","Di papers wey dey help wey dey sometimes don help, and most of dem dey write wit advanced user for mind.",Computer science
often it feels like most ofthe help les work on the assumption that the reader already understands everything about rexcept for the speci c topic that it's providing help for.,Di reader feel like most of di help wey dey work on di assumption say di reader already understand all about rexcept for di speci c topic wey dey provide help for.,Computer science
"what that means is that, once you've been using rfor along time and are beginning to get a feel for how to use it, the help documentation is awesome.",Di papers wey dey help dey awesome.,Computer science
"these days, i nd myself really liking the help les(most of them anyway).",I nd myself really lik di help les(most of dem anyway).,Computer science
but when i rst started using ri found it very dense.,I rst start using ri find am very dense but when i rst start using ri find am very dense but when i rst start using ri find am very dense but when i rst start using ri find am very dense but when i rst start using ri find am very dense but when i rst start using ri find am very dense but when i rst start using ri find am very dense but when i rst start using ri find,Computer science
"to some extent, there's not much i can do to help you with this.",Dino dey much i fit do to help you wit dis,Computer science
"you just have to work at it yourself; once you're moving away from being a pure beginner and are becoming a skilled user, you'll start nding the help documentation more and more helpful.","Di once you move away from being a pure beginner and dey becoming skilled user, you go start nding di papers wey dey help more and more helpful.",Computer science
"in the meantime, i'll help as much as i can by trying to explain to you what you're looking at when you open a help le.",I go help as much as i fit try to explain to you what you look for wen you open help le.,Computer science
"to that end, let's look at the help documentation for the load()function.",Dem make we look di papers wey dey help for di load()function,Computer science
"to do so, i type either ofthe following:>?",I type one of di following:,Computer science
"load> help(""load"")when i do that, rgoes looking for the help le for the""load"" topic.","I do dat, rgo look for di help le for di""load"" topic.",Computer science
"if it nds one, rstudio takes it and displays it in the help panel.","For di help panel, rstudio take am and display am for help panel.",Computer science
"alternatively, you can try a fuzzy search for a help topic:>?",We go try fuzzy to find help topic:,Computer science
"load> help. search(""load"")this will bring up a list of possible topics that you might want to follow up in.",E go bring up list of possible topics wey you go follow up for.,Computer science
"regardless, at some point you'll nd yourself looking at an actual help le.",For some point you go make we look di actual help le.,Computer science
"and when you do, you'll see there's a quite alot of stu written down there, and it comes in a pretty standardised format.","And when you do am, you go see say plenty stuff dey written down there, and e come for one normal way.",Computer science
"so let's go through it slowly, using the""load"" topic as our example.","Di""load"" topic as awa example.",Computer science
"firstly, at the very top we see this:-105- load(base) r documentation ther documentation part isn't terribly interesting, but the loadfbasegpart is telling you that this is in reference to the load()function (obviously)and that this function is in the base package.","-105-load (base)r documentation di r documentation part no dey interesting, but di loadfbasegpart dey tell you say di load()function (obviously)and say dis function dey for di base package.",Computer science
"next, we get the itle"" information, and a short\description"" of what the function does: reload saved datasets description reload datasets written with the function save.","We get di itle"" information, and a short\description"" of what di function go save.",Computer science
"it's telling you that there are two arguments to the load()function: the rst one is called file, and the second one is called envir.","Di rst one dey call file, and di second one dey call envir",Computer science
"it's also telling you that there is a default value for the envir argument; so if the user doesn't specify what the value ofenvir should be, then rwill assume that envir =parent. frame().","E also dey tell you say di normal number dey for di envir argument; so if di user no specify wetin envir value suppose be, den R go assume say envir = parent. frame().",Computer science
"in contrast, the file argument has no default value at all, so the user must specify a value for it.","Di file argument no get di normal number for all, so di user must specify value for am",Computer science
"the problem, of course, is that you don't know what the parent. frame()function actually does, so it's hard for you to know what the envir =parent. frame()bit is all about.","Di problem, of course, na say you no know what di parent. frame()function actually do, so e hard for you to know what di parent. frame()bit dey all about.",Computer science
"what you could do is then go look up the help documents for the parent. frame()function (and sometimes that's actually a good idea), but often you'll nd that the help documents for those functions are just as dense(if not more dense)than the help le that you're currently reading.",Di help document for those functions dey just as dense(if no more dense)than di help le wey you dey reading.,Computer science
"as an alternative, my general approach when faced with something like this is to skim over it, see if i can make any sense of it.","Di general approach wey dey face wit something like dis nato skim over am, see if i fit make any sense of am",Computer science
"if so, great.",E dey great,Computer science
"if not, i nd that the best thing to do is ignore it.",I nd say di best thing to do na ignore am,Computer science
"in fact, the rst time i read the help le for the load()function, i had no idea what any ofthe envir related stu was about.","Di rst time i read di help le for di load()function, i no idea what any of di envir related stu dey about.",Computer science
"but fortunately i didn't have to: the default setting here(i. e, envir =parent. frame()) is actually the thing you want in about 99%of cases, so it's safe to ignore it.","Di default setting here(i. e, envir =parent. frame())dey actually di thing wey you wan for about 99%of case, so e dey safe to ignore am",Computer science
"basically, what i'm trying to say is: don't let the scary, incomprehensible parts ofthe help le intimidate you.","Wetin i try say na: don let di scary, incomprehensible parts of di help le intimidate you",Computer science
especially because there's often some parts ofthe help le that will make sense.,Di help le dey make sense,Computer science
"ofcourse, i guarantee you that sometimes this strategy will lead you to make mistakes. often embarrassing mistakes.",I guarantee you say sometimes dis strategy go lead you to make mistakes,Computer science
but it's still better than getting paralysed with fear.,E still better than get paralyse wit fear but e still better than get paralyse wit fear,Computer science
"so, let's continue on.",Dem continue on.,Computer science
"the next part ofthe help documentation discusses each ofthe arguments, and what they're supposed to do: arguments file a(readable binary-mode)connection or a character string giving the name ofthe file to load(when tilde expansion is done).","Di next part of di papers wey dey help discuss each of di arguments, and what dem dey suppose do: arguments file a(readable binary-mode)connection or character string wey dey give di name of di file to load(when expansion dey done).",Computer science
envir the environment where the data should be loaded.,E dey envir di environment wey di data go load,Computer science
"it also seems to be hinting that there's other possibilities too(e. g, a inary mode connection""), and you probably aren't quite sure what ilde expansion"" means24.","E. g, a inary mode connection""), and you probably no dey sure what ilde expansion"" means24.",Computer science
"but overall, the meaning is pretty clear.","Di meaning dey clear but overall, di meaning dey clear.",Computer science
"almost always, this is a no-brainer: you want rto load the data into the same damn environment in which you're invoking the load()command.",Di no-brainer: you wan rto load di data into di same damn environment wey you dey invoking di load()command,Computer science
"that is, if you're typing load()at the rprompt, then you want the data to be loaded into your workspace (i. e, the global environment).","If you dey typ load()for di rprompt, then you wan di data to loaded into your workspace (i. e, di global environment).",Computer science
"but if you're writing your own function that needs to load some data, you want the data to be loaded inside that function's private workspace.","If you write your own function wey needs to load some data, you wan di data to be loaded inside di function's private workspace.",Computer science
"and in fact, that's exactly what the parent. frame()thing is all about.",Di parent. frame()thing dey all about.,Computer science
it's telling the load()function to send the data to the same place that the load()command itself was coming from.,Di load()function go send di data to di same place wey di load()command dey kom from.,Computer science
"as it turns out, if we'd just ignored the envir bit we would have been totally safe.","Di envir bit wey dey turnout, if we just ignor di envir bit wey dey turnout, if we just ignor di envir bit wey dey totally safe.",Computer science
which is nice to know.,We dey nice to know,Computer science
"moving on, next up we get a detailed description of what the function actually does: details load can load r objects saved in the current or any earlier format.",Na next up we get thorough description of how di function actually do: details load fit load objects wey dey saved for di current or any earlier format.,Computer science
it can read a compressed file(see save) directly from a file or from a suitable connection(including a call to url).,E fit read one file wey dem make small(see save)directly from file or from one good way to connect(including to ask one website).,Computer science
"a not-open connection will be opened in mode""rb"" and closed after use.","Dino-open connection go open for mode""rb"" and closed afta use.",Computer science
"any connection other than a gzfile orgzcon connection will be wrapped in gzcon to allow compressed saves to be handled: note that this leaves the connection in an altered state(in particular, binary-only).","Hin note say dis leave di connection for di altered state(especially, binary-only). note say dis leave di connection for di altered state(especially, binary-only). note say dis leave di connection for an altered state(especially, binary-only)",Computer science
only r objects saved in the current format(used since r 1.4. 0)can be read from a connection.,For di current format(used since r 1.4. 0)go read from connection.,Computer science
"if no input is available on a connection a warning will be given, but any input not in the current format will result in a error.","Di input no dey available for connection warning go give, but any input no dey available for connection warning go given, but any input no dey available for connection warning go result for error.",Computer science
"loading from an earlier version will give a warning about the""magic number"": magic numbers 1971:1977 are from r<0. 99. 0, and rd[abx]1 from r 0. 99. 0 to r 1.3. 1.","Di magic number 1971:1977 dey from r<0. 99. 0, and rd[abx]1 from r0",Computer science
"these are all obsolete, and you are strongly recommended tore-save such files in a current format.","E dey all obsolete, and you dey strongly recommend tore-save such files for current format.",Computer science
"then it tells you what the output value ofthe function is: value a character vector ofthe names of objects created, invisibly.","Di output value of di function na: value a character vector of di name of objects create, invisibly.",Computer science
"this is usually a bit more interesting, but since the load()function is mainly used to load variables into the workspace rather than to return a value, it's no surprise that this doesn't do much or say much.","Di load()function dey mainly use to load variables into di workspace, but since di load()function dey mainly use to load variables into workspace no be to di tin wey dey come out from function, dem dey call am return value, but make we tok am well, na di result wey function dey bring out after e don finish im work, na no surprise say dis no go do much or say much.",Computer science
"tilde expansion is the thing where rrecognises that, in the context of specifying a le location, the tilde symbol~corresponds to the user home directory(e. g,/users/dan/ ).","Di thing wey rrecognises say, for di context of specifying le location, di tilde symbol~correspond to di user home directory(e. g, users dan).",Computer science
load tries to detect such a conversion and gives an informative error message.,load()dey try to detect such conversion and e give one message wey dey tell you wetin wrong.,Computer science
"warning, warning, blah blah blah.","Di warning, warning, warning, blah",Computer science
"towards the bottom ofthe help le, we see something like this, which suggests a bunch of related topics that you might want to look at.","We see something like dis, we suggest a bunch of related topics wey you go make we look.",Computer science
"these can be quite helpful: see also save, download. file.","Dem dey quite helpful: see also save, download. file",Computer science
"for other interfaces to the underlying serialization format, see unserialize andreadrds.","For other interfaces to di real way dem pack di data, see unserialize() and readRDS().",Computer science
"finally, it gives you some examples of how to use the function(s)that the help le describes.",E give you some examples of how to use di function(s) wey di help le describe.,Computer science
"these are supposed to be proper rcommands, meaning that you should be able to type them into the console yourself and they'll actually work.","Di suppose be proper rcommands, meaning say you go fit type dem into di console yourself and dem go actually work.",Computer science
sometimes it can be quite helpful to try the examples yourself.,Di sometimes e go quite helpful to try di examples yourself.,Computer science
"however, they do provide good examples ofthe various dierent things that you can do with the load()function, so it's not a bad idea to have a look at them, and to try not to nd them too intimidating.","Diy don provide good examples of di various dierent things wey you fit do wit di load()function, so e no dey bad idea to get make we look dem, and to try no to nd dem too intimidating",Computer science
one thing that i really nd annoying about the rhelp documentation is that it's hard to search properly.,I really nd annoying about di R help wey dey inside na say e hard to search properly.,Computer science
"when coupled with the fact that the documentation-108- is dense and highly technical, it's often a better idea to search or ask online for answers to your questions.","For when couple wit di fact say di documentation-108- dey dense and highly technical, e dey often better idea to search or ask online for answers to your questions",Computer science
"with that in mind, the rseek website is great: it's an rspeci c search engine.",Di rseek website dey great: e dey rspeci c search engine,Computer science
this is the ocial rhelp mailing list.,Dis na di official R-help mailing list.,Computer science
"it can be very helpful, but it's veryimportant that you do your homework before posting a question.",E dey very important say you do your homework before posting a question.,Computer science
the list gets alot of trac.,Di list get lot of trac.,Computer science
"while the people on the list try as hard as they can to answer questions, they do so for free, and you really don't want to know how much money they could charge on an hourly rate if they wanted to apply market rates.","Di pipo wey dey list try as hard as dem fit answer questions, dem do so for free, and you no fit know how much money dem go charge on hourly rate if dem waned to apply market rate.",Computer science
"in short, they are doing you a favour, so be polite.","Dem dey do you favour, so be polite.",Computer science
"don't waste their time asking questions that can be easily answered by a quick search on rseek (it's rude), make sure your question is clear, and all ofthe relevant information is included.","Di question dey clear, and all of di relevant information dey included.",Computer science
"the focus was still primarily on introducing basic r concepts, but this time atleast you can see how those concepts are related to data analysis: installing, loading and updating packages.","Di focus dey still primarily on introducing basic r concepts, but dis time atleast you go see how those concepts dey related to study numbers: installing, loading and updating package.",Computer science
loading and saving data.,E dey loading and saving data,Computer science
"finally, we encountered actual data les.",We deycounter actual data lose.,Computer science
useful things to know about variables.,Di useful things wey dey know about variables,Computer science
more complex types of variables. rhas a number of important variable types that will be useful when analysing real data.,Di number of important types of variables wey dey useful when dey analyse real data. rhas a number of important types of variables wey dey useful when dey analyse real data,Computer science
generic functions.,E dey generic functions.,Computer science
how is it that some function seem to be able to do lots of dierent things?,Di how dey e say some function dey able to do lots of dierent things?,Computer science
getting help.,E get help.,Computer science
"if you are looking for counselling, well, this book really can't help you there.",Di book no dey help you there.,Computer science
it's time to see how your experience with programming can be used to do some data analysis.,E don time to see how your wetin you know about writing code fit use to do some to study numbers.,Computer science
working with data-111- 5.,E dey work wit data-111-,Computer science
"descriptive statistics anytime that you get anew dataset to look at, one ofthe rst tasks that you have to do is nd ways of summarising the data in a compact, easily understood fashion.","Di rst tasks wey you go do dey numbers wey describe anytime wey you go get new group of related numbers or data wey belong together to make we look, one of di rst tasks wey you go do dey nd way of summarising di data for compact, easily understand fashion.",Computer science
this is what descriptive statistics(as opposed to inferential statistics)is all about.,Di numbers wey describe(as oppose to inferential statistics)dey all about.,Computer science
"in fact, to many people the term\statistics"" is synonymous with descriptive statistics.","Di term statistics""dey synonymous wit numbers wey describe.",Computer science
"unlike most of data sets in this book, these are actually real data, relating to the australian football league (afl)1the afl. margins variable contains the winning margin(number of points)for all 176 home and away games played during the 2010 season.","Di data wey dey set for dis book, dem dey actually real data, wey dey relating to di australian football league (afl)1the afl. margin variable contains di winning margin(number of points)for all 176 home and away games wey dey play for di 2010 season.",Computer science
the afl. finalists variable contains the names of all 400 teams that played in all 200 nals matches played during the period 1987 to 2010.,Di afl. finalists variable contains di names of all 400 team wey play for all 200 nal match wey dey play for di period 1987 to 2010.,Computer science
"just\looking at the data""isn't a terribly eective way of understanding data.",Di data no dey terribly ective way of understanding data,Computer science
"as you might expect, the larger the margin the less frequently you tend to see it.","As you might expect, di larger di margin di less frequently you go see am.",Computer science
"since the descriptive statistics are the easier ofthe two topics, i'll start with those, but nevertheless i'll show you a histogram ofthe afl. margins data, since it should help you get a sense of what the data we're trying to describe actually look like.","Di numbers wey describe dey di easier of di two topics, i go start wit those, but nevertheless i goto show you hintogram of di afl. margin data, since e go help you go get sense of what di data wey dey describe actually look like.",Computer science
"but for what it's worth, this histogram {which is shown in figure 5.1{ was generated using the hist() function.",Di hintogram wey dey show for figure 5. 1 wey dey generate using di hist() function.,Computer science
"for now, it's enough to look at the histogram and note that it provides a fairly interpretable representation ofthe afl. margins data.",Di hintogram and note say dem provide fairly interpretable representation of di afl. margin data.,Computer science
"in most situations, the rst thing that you'll want to calculate is a measure of central tendency.","Di rst thing wey you wan to calculate na measure of Wetin dey happen for middle, wey be say one number dey represent all di numbers wey dey inside, e fit be mean, mode or median, but e be like say di middle dey sabi di truth for all di numbers.",Computer science
"that is, you'd like to know something about the verage"" or\middle"" of your data lies.","Dat mean say, you like to know something about di""average"" or""middle"" of your data.",Computer science
"the two most commonly used measures are the mean, median and mode; occasionally people will also report a trimmed mean.","Di two most common measures dey di mean, median and mode; occasionally pipo go report a trimmed mean.",Computer science
"i'll explain each of these in turn, and then discuss when each of them is useful.","I go explain each of dis for turn, and then discuss wen each of dem dey useful",Computer science
"the rst ve afl margins were 56, 31, 56, 8 and 32, so the-114- mean of these observations is just:56","Di-114- mean of dis observations dey just:56 31, 56, 8 and 32, so di-114- mean of dis observations dey just:56 31, 56, 8 and 32, so di-114- mean of dis observations dey just:",Computer science
"however, since the concept of a mean is something that everyone already understands, i'll use this as an excuse to start introducing some ofthe mathematical notation that statisticians use to describe this calculation, and talk about how the calculations would be done in r. the rst piece of notation to introduce isn, which we'll use to refer to the number of observations that we're averaging(in this case n5).","Di concept of a mean dey something wey dey already understand, i go use to introduce some of di way wey math dey write wey statisticians use to describe dis calculation, and talk about how di calculation dey done for r.",Computer science
"next, we need to attach a label to the observations themselves.","Next, we need attach label to di observations demself.",Computer science
"it's traditional to use xfor this, and to use subscripts to indicate which observation we're actually talking about.","E dey traditional to use xfor dis, and to use subscripts to indicate which observation wey we dey talk about.",Computer science
"that is, we'll use x1to refer to the rst observation, x2to refer to the second observation, and soon, all the way upto xnfor the last one.","Dat mean say, we go use x1 to talk about di first observation, x2 to talk about di second observation, and soon, all di way to xn for di last one.",Computer science
"or, to say the same thing in a slightly more abstract way, we usexito refer to the i-th observation.",We usexito to talk about di i-th observation.,Computer science
"just to make sure we're clear on the notation, the following table lists the 5 observations in the afl. margins variable, along with the mathematical symbol used to refer to it, and the actual value that the observation corresponds to: the observation its symbol the observed value winning margin, game 1 x1 56 points winning margin, game 2 x2 31 points winning margin, game 3 x3 56 points winning margin, game 4 x4 8 points winning margin, game 5 x5 32 points okay, now let's try to write a formula for the mean.","Di following table list di 5 observations for di afl. margin variable, along wit di mathematical symbol wey dey use to talk about di observed value winning margin, game 2 x2 31 points winning margin, game 4 x4 8 points winning margin, game 5 x5 32 points winning margin, game 5 x5 32 points winning margin, game 5 x5 32 points winning margin, game 5 x5 32 points winning margin, game 5 x5 32 points winning margin,",Computer science
"by tradition, we use xas the notation for the mean.",We use xas di notation for di mean,Computer science
so the calculation for the mean could be expressed using the following formula: xx1,Di calculation for di mean go dey express using di following formula: xx1,Computer science
"but basically, what it means is dd up the rst ve observations"".",Di rst ve observations dey suppose dd up di rst ve observations,Computer science
"in any case, we can use this notation to write out the formula for the mean, which looks like this: x1 nn i1xi in all honesty, i can't imagine that all this mathematical notation helps clarify the concept ofthe mean at all.","x1 nn i1xi for all honesty, i fit imagine say all dis di way wey math dey write help clarify di concept of di mean for all.",Computer science
"in fact, it's really just a fancy way of writing out the same thing i said in words: add all the 2the choice to use to denote summation isn't arbitrary: it's the greek upper case letter sigma, which is the analogue ofthe letters in that alphabet.","Di greek upper case letter sigma, wey dey di analogue of di letters for dat alphabet.",Computer science
"similarly, there's an equivalent symbol used to denote the multiplication of lots of numbers: because multiplications are also called\products"", we use the symbol for this; the greek upper case pi, which is the analogue ofthe letter p.-115- values up, and then divide by the total number of items.","Di greek upper case p, we use di symbol for dis; di greek upper case p.-115- value up, and then divide by di total number of items",Computer science
"however, that's not really the reason i went into all that detail.",Dem no dey really di reason i go into all dat detail.,Computer science
"my goal was to try to make sure that everyone reading this book is clear on the notation that we'll be using throughout the book: xfor the mean, for the idea of summation, xifor theith observation, and nfor the total number of observations.","Di goal nato try make sure say all reading dis book dey clear on di notation wey we use throughout di book: xfor di mean, for di idea of summation, xifor diith observation, and nfor di total number of observations.",Computer science
"we're going to be re-using these symbols a fair bit, so it's important that you understand them well enough to be able to ead"" the equations, and to be able to see that it's just saying dd up lots of things and then divide by another thing"".","E dey important say you understand dem well enough to ead"" di equations, and to be able to see say im just say dd up lots of things and then divide by another thing",Computer science
"if you really wanted to, you could do this calculation directly in r. for the rst 5 afl scores, do this just by typing it in as if rwere a calculator.","For di rst 5 afl scores, do dis just by writing am for as if rwere calculator.",Computer science
"in which case routputs the answer 36. 6, just as if it were a calculator.","Di case routput di answer 36. 6, just as if e dey calculator.",Computer science
"however, that's not the only way to do the calculations, and when the number of observations starts to become large, it's easily the most tedious.","Di only way to do di calculations, and wen di number of observation start to become large, easily di most tedious.",Computer science
"besides, in almost every real world scenario, you've already got the actual numbers stored in a variable of some kind, just like we have with the afl. margins variable.","Di real world scenario, you go get di actual numbers store for a variable of some kind, just like we get wit di afl. margin variable.",Computer science
"under those circumstances, what you want is a function that will just add up all the values stored in a numeric vector.",Di function wey fit add up all di values wey dey store for numeric vector.,Computer science
that's what thesum() function does.,Disum() function go do.,Computer science
"if we want to add up all 176 winning margins in the dataset, we can do so using the following command:3> sum(afl. margins) [1] 6213 if we only want the sum ofthe rst ve observations, then we can use square brackets to pull out only the rst ve elements ofthe vector.","If we wan add all 176 how many points dem win for di group of related numbers or data wey belong together, we fit do amusing dis command:> sum(afl. margins) [1] 6213. If we only wan di sum of di first five observations, den we fit use di signs wey look like box to pull out only di first five elements of di vector.",Computer science
"to calculate the mean for all 176 games, we would use the following command:> mean(x= afl. margins) [1]35. 30114 however, since xis the rst argument to the function, i could have omitted the argument name.",We go use di command wey go follow:> mean(x= afl. margins),Computer science
"in any case, just to show you that there's nothing funny going on, here's what we would do to calculate the mean for the rst ve observations: 3note that, just as we saw with the combine function c()and the remove function rm(), the sum()function has unnamed arguments.","Di combination function c()and di remove function rm(), di sum()function don unnamed arguments.",Computer science
the median of a set of observations is just the middle value.,Di median of set of observations dey just di middle value.,Computer science
"as before let's imagine we were interested only in the rst 5 afl winning margins:56, 31, 56, 8 and 32.","Dem imagine we dey interest only for di rst 5 afl how many points dem win:56, 31, 56, 8 and 32.",Computer science
"to gure out the median, we sort these numbers into ascending order:8; 31; 32; 56; 56 from inspection, it's obvious that the median value of these 5 observations is 32, since that's the middle one in the sorted list(i've put it in bold to make it even more obvious).","E dey obvious say di middle number of these 5 observations dey 32, since dat's di middle one for di sorted list(i put amin bold to make am even more obvious).",Computer science
but what should we do if we were interested in the rst 6 games rather than the rst 5?,We go do if we dey interest for di rst 6 games no be di rst 5?,Computer science
"since the sixth game in the season had a winning margin of 14 points, our sorted list is now 8; 14; 31; 32; 56; 56 and there are twomiddle numbers,31 and 32.","Di sixth game for di season don win margin of 14 points, awa sort list dey now 8; 14; 31; 32; 56; 56 and di twomiddle numbers,31 and 32.",Computer science
"the median is de ned as the average of those two numbers, which is ofcourse 31. 5.","Di median dey dened as di average of two numbers, wey dey ofcourse 31. 5.5.",Computer science
"as before, it's very tedious to do this by hand when you've got lots of numbers.",Di very tedious to do dis by hand wen you go get lots of numbers.,Computer science
"to illustrate this, here's what happens when you use rto sort all 176 winning margins.",Di wey dey happen wen you use rto sort all 176 how many points dem win.,Computer science
"in real life, of course, no-one actually calculates the median by sorting the data and then looking for the middle value.","E dey course, no one actually calculat di median by sorting di data and then looking for di middle value.",Computer science
"in real life, we use the median command:> median(x= afl. margins) [1]30. 5 which outputs the median value of 30. 5.",We use di median command:> median(x= afl. margins)[1] 30. 5 wey output di middle number of 30. 5.,Computer science
"the mean is basically the\centre of gravity""of the dataset: if you imagine that the histogram ofthe data is a solid object, then the point on which you could balance it(as if on a see-saw)is the mean.","If you imagine say di hintogram of di data na solid object, then di point wey you fit balance am(as if on see-saw)na di mean.",Computer science
"in contrast, the median is the middle observation.",Di median dey di middle observation,Computer science
"half ofthe observations are smaller, and half ofthe observations are larger.","Di observations dey smaller, and half of di observations dey smaller, and half of di observations dey smaller",Computer science
what's the dierence?,Di dierence?,Computer science
knowing how to calculate means and medians is only apart ofthe story.,We know how to calculate means and medians na only part of di story.,Computer science
"you also need to understand what each one is saying about the data, and what that implies for when you should use each one.","We need understand say each one dey say about di data, and what wey dey implies for when you go use each one",Computer science
"this is illustrated in figure 5.2: the mean is kind of like the\centre of gravity""of the dataset, whereas the median is the\middle value""in the data.","Di mean dey almost like di centre of gravity""of di group of related numbers or data wey belong together, whereas di median dey di\middle value""for di data.",Computer science
"what this implies, as far as which one you should use, depends a little on what type of data you've got and what you're trying to achieve.","as for which one you dey use, depend a little on what type of data you go get and what you dey try to achieve",Computer science
"as a rough guide: if your data are nominal scale, you probably shouldn't be using either the mean or the median.","If your data dey nominal scale, you go need use either di mean or di median.",Computer science
both the mean and the median rely on the idea that the numbers assigned to values are meaningful.,Di mean and di median rely on di idea say di numbers assigned to value dey meaningful.,Computer science
"if your data are ordinal scale, you're more likely to want to use the median than the mean.","Di data dey ordinal scale, you dey more like to use di median than di mean.",Computer science
"the median only makes use ofthe order information in your data(i. e, which numbers are bigger), but doesn't depend on the precise numbers involved.","Di median only to use di order information for your data(i. e, wey numbers dey small), but no depend on di exact numbers wey dey involved.",Computer science
that's exactly the situation that applies when your data are ordinal scale.,Di situation wey dey applies wen your data dey ordinal scale.,Computer science
"the mean, on the other hand, makes use ofthe precise numeric values assigned to the observations, so it's not really appropriate for ordinal data.","Di mean, on di oda hand, to use di precise numeric value wey dey signed to di observations, so e no dey appropriate for kain data wey get ranking, but distance between each rank no be equal, like wetin dey happen for list wey show first, second, third, but no be say difference between first and second be like difference between second and third.",Computer science
"for interval and ratio scale data, either one is generally acceptable.","For interval and numbers wey start for zero, either one dey e dey okay.",Computer science
which one you pick depends a bit on what you're trying to achieve.,Di one wey you pick depend a bit on what you dey try to achieve,Computer science
let's expand on that last part a little.,Make we expand dat last part small.,Computer science
"this is illustrated in figure 5.2: notice that the median(right hand side)is located closer to the ody"" ofthe histogram, whereas the mean(left hand side)gets dragged towards the ail"" (where the extreme values are).","Di median(di right side)dey closer to di ody"" of di hintogram, whereas di mean(left hand side)get dragged towards di ail"" (where di extreme values dey).",Computer science
"then bill sits down with them(income $100, 000,000).","Di bill sit down wit dem(income $100, 000,000).",Computer science
"the average income has now jumped to$25, 043, 750 but-118- the median rises only to$62, 500.","Di average income don start to$25, 043, 750 but-118- di median rises only to$62, 500",Computer science
"if you're interested in looking at the overall income at the table, the mean might be the right answer; but if you're interested in what counts as atypical income at the table, the median would be a better choice here.","Di mean might be di right answer; but if you dey interest for what count as typical income for di table, di mean might be di right answer; but if you dey interest for what count as typical income for di table, di mean might be di right answer; but if you dey interest for what count as typical income for di table, di mean might be di right answer; but if you dey interest for what count as typical income for di table, di mean might be di right answer; but if you dey interest",Computer science
"since i tend to mock journalists for their poor scienti c and statistical knowledge, i should give credit where credit is due.","I tend to mock journalists for dia poor scienti c and statistical knowledge, i go give credit wen credit dey due.",Computer science
"this is from an excellent article on the abc news website424 september,2010: senior commonwealth bank executives have travelled the world in the past couple of weeks with a presentation showing how australian house prices, and the key price to income ratios, compare favourably with similar countries.","Senior commonwealth bank executives don travel di world for di past couple of weeks wit presentation show how australian house prices, and di key price to income ratio, compare favourably wit similar countries.",Computer science
"this probably comes as a huge surprise to anyone with a mortgage, or who wants a mortgage, or pays rent, or isn't completely oblivious to what's been going on in the australian housing market over the last several years.","Di probably kom as huge surprise to anyone wit mortgage, or who wan mortgage, or pay rent, or no dey completely oblivious to what's goon for di houses for Australia market over di last several years.",Computer science
"back to the article: cba has waged its war against what it believes are housing doomsayers with graphs, numbers and international comparisons.","Cba don wag im war against wetin dem believe na housing doomsayers wit graphs, numbers and international comparisons.",Computer science
"in its presentation, the bank rejects arguments that australia's housing is relatively expensive compared to incomes.",Di bank reject arguments say australia's housing dey relatively expensive compare to incomes,Computer science
"it says australia's house price to household income ratio of 5. 6 in the major cities, and 4. 3 nationwide, is comparable to many other developed nations.","E tok say australia house price to household income ratio of 5. 6 for di major cities, and 4. 3 nationwide, dey comparable to many oda developed nations.",Computer science
"it says san francisco and new york have ratios of 7, auckland's is 6.7, and vancouver comes in at 9.3.","E tok say san francisco and new york don ratio of 7, auckland's dey 6.7, and vancouver kom for 9.3.",Computer science
more excellent news!,Na more excellent news!,Computer science
"except, the article goes onto make the observation that.",Di article goon to make di observation say,Computer science
many analysts say that has led the bank to use misleading gures and comparisons.,Di bank go use misleading gures and comparisons,Computer science
"if you goto page four of cba's presentation and read the source information at the bottom ofthe graph and table, you would notice there is an additional source on the international comparison{ demographia.","Na if you goto page four of cba presentation and read di source information for di bottom of di graph and table, you go notice say na additional source for di international comparison{ demographia.",Computer science
"however, if the commonwealth bank had also used demographia's analysis of australia's house price to income ratio, it would have come up with a gure closer to 9 rather than 5. 6 or 4. 3 that's, um, a rather serious discrepancy.","Di commonwealth bank don also use demographia analysis of australia house price to income ratio, e go get huge closer to 9 no be 5. 6 or 4. 3 wey dey, um, a rather serious discrepancy.",Computer science
"one group of people say 9, another says 4-5.","Di group of pipo say 9, one group of pipo say 9, one says 4-5",Computer science
"should we just split the dierence, and say the truth lies somewhere in between?","We just split di difference, and say di truth dey somewhere for middle?",Computer science
absolutely not: this is a situation where there is a right answer and a wrong answer.,Di situation wey dey where e dey right answer and a wrong answer,Computer science
"demographia are correct, and the commonwealth bank is incorrect.","Di commonwealth bank dey correct, and di commonwealth bank dey incorrect.",Computer science
as the article points out[an] obvious problem with the commonwealth bank's domestic price to income gures is they compare average incomes with median house prices(unlike the demographia gures that compare median incomes to median prices).,Di article points out[an] obvious problem wit di commonwealth bank's domestic price to income gures na diy compare average income wit median house prices(unlike di demographia gures wey compare median incomes to median price).,Computer science
"the median is the mid-point, eectively cutting out the highs and lows, and that means the average is generally higher when it comes to incomes and asset prices, because it includes the earnings of australia's wealthiest people.","Di median dey di mid-point, eectively cut out di high and lows, and dat means di average dey generally higher wen dem kom to income and asset prices, because di average dey generally higher wen dem kom to income and asset prices, because di average dey generally higher wen dem kom to income and asset prices, because dem include di earnings of australia's wealthiest pipo.",Computer science
"to put it another way: the commonwealth bank's gures count ralph norris' multi-million dollar pay packet on the income side, but not his(no doubt)very expensive house in the property price gures, thus understating the house price to income ratio for middle-income australians.","Di commonwealth bank's gures count ralph norris multi million dollar pay packet on di income side, but no hin (without question)very expensive house for di property price gures, thus understand di house price to income ratio for middle-income australians.",Computer science
the way that demographia calculated the ratio is the right thing to do.,Di way wey demographia calculat di ratio na di right thing to do.,Computer science
the way that the bank did it is incorrect.,Di way wey di bank don dey incorrect,Computer science
"as for why an extremely quantitatively sophisticated organisation such as a major bank made such an elementary mistake, well.","As for why one extremely quantitative-savvy organisation like big bank go make such simple mistake, well.",Computer science
it eectively owns a massive swathe of australian housing as security for its home loans aswell as many small business loans.,"E effectively own large chunk of houses for Australia as security for im money wey you borrow for house and many small loan wey dey specifically for business, no be loan wey person dey take care of im personal things, like shop or invest for moni.",Computer science
"real life is never simple, and so the data sets that you obtain are never as straightforward as the statistical theory says. 5this can have awkward consequences.",Di data sets wey you dey obtain no dey straightforward as di statistical theory tok.,Computer science
"to illustrate, consider this rather strange looking dataset: 100; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10 if you were to observe this in a real life dataset, you'd probably suspect that something funny was going on with the100 value.","Di 100; 2; 3; 4; 5; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10 if you dey observe dis for real life group of related numbers or data wey belong together, you probably suspect say something funny dey goon wit di100 value.",Computer science
"it's probably an outlier, a value that doesn't really belong with the others.","E dey probably outlier, a value wey no dey really belong wit di oda.",Computer science
"you might consider removing it from the dataset entirely, and in this particular case i'd probably agree with that course of action.","I go consider removing am from di group of related numbers or data wey belong together entirely, and for dis particular case i go agree wit dat course of action.",Computer science
"in real life, however, you don't always get such cut-and-dried examples.",I no get such cut-and-dried examples,Computer science
"for instance, you might get this instead:15; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 12 the15 looks a bit suspicious, but not anywhere near as much as that 100 did.","Di 15; 2; 3; 4; 5; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 12 di15 look a bit suspicious, but no anywhere near as 100 dey.",Computer science
"in this case, it's a little trickier.","Di case, e dey trickier",Computer science
"it might be a legitimate observation, it might not.","E no be legitimate observation, e might no be legitimate observation, e might no.",Computer science
"when faced with a situation where some ofthe most extreme-valued observations might not be quite trustworthy, the mean is not necessarily a good measure of central tendency.","Di mean no be good measure of Wetin dey happen for middle, wey be say one number dey represent all di numbers wey dey inside, e fit be mean, mode or median, but e be like say di middle dey sabi di truth for all di numbers.",Computer science
"it is highly sensitive to one or two extreme values, and is thus not considered to be a robust measure.","E dey highly sensitive to one or two extreme values, and dey no consider to be robust measure.",Computer science
one remedy that we've seen is to use the median.,Di one remedy wey we dey see na use di median,Computer science
"a more general solution is to use a rimmed mean"".","Di more general solution dey use rimmed mean"".",Computer science
"to calculate a trimmed mean, what you do is\discard"" the most extreme examples on both ends(i. e, the largest and the smallest), and then take the mean of everything else.","I. e, di largest and di smallest), and then take di mean of all else",Computer science
"the goal is to preserve the best characteristics ofthe mean and the median: just like a median, you aren't highly in uenced by extreme outliers, but like the mean, you \use""more than one ofthe observations.","Di goal dey to preserve di best characteristics of di mean and di median: just like a median, you dey highly in uenced by extreme outliers, but like di mean, you dey use more than one of di observations.",Computer science
"generally, we describe a trimmed mean in terms ofthe percentage of observation on either side that are discarded.",We describe a trimmed mean for terms of di percentage of observation on either side wey dey discarded.,Computer science
"so, for instance, a 10%trimmed mean discards the largest 10%of the observations andthe smallest 10%of the observations, and then takes the mean ofthe remaining 80%of the observations.","for example, a 10%trimmed mean discards di largest 10%of di observation and di smallest 10%of di observations, and then take di mean of di remaining 80%of di observations, and then take di mean of di remaining 80%of di observations.",Computer science
"not surprisingly, the 0%trimmed mean is just the regular mean, and the 50%trimmed mean is the median.","Di 0%trimmed mean dey just di regular mean, and di 50%trimmed mean dey di median",Computer science
"in that sense, trimmed means provide a whole family of central tendency measures that span the range from the mean to the median.","Di sense, trimmed means provide whole family of Wetin dey happen for middle, wey be say one number dey represent all di numbers wey dey inside, e fit be mean, mode or median, but e be like say di middle dey sabi di truth for all di numbers measures wey span di range from di mean to di median.",Computer science
"for our toy example above, we have 10 observations, and so a 10%trimmed mean is calculated by ignoring the largest value(i. e,12) and the smallest value(i. e,-15) and taking the mean ofthe remaining values.","We get 10 observations, and so a 10%trimmed mean dey calculated by ignoring di most(i. e,12) and di least(i. e,-15) and take di mean of di remaining value",Computer science
"first, let's enter the data> dataset<- c(-15, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12 ) 5or atleast, the basic statistical theory{ these days there is a whole sub eld of statistics called robust statistics that tries to grapple with the messiness of real data and develop theory that can cope with it.","For first, let enter di data> dataset<- c(-15, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12 ) 5or atleast, di basic statistical theory wey dey suppose dey develop theory wey dey cope wit am.",Computer science
so let's just try trimming the mean a bit.,E just try trimming di mean a bit,Computer science
"if i take a 10%trimmed mean, we'll drop the extreme values on either side, and take the mean ofthe rest:> mean(x= dataset, trim=. 1)[1] 5. 5 which in this case gives exactly the same answer as the median.",Di case give exactly di same answer as di median.,Computer science
"note that, to get a 10%trimmed mean you write trim=.1, not trim= 10.","Di note say, to get 10%trimmed mean you write trim= 10.",Computer science
"in any case, let's nish up by calculating the 5%trimmed mean for theafl. margins data,> mean(x= afl. margins, trim =.05) [1]33. 755. 1. 7 mode the mode of a sample is very simple: it is the value that occurs most frequently.",Di mode of a sample dey simple: di value wey dey occur most frequently.,Computer science
"to illustrate the mode using the afl data, let's examine a dierent aspect to the dataset.","Di mode wey dey use afl data, let examine a dierent aspect to di group of related numbers or data wey belong together.",Computer science
who has played in the most nals?,Nals wey dey play for di most nals?,Computer science
"however, that would be mindless and boring: exactly the sort of task that computers are great at.",Di sort of task wey computers dey great for.,Computer science
"thus, the mode ofthe finalists data is""geelong"".","Di mode of di finalist data dey ""geelong""",Computer science
the core packages in rdon't have a function for calculating the mode6.,Di core package for rdon't get function for calculating di mode6,Computer science
"however, i've included a function in the lsrpackage that does this.",I dey include function for di lsrpackage wey dey do dis.,Computer science
"if we apply this function to our nalists data, we obtain the following:> maxfreq( x=afl. finalists) [1]39 taken together, we observe that geelong(39 nals) played in more nals than any other team during the period.","Di following:> maxfreq( x=afl. finalists)[1] 39 take together, we observe say geelong(39 nals) play for more nals than any oda team for di period",Computer science
one last point to make with respect to the mode.,One last point to make concerning di mode.,Computer science
"while it's generally true that the mode is most often calculated when you have nominal scale data(because means and medians are useless for those sorts of variables), there are some situations in which you really do want to know the mode of an ordinal, interval or ratio scale variable.",Di situation wey dey true say di mode dey most often calculated wen you go get nominal scale data(because means and medians dey useless for those sorts of variables).,Computer science
"for instance, let's go back to thinking about our afl. margins variable.","for example, make we to go back to think about our afl. margins variable.",Computer science
but consider this scenario. a friend of yours is oering a bet.,A friend of yours dey oering a bet,Computer science
"they pick a football game at random, and (without knowing who is playing)you have to guess the exact margin.","We dey pick football game for random, and (without knowing who dey play)you go get to guess di exact margin.",Computer science
"if you guess correctly, you win$50.","If you guess correct, you win$50.",Computer science
"if you don't, you lose$1.","If you don lose$1, you lose$1",Computer science
"there are no consolation prizes for lmost"" getting the right answer.","Nano consolation prizes for lmost"" get di right answer.",Computer science
"you have to guess exactly the right margin7for this bet, the mean and the median are completely useless to you.","Di right margin7for dis bet, di mean and di median dey completely useless to you",Computer science
it is the mode that you should bet on.,Di mode wey you go bet on.,Computer science
"that is, they all talk about which values are\in the middle""or \popular""in the data.","Dem all talk about which value dey\in di middle""or \popular""for di data.",Computer science
"however, central tendency is not the only type of summary statistic that we want to calculate.","Di Wetin dey happen for middle, wey be say one number dey represent all di numbers wey dey inside, e fit be mean, mode or median, but e be like say di middle dey sabi di truth for all di numbers no dey di only type of summary statistic wey we wan to calculate.",Computer science
the second thing that we really want is a measure ofthe variability ofthe data.,Di second thing we really wanna measure of di variability of di data.,Computer science
"that is, how \spread out""are the data?","Di data wey dey, how \howe dey far""na di data?",Computer science
"how ar""away from the mean or median do the observed values tend to be?","For how a""away from di mean or median do di observed value wey dem dey observe?",Computer science
"for now, let's assume that the data are interval or ratio scale, so we'll continue to use the afl. margins data.","Dem assume say di data dey interval or scale wey dey measure tins wey get zero point wey be real, and di difference between each point dey equal, so you fit compare dem well, so we continue to use di afl. margin data.",Computer science
"we'll use this data to discuss several dierent measures of spread, each with dierent strengths and weaknesses.","We go use dis data to discuss several different how numbers dey spread, each with im own good and bad parts.",Computer science
"for the afl winning margins data, the maximum value is 116, and the minimum value is 0.","Di maximum value dey 116, and di smawest amont or degree wey dey possible or dem dey allow dey 0.",Computer science
"the other possibility is to use the range()function; which outputs both the minimum value and the maximum value in a vector, like this:> range(afl. margins) [1]0 116 although the range is the simplest way to quantify the notion of ariability"", it's one ofthe worst.","Di oda possibility dey use di range()function; wey output both di smawest amont or degree wey dey possible or dem dey allow and di maximum value for vector, like dis:",Computer science
recall from our discussion ofthe mean that we want our summary measure to be robust.,Dem recall from awa discussion of di mean say we wan summary measure to be robust.,Computer science
"if the dataset has one or two extremely bad values in it, we'd like our statistics not to be unduly in uenced by these cases.",We dey like awa statistics no be unduly for uenced by dis case.,Computer science
"if we look once again at our toy example of a dataset containing very extreme outliers. 100; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10. it is clear that the range is not robust, since this has a range of 110, but if the outlier were removed we would have a range of only 8.","E dey clear say di range no robust, since dis don get range of 110, but if di outlier dey remove we go get range of only 8.",Computer science
"probably you already know what a quantile is(they're more commonly called percentiles), but if not: the 10th percentile of a dataset is the smallest number xsuch that 10%of the data is less than x.",Di 10th percentile of a group of related numbers or data wey belong together dey di smallest number xsuch say 10%of di data dey less than x,Computer science
"in fact, we've already come across the idea: the median of a dataset is its 50th quantile /percentile!",Di median of group of related numbers or data wey belong together na its 50th quantile percentile!,Computer science
"ractually provides you with away of calculating quantiles, using the(surprise, surprise) quantile() function.","Na ractually provide you wit way of calculating quantiles, using di(surprise, surprise) quantile() function.",Computer science
"now, we can actually input lots of quantiles at once, by specifying a vector for the probs argument.","We go actually input plenti quantiles for once, by specifying vector for di prob argument.",Computer science
"ofcourse, that seems like too much work to do all that typing, so rhas a built in function called iqr() that we can use:> iqr( x=afl. margins) [1]37. 75 while it's obvious how to interpret the range, it's a little less obvious how to interpret the iqr.","Ofcourse, dat one seem like too much work to do all dat typing, so R get built-in function wey dem call IQR() wey we fit use:> IQR(x = afl. margins) [1] 37.75. While e clear how to interpret di range, e small less clear how to interpret di IQR.",Computer science
"the simplest way to think about it is like this: the interquartile range is the range spanned by the\middle half""of the data.","Di middle spread dey di range wey dey spanned by di\middle half""of di data",Computer science
"that is, one quarter ofthe data falls below the 25th percentile, one quarter ofthe data is above the 75th percentile, leaving the\middle half""of the data lying in between the two.","One quarter of di data fall below di 25th percentile, one quarter of di data dey above di 75th percentile, one quarter of di data dey above di 75th percentile, leaving di\middle half""of di data wey dey above di 75th percentile, leaving di\middle half""of di data wey dey between di two.",Computer science
and the iqr is the range covered by that middle half.,Di iqr dey di range covered by dat middle half.,Computer science
"however, this isn't the only way to think about the problem.",Di only way to think about di problem,Computer science
"a dierent approach is to select a meaningful reference point(usually the mean or the median)and then report the ypical"" deviations from that reference point.","Di dierent approach dey select a meaningful reference point(usually di mean or di median)and then report di ypical"" deviation from dat reference point.",Computer science
"what do we mean by ypical"" deviation?","Wetin we mean by""typical"" deviation?",Computer science
"usually, the mean or median value of these deviations!",Di mean or di middle number of dis deviations!,Computer science
"in practice, this leads to two dierent measures, the \mean absolute deviation(from the mean)""and the\median absolute deviation(from the median)"".","Di lead to two dierent measures, di \di normal difference(from di mean)""and di\median absolute deviation(from di mean)""and di\median absolute deviation(from di median)",Computer science
"from what i've read, the measure based on the median seems to be used in statistics, and does seem to be the better ofthe two, but to be honest i don't think i've seen it used much in psychology.","I dey read, di measure wey dey based on di median seem to be di better of di two, but to be true i don think i dey see im use much for psychology.",Computer science
the measure based on the mean does occasionally show up in psychology though.,Di measure wey dey based on di mean don occasionally show up for psychology though.,Computer science
"since the previous paragraph might sound a little abstract, let's go through the mean absolute deviation from the mean a little more slowly.","Since di one wey come before fit sound small abstract, make we go through di normal difference from di mean small more slowly.",Computer science
one useful thing about this measure is that the name actually tells you exactly how to calculate it.,One useful thing about dis measure na say di name actually tell you exactly how to calculate am,Computer science
"let's think about our afl winning margins data, and once again we'll start by pretending that there's only 5 games in total, with winning margins of 56, 31, 56, 8 and 32.","We go think about awa afl winning margin data, and one more time we go start by pretend say na only 5 games for total, wit winning margin of 56, 31, 56, 8 and 32.",Computer science
"since our calculations rely on an examination ofthe deviation from some reference point(in this case the mean), the rst thing we need to calculate is the mean, x.","We need to calculate di deviation from some reference point(in dis case di mean), di rst thing we need to calculate na di mean, x.",Computer science
"for these ve observations, our mean isx36: 6.",Di mean isx36: 6.6.,Computer science
the next step is to convert each of our observations xiinto a deviation score.,Di next step dey convert each of our observations xiinto deviation score.,Computer science
we do this by calculating the dierence between the observation xiand the mean x.,We do dis by calculating di difference between di observation xi and di mean x̄.,Computer science
"that is, the deviation score is de ned to be xix.",Di deviation score dey dened to be xix,Computer science
"for the rst observation in our sample, this is equal to 56 36:619: 4.","Di rst observation for awa sample, dis dey equal to 56 36:619: 4.",Computer science
"okay, that's simple enough.","Na simple enough, na simple enough",Computer science
the next step in the process is to convert these deviations to absolute deviations.,Di next step for di process dey convert dis deviation to absolute deviations.,Computer science
"mathematically, we would denote the absolute value of 3 as|3|, and so we say that|3| 3.","We go denote di distance wey number dey from zero for number line, no matter whether e be positive or negative, we dey call am absolute value, but for pidgin, we fit say 'distance from zero', or 'how far number reach from zero' of 3 as 3",Computer science
"we use the absolute value function here because we don't really care whether the value is higher than the mean or lower than the mean, we're just interested in how close it is to the mean.","We use di fonksiyon wey dey show yi magnitude, no matta yi sign, e mean say if yi get 5 or-5, e go still show 5 here because we no care whether di value dey higher than di mean or lower than di mean, we dey just interest for how close it dey to di mean.",Computer science
"to help make this process as obvious as possible, the table below shows these calculations for all ve observations:-124- english: which game value deviation from mean absolute deviation notation: i xi xix |xix| 1 56 19. 419. 42 31-5. 6 5. 63 56 19. 419. 448-28. 628. 65 32-4. 6 4. 6 now that we have calculated the absolute deviation score for every observation in the dataset, all that we have to do to calculate the mean of these scores.","To help make dis process as obvious as possible, di table below show dese calculations for all five observations. which game value deviation from di normal difference notation: i xi xix |xix| 1 56 19. 419. 42 31-5. 6 5. 63 56 19. 419. 48-28. 628. 65 32-4. 6 4.6. Now dat we don calculate di size of difference for every observation for di group of related numbers or data wey belong together, all we need do nato calculate di mean of dese scores.",Computer science
let's do that:19: 4,For 19 4,Computer science
the mean absolute deviation for these ve scores is 15. 52.,Di normal difference for dis ve scores dey 15. 52.,Computer science
"however, while our calculations for this little example are at an end, we do have a couple of things left to talk about.","Di calculation for dis little example dey for end, we go get couple of things wey we go talk about.",Computer science
"firstly, we should really try to write down a proper mathematical formula.",We go try write down proper mathematical formula.,Computer science
but in order do to this i need some mathematical notation to refer to the mean absolute deviation.,"But to do dis, I need some di way wey math dey write to talk about di normal difference.",Computer science
"irritatingly, \mean absolute deviation""and \median absolute deviation""have the same acronym(mad), which leads to a certain amount of ambiguity, and since rtends to use mad to refer to the median absolute deviation, i'd better come up with something dierent for the mean absolute deviation.","Di same acronym(mad), wey lead to a certain amount of ambiguity, and since rtend to use mad to talk about di median absolute deviation, i dey better kom up wit something dierent for di normal difference.",Computer science
"what i'll do is use aad instead, short for average absolute deviation.","I go do use aad forstead, short for average absolute deviation",Computer science
"now that we have some unambiguous notation, here's the formula that describes what we just calculated: aadpxq1 nn i1|xix| the last thing we need to talk about is how to calculate aad in r. one possibility would be to do everything using low level commands, laboriously following the same steps that i used when describing the calculations above.","Di last thing we need to talk about na how to calculate aad for r. one way wey e fit be go be to do all using low level commands, laboriously follow di same steps wey i use for di calculation above.",Computer science
"however, that's pretty tedious.",E dey suppose tedious.,Computer science
"and because i nd that to be too much typing, the lsrpackage has avery simple function called aad() that does the calculations for you.","I nd say to be too much typing, di lsrpackage don very simple function called aad() wey dey do di calculation for you.",Computer science
"if we apply the aad() function to our data, we get this:> aad( x)[1] 15. 52 no suprises there.","If we apply di aad() function to our data, we get dis:> aad(x) [1] 15.52. No surprise there.",Computer science
"from a purely mathematical perspective, there are some solid reasons to prefer squared deviations -125-rather than absolute deviations.",Na some solid reasons to prefer squared deviations -125-no be absolute deviations.,Computer science
"if we do that, we obtain a measure is called the variance, which has alot of really nice statistical properties that i'm going to ignore, 8and one massive psychological aw that i'm going to make a big deal out of in a moment.","Di variance, wey get lot of really nice statistical properties wey i go ignore, 8and one massive psychological aw wey i go make big deal out of for moment.",Computer science
"the variance of a dataset xis sometimes written as varpxq, but it's more commonly denoted s2(the reason for this will become clearer shortly).",Di reason for dis go become clearer shortly).,Computer science
the formula that we use to calculate the variance of a set of observations is as follows: varpxq1 nn i1,Di formula wey we use to calculate di variance of set of observations na as follows: varpxq1 nn i1,Computer science
"it is for this reason that the variance is sometimes referred to as the\mean square deviation"".",E dey for dis reason say di variance dey sometimes dem dey call di\mean square deviation,Computer science
"now that we've got the basic idea, let's have a look at a concrete example.","We get di basic idea, let's make we look one real example.",Computer science
"once again, let's use the rst ve afl games as our data.",Dem use di rst ve afl games as awa data.,Computer science
"if we follow the same approach that we took last time, we end up with the following table: english: which game value deviation from mean squared deviation maths: i xi xix pxixq2 1 56 19. 4 376. 36 2 31-5. 631. 36 3 56 19. 4 376. 36 48-28. 6 817. 96 5 32-4. 621. 16 that last column contains all of our squared deviations, so all we have to do is average them.","If we follow di same approach we take last time, we end up with di following table. Dat last column contain all our squared deviations, so all we need do nato average dem.",Computer science
if we do that by typing all the numbers into rby hand.> (376. 36 +31. 36 +376. 36 + 817. 96 +21. 16)/5 [1]324. 64. we end up with a variance of 324. 64.,If we do dat by typing all di numbers into R by hand.> (376.36 + 31.36 + 376.36 + 817.96 + 21.16) 5[1] 324.64. we end up with variance of 324.64.,Computer science
"exciting, isn't it?","E no dey exciting, e no dey exciting",Computer science
"for the moment, let's ignore the burning question that you're all probably thinking(i. e, what the heck does a variance of 324. 64 actually mean?)","For di moment, let's ignore di burning question wey you dey thinking(i. e, what di heck does a variance of 324. 64 actually mean?)",Computer science
"and instead talk a bit more about how to do the calculations in r, because this will reveal something very weird.","Di calculations for r, because dis go reveal something very weird",Computer science
"as always, we want to avoid having to type in a whole lot of numbers ourselves.",We wan to avoid having to type for whole lot of numbers wey dey awaselves.,Computer science
"however, istillthink that this is too much typing.",Etillthink say dis dey too much typing,Computer science
"fortunately, rhas a built in function called var()which does calculate variances.",Di built for function wey dey call var() wey dey calculate variances.,Computer science
"so we could also do this.> var(x)[1] 405. 8 8well, i will very brie y mention the one that i think is coolest, for avery particular de nition of\cool"", that is.","I go very brie y mention di one wey i think coolest, for very particular de nition of\cool"", wey dey.",Computer science
variances are additive.,Di variances dey additive,Computer science
"here's what that means: suppose i have two variables xandy, whose variances are var pxqand varpyqrespectively.","suppose get two variables xandy, wey dey var pxqand varpyqrespectively",Computer science
"now imagine i want to de ne anew variable zthat is the sum ofthe two, zx","Na now think of i wan to dene new variable wey dey di sum of di two, Zxx",Computer science
"as it turns out, the variance of zis equal to var pxq","As e turnout, di variance of z equal to var(x).",Computer science
that's just weird.,E dey just weird,Computer science
is this a typo?,Di typo na dis typo?,Computer science
is dan an idiot?,Di pipo na dan an idiot?,Computer science
"as it happens, the answer is no. 9it's not a typo, and ris not making a mistake.","Di answer no dey typo, and dey no make mistake",Computer science
"to get a feel for what's happening, let's stop using the tiny dataset containing only 5 data points, and switch to the full set of 176 games that we've got stored in our afl. margins vector.","We stop using di tiny group of related numbers or data wey belong together containing only 5 data points, and switch to di full set of 176 games wey we get store for awa afl. margin vector.",Computer science
these two numbers are very similar this time.,Di two numbers dey similar dis time.,Computer science
that seems like too much of a coincidence to be a mistake.,E dey like too much of coincidence to be mistake,Computer science
and ofcourse it isn't a mistake.,E no dey mistake.,Computer science
"in fact, it's very simple to explain what ris doing here, but slightly trickier to explain whyris doing it.","for true, e very e easy to talk wetin R dey do here, but small trickier to explain why R dey do am.",Computer science
"so let's start with the\what"".","So let start wit di\what"".",Computer science
what ris doing is evaluating a slightly dierent formula to the one i showed you above.,E dey evaluate a slightly dierent formula to di one i to show you above.,Computer science
"instead of averaging the squared deviations, which requires you to divide by the number of data points n, rhas chosen to divide by n1.","not dat one averaging di squared deviations (wey require you divide by how many data n), R don choose to divide by n−1.",Computer science
"in other words, the formula that ris using is this one 1 n1n i1",Di formula wey dey using na dis one 1 n1n i1,Computer science
so that's the what.,Di what wey dey.,Computer science
"the real question is whyris dividing by n1 and not by n. after all, the variance is supposed to be themean squared deviation, right?","Di real question dey whyris divide by n1 and no by n. afta all, di variance dey suppose be themean di number multiply by itself, right?",Computer science
"so shouldn't we be dividing by n, the actual number of observations in the sample?",Di actual number of observations for di sample?,Computer science
"well, yes, we should.","We go dey well, no, we go fit.",Computer science
"upto this point, it's been a distinction without a dierence.",Di point dey been distinction without di dierence.,Computer science
"regardless of whether you're describing a sample or drawing inferences about the population, the mean is calculated exactly the same way.","As you dey describing sample or drawing inference about di population, di mean dey calculated exactly di same way",Computer science
"not so for the variance, or the standard deviation, or for many other measures besides.","No be so for variance, or howe dey spread, or for plenty other measures.",Computer science
"what i outlined to you initially(i. e, take the actual average, and thus divide by n)assumes that you literally intend to calculate the variance ofthe sample.","Wetin I tell you initially(i. e, take di actual average, and divide by n)assume say you really want to calculate di variance of di sample.",Computer science
"most ofthe time, however, you're not terribly interested in the sample in and of itself.","Di time, however, you no dey interest for di sample for and of itself.",Computer science
"rather, the sample exists to tell you something about the world.",Di sample exist to tell you something about di world,Computer science
"if so, you're actually starting to move away from calculating a\sample statistic"", and towards the idea of estimating a\population parameter"".","If so, you dey actually begin move away from calculating""di number from di small group"", and dey go towards di idea of estimating""di real number for everybody"".",Computer science
"however, i'm getting ahead of myself.",I get ahead of myself,Computer science
"okay, one last thing.","One last thing, one last thing",Computer science
"i've shown you how to calculate the variance, described the weird\ n1"" thing that rdoes and hinted at the reason why it's there, but i haven't mentioned the single most important thing. how do you interpret the variance?","I to show you how to calculate di variance, described di weird\ n1"" thing wey dey rdoes and hint at di reason why e dey there, but i don mention di single most important thing",Computer science
"descriptive statistics are supposed to describe things, after all, and right now the variance is really just a gibberish number.","Di numbers wey describe dey suppose describe things, after all, and right now di variance dey just a gibberish number",Computer science
"unfortunately, the reason why i haven't given you the human-friendly interpretation of 9with the possible exception ofthe third question.",Di reason why i don give you di human-friendly interpretation of 9with di possible exception of di third question.,Computer science
this is the most serious problem with the variance.,Di most serious problem wit di variance.,Computer science
"although it has some elegant mathematical properties that suggest that it really is a fundamental quantity for expressing variation, it's completely useless if you want to communicate with an actual human. variances are completely uninterpretable in terms ofthe original variable!","E don get some elegant mathematical properties wey suggest say e dey fundamental quantity for expressing variation, e dey completely useless if you wan to communicate wit actual human",Computer science
"all the numbers have been squared, and they don't mean anything anymore.","Di numbers don squared, and dem don mean anything anymore",Computer science
this is a huge issue.,Di issue dey huge issue,Computer science
"for instance, according to the table i presented earlier, the margin in game 1 was. 36 points-squared higher than the average margin"".","Di margin for game 1 na 36 points-squared higher than di average margin"".",Computer science
"this is exactly as stupid as it sounds; and so when we calculate a variance of 324. 64, we're in the same situation.","As we dey calculate a variance of 324. 64, we dey in di same situation; and so wen we dey calculate a variance of 324. 64, we dey in di same situation",Computer science
"i've watched alot of footy games, and never has anyone referred to\points squared"".","I don watch plenty football matches, and nobody ever to talk about""points multiply by points"".",Computer science
"it's nota real unit of measurement, and since the variance is expressed in terms of this gibberish unit, it is totally meaningless to a human.","E dey note real unit of measurement, and since di variance dey express for terms of dis gibberish unit, e dey totally meaningless to human.",Computer science
what should you do?,We dey do?,Computer science
"the solution to the problem is obvious: take the square root ofthe variance, known as the standard deviation, also called the oot mean squared deviation"", or rmsd.","Di solution to di problem dey obvious: take di numba wey if you multiply am by itself, e go give you the original numba, we dey call am squa root, but for pidgin, we fit say 'numba wey e be root of anoda numba' of di variance, wey dey known as di howe dey spread, also called di oot mean di number multiply by itself"", or rmsd.",Computer science
"this solves out problem fairly neatly: while nobody has a clue what variance of 324. 68 points-squared""really means, it's much easier to understand standard deviation of 18. 01 points"", since it's expressed in the original units.","Dem solve out problem fairly neatly: while nobody get clue what variance of 324. 68 points-squared""really mean, e dey much easier to understand howe dey spread of 18. 01 points"", since dem express for di original unit.",Computer science
"it is traditional to refer to the standard deviation of a sample of data ass, though\sd"" and\std dev.""","E dey traditional to talk about howe dey spread of sample of data ass, though""sd"" and""std dev."" dey common too.",Computer science
are also used at times.,E dey also use for times,Computer science
"because the standard deviation is equal to the square root ofthe variance, you probably won't be surprised to see that the formula is: sgffe1 nn i1",Di formula dey: sgffe1 nn i1,Computer science
"however, as you might have guessed from our discussion ofthe variance, what ractually calculates is slightly dierent to the formula given above.","As you go guess from awa discussion of di variance, wey ractually calculates dey slightly dierent to di formula given above.",Computer science
"because the standard deviation is derived from the variance, and the variance is a quantity that has little to no meaning that makes sense to us humans, the standard deviation doesn't have a simple interpretation.","Di howe dey spread dey derived from di variance, and di variance dey quantity wey dey little to no meaning wey dey make sense to us humans, di howe dey spread no get simple interpretation.",Computer science
"as a consequence, most of us just rely on a simple rule of thumb: in general, you should expect 68%of the data to fall within 1 standard deviation ofthe mean,95% ofthe data to fall within 2 standard deviation ofthe mean, and 99. 7%of the data to fall within 3 standard deviations ofthe mean.","For general, you go expect 68%of di data to fall within 1 howe dey spread of di mean,95% of di data to fall within 2 howe dey spread of di mean, and 99 7%of di data to fall within 3 howe dey spread of di mean.",Computer science
the shaded bars in the histogram show how much ofthe data fall within one standard deviation ofthe mean.,Di parts wey dey dark for di histogram show how much of di data fall within one howe dey spread of di mean.,Computer science
"in this case,65. 3%of the dataset lies within this range, which is pretty consistent with the pproximately 68%rule"" discussed in the main text.","Di case,65. 3%of di group of related numbers or data wey belong together lies within dis range, wey dey consistent wit di pproximately 68%rule wey dey discuss for di main text.",Computer science
"even so, the rule is approximately correct.",Di rule approximately correct.,Computer science
"as it turns out,65. 3%of the afl margins data fall within one standard deviation ofthe mean.","As e turnout, 65.3% of di AFL margins data fall within one howe dey spread of di mean.",Computer science
this is shown visually in figure 5.3.,Di show visually for figure 5.,Computer science
the dierence is that you use the median everywhere.,Di dierence dey say you use di median everywhere.,Computer science
so the mad is an attempt to describe atypical deviation from atypical value in the dataset.,Di mad na attempt to describe a di normal difference from atypical value for di group of related numbers or data wey belong together.,Computer science
"it wouldn't be unreasonable to interpret the mad value of 19. 5 for our afl data by saying something like this: the median winning margin in 2010 was 30. 5, indicating that atypical game involved a-129- winning margin of about 30 points.","Di median winning margin for 2010 na 30. 5, indicating say atypical game involved-129-winning margin of about 30 points.",Computer science
"however, there was a fair amount of variation from game to game: the mad value was 19. 5, indicating that atypical winning margin would dier from this median value by about 19-20 points.","Na fair amount of variation from game to game: di mad value dey 19. 5, indicating say atypical winning margin go di middle number by about 19-20 points.",Computer science
"as you'd expect, rhas a built in function for calculating mad, and you will be shocked no doubt to hear that it's called mad().","As you expect, R get built-in function for to find di middle difference, and you go shock without question to hearsay e call mad().",Computer science
"however, it's a little bit more complicated than the functions that we've been using previously.",E dey a little bit complicated than di function wey we use previously.,Computer science
"if you want to use it to calculate mad in the exact same way that i have described it above, the command that you need to use species two arguments: the dataset itself x, and a constant that i'll explain in a moment.","Di command wey you need use species two arguments: di group of related numbers or data wey belong together itself x, and a constant wey i dey explain for moment.",Computer science
"for our purposes, the constant is 1, so our command becomes> mad(x= afl. margins, constant =1)[1] 19. 5 apart from the weirdness of having to type that constant=1 part, this is pretty straightforward.","Di weirdness of having to type dat constant=1 part, dis dey straightforward.",Computer science
"okay, so what exactly is this constant=1 argument?","Okay, so wetin exactly be dis constant=1 argument?",Computer science
"although the aw""mad value that i've described above is completely interpretable on its own terms, that's not actually how it's used in alot of real world contexts.","Di aw""mad value wey i described above dey completely interpretable on its own terms, although di aw""mad value wey i described above dey completely interpretable on its own terms, na no actually howe dey use for real world contexts.",Computer science
"instead, what happens alot is that the researcher actually wants to calculate the standard deviation.","Instead, wetin dey happen plenty na say di researcher actually wan to calculate di howe dey spread.",Computer science
"however, in the same way that the mean is very sensitive to extreme values, the standard deviation is vulnerable to the exact same issue.","Di same way say di mean dey sensitive to extreme values, di howe dey spread dey vulnerable to di exact same issue.",Computer science
"so, in much the same way that people sometimes use the median as a obust"" way of calculating\something that is like the mean"", it's not uncommon to use mad as a method for calculating\something that is like the standard deviation"".","For much di same way say pipo sometimes use di median as a obust"" way of calculating\something wey dey like di howe dey spread"", e no dey uncommon to use mad as a method for calculating\something wey dey like howe dey spread",Computer science
"unfortunately, the rawmad value doesn't do this.",Di rawmad value no dey do dis,Computer science
"our raw mad value is 19. 5, and our standard deviation was 26. 07.","Di raw mad value dey 19. 5, and we howe dey spread na 26. 07.",Computer science
"however, what some clever person has shown is that, under certain assumptions11, you can multiply the raw mad value by 1. 4826 and obtain a number that is directly comparable to the standard deviation.","Dem show say, under certain assumptions11, you fit multiply di raw mad value by 1. 4826 and obtain number wey dey directly comparable to di howe dey spread.",Computer science
"that's really nottrue for our afl. margins data, so in this case i wouldn't try to use the mad value this way.",Di case i go try use di mad value dis way.,Computer science
"we've discussed quite a few measures of spread(range, iqr, mad, variance and standard deviation), and hinted at their strengths and weaknesses.","We dey discuss plenti how numbers dey spread(range, iqr, mad, variance and howe dey spread), and hint at dia strength and weaknesses.",Computer science
here's a quick summary: range.,Here's small summary: range.,Computer science
gives you the full spread ofthe data.,Dem give you di full spread of di data,Computer science
"it's very vulnerable to outliers, and as a consequence it isn't often used unless you have good reasons to care about the extremes in the data.",as result e no dey use unless you go get good reason to care about di extremes for di data.,Computer science
interquartile range.,Di middle spread.,Computer science
"tells you where the\middle half""of the data sits.","Di\middle half""of di data sit",Computer science
"it's pretty robust, and complements the median nicely.","E dey robust, and complement di median nicely",Computer science
this is used alot.,Dis dey use alot,Computer science
mean absolute deviation.,di normal difference.,Computer science
"tells you how far\on average""the observations are from the mean.",Di observations dey from di mean.,Computer science
"it's very interpretable, but has a few minor issues(not discussed here)that make it less attractive to statisticians than the standard deviation.","E dey interpretable, but dey few minor issues(not discuss here) wey make dem less attractive to statisticians than di howe dey spread.",Computer science
"used sometimes, but not often.","For sometimes, but no often.",Computer science
"on the left we have a negatively skewed dataset (skewness:93), in the middle we have a dataset with no skew (technically, skewness: 006), and on the right we have a positively skewed dataset (skewness:93).","Di middle wey get group of related numbers or data wey belong together wit no skew (technically, skewness:93), for di middle we get negatively skewed group of related numbers or data wey belong together (skewness:93), and on di right we get positively skewed group of related numbers or data wey belong together (skewness:93).",Computer science
tells you the average squared deviation from the mean.,Di average di number multiply by itself from di mean,Computer science
"it's mathematically elegant, and is probably the ight"" way to describe variation around the mean, but it's completely uninterpretable because it doesn't use the same units as the data.","Di mathematically elegant way to describe variation around di mean, but e dey completely uninterpretable because e no use di same unit as di data.",Computer science
"almost never used except as a mathematical tool; but it's buried\under the hood""of avery large number of statistical tools.","But e dey buried\under di hood""of very large number of statistical tools; but e dey buried\under di hood""of very large number of statistical tools.",Computer science
standard deviation.,Di howe dey spread wey dey howe dey spread,Computer science
this is the square root ofthe variance.,"Di numba wey if you multiply am by itself, e go give you the original numba, we dey call am squa root, but for pidgin, we fit say 'numba wey e be root of anoda numba' of di variance.",Computer science
"it's fairly elegant mathematically, and it's expressed in the same units as the data so it can be interpreted pretty well.","E dey fairly elegant mathematically, and e dey express in di same unit as di data so e fit interpret pretty well.",Computer science
"in situations where the mean is the measure of central tendency, this is the default.",Di default na di default.,Computer science
this is by far the most popular measure of variation.,Dis dey by far di most popular measure of variation,Computer science
median absolute deviation.,Na absolute deviation.,Computer science
"the typical(i. e, median) deviation from the median value.","Di typical(i. e, median)deviation from di middle number.",Computer science
"in the raw form it's simple and interpretable; in the corrected form it's a robust way to estimate the standard deviation, for some kinds of data sets.","Di raw form dey simple and interpretable; for di correct form dey robust way to estimate di howe dey spread, for some kind data sets.",Computer science
"not used very often, but it does get reported sometimes.","E no dey use very often, but e no get report sometimes.",Computer science
"in short, the iqr and the standard deviation are easily the two most common measures used to report the variability ofthe data; but there are situations in which the others are used.",Di iqr and di howe dey spread dey easily di two most common measures wey dey use to report di variability of di data; but na situations wey di oda dey use.,Computer science
i've described all of them in this book because there's a fair chance you'll run into most of these somewhere.,I described all of dem for dis book bikos e dey fair chance you go run into most of dis somewhere.,Computer science
"in practice, neither one is used anywhere near as frequently as the measures of central tendency and variability that we've been talking about.","Na either one dey use anywhere near as frequently as di wetin dem dey use capture de middle or de typical value for data, like mean, median, and mode, wey dem dey call measures of central tendency, be say na way to sabi de value wey dey represent de whole group and variability wey we dey talk about.",Computer science
"skew is pretty important, so you do see it mentioned a fair bit; but i've actually never seen kurtosis reported in a scienti c article to date.",I no see kurtosis reported for scienti c article to date.,Computer science
"since it's the more interesting ofthe two, let's start by talking about the skewness.","Di more interesting of di two, let start by talking about di skewness",Computer science
"skewness is basically a measure of asymmetry, and the easiest way to explain it is by drawing some pictures.",Di easiest way to explain am na by drawing some pictures.,Computer science
"as figure 5. 4 illustrates, if the data tend to have alot of extreme small values(i. e, the lower tail is\longer"" than the upper tail)and not so many extremely large values(left panel), then we say that the data are-131- negatively skewed.","Di data don get alot of extreme small values(i. e, di lower tail dey\longer"" than di upper tail)and no so many extremely large values(left panel), then we tok say di data dey -131-negatively skewed.",Computer science
"on the other hand, if there are more extremely large values than extremely small ones(right panel)we say that the data are positively skewed.",We tok say di data dey positively skewed.,Computer science
that's the qualitative idea behind skewness.,Di qualitative idea wey dey behind skewness,Computer science
"the actual formula for the skewness of a dataset is as follows skewnesspxq1 n^3n i1pxixq3 wherenis the number of observations, xis the sample mean, and ^ is the standard deviation(the \divide byn1"" version, that is).","Di actual formula for di skewness of group of related numbers or data wey belong together dey follow skewnesspxq1 n^3n i1pxixq3 wherenis di number of observations, xis di average number, and ^ na di howe dey spread(the howe dey spread(the \divide byn1"" version, wey dey).",Computer science
"perhaps more helpfully, it might be useful to point out that the psych package contains a skew() function that you can use to calculate skewness.",Di psych package contains skew() function wey you fit use to calculate skewness.,Computer science
"so if we wanted to use this function to calculate the skewness ofthe afl. margins data, we'd rst need to load the package> library(psych )which now makes it possible to use the following command:> skew(x= afl. margins) [1]0.","If we go use dis function to calculate di skewness of di afl. margin data, we go need to load di package> library(psych ) wey now make e possible to use di command wey go follow:> skew(x= afl. margins data",Computer science
"not surprisingly, it turns out that the afl winning margins data is fairly skewed.",E turnout say di afl winning margin data dey fairly skewed.,Computer science
"the nal measure that is sometimes referred to, though very rarely in practice, is the kurtosis of a dataset.","Di nal measure wey dey sometimes referred to, though very rarely for practice, na di kurtosis of group of related numbers or data wey belong together.",Computer science
"put simply, kurtosis is a measure ofthe \pointiness"" of a dataset, as illustrated in figure 5.5.","Di kurtosis dey measure of di \pointiness"" of group of related numbers or data wey belong together, as dey illustrated for figure 5.5.",Computer science
"by convention, we say that the ormal curve""(black lines)has zero kurtosis, so the pointiness of a dataset is assessed relative to this curve.","We say di ormal curve""(di black line)don zero kurtosis, so di pointiness of group of related numbers or data wey belong together dey assess relative to dis curve.",Computer science
"in this figure, the data on the left are not pointy enough, so the kurtosis is negative and we call the data platykurtic.",We call di data platykurtic.,Computer science
"the data on the right are too pointy, so the kurtosis is positive and we say that the data is leptokurtic.","We tok say di data on di right dey too pointy, so di kurtosis dey positive and we say di data na leptokurtic.",Computer science
"but the data in the middle are just pointy enough, so we say that it is mesokurtic and has kurtosis zero.","Di data for di middle dey pointy enough, so we tok say e dey mesokurtic and get kurtosis zero",Computer science
"this is summarised in the table below: informal term technical name kurtosis value oo at"" platykurtic negative\just pointy enough"" mesokurtic zero oo pointy"" leptokurtic positive the equation for kurtosis is pretty similar in spirit to the formulas we've seen already for the variance and the skewness; except that where the variance involved squared deviations and the skewness involved cubed deviations, the kurtosis involves raising the deviations to the fourth power:12 kurtosispxq1 n^4n i1","Di informal term technical name kurtosis value wey dey for"" platykurtic positive\just pointy enough"" mesokurtic zero wey dey pointy"" mesokurtic zero wey dey pointy"" mesokurtic zero wey dey pointy"" mesokurtic zero wey pointy"" leptokurtic positive di equation for kurtosis, di kurtosis dey raise di deviations to di fourth power",Computer science
"more to the point, the psych package has a function called kurtosi() that you can use to calculate the kurtosis of your data.",Di psych package don get function called kurtosi() wey you fit use to calculate di kurtosis of your data.,Computer science
"for instance, if we were to do this for the afl margins,> kurtosi( x=afl. margins) [1]0. 02962633 we discover that the afl winning margins data are just pointy enough.",We discover say di afl winning margin data dey pointy enough.,Computer science
"it looks a bit stupid, just sticking a\-3"" at the end ofthe formula, but there are good mathematical reasons for doing this.","E look a bit stupid, just stick a\-3"" for di end of di formula, but there dey good mathematical reasons for do dis.",Computer science
"on the left, we have a \platykurtic"" dataset (kurtosis =:95), meaning that the dataset is oo at"".","We get \platykurtic"" group of related numbers or data wey belong together (kurtosis =95), meaning say di group of related numbers or data wey belong together dey oo at",Computer science
"in the middle we have a \mesokurtic"" dataset (kurtosis is almost exactly 0), which means that the pointiness ofthe data is just about right.","Di middle we get a \mesokurtic"" group of related numbers or data wey belong together (kurtosis dey almost exactly 0), we mean say di pointiness of di data dey just about right",Computer science
"finally, on the right, we have a \leptokurtic"" dataset (kurtosis 2:12) indicating that the dataset is oo pointy"".","Di right, we get \leptokurtic"" group of related numbers or data wey belong together (kurtosis 2:12) indicating say di group of related numbers or data wey belong together dey oo pointy",Computer science
note that kurtosis is measured with respect to a normal curve(black line).,Di note say kurtosis dey measure wit respect to normal curve(di black line).,Computer science
"however, it's kind of annoying to have to separately calculate means, medians, standard deviations, skews etc.","However, e dey small annoying to dey to find each one alone means, medians, standard deviations, skews, etc.",Computer science
wouldn't it be nice if rhad some helpful functions that would do all these tedious calculations at once?,E no be nice if rhad some helpful functions wey go do all dis tedious calculations for once?,Computer science
"something like summary() ordescribe(), perhaps?","Something like summary()or describe(), perhaps?",Computer science
"why yes, yes it would.","Di why no, no dey suppose",Computer science
so much so that both of these functions exist.,Di function dey exist so much so say both of dis functions exist,Computer science
"the basic idea behind the summary()function is that it prints out some useful information about whatever object(i. e, variable, as far as we're concerned)you specify as the object argument.","Di basic idea wey dey behind di way to see small tins dey say e to write for screen some useful information about whatever object(i. e, variable, as for we dey concerned)you specify as di object argument.",Computer science
"as a consequence, the behaviour ofthe summary()function diers quite dramatically depending on the class ofthe object that you give it.",Di behaviour of di way to see small tins diers quite dramatically based on di class of di object wey you give am,Computer science
let's start by giving it a numeric object:> summary(object =afl. margins) min.,Di summary(object =afl. margins)min.,Computer science
median mean 3rd qu.,Na 3rd qu.,Computer science
"it gives us the minimum and maximum values(i. e, the range), the rst and third quartiles (25th and 75th percentiles; i. e, the iqr), the mean and the median.","E give us di small and di big(di range), di first and third quartiles (25th and 75th percentiles; i. e, di IQR), di mean and di median.",Computer science
"in other words, it gives us a pretty good collection of descriptive statistics related to the central tendency and the spread ofthe data.","E give us good collection of numbers wey describe wey dey related to di Wetin dey happen for middle, wey be say one number dey represent all di numbers wey dey inside, e fit be mean, mode or median, but e be like say di middle dey sabi di truth for all di numbers and di spread of di data.",Computer science
"let's say i want to know something about how many lowouts"" there were in the 2010 afl season.",E tok say i wan know something about how many lowouts wey dey for di 2010 afl season,Computer science
"now let's ask rfor a summary()> summary(object = blowouts )mode false true na's logical 132 44 0 in this context, the summary()function gives us a count ofthe number of true values, the number of false values, and the number of missing values(i. e, the nas).","Di way to see small tins give us count of di number of true value, di number of false value, and di number of missing value(i. e, di nas).",Computer science
pretty reasonable behaviour.,E dey reasonable behaviour.,Computer science
"next, let's try to give it a factor.","For next, let try to give am factor",Computer science
"if you recall, i've de ned the afl. finalists vector as a factor, so let's use that:> summary(object =afl. finalists) adelaide brisbane carlton collingwood 26 25 26 28 essendon fitzroy fremantle geelong 32 06 39 hawthorn melbourne north melbourne port adelaide 27 28 28 17 richmond st kilda sydney west coast 6 24 26 38 western bulldogs 24 for factors, we get a frequency table, just like we got when we used the table()function.","If you remember, I don define di afl. finalists vector as factor, so make we use dat:> summary(object= afl. finalists). For factors, we get a list of how many, just like we get when we use table()function.",Computer science
"because i've de ned afl. finalists as a factor, rknows that it should treat it as a nominal scale variable, and so it gives you a much more detailed(and helpful)summary than it would have if i'd left it as a character vector.","I know say e go treat am as nominal scale variable, and so e give you a much more detailed(and helpful)summary wey e go get if i dey left am as character vector.",Computer science
"when you pass a data frame to the summary()function, it produces a slightly condensed summary of each variable inside the data frame.","When you pass one kind of table to di way to see small tins, e produce small condensed summary of each variable inside di one kind of table.",Computer science
"to give you a sense of how this can-134- be useful, let's try this for anew dataset, one that you've never seen before.","For anew group of related numbers or data wey belong together, one wey you never see before.",Computer science
the data is stored in the clinicaltrial.,Di data dey store for di clinicaltrial,Computer science
"presumably then, this data is from a clinical trial of some kind, in which people were administered dierent drugs; and the researchers looked to see what the drugs did to their mood.","Di data dey from clinical trial of some kind, wey pipo dey administered dierent drugs; and di researchers look to see what di drugs dey to dia mood.",Computer science
let's see if the summary()function sheds a little more light on this situation:> summary( clin. trial) drug therapy mood. gain placebo:6 no. therapy:9 min.,Make we see if di way to see small tins shed small more light on dis situation:> summary(clin. trial),Computer science
there were 9 people treated using cognitive behavioural therapy (cbt) and 9 people who received no psychological treatment.,Di 9 pipo wey dey treated using cognitive behavioural therapy (cbt) and 9 pipo wey receive no psychological treatment,Computer science
"and we can see from looking at the summary ofthe mood. gain variable that most people did show a mood gain(mean:88), though without knowing what the scale is here it's hard to say much more than that.","Di gain variable wey most pipo don show a mood gain(mean:88), though without knowing what di scale dey here e hard to say much more than dat",Computer science
"still, that's not too bad.",Dem no too bad.,Computer science
"overall, i feel that i learned something from that.",I feel say i learn something from dat.,Computer science
"unlike the summary()function, it calculates the same descriptive statistics for any type of variable you give it.","Unlike di way to see small tins, e calculate di same numbers wey describe for any type of variable you give am.",Computer science
"by default, these are: var.","For default, dem dey: var",Computer science
"this is just an index:1 for the rst variable,2 for the second variable, and soon.","Di index na just index:1 for di rst variable,2 for di second variable, and soon",Computer science
"this is the sample size: more precisely, it's the number of non-missing values.","Di sample size dey more precisely, na di number of non-missing value",Computer science
this is trimmed mean.,E dey trimmed mean.,Computer science
the minimum value.,Di smawest amont or degree wey dey possible or dem dey allow.,Computer science
the maximum value.,Di maximum value.,Computer science
"for nominal or ordinal variables(usually encoded as factors), most of these descriptive statistics are not all that useful.",Di numbers wey describe no dey useful.,Computer science
what the describe()function does is convert factors and logical variables to numeric vectors in order to do the calculations.,Di describe()function does dey convert factors and logical variables to numeric vectors for order to do di calculation,Computer science
"these variables are marked with*and most ofthe time, the descriptive statistics for those variables won't make much sense.","Di numbers wey describe for dis variables dey marked wit*and most of di time, di numbers wey describe for dis variables don make much sense.",Computer science
"if you try to feed it a data frame that includes a character vector as a variable, it produces an error.","If you try feed am one kind of table wey include character vector as a variable, e produce error.",Computer science
"with those caveats in mind, let's use the describe()function to have a look at the clin. trial data frame.",Dem use di describe()function to get make we look di clin. trial one kind of table.,Computer science
"here's what we get:> describe(x= clin. trial) var n mean sd median trimmed mad min max range skew kurtosis se drug*1 182. 000. 84 2. 00 2. 00 1. 481. 0 3. 0 2. 0 0.00 -1. 660. 20 therapy*2 181. 500. 511. 501. 500. 741. 0 2. 0 1. 0 0.00 -2. 110. 12 mood. gain 3 180. 88 0. 530. 85 0. 88 0. 670. 1 1. 8 1. 7 0. 13-1. 440. 13 as you can see, the output for the asterisked variables is pretty meaningless, and should be ignored.","Here's wetin we get:> describe(x= clin. trial). As you see, di output for di ones wey get star dey no dey tell anything, and suppose to ignore.",Computer science
"however, for the mood. gain variable, there's alot of useful information.","For di mood, gain variable, na lot of useful information.",Computer science
"this is pretty easy to doin r, and there are three functions in particular that are worth knowing about: by(), describeby() and aggregate().","E dey easy to do for r, and na three functions wey dey worth know about: by(), describeby() and aggregate()",Computer science
"let's start with the describeby() function, which is part ofthe psych package.","Na let start wit di describeby() function, wey dey part of di psych package.",Computer science
"the describeby() function is very similar to the describe()function, except that it hasan additional argument called group which species a grouping variable.","Di describeby() function dey similar to di describeby() function, except say di describeby() function dey similar to di describe()function, except say e don get additional argument wey dey called group wey dey grouping variable.",Computer science
"for instance, let's say, i want to look at the descriptive statistics for the clin. trial data, broken down separately by therapy type.","for example, make I say, I wan make we look di numbers wey describe for di clin. trial data, to separate by which way to treat.",Computer science
"notice that, as before, the output displays asterisks for factor variables, in order to draw your attention to the fact that the descriptive statistics that it has calculated won't be very meaningful for those variables.","as before, di output display asterisks for factor variables, in order to draw your attention to di fact say di numbers wey describe wey dey calculated no dey meaningful for those variables.",Computer science
"nevertheless, this command has given us some really useful descriptive statistics mood. gain variable, broken down as a function of therapy.","Nevertheless, dis command don give us some really useful numbers wey describe for mood. gain variable, broken down as function of therapy.",Computer science
a somewhat more general solution is oered by the by()function.,Di by()function.,Computer science
"there are three arguments that you need to specify when using this function: the data argument species the dataset, the indices-136- argument species the grouping variable, and the funargument species the name of a function that you want to apply separately to each group.","Di data argument species di group of related numbers or data wey belong together, di indices-136 argument species di grouping variable, and di funargument species di name of a function wey you need to apply separately to each group.",Computer science
"to give a sense of how powerful this is, you can reproduce the describeby() function by using a command like this:> by( data=clin. trial, indices=clin. trial$therapy, fun=describe )this will produce the exact same output as the command shown earlier.","Di data=clin. trial, indices=clin. trial$therapy, fun=describe )dis go produce di exact same output as di command show earlier.",Computer science
"however, there's nothing special about the describe()function.",Di describe()function no dey special about di describe()function,Computer science
you could just as easily use the by()function in conjunction with the summary()function.,Di way to see small tins dey conjunction wit di way to see small tins,Computer science
"it's the output ofthe summary()function, applied separately tocbtgroup and the no. therapy group.","Na di output of di way to see small tins, wey dem use for each CBT group and dino-therapy group.",Computer science
"for the two factors( drug and therapy) it prints out a frequency table, whereas for the numeric variable( mood. gain) it prints out the range, interquartile range, mean and median.","For di two factors( drug and therapy)e to write for screen di range, di middle spread, mean and median.",Computer science
what if you have multiple grouping variables?,Wetin if you go get many ways to group?,Computer science
"suppose, for example, you would like to look at the average mood gain separately for all possible combinations of drug and therapy.","suppose for example, you go like to make we look di average mood gain separately for all di ways wey dem fit mix of drug and therapy.",Computer science
"it is actually possible to do this using the by()and describeby() functions, but i usually nd it more convenient to use the aggregate()function in this situation.","E no dey possible to do dis using di by()and describeby() functions, but i usually nd e more convenient to use di aggregate()function for dis situation.",Computer science
there are again three arguments that you need to specify.,Na again three tins wey you give wey you need to specify,Computer science
"the formula argument is used to indicate which variable you want to analyse, and which variables are used to specify the groups.","Di formula argument dey use to indicate which variable you wan analyse, and which variables dey use to specify di groups.",Computer science
"for instance, if you want to look at mood. gain separately for each possible combination ofdrug and therapy, the formula you want is mood. gain~ drug+ therapy.","for example, if you wan to make we look mood. gain separately for each possible combination ofdrug and therapy, di formula wey you wanna mood. gain separately for each possible combination ofdrug and therapy, di formula wey you wanna mood. gain separately for each possible combination ofdrug and therapy, di formula wey you wanna mood",Computer science
"the data argument is used to specify the data frame containing all the data, and the funargument is used to indicate what function you want to calculate for each group(e. g, the mean).","Di data argument dey use to specify di one kind of table wey dey containing all di data, and di funargument dey use to indicate what function you wan to calculate for each group(e. g, di mean).",Computer science
"the survey has 50 questions, which you can answer in a grumpy way or not.","Di survey don get 50 questions, wey you go answer for grumpy way or no.",Computer science
"across a big sample (hypothetically, let's imagine a million people or so!)",Dem imagine million pipo or so!,Computer science
"the data are fairly normally distributed, with the mean grumpiness score being 17 out of 50 questions answered in a grumpy way, and the standard deviation is 5.","Di data dey fairly normally distributed, wit di mean grumpiness score being 17 out of 50 questions wey dey answer for grumpy way, and di howe dey spread na 5.",Computer science
"in contrast, when i take the questionnaire, i answer 35 out of 50 questions in a grumpy way.","I take di questionnaire, i answer 35 out of 50 questions for grumpy way",Computer science
"so, how grumpy ami?","So, how grumpy I be?",Computer science
"one way to think about would be to say that i have grumpiness of 35/50, so you might say that i'm 70%grumpy.","Di one way to think about e go be say i get grumpiness of 35 50, so you go say i dey 70%grumpy.",Computer science
"but that's a bit weird, when you think about it.","Di bit weird, wen you think about am",Computer science
"if my friend had phrased her questions a bit dierently, people might have answered them in a dierent way, so the overall distribution of answers could easily move up or down depending on the precise way in which the questions were asked.",Di overall distribution of answers go easily move up or down based on di exact way wey di question dey asked.,Computer science
"so, i'm only 70%grumpy with respect to this set of survey questions.","So, I only 70%grumpy concerning dis di questions wey dem ask.",Computer science
"even if it's avery good questionnaire, this isn't very a informative statement.",E no dey very informative statement,Computer science
a simpler way around this is to describe my grumpiness by comparing me to other people.,Di simple way around dis nato describe my grumpiness by comparing me to oda pipo.,Computer science
"shockingly, out of my friend's sample of 1, 000,000 people, only 159 people were as grumpy as me(that's not at all unrealistic, frankly), suggesting that i'm in the top 0. 016% of people for grumpiness.","Di friend's sample of 1, 000,000 pipo, only 159 pipo dey grumpy as me(that no dey realistic, frankly), suggest say i dey for top 0. 016% of pipo for grumpiness.",Computer science
this makes much more sense than trying to interpret the raw data.,Dis one make much more sense than to dey try interpret di first numbers.,Computer science
this idea{ that we should describe my grumpiness in terms ofthe overall distribution ofthe grumpiness of humans{ is the qualitative idea that standardisation attempts to get at.,Di idea wey we go describe my grumpiness for terms of di overall distribution of di grumpiness of humans{ na di qualitative idea wey standardisation attempt to get at.,Computer science
"one way to do this is to do exactly what i just did, and describe everything in terms of percentiles.","Di one way to do dis nato do exactly what i just don do, and describe all using percentiles",Computer science
"however, the problem with doing this is that\it's lonely at the top"".",Di problem wit doing dis na say\it's lonely for top,Computer science
"suppose that my friend had only collected a sample of 1000 people(still a pretty big sample for the purposes of testing anew questionnaire, i'd like to add), and this time gotten a mean of 16 out of 50 with a standard deviation of 5, let's say.","Dem suppose say my friend don collect 1000 pipo (still pretty big sample for di purpose of testing new questionnaire, i go add), and dis time don get mean of 16 out of 50 wit howe dey spread of 5, let say.",Computer science
"the problem is that almost certainly, not a single person in that sample would be as grumpy as me.","Di problem dey say almost certainly, no single person for dat sample go be grumpy as me.",Computer science
"however, all is not lost.","For however, all dey lost",Computer science
"a dierent approach is to convert my grumpiness score into a standard score, also referred to as az-score.","Di dierent approach dey to convert my grumpiness score into standard score, also dem dey call Z-score.",Computer science
the standard score is de ned as the number of standard deviations above the mean that my grumpiness score lies.,Di standard score dey de ned as di number of howe dey spread above di mean say my grumpiness score lies.,Computer science
so the fact that my grumpiness corresponds to a zscore of 3. 6 indicates that i'm very grumpy indeed.,Di fact say my grumpiness correspond to a Zscore of 3. 6 indicates say i dey grumpy indeed.,Computer science
"speci cally, it allows us to calculate a theoretical percentile rank for my grumpiness, as follows:> pnorm( 3.6) [1]0.","Specifically, e allow us calculate di number for theory for my grumpiness, as follows:> pnorm(3.6) [1]0.",Computer science
"at this stage, this command doesn't make too much sense, but don't worry too much about it.","Di command no make too much sense, but no dey worry too much about am",Computer science
it's not important for now.,E no dey important for now,Computer science
but the output is fairly straightforward: it suggests that i'm grumpier than 99. 98%of people.,E suggest say i dey grumpier than 99. 98%of pipo,Computer science
sounds about right.,Dat one sound about right.,Computer science
"in addition to allowing you to interpret a raw score in relation to a larger population(and thereby allowing you to make sense of variables that lie on arbitrary scales), standard scores serve a second useful function.","For addition to allow you to interpret raw score for relation to larger population(and thereby allow you make sense of variables wey lie on arbitrary scale), standard score serve second useful function.",Computer science
standard scores can be compared to one another in situations where the raw scores can't.,Di standard scores go compare to one another for situations wey di raw score don dey compare to one another for situations wey di raw score no fit compare to one another for situations wey di raw score dey.,Computer science
"suppose, for instance, my friend also had another questionnaire that measured extraversion using a 24 items questionnaire.","for example, my friend don get one questionnaire wey measure extraversion using 24 items questionnaire.",Computer science
the overall mean for this measure turns out to be 13 with standard deviation 4; and i scored a 2.,Di big average for dis measure turnout to be 13 with howe dey spread 4; and I score 2.,Computer science
"as you can imagine, it doesn't make alot of sense to try to compare my raw score of 2 on the extraversion questionnaire to my raw score of 35 on the grumpiness questionnaire.","As you fit imagine, e no make plenty sense to try compare my raw score of 2 for di paper wey check how person dey social to my raw score of 35 for grumpiness questionnaire.",Computer science
"the raw scores for the two variables are bout""fundamentally dierent things, so this would be like comparing apples to oranges.","Di raw score for di two variables dey bout""fundamentally dierent things, so dis go be like comparing apples to oranges.",Computer science
what about the standard scores?,Di standard scores?,Computer science
"well, this is a little dierent.",E dey a little dierent,Computer science
"if we calculate the standard scores, we getzp3517q{53: 6 for grumpiness and zp213q{42: 75 for extraversion.","If we dey calculate di standard scores, we get z=(35−17) 5=3.6 for grumpiness and z=(2−13) 4= −2.75 for extraversion.",Computer science
these two numbers canbe compared to eachother. 15i'm much less extraverted than most people( z2: 75)and much grumpier than most people( z3: 6): but the extent of my unusualness is much more extreme for grumpiness (since 3. 6 is a bigger number than 2. 75).,Di extent of my unusualness dey more extreme for grumpiness (since 3. 6 dey a bigger number than 2. 75).,Computer science
"because each standardised score is a statement about where an observation falls relative to its own population, it is possible to compare standardised scores across completely dierent variables.",E dey possible to compare standardised scores across completely dierent variables.,Computer science
what we haven't done is talked about how to describe the relationships between variables in the data.,We no dey done dey talk about how to describe di how two things dey related variables for di data.,Computer science
"to do that, we want to talk mostly about the correlation between variables.","To do dat, we wan talk mostly about di how two things dey connect.",Computer science
"but rst, we need some data.","But first, we go need some data.",Computer science
"for a variable x, the simplest way is to use a command like(x -mean(x)) /sd(x).",Di simple way dey use command like(x -mean(x) sd(x),Computer science
"there's also a fancier function called scale()that you can use, but it relies on somewhat more complicated rconcepts that i haven't explained yet.","Di fancier function wey dey call scale() wey you fit use, but e dey reli on somewhat more complicated rconcepts wey i don understand yet.",Computer science
"it's not always the case that one standard deviation on variable a corresponds to the same\kind"" of thing as one standard deviation on variable b.","Di case wey one howe dey spread on variable a correspond to di same\kind"" of thing as one howe dey spread on variable b.",Computer science
use common sense when trying to determine whether or not the zscores of two variables can be meaningfully compared.,We use common sense wen try to determine whether or no di Zscores of two variables dey meaningfully compared.,Computer science
variable min max mean median std.,E dey variable min max mean median std,Computer science
dev iqr dan's grumpiness 41 91 63. 71 62 10. 05 14 dan's hours slept 4. 84 9. 00 6. 97 7. 03 1. 02 1. 45 dan's son's hours slept 3. 25 12. 07 8. 05 7. 95 2. 07 3. 21.,Di dev iqr dan's grumpiness 41 91 63. 71 62 10. 05 14 dan's hours slept 4. 84 9. 00 6. 97 7. 03 1. 02 1. 45 dan's son's hours slept 3. 25 12. 07 8. 05 7. 95 2. 07 3. 21,Computer science
"instead, let's turn to a topic close to every parent's heart: sleep.","Instead, make we turn to topic wey close to every parent heart: sleep.",Computer science
"the following dataset is ctitious, but based on real events.","Di following group of related numbers or data wey belong together dey ctitious, but based on real events.",Computer science
suppose i'm curious to nd out how much my infant son's sleeping habits aect my mood.,Suppose I dey curious to know how much my pikin wey dey small im sleeping habits change how I feel.,Computer science
"let's say that i can rate my grumpiness very precisely, on a scale from 0(not at all grumpy)to 100(grumpy as avery, very grumpy old man).","E tok say i fit rate my grumpiness very precisely, on scale from 0(not at all grumpy)to 100(grumpy as very grumpy old man).",Computer science
"and, lets also assume that i've been measuring my grumpiness, my sleeping patterns and my son's sleeping patterns for quite sometime now.","Dem also assume say i don measur my grumpiness, my sleeping patterns and my son's sleeping patterns for quite sometime now.",Computer science
"let's say, for 100 days.","Dem say, for 100 days",Computer science
"and, being a nerd, i've saved the data as a le called parenthood.",I don save di data as a le called parenthood,Computer science
"range skew kurtosis sedan. sleep 4. 16-0. 29-0. 650. 10 baby. sleep 8. 82-0. 02-0. 610. 21 dan. grump 50. 000. 43-0. 04 1. 00 day 99. 000. 00-1. 202. 90 finally, to give a graphical depiction of what each ofthe three interesting variables looks like, figure 5. 6 plots histograms.","Dem give graphical depiction of what each of di three interesting variables look like, figure 5. 6 plot hintograms.",Computer science
one thing to note: just because rcan calculate dozens of dierent statistics doesn't mean you should report all of them.,But because rcan calculate dozens of dierent statistics no mean you go report all of dem,Computer science
"if i were writing this up for a report, i'd probably pick out those statistics that are of most interest tome (and to my readership), and then put them into a nice, simple table like the one in table 5.1. 16notice that when i put it into a table, i gave everything\human readable""names.","Dem pick out those statistics wey dey of most interest tome (and to my readership), and then put dem into a nice table like di one for table 5.",Computer science
this is always good practice.,Dis dey always good practice,Computer science
notice also that i'm not getting enough sleep.,Di notice also say i no get sleep,Computer science
"this isn't good practice, but other parents tell me that it's standard practice.","Di practice no dey good practice, but oda parents tell me say im standard practice.",Computer science
"ideally though, we might want to say a bit more about it than that.",We go wan say a bit more about am than dat.,Computer science
"for instance, let's compare the relationship between dan. sleep and dan. grump (figure 5.7, left)with that between baby. sleep and dan. grump (figure 5.7, right).","for example, make we compare di how two things dey related dan. sleep and dan. grump (Figure 5.7, left) with dat one between baby. sleep and dan. grump (Figure 5.7, right).",Computer science
"when looking at these two plots side by side, it's clear that the relationship is qualitatively the same in both cases: more sleep equals less grump!",Di relationship dey qualitatively di same for both cases: more sleep equals less grump,Computer science
"however, it's also pretty obvious that the relationship between dan. sleep and dan. grump isstronger than the relationship between baby. sleep and dan. grump.",Di how two things dey related dan. sleep and dan. grump dey stronger than di how two things dey related baby. sleep and dan. grump,Computer science
"the plot on the left is eater""than the one on the right.","Di plot on di left dey eater""than di one on di right",Computer science
"what it feels like is that if you want to predict what my mood is, it'd help you a little bit to know how many hours my son slept, but it'd be more helpful to know how many hours i slept.","If you wan predict what my mood dey, e go help you a little bit to know how many hours my son slept, but e go help you know how many hours my son slept.",Computer science
"in contrast, let's consider the two scatterplots shown in figure 5.8.",Dem consider di two scatterplots show for figure 5.8. 8.,Computer science
"if we compare the scatterplot of aby. sleep vdan. grump ""(left) to the scatterplot of\` baby. sleep vdan. sleep"" (right), the overall strength ofthe relationship is the same, but the direction is dierent.","If we compare di scatterplot of baby. sleep vs dan. grump (left)to di scatterplot of baby. sleep vs dan. sleep (right), di how strong e be of di relationship na di same, but di direction dey different.",Computer science
"that is, if my son sleeps more, 16actually, even that table is more than i'd bother with.","If my son sleep more, 16actually, even say table dey more than i dey bother wit.",Computer science
"in practice most people pick onemeasure of central tendency, and onemeasure of variability only.","For practice, most pipo to take one number of Wetin dey happen for middle, wey be say one number dey represent all di numbers wey dey inside, e fit be mean, mode or median, but e be like say di middle dey sabi di truth for all di numbers and one measure of variability only.",Computer science
"when r1 it means that we have a perfect negative relationship, and when r1 it means we have a perfect positive relationship.","Di when r1 means say we get perfect positive relationship, and wen r1 means we get perfect positive relationship, and wen r1 means we get perfect positive relationship.",Computer science
"when r0, there's no relationship at all.","For when r0, no relationship for all",Computer science
"if you look at figure 5.9, you can see several plots showing what dierent correlations look like.","As you make we look figure 5.9, you fit see several plots show say di dierent correlation look like.",Computer science
the formula for the pearson's correlation coecient can be written in several dierent ways.,Di formula for Pearson's correlation coefficient fit write for several different ways.,Computer science
"firstly, let's introduce the idea of acovariance.","Na firstly, let introduce di idea of acovariance.",Computer science
the covariance between two variables xandyis a generalisation ofthe notion ofthe variance; it's a mathematically simple way of describing the relationship between two variables that isn't terribly informative to humans: covpx; yq1 n1n i1,Cpx; yq1 n1n i1n i1,Computer science
"the covariance has the nice property that, if xandyare entirely unrelated, then the covariance is exactly zero.","Di covariance don dey nice property say, if xandy dey unrelated, then di covariance dey zero",Computer science
sense shown in figure 5.9) then the covariance is also positive; and if the relationship is negative then the covariance is also negative.,"Di covariance dey positive; and if di relationship dey positive then di covariance dey positive; and if di relationship dey positive then di covariance dey positive; and if di relationship dey positive, and if di relationship dey positive, di covariance dey positive; and if di relationship dey positive",Computer science
"in other words, the covariance captures the basic qualitative idea of correlation.",Di covariance captur di basic qualitative idea of correlation.,Computer science
"unfortunately, the raw magnitude ofthe covariance isn't easy to interpret: it depends on the units in which xandyare expressed, and worse yet, the actual units that the covariance itself is expressed in are really weird.","Di raw magnitude of di covariance no depend on di units wey xandy dey express, and worse yet, di actual units wey di covariance dey express for na really weird.",Computer science
"for instance, if xrefers to the dan. sleep variable(units: hours)and yrefers to the dan. grump variable(units: grumps), then the units for their covariance are\hours grumps"".","If xrefer to di dan. sleep variable(units: hours)and yrefer to di dan. grump variable(units: grumps), then di unit for dia covariance dey\hours grumps"".",Computer science
andi have no freaking idea what that would even mean.,I get no freaking idea wey e fit mean,Computer science
"the pearson correlation coecient r xes this interpretation problem by standardising the covariance, in pretty much the exact same way that the z-score standardises a raw score: by dividing by the standard deviation.","Di Pearson correlation coefficient r fix dis interpretation problem by standardising di covariance, exactly di same way wey Z-score dey standardise raw score: by dividing by howe dey spread.",Computer science
"however, because we have two variables that contribute to the covariance, the standardisation only works if we divide by both standard deviations. 18in other words, the correlation between xandy can be written as follows: rxycovpx; yq ^x^y by doing this standardisation, not only do we keep all ofthe nice properties ofthe covariance discussed earlier, but the actual values of rare on a meaningful scale: r1 implies a perfect positive relationship, andr 1 implies a perfect negative relationship.","Di correlation between xandy dey write as follow: rxycovpx; yq ^x^y by do di standardisation, no only do we keep all of di nice properties of di covariance wey dey discuss earlier, but di actual values of rare on a meaningful scale.",Computer science
"but before i do, let's look at how to calculate correlations in r.5. 7. 4 calculating correlations in r calculating correlations in rcan be done using the cor()command.","Na before i do, let make we look how to calculate correlations for r",Computer science
"the simplest way to use the command is to specify two input arguments xand y, each one corresponding to one ofthe variables.","Di simplest way to use di command nato specify two input arguments xand y, each one corresponding to one of di variables.",Computer science
"the 18this is an oversimpli cation, but it'll do for our purposes.","Di 18this na oversimpli cation, but e go do for awa purpose.",Computer science
"in the left hand column, the correlations are 0.33. 66 and 1.",Di correlations dey 0.33. 66 and 1.,Computer science
"in the right hand column, the correlations are 0,-. 33,-. 66 and-1.","Di correlations dey 0,-. 33,-. 66 and-1.",Computer science
"so how should you interpret a correlation of, sayr: 4?","So how you suppose interpret correlation of, say, r= 0.4?",Computer science
"the honest answer is that it really depends on what you want to use the data for, and on how strong the correlations in your eld tend to be.","Di honest answer na say e depend on what you wan use di data for, and on how strong di correlations for your eld tend to be.",Computer science
"a friend of mine in engineering once argued that any correlation less than: 95 is completely useless(i think he was exaggerating, even for engineering).","Di friend of mine for engineering once argu say any correlation less than 95 dey completely useless(i think hin dey exaggerating, even for engineering).",Computer science
on the other hand there are real cases{ even in psychology{ where you should really expect correlations that strong.,Na real cases wey dey for psychology{ wey you go expect correlations wey strong,Computer science
"for instance, one ofthe benchmark data sets used to test theories of how people judge similarities is so clean that any theory that can't achieve a correlation of atleast:9 really isn't deemed to be successful.","for example, one of di benchmark data sets wey dey use to test diories of how pipo judge similarities dey so clean say any theory wey no fit achieve correlation of atleast:9 really dey successful.",Computer science
"however, when looking for(say) elementary correlates of intelligence(e. g, inspection time, response time), if you get a correlation above:3 you're doing very very well.","We dey look for(say) elementary correlates of intelligence(e. g, inspection time, how fast person answer), if you go get correlation above:3",Computer science
"in short, the interpretation of a correlation depends alot on the context.",Di interpretation of correlation depend alot on di context.,Computer science
"that said, the rough guide in table 5. 2 is pretty typical.",Di rough guide for table 5. 2 dey pretty typical.,Computer science
"however, something that can never be stressed enough is that you should always look at the scatterplot before attaching any interpretation to the data.",Di thing wey no dey stressed enough na say you go always make we look di scatterplot before attach any interpretation to di data.,Computer science
a correlation might not mean what you think it means.,Di correlation no mean what you think am means.,Computer science
"the classic illustration of this is \anscombe's quartet"" (anscombe, 1973), which is a collection of four data sets.","Di classic illustration of dis na \anscombe's quartet"" (anscombe, 1973), wey be collection of four data sets",Computer science
"each dataset has two variables, an xand ay.","Di group of related numbers or data wey belong together don get two variables, an xand ay",Computer science
for all four data sets the mean value for x is 9 and the mean for yis 7.5.,For all four data sets di mean value for x na 9 and di mean for yis 7.5. 5.5.,Computer science
"the, standard deviations for all xvariables are almost identical, as are those for the the yvariables.","Di howe dey spread for all xvariables dey almost identical, as dem dey for di yvariables.",Computer science
and in each case the correlation between xandyisr0: 816.,"And for each case, di correlation between x andy na r= 0.816.",Computer science
"you can verify this yourself, since i happen to have saved the in a le21called anscombesquartet.","I don verify dis yourself, since i don save di for le21 call anscombesquartet.",Computer science
you'd think that these four data setswould look pretty similar to one another.,Di four data sets go look similar to one another.,Computer science
they do not.,Di dem no dey.,Computer science
"if xand yare both data frames with the same number of rows, then cor(x= x, y= y)will produce a correlation matrix that correlates all variables in xwith all variables in y.","Di cor(x= x, y= y)go produce correlation matrix wey dey correlat all variables for x wit all variables for y.",Computer science
note that i say a rough guide.,I tok say i say rough guide,Computer science
there aren't hard and fast rules for what counts as strong or weak relationships.,E no dey hard and fast rules for what dey count as strong or weak relationships.,Computer science
it depends on the context.,Di context depend on di context,Computer science
correlation strength direction-1. 0 to-0. 9 very strong negative-0. 9 to-0. 7 strong negative-0. 7 to-0. 4 moderate negative-0. 4 to-0. 2 weak negative-0. 2 to 0 negligible negative 0 to 0. 2 negligible positive 0. 2 to 0. 4 weak positive 0. 4 to 0. 7 moderate positive 0. 7 to 0. 9 strong positive 0. 9 to 1. 0 very strong positive.,how strong di link be and direction: -1.0 to -0.9 =very strong opposite; -0.9 to -0.7 =strong opposite; -0.7 to -0.4 =middle opposite; -0.4 to -0.2 =small opposite; -0.2 to 0=almost nothing opposite;0 to 0.2 =almost nothing same; 0.2 to 0.4 =small same; 0.4 to 0.7 =middle same; 0.7 to 0.9 =strong same; 0.9 to 1.0= very strong same.,Computer science
of these are spectacularly dierent to eachother.,E dey spectacularly dierent to each oda.,Computer science
"the lesson here, which so very many people seem to forget in real life is \always graph your raw data"".","Di lesson here, wey so very many pipo dey forget for real life na always graph your di first numbers""",Computer science
one issue in particular stands out: what it actually measures is the strength ofthe linear relationship between two variables.,"One issue wey standout pass others: wetin e actually measure na di strength of di one kind relationship wey dey between two things, where if one thing change, anoda thing go change for steady pace, like straight line for graph between two variables.",Computer science
"in other words, what it gives you is a measure ofthe extent to which the data all tend to fallon a single, perfectly straight line.","Di measure of di extent wey di data don fallon single, perfectly straight line.",Computer science
"often, this is a pretty good approximation to what we mean when we say elationship"", and so the pearson correlation is a good thing to calculation.",Di pearson correlation dey good thing to calculation.,Computer science
"sometimes, it isn't.","E no dey sometimes, e no dey.",Computer science
"one very common situation where the pearson correlation isn't quite the right thing to use arises when an increase in one variable xreally is re ected in an increase in another variable y, but the nature ofthe relationship isn't necessarily linear.","Di pearson correlation no dey quite di right thing to use arises wen increase for one variable xreally dey re ected for increase for one variable y, but di nature of di relationship no dey linear.",Computer science
an example of this might be the relationship between eort and reward when studying for an exam.,Di example of dis go be di how two things dey related eort and reward wey dey study for an exam.,Computer science
"if you putin zero eort ( x)into learning a subject, then you should expect a grade of 0% (y).","If you put zero effort for learning subject, den you suppose expect grade of 0%.",Computer science
"however, a little bit of eort will cause a massive improvement: just turning upto lectures means that you learn a fair bit, and if you just turn upto classes, and scribble a few things down so your grade might rise to 35%, all without alot of eort.","But small effort go cause big improvement: just to appear for lectures mean say you learn fair amount, and if you just come to class and write small things, your grade fit rise to 35%, all without plenty effort.",Computer science
"however, you just don't get the same eect at the other end ofthe scale.","But, you no get di same eect for di oda end of di scale.",Computer science
"as everyone knows, it takes alot more eort to get a grade of 90%than it takes to get a grade of 55%.","As everybody know, e take plenty more effort to get grade of 90%than e take to get grade of 55%.",Computer science
"what this means is that, if i've got data looking at study eort and grades, there's a pretty good chance that pearson correlations will be misleading.","If i get data looking for study eort and grades, e dey good chance say pearson correlations go misleading.",Computer science
"to illustrate, consider the data plotted in figure 5. 11, showing the relationship between hours worked and grade received for 10 students taking some class.","Di data wey dey plot for figure 5. 11, show di how two things dey related hours work and grade receive for 10 students take some class",Computer science
the curious thing about this{ highly ctitious {data set is that increasing your eort always increases your grade.,Di curious thing about dis{ highly ctitious {group of related numbers or data wey belong together dey say increasing your eort always increase your grade,Computer science
"it might be by alot or it might be by a little, but increasing eort will never decrease your grade.","E fit be by plenty or by small, but to increase effort go no go ever bring down your grade.",Computer science
"all four of these data sets have a pearson correlation of r: 816, but they are qualitatively dierent from one another.","Di data sets don get pearson correlation of r: 816, but dem dey qualitatively dierent from one another.",Computer science
the dashed line through the middle shows the linear relationship between the two variables.,"Di line wey dey break wey pass through di middle show di one kind relationship wey dey between two things, where if one thing change, anoda thing go change for steady pace, like straight line for graph between di two variables.",Computer science
this produces a strong pearson correlation of r:91.,Dis one produce strong Pearson correlation of r= 0.91.,Computer science
"however, the interesting thing to note here is that there's actually a perfect monotonic relationship between the two variables: in this toy example atleast, increasing the hours worked always increases the grade received, as illustrated by the solid line.","Di interesting thing wey dey note here na say increase di hours work always increase di grade receive, as di one line wey no cut.",Computer science
this is re ected in a spearman correlation of 1.,Di dey re ected for spearman correlation of 1.,Computer science
"with such a small dataset, however, it's an open question as to which version better describes the actual relationship involved.",E dey open question as to which version better describe di actual relationship involved.,Computer science
"there's a sense herein which we want to be able to say that the correlation is perfect but for a somewhat dierent notion of what a elationship"" is.","Di sense here wey we wan to say di correlation dey perfect but for somewhat dierent notion of what a elationship"" dey.",Computer science
what we're looking for is something that captures the fact that there is a perfect ordinal relationship here.,We look for na something wey dey captur di fact say e dey perfect ordinal relationship here,Computer science
"that is, if student 1 works more hours than student 2, then we can guarantee that student 1 will get the better grade.","Dat mean say, if student 1 work more hours than student 2, den we fit guarantee say student 1 go get di better grade.",Computer science
that's not what a correlation of r:91 says at all.,Di correlation of r:91 tok for all.,Computer science
how should we address this?,How we address dis?,Computer science
"actually, it's really easy: if we're looking for ordinal relationships, all we have to do is treat the data as if it were ordinal scale!","If we dey to find ordinal relationships, all we go do dey treat di data as if dem dey ordinal scale",Computer science
"so, instead of measuring eort in terms of\hours worked"", lets rank all 10 of our students in order of hours worked.","So, not to measure effort as""hours worked"", make we rank all 10 of our students according to hours worked.",Computer science
"that is, student 1 did the least workout of anyone(2 hours)so they get the lowest rank(rank =1).",Di student 1 don do di least workout of anyone(2 hours)so dem get di lowest rank(rank = 1),Computer science
"student 4 was the next laziest, putting in only 6 hours of workin over the whole semester, so they get the next lowest rank(rank =2).","Di next laziest, putting in only 6 hours of work for over di whole semester, so dem get di next lowest rank(rank = 2)",Computer science
"notice that i'm using ank =1""to mean\low rank"".","Di notice say i use ank =1""to mean\low rank",Computer science
"sometimes in everyday language we talk about ank = 1""to mean op rank""rather than ottom rank"".","Sometimes for normal talk, we talk about""rank = 1""to mean""di best place""not dat one""di worst place"".",Computer science
"so be careful: you can rank rom smallest value to largest value""(i. e, small equals rank 1)or you can rank rom largest value to smallest value""(i. e, large equals rank 1).","Soto dey careful: you fit rank from di least to di most(small =rank 1), or you fit rank from di most to di least(large =rank 1).",Computer science
"in this case, i'm ranking from smallest to largest, because that's the default way that rdoes it.","I dey ranking from smallest to largest, because dat's di default way wey dey rdo am.",Computer science
"but in real life, it's really easy to forget which way you set things up, so you have to put a bit of eort into remembering!","E dey easy to forget wich way you set things up, so you go put bit of eort into remembering",Computer science
these are identical.,Dem dey identical.,Computer science
"the student who putin the most eort got the best grade, the student with the least eort got the worst grade, etc.","Di student wey put for di most eort get di best grade, di student wit di least eort get di worst grade, di student wit di least eort get di worst grade, di student wit di least eort get di worst grade, di student wit di least eort get di worst grade, di student wit di least eort get di worst grade, etc.",Computer science
"firstly we could do it the way i just showed, using the rank()function to construct the rankings, and then calculate the pearson correlation on these ranks.","We go do am di way wey i just show, using di rank()function to construct di rankings, and then calculate di pearson correlation on dis ranks.",Computer science
"however, that's way too much eort to do everytime.",But dat one na too much effort to do each time.,Computer science
it's much easier to just specify the method argument ofthe cor()function.,E dey easier to just give di method argument of di cor()function,Computer science
"one thing that many beginners nd frustrating, however, is the fact that it's not built to handle non-numeric variables.","Di one thing wey many beginners nd frustrating, na di fact say e no fit handle non-numeric variables.",Computer science
"from a statistical perspective, this is perfectly sensible: pearson and spearman correlations are only designed to work for numeric variables, so the cor()function spits out an error.","E dey e good to talk: pearson and spearman correlations dey only designed to work for numeric variables, so di cor()function spit out error.",Computer science
"suppose you were keeping track of how many hours you worked in any given day, and counted how many tasks you completed.","Di suppose say you dey keep track of how many hours you work for any given day, and count how many tasks you completed.",Computer science
"if you were doing the tasks for money, you might also want to keep track of how much payyou got for each job.","If you dey do di tasks for money, you go also wan to keep track of how much pay you go get for each job.",Computer science
it would also be sensible to keep track ofthe -149-weekday on which you actually did the work: most of us don't work as much on saturdays or sundays.,Dem dey sensible to keep track of di-149 weekday wey you dey work: most of us don work as much on saturdays or sundays.,Computer science
but what if i wanted a quick and easy way to calculate all pairwise correlations between the numeric variables?,I need quick and easy way to calculate all pairwise correlations between di numeric variables? but what if i need quick and easy way to calculate all pairwise correlation between di numeric variables?,Computer science
but it would be nice to have some function that is smart enough to just ignore the factor variables.,E go be nice to get some function wey dey smart enough to just ignore di factor variables.,Computer science
that's where the correlate()function in the lsrpackage can be handy.,Di correlate()function for di lsrpackage fit handy.,Computer science
tasks 0. 800.,Di task 0. 800.,Computer science
day-0. 049 -0. 072 0. 137.,"day: -0.049, -0.072, 0.137.",Computer science
week 0. 018 -0. 013 0. 1960. 990.,Di week 0. 018 -0. 013 0. 1960,Computer science
the output here shows a. whenever one ofthe variables is non-numeric.,Di output here show a. whenever one of di variables dey non-numeric,Computer science
it also shows a. whenever a variable is correlated with itself(it's not a meaningful thing to do).,Di variable dey correlated wit imself (it no dey meaningful thing to do).,Computer science
tasks 0. 805.,Di task 0. 805.,Computer science
pay 0. 745 0. 730.,Dem pay 0. 745 0,Computer science
day-0. 047 -0. 068 0. 094.,Di day-0. 047 -0. 068 0,Computer science
week 0. 010 -0. 008 0. 154 0. 990.,Di week 0. 010 0. 154 0. 990,Computer science
"obviously, there's no new functionality in the correlate()function, and any advanced ruser would be perfectly capable of using the cor()function to get these numbers out.","Di new functionality for di correlate()function, and any advanced ruser go fit use di cor()function to get dia numbers out.",Computer science
"but if you're not yet comfortable with extracting a subset of a data frame, the correlate()function is for you.","If you no dey comfortable wit extracting subset of one kind of table, di correlate()function dey for you",Computer science
"real data sets very frequently turnout to have missing values: perhaps someone forgot toll in a particular survey question, for instance.","real numbers often get numbers wey no dey: maybe somebody forget to answer one particular one question for survey, for example.",Computer science
"missing data can be the source of alot of tricky issues, most of which i'm going to gloss over.","Missing data fit be di source of plenty tricky issues, most of which I go just passover.",Computer science
"however, at a minimum, you need to understand the basics of handling missing data in r.5. 8. 1 the single variable case let's start with the simplest case, in which you're trying to calculate descriptive statistics for a single variable which has missing data.","Di single variable case let start wit di simplest case, wey you try to calculate numbers wey describe for single variable wey dey missing data",Computer science
"in r, this means that there will be navalues in your data vector.",Di means say navalues for your data vector,Computer science
"let's create a variable like that:> partial<- c(10, 20, na, 30)let's assume that you want to calculate the mean of this variable.","Di partial<- c(10, 20, na, 30)let's assume say you wan to calculate di mean of dis variable.",Computer science
"by default, rassumes that you want to calculate the mean using all four elements of this vector, which is probably the safest thing for a dumb-151- automaton to do, but it's rarely what you actually want.","For default, rassume say you wan to calculate di mean using all four elements of dis vector, wey dey probably di safest thing for a dumb-151- automaton to do, but e dey rarely what you actually wan.",Computer science
"well, remember that the basic interpretation of nais \i don't know what this number is"".","Di basic interpretation of nais \i don know what dis number dey"".",Computer science
"this means that 1+na = na: if i add 1 to some number that i don't know(i. e, the na)then the answer is alsoa number that i don't know.","If i add 1 to some number wey i don know(i. e, di na)then di answer dey alsoa number wey i don know",Computer science
"as a consequence, if you don't explicitly tell rto ignore the navalues, and the dataset does have missing values, then the output will itself be a missing value.","If you no tell rto ignore di navalues, and di group of related numbers or data wey belong together don get missing value, then di output go dey missing value.",Computer science
"if i try to calculate the mean ofthe partial vector, without doing anything about the missing value, here's what happens:> mean(x= partial) [1]na technically correct, but deeply unhelpful.","Di mean(x= partial)[1] na technically correct, but deeply unhelpful",Computer science
"by default, na. rm =false, sordoes nothing about the missing data problem.","Na. rm =false, sor do nothing about di missing data problem",Computer science
"let's try setting na. rm =true and see what happens: when calculating sums and means when missing data are present(i. e, when there are navalues) there's actually an additional argument to the function that you should be aware of.","Dem try setting na. rm =true and see what dey happen: when calculating sums and means when navalues dey present(i. e, when navalues dey present(i. e, when navalues) e dey actually additional argument to di function wey you goto know",Computer science
"this argument is called na. rm, and is a logical value indicating whether rshould ignore(or emove"") the missing data for the purposes of doing the calculations.","Di argument dey call na. rm, and dey logical value indicating whether rshould ignore(or emove"") di missing data for di purpose of do di calculation.",Computer science
"by default, rassumes that you want to keep the missing values, so unless you say otherwise it will set na. rm =false.","For default, rassume say you wan to keep di missing value, so unless you say odawise e fit set na.",Computer science
"however, rassumes that 1+na = na: if i add 1 to some number that i don't know(i. e, the na)then the answer is alsoa number that i don't know.","If i add 1 to some number wey i don know(i. e, di na)then di answer dey alsoa number wey i don know",Computer science
"when rignores a navalue, it genuinely ignores it.",Di navalue dey genuinely ignor am.,Computer science
"in eect, the calculation above is identical to what you'd get if you asked for the mean ofthe three-element vector c(10, 20, 30).","Di calculation above dey identical to what you go get if you ask for di mean of three-element vector c(10, 20, 30)",Computer science
"as indicated above, this isn't unique to the mean()function.",Di mean()function dey unique to di mean()function,Computer science
"however, its behaviour is the same for all these functions, so i won't waste everyone's time by demonstrating it separately for each one.","Di behaviour dey di same for all dis functions, so i no go waste everyone's time by demonstrating am separately for each one",Computer science
"it doesn't have anna. rm argument, because the story becomes alot more complicated when more than one variable is involved.",Di story become alot more complicated wen more than one variable dey involved,Computer science
"what it does have is an argument called usewhich does roughly the same thing, but you need to think little more carefully about what you want this time.","Di argument wey dey call use wey dey roughly di same thing, but you need to think little more carefully about what you wan dis time.",Computer science
"to illustrate the issues, let's open up a dataset that has missing values, parenthood2. rdata.","Dem to start group of related numbers or data wey belong together wey dey missing value, parenthood2. rdata.",Computer science
"this le contains the same data as the original parenthood data, but with some values deleted.","Dis file contain di same data as di first parent-child numbers, but wey dem remove some.",Computer science
and let's also suppose that i don't bother to tell rhow to handle those missing values.,Dem also suppose say i no dey bother to tell rhow to handle dismissing value,Computer science
"here's what happens:> cor( parenthood2 )dan. sleep baby. sleep dan. grump day dan. sleep 1 nana na baby. sleep na 1 nana dan. grump nana 1 na day nana na 1 annoying, but it kind of makes sense.","Here's wetin happen:> cor(parenthood2). Annoying, but e kind of make sense.",Computer science
"if i don't know what some ofthe values of dan. sleep and baby. sleep actually are, then i can't possibly know what the correlation between these two variables is either, since the formula for the correlation coecient makes use of every single observation in the dataset.","If I no know wetin some of di values of dan. sleep and baby. sleep really be, den I no fit know di correlation between dese two variables either, because di formula for correlation coefficient use all di numbers for di group of related numbers or data wey belong together.",Computer science
"once again, it makes sense: it's just not particularly helpful.",E make sense: e no dey helpful.,Computer science
"to make rbehave more sensibly in this situation, you need to specify the useargument to the cor()function.",E need to specify di useargument to di cor()function.,Computer science
"there are several dierent values that you can specify for this, but the two that we care most about in practice tend to be""complete. obs"" and.","Di two wey we care most about for practice dey""complete. obs"" and.",Computer science
"if we specify use= ""complete. obs"", rwill completely ignore all cases(i. e, all rows in our parenthood2 data frame)that have any missing values at all.","We dey specify use= ""complete. obs"", rwill completely ignore all case(i. e, all rows for our parenthood2 one kind of table) wey don get any missing value for all.",Computer science
"so, for instance, if you look back at the extract earlier when i used the head()function, notice that observation 1(i. e, day 1)of the parenthood2 dataset is missing the value for baby. sleep, but is otherwise complete?","for example, if you look back at di extract earlier wen i use head()function, notice say observation 1(i. e, day 1 of di parenthood2 group of related numbers or data wey belong together dey missing di value for baby",Computer science
"well, if you choose use= ""complete. obs"" rwill ignore that row completely: that is, even when it's trying to calculate the correlation between dan. sleep and dan. grump, observation 1 will be ignored, because the value of baby. sleep is missing for that observation.","If you dey try to calculate di correlation between dan. sleep and dan. grump, observation 1 go dey ignored, because di value of baby. sleep dey missing for dat observation.",Computer science
"when we do that, ronly looks at the variables that it's trying to correlate when determining what to drop.","We dey do dat, ronly make we look di variables wey dey try to correlate when we dey determining what to drop",Computer science
"so, for instance, since the only missing value for observation 1 of parenthood2 is for baby. sleep rwill only drop observation 1 when baby. sleep is one ofthe variables involved: and so rkeeps observation 1 when trying to correlate dan. sleep and dan. grump.","for example, since di only missing value for observation 1 of parenthood2 dey for baby",Computer science
"when we do it this way, here's what we get: 22it's worth noting that, even though we have missing data for each of these variables, the output doesn't contain any na values.","Di worth note say, even though we don missing data for each of dis variables, di output no contain any na value.",Computer science
"this is because, while describe()also hasan na. rm argument, the default value for this function is na. rm =true.","Di normal number for dis function na. rm argument, di normal number for dis function na. rm =true",Computer science
the two approaches have dierent strengths and weaknesses.,Di two approaches don dey dierent strength and weaknesses.,Computer science
"on the other hand, it means that every correlation in your correlation matrix is being computed from a slightly dierent set of observations, which can be awkward when you want to compare the dierent correlations that you've got.","Di means say every correlation for your correlation matrix dey computed from slightly dierent set of observations, wey dey awkward wen you wan to compare di dierent correlations wey you go get.",Computer science
so which method should you use?,Di method dey use?,Computer science
"it depends alot on whyyou think your values are missing, and probably depends a little on how paranoid you are.","E depend alot on how you think your values dey missing, and probably depend a little on how dey paranoid you dey.",Computer science
"for instance, if you think that the missing values were\chosen"" completely randomly23then you'll probably want to use the pairwise method.","If you think say di missing value dey\chosen"" completely randomly23then you go fit use di pairwise method.",Computer science
"if you think that missing data area cue to thinking that the whole observation might be rubbish(e. g, someone just selecting arbitrary responses in your questionnaire), but that there's no pattern to which observations are ubbish"" then it's probably safer to keep only those observations that are complete.","If you think say missing data na cue to thinking say di whole observation dey rubbish(e. g, someone just select arbitrary responses for your questionnaire), but say e no pattern to which observations dey ubbish"" then e dey safer to keep only those observations wey dey complete.",Computer science
"if you think there's something systematic going on, in that some observations are more likely to be missing than others, then you have a much trickier problem to solve, and one that is beyond the scope of this book.","If you think e dey systematic going on, for say some observations dey more likely to be missing than odas, then you go get much trickier problem to solve, and one wey dey beyond di scope of dis book.",Computer science
"broadly speaking, central tendency measures tell you where the data are.","Di Wetin dey happen for middle, wey be say one number dey represent all di numbers wey dey inside, e fit be mean, mode or median, but e be like say di middle dey sabi di truth for all di numbers measures tell you where di data dey.",Computer science
"there's three measures that are typically reported in the literature: the mean, median and mode.","Three measures wey dem dey usually report for literature: mean, median, and mode.",Computer science
"makes sense, i suppose, but it does sound ungrammatical tome.","I suppose, but e no sound ungrammatical tome.",Computer science
"in contrast, measures of variability tell you about how\spread out""the data are.","For contrast, measures of variability dey tell you about how""how e dey far""di data be.",Computer science
thez-score is a slightly unusual beast.,Diz-score dey slightly unusual beast.,Computer science
"it's not quite a descriptive statistic, and not quite an inference.","E no be fully one number wey describe, and no be fully inference.",Computer science
want to know how strong the relationship is between two variables?,Di relationship dey between two variables?,Computer science
calculate a correlation.,Di correlation dey calculate correlation,Computer science
dealing with missing data is one of those frustrating things that data analysts really wish the didn't have to think about.,Dem dey dealing wit missing data na one of those frustrating things wey data analysts really wish dem no think about.,Computer science
in real life it can be hard to do well.,For real life na hard to do well,Computer science
"everyone loves a pretty picture, right?","Dem love a pretty picture, right?",Computer science
"but before we do, i want to end on an important point.","But before we do am, I wan end with one important point.",Computer science
"a traditional rst course in statistics spends only a small proportion ofthe class on descriptive statistics, maybe one or two lectures at most.","Traditional first course for statistics dey spend only small part of di class on numbers wey describe, maybe one or two classes.",Computer science
"the vast majority ofthe lecturer's time is spent on inferential statistics, because that's where all the hard stu is.","Di most part of di lecturer's time dey spend on inferential statistics, bikos dat's where all di hard stu dey.",Computer science
"that makes sense, but it hides the practical everyday importance of choosing good descriptives.","Dat one make sense, but e hide di wetin e mean for real life of to pick good numbers.",Computer science
with that in mind.,E dey mind wit dat in mind,Computer science
the death of one man is a tragedy.,Di death of one man dey tragedy,Computer science
the death of millions is a statistic.,Di death of millions dey statistic,Computer science
"the clear intent of his statement is that the death of an individual touches us personally and its force cannot be denied, but that the deaths of a multitude are incomprehensible, and as a consequence mere statistics, more easily ignored.","Di clear intent of hin statement na say di death of one individual touch us personally and its force no be denied, but say di death of a multitude dey incomprehensible, and as result mere statistics, more easily ignored.",Computer science
i'd argue that stalin was half right.,I go argue say stalin dey half right,Computer science
"a statistic is an abstraction, a description of events beyond our personal experience, and so hard to visualise.","Di statistic dey abstraction, a description of events wey dey beyond our personal experience, and so hard to visualise.",Computer science
"few if any of us can imagine what the deaths of millions is eally"" like, but we can imagine one death, and this gives the lone death its feeling of immediate tragedy, a feeling that is missing from ellman's cold statistical description.","Di lone death dey eally"" like, but we fit imagine one death, and dis give di lone death its feeling of immediate tragedy, a feeling wey dey missing from ellman's cold statistical description.",Computer science
"yet it is not so simple: without numbers, without counts, without a description of what happened, we have no chance of understanding what really happened, no opportunity event to try to summon the missing feeling.","E no dey simple: without numbers, without counts, without a description of what dey happen, we no get chance of understanding what really happen, no opportunity event to try to summon di missing feeling",Computer science
"and in truth, as i write this, sitting in comfort on a saturday morning, half a world and a whole lifetime away from the gulags, when i put the ellman estimate next to the stalin quote a dull dread settles in my stomach and a chill settles over me.","And for truth, as I dey write dis, sitting comfortably for Saturday morning, half world and whole lifetime away from di gulags, when I put di one number wey Ellman find next to di wetin Stalin talk, one worry wey dey heavy settle for my stomach and chill settle over me.",Computer science
"the stalinist repression is something truly beyond my experience, but with a combination of statistical data and those recorded personal histories that have come down to us, it is not entirely beyond my comprehension.","Di stalinist repression dey something truly beyond my experience, but wit combination of statistical data and those record personal histories wey don kom down to us, no dey beyond my comprehension.",Computer science
"because what ellman's numbers tell us is this: over a two year period, stalinist repression wiped out the equivalent of every man, woman and child currently alive in the city where i live.","For two year period, stalinist repression wipe out di equivalent of every man, woman and child currently alive for di city wey i live.",Computer science
"each one of those deaths had it's own story, was it's own tragedy, and only some of those are known to us now.","Di one of those deaths don dey own story, na di own tragedy, and only some of those dey known to us now.",Computer science
"even so, with a few carefully chosen statistics, the scale ofthe atrocity starts to come into focus.",Di scale of di atrocity start to focus.,Computer science
"this is the job of descriptive statistics, but it's not a job that can be told solely using the numbers.","Di job of numbers wey describe, but na job wey dey numbers wey describe, but na job wey dey told solely using di numbers.",Computer science
"you area data analyst, not a statistical software package.",Di data analyst no dey software for statistics package.,Computer science
part of your job is to take these statistics and turn them into a description.,Di part of your job dey take these statistics and turn dem into a description,Computer science
"when you analyse data, it is not sucient to list oa collection of numbers.",E no dey sucient to list o collection of numbers.,Computer science
always remember that what you're really trying to do is communicate with a human audience.,Na always remember say what you dey try to do dey communicate wit human audience.,Computer science
"the numbers are important, but they need to be put together into a meaningful story that your audience can interpret.","Di numbers dey important, but dem need to put together into meaningful story wey your audience fit interpret.",Computer science
that means you need to think about framing.,Dat mean say you need to think about how you show am.,Computer science
you need to think about context.,You need to think about di situation.,Computer science
and you need to think about the individual events that your statistics are summarising.,We need to think about di individual events wey your statistics dey summarising,Computer science
drawing graphs above all else show the data.,Di data dey show di data.,Computer science
it's important for two distinct but closely related reasons.,E important for two different but connected things.,Computer science
"firstly, there's the matter of drawing\presentation graphics"": displaying your data in a clean, visually appealing fashion makes it easier for your reader to understand what you're trying to tell them.","Di matter of drawing\presentation graphics""display your data for clean, visually appealing fashion make dem easier for your reader to understand what you dey try tell dem",Computer science
"equally important, perhaps even more important, is the fact that drawing graphs helps youto understand the data.",Di fact say drawing graphs help you understand di data.,Computer science
"to that end, it's important to draw\exploratory graphics""that help you learn about the data as you go about analysing it.","E important to draw\exploratory graphics"" wey help you learn about di data as you go about analysin am",Computer science
"these points might seem pretty obvious, but i cannot count the number of times i've seen people forget them.","I no count di number of times wey i see pipo forget dem, but i no count di number of times i see pipo forget dem",Computer science
"to that end, figure 6. 1 shows a redrawing of one ofthe most famous data visualisations of all time: john snow's 1854 map of cholera deaths.","To dat end, di picture number 6.1 show redrawing of one of di most famous data visualisations of since forever: John Snow im 1854 map of pipo wey die from cholera.",Computer science
the map is elegant in its simplicity.,Di map dey elegant for its simplicity,Computer science
"in the background we have a street map, which helps orient the viewer.","We don get street map, wey help dey orient di viewer",Computer science
"over the top, we see a large number of small dots, each one representing the location of a cholera case.","For top, we see plenty small dots, each one represent di location of one person wey get cholera.",Computer science
"the larger symbols show the location of water pumps, labelled by name.","Di bigger symbols show di location of machines wey dey bring water, wey dem label by name.",Computer science
even the most casual inspection ofthe graph makes it very clear that the source ofthe outbreak is almost certainly the broad street pump.,Di most casual inspection of di graph make dem clear say di source of di outbreak dey almost certainly di broad street pump.,Computer science
"upon viewing this graph, dr snow arranged to have the handle removed from the pump, ending the outbreak that had killed over 500 people.","Di graph, dr snow arrange to get di handle remove from di pump, ending di outbreak wey dey kill 500 pipo.",Computer science
such is the power of a good data visualisation.,Na so di power of good picture of numbers be.,Computer science
"where people usually struggle is learning how to produce graphs, and especially, learning how to produce good graphs. 2fortunately, learning how to draw graphs in ris reasonably simple, as long as you're not too picky about what your graph looks like.","Difortunately, learning how to draw graphs for ris reasonably simple, as long as you dey too picky about what your graph look like.",Computer science
"what i mean when i say this is that rhas alot of very good graphing functions, and most ofthe time you can produce a clean, high-quality graphic without having to learn very much about the low-level details of how rhandles graphics.","Wetin I mean when I talk dis na say R get plenty good graphing functions, and most time you fit produce clean, high-quality graphic without learning plenty about di low-level details of how R handle graphics.",Computer science
"unfortunately, on those occasions when you do want to do something non-standard, or if you need to make highly speci c changes to the gure, you actually do need to learn a fair bit about the these details; and those details are both complicated and boring.","Di occasions wey you don wan to do something non-standard, or if you need make highly speci c changes to di gure, you go need to learn fair bit about di details; and those details dey both complicated and boring.",Computer science
"but to be honest, i've seen the same problems show up regardless of what system people use.",I see di same problem show up regardless of what system pipo use.,Computer science
understanding what makes a good graph is easy: actually designing a good graph is hard.,Di understanding wey make good graph dey easy: actually design good graph dey easy.,Computer science
"each small dot represents the location of a cholera case, and each large circle shows the location of a well.","each small circle represent di location of one person wey get cholera, and each big circle show di location of well.",Computer science
"as the plot makes clear, the cholera outbreak is centred very closely on the broad st pump.","Di plot make clear, di cholera outbreak dey centre very closely on di broad st pump.",Computer science
"this image uses the data from the histdata package(friendly, 2011), and was drawn using minor alterations to the commands provided in the help les.","Di image dey use di data from di histdata package(friendly, 2011), and dey draw minor alterations to di command wey dey provided for di help les.",Computer science
"note that snow's original hand drawn map used dierent symbols and labels, but you get the idea.","Dem note say snow original hand draw map use dierent symbols and label, but you go get idea.",Computer science
"graph and how to draw them, as well as showing the basics of how to customise these plots.","Di basics of how to customise these plots, as well as show di basics of how to customise these plots",Computer science
"i'll then talkin more detail about rgraphics, discussing some of those complicated and boring issues.","I go then talk more detail about R graphics, discuss some of those hard and not sweet tins.",Computer science
you start out with an empty canvas.,You to start with empty place wey you fit draw.,Computer science
"everytime you use a graphics function, it paints some new things onto your canvas.","Everytime you use one way to draw, e dey paint new things onto your canvas.",Computer science
"later on, you can paint more things over the top if you want; but just like painting, you can't\undo"" your strokes.","E fit paint more things over di top if you wan; but just like painting, you no fit\undo"" your strokes",Computer science
"if you make a mistake, you have to throw away your painting and start over.","If you make mistake, you go throw your painting away and to start again.",Computer science
"fortunately, this is way more easy to do when using rthan it is when painting a picture in real life: you-158- delete the plot and then type anew set of commands. 3this way of thinking about drawing graphs is referred to as the painter's model.",Di way of thinking about drawing graphs dey dem dey call di painter model.,Computer science
"so far, this probably doesn't sound particularly complicated, and for the vast majority of graphs you'll want to draw it's exactly as simple as it sounds.","For di most part of graphs wey dey draw e dey complicated, and for di most part of graphs wey dey go draw e exactly as simple as e sound.",Computer science
"much like painting in real life, the headaches usually start when we dig into details.","Just like painting for real life, di headaches dey usually start when we to go inside.",Computer science
"to see why, i'll expand this\painting metaphor""a bit further just to show you the basics of what's going on under the hood, but before i do i want to stress that you really don't need to understand all these complexities in order to draw graphs.","I go expand dis\painting metaphor""a bit further just to show you di basics of what dey going on under di hood, but before i go stress say you no need to understand all dis complexities for order to draw graphs.",Computer science
i'd been using rfor years before i even realised that most of these issues existed!,I dey use rfor years before i even realise say most of dis issues exist,Computer science
"however, i don't want you to go through the same pain i went through everytime i inadvertently discovered one of these things, so here's a quick overview.","I no wan you go through di same pain wey i go through everytime i inadvertently discover one of dis things, so here's quick overview.",Computer science
"firstly, if you want to paint a picture, you need to paint it onsomething.","First, if you wan paint picture, you need paint am for one place.",Computer science
"in real life, you can paint on lots of dierent things.",E fit paint on lots of dierent things.,Computer science
"painting onto canvas isn't the same as painting onto paper, and neither one is the same as painting on a wall.","Di same as painting onto paper na di same as painting onto paper, and neither one dey di same as painting on wall",Computer science
"in r, the thing that you paint your graphic onto is called a device.",Di thing wey you paint your graphic onto dey call a device,Computer science
"for most applications that we'll look at in this book, this \device""will be a window on your computer.","Di\device"" go be window on your computer",Computer science
"if you're using windows as your operating system, then the name for this device is windows; on a mac it's called quartz because that's the name ofthe software that the macos uses to draw pretty pictures; and on linux/unix, you're probably using x11.","Di name of di software wey di macos use to draw pretty pictures; and on linux unix, you probably use x11.",Computer science
"on the other hand, if you're using rstudio (regardless of which operating system you're on), there's a separate device called rstudiogd that forces rto paint inside the\plots"" panel in rstudio.","For di oda hand, if you dey use rstudio (regardless of which system wey dey control wetin computer fit do, e dey manage hardware and software, make am possible for apps and services to dey run, e be like brain wey dey direct computer you dey on), separate device wey dey call rstudio (regardless of which system wey dey control wetin computer fit do, e dey manage hardware and software, make am possible for apps and services to dey run, e be like brain wey dey direct computer you dey on), separate device wey dey call rstudio wey force rto paint inside di\plots"" panel for rstudio.",Computer science
"however, from the computers perspective there's nothing terribly special about drawing pictures on screen: and so ris quite happy to paint pictures directly into ale.",Di computer perspective no dey special about drawing pictures on screen: and so dey quite happy to paint pictures directly into ale.,Computer science
"rcan paint several dierent types of image les: jpeg, png, pdf, postscript, tiff and bmp les are all among the options that you have available to you.","R fit paint several different types of files for pictures: JPEG, PNG, PDF, PostScript, TIFF, and BMP files all dey among di options wey you go get.",Computer science
"for the most part, these dierent devices all behave the same way, so you don't really need to know much about the dierences between them when learning how to draw pictures.","For di most part, di dierent devices all behave di same way, so you no need to know much about di dierences wey dem dey between dem wen learn how to draw pictures",Computer science
"but, just like real life painting, sometimes the speci cs do matter.","But just like real painting, sometimes di specific details do matter.",Computer science
"unless stated otherwise, you can assume that i'm drawing a picture on screen, using the appropriate device(i. e, windows, quartz, x11 orrstudiogd ).","Unless I talk otherwise, you fit assume say I dey draw picture for screen, using di right device(like Windows, Quartz, X11, or RStudioGD).",Computer science
"one the rare occasions where these behave dierently from one another, i'll try to point it out in the text.",I go try point am out for di text.,Computer science
"secondly, when you paint a picture you need to paint it with something.","Second, when you paint picture, you need paint am with something.",Computer science
"maybe you want to do an oil painting, but maybe you want to use watercolour.","Maybe you wan do drawing with oil, or maybe you wan use watercolour.",Computer science
"and, generally speaking, you pretty much have to pick one or the other.","Di generally speaking, you suppose pick one or di oda.",Computer science
"the analog to this in ris a\graphics system"".","Di analog to dis for ris a graphics system"".",Computer science
a graphics system de nes a collection of very low-level graphics commands about what to draw and where to draw it.,Di graphics system dey collection of very low level graphics commands about what to draw and where to draw am,Computer science
"something that surprises most new rusers is the discovery that ractually has twocompletely independent graphics systems, known as traditional graphics(in the graphics package)and grid graphics(in the grid package). 4not surprisingly, the traditional graphics system is the older ofthe two: in fact, it's actually older than rsince it has it's origins ins, the system from which ris descended.","Di old way wey R draw dey older than rsince e don get two completely independent graphics system, wey dey known as traditional graphics(in di graphics package)and grid graphics(in di grid package)and grid graphics(in di grid package).",Computer science
"grid graphics are newer, and in some respects more powerful, so may ofthe more recent, fancier graphical tools in rmake use of grid graphics.","Di more recent, fancier graphical tools for rmake use of grid graphics, so may of di more recent, fancier graphical tools for rmake use of grid graphics",Computer science
"however, grid graphics are somewhat more complicated beasts, so most people start out by learning the traditional graphics system.","Di grid graphics dey somewhat complicated beasts, so most pipo start out by learning di old way wey R draw.",Computer science
"nevertheless, as long as you don't want to use any low-level commands yourself, then you don't really need to care about whether you're using traditional graphics or grid graphics.","as long as you don use any low level commands yourself, then you no need care about whether you dey use traditional graphics or grid graphics.",Computer science
"however, the moment you do want to tweak your gure by using some low-level commands you do need to care.",Di moment you don wan to tweak your gure by using some low-level command wey you need care.,Computer science
"because these two dierent systems are pretty much incompatible with eachother, there's a pretty big divide in rgraphics universe.","Di two dierent systems dey pretty much incompatible wit each oda, e dey pretty big divide for rgraphics universe.",Computer science
"unless stated otherwise, you can assume that everything i'm saying pertains to traditional graphics.",I fit assume say anything wey i dey say pertains to traditional graphics.,Computer science
"thirdly, a painting is usually done in a particular style.","Di thirdly, a painting dey done for particular style",Computer science
"maybe it's a still life, maybe it's an impressionist piece, or maybe you're trying to annoy me by pretending that cubism is a legitimate artistic style.",Dem try to annoy me by pretend say cubism dey legitimate artistic style.,Computer science
"regardless, each artistic style imposes some overarching aesthetic and perhaps even constraints on what 3or, since you can always use the up and down keys to scroll through your recent command history, you can just pull up your most recent commands and edit them to x your mistake.","Di artistic style dey impose some overarching aesthetic and perhaps even constraints on what 3or, since you no use di up and down keys to scroll through your recent command history, since you no use di up and down keys to scroll through your recent command history, you no fit use di up and down keys to scroll through your recent command history, since you no use di up and down keys to scroll through your recent command history, since you no fit use di up and down keys to scroll through your recent command history, e fit just pull up your most recent command",Computer science
"in the same vein, rhas quite a number of dierent packages, each of which provide a collection of high-level graphics commands.","For di same way, R get plenty different packages, each one wey provide collection of high-level graphics commands.",Computer science
"a single high-level command is capable of drawing an entire graph, complete with a range of customisation options.","Di single high-level command dey capable of drawing entire graph, complete wit range of customisation options.",Computer science
"most but not all ofthe high-level commands that i'll talk about in this book come from the graphics package itself, and so belong to the world of traditional graphics.","Di book kom from di graphics package wey deyself, and so belong to di world of traditional graphics.",Computer science
"these commands all tend to share a common visual style, although there area few graphics that i'll use that come from other packages that dier in style somewhat.","Di commands all dey fit share common di way e go look, although few graphics wey i fit use wey dey from oda package wey dey dier for style somewhat.",Computer science
"on the other side ofthe great divide, the grid universe relies heavily on two dierent packages{ lattice and ggplots2 {each of which provides a quite dierent visual style.",Di grid universe relie heavily on two dierent package{ lattice and ggplots2 {each of which dey provide quite di dia di way e go look.,Computer science
"as you've probably guessed, there's a whole separate bunch of functions that you'd need to learn if you want to use lattice graphics or make use ofthe ggplots2.",Di whole separate bunch of function wey you need learn if you wan use lattice graphics or to use di ggplots2.,Computer science
"however, for the purposes of this book i'll restrict myself to talking about the basic graphics tools.",For di purpose of dis book i restrict myself to talk about di basic graphics tools.,Computer science
"at this point, i think we've covered more than enough background material.",I think we dey cover more than enough background material.,Computer science
"the point that i'm trying to make by providing this discussion isn't to scare you with all these horrible details, but rather to try to convey to you the fact that rdoesn't really provide a single coherent graphics system.","Di point wey i try make by providing dis discussion no dey scare you wit all dis horrible details, but rather to try to convey to you di fact say r no provide single coherent graphics system.",Computer science
"instead, r itself provides a platform, and dierent people have built dierent graphical tools using that platform.","Di platform dey provide platform, and di pipo don build dia graphical tools wey dey use dat platform.",Computer science
"as a consequence of this fact, there's two dierent universes of graphics, and a great multitude of packages that live in them.","Na two dierent universe of graphics, and a great multitude of package wey dey live for dem",Computer science
"at this stage you don't need to understand these complexities, but it's useful to know that they're there.","E no need to understand dis complexities, but e dey e good to know say dem dey there",Computer science
"but for now, i think we can be happy with a simpler view of things: we'll draw pictures on screen using the traditional graphics system, and as much as possible we'll stick to high level commands only.","But for now, I think we fit happy with better way to see: we go draw pictures for screen using di old way wey R draw, and as much as possible we goto hold onto high-level commands only.",Computer science
so let's start painting.,So make we start painting.,Computer science
"as you can see, what rhas done is plot the values stored in the fibonacci variable on the vertical axis(y-axis) and the corresponding index on the horizontal axis(x-axis).",Di rhas done dey plot di values wey dey store for di fibonacci variable on di line wey dey go up(y-axis) and di corresponding index on di line wey dey go side(x-axis).,Computer science
"in other words, since the 4th element ofthe vector has a value of 3, we get a dot plotted at the location(4, 3).","Di 4th element of di vector don get value of 3, we get dot plotted for di location(4, 3)",Computer science
"that's pretty straightforward, and the image in figure 6. 2 is probably pretty close to what you would have had in mind when i suggested that we plot the fibonacci data.",I suggest say we plot di fibonacci data.,Computer science
"however, there's quite alot of customisation options available to you, so we should probably spend a bit of time looking at some of those options.","Dem dey quite alot of customisation options available to you, so we go spend a bit of time looking at some of those options.",Computer science
"don't let it overwhelm you though. while all ofthe options discussed here are handy to know about, you can get by just ne only knowing a few of them.","As all of di options wey dey discuss here dey handy to know about, you fit get by just ne only know few of dem",Computer science
"the important thing to note when using the plot()function, is that it's another example of a generic function-160- 1 2 3 456 72 468 10 12 indexfibonaccifigure 6.2: our rst plot.","Di important thing wey dey note when using di plot()function, na say na one example of a generic function-160- 1 2 3 456 72 468 10 12 indexfibonaccifigure 6.",Computer science
"however, the plot()function is somewhat fancier than the other two, and its behaviour depends on twoarguments, x(the rst input, which is required)and y(which is optional).","Di plot()function dey somewhat fancier than di oda two, and its behaviour depend on twoarguments, x(the rst input, wey dey required)and y(which dey optional).",Computer science
"this makes it(a) extremely powerful once you get the hang of it, and (b)hilariously unpredictable, when you're not sure what you're doing.","Di make dis(a) extremely powerful once you go get di hang of am, and (b)hilariously unpredictable, wen you no know what you dey do.",Computer science
"as much as possible, i'll try to make clear what type of inputs produce what kinds of outputs.",I go try make clear what type of input produce what kind of outputs.,Computer science
"for now, however, it's enough to note that i'm only doing very basic plotting, and as a consequence all ofthe work is being done by the plot. default()function.","E dey enough to note say i only do basic plotting, and as consequence all of di work dey done by di plot. default()function.",Computer science
what kinds of customisations might we be interested in?,Di kind of customisation wey we dey interest for?,Computer science
"if you look at the help documentation for the default plotting method(i. e, type?","If you check di papers wey dey help for di normal way to draw(i. e, type? plot. default),",Computer science
"plot. default orhelp(""plot. default"")) you'll see avery long list of arguments that you can specify to customise your plot.",Di list of arguments wey you fit specify to customise your plot.,Computer science
"i'll talk about several of them in a moment, but rst i want to point out something that might seem quite wacky.","I go talk about several of dem for moment, but first i wan to show something wey might seem quite wacky.",Computer science
"even so, it's usually possible to treat them as if they were arguments ofthe plotting function.",Di usually possible to treat dem as if dem dey arguments of di plotting function,Computer science
"in order to stop my readers trying to nd a brick and look up my home address, i'd better explain what's going on; or atleast give the basic gist behind it.",I dey better explain what's goon; or atleast give di basic gist wey dey behind am,Computer science
what exactly is a graphical parameter?,Wetin exactly dey graphical parameter?,Computer science
"basically, the idea is that there are some characteristics of a plot which are pretty universal: for instance, regardless of what kind of graph you're drawing, you probably need to specify what colour to use for the plot, right?","for example, regardless of what kind of graph wey dey draw, you need to specify what colour wey dey use for di plot, right?",Computer science
so you'd expect there to be something like acolargument to every single graphics function in r?,So you fit expect say something like di colour wey you give suppose dey for every single one way to draw for R?,Computer science
"well, sort of.","E dey sort, sort of.",Computer science
"in order to avoid having hundreds of arguments for every single function, what rdoes is refer to a bunch of these\graphical parameters""which are pretty general purpose.",Di rdoes dey to talk about bunch of dis parameters wey dey pretty general purpose.,Computer science
"if you look at the help les for graphical parameters(i. e, type?","If you check di help files for di small tins wey change howe look(i. e, type? par),",Computer science
par)you'll see that there's lotsof them.,We go see say lots of dem,Computer science
"fortunately,(a) the default-161- 1 2 3 456 72 468 10 12you specify title using the 'main' argument the subtitle appears here!",Di default-161- 1 2 3 456 72 468 10 12 you specify title wey dey using di 'main' argument di subtitle appear here,Computer science
"(use the 'sub' argument for this)the xaxis label is 'xlab'the yaxis label is 'ylab'figure 6.3: how to add your own title, subtitle, x-axis label andy-axis label to the plot.","(Use di 'sub' argument for dis)Di x-axis label na 'xlab', diy-axis label na 'ylab'. Figure 6.3: how to add your own title, subtitle, x-axis label, and y-axis label to di plot.",Computer science
i've drawn this gure a bit larger than the last one so that everything ts.,I don draw dis gure a bit larger than di last one so say all ts.,Computer science
"generally, you don't want your titles and subtitle to extend beyond the range ofthe actual plot.","Di generally, you don wan your title and subtitle to extend beyond di range of di actual plot.",Computer science
the results aren't pretty when that happens.,Di results dey pretty when dat happen.,Computer science
"in short. yes, rdoes have these wacky\graphical parameters""which can be quite confusing.","Dem don get di wacky\graphical parameter"" wey dey confusing",Computer science
"but in most basic uses ofthe plotting functions, you can act as if they were just undocumented additional arguments to your function.","For most basic use of di plotting functions, you go act as if dem no document additional arguments to your function.",Computer science
"you might want to specify more appropriate axis labels, add a title or add a subtitle.","You fit wan to specify better axis labels, add title, or add subtitle.",Computer science
the arguments that you need to specify to make this happen are: main.,Di argument wey you need to specify make dis happen na: main,Computer science
a character string containing the title.,A character string wey dey containing di title,Computer science
a character string containing the subtitle.,Di character string wey dey containing di subtitle,Computer science
a character string containing the x-axis label.,Di character string wey dey containing dix-axis label,Computer science
a character string containing they-axis label.,Di character string wey dey containing diy-axis label,Computer science
"these aren't graphical parameters, they're arguments to the high-level function.","Dem no dey di small tins wey change howe look, dem dey argument to di high level function.",Computer science
"however, because the-162- high-level functions all rely on the same low-level function to do the drawing5the names of these arguments are identical for pretty much every high-level function i've come across.",Di-162 high-level functions all dey rely on di same low-level function to do di drawing5the name of dis arguments dey identical for pretty much every high-level function wey dey kom across.,Computer science
let's have a look at what happens when we make use of all these arguments.,She dey make we look how we to use all dis argument.,Computer science
"here's the command.> plot(x= fibonacci, +main =""you specify title using the 'main' argument"",+ sub= ""the subtitle appears here!","For plot(x= fibonacci, +main =""you specify title wey dey use di 'main' argument"",+ sub= ""the subtitle appear here",Computer science
it's more or less as you'd expect.,E dey more or less as you expect,Computer science
"the plot itself is identical to the one we drew in figure 6.2, except for the fact that we've changed the axis labels, and added a title and a subtitle.","We don change di axis label, and add title and subtitle.",Computer science
"even so, there's a couple of interesting features worth calling your attention to.",Di couple of interesting features wey dey worth call your attention to.,Computer science
"firstly, notice that the subtitle is drawn below the plot, which i personally nd annoying; as a consequence i almost never use subtitles.","Na firstly, notice say di subtitle dey draw below di plot, wey i personally nd annoying; as consequence i no use subtitles.",Computer science
"you may have a dierent opinion, of course, but the important thing is that you remember where the subtitle actually goes.","Di important thing na say you remember where di subtitle go, but di important thing na say you remember where di subtitle go",Computer science
"secondly, notice that rhas decided to use boldface text and a larger font size for the title.","Second, notice say R don decide to use bold text and bigger how big letter be for di title.",Computer science
"this is one of my most hated default settings in r graphics, since i feel that it draws too much attention to the title.","E dey one of my most hated default settings for rgraphics, since i feel say e draw too much attention to di title",Computer science
"generally, while i do want my reader to look at the title, i nd that the rdefaults area bit overpowering, so i often like to change the settings.","Di rdefaults dey a bit overpowering, so i always like to change di settings.",Computer science
"to that end, there area bunch of graphical parameters that you can use to customise the font style: font styles: font. main, font. sub, font. lab, font. axis.","Di bunch of di small tins wey change howe look wey you use to customise di font style: font styles: font. main, font. sub, font. lab, font. axis",Computer science
"somewhat irritatingly, these arguments are numbers instead of meaningful names: a value of 1 corresponds to plain text,2 means boldface, 3 means italic and 4 means bold italic.","Small annoying, dese arguments na numbers not dat one names wey get meaning: value 1 mean plain text,2 mean bold,3 mean italic, and 4 mean letters wey dey dark and lean.",Computer science
"font colours: col. main, col. sub, col. lab, col. axis.","colour for letters: col. main, col. sub, col. lab, col. axis.",Computer science
these parameters do pretty much what the name says: each one species a colour in which to type each ofthe dierent bits of text.,Di name tok say each one species a colour wey dey type each of di dierent bits of text.,Computer science
"font size: cex. main, cex. sub, cex. lab, cex. axis.","how big letter be: cex. main, cex. sub, cex. lab, cex. axis.",Computer science
"font size is handled in a slightly curious way in r. the \cex"" part here is short for\ character expansion"", and it's essentially a magni cation value.","Di \cex"" part here dey short for\ character expansion"", and e essentially a magni cation value",Computer science
"by default, all of these are set to a value of 1, except for the font title: cex. main has a default magni cation of 1.2, which is why the title font is 20%bigger than the others.","Cx. main don get default magni cation of 1, except for di title: cex. main don set to value of 1, except for di title: cex. main don set to value of 1, except for di title: cex. main don set to value of 1, except for di title: cex. main don set to a value of 1, except for di title: cex. main.",Computer science
font family: family.,Di family: family,Computer science
"this argument species a font family to use: the simplest way to use it is to set it to""sans"",""serif"", or""mono"", corresponding to a san serif font, a serif font, or a monospaced font.","Di simple way to use make dem set am to""sans"", or""mono"", corresponding to a san serif font, serif font, or monospaced font",Computer science
"if you want to, you can give the name of a speci c font, but keep in mind that dierent operating systems use dierent fonts, so it's probably safest to keep it simple.","Di system wey dey control wetin computer fit do, e dey manage hardware and software, make am possible for apps and services to dey run, e be like brain wey dey direct computer use di name of a speci c font, but to remember say di system wey dey control wetin computer fit do, e dey manage hardware and software, make am possible for apps and services to dey run, e be like brain wey dey direct computer use dia fonts, so e probably safest to keep am simple.",Computer science
"better yet, unless you have some deep objections to the rdefaults, just ignore this parameter entirely.","As you go get some deep objections to di rdefaults, just ignore dis parameter entirely.",Computer science
that's what i usually do.,Na wetin I dey usually do.,Computer science
"to give you a sense of how you can use these parameters to customise your titles, the following command can be used to draw figure 6.4: 5the low-level function that does this is called title()in case you ever need to know, and you can type?","Di command wey go follow go use to draw figure 6.4: 5the low-level function wey dey call title()for case you no need know, and you fit type?",Computer science
title to nd out a bit more detail about what these arguments do.,Di title dey title to nd out a bit more detail about how dem do.,Computer science
"the only dicult aspect to this is that you have to remember what each of these parameters is called, and what all the dierent values are.","Di only dicult aspect to dis na say you don remember what each of dis parameters dey call, and what all di dierent values dey.",Computer science
"and in practice i never remember: i have to look up the help documentation everytime, or else look it up in this book.","I don look up di papers wey dey help everytime, or else look am up for dis book",Computer science
another thing that you'll want to do is customise the appearance ofthe actual plot!,Di one thing wey you wan to do dey customise di appearance of di actual plot,Computer science
"to start with, let's look at the single most important options that the plot()function (or, recalling that we're dealing with a generic function, in this case the plot. default()function, since that's the one doing all the work)provides for you to use, which is the type argument.","Dem make we look di single most important options wey di plot()function (or, recalling say we dey dealing wit generic function, for dis case di plot. default()function, since dat's di one wey dey do all di work)provide for you to use, which dey di way wey you want draw.",Computer science
the type argument species the visual style ofthe plot.,Di way wey you want draw specify di way e go look of di plot.,Computer science
"the possible values for this are: type= ""p"".","Di possible values for dis dey: type= ""p""",Computer science
draw the points only.,Di points only.,Computer science
"type= ""l"".","Di type= ""l""",Computer science
draw a line through the points.,Di points dey draw line through di points,Computer science
"type= ""o"".","Di type= ""o""",Computer science
draw the line over the top ofthe points.,Di line over di top of di points,Computer science
"type= ""b"".","Di type= ""b""",Computer science
"draw both points and lines, but don't overplot.","Dem draw both points and line, but no dey overplot.",Computer science
"type= ""h"".","Di type= ""h""",Computer science
"draw\ histogram-like"" vertical bars.","Dem draw\ hintogram-like"" vertical bars",Computer science
"type= ""s"".","Di type= ""s""",Computer science
"draw a staircase, going horizontally then vertically.",Di staircase go horizontally then vertically.,Computer science
"draw a staircase, going vertically then horizontally.",Di staircase go vertically then horizontally.,Computer science
"type= ""c"".","Di type= ""c""",Computer science
"draw only the connecting lines from the"" version.","Dem draw only di connecting line from di ""version.",Computer science
"type= ""n"".","Di type= ""n""",Computer science
(apparently this is useful sometimes?),E dey useful sometimes?,Computer science
the simplest way to illustrate what each of these really looks like is just to draw them.,Di simple way to illustrate what each of dis look like na just to draw dem.,Computer science
"to that end, figure 6. 5 shows the same fibonacci data, drawn using six dierent types of plot.","For dat end, figure 6. 5 show di same fibonacci data, draw using six dierent type of plot.",Computer science
"as you can see, by altering the type argument you can get a qualitatively dierent appearance to your plot.",Di way wey you want draw you fit get qualitatively dierent appearance to your plot.,Computer science
"however, that doesn't imply that youshould think of them as begin equivalent to eachother.",E no suppose imply say you go think of dem as begin equivalent to each oda,Computer science
"as you can see by looking at figure 6.5, a line plot implies that there is some notion of continuity from one point to the next, whereas a scatterplot does not.","For figure 6.5, a line plot implies say continuity from one point to di next, whereas a scatterplot no dey.",Computer science
the second group of parameters i want to discuss are those related to the formatting ofthe plot itself: colour ofthe plot: col.,Di second group of parameters wey i wan to discuss na those wey dey related to di formatting of di plot,Computer science
"as we saw with the previous colour-related parameters, the simplest way to specify this parameter is using a character string: e. g, col= ""blue"".","As we saw wit di previous colour-related parameters, di simplest way to specify dis parameter dey use character string: e. g, col= ""blue""",Computer science
"it's a pretty straightforward parameter to specify: the only real subtlety is that every high-level function tends to draw a dierent hing"" as it's output, and so this parameter gets interpreted a little dierently by dierent functions.","Di only real subtlety dey say every high-level function fit draw a dierent hing"" as di output, and so dis parameter get interpret a little dierently by di dierent functions.",Computer science
"however, for the plot. default()function it's pretty simple: the colargument refers to the colour ofthe points and/or lines that get drawn!",Di colargument to talk about di colour of di points and or line wey get draw,Computer science
character used to plot points: pch.,Di character wey dey use to plot points,Computer science
"the plotcharacter parameter is a number, usually between 1 and 25.","Di plotcharacter parameter dey number, usually between 1 and 25.",Computer science
what it does is tell rwhat symbol to use to draw the points that it plots.,Di symbol wey dey use to draw di points wey dey plot,Computer science
the simplest way to illustrate what the dierent values do is with a picture.,Di simple way to illustrate how di dierent values do dey wit picture,Computer science
"the default plotting character is a hollow circle(i. e, pch =1).","Di normal way wey e draw na circle wey no get fill(i. e, pch =1).",Computer science
plot size: cex.,how big di drawing be: cex.,Computer science
"this parameter describes a character expansion factor(i. e, magni cation) for the plotted characters.",Dis parameter describe how much di letters go big (magnification) for di shapes wey dem draw.,Computer science
"by default cex=1, but if you want bigger symbols in your graph you should specify a larger value.",If you wan bigger symbols for your graph you go specify larger value,Computer science
line type: lty.,how di line go look: lty.,Computer science
the linetype parameter describes the kind of line that rdraws.,Di linetype parameter describe di kind of line wey rdraws,Computer science
"note that the lank"" version(value 0)just means that rdoesn't draw the lines at all.","Di lank"" version(value 0)just mean say r no draw di line for all.",Computer science
the other six versions are shown in figure 6. 6b.,Di oda six version dey show for figure 6. 6b,Computer science
line width: lwd.,how thick di line be: lwd.,Computer science
"the last graphical parameter in this category that i want to mention is the line width parameter, which is just a number specifying the width ofthe line.","Di last graphical parameter for dis category wey i wan mention na di how thick di line be parameter, wey dey just number wey dey specifying di width of di line",Computer science
the default value is 1.,Di normal number na 1.,Computer science
"not surprisingly, larger values produce thicker lines and smaller values produce thinner lines.","No surprise, bigger values dey to make lines wey dey thick and smaller numbers dey to make lines wey dey thin.",Computer science
try playing around with dierent values of lwdto see what happens.,Dem try play around wit dierent values of lwdto see what happen.,Computer science
"ignoring graphical parameters for the moment, there's a few other arguments to the plot. default()function that you might want to use.",Di default()function wey you go use.,Computer science
"as before, many of these are standard arguments that are used by alot of high level graphics functions: changing the axis scales: xlim, ylim.","Di standard arguments wey dey use by plenty of high level graphics functions: change di axis scales: xlim, ylim",Computer science
generally rdoes a pretty good job of guring out where to set the edges ofthe plot.,Di generally rdoes good job of guring out where to set di edges of di plot.,Computer science
"however, you can override its choices by setting the xlim and ylim -167-arguments.","Di however, you fit override dia choice by setting di xlim and ylim -167 argument.",Computer science
"for instance, if i decide i want the vertical scale ofthe plot to run from 0 to 100, then i'd set ylim =c(0, 100).","for example, if I decide say I wan di numbers for di upside of di plot to from to 0 to 100, den I go set ylim =c(0, 100).",Computer science
suppress labelling: ann.,Dem suppress labelling: ann,Computer science
"this is a logical-valued argument that you can use if you don't want rto include any text for a title, subtitle or axis label.","E dey logical-valued argument wey you fit use if you don wan rto include any text for title, subtitle or axis label.",Computer science
"to do so, set ann= false.","For so, set ann= false",Computer science
this will stop rfrom including any text that would normally appear in those places.,Dis go stop rfrom including any text wey go normally appear for di place.,Computer science
note that this will override any of your manual titles.,Dis go override any of your manual titles.,Computer science
"for example, if you try to add a title using the main argument, but you also specify ann= false, no title will appear.","for example, if you try add title using di name wey you give, but you also specify ann= FALSE, no title go appear.",Computer science
suppress axis drawing: axes.,to no draw di lines for side: axes.,Computer science
"again, this is a logical valued argument.",Dis dey logical value argument.,Computer science
suppose you don't want r to draw any axes at all.,but suppose you don wan r to draw any axes for all.,Computer science
"to suppress the axes, all you have to do is add axes= false.",Di axe dey add axes= true.,Computer science
"this will remove the axes and the numbering, but not the axis labels(i. e.","Di axe and di numbering, but no di axis label(i. e.",Computer science
the xlab and ylab text).,Di xlab and ylab text).,Computer science
note that you can get ner grain control over this by specifying the xaxt and yaxt graphical parameters instead(see below).,Note say you fit get finer control over dis by specifying xaxt and yaxt di small tins wey change howe look instead(see below).,Computer science
include a framing box: frame. plot.,Di frame box: frame. plot,Computer science
"suppose you've removed the axes by setting axes= false, but you still want to have a simple box drawn around the plot; that is, you only wanted to get rid ofthe numbering and the tick marks, but you want to keep the box.","Di suppose say you remove di axes by setting axes= false, but you still wan to remove di numbering and di tick marks, but you fit keep di box.",Computer science
"to do that, you set frame. plot= true.","To do dat, you set frame. plot =TRUE.",Computer science
note that this list isn't exhaustive.,Di list no dey exhaustive,Computer science
"there area few other arguments to the plot. default function that you can play with if you want to, but those are the ones you are probably most likely to want to use.","Di default function wey you fit play wit if you wan to, but those dey di ones wey dey like to use.",Computer science
"as always, however, if these aren't enough options for you, there's also a number of other graphical parameters that you might want to play with aswell.","If e dey enough options for you, e dey also a number of oda di small tins wey change howe look wey you need play wit aswell.",Computer science
"the axis scales on both the horizontal and vertical dimensions have been expanded, the axes have been suppressed as have the annotations, but i've kept a box around the plot.","Di axis scales on both di horizontal and vertical dimensions don expand, di axes don dey suppress as dem dey suppress, but di axes don dey suppress as dem dey suppress, but di axes don dey suppress as dey annotations, but i've keep box around di plot.",Computer science
"before moving on, i should point out that there are several graphical parameters relating to the axes, the box, and the general appearance ofthe plot which allow ner grain control over the appearance ofthe axes and the annotations.","I goto show say na several di small tins wey change howe look wey dey relating to di axes, di box, and di general appearance of di plot wey allow ner grain control over di appearance of di axes and di annotations.",Computer science
"suppressing the axes individually: xaxt, yaxt.","Di axe individually: xaxt, yaxt",Computer science
these graphical parameters are basically just fancier versions ofthe axes argument we discussed earlier.,Di small tins wey change howe look dey just fancier version of di axes argument wey we discuss earlier.,Computer science
"if you want to stop rfrom drawing the vertical axis but you'd like it to keep the horizontal axis, set yaxt =""n"".","If you wan stop R from drawing di line wey dey go up but you wan am keep di line wey dey go side, set yaxt =""n"".",Computer science
box type: bty.,how di box go look: bty.,Computer science
"in the same way that xaxt, yaxt are just fancy versions of axes, the boxtype parameter is really just a fancier version ofthe frame. plot argument, allowing you to specify exactly which out ofthe four borders you want to keep.","For di same way say xaxt, yaxt dey just fancier version of di frame, di boxtype parameter dey just fancier version of di frame. plot argument, allow you to specify exactly which out of di four borders you wan to keep",Computer science
"that is, the letter""c"" has atop, a bottom and a left, but is blank on the right hand side, whereas ""7""has atop and a right, but is blank on the left and the bottom.","Di letter""c"" get top, bottom and a right, but dey blank on di right side, whereas ""7""get top and a right, but dey blank on di right side, whereas ""7""get top and a right, but dey blank on di left and di bottom.",Computer science
"alternatively a value of""n""means that no box will be drawn.","Di value of""n""means say no box go draw",Computer science
there are four possible values for las: a value of 0 means that the labels of both axes are printed parallel to the axis itself(the default).,Di value of 0 mean say di label of both axes dey print parallel to di axis itself(the default).,Computer science
a value of 1 means that the text is always horizontal.,Di text no dey horizontal,Computer science
a value of 2 means that the labelling text is printed at right angles to the axis.,Di labelling text dey printed for right angles to di axis,Computer science
"finally, a value of 3 means that the text is always vertical.",Di value of 3 mean say di text dey always vertical,Computer science
"again, these aren't the only possibilities.",Dis no dey di only possibilities.,Computer science
"there area few other graphical parameters that i haven't mentioned that you could use to customise the appearance ofthe axes, 7but that's probably enough(or more than enough)for now.","I don mention say you go use customise di appearance of di axes, 7but dat probably enough(or more than enough)for now.",Computer science
"as you can see, this isn't avery useful plot at all.","As you see, dis no be useful plot for all.",Computer science
"however, it does illustrate the graphical parameters we're talking about, so i suppose it serves its purpose.","I suppose dey illustrate di small tins wey change howe look wey we dey talking about, so I suppose make e serve im purpose.",Computer science
"perhaps, contrary to my earlier pleas for mercy, you've found a brick to hurl and are right now lea ng through an adelaide phone book trying to nd my address.","Di earlier pleas for mercy, you find brick to hurl and dey right now lea am through an adelaide phone book try to nd my address.",Computer science
"well, fear not!","We no fear, fear no",Computer science
"and please, put the brick down.",Di brick down.,Computer science
"in alot of ways, we've gone through the hardest part: we've already covered vast majority ofthe plot customisations that you might want to do.",We don covered di most part of di plot customisations wey you go fit do.,Computer science
"as you'll see, each ofthe other high level plotting commands we'll talk about will only have a smallish number of additional options.","As you see, each of di oda high level plotting command wey we go talk about go only get smallish number of additional options.",Computer science
"better yet, even though i've told you about a billion dierent ways of tweaking your plot, you don't usually need them.","I tell you about billion dierent ways of tweaking your plot, you no need dem.",Computer science
we begin with the humble histogram.,We begin wit di humble hintogram,Computer science
histograms are one ofthe simplest and most useful ways of visualising data.,Histograms na one of di easy and best ways to visualise data.,Computer science
"most of you probably know how histograms work, since they're so widely used, but for the sake of completeness i'll describe them.","Dem know how hintogram work, since dem dey so widely use, but for di sake of completeness i go describe dem",Computer science
"all you do is divide up the possible values into bins, and then count the number of observations that fall within each bin.","All you do dey divide up di possible values into bins, and then count di number of observation wey fall within each bin.",Computer science
"this count is referred to as the frequency ofthe bin, and is displayed as a bar: in the afl winning margins data, there are 33 games in which the winning margin was less than 10 points, and it is this fact that is represented 7also, there's a low level function called axis()that allows alot more control over the appearance ofthe axes.","For di afl winning margin data, na 33 games wey di winning margin dey less than 10 points, and e dey display as bar: for di afl winning margin data, na 33 games wey di winning margin dey less than 10 points, and e dey display as bar.",Computer science
drawing this histogram in ris pretty straightforward.,Di hintogram for rise dey clear.,Computer science
"the function you need to use is called hist(), and it has pretty reasonable default settings.","Di function wey you need use dey call hist(), and e get reasonable default settings.",Computer science
"in fact, figure 6. 10a is exactly what you get if you just type this:> hist( afl. margins) #panel a although this image would need alot of cleaning up in order to make a good presentation graphic(i. e, one you'd include in a report), it nevertheless does a pretty good job of describing the data.","Di image go need alot of cleaning up for order to make a good presentation graphic(i. e, one you dey include for report), e nevertheless does a good job of describing di data.",Computer science
"in fact, the big strength of a histogram is that(properly used)it does show the entire spread ofthe data, so you can get a pretty good sense about what it looks like.","Di big strength of hintogram na say(properly use)e don show di entire spread of di data, so you fit get good sense about what dem look like.",Computer science
the downside to histograms is that they aren't very compact: unlike some ofthe other plots i'll talk about it's hard to cram 20-30 histograms into a single image without overwhelming the viewer.,Di downside to hintograms na say dem no fit cram 20-30 hintograms into single image without overwhelm di viewer.,Computer science
"and ofcourse, if your data are nominal scale(e. g, the afl. finalists data)then histograms are useless.","If your data dey nominal scale(e. g, di afl. finalist data)then hintograms dey useless.",Computer science
"the main subtlety that you need to be aware of when drawing histograms is determining where thebreaks that separate bins should be located, and (relatedly) how many breaks there should be.","Di main subtlety wey you need to know when drawing hintograms dey determining where dibreaks wey separate bins dey locate, and (relatedly) how many breaks wey dey separate bins dey locate, and (relatedly) how many breaks wey dey get.",Computer science
"in figure 6. 10a, you can see that rhas made pretty sensible choices all by itself: the breaks are located at 0, 10, 20.","Di breaks dey located for 0, 10, 20.",Computer science
"as a result, although the plot is very informative(it displays the entire dataset with no loss of information at all!)",Di plot dey informative(it display di entire group of related numbers or data wey belong together wit no loss of information for all!),Computer science
"the plot is very hard to interpret, and feels quite cluttered.","Di plot dey hard to interpret, and feel quite cluttered",Computer science
"on the other hand, the plot in figure 6. 10b has a bin width of 50 points, and has the opposite problem: it's very easy to ead"" this plot, but it doesn't convey alot of information.","Di plot for figure 6. 10b don get bin width of 50 points, and don convey alot of information.",Computer science
one gets the sense that this histogram is hiding too much.,One get di sense say dis hintogram dey hid too much,Computer science
"in short, the way in which you specify the breaks has a big eect on what the histogram looks like, so it's important to make sure you choose the breaks sensibly.","Di way wey you specify di breaks don big eect on what di hintogram look like, so e important to make sure you choose di break sensibly.",Computer science
"in general rdoes a pretty good job of selecting the breaks on its own, since it makes use of some quite clever tricks that statisticians have devised for automatically selecting the right bins for a histogram, but nevertheless it's usually a good idea to play around with the breaks a bit to see what happens.","For general rdo pretty good job of selecting di breaks on its own, since e make use some quite clever tricks wey statisticians don devis for automatically select di right bin for hintogram, but nevertheless e dey usually good idea to play around wit di breaks a bit to see what happen.",Computer science
there is one fairly important thing to add regarding how the breaks argument works.,Na one fairly important thing to add regarding how di break argument works,Computer science
there are two dierent ways you can specify the breaks.,Di two dierent way you fit specify di breaks.,Computer science
"you can either specify how many breaks you want(which is what i did for panel b when i typed breaks=3) and let r gure out where they should go, or you can provide a vector that tells rexactly where the breaks should be placed(which is what i did for panel c when i typed breaks= 0:116 ).","I fit either specify how many breaks wey i dey for panel b when i type breaks=3) and let r gure out where di breaks go place(which na what i go for panel c wen i type breaks=3) and let r gure out wia dem go, or you fit provide vector wey dey tell rexactly where di breaks go place(which na what i do for panel c wen i type breaks=3",Computer science
the behaviour ofthe hist() function is slightly dierent depending on which version you use.,Di behaviour of hist() function dey small different based on which one you get you use.,Computer science
"if all you do is tell it how many breaks you want, rtreats it as a\suggestion"" not as a demand.","If all you do dey tell am how many breaks you wan, rtreat am as demand.",Computer science
"it assumes you want pproximately 3""breaks, but if it doesn't think that this would look very pretty on screen, it picks a dierent (but similar)number.","If e no think say dis go look very pretty on screen, e pick dia dierent (but similar)number.",Computer science
it does this for a sensible reason{ it tries to make sure that the breaks are located at sensible values(like 10)rather than stupid ones(like 7. 224414).,Di tries make sure say di breaks dey located for sensible values(like 10)no be stupid ones(like 7. 224414).,Computer science
"and most ofthe time ris right: usually, when a human researcher says\give me 3 breaks"", he or she really does mean\give me approximately 3 breaks, and don't put them in stupid places"".","usually, wen human researcher tok say\give me 3 breaks"", hin or she don mean say\give me approximately 3 breaks, and don put dem for stupid place",Computer science
"however, sometimes ris dead wrong.","For however, sometimes dey dead wrong",Computer science
"sometimes you really do mean\exactly 3 breaks"", and you know precisely where you want them to go.","Di sometimes you dey mean\exactly 3 breaks"", and you know exactly where you wan dem go",Computer science
"so you need to invoke eal person privilege"", and order rto do what it's bloody well told.","So you need use""di power of real person"", and to tell R for make e do wetin dem tell am.",Computer science
"in order to do that, you have to input the full vector that tells rexactly where you want the breaks.",Di full vector wey dey tell rexactly where you wan di break,Computer science
"if you do that, rwill go back to behaving like the nice little obedient calculator that it's supposed to be.","Di nice little obedient calculator wey dey suppose be, rwill to go back to behave like di nice little obedient calculator wey dey suppose be.",Computer science
"overall i think that panel d makes a pretty good picture, though if i were to start being picky i wouldn't have the title in boldface text(the eye is drawn to the title and not to the picture), and i'd try to make the labels above the bars a little less prominent aswell.","I think say panel d make a good picture, though if i dey picky i no get di title for letters wey dey dark(the eye dey draw to di title and no to di picture), and i try make di label above di bars a little less prominent aswell.",Computer science
"however, the visual style ofthe histograms shown in figure 6. 10a-c could stand to be improved.",Di way e go look of di hintograms show for figure 6. 10a-c go stand to improve.,Computer science
we can x this by making use of some ofthe other arguments to the hist() function.,We fit x dis by to use some of di oda arguments to di hist() function,Computer science
"you can add diagonal lines to shade the bars: the density value is a number indicating how many lines per inch rshould draw(the default value of null means no lines), and the angle is a number indicating how many degrees from horizontal the lines should be drawn at(default is angle= 45 degrees).","Di density value dey a number indicating how many lines per inch rshould draw( di normal number of null means no lines), and di angle dey a number wey dey indicate how many degrees from horizontal di lines go draw for(default is angle= 45 degrees).",Computer science
"speci cs regarding colours: col, border.","For colours: col, border",Computer science
"you can also change the colours: in this instance the col parameter sets the colour ofthe shading(either the shading lines if there are any, or else the colour ofthe interior ofthe bars if there are not), and the border argument sets the colour ofthe edges ofthe bars.","For dis instance di col parameter sets di colour of di shading(either di shading line if no dey any, or else di colour of di interior of di bars if no dey no), and di border argument sets di colour of di interior of di bars.",Computer science
labelling the bars: labels.,Dem label di bars: label,Computer science
you can also attach labels to each ofthe bars using the labels argument.,Di labels argument wey dey use di labels argument,Computer science
"the simplest way to do this is to set labels= true, in which case rwill add a number just above each bar, that number being the exact number of observations in the bin.","Di simple way to do dis nato set labels= true, in which case rwill add number just above each bar, dat number be di exact number of observations for di bin.",Computer science
"alternatively, you can choose the labels yourself, by inputting a vector of strings, e. g, labels =c(""label 1"",""label 2"",""etc"")not surprisingly, this doesn't exhaust the possibilities.","Di labels wey dey select, by inputting vector of strings, e. g, labels =c(""label 1"",""label 2"",""etc"")no exhaust di possibilities.",Computer science
"if you type help(""hist"") or? hist and have a look at the help documentation for histograms, you'll see a few more options.","Di papers wey dey help for hintograms, you go see few more options.",Computer science
"they're simple, pretty, and very informative.","E dey simple, pretty, and very informative",Computer science
"however, they do take a little bit of eort to draw.",Di eort go take little bit of eort to draw,Computer science
"sometimes it can be quite useful to make use of simpler, if less visually appealing, options.","Sometimes e fit dey very useful to use simpler options, even if dem no dey too fine for eye.",Computer science
one such alternative is the stem and leaf plot.,One such alternative na di stem-and-leaf plot.,Computer science
to a rst approximation you can think of a stem and leaf plot as a kind of text-based histogram.,"As first try, you fit think of stem-and-leaf plot as kind of text-based histogram.",Computer science
"stem and leaf plots aren't used as widely these days as they were 30 years ago, since it's now just as easy to draw a histogram as it is to draw a stem and leaf plot.","Di hintogram wey dey use as widely dis days as dem dey 30 years ago, since e no dey use as easy to draw hintogram as e dey draw one kind of picture with words",Computer science
"not only-173- that, they don't work very well for larger data sets.",Di data sets don work well for larger data sets,Computer science
"as a consequence you probably won't have as much of a need to use them yourself, though you may run into them in older publications.","as result you no get as much of need to use dem yourself, though you go run into dem for older publications.",Computer science
"these days, the only real world situation where i use them is if i have a small dataset with 20-30 data points andi don't have a computer handy, because it's pretty easy to quickly sketch a stem and leaf plot by hand.","Di only real world situation wey i use dem na if i get small group of related numbers or data wey belong together wit 20-30 data points andi no get computer handy, because e dey easy to quickly sketch one kind of picture with words by hand.",Computer science
"with all that as background, lets have a look at stem and leaf plots.",We go make we look stem and leaf plots.,Computer science
"the afl margins data contains 176 observations, which is at the upper end for what you can realistically plot this way.","Di afl margin data contains 176 observations, wey dey at di upper end for what you fit plot dis way.",Computer science
"if you just look at the shape that the leaves make, you can see something that looks alot like a histogram made out of numbers, just rotated by 90 degrees.","If you just make we look di shape wey di leave make, you fit see something wey dey like hintogram make out of numbers, just rotate by 90 degrees.",Computer science
"but if you know how to read the plot, there's quite alot of additional information here.","If you know how to read di plot, na quite alot of extra information here.",Computer science
"in fact, it's also giving you the actual values of allof the observations in the dataset.",E also give you di actual value of all of di observations for di group of related numbers or data wey belong together.,Computer science
"to illustrate, let's have a look at the last line in the stem and leaf plot, namely 11|6.","Di last line for di one kind of picture with words, namely 11|6",Computer science
"speci cally, let's compare this to the largest values ofthe afl. margins dataset: >max( afl. margins) [1]116 hm.11 |6 versus 116.",Di largest values of di afl. margin group of related numbers or data wey belong together:> max(afl. margins),Computer science
obviously the stem and leaf plot is trying to tell us that the largest value in the dataset is 116.,Di one kind of picture with words dey try to tell us say di most for di group of related numbers or data wey belong together dey 116,Computer science
"similarly, when we look at the line that reads 10 |148, the way we interpret it to note that the stem and leaf plot is telling us that the dataset contains observations with values 101, 104 and 108.","We make we look di line wey read 10 |148, di way we interpret am to note say di one kind of picture with words dey telling us say di group of related numbers or data wey belong together contains observation wit values 101, 104 and 108.",Computer science
"finally, when we see something like 5| 00002233445556667 the four 0s in the the stem and leaf plot are telling us that there are four observations with value 50.",We see something like 5| 00002233445556667 di four 0s for di one kind of picture with words dey tell us say na four observations wit value 50,Computer science
"changing the scale ofthe plot(default value is 1), which is analogous to changing the number of breaks in a histogram.","Di scale of di plot(di normal number dey 1), wey dey analogous to change di number of breaks for hintogram.",Computer science
"reducing the scale causes rto reduce the number of stem values(i. e, the number of breaks, if this were a histogram) that the plot uses.","E, di number of breaks, if dis dey hintogram) wey di plot use",Computer science
the second way that to can customise a stem and leaf plot is to alter the width(default value is 80).,Di second way wey to customise one kind of picture with words dey change di width(di normal number is 80).,Computer science
changing the width alters the maximum number of leaf values that can be displayed for any given stem.,Di width change di width change di maximum number of leaf value wey dey display for any given stem.,Computer science
"however, since stem and leaf plots aren't as important as they used to be, i'll leave it to the interested reader to investigate these options.","Di stem and leaf plots no dey important as dem use to be, i go leave am to di interested reader to investigate dis options.",Computer science
"if our dataset had included only the numbers. 11. 15. 23. 35 and. 59 and we'd drawn a stem and leaf plot of these data, then rwould move the decimal point: the stem values would be 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, but rwould tell you that the decimal point has moved to the left ofthe |symbol.","We don draw one kind of picture with words of dis data, then r go move di decimal point: di stem values go be 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, but r go tell you say di decimal point don move di decimal point: di stem values go be 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, but r go tell you say di decimal point don move di decimal point.",Computer science
"if you want to see this inaction, try the following command:> stem(x= afl. margins/ 1000 )the stem and leaf plot itself will look identical to the original one we drew, except for the fact that r will tell you that the decimal point has moved.","Di stem(x= afl. margins 1000) di one kind of picture with words dey look identical to di original one wey we drew, except for di fact say r go tell you say di decimal point don move.",Computer science
"like histograms, they're most suited to interval or ratio scale data.",Dem dey suite to interval or numbers wey start for zero.,Computer science
"the idea behind a boxplot is to provide a simple visual depiction ofthe median, the interquartile range, and the range ofthe data.","Di idea wey dey behind boxplot dey provide simple visual depiction of di median, di middle spread, and di range of di data.",Computer science
"and because they do so in a fairly compact way, boxplots have become avery popular statistical graphic, especially during the exploratory stage of data analysis when you're trying to understand the data yourself.","Di boxplots don become popular statistical graphic, especially during di exploratory stage of to study numbers wen you dey try to understand di data yourself.",Computer science
"let's-175- have a look at how they work, again using the afl. margins data as our example.","Na let's-175- get make we look how dem work, again using di afl. margin data as awa example.",Computer science
"firstly, let's actually calculate these numbers ourselves using the summary()function: 8>summary( afl. margins) min.","First, make we to really find dese numbers ourselves using di way to see small tins:> summary(afl. margins).",Computer science
the easiest way to describe what a boxplot looks like is just to draw one.,Di easiest way to describe what boxplot look like na just to draw one,Computer science
"the function for doing this in ris (surprise, surprise) boxplot().","Di function for do dis for ris (surprise, surprise) boxplot().",Computer science
"as always there's alot of optional arguments that you can specify if you want, but for the most part you can just let rchoose the defaults for you.","di normal way na lot of optional argument wey you fit specify if you wan, but for di most part you fit just let rchoose di default for you.",Computer science
"that said, i'm going to override one ofthe defaults to start with by specifying the range option, but for the most part you won't want to do this(i'll explain why in a minute).","I tok say, i go override one of di defaults to start wit by specifying di range option, but for di most part you go do dis(i go explain why for minute).",Computer science
"with that as preamble, let's try the following command:> boxplot( x=afl. margins, range =100 )what rdraws is shown in figure 6. 11a, the most basic boxplot possible.","Di command wey go follow:> boxplot( x=afl. margins, range =100) wey rdraws dey show for figure 6. 11a, di most basic boxplot possible.",Computer science
"when you look at this plot, this is how you should interpret it: the thick line in the middle ofthe box is the median; the box itself spans the range from the 25th percentile to the 75th percentile; and the \whiskers"" cover the full range from the minimum value to the maximum value.","Di thick line for di middle of di box dey di median; di box dey span di range from 25th percentile to 75th percentile; and di \whiskers"" cover di full range from di smawest amont or degree wey dey possible or dem dey allow to di maximum value.",Computer science
this is summarised in the annotated plot in figure 6. 11b.,Di annotated plot for figure 6. 11b.,Computer science
"in practice, this isn't quite how boxplots usually work.",E no dey quite how boxplots dey work.,Computer science
"in most applications, the \whiskers"" don't cover the full range from minimum to maximum.","Di \whiskers"" don cover di full range from minimum to maximum.",Computer science
"instead, they actually go out to the most extreme data point that doesn't exceed a certain bound.",Dem go out to di most extreme numbers point wey no dey exceed certain bound.,Computer science
"by default, this value is 1. 5 times the interquartile range, corresponding to a range value of 1.5.","Di value dey 1. 5 times di middle spread, corresponding to range value of 1.5. 5.",Computer science
"any observation whose value falls outside this range is plotted as a circle instead of being covered by the whiskers, and is commonly referred to as an outlier.","Di range dey plot as circle forstead of being covered by di whiskers, and dey commonly dem dey call outlier.",Computer science
"for our afl margins data, there is one observation(a game with a margin of 116 points)that falls outside this range.",Na one observation(a game wit margin of 116 points) wey dey inside dis range.,Computer science
"as a consequence, the upper whisker is pulled back to the next largest observation(a value of 108), and the observation at 116 is plotted as a circle.","Di upper whisker dey pull back to di next largest observation(a value of 108), and di observation at 116 dey plot as circle.",Computer science
this is illustrated in figure 6. 12a.,E dey illustrate for figure 6. 12a.,Computer science
boxplots in rare extremely customisable.,Di boxplots for rare extremely customisable.,Computer science
"in addition to the usual range of graphical parameters that you can tweak to make the plot look nice, you can also exercise nearly complete control over every element to the plot.","Di usual range of di small tins wey change howe look wey you fit tweak to make di plot look nice, you fit also exercise nearly complete control over every element to di plot.",Computer science
"consider the boxplot in figure 6. 12b: in this version ofthe plot, not only have i added labels( xlab, ylab) and removed the stupid border( frame. plot), i've also dimmed all ofthe graphical elements ofthe boxplot except the central bar that plots the median( border) so as to draw more attention to the median rather than the rest ofthe boxplot.","For dis version of di plot, no only i add label( xlab, ylab) and remove di stupid border( frame. plot)so as to draw more attention to di median no be di rest of di boxplot.",Computer science
"however, i've done two new things aswell: i've deleted the cross-bars at the top and bottom ofthe whiskers (known as the\staples"" ofthe plot), and converted the whiskers themselves to solid lines.","I don deleted di cross-bars for top and bottom of di whiskers (known as di\staples"" of di plot), and convert di whiskers themselves to solid lines.",Computer science
"the arguments that i used to do this are called by the ridiculous names of staplewex and whisklty, 9and i'll explain these in a moment.","Di arguments wey i use to do dis dey call by di ridiculous name of staplewex and whisklty, 9and i go explain dis for moment.",Computer science
"but rst, here's the actual command i used to draw this gure: 8rbeing what it is, it's no great surprise that there's also a fivenum() function that does much the same thing.","Di actual command wey i use to draw dis gure: 8rbeing wey dey, na no great surprise say e dey also fivenum() function wey dey do much di same thing.",Computer science
"when i typed this sentence, all i could think was that it sounded like the name of a kids movie if it had been written by lewis carroll:\the frabjous gambolles of staplewex and whisklty"" or something along those lines.","When I type dis sentence, di only thing I fit think na say e sound like name of one children movie if di man wey write Alice for Wonderland write am:""The words wey no get meaning of Staplewex and Whiskly"" or something like dat.",Computer science
"as we've seen in earlier graphics, theboxplot() function lets you customise the plot fairly extensively.",Diboxplot() function make you customise di plot fairly extensively.,Computer science
"this is illustrated in panel b, which shows a much more minimalist boxplot, and attaches informative labels to the graphic.","E dey illustrated for panel b, wey show a much more minimalist boxplot, and attach informative label to di graphic.",Computer science
"in my opinion atleast, there's a fairly minimalist aesthetic that governs good statistical graphics.","Di opinion na least, e dey fairly minimalist aesthetic wey govern good statistical graphics",Computer science
"ideally, every visual element that you add to a plot should convey part ofthe message.",Di visual element wey you add to plot go convey part of di message.,Computer science
"if your plot includes things that don't actually help the reader learn anything new, you should consider removing them.","Di plot includes things wey don help di reader learn anything new, you go consider removing dem",Computer science
"personally, i can't see the point ofthe cross-bars on a standard boxplot, so i've deleted them.","I no see di point of di cross-bars on standard boxplot, so i deleted dem",Computer science
"okay, what commands can we use to customise the boxplot?",Di command wey we use to customise di boxplot?,Computer science
if you type?,Di type if you type?,Computer science
"boxplot and ick through the help documentation, you'll notice that it does mention staplewex as an argument, but there's no mention of whisklty.","Di papers wey dey help, you go notice say staplewex as argument, but no mention of whisklty.",Computer science
"the reason for this is that the function that handles the drawing is called bxp(), so if you type?","Di reason for dis na say di function wey handle di drawing dey call bxp(), so if you type?",Computer science
bxp all the gory details appear.,"With bxp, all di small tins go appear.",Computer science
here's the short summary.,Di short summary na di short summary,Computer science
"in order to understand why these arguments have such stupid names, you need to recognise that they're put together from two components.",E need to recognise say dem put together from two component.,Computer science
"the second part ofthe name species a graphical parameter: wexis a width parameter, and ltyis a line type parameter.","Di second part of di name specify one graphical parameter: wex na one number wey show how thick, and lty na one number wey show how line be.",Computer science
the parts ofthe plot you can customise are: box.,Di parts of di plot you fit customise na box.,Computer science
the box that covers the interquartile range.,Di box wey cover di middle spread.,Computer science
the line used to show the median.,Di line use to show di median,Computer science
the vertical lines used to draw the whiskers.,Di vertical lines wey dey use to draw di whiskers,Computer science
the cross bars at the ends ofthe whiskers.,Di cross bars for di end of di whiskers,Computer science
the points used to show the outliers.,Di points wey dey use to show di outliers,Computer science
"the actual graphical parameters that you might want to specify are slightly dierent for each visual element, just because they're dierent shapes from eachother.","Di actual di small tins wey change howe look wey you go need to specify na slightly dierent for each visual element, just because dem dey animal shapes from each oda.",Computer science
"as a consequence, the following options are available: width expansion: boxwex, staplewex, outwex.","Dis option dey available: width expansion: boxwex, staplewex, outwex",Computer science
these are scaling factors that govern the width of various parts ofthe plot.,E dey scaling factors wey govern di width of various parts of di plot.,Computer science
"the default scaling factor is(usually) 0. 8 for the box, and 0. 5 for the other two.","Di default number wey you use to adjust the size of something dey(usually) 0. 8 for di box, and 0. 5 for di oda two.",Computer science
note that in the case ofthe outliers this parameter is meaningless unless you decide to draw lines plotting the outliers rather than use points.,Di case of di outliers dis parameter dey meaningless unless you decide to draw lines plotting di outliers no be use points.,Computer science
"line type: boxlty, medlty, whisklty, staplelty, outlty.","how di line go look: boxlty, medlty, whisklty, staplelty, outlty.",Computer science
these govern the line type for the relevant elements.,Dis govern di how di line go look for di things wey dey matter.,Computer science
"the values for this are exactly the same as those used for the regular ltyparameter, with two exceptions.","Di values wey dey use for di regular ltyparameter, wit two exceptions.",Computer science
"there's an additional option where you can set medlty =""blank"" to suppress the median line completely(useful if you want to draw a point for the median rather than plot a line).","Di option wey you fit set medlty =""blank"" to suppress di median line completely(useful if you wan to draw point for di median no be plot line).",Computer science
"similarly, by default the outlier line type is set to outlty =""blank"", because the default behaviour is to draw outliers as points instead of lines.","Di outlier how di line go look dey set to outlty =""blank"", bikos di default behaviour dey to draw outliers as points forstead of line.",Computer science
"line width: boxlwd, medlwd, whisklwd, staplelwd, outlwd.","how thick di line be: boxlwd, medlwd, whisklwd, staplelwd, outlwd.",Computer science
"these govern the line widths for the relevant elements, and behave the same way as the regular lwdparameter.","Dese ones control di line widths for di things wey dey matter, and dem behave di same way as di normal way to change thickness.",Computer science
the only thing to note is that the default value for medlwd value is three times the value ofthe others.,Di only thing to note na say di normal number for medlwd value dey three times di value of di oda.,Computer science
"line colour: boxcol, medcol, whiskcol, staplecol, outcol.","di colour wey line be: boxcol, medcol, whiskcol, staplecol, outcol.",Computer science
these govern the colour ofthe lines used to draw the relevant elements.,Dis govern di colour of di lines wey dey draw di things wey dey matter.,Computer science
specify a colour in the same way that you usually do.,E dey specify colour for di same way wey you do.,Computer science
fill colour: boxfill.,di colour wey fill di shape: boxfill.,Computer science
what colour should we use toll the box?,Di colour wey we use toll di box?,Computer science
"point character: medpch, outpch.","Dem pch, outpch.",Computer science
these behave like the regular pchparameter used to select the plot character.,Di regular pchparameter wey dey use to select di plot character,Computer science
"note that you can set outpch = nato stop rfrom plotting the outliers at all, and you can also set medpch = nato stop it from drawing a character for the median(this is the default!)","Dem note say you fit set outpch = nato stop rfrom plotting di outliers for all, and you fit also set medpch = nato stop rfrom plotting di outliers for all, and you fit also set medpch = nato stop am from drawing character for di median(this na di default!)",Computer science
"point expansion: medcex, outcex.","Demcex, outcex.",Computer science
size parameters for the points used to plot medians and outliers.,Di points wey dey use to plot median and outliers.,Computer science
these are only meaningful if the corresponding points are actually plotted.,Dis dey only meaningful if di corresponding points dey plotted,Computer science
"so for the default boxplot, which includes outlier points but uses a line rather than a point to draw the median, only theoutcex parameter is meaningful.","For di default boxplot, wey include outlier points but uses line no be point to draw di median, only dioutcex parameter dey meaningful.",Computer science
"background colours: medbg, outbg.","Di background colour: medbg, outbg",Computer science
"again, the background colours are only meaningful if the points are actually plotted.",Di background colours dey only meaningful if di points dey plot,Computer science
"taken as a group, these parameters allow you almost complete freedom to select the graphical style for your boxplot that you feel is most appropriate to the dataset you're trying to describe.",Di parameters allow you complete freedom to select di graphical style for your boxplot wey you feel appropriate to di group of related numbers or data wey belong together you try to describe.,Computer science
"that said, when you're rst starting out there's no shame in using the default settings!",For when you start out no dey shame for using di default settings,Computer science
"but if you want to master the art of designing beautiful gures, it helps to try playing around with these parameters to see what works and what doesn't.","But if you wan master di art of to draw fine pictures, e help to try play with dese parameters to see wetin dey work and wetin no dey work.",Computer science
"finally, i should mention a few other arguments that you might want to make use of: horizontal.",I go mention few oda argument wey you go wan to use: horizontal,Computer science
set this to true to display the plot horizontally rather than vertically.,Set dis to TRUE to display di plot horizontally not dat one vertically.,Computer science
"i've drawn this plot in a similar, minimalist style to the one in figure 6. 12b, but i've used the horizontal argument to draw it sideways in order to save space.","I don draw dis plot for similar, minimalist style to di one for figure 6. 12b, but i use di horizontal argument to draw am sideways for order to save space",Computer science
set this to true to get rto scale the width of each box so that the areas are proportional to the number of observations that contribute to the boxplot.,Di set dis to true to get rto scale di width of each box so say di area dey proportional to di number of observation wey dey contribute to di boxplot.,Computer science
set this to true to get rto attach labels to the boxplots.,Set dis to TRUE to makeR to put names to di boxplots.,Computer science
"if you set notch= true, rwill draw little notches in the sides of each box.","We dey set notch= true, rwill draw little notches for di sides of each box.",Computer science
"if the notches of two boxplots don't overlap, then there is a\statistically signi cant"" dierence between the corresponding medians.","If di notches of two boxplots no overlap, den ""statistically significant""difference dey between di middle numbers wey match.",Computer science
i'm mentioning it only because you might want to comeback to the topic later on.,I dey mention am only because you go wan to kom back to di topic later on.,Computer science
(see also the notch. frac option when you type?,Di frac option wey you type?,Computer science
"suppose that i'd drawn the boxplot for the afl margins data, and it came up looking like figure 6. 13.","Na suppose say i draw di boxplot for afl margin data, and e kom up look like figure 6. 13. 13. 13. 13. 13. 13. 13. 13. 13. 13. 13.",Computer science
it's pretty clear that something funny is going on with one ofthe observations.,E dey clear say something funny dey goon wit one of di observations.,Computer science
"apparently, there was one game in which the margin was over 300 points!",Di game wey di margin dey over 300 points,Computer science
that doesn't sound right tome.,E no sound right tome,Computer science
"now that i've become suspicious, it's time to look a bit more closely at the data.",Di time to look a bit more closely at di data.,Computer science
"one function that can be handy for this is the which()function; it takes as input a vector of logicals, and outputs the indices ofthe true cases.","Di which()function; e take as input vector of logicals, and output di indices of di true case.",Computer science
"in any case, what this has done is shown me that the outlier corresponds to game 137.",wetin dis don done dey show me say di outlier correspond to game 137,Computer science
"then, i nd the recorded margin for that game:> afl. margins[137][1] 333 hm.",Di recorded margin for dat game:> afl. margins[137],Computer science
that de nitely doesn't sound right.,Di nitely no sound right,Computer science
so then i go back to the original data source(the internet!),I to go back to di original data source(the internet!)so e to go back to di original data source(the internet!)so e to go back to di original data source(the internet!)so e to go back to di original data source(the internet!),Computer science
andi discover that the actual margin of that game was 33 points.,I discover say di actual margin of dat game na 33 points,Computer science
now it's pretty clear what happened.,Na now e dey clear what dey happen,Computer science
someone must have typed in the wrong number.,Di wrong number wey someone must type for di wrong number.,Computer science
"easily xed, just by typing afl. margins[137]<- 33.","E easy to fix, just by writing afl. margins[137] <-33.",Computer science
"while this might seem like a silly example, i should stress that this kind of thing actually happens alot.","I go stress say dis kind of thing actually dey happen alot, i go stress say dis kind of thing actually happen alot",Computer science
"real world data sets are often riddled with stupid errors, especially when someone had to type something into a computer at some point.","Di real world data sets dey often riddled wit stupid errors, especially wen someone don type something into a computer for some point.",Computer science
"in fact, there's actually a name for this phase of data analysis, since in practice it can waste a huge chunk of our time: data cleaning.","Di name for dis phase of to study numbers, since for real life na waste huge chunk of awa time: data cleaning",Computer science
"it involves searching for typos, missing data and all sorts of other obnoxious errors in raw data les.10 what about the real data?",For di real data?10 what about di real data?,Computer science
does the value of 116 constitute a funny observation not?,"Di value 116, e be one number wey dey strange or not?",Computer science
"as it turns out the game in question was fremantle v hawthorn, and was played in round 21(the second last home and away round ofthe season).","Dem turnout di game for question na fremantle v hawthorn, and dem play for round 21(the second last home and away round of di season).",Computer science
fremantle had already quali ed for the nal series and for them the outcome ofthe game was irrelevant; and the team decided to rest several of their star players.,Di team decide to rest several of dia star players; and di team decide to rest several of dia star players,Computer science
"as a consequence, fremantle went into the game severely underpowered.","Di game dey underpowered, fremantle go into di game severely underpowered.",Computer science
"in contrast, hawthorn had started the season very poorly but had ended on a massive winning streak, and for them a win could secure a place in the nals.","Hinthorn don start di season poorly but don end on massive winning streak, and for dem win go secure place for di nals.",Computer science
"with the game played on hawthorn's home turf11and with so many unusual factors at play, it is perhaps no surprise that hawthorn annihilated fremantle by 116 points.","Di game wey dey play on hawthorn's home turf11and wit so many unusual factors wey dey play, na perhaps no surprise say hawthorn dey annihilate fremantle by 116 points.",Computer science
"two weeks later, however, the two teams met again in an elimination nal on fremantle's home ground, and fremantle won comfortably by 30 points.12 so, should we exclude the game from subsequent analyses?","after two weeks, di two teams meet again for one game wey if you lose, you go out for Fremantle dia own field, and Fremantle win comfortably by 30 points. So, we suppose exclude di game from analyses wey go follow?",Computer science
"if this were a psychology experiment rather than an afl season, i'd be quite tempted to exclude it because there's pretty strong evidence that fremantle weren't really trying very hard: and to the extent that my research question is based on an assumption that participants are genuinely trying to do the task.",Di extent wey my research question dey based on an assumption say dem no dey try to do di task.,Computer science
"on the other hand, in alot of studies we're actually interested in seeing the full range of possible behaviour, and that includes situations where people decide not to try very hard: so excluding that observation would be a bad idea.","For some studies wey dey interest for seeing di full range of possible behaviour, and we dey include situations wey pipo decide no try very hard: so excluding dat observation go be bad idea.",Computer science
"in the context ofthe afl data, a similar distinction applies.","For di context of di AFL data, similar distinction dey apply.",Computer science
"if i'd been trying to make tips about who would perform well in the nals, i would have(and in fact did)disregard the round 21 massacre, because it's way too misleading.","I go dey try make tips about who go perform well for di nals, i go get(and for true don)disregard di round 21 massacre, because e way too misleading.",Computer science
"on the other hand, if my interest is solely in the home and away season itself, i think it would be a shame to throw away information pertaining to one ofthe most distinctive(if boring)games ofthe year.","If my interest dey solely for di home and away season, i think e go be shame to throw away information pertaining to one of di most distinctive(if boring)games of di year.",Computer science
"in other words, the decision about whether to include outliers or exclude them depends heavily onwhyyou think the data look they way they do, and what you want to use the data for.","For other words, di decision about whether to put di numbers wey dey far or exclude dem depend heavily on why you think di data look di way dem look, and wetin you wan use di data for.",Computer science
"statistical tools can provide an automatic method for suggesting candidates for deletion, but you really need to exercise good judgment here.","Statistical tools fit provide one way wey dey work by itself to suggest candidates wey fit delete, but you really need use good judgment here.",Computer science
"as i've said before, ris a mindless automaton.","I tok before, raise mindless automaton.",Computer science
"it doesn't watch the footy, so it lacks the broader context to make an informed decision.","E no dey watch di footy, so e lack di broader context to make decision",Computer science
"you are nota mindless automaton, so you should exercise judgment: if the outlier looks legitimate to you, then keep it.","If di outlier look legitimate to you, then keep am",Computer science
"the original boxplot() function doesn't allow you to do this; however, the boxplot() function in the carpackage does.","Di original boxplot() function no dey allow you to do dis; however, di boxplot() function for di carpackage no dey allow you to do dis; however, di boxplot() function for di carpackage no dey allow you to do dis; however, di boxplot() function for di carpackage no dey allow you to do dis; however, di boxplot() function for di carpackage no dey allow you to do dis; however, di boxplot() function for carpackage no dey allow you to do dis; however, di boxplot() function",Computer science
the design ofthe boxplot() function is very similar to boxplot().,Di design of di boxplot() function dey similar to boxplot(),Computer science
it just adds a few new arguments that allow you to tweak the labelling scheme.,E just add new arguments wey allow you to tweak di labelling scheme.,Computer science
i'll leave it to the reader to check this out.,I go leave am to di reader to check dis out,Computer science
"the game was played in launceston, which is a de facto home away from home for hawthorn.","Di game dey play for launceston, wey dey de facto home away from home for hawthorn",Computer science
"geelong have been one ofthe most dominant teams over the last several years, a period during which they strung together an incredible 29-game winning streak at kardinia park.","Di geelong don be one of di most dominant teams over di last several years, period wey dem strung together 29-game win streak for kardinia park.",Computer science
richmond have been useless for several years.,Dem useless for several years.,Computer science
this is in no meaningful sense an outlier.,E no dey meaningful sense wey dey outlier,Computer science
geelong have been winning by these margins(and richmond losing by them)for quite sometime.,Di geelong don win by dis margins(and richmond losing by dem)for quite sometime.,Computer science
frankly i'm surprised that the result wasn't more lopsided: as happened to melbourne in 2011 when geelong won by a modest 186 points.,I surprise say di result no dey more lopsided: as happen to melbourne for 2011 wen geelong won by modest 186 points.,Computer science
what if you want to draw multiple boxplots at once?,Wetin if you wan draw multiple boxplots at di same time?,Computer science
"suppose, for instance, i wanted separate boxplots showing the afl margins not just for 2010, but for every year between 1987 and 2010.","suppose for example, I wan different box pictures wey go show di AFL margins no just for 2010, but for all di years from to 1987 and 2010.",Computer science
"to do that, the rst thing we'll have to do is nd the data.",Di rst thing wey we get to do na nd di data.,Computer science
these are stored in the aflsmall2. rdata le.,Di aflsmall2 rdata le.,Computer science
"it contains 4296 games, which is far more than i want to see printed out on my computer screen.","E contain 4296 games, wey dey far more than I wan see print for my computer screen.",Computer science
"to that end, rprovides you with a few useful functions to print out only a few ofthe row in the data frame.","To dat end, R provide you with few useful ways to print only few of di rows for di one kind of table.",Computer science
"the rst of these is head()which prints out the rst 6 rows, of the data frame, like this:> head( afl2 )margin year 1 33 1987 2 59 1987 3 45 1987 4 91 1987 5 39 1987 61 1987 you can also use the tail()function to print out the last 6 rows.",Na head( afl2 )margin year 1 33 1987 2 59 1987 3 45 1987 4 91 1987 5 39 1987 61 1987,Computer science
the carpackage also provides a handy little function called some()which prints out a random subset ofthe rows.,Di carpackage also provide handy little function wey dey call some() wey dey to show random subset of di rows,Computer science
"in any case, the important thing is that we have the afl2 data frame which contains the variables that we're interested in.",Di important thing na say we get afl2 one kind of table wey dey contains di variables wey we dey interest for.,Computer science
"what we want to do is have rdraw boxplots for the margin variable, plotted separately for each separate year.","Wetin we wan do na makeR draw boxplots for margin variable, wey dem plot separately for each year.",Computer science
the way to do this using the boxplot() function is to input a formula rather than a variable as the input.,Di way to do dis using di boxplot() function dey to input a formula no be a variable as di input,Computer science
"in this case, the formula we want is margin~ year.",Di formula we wan dey margin~ year,Computer science
"so our boxplot command now looks like this:> boxplot( formula= margin~ year,+ data= afl2 + )the result is shown in figure 6. 14. 13even this, the default version ofthe plot, gives a sense of why it's sometimes useful to choose boxplots instead of histograms.","Di default version of di plot, give sense of why e dey useful to choose boxplots forstead of hintograms.",Computer science
"even before taking the time to turn this basic output into something more readable, it's possible to get a good sense of what the data look like from year to year without getting overwhelmed with too much detail.",E dey possible to get good sense of what di data look like from year to year without getting overwhelmed wit too much detail.,Computer science
now imagine what would have happened if i'd tried to cram 24 histograms into this space: no chance at all that the reader is going to learn anything useful.,Nano chance for all wey di reader go learn anything useful.,Computer science
"that being said, the default boxplot leaves a great deal to be desired in terms of visual clarity.",Di default boxplot leave great deal to be desired for terms of visual clarity.,Computer science
"the outliers are too visually prominent, the dotted lines look messy, and the interesting content(i. e, the 13actually, there's other ways to do this.","I. e, di 13actually, na oda way to do dis.",Computer science
"for instance, something like plot(x= afl2$year, y= afl2$margin) would work.","for example, something like plot(x= afl2$year, y= afl2$margin) go work.",Computer science
"this is the default plot created by r, with no annotations added and no changes to the visual design.","Di default plot wey dey create by r, wit no annotations add and no change to di visual design.",Computer science
"it's pretty readable, though at a minimum you'd want to include some basic annotations labelling the axes.","Di axe dey readable, though at minimum you go need include some basic annotation labelling di axes.",Computer science
compare and contrast with figure 6. 15.,to see how dem dey same and different am with Figure 6.15.,Computer science
behaviour ofthe median and the interquartile range across years)gets a little obscured.,Di behaviour of di median and di middle spread from year to year)dey get small hidden.,Computer science
"fortunately, this is easy to x, since we've already covered alot of tools you can use to customise your output.","E dey easy to x, since we don covered alot of tools wey dey use to customise your output.",Computer science
"after playing around with several dierent versions ofthe plot, the one i settled on is shown in figure 6. 15.","Di one wey dey play around wit several dierent version of di plot, di one wey dey show for figure 6. 15.",Computer science
"notice that i've used avery minimalist design for the boxplots, so as to focus the eye on the medians.","I dey use very minimalist design for di boxplots, so as to focus di eye on di medians.",Computer science
"i've also converted the medians to solid dots, to convey a sense that year to year variation in the median should be thought of as a single coherent plot(similar to what we did when plotting the fibonacci variable earlier).","I dey convert di median to solid dots, to convey sense say year to year variation for di median go dey thought as single coherent plot(similar to what we dey do when we plot di fibonacci variable earlier).",Computer science
"the size of outliers has been shrunk, because they aren't actually very interesting.","Di size of outliers don shrunk, because dem no dey very interesting.",Computer science
"in contrast, i've added a ll colour to the boxes, to make it easier to look at the trend in the interquartile range across years.","I don add ll colour to di box, to make am easier to make we look di trend for di middle spread from year to year.",Computer science
"instead, i wrote a script, which i kept tweaking until it produced the gure that i wanted.","I write script, wey i keep tweaking until e produce di gure wey i waned.",Computer science
"it's this latter application that we usually have in mind when we use the term \scatterplot"".","Di latter application wey we dey use for mind wen we use di term \scatterplot"".",Computer science
"in this kind of plot, each observation corresponds to one dot: the horizontal location ofthe dot plots the value ofthe observation on one variable, and the vertical location displays its value on the other variable.","Di kind of plot, each observation correspond to one dot: di horizontal location of di dot plot di value of di observation on one variable, and di vertical location display dia value on di oda variable.",Computer science
"in many situations you don't really have a clear opinions about what the causal relationship is(e. g, does a cause b, or does b cause a, or does some other variable c control both a and b).","For plenty situations, you no really get clear opinion about wetin di how one thing cause another be(e. g, A cause B, or B cause A, or some other variable C control both A and B).",Computer science
"if that's the case, it doesn't really matter which variable you plot on the x-axis and which one you plot on they-axis.",Di case no matter which variable you plot on dix-axis and which one you plot on diy-axis.,Computer science
"however, in many situations you do have a pretty strong idea which variable you think is most likely to be causal, or atleast you have some suspicions in that direction.","For many situations you don get strong idea wey dey suppose be causal, or atleast you go get some suspicions for dat direction.",Computer science
"if so, then it's conventional to plot the cause variable on the x-axis, and the eect variable on they-axis.","Di conventional to plot di cause variable on dix-axis, and di eect variable on diy-axis.",Computer science
"with that in mind, let's look at how to draw scatterplots in r, using the same parenthood dataset (i. e.","I make we look how to draw scatterplots for r, using di same parenthood group of related numbers or data wey belong together(i. e.",Computer science
rdata )that i used when introducing the idea of correlations.,I use when introducing di idea of correlation,Computer science
suppose my goal is to draw a scatterplot displaying the relationship between the amount of sleep that i get( dan. sleep) and how grumpy i am the next day( dan. grump ).,Di goal dey draw scatterplot wey show di how two things dey related di amount of sleep wey i get( dan. sleep) and how grumpy i am di next day( dan. grump ).,Computer science
"as you might expect given our earlier use of plot()to display the fibonacci data, the function that we use is the plot()function, but because it's a generic function all the hard work is still being done by the plot. default()function.","Di function wey we use na di plot()function, but because e dey generic function all di hard work dey done by di plot. default()function",Computer science
"in any case, there are two dierent ways in which we can get the plot that we're after.",Di two dierent ways wey we fit get di plot wey we dey after.,Computer science
the rst way is to specify the name ofthe variable to be plotted on the xaxis and the variable to be plotted on the yaxis.,Di rst way dey to specify di name of di variable to be plotted on di xaxis and di variable to be plotted on di yaxis.,Computer science
"if we do this, the result is the very basic scatterplot shown in figure 6. 16a.",Di result dey di very basic scatterplot show for figure 6. 16a.,Computer science
"this serves fairly well, but there's a few customisations that we probably want to make in order to have this work properly.","Di serves fairly well, but na few customisations wey we go make for order to get dis work properly.",Computer science
"as usual, we want to add some labels, but there's a few other things we might want to do aswell.","We go add some labels, but na few oda things we go fit do aswell.",Computer science
"firstly, it's sometimes useful to rescale the plots.",E dey useful to rescale di plots,Computer science
in figure 6. 16a r has selected the scales so that the data fall neatly in the middle.,For figure 6. 16a r don select di scale so say di data fall neatly for di middle,Computer science
"but, in this case, we happen to know that the grumpiness measure falls on a scale from 0 to 100, and the hours slept falls on a natural scale between 0 hours and about 12 or so hours(the longest i can sleep in real life).","Di case, we go know say di grumpiness measure falls on scale from 0 to 100, and di hours wey dey sleep for real life.",Computer science
what it doesn't do is draw the line through the middle ofthe points.,We no dey do dey draw di line through di middle of di points.,Computer science
"sometimes it can be very useful to do this, and i can do so using lines(), which is a low level plotting function.","I fit do so using lines(), wey dey low level plotting function.",Computer science
"better yet, the arguments that i need to specify are pretty much the exact same ones that i use when calling the plot()function.",Di argument wey i need to specify na pretty much di exact same ones wey i use when call di plot()function.,Computer science
"that is, suppose that i want to draw a line that goes from the point(4, 93)to the point(9. 5, 37).","I wan draw line wey dey from di point(4, 93)to di point(9. 5, 37).",Computer science
"then the xlocations can be speci ed by the vector c(4, 9.5) and the ylocations correspond to the vector c(93, 37).","Di xlocations go dey speci ed by di vector c(4, 9.5) and di ylocation correspond to di vector c(93, 37)",Computer science
"in most realistic data analysis situations you absolutely don't want to just guess where the line through the points goes, since there's about a billion dierent ways in which you can get rto do a better job.","Di line through di points go, since e dey about billion dierent way wey you fit get better job.",Computer science
"however, it does atleast illustrate the basic idea.",Di idea no dey illustrate di basic idea.,Computer science
"one possibility, if you do want to get rto draw nice clean lines through the data for you, is to use the scatterplot() function in the carpackage.","For one way wey e fit be, if you go wan get rto draw nice clean lines through di data for you, na use di scatterplot() function for di carpackage.",Computer science
"before we can use scatterplot() we need to load the package:> library(car )having done so, we can now use the function.","Before we fit use scatterplot(), we need load di package:> library(car). After we do dat, we fit now use di function.",Computer science
"the command we need is this one:> scatterplot( dan. grump ~dan. sleep,+ data= parenthood, 14the reason is that there's an annoying design aw in the way the plot()function handles this situation.","Di reason na say scatterplot( dan. grump ~dan. sleep,+ data= parenthood, 14the reason na say e dey annoying design aw for di way di plot()function handle dis situation.",Computer science
the problem is that the plot. formula()function uses dierent names to for the arguments than the plot()function expects.,Di problem na say di plot. formula()function use dierent names to for di argument than di plot()function expect.,Computer science
"as a consequence, you can't specify the formula argument by name.","Di formula argument by name, you no need specify di formula argument by name.",Computer science
"if you just specify a formula as the rst argument without using the name it works ne, because the plot()function thinks the formula corresponds to the xargument, and the plot. formula()function thinks it corresponds to the formula argument; and surprisingly, everything works nicely.","Di plot()function think say di formula correspond to di rst argument, and di plot. formula()function think say di formula correspond to di xargument, and di plot. formula()function think say di formula correspond to di formula argument, and di plot. formula()function think say di formula correspond to di xargument, and di plot. formula.",Computer science
"but the moment that you, the user, tries to be unambiguous about the name, one of those two functions is going to cry.","Di moment wey you, di user, tries to dey unambiguous about di name, one of dia two functions go cry.",Computer science
"the third argument smooth i've set tofalse to stop the scatterplot() function from drawing a fancy \smoothed"" trendline (since it's a bit confusing to beginners).",Di third argument smooth i set tofalse to stop di scatterplot() function from drawing fancy \smoothed trendline (since e dey confusing to beginners).,Computer science
the scatterplot itself is shown in figure 6. 17.,Di scatterplot dey show for figure 6. 17. 17.,Computer science
"as you can see, it's not only drawn the scatterplot, but its also drawn boxplots for each ofthe two variables, as well as a simple line of best t showing the relationship between the two variables.","As you see, e no only draw scatterplot, but e also draw boxplots for each of di two variables, and one line wey show di way wey show di how two things dey related di two variables.",Computer science
"one useful tool for doing so is to produce a scatterplot matrix, analogous to the correlation matrix.","One useful tool wey dey do so nato produce scatterplot matrix, analogous to di correlation matrix.",Computer science
the reason is that there's a bug in how the scatterplot() function is written: under the hood there's one function that expects the argument to be named xand another one that expects it to be called formula.,"For di hood, one function wey dey expect di argument to be named xand another one wey dey expect di argument to be called formula",Computer science
"the solution in such cases is to omit the argument name: that way, one function hinks"" that you've speci ed xand the other one hinks"" you've speci ed formula and everything works the way it's supposed to.","Di solution for such case dey to omit di argument name: say way, one function hinks"" wey you dey speci ed xand di oda one hinks"" you dey speci ed formula and all dey work di way wey dey suppose to.",Computer science
"it's not a great state of aairs, i'll admit, but it sort of works.","I go admit, but e no dey great state of aairs, i go admit, but e sort of works",Computer science
"an alternative way of calling the pairs()function, which can be useful in some situations, is to specify the variables to include using a one-sided formula.","Di another way of calling di pairs()function, wey dey useful for some situation, na to specify di variables wey dey include using one-sided formula.",Computer science
"for instance, this >pairs( formula= ~dan. sleep+ baby. sleep+ dan. grump, +data =parenthood + )would produce a 33 scatterplot matrix that only compare dan. sleep, dan. grump and baby. sleep.","Di pairs(formula = ~dan. sleep, dan. grump, and data= parenthood) go produce 3 scatterplot matrix wey only compare dan. sleep, dan. grump and baby. sleep.",Computer science
"obviously, the rst version is much easier, but there are cases where you really only want to look at a few ofthe variables, so it's nice to use the formula interface.","Di rst version dey much easier, but cases wey you no fit make we look few of di variables, so e dey nice to use di formula interface.",Computer science
what i want to do is draw a bar graph that displays the number of nals that each team has played in over the time spanned by the afldata set.,I wan to do na draw bar graph wey display di number of nals wey each team don play for over di time wey di afldata set.,Computer science
"so, let's start by creating a vector that contains this information.",We start by create vector wey dey contains dis information,Computer science
"i'm only doing it this way so that you can see the barplot() function in it's\purest"" form: when the input is just an ordinary numeric vector.","I only do am dis way so say you fit see di barplot() function for di\purest"" form: wen di input dey just ordinary numeric vector",Computer science
"that being said, i'm obviously going to need the team names to create some labels, so let's create a variable with those.","I tok say, i go need di team name to create some labels, so let's create a variable wit those",Computer science
"so, once again, what i could have done is just type plot(parenthood ).","Na one more time, wetin i go done na type plot(parenthood).",Computer science
"if the xargument to plot()is a factor(and no y argument is given), the result is a bar graph.",Di result dey bar graph.,Computer science
so you could use plot(afl. finalists) and get the same output as barplot( afl. finalists).,So you fit use plot(afl. finalists) and get di same output as barplot(afl. finalists).,Computer science
"panel a shows the simplest version of a bargraph, containing the data but no labels.","Di first part show di simple version of bargraph, containing di data but no label.",Computer science
"in panel b we've added the labels, but because the text runs horizontally ronly includes a few of them.","We add di label, but because di text run horizontally ronly includes few of dem",Computer science
"in panel c we've rotated the labels, but now the text is too long tot. finally, in panel d we x this by expanding the margin at the bottom, and add several other customisations to make the chart a bit nicer.","We x dis by expand di margin for di bottom, and add several oda customisations to make di chart a bit nicer",Computer science
"as you can see, rhas drawn a pretty minimal plot.","As you see, R don draw one very minimal plot.",Computer science
"it doesn't have any labels, obviously, because we didn't actually tell thebarplot() function what the labels are!","We no tell dibarplot() function wey di labels dey, obviously, because we no tell dibarplot() function wey di labels dey",Computer science
"to do this, we need to specify the names. arg argument.",We need to specify di name. arg argument,Computer science
the names. arg argument needs to be a vector of character strings containing the text that needs to be used as the label for each ofthe items.,Di arg argument need to be vector of character strings wey dey containing di text wey need to use as di label for each of di items.,Computer science
"in this case, the teams vector is exactly what we need, so the command we're looking for is:> barplot( height= freq, names. arg =teams ) #panel b this is an improvement, but not much of an improvement.","Di teams vector dey exactly we need, so di command wey dey looking for na:> barplot( height= freq, name. arg =teams) #panel b dis na improvement, but no much of improvement.",Computer science
"rhas only included a few ofthe labels, because it can't t them in the plot.","Di rhas only include few of di labels, bikos e no fit t dem for di plot.",Computer science
this is the same behaviour we saw earlier with the multiple-boxplot graph in figure 6. 14.,Di same behaviour wey we saw earlier wit di multiple-boxplot graph for figure 6. 14.,Computer science
"however, in figure 6. 14 it wasn't an issue: it's pretty obvious from inspection that the two unlabelled plots in between 1987 and 1990 must correspond to the data from 1988 and 1989.",E dey obvious from inspection say di two unlabelled plots for between 1987 and 1990 must correspond to di data from 1988 and 1989.,Computer science
"however, the fact that barplot() has omitted the names of every team in between adelaide and fitzroy is alot more problematic.",Di fact say barplot() don omitted di names of every team for between adelaide and fitzroy dey problematic.,Computer science
"the simplest way to x this is to rotate the labels, so that the text runs vertically not horizontally.","Di simple way to x dis nato rotate di labels, so say di text run vertically no horizontally.",Computer science
"what i'll do is tell rto rotate the text so that it's always perpendicular to the axes(i. e, i'll set las=2 ).","I dey tell rto rotate di text so say e dey always perpendicular to di axes(i. e, i fit set las=2 ).",Computer science
"we've xed the problem, but we've created anew one: the axis labels don't quite t anymore.","Di axis label don quite t anymore, but we create new one: di axis label don quite t anymore.",Computer science
"to x this, we have to be a bit cleverer again.",We go get bit cleverer again,Computer science
"a simple x would be to use shorter names rather than the full name of all teams, and in many situations that's probably the right thing to do.","Di simple x go be to use shorter names no be di full name of all team, and for many situations wey dey probably di right thing to do.",Computer science
"however, at other times you really do need to create a bit more space to add your labels, so i'll show you how to do that.","For oda times you go need create space to add your label, so i to show you how to do dat.",Computer science
"in principle it's avery simple thing to do: the size ofthe margins is governed by a graphical parameter called mar, so all we need to do is alter this parameter.","Di size of di margins dey governed by graphical parameter called mar, so all we need to do dey change dis parameter.",Computer science
"first, let's look at what the mar argument species.","First, make we look wetin di number wey show space specify.",Computer science
"the marargument is a vector containing four numbers: specifying the amount of space at the bottom, the left, the top and then the right.","Di marargument dey vector containing four numbers: specifying di amount of space for di bottom, di left, di top and then di right.",Computer science
"the units are umber of`lines'"".",Di unit dey umber of`lines',Computer science
"the default-190- value for marisc(5. 1, 4.1, 4.1, 2.1), meaning that rleaves 5. 1\lines"" empty at the bottom,4. 1 lines on the left and the bottom, and only 2. 1 lines on the right.","Di normal number for mar na c(5.1, 4.1, 4.1, 2.1), wey mean say R dey leave 5.1""lines"" empty for bottom,4.1 lines for left and top, and only 2.1 lines for right.",Computer science
"in order to make more room at the bottom, what i need to do is change the rst of these numbers.",I need to change di rst of dis numbers.,Computer science
a value of 10.1 should do the trick.,Di trick.,Computer science
so far this doesn't seem any dierent to the other graphical parameters that we've talked about.,E no dey seem any dierent to di oda di small tins wey change howe look wey we dey talk about.,Computer science
"however, because ofthe way that the traditional graphics system in rworks, you need to specify what the margins will be before calling your high-level plotting function.","Di way wey di old way wey R draw for rworks, you need to specify what di margins go be before call your high level plotting function.",Computer science
"unlike the other cases we've see, you can't treat maras if it were just another argument in your plotting function.","Di cases wey dey see, you no treat maras if e dey just one argument for your plotting function.",Computer science
"instead, you have to use the par()function to change the graphical parameters beforehand, and only then try to draw your gure.","Instead, you must use di way to change settings to change di small tins wey change howe look before, and only den try to draw your figure.",Computer science
"now that this is done, we could use the exact same command as before, but this time you'd see that the labels all t, because rnow leaves twice as much room for the labels at the bottom.","We go use di exact same command as before, but dis time you see say di labels all t, because rnow leave twice as much room for di labels for di bottom.",Computer science
"rather, the changes pertain to any subsequent plot that you draw onto the same device.",Di change pertain to any subsequent plot wey you draw onto di same device.,Computer science
"this might be exactly what you want, in which case there's no problem.","Dis one fit be exactly wetin you wan, for which case no wahala dey.",Computer science
"but if not, you need to reset the graphical parameters to their original settings.",We need to reset di small tins wey change howe look to dia original settings.,Computer science
what's the good of being able to draw pretty pictures in rif i can't save them and send them to friends to brag about how awesome my data is?,Di good of being able to draw pretty pictures for rif i no save demand send dem to friends to brag about how amazing my data dey?,Computer science
how do i save the picture?,I save di picture?,Computer science
this is another one of those situations where the easiest thing to do is to use the rstudio tools.,Di one of dis situation wey di easiest thing to do na use di rstudio tools.,Computer science
"if you're running rthrough rstudio, then the easiest way to save your image is to click on the\export"" button in the plot panel(i. e, the area in rstudio where all the plots have been appearing).","Di easiest way to save your image nato press di\export"" button for di plot panel(i. e, di area for rstudio wey all di plots dey appear",Computer science
"when you do that you'll see a menu that contains the options\save plot as pdf""and \save plot as image"".","Di menu wey dey contains di options\save plot as pdf""and \save plot as image",Computer science
either version works.,Diversion works.,Computer science
"both will bring up dialog boxes that give you a few options that you can play with, but besides that it's pretty simple.","Dem bring up dialog boxes wey give you few options wey you fit play wit, but besides say e dey simple.",Computer science
"however, one day you might want to be a bit more sophisticated, and make use of r's image writing capabilities at a lower level.","But one day, you fit wan be small more sophisticated, and to useR im di power to write pictures for lower level.",Computer science
"in all honesty, this barely scratches the surface, but it will help a little bit in getting you started if you want to learn the details.","Di barely scratch di surface, but e go help a little bit forgetting you start if you wan learn di details.",Computer science
"okay, as i hinted earlier, whenever you're drawing pictures in ryou're deemed to be drawing toa device of some kind.","I hint earlier, wen you dey drawing pictures for ryou dey drawing toa device of some kind.",Computer science
"there are devices that correspond to a gure drawn on screen, and there are devices that correspond to graphics les that rwill produce for you.","Di devices wey dey correspond to gure draw on screen, and di devices wey dey correspond to graphics wey dey produce for you.",Computer science
"the reason for this is that my experience with the graphical device provided by rstudio has led me to suspect that it still has a bunch on non-standard(or possibly just undocumented)features, and so i don't quite trust that it always does what i expect.","Di reason for dis na say my experience wit di graphical device wey dey rstudio don led me to suspect say e still get bunch on non-standard(or possibly just undocumented)feature, and so i no trust say e no fit suppose do what i expect.",Computer science
"i've no doubt they'll smooth it out later, but i can honestly say that i don't quite get what's going on with the rstudiogd device.","I no dey doubt say dem go smooth am out later, but i fit honestly say i no get what's going on wit di rstudiogd device.",Computer science
"in any case, we can ask rto list all ofthe graphics devices that currently exist, simply by using the command dev. list().","We go ask rto list all of di graphics devices wey currently exist, simply by using di command dev. list()",Computer science
"if there are no gure windows open, then you'll see this:> dev. list()null which just means that rdoesn't have any graphics devices open.",Di dev. list()null wey just mean say r no get any graphics devices open,Computer science
"however, suppose if you've just drawn a histogram and you type the same command, rwill now give you a dierent answer.","Di suppose, if you don draw hintogram and you type di same command, rwill now give you a dierent answer",Computer science
"for instance, if you're using windows:> hist( afl. margins) >dev. list()windows 2 what this means is that there is one graphics device(device 2)that is currently open, and it's a gure window.","for example, if you dey use windows:> hist( afl. margins)> dev. list()window 2 wey dey open, and e dey gure window.",Computer science
"if you did the same thing on a mac, you get basically the same answer, except that the name ofthe device would be quartz rather than windows.",Di name of di device go be quartz no be windows.,Computer science
"if you had several graphics windows open(which, incidentally, you can do by using the dev. new()command) then you'd see something like this:> dev. list()windows windows windows 234 okay, so that's the basic idea behind graphics devices.","Di dev. list()windows 234 okay, so dat's di basic idea wey dey behind graphics devices.",Computer science
the key idea here is that graphics les(like jpeg images etc)are alsographics devices as far as ris concerned.,Di key idea here na say graphics les(like jpeg images etc)dey alsographics devices as for ris concerned.,Computer science
"there's a command called dev. copy()that does this, but what i'll explain to you is a simpler one called dev. print().",Di command wey dey call dev. copy() wey dey explain to you na simpler one wey dey called dev. print().,Computer science
"it's pretty simple:> dev. print(device =jpeg, #what are we printing to?","Di dev. print(device =jpeg, # we dey printing to?",Computer science
"the filename = ""thisfile. jpg"" part tells rwhat to name the graphics le, and the width= 480 and height= 300 arguments tell rto draw an image that is 300 pixels high and 480 pixels wide.","Di filename = ""thisfile. jpg"" part tell rwhat to name di graphics le, and di width= 480 and height= 300 argument tell rto draw image wey dey 300 pixels high and 480 pixels wide.",Computer science
"if you want a dierent kind of le, just change the device argument from jpeg to something else.","If you wan different kind of file, just change di device argument from jpeg to oda kind.",Computer science
"rhas devices for png, tiff and bmpthat all workin exactly the same way as the jpeg command, but produce dierent kinds of les.","R get devices for PNG, TIFF, and BMP wey all work exactly di same way as jpeg command, but dem to make different file kinds.",Computer science
"actually, for simple cartoonish graphics like this histogram, you'd be better advised to use png or tiff over jpeg.","Actually, for simple pictures wey look like cartoon like dis histogram, dem go advise you better to use PNG or TIFF not dat one JPEG.",Computer science
"the jpeg format is very good for natural images, but is wasteful for simple line drawings.","di JPEG way dey very good for real pictures, but e dey wasteful for simple drawings.",Computer science
the information above probably covers most things you might want to.,Di information above probably cover most things wey you fit wan.,Computer science
"however, if you want more information about what kinds of options you can specify using r, have a look at the help documentation by typing?","If you wan more information about what kinds of options wey you fit specify using r, don make we look di papers wey dey help by typing?",Computer science
jpeg or? tiff or whatever.,jpeg or tiff or wetin.,Computer science
"everytime i write anew scienti c paper, one ofthe rst things i do is sit down and think about what the pictures will be.","I write new scienti c paper, one of di rst things wey i dey sit down and think about what di pictures go be.",Computer science
"in my head, an article is really just a sequence of pictures, linked together by a story.",Di article dey just sequence of pictures wey dey linked together by a story.,Computer science
all the rest of it is just window dressing.,Di rest of di rest dey just window dressing,Computer science
what i'm really trying to say here is that the human visual system is avery powerful data analysis tool.,Di human visual system dey very powerful to study numbers tool.,Computer science
give it the right kind of information and it will supply a human reader with a massive amount of knowledge very quickly.,"Give am di right kind of information, and e go supply human reader with plenty tins wey person go know fast.",Computer science
"not for nothing do we have the saying picture is worth a thousand words"".",Di say picture dey worth thousand words,Computer science
the topics covered were: basic overview to rgraphics.,Di topics wey dey cover na: basic overview to rgraphics,Computer science
common plots.,Di common plots wey dey common.,Computer science
saving image les.,to keep picture files.,Computer science
it's the easiest one to get started with: you can draw a histogram with a command as simple as hist(x).,Di easiest one to get start wit: you fit draw hintogram wit command as simple as hist(x),Computer science
"however, it's not the most powerful tool for the job, and after awhile most rusers start looking to shift to fancier systems.","But e no be di most powerful tool for di job, and after sometime, most R users dey start to goto better systems.",Computer science
"it's not for novices: you need to have a pretty good grasp of rbefore you can start using it, and even then it takes awhile to really get the hang of it.","You need to get good grasp of rbefore you fit start using am, and even then e take time to really get di hang of am",Computer science
"but when you're nally at that stage, it's worth taking the time to teach yourself, because it's a much cleaner system.","Di stage dey worth taking di time to teach you, bikos e dey much cleaner system.",Computer science
pragmatic matters the garden of life never seems to con ne itself to the plots philosophers have laid out for its convenience.,Di garden of life never seem to con ne imself to di plots philosophers don laid out for its convenience.,Computer science
maybe a few more tractors would do the trick.,Maybe few more tractors go do di trick.,Computer science
the problem with real world data sets is that they are messy.,Di problem wit real world data sets na say dem dey messy.,Computer science
very often the data le that you start out with doesn't have the variables stored in the right format for the analysis you want to do.,Di data le dat you start out wit no get di variables wey dey store for di right format for di analysis you wan to do.,Computer science
sometimes might be alot of missing values in your dataset.,Di group of related numbers or data wey belong together sometimes might be lot of missing value for your group of related numbers or data wey belong together.,Computer science
sometimes you only want to analyse a subset ofthe data.,Sometimes you only wan analyse part of di data.,Computer science
"in other words, there's alot of data manipulation that you need to do, just to get all your dataset into the format that you need it.","E dey alot of data manipulation wey you need to do, just to get all your group of related numbers or data wey belong together into di format wey you need.",Computer science
transforming or recoding a variable.,E dey transform or recoding a variable.,Computer science
some useful mathematical functions.,some ways for math.,Computer science
extracting a subset of a vector.,E dey extract a subset of a vector,Computer science
extracting a subset of a data frame.,Di one kind of table dey extract a subset of one kind of table,Computer science
"sorting, ipping or merging data sets.","Sorting, flipping, or to put two groups together.",Computer science
reshaping a data frame.,Di one kind of table dey reshaping one kind of table.,Computer science
opening data from dierent le types.,E dey open data from dierent le type.,Computer science
coercing data from one type to another.,Dem dey coercing data from one type to one,Computer science
other important data types.,Di important data type wey dey important,Computer science
"my advice, as usual, is to read through the 1the quote comes from home is the hangman, published in 1975.","Di advice, as normal, na to read through di 1the quote kom from home na di hangman, published for 1975.",Computer science
there are several functions that you can use in rfor that purpose.,E dey plenty ways wey you fit use for rfor dat purpose,Computer science
"as the father of a small child, i naturally spend alot of time watching tv shows like in the night garden.","As father of small pikin, I naturally spend plenty time watching TV shows like""one name of show"".",Computer science
in the nightgarden.,Di nightgarden dey for nightgarden,Computer science
"with these as my data, one task i might nd myself needing to do is construct a frequency count ofthe number of words each character speaks during the show.",Di task wey i need to do na construct frequency count of di number of words wey each character speak during di show.,Computer science
the table()function provides a simple way do to this.,Di table()function provide simple way do to dis,Computer science
the basic usage ofthe table()function is as follows:> table(speaker )speaker makka-pakka tombliboo upsy-daisy 424 the output here tells us on the rst line that what we're looking at is a tabulation ofthe speaker variable.,Di basic usage of table(speaker )speaker makka-pakka tombliboo upsy-daisy 424 di output here tell us on di rst line say what we dey make we look dey tabulation of di speaker variable.,Computer science
"on the second line it lists all the dierent speakers that exist in the data, and on the third line it tells you how many times that speaker appears in the data.","Di second line wey dey list all di dierent speakers wey exist for di data, and on di second line wey dey tell you how many times wey speaker appear for di data.",Computer science
"in other words, it's a frequency table2notice that 2as usual, you can assign this output to a variable.","Di frequency table2notice say 2as usual, you fit assign dis output to a variable.",Computer science
if you type speaker. freq <-table(speaker) at the command prompt rwill store the table as a variable.,Di place wey you type command rwill store di table as a variable.,Computer science
if you then type class(speaker. freq) you'll see that the output is actually of class table.,Di output dey actually of class table.,Computer science
"you just type in a list ofthe variables that you want rto tabulate, and it tabulates them.","Di list of di variables wey you wan rto tabulate, and e tabulates dem",Computer science
"as you'd expect, you can produce three way or higher order cross tabulations just by adding more objects to the list of inputs.","As you expect, you fit produce three way or higher order cross tabulations just by add more objects to di list of inputs.",Computer science
"firstly, if you just want to cross-tabulate all ofthe variables in the data frame, then it's really easy:> table( itng ) utterance speaker ee onk oo pip makka-pakka 0 202 tombliboo 1010 upsy-daisy 0 202 however, it's often the case that you want to select particular variables from the data frame to tabulate.","First, if you just wan cross-tabulate all di variables for di one kind of table, den e really easy:> table(itng). But e dey happen often say you wan to pick some of dem from di one kind of table to tabulate.",Computer science
this is where the xtabs() function is useful.,Di xtabs() function dey useful,Computer science
"however, often you want your data to be organised in terms of proportions rather than counts.",Di data dey organised for terms of proportions no be counts.,Computer science
this is where the prop. table()function comes in handy.,Di prop. table()function kom for handy.,Computer science
it has two arguments: x.,E don get two argument: x,Computer science
the frequency table that you want to convert.,Di a list of how many wey you wan convert.,Computer science
"which\dimension"" do you want to calculate proportions for.","Which""dimension"" you wan to find di parts for?",Computer science
"by default, rassumes you want the proportion to be expressed as a fraction of all possible events.","as e be, R assume say you wan di proportion to dey expressed as fraction of all possible events.",Computer science
see examples for details.,Dem see examples for more small tins,Computer science
"that's a sensible default, but more often you actually want to calculate the proportions separately by row( margin=1) or by column( margin=2 ).",Di proportion wey dey separately by row( margin= 1)or by column( margin=2) or by column( margin=2,Computer science
"again, this is most clearly seen by looking at examples:> prop. table(x= itng. table, margin = 1) utterance speaker ee onk oo pip makka-pakka 0. 0 0. 5 0. 0 0. 5 tombliboo 0. 5 0. 0 0. 5 0. 0 upsy-daisy 0. 0 0. 5 0. 0 0. 5 notice that each row now sums to 1, but that's not true for each column.","Again, dis one dey clear pass when you make we look examples:> prop. table(x = itng. table, margin= 1). Notice say each row now add to one, but dat one no true for each column.",Computer science
what we're looking at here is the proportions of utterances made by each character.,Di proportion of utterances wey we make we look here na di proportion of utterances wey we dey make by each character.,Computer science
"in other words,50% of makka-pakka's utterances are\pip"", and the other 50%are \onk"".","Di 50%of makka-pakka's utterances dey pipo"", and di oda 50%dey \onk"".",Computer science
"let's contrast this with the following command:> prop. table(x= itng. table, margin = 2) utterance -198-speaker ee onk oo pip makka-pakka 0. 0 0. 5 0. 0 0. 5 tombliboo 1. 0 0. 0 1. 0 0. 0 upsy-daisy 0. 0 0. 5 0. 0 0. 5 now the columns all sum to 1 but the rows don't.","Make we compare dis with di command wey go follow:> prop. table(x = itng. table, margin= 2). Now di columns all add to one but di rows no do same.",Computer science
"in this version, what we're seeing is the proportion of characters associated with each utterance.",We see na di proportion of character wey dey associated wit each utterance.,Computer science
"for instance, whenever the utterance \ee""is made(in this dataset), 100%of the time it's a tombliboo saying it.","for example, wenever di utterance \ee"" dey made(in dis group of related numbers or data wey belong together),100% of di time dey tombliboo say am",Computer science
"for instance, it's often convenient to take a continuous-valued variable(e. g, age) and break it up into a smallish number of categories(e. g, younger, middle, older).","for example, e dey often easy to take one continuous-valued variable(like age)and break am into small number of categories(like young, middle, old).",Computer science
"at other times, you may need to convert a numeric variable into a dierent numeric variable(e. g, you may want to analyse at the absolute value ofthe original variable).","For other times, you fit need convert numeric variable into oda number(e. g, you fit wan analyse di distance wey number dey from zero for number line, no matter whether e be positive or negative, we dey call am absolute value, but for pidgin, we fit say 'distance from zero', or 'how far number reach from zero' of di original variable).",Computer science
"taken literally, anything you do to a variable is a transformation, but in practice what it usually means is that you apply a relatively simple mathematical function to the original variable, in order to create new variable that either(a) provides a better way of describing the thing you're actually interested in or(b) is more closely in agreement with the assumptions ofthe statistical tests you want to do.","Di usually means na say you apply relatively simple mathematical function to di original variable, in order to create new variable wey either(a) provide better way of describing di thing you dey interested for or(b) dey more closely for agreement wit di assumptions of di statistical tests you wan to do.",Computer science
"since{ at this stage{i haven't talked about statistical tests or their assumptions, i'll show you an example based on the rst case.","I don talk about statistical tests or dia assumptions, i goto show you example wey dey based on di rst case.",Computer science
"to keep the explanation simple, the variable we'll try to transform( likert. raw) isn't inside a data frame, though in real life it almost certainly would be.","Di variable wey dey try transform( likert. raw)no dey inside one kind of table, though for real life e almost certainly go be.",Computer science
"however, i think it's useful to start with an example that doesn't use data frames because it illustrates the fact that you already know how to do variable transformations.",I think e dey useful to start wit example wey no use one kind of table because e dey illustrate di fact say you no know how to do variable transformations.,Computer science
"to see this, let's go through an example.","Di example, let go through an example",Computer science
"suppose i've run a short study in which i ask 10 people a single question: on a scale of 1(strongly disagree)to 7(strongly agree), to what extent do you agree with the proposition that\dinosaurs are awesome""?","Na suppose run short study wey i ask 10 pipo a single question: on scale of 1(strongly disagree)to 7(strongly agree), to what extent do you agree wit di proposition say\dinosaurs dey awesome?",Computer science
the data le likert.,Di data dey likert,Computer science
"rdata contains a single variable that contains the raw likert-scale responses:> load( ""likert.",Di rdata contains single variable wey contains di raw likert-scale responses:,Computer science
"rdata"" ) > likert. raw[1] 1 7 3 4 4 4 2 655 however, if you think about it, this isn't the best way to represent these responses.",Di best way to represent dis responses,Computer science
"because ofthe fairly symmetric way that we setup the response scale, there's a sense in which the midpoint ofthe scale should have been coded as 0(no opinion), and the two endpoints should be","Di fairly symmetric way wey we setup di response scale, na sense wey di midpoint of di scale go dey coded as 0(no opinion), and di two endpoints go dey coded as 0(no opinion), and di two endpoints go dey coded as 0(no opinion), and di two endpoints go dey coded as 0(no opinion).",Computer science
"by recoding the data in this way, it's a bit more re ective of how we really think about the responses.",E dey a bit more re ective of how we think about di responses,Computer science
we can do two dierent transformations on this likert. centred variable in order to distinguish between these two dierent concepts.,We fit do two dia transformations on dis likert. centred variable for order to distinguish between dis two dia concepts.,Computer science
"sign you'll see that this function is really simple: all negative numbers are converted to 1, all positive numbers are converted to 1 and zero stays as 0.","Di function dey simple: all positive numbers dey convert to 1, all positive numbers dey convert to 1 and zero stay as 0",Computer science
"we now have three shiny new variables, all of which are useful transformations ofthe original likert. raw data.","We now don get three new variables, all of which dey useful transformation of di original likert. di first numbers.",Computer science
all of this should seem pretty familiar to you.,Dem dey familiar to you.,Computer science
"the tools that you use to do regular calculations in r(e. g,","Di tools wey you use to do regular calculations for r(e. g,",Computer science
"before moving on, you might be curious to see what these calculations look like if the data had started out in a data frame.",Di calculation look like if di data don start out for one kind of table.,Computer science
"that's the easiest way to do it, though i should make note ofthe fact that people sometimes make use ofthe within()function to do the same thing.",I go make note of di fact say pipo sometimes to use di within()function to do di same thing,Computer science
"however, since (a)i don't use the within()function anywhere else in this book, and (b)the $operator works just ne, i won't discuss it any further.","Di$operator no use di within()function anywhere else for dis book, and (b)di $operator works just ne, i go discuss am any further.",Computer science
"for instance, suppose i'm interested in looking at the age distribution of people at a social gathering:> age<- c(60, 58, 24, 26, 34, 42, 31, 30, 33, 2, 9)in some situations it can be quite helpful to group these into a smallish number of categories.","Di age<- c(60, 24, 26, 34, 42, 31, 30, 33, 2, 9)for some situation, suppose i dey quite helpful to group dem into smallish number of categories.",Computer science
"for example, we could group the data into three broad categories: young(0-20), adult(21-40) and older(41-60).","for example, we fit group di data into three big groups: young(0-20), adult(21-40), and older(41-60).",Computer science
"this is a quite coarse-grained classi cation, and the labels that i've attached only make sense in the context of this dataset (e. g, viewed more generally, a 42 year old wouldn't consider themselves as\older"").","Dem dey quite coarse-grained classi cation, and di label wey i attach only make sense for di context of dis group of related numbers or data wey belong together(e. g, viewed more generally,42 year old go consider themselves as\older"").",Computer science
"in any case, now that we've done this, we can use the cut()function to assign each observation to one of these three categories.",We go use di way to break into groups to assign each observation to one of dis three categories.,Computer science
"there are several arguments to the cut()function, but the three that we need to care about are: x.",Di three wey we need care about na: x.,Computer science
the variable that needs to be categorised.,Di variable wey need to dey categorised,Computer science
"this is either a vector containing the locations ofthe breaks separating the categories, or a number indicating how many categories you want.","Dis dey either vector wey dey containing di locations of di breaks separating di categories, or number wey dey indicating how many categories you wan",Computer science
the labels attached to the categories.,Di label attached to di categories,Computer science
this is optional: if you don't specify this rwill attach a boring label showing the range associated with each category.,If you don specify dis rwill attach boring label show di range wey dey associated wit each category,Computer science
"since we've already created variables corresponding to the breaks and the labels, the command we need is just: 3it's worth noting that there's also a more powerful function called recode() function in the carpackage that i won't discuss in this book but is worth looking into if you're looking for a bit more exibility.",Di command wey dey worth note say na more powerful function wey dey call recode() function for di carpackage wey i don discuss for dis book but na worth looking into if you dey look for bit more exibility.,Computer science
"in order to see what this command has actually done, we could just print out the age. group variable, but i think it's actually more helpful to create a data frame that includes both the original variable and the categorised one, so that you can see the two side by side:> data. frame(age, age. group) age age. group 1 60 older 2 58 older 3 24 adult blah blah blah 10 2 young 11 9 young it can also be useful to tabulate the output, just to see if you've got a nice even division ofthe sample:> table(age. group) age. group young adult older 263 in the example above, i made all the decisions myself.","I think e dey useful to create one kind of table wey dey include both di original variable and di categorised one, so e fit see if you fit see di two side by side:",Computer science
"to give you a sense of how this works, have a look at the following example:> age. group2 <-cut( x=age, breaks=3) with this command, i've asked for three categories, but let rmake the choices for where the boundaries should be.","Di age. group2 <-cut( x=age, breaks= 3)wit dis command, i dey ask for three categories, but let make di choices for where di boundaries go be.",Computer science
"instead, all ofthe important information can be extracted by looking at the tabulated data:> table(age. group2 )age. group2 (1. 94, 21. 3](21. 3, 40. 7](40. 7, 60. 1]263 this output takes a little bit of interpretation, but it's not complicated.","Instead, all di important information fit dey extracted by looking at di numbers wey dey for table:> table(age. group2). Dis output take small interpretation, but e no dey complicated.",Computer science
"what rhas done is determined that the lowest age category should run from 1. 94 years upto 21. 3 years, the second category should run from 21. 3 years to 40. 7 years, and soon.","Di lowest age category go from to 1. 94 years upto 21. 3 years, di second category go from to 21. 3 years to 40. 7 years, and soon.",Computer science
"the formatting on those labels might look a bit funny to those of you who haven't studied alot of maths, but it's pretty simple.","Di formatting on those labels go look funny to those of you wey don study alot of maths, but e dey pretty simple.",Computer science
when rdescribes the rst category as corresponding to the range p1:94; 21: 3swhat it's saying is that the range consists of those numbers that are larger than 1. 94 but less than or equal to 21. 3.,Dem tok say di range dey larger than 1. 94 but less than or equal to 21. 3.3.,Computer science
"in other words, the weird asymmetric brackets isrs way of telling you that if there happens to be a value that is exactly equal to 21. 3, then it belongs to the rst category, not the second one.","Di weird asymmetric brackets deyr way of telling you say if there dey happen to be value wey dey exactly equal to 21. 3, then e belongs to di rst category, no di second one.",Computer science
"obviously, this isn't actually possible since i've only speci ed the ages to the nearest whole number, but rdoesn't know this and so it's trying to be precise justin case.","E no dey possible since i only dey speci ed di ages to di nearest whole number, but r no know dis and so e try to be precise just for case.",Computer science
"this notation is actually pretty standard, but i suspect not everyone reading the book will have-202- seen it before.","Di notation dey actually standard, but i suspect no all reading di book go get-202- seen am before.",Computer science
"in any case, those labels are pretty ugly, so it's usually a good idea to specify your own, meaningful labels to the categories.","E dey good idea to specify your own, meaningful label to di categories.",Computer science
"before moving on, i should take a moment to talk a little about the mechanics ofthe cut()function.",I go take moment to talk about di mechanics of di way to break into groups.,Computer science
notice that rhas tried to divide the agevariable into three roughly equal sized bins.,Notice say R don try divide age variable into three roughly equal-sized bins.,Computer science
"unless you specify the particular breaks you want, that's what it will do.","As you specify di particular break wey you wan, dat's what we go do.",Computer science
"but suppose you want to divide the agevariable into three categories of dierent size, but with approximately identical numbers of people.","but suppose you wan divide age variable into three groups wey no be same size, but with approximately same number of pipo.",Computer science
how would you do that?,How you go do dat?,Computer science
"well, if that's the case, then what you want to do is have the breaks correspond to the 0th, 33rd, 66th and 100th percentiles ofthe data.","If dat's di case, then wetin you wan to do na get breaks correspond to di 0th, 33rd, 66th and 100th percentiles of di data.",Computer science
one way to do this would be to calculate those values using the quantiles() function and then use those quantiles as input to the cut()function.,One way to do dis go be to find those numbers using di way to find di parts and den to give those numbers to di function to di way to break into groups.,Computer science
"that's pretty easy to do, but it does take a couple of lines to type.","E dey easy to do, but e no take couple of lines to type.",Computer science
"the rst and third categories now span an age range of about 25 years each, whereas the middle category has shrunk to a span of only 6 years.","Di rst and third category now span age range of about 25 years each, whereas di middle category don shrunk to age range of about 25 years each, whereas di middle category don shrunk to age range of only 6 years",Computer science
there are some situations where this is genuinely what you want(that's why i wrote the function!,I write di function wey dey genuinely wey you wan(that's why i write di function,Computer science
"usually the numeric variable that you're trying to cut into categories is already expressed in meaningful units(i. e, it's interval scale), but if you cut it into unequal bin sizes then it's often very dicult to attach meaningful interpretations to the resulting categories.","Di numeric variable wey you dey try cut into categories dey express in meaningful units(i. e, it's interval scale), but if you cut am into unequal bin sizes then e dey very dicult to attach meaningful interpretations to di resulting categories.",Computer science
"more generally, regardless of whether you're using the original cut()function or the quantilecut() version, it's important to take the time to gure out whether or not the resulting categories make any sense at all in terms of your research project.",Di important to take di time to gure out whether or no di resulting categories make any sense for all for di research project.,Computer science
"if they don't make any sense to you as meaningful categories, then any data analysis that uses those categories is likely to be just as meaningless.","Di to study numbers wey dey use those categories dey like to make any sense to you as meaningful categories, then any to study numbers wey dey use those categories dey likely to be just as meaningless.",Computer science
"more generally, in practice i've noticed that people have avery strong desire to carve their(continuous and messy)data into a few(discrete and simple)categories; and then run analysis using the categorised data instead ofthe original one. 4i wouldn't go so far as to say that this is an inherently bad idea, but it does have some fairly serious drawbacks at times, so i would advise some caution if you are thinking about doing it.",Di practice i dey notice say pipo get very strong desire to carve dia(continuous and messy)data into few(discrete and simple)categories; and then run analysis using di categorised data forstead of di original one.,Computer science
"there are sometimes good reasons for do this: for instance, if the relationship between ageand your outcome variable is highly non-linear, and you aren't comfortable with trying to run non-linear regression!","for example, if di how two things dey related age and your outcome variable dey highly non-linear, and you no dey comfortable wit trying to run non-linear regression",Computer science
"however, unless you really do have a good rationale for doing this, it's best not to.","Di however, unless you no get good rationale for doing dis, e dey best no to.",Computer science
"it tends to introduce all sorts of other problems(e. g, the data will probably violate the normality assumption), and you can lose alot of power.","Di data go violate di normality assumption), and you go lose alot of power.",Computer science
some that i already have talked about).,I don talk about some wey i dey talk about).,Computer science
"obviously this doesn't even come close to cataloging the range of possibilities available in r, but it does cover avery wide range of functions that are used in day today data analysis.","Dem no dey close to catalog di range of possibilities available for r, but e dey cover very wide range of functions wey dey use for day to study numbers.",Computer science
"to start with, let's assume that we want to round to a whole number.",Dem assume say we wan to round to a whole number.,Computer science
"to that end, there are three useful functions in ryou want to know about: round(), floor()and ceiling().","Di three useful ways wey dey ryou wan know about round(), floor()and ceiling()",Computer science
the round()function just rounds to the nearest whole number.,Di round()function just dey round to di nearest whole number.,Computer science
"so if you round the number 4.3, it ounds down""to 4, like so:> round(x= 4.3) [1]4 in contrast, if we want to round the number 4.7, we would round upwards to 5.","Di round(x= 4.3, we go round upwards to 5.",Computer science
"in everyday life, when someone talks about ounding"", they usually mean ound to nearest"", so this is the function we use most ofthe time.","Di function wey we use most of di time, wen someone talk about ounding"", dem mean ound to nearest"", so dis na di function we use most of di time.",Computer science
however sometimes you have reasons to want to always roundup or always round down.,But sometimes you go get reason to wan to roundup or to always go down.,Computer science
"if you want to always round down, use the floor()function instead; and if you want to force rto roundup, then use ceiling().","If you wan to always go down, use di way to make numbers go down instead; and if you wan to makeR go up, den use ceiling().",Computer science
that's the only dierence between the three functions.,Di only dierence between di three functions,Computer science
what if you want to round to a certain number of digits?,Wetin if you wan round to certain number of digits?,Computer science
"let's suppose you want to round to a xed number of decimal places, say 2 decimal places.","Na make we suppose you round to xed number of decimal place, say 2 decimal place",Computer science
"if so, what you need to do is specify the digits argument to the round()function.",We need to do dey specify di digit argument to di round()function.,Computer science
"that's pretty straightforward:> round(x= 0. 0123, digits=2) [1]0. 01 the only subtlety that you need to keep in mind is that sometimes what you want to do is round to 2 signi cant digits and not to two decimal places.","Dat one e dey clear:> round(x= 0.0123, digits= 2)[1] 0.01. Di only small thing wey you need remember na say sometimes wetin you wan do nato round to two important numbers, no be to two numbers for after point.",Computer science
"the dierence is that, when determining the number of signi cant digits, zeros don't count.","Di dierence dey say, when determining di number of signi don digit, zero don count.",Computer science
operation operator example input example output integer division%/% 42%/% 10 4 modulus %%42 %%10 2.,Operation: di way to divide and keep only di whole number(% %)example: 42 % % 10 = 4; modulus (%%)example: 42%% 10 = 2.,Computer science
"this time around, we get an answer of 0. 012 because the zeros don't count as signi cant digits.",We get answer of 0. 012 because di zero don count as signi don digit,Computer science
"quite often scienti c journals will ask you to report numbers to two or three signi cant digits, so it's useful to remember the distinction.","For quite often scienti c journals go ask you to report numbers to two or three signi cant digits, so e dey useful to remember di distinction.",Computer science
these operations are calculating a modulus and doing integer division.,Di operations dey calculating modulus and do di way to divide and keep only di whole number.,Computer science
"they don't come up anywhere else in this book, but they are worth knowing about.","Di book dey worth know about, but dem dey worth know about.",Computer science
"first, let's consider integer division.",We dey consider di way to divide and keep only di whole number.,Computer science
"suppose i have$42 in my wallet, and want to buy some sandwiches, which are selling for$10 each.","Na suppose i get$42 for my wallet, and wan to buy some sandwiches, wey dey sell for$10 each.",Computer science
how many sandwiches can i aord5to buy?,How many sandwiches fit i aord5to buy?,Computer science
the answer is ofcourse 4.,Di answer na ofcourse,Computer science
"note that it's not 4.2, since no shop will sell me onefth of a sandwich.","Na 4.2, since no shop go sell me onefth of sandwich",Computer science
that's integer division.,Di division wey dey di way to divide and keep only di whole number,Computer science
"in rwe perform integer division by using the%/%operator: > 42%/% 10[1] 4 okay, that's easy enough.","For R, we dey do di way to divide and keep only di whole number by using di % %operator: > 42 % % 10[1] 4. Okay, dat one easy.",Computer science
what about the modulus?,Di modulus?,Computer science
"basically, a modulus is the remainder after integer division, and it's calculated using the%%operator.","Di modulus dey di remainder afta di way to divide and keep only di whole number, and e dey calculated using di%%operator.",Computer science
"for the sake of argument, let's suppose i buy four overpriced$10 sandwiches.","For di sake of argument, make we suppose I buy four overpriced$10 sandwiches.",Computer science
"if i started out with$42, how much money do i have left?","I don start out wit$42, how much money do i get?",Computer science
"the answer, as bothrand common sense tells us, is $2:> 42%% 10[1] 2 so that's also pretty easy.","Di answer, as bothrand common sense tell us, na $2:> 42%% 10[1] 2 so dat also pretty easy.",Computer science
"there is, however, one subtlety that i need to mention, and this relates to how negative numbers are handled.","Na, however, one subtlety wey i need mention, and dis relates to how negative numbers dey handle.",Computer science
"firstly, what would happen if i tried to do integer division with a negative number?",I suppose do di way to divide and keep only di whole number wit negative number?,Computer science
intuitively you might think that the answer to the second one should be-4.,Di answer to di second one go be-4.,Computer science
the way to think about it is like this.,Di way to think about it dey like dis,Computer science
"suppose i owethe sandwich shop$42, but i don't have any money.","I suppose owe di sandwich shop$42, but i no get any money.",Computer science
how many sandwiches would ihave to give them in order to stop them from calling security?,How many sandwiches go give dem for order to stop dem from calling security?,Computer science
"the answer6here is 5, not 4.","Di answer6here dey 5, no 4.",Computer science
"if i handed them 4 sandwiches, i'd still owe them$2, right?","I still owe dem$2, right?",Computer science
so i actually have to give them 5 sandwiches.,I actually don give dem 5 sandwich,Computer science
"and since it's megiving them the sandwiches, the answer to-42 %/%10 is-5.",Di answer to-42 % % 10 na-5.,Computer science
"as you might expect, the behaviour ofthe modulus operator has a similar pattern.",Di behaviour of di modulus operator don dey similar pattern.,Computer science
"if i've handed 5 sandwiches over to the shop in order to pay o my debt of$42, then they now owe me$8.","I hand 5 sandwiches over to di shop for order to pay o my debt of$42, then dem now owe me$8",Computer science
so the modulus is now: 5the real answer is 0:$10 for a sandwich is a total ripo so i should go next door and buy noodles.,Di modulus dey now:5 di real answer na 0:$10 for sandwich na total ripo so i go next door and buy noodles,Computer science
but you get the idea.,E get di idea but you go get di idea but you go get di idea,Computer science
"for the most part, i've focused only on those functions that are strictly necessary for this book.",I dey focus only on di function wey dey strictly necessary for dis book.,Computer science
however i do want to make an exception for logarithms and exponentials.,But I wan make exception for logarithms and exponentials.,Computer science
"although they aren't needed anywhere else in this book, they are everywhere in statistics more broadly, and not only that, there area lotof situations in which it is convenient to analyse the logarithm of a variable(i. e, to take a\log-transform"" ofthe variable).","Di situations wey dey convenient to analyse di logarithm of a variable(i. e, to take a\log-transform"" of di variable).",Computer science
"in order to understand logarithms and exponentials, the easiest thing to do is to actually calculate them and see how they relate to other simple calculations.","Di easiest thing to do nato understand logarithm and exponentials, di easiest thing to do nato understand logarithm and exponentials, di easiest thing to do nato really find demand see how dem relate to oda simple calculations.",Computer science
"there are three rfunctions in particular that i want to talk about, namely log(), log10() and exp().","Three R functions wey I wan talk about especially na log(), log10(), and exp().",Computer science
"to start with, let's consider log10(), which is known as the \logarithm in base 10"".","E dey consider log10(), wey dey known as di logarithm for base 10",Computer science
"the trick to understanding a logarithm is to understand that it's basically the\opposite"" of taking a power.","Di trick to sabi logarithm dey to understand say e dey basically di\opposite"" of take power",Computer science
"speci cally, the logarithm in base 10 is closely related to the powers of 10.",Di logarithm for base 10 dey closely related to di power of 10.,Computer science
so let's start by noting that 10-cubed is 1000.,Dem start by noting say 10-cubed dey 1000,Computer science
"mathematically, we would write this: and in rwe'd calculate it by using the command 10^3.",We go write dis: and for rwe'd calculate am by use di command 10^3,Computer science
"the trick to understanding a logarithm is to recognise that the statement that to the power of 3 is equal to 1000"" is equivalent to the statement that he logarithm (in base 10)of 1000 is equal to 3"".","Di trick to sabi logarithm nato recognise say di statement say to di power of 3 dey equal to 1000"" dey equivalent to di statement say he logarithm (in base 10 of 1000 dey equal to 3"".",Computer science
"mathematically, we write this as follows, log10p1000q3 and if we wanted to do the calculation in rwe would type this:> log10( 1000 )[1] 3 obviously, since you already know that there's really no point in getting rto tell you that the base-10 logarithm of 1000 is 3.","We write dis as follow, log10p1000q3 and if we go do di calculation for rwe go type dis:",Computer science
"however, most ofthe time you probably don't know what right answer is.",Di time you no know what right answer dey.,Computer science
"for instance, i can honestly say that i didn't know that 102: 69897500, so it's rather convenient for me that i can use rto calculate the base-10 logarithm of 500:> log10( 500) [1]2. 69897 or atleast it would be convenient if i had a pressing need to know the base-10 logarithm of 500.","I fit honestly say i no know say 102: 69897500, so e dey convenient if i fit use rto calculate di base-10 logarithm of 500",Computer science
"okay, since the log10() function is related to the powers of 10, you might expect that there are other logarithms (in bases other than 10)that are related to other powers too.","Di log10() function dey related to di power of 10, you go expect say di logarithms (in bases oda than 10 wey dey related to oda power too.",Computer science
and ofcourse that's true: there's not really anything mathematically special about the number 10.,Dino really anything mathematically special about di number 10.,Computer science
"you andi happen to nd it useful because decimal numbers are built around the number 10, but the big bad world of mathematics scos at our decimal numbers.",Di big bad world of mathematics scos for awa decimal numbers.,Computer science
"sadly, the universe doesn't actually care how we write down numbers.",Di universe no care how we write down numbers,Computer science
"anyway, the consequence of this cosmic indierence is that there's nothing particularly special about calculating logarithms in base 10.",Di consequence of dis cosmic indierence dey say nothing particularly special about calculating logarithms for base 10.,Computer science
"you could, for instance, calculate your logarithms in base 2, and in-206- factrdoes provide a function for doing that, which is(not surprisingly)called log2().","for example, calculate your logarithms for base 2, and for-206 factr don provide a function for doing dat, wey dey(no surprise)called log2()",Computer science
"since we know that 232228, it's not surprise to see that> log2( 8)[1] 3 alternatively, a third type of logarithm {and one we see alot more of in statistics than either base 10 or base 2{is called the natural logarithm, and corresponds to the logarithm in base e. since you might one day run into it, i'd better explain what eis.","Di third type of logarithm wey dey call di natural logarithm, and one we see alot more of for statistics than base 10 or base 2 wey dey call di natural logarithm for base e.",Computer science
"the number e, known as euler's number, is one of those annoying\irrational"" numbers whose decimal expansion is in nitely long, and is considered one ofthe most important numbers in mathematics.","Di number e, wey dey known as euler number, be one of di most important numbers for mathematics.",Computer science
"the rst few digits of eare: e2: 718282 there are quite a few situation in statistics that require us to calculate powers of e, though none of them appear in this book.","E2: 718282 wey dey quite few situation for statistics wey require us to calculate power of e, though no dey appear for dis book.",Computer science
"raising eto the power xis called the exponential ofx, and so it's very common to seeexwritten as exp pxq.",E dey common to seeexwritten as exp pxq.,Computer science
"and so it's no surprise that rhas a function that calculate exponentials, called exp().","E no surprise say rhas a function wey calculate exponentials, called exp().",Computer science
"for instance, suppose i wanted to calculate e3.",Di suppose calculate e3,Computer science
"mathematicians often write it as logepxqor lnpxq, or sometimes even just logpxq.","Mathematicians often write am as loge(x) or ln(x), or sometimes even just log(x).",Computer science
"in fact, rworks the same way: the log()function corresponds to the natural logarithm7anyway, as a quick check, let's calculate the natural logarithm of 20. 08554 using r: >log( 20. 08554 )[1] 3 and with that, i think we've had quite enough exponentials and logarithms for this book!","Di log()function correspond to di natural logarithm7, as quick check, let calculate di natural logarithm of 20. 08554 using r:",Computer science
"for instance, you might be interested only in analysing the data from one experimental condition, or you may want to look closely at the data from people over 50 years in age.","for example, you go interest only for analysing di data from one experimental condition, or you go wan to look closely at di data from one experimental condition, or you go fit look closely at di data from pipo over 50 years forage.",Computer science
"to do this, the rst step is getting rto extract the subset ofthe data corresponding to the observations that you're interested in.",Di rst step dey get rto extract di subset of di data wey you dey interest for.,Computer science
"the log()function has a baseargument that you can specify, which has a default value of e. thus log10(1000) is actually equivalent to log(x= 1000, base= 10).","Di log()function don get baseargument wey you fit specify, wey dey di normal number of e.",Computer science
rdata dataset.,Di data group of related numbers or data wey belong together.,Computer science
"if not, don't forget to use the load(""nightgarden.","Di load""nightgarden.",Computer science
suppose that what i want to do is pull out only those utterances that were made by makka-pakka.,Di suppose say wetin i wan to do dey pull out only those utterances wey dey made by makka-pakka,Computer science
"for instance, suppose i wanted to keep only those cases when the utterance is either\pip"" or\oo"".","Di utterance dey either pipo"" or oo",Computer science
the rst of these is to use negative values as indices.,Di rst of dis dey use negative value as indices.,Computer science
"for instance, suppose i want to keep only elements 2 and 3 from utterance.","for example, suppose I wan to keep only some 2 and 3 from utterance.",Computer science
"when all you want to do is remove a few cases, this is avery handy convention.",E dey very handy convention.,Computer science
"for instance, in our in the night garden example, i might want to create subsets ofthe utterance variable for every character.",I go wan create subsets of di utterance variable for every character.,Computer science
"one way to do this would be to just repeat the exercise that i went through earlier separately for each character, but that quickly gets annoying.","Di one way to do dis go be to just repeat di exercise wey i go through earlier separately for each character, but dat quickly get annoying.",Computer science
a faster way do it is to use the split()function.,Di faster way wey dey use di split()function,Computer science
the arguments are: x.,Di argument dey: x,Computer science
the variable that needs to be split into groups.,Di variable wey need to split into groups,Computer science
the grouping variable.,Di grouping variable dey grouping variable.,Computer science
"otherwise, there's nothing particularly new or dicult here.","Otherwise, no new things or difficult dey here.",Computer science
"however, sometimes {especially when you're just starting out{ it can be convenient to pull these variables out ofthe list, and into the workspace.","Di however, sometimes, especially wen you start out, e fit convenient to pull dis variables out of di list, and into di workspace.",Computer science
"this isn't too dicult to do, though it can be a little daunting to novices.","E no dey too dicult to do, though e no dey a little daunting to novices.",Computer science
"this can be useful at times, though it's not a good idea if you have large data sets or if you're working with multiple data sets at once.",E no dey good idea if you go get large data sets or if you dey work wit multiple data sets for once,Computer science
"in particular, if you do this, never forget that you now have twocopies of all your variables, one in the workspace and another in the data frame.","If you do dis, never forget say you now get twocopies of all your variables, one for workspace and another for one kind of table.",Computer science
"[y/n]because the importlist() function is attempting to create new variables based on the names ofthe elements ofthe list, it pauses to check that you're okay with the variable names.","Di importlist() function dey attempt to create new variables based on di name of di elements of di list, e pause to check say you dey okay wit di name of variable.",Computer science
"the reason it does this is that, if one ofthe to-be-created variables has the same name as a variable that you already have in your workspace, that variable will end up being overwritten, so it's a good idea to check.","If one of di to-be-created variables don get di same name as a variable wey you go get for your workspace, dat variable go end up being overwritten, so e dey good idea to check.",Computer science
"assuming that you type y, it will goon to create the variables.",E goon to create di variables.,Computer science
"notice that the importlist() function has converted the original character strings into valid rvariable names, so the variable corresponding to ""makka-pakka"" is actually makka. pakka. 10nevertheless, even though the names can change, note that each of these variables contains the exact same information as the original elements ofthe list did.","Di importlist() function don convert di original character strings into valid rvariable names, so di variable corresponding to ""makka-pakka"" dey actually makka. pakka",Computer science
"to that end, the rst thing i should point out is that, if all you want to do is subset oneof the variables inside the data frame, then as usual the$operator is your friend.","Di rst thing wey i goto show na say, if all you wan to do dey subset one of di variables inside di one kind of table, then as normal di$operator dey your friend.",Computer science
"for instance, suppose i'm working with the itng data frame, and what i want to do is create the speech. by. char list.","for example, suppose I dey work with di itng one kind of table, and wetin I wan do nato create di list for each person wey talk.",Computer science
"however, most ofthe time what you actually want to do 10you can do this yourself using the make. names()function.",Di time wey you actually wan to do 10 you fit do di make. name()function.,Computer science
"in fact, this is itself a handy thing to know about.",E dey handy thing to know about.,Computer science
"for example, if you want to convert the names ofthe variables in the speech. by. char list into valid rvariable names, you could use a command like this: names(speech. by. char)<- make. names(names(speech. by. char)).","for example, if you wan to convert di name of di variables for di speech. by. char list into valid rvariable name, you go use command like dis: name(speech. by. char)",Computer science
"however, i won't go into details here.",I no go into details here,Computer science
"in order to understand how this works, we need to talk more speci cally about data frames and how to subset them.",We need to talk more speci call about one kind of table and how to subset dem,Computer science
"i'll start by discussing thesubset() function, which is probably the conceptually simplest way do it.","I go start by discuss disubset() function, wey dey probably di conceptually simple way do am",Computer science
for our purposes there are three dierent arguments that you'll be most interested in: x.,"For awa purpose, na three dierent argument wey you dey interest for: x.",Computer science
the data frame that you want to subset.,Di one kind of table wey you wan to subset.,Computer science
a vector of logical values indicating which cases(rows) ofthe data frame you want to keep.,Di vector of logical value wey dey indicating wich case(rows) of di one kind of table you wan keep.,Computer science
"by default, all cases will be retained.","Di case go dey retained as e be, all case go retained",Computer science
this argument indicates which variables(columns) in the data frame you want to keep.,Dis argument indicate which variables(columns) for di one kind of table you wan keep.,Computer science
"this can either be a list of variable names, or a logical vector indicating which ones to keep, or even just a numeric vector containing the relevant column numbers.","Di can be list of dem name wey dey represent figure wey fit change for kompyuta program, or logical vector wey dey indicating wich ones go keep, or even just numeric vector wey dey containing di relevant column numbers.",Computer science
"by default, all variables will be retained.","For default, all variables go dey retained.",Computer science
let's start with an example in which i use all three of these arguments.,I start wit example wey i use all three of dis argument.,Computer science
"suppose that i want to subset theitng data frame, keeping only the utterances made by makka-pakka.","Di suppose say i wan to subset diitng one kind of table, keeping only di utterances wey makka-pakka",Computer science
notice that the row numbers are actually the same ones from the original data frame.,Di row numbers dey actually di same ones from di original one kind of table,Computer science
it's worth taking a moment to brie y explain this.,E dey worth take moment to brie y explain dis,Computer science
the reason that this happens is that these ow numbers' are actually row names.,Di reason say dis happens na say dis ow numbers dey actually row name,Computer science
"when you create anew data frame from scratch rwill assign each row a fairly boring row name, which is identical to the row number.","As you create new one kind of table from scratch rwill assign each row fairly boring row name, wey dey identical to di row number.",Computer science
"however, when you subset the data frame, each row keeps its original row name.","But when you subset di one kind of table, each row keep im original row name.",Computer science
"this can be quite useful, since { as in the current example{ it provides you a visual reminder of what each row in the new data frame corresponds to in the original data frame.",As for di current example{e provide you visual reminder of what each row for di new one kind of table correspond to for di original one kind of table.,Computer science
"however, if it annoys you, you can change the row names using the rownames() function.11 in any case, let's return to the subset()function, and look at what happens when we don't use all three ofthe arguments.","For any case, let return to di subset()function, and make we look how we don use all three of di argument.",Computer science
"firstly, suppose that i didn't bother to specify the select argument.",I no dey bother to specify di select argument.,Computer science
"for the dfdata frame, the labels that currently run from 7 to 10 will be changed to go from 1 to 4.",Di label wey currently from to 7 to 10 go change to go from 1 to 4.,Computer science
"equally unsurprisingly, if i don't specify the subset argument, what we nd is that rkeeps all ofthe cases:> subset(x= itng, +select = utterance ) utterance 1 pip 2 pip 3 onk blah blah blah where the blah blah blah in this case shows all 10 cases from the original itng data frame.","Di subset(x= itng, +select = utterance) utterance 1 pip 2 pip 3 onk blah wey dey show all 10 cases from di original itng one kind of table.",Computer science
"again, it's important to note that this output is still a data frame: it's just a data frame with only a single variable.",E important to note say dis output dey still one kind of table wit only single variable.,Computer science
"rows and columns throughout the book so far, whenever i've been subsetting a vector i've tended use the square brackets[]to do so.","I dey subsetting row and columns throughout di book so far, wen i dey subsetting a vector wey dey use di signs wey look like box[]to do so.",Computer science
"as a consequence, you might be wondering whether it is possible to use the square brackets to subset a data frame.","as result, you go wonder whether e fit use di signs wey look like box to subset one kind of table.",Computer science
"the answer, of course, is yes.","Di answer, of course, na yes",Computer science
"not only canyou use square brackets for this purpose, as you become more familiar with ryou'll nd that this is actually much more convenient than using subset().",As you dey familiar wit ryou'll nd say dis dey actually much more convenient than using subset().,Computer science
"unfortunately, the use of square brackets for this purpose is somewhat complicated, and can be very confusing to novices.","Di use of di signs wey look like box for dis purpose dey complicated, and dey very confusing to novices.",Computer science
"with that warning in place, i'll try to walk you through it slowly.",I go try to walk you through am slowly.,Computer science
"moreover, let's assume that what we want to do is to pick out rows 4 and 5(the two cases when makka-pakka is speaking), and columns 1 and 2(variables speaker and utterance ).","Di two cases wey makka-pakka dey speaking), and columns 1 and 2(variable speaker and utterance ).",Computer science
how shall we do this?,How we go do dis?,Computer science
"as usual, there's more than one way.","as normal, na more than one way.",Computer science
"the rst way is based on the observation that, since a data frame is basically a table, every element in the data frame has a row number and a-212- column number.","Di rst way dey based on di observation say, since one kind of table dey basically table, every element for di one kind of table get row number and a-212 which up-down place.",Computer science
"so, if we want to pick out a single element, we have to specify the row number anda column number within the square brackets.","So, if we wan pick one single element, we must specify di row number and which up-down place inside di signs wey look like box.",Computer science
"by convention, the row number comes rst.",Di row number kom rst.,Computer science
"instead, let's aim to solve our original problem, which is to pull out two rows(4 and 5)and two columns(1 and 2).","Dem aim to solve awa original problem, wey dey pull out two rows(4 and 5)and two columns(1 and 2).",Computer science
"this is fairly simple to do, since rallows us to specify multiple rows and multiple columns.","Dis one dey e dey simple, because R allow us to specify plenty lines and plenty up-down sets.",Computer science
"so let's try that:> garden[4: 5, 1:2] speaker utterance case.4 makka-pakka pip case.5 makka-pakka onk clearly, that's exactly what we asked for: the output here is a data frame containing two variables and two cases.",Di output here na one kind of table wey dey containing two variables and two case.,Computer science
note that i could have gotten the same answer if i'd used the c()function to produce my vectors rather than the: operator.,I go get di same answer if i use di c()function to produce my vectors no be di operator.,Computer science
"that is, the following command is equivalent to the last one:> garden[c(4, 5), c(1, 2) ]it's just not as pretty.","Di command wey go follow dey equivalent to di last one:> garden[c(4, 5), c(1, 2)",Computer science
"however, if the columns and rows that you want to keep don't happen to be next to eachother in the original data frame, then you might nd that you have to resort to using commands like garden[c(2, 4, 5), c(1, 3) ] to extract them.","If di columns and rows wey you fit keep don dey next to each oda for di original one kind of table, then you go nd say you go resort to using command like garden[c(2, 4, 5), c(1, 3) ] to extract dem",Computer science
a second way to do the same thing is to use the names ofthe rows and columns.,Di second way to do di same thing dey use di name of di rows and columns,Computer science
"that is, instead of using the row numbers and column numbers, you use the character strings that are used as the labels for the rows and columns.","Di character strings wey dey use as di labels for di row and column numbers, you use di character strings wey dey use for di row and column numbers, you use di character strings wey dey use as di labels for di row and columns.",Computer science
"note that, although this version is more annoying to typethan the previous version, it's a bit easier to read, because it's often more meaningful to refer to the elements by their names rather than their numbers.","Diversion dey more annoying to type di previous version, e dey easier to read, because e dey more meaningful to talk about di elements by dia name no be dia numbers.",Computer science
also note that you don't have to use the same convention for the rows and columns.,Dem note say you don use di same convention for di rows and columns,Computer science
"for instance, i often nd that the variable names are meaningful and so i sometimes refer to them by name, whereas the row names are pretty arbitrary so it's easier to refer to them by number.","I often nd say di name of variable dey meaningful and so e dey easier to talk about dem by name, whereas di row name dey arbitrary so e dey easier to talk about dem by number",Computer science
"finally, both the rows and columns can be indexed using logicals vectors aswell.",Di row and columns go dey indexed using logical vectors aswell.,Computer science
"for example, although i claimed earlier that my goal was to extract cases 4 and 5, it's pretty obvious that what i really wanted to do was select the cases where makka-pakka is speaking.","I claim earlier say my goal dey to extract cases 4 and 5, e dey pretty obvious say wey i go select di cases wey makka-pakka dey speaking.",Computer science
"some elaborations there are two fairly useful elaborations on this ows and columns""approach that i should point out.",Na two fairly useful elaborations on dis ows and columns approach wey i goto show.,Computer science
"firstly, what if you want to keep all ofthe rows, or all ofthe columns?","If you wan to keep all of di rows, or all of di columns?",Computer science
"to do this, all we have to do is leave the corresponding entry blank, but it is crucial to remember to keep the comma!","E dey crucial to do dis, all we go do dey leave di corresponding entry blank, but e dey crucial to remember to keep di comma",Computer science
"for instance, suppose i want to keep all the rows in the garden data, but i only want to retain the rst two columns.","Di suppose keep all di rows for di garden data, but i only wan to retain di rst two columns.",Computer science
"the easiest way do this is to use a command like this:> garden[, 1:2] speaker utterance case.1 upsy-daisy pip case.2 upsy-daisy pip case.3 tombliboo ee case.4 makka-pakka pip case.5 makka-pakka onk alternatively, if i want to keep all the columns but only want the last two rows, i use the same trick, but this time i leave the second index blank.","Di easiest way to do dis nato use command like dis:> garden[, 1:2]. Alternatively, if I wan keep all di columns but only wan di last two rows, I use di same trick, but dis time I leave di second index blank.",Computer science
"so my command becomes:> garden[4: 5, ]speaker utterance line case.4 makka-pakka pip 7 case.5 makka-pakka onk 9 the second elaboration i should note is that it's still okay to use negative indexes as away of telling rto delete certain rows or columns.","So my command become:> garden[4:5,]. Di second elaboration wey I suppose note na say e still okay to use numbers wey dey minus as way to tell R to takeaway some lines or up-downs.",Computer science
"understanding\dropping"" at this point some of you might be wondering why i've been so terribly careful to choose my examples in such away as to ensure that the output always has are multiple rows and multiple columns.",Di point some of you go wonder say i don dey careful to choose my examples for such away as to ensure say di output always get plenty lines and plenty up-down sets.,Computer science
"the reason for this is that i've been trying to hide the somewhat curious\dropping"" behaviour that rproduces when the output only has a single column.","I dey try to hide di somewhat curious\dropping"" behaviour wey dey rproduce wen di output only get single column",Computer science
"i'll start by showing you what happens, and then i'll try to explain it.","I start by to show you what dey happen, and then i try to explain am",Computer science
"firstly, let's have a look at what happens when the output contains only a single row:> garden[5, ]speaker utterance line case.5 makka-pakka onk 9 this is exactly what you'd expect to see: a data frame containing three variables, and only one case per variable.","Di one kind of table wey dey containing three variables, and only one case per variable.",Computer science
"okay, no problems so far.",But no problems so far.,Computer science
what happens when you ask for a single column?,If you ask for single column?,Computer science
"suppose, for instance, i try this as a command: garden[,3] based on everything that i've shown you so far, you would be well within your rights to expect to seer produce a data frame containing a single variable(i. e, line) and ve cases.","for example, i try di command: garden[,3] based on all things wey i to show you so far, you go get well within your rights to expect to seer produce one kind of table containing single variable(i. e, line) and ve cases.",Computer science
"after all, that iswhat the subset()command does in this situation, and it's pretty consistent with everything else that i've shown you so far about how square brackets work.","I to show you so far about how di signs wey look like box work, and e dey consistent wit all else wey i to show you so far about how di signs wey look like box work",Computer science
"in other words, you should expect to see this: line case.11 case.22 case.35 case.47 case.59 however, that is emphatically not what happens.","For other words, you suppose expect see dis: line: 1,2,5,7,9. But dat one emphatically no be wetin happen.",Computer science
"what you actually get is this:> garden[,3] [1]1 2 579 that output is not a data frame at all!","Di garden[,3] [1]1 2 579 dat output no dey one kind of table for all",Computer science
that's just an ordinary numeric vector containing 5 elements.,Di ordinary numeric vector wey dey containing 5 elements,Computer science
"what's going on here is that rhas oticed"" that the output that we've asked for doesn't really eed"" to be wrapped up in a data frame at all, because it only corresponds to a single variable.","For here dey say rhas oticed"" say di output wey we ask fore no dey eed"" to be wrapped up for one kind of table for all, because e only correspond to single variable.",Computer science
"so what it does is\drop"" the output from a data frame containing a single variable,\down"" to a simpler output that corresponds to that variable.","As we dey carry di output from one kind of table wey dey containing single variable,\down"" to simpler output wey correspond to dat variable.",Computer science
this behaviour is actually very convenient for day today usage once you've become familiar with it {and i suppose that's the real reason why rdoes this{ but there's no escaping the fact that it is deeply confusing to novices.,Di behaviour dey very convenient for day today usage wen you dey familiar wit dis{ but e no dey escaping di fact say e deeply confuse to novices.,Computer science
"as i say, it's very confusing when you're just starting out.","I tok say, e dey confusing wen you start out",Computer science
"for what it's worth, you can suppress this behaviour if you want, by setting drop= false when you construct your bracketed expression.","E fit suppress dis behaviour if you wan, by setting to no remove di shape wen you construct your bracket expression.",Computer science
"that is, you could do something like this:> garden[, 3, drop =false ]line case.11 case.22 case.35 case.47 case.5 9 i suppose that helps a little bit, in that it gives you some control over the dropping behaviour, but i'm not sure it helps to make things any easier to understand.","Dat mean say, you fit do something like dis:> garden[, 3, to no remove di shape]. I suppose dat one help small, because e give you some control over di howe dey remove, but I no sure say e help make things any easier to understand.",Computer science
"anyway, that's the\dropping"" special case.","Di \droppin"" special case.",Computer science
"fun, isn't it?",E no dey e?,Computer science
"columns only as if the weird\dropping"" behaviour wasn't annoying enough, ractually provides a completely dierent way of using square brackets to index a data frame.","Columns only— as if di weird""dropping"" behaviour no dey e don dey vex, R actually provide one totally different way of using di signs wey look like box to index one kind of table.",Computer science
"speci cally, if you only give a single index, rwill assume you want the corresponding columns, not the rows.","Specifically, if you only give one index, R go assume say you wan di up-downs wey match, not di rows.",Computer science
"again, what i'll do is show you what happens rst, and then i'll try to explain whyit happens afterwards.","wetin i go do dey to show you what dey happen rst, and then i try to explain whyit dey happen afterwards.",Computer science
"it doesn't give me the rst two rows, which is what i'd have gotten if i'd used a command like garden[1:2,].","E no go give me di rst two rows, wey dey wey i don get if i use command like garden[1:2,]",Computer science
"not only that, if i ask for a single column, rdoes not drop the output:> garden[3]line case.11 case.22 case.35 case.47 case.59 as i said earlier, the only case where dropping occurs by default is when you use the ow and columns""version ofthe square brackets, and the output happens to correspond to a single column.","Di only case wey dropping occur as e be dey when you use di ow and columns""version of di signs wey look like box, and di output go correspond to single column.",Computer science
"if you try to ask for multiple columns in this way, you get completely dierent behaviour, 13which mayor may not produce an error, but de nitely won't give you the output you're expecting.","If you try ask plenty up-down sets for dis way, you go get completely dierent behaviour,13 wey no produce error, but de nitely don give you di output wey dey expect.",Computer science
"the only reason i'm mentioning it at all is that you might run into double brackets when doing further reading, and alot of books don't explicitly point out the dierence between[and [[.","Di only reason wey i mention am for all na say you go run into double brackets wen dey do further reading, and alot of books don to show di dierence between[and [[",Computer science
"however, i promise that i won't be using[[anywhere else in this book.",I promise say i go use[[anywhere else for dis book,Computer science
"i'm not 100%sure about this since i'm still reading through some ofthe old references that describe the early development of r, but i think the answer relates to the fact that data frames are actually avery strange hybrid of two dierent kinds of thing.","I no dey sure about dis since i still reading through some of di old references wey describe di early development of r, but i think di answer relates to di fact say one kind of table dey very strange hybrid of two dierent kinds of thing.",Computer science
"in other words, a data frame is a list.",Di one kind of table dey list,Computer science
"view from this\list based""perspective, it's clear what garden[1]is: it's the rst variable stored in the list, namely speaker.","Di view from dis\list based""perspective, e clear say garden[1]dey di rst variable store for di list, namely speaker.",Computer science
"in other words, when you use the\just columns""way of indexing a data frame, using only a single index, rassumes that you're thinking about the data frame as if it were a list of variables.","As you use di\just columns""way of indexing one kind of table, using only single index, rassume say you dey think about di one kind of table as if e dey list of variables.",Computer science
"in fact, when you use the$operator you're taking advantage ofthe fact that the data frame is secretly a list.",Di$operator dey take advantage of di fact say di one kind of table dey secretly list.,Computer science
"however, a data frame is more than just a list.",Di one kind of table dey more than just a list,Computer science
"it's avery special kind of list where all the variables are ofthe same length, and the rst element in each variable happens to correspond to the rst \case""in the dataset.","E dey special kind of list wey all di variables dey of di same length, and di rst element for each variable dey correspond to di rst \case""for di group of related numbers or data wey belong together.",Computer science
"that's why no-one ever wants to see a data frame printed out in the default\list-like"" way that i've shown in the extract above.","Na why no-one ever wan to see one kind of table wey dey to print for di default\list-like"" way wey i show for di extract above.",Computer science
"in terms ofthe deeper meaning behind what a data frame is used for, a data frame really does have this rectangular shape to it:> print(garden )speaker utterance line case.1 upsy-daisy pip 1 case.2 upsy-daisy pip 2 case.3 tombliboo ee 5 case.4 makka-pakka pip 7 case.5 makka-pakka onk 9 13speci cally, recursive indexing, a handy tool in some contexts but not something that i want to discuss here.","For terms of di real reason behind wetin one kind of table dey used for, one kind of table really get dis shape like rectangle:> print(garden).",Computer science
"this method makes much more sense in terms ofthe high-level table of data interpretation of what a data frame is, and so for the most part it's this method that people tend to prefer.","Di method make much more sense for terms of di high-level table of data interpretation of what one kind of table dey, and so for di most part na dis method wey pipo go prefer.",Computer science
"in fact, throughout the rest ofthe book i will be sticking to the ow and column""approach (though i will use$a lot), and never again referring to the\just columns""approach.","Di rest of di book i goto hold onto di ow and column""approach (though i go use$a lot), and never again referring to di\just columns""approach.",Computer science
"however, it does get used alot in practice, so i think it's important that this book explain what's going on.","I think e important say dis book explain what's goon, so i think e important say dis book explain what's goon.",Computer science
and now let us never speak of this again.,E no dey speak of dis again,Computer science
"they're all fairly straightforward tasks, at least in comparison to some ofthe more obnoxious data handling problems that turn up in real life.",for compare to some of di more obnoxious data handling problems wey dey turn up for real life.,Computer science
if it's a numeric variable you might want to sort in increasing or decreasing order.,Di numeric variable wey go fit sort for increasing or decreasing order.,Computer science
"if it's a character vector you might want to sort alphabetically, etc.","Di character vector wey dey sort alphabetically, etc.",Computer science
the sort()function provides this capability.,Di sort()function provide dis capability.,Computer science
"that being said, it's important to note that i'm glossing over something here.",E important to note say i dey to passover something here,Computer science
when you apply sort()to a character vector it doesn't strictly sort into alphabetical order.,If you apply sort()to character vector e no dey sort into alphabetical order.,Computer science
"however, that's a topic we'll discuss later.",Di topic wey we go discuss later.,Computer science
"for now, the only thing i should note is that the sort()function doesn't alter the original variable.",Di only thing i go note na say di sort()function no dey change di original variable.,Computer science
"rather, it creates anew, sorted variable as the output.","E create new, sorted variable as di output.",Computer science
"so if i inspect my original text variable:> text[1] ""aardvark"" ""zebra""""swing"" i can see that it has remained unchanged.","If i inspect my original text variable:> text[1] ""aardvark"" ""zebra""""swing"" i fit see say e no dey unchanged",Computer science
the sort()function uses the latter.,Di sort()function uses di former,Computer science
"to illustrate, let's look at the two dierent examples.",Dem make we look di two dierent examples.,Computer science
"the answer:> sort(fac) [1]zebra swing aardvark levels: zebra swing aardvark it sorts the data into the numerical order implied by the factor levels, not the alphabetical order implied by the labels attached to those levels.","Di answer:> sort(fac) [1]zebra swing aardvark levels: zebra swing aardvark dey sort di data into di numerical order wey di factor levels, no di alphabetical order wey di factor levels.",Computer science
"normally you never notice the distinction, because by default the factor levels are assigned in alphabetical order, but it's important to know the dierence: 7.6. 3 sorting a data frame the sort()function doesn't work properly with data frames.",Di 7.6. 3 sorting one kind of table di sort()function no work properly wit one kind of table.,Computer science
"if you want to sorta data frame the standard advice that you'll nd online is to use the order()function (not described in this book)to determine what order the rows should be sorted, and then use square brackets to do the shuing.","If you wan to sort one kind of table di standard advice wey you dey nd online dey use di order()function (not described for dis book)to determine how order di row go sort, and then use di signs wey look like box to do di shuing.",Computer science
"there's nothing inherently wrong with this advice, i just nd it tedious.",I just nd am tedious.,Computer science
"to that end, the lsrpackage includes a function called sortframe() that you can use to do the sorting.",Di lsrpackage includes function wey dey sortframe() wey you fit use to do di sorting.,Computer science
"the rst argument to the function is named( x), and should correspond to the data frame that you want sorted.","Di rst argument to di function dey name( x), and go correspond to di one kind of table wey you wan sort.",Computer science
"after that, all you do is type a list ofthe names ofthe variables that you want to use to do the sorting.",All you do dey type list of di names of di variables wey you need use to do di sorting.,Computer science
"any ties(i. e, data from the same speaker)are then sorted in order of line(increasing numerical order).","I. e, data from di same speaker)dey sort for order of line(increasing numerical order).",Computer science
i've started introducing functionality to allow you to use the-sign to non-numeric variables or to make a distinction between sorting factors alphabetically or by factor level.,I don start to introduce functionality to allow you use di -sign for non-numeric variables or to make distinction between to put groups for order alphabetically or by di name for di group.,Computer science
"the idea is that you should be able to type in something like this:> sortframe( garden,-speaker) and have the output correspond to a sort ofthe garden data frame in reverse alphabetical order(or reverse factor level order)of speaker.","Di idea na say you go type for something like dis:> sortframe( garden,-speaker) and get di output correspond to sort of di garden one kind of table for reverse alphabetical order(or reverse di name for di group order)of speaker",Computer science
"as things stand right now, this will actually work, and it will produce sensible output:> sortframe( garden,-speaker) speaker utterance line case.1 upsy-daisy pip 1 case.2 upsy-daisy pip 2 case.3 tombliboo ee 5 case.4 makka-pakka pip 7 case.5 makka-pakka onk 9 however, i'm not completely convinced that i've set this up in the ideal fashion, so this may change a little bit in the future.","for dis time, dis one go actually work, and e goto give answer wey make sense:> sortframe(garden, -speaker). But I no sure well-well say I don set dis up for di ideal way, so dis one fit change small for future.",Computer science
"apparently the rst cake is tastier, since that one gets devoured faster.","Di rst cake dey tastier, since say one get devoured faster",Computer science
"to make this a little easier, the lsrpackage has two additional functions rowcopy and colcopy that do the same job, but all you have to do is specify the number of copies that you want, instead of typing the name in over and over again.","Di lsrpackage don get two additional functions rowcopy and colcopy wey dey do di same job, but all you need to do dey specify di number of copies wey you wan, but all you need to do dey typ di name for many times.",Computer science
"also, while i'm on this topic, i'll brie y mention the fact that if you're a matlab user and looking for an equivalent of matlab's repmat() function, i'd suggest checking out the matlab package which contains rversions of alot of handy matlab functions.","I go mention di fact say if you dey a matlab user and looking for equivalent of matlab repmat() function, i go suggest to look at di matlab package wey contains rversions of alot of handy matlab functions.",Computer science
a natural question to ask is whether you can directly transform one into another.,Di natural question wey dey ask na whether you fit directly transform one into another,Computer science
the transpose function t()allows us to do this in a straightforward fashion.,Di transpose function t()allow us to do dis for straightforward fashion,Computer science
"to start with, i'll show you how to transpose a matrix, and then i'll move onto talk about data frames.","To start, I goto show you how to transpose matrix, and den I go move onto talk about tables.",Computer science
and(2) why should we care about this?,We dey care about dis?,Computer science
let's start with the how question.,We dey start wit di how question,Computer science
"first, i should note that you can transpose a data frame just ne using the t()function, but that has the slightly awkward consequence of converting the output from a data frame to a matrix, which isn't usually what you want.","I go note say you fit transpose one kind of table just ne using di t()function, but say na di slightly awkward consequence of converting di output from one kind of table to matrix, wey no dey usually wey you wan.",Computer science
"it's quite easy to convert the output back again, of course, 16but i hate typing two commands when i can do it with one.",I hate typing two commands wen i fit do am wit one,Computer science
"to that end, the lsrpackage has a simple\convenience"" function called tframe() which does exactly the same thing ast()but converts the output to a data frame for you.","Di lsrpackage don get simple\convenience"" function wey dey call tframe() wey does exactly di same thing ast()but convert di output to one kind of table for you",Computer science
"to illustrate this, let's transpose the itng data frame that we used earlier.",Dem transpose di one kind of table wey we use earlier.,Computer science
"it depends alot on whether the\cases"" from your original data frame would make sense as variables, and to think of each of your original ariables"" as cases.","E depend plenty on whether di""cases"" from your original one kind of table go make sense as variables, and to think of each of your original""variables"" as cases.",Computer science
"that being said, sometimes it really is true.","Dem tok say, sometimes e really dey true",Computer science
"for instance, had we originally stored our cakes variable as a data frame instead of a matrix, then it would absolutely be sensible to ip the data frame! 17there are some situations where it is useful to ip your data frame, so it's nice to know that you can do it.","Di situation wey dey useful to ip your one kind of table, so e dey nice to know say you fit do am",Computer science
"indeed, that's the main reason why i have spent so much time talking about this topic.",Di main reason why i don spend so much time talking about dis topic,Computer science
"alot of statistical tools make the assumption that the rows of your data frame(or matrix)correspond to observations, and the columns correspond to the variables.","Plenty statistical tools dey assume say di rows of your one kind of table(or matrix)dey match with di things wey you see, and di columns correspond to di variables.",Computer science
"that's not unreasonable, of course, since that is a pretty standard convention.","Dem no dey unreasonable, of course, since dat no dey standard convention.",Computer science
"however, think about our cakes example here.",We dey think about awa cakes example here,Computer science
this is a situation where you might want do an analysis ofthe dierent cakes(i. e.,Di situation wey you go wan do analysis of di dierent cakes(i. e.,Computer science
"cakes as variables, time points as cases), but equally you might want to do an analysis where you think ofthe times as being the things of interest(i. e, times as variables, cakes as cases).","I. e, times as variables, time points as case), but equally you fit wan to do analysis wey you think of di times as being di things of interest(i. e, times as variables, time points as case).",Computer science
"if so, then it's useful to know how to ip a matrix or data frame around.","If so, den e good to know how to flip matrix or one kind of table around.",Computer science
"but since people do sometimes prefer to work with data frames, i've written the tframe() function for the sake of convenience.",Dem write di tframe() function for di sake of convenience.,Computer science
"framed in the most general way, reshaping the data means taking the data in whatever format it's given to you, and converting it to the format you need it.","For di most general way, reshaping di data means take di data for whatever format wey dey give to you, and convert di data to di format wey you need.",Computer science
so we're going to have to narrow things down a little bit.,We go get to narrow things down a little bit so we go get to narrow things down a little bit,Computer science
"to that end, i'll talk about a few dierent tools that you can use for a few dierent tasks.",I go talk about few dierent tools wey you fit use for few dierent tasks,Computer science
"in particular, i'll discuss a couple of easy to use(but limited)functions that i've included in the lsrpackage.",I go discuss couple of easy to use(but limited)function wey i dey include for di lsrpackage.,Computer science
"in future versions ofthe book i plan to expand this discussion to include some ofthe more powerful tools that are available in r, but i haven't had the time to do so yet.","I plan to expand dis discussion to include some of di more powerful tools wey dey available for r, but i no get time to do so yet.",Computer science
"we recruit 10 participants, and measure their wmc and rt under three dierent conditions: ao drug""condition, in which they are not under the in uence of either caeine or alcohol, a \caeine"" condition, in which they are under the in ence of caeine, and an lcohol"" condition, in which. well, you can probably guess.","We dey recruit 10 participants, and measure dia wmc and rt under three dierent condition: a drug condition, wey dey under di in uence of caeine or alcohol, a lcohol"" condition, wey dey under di in ence of caeine, and lcohol"" condition, wey dey under di in ence of caeine, and lcohol"" condition, wey dey suppose dey under di in ence of caeine, and lcohol"" condition, wey",Computer science
"ideally, i suppose, there would be a fourth condition in which both drugs are administered, but for the sake of simplicity let's ignore that.","Isuppose, na fourth condition wey both drugs dey administered, but for di sake of simplicity let's ignore say.",Computer science
"the drugs data frame gives you a sense of what kind of data you might observe in an experiment like this:> drugs id gender wmc alcohol wmc caffeine wmc no. drug rt alcohol rt caffeine rt no. drug 11 female 3. 7 3. 7 3. 9 488 236 371 22 female 6. 4 7. 3 7. 9 607 376 349 33 female 4. 6 7. 4 7. 3 643 226 412 44 male 6. 4 7. 8 8. 2 684 206 252 55 female 4. 9 5. 2 7. 0 593 262 439 66 male 5. 4 6. 6 7. 2 492 230 464 77 male 7. 9 7. 9 8. 9 690 259 327 88 male 4. 1 5. 9 4. 5 486 230 305 99 female 5. 2 6. 2 7. 2 686 273 327 10 10 female 6. 2 7. 4 7. 8 645 240 498 this is a dataset in\wide form"", in which each participant corresponds to a single row.","Di drugs one kind of table give you idea of wetin kind of data you fit observe for experiment like dis. Dis na group of related numbers or data wey belong together for""one way wey each person get one line"", where each participant correspond to one row.",Computer science
"we have two variables that are characteristics ofthe subject(i. e, their idnumber and their gender) and six variables that refer to one ofthe two measured variables (wmc or rt)in one ofthe three testing conditions-224- (alcohol, caeine or no drug).","Di two variables wey dey characteristics of di subject(i. e, dia idnumber and dia gender)and six variables wey dey to talk about one of di two numbers wey we take (wmc or rt)for one of di three testing conditions-224- (alcohol, caeine or no drug).",Computer science
"because all ofthe testing conditions(i. e, the three drug types)are applied to all participants, drug type is an example of a within-subject factor.","Di testing conditions(i. e, di three drug type)dey applied to all participants, drug type dey example of within-subject factor.",Computer science
"however, it is not the only way in which you might want to organise this data.",E no dey di only way wey you go organise dis data,Computer science
"for instance, you might want to have a separate row for each esting occasion"".","for example, you go wan to have separate row for each dey occasion",Computer science
"that is,\participant 1 under the in uence of alcohol""would be one row, and \participant 1 under the in uence of caeine"" would be another row.","Na,\participant 1 under di in uence of alcohol""go be one row, and \participant 1 under di in uence of caeine"" go be one row, and \participant 1 under di in uence of caeine"" go be one row, and \participant 1 under di in uence of caeine"" go be one row.",Computer science
this way of organising the data is generally referred to as the long form ofthe data.,Di way of organising di data dey generally dem dey call di long form of di data.,Computer science
"and instead of having a variable like wmc caffeine that indicates that we were measuring \wmc"" in the \caeine"" condition, this information is now recorded in two separate variables, one called drug and another called wmc.","Di information dey record for two separate variables, one called drug and one called wmc.",Computer science
"obviously, the long and wide forms ofthe data contain the same information, but they represent quite dierent ways of organising that information.","Di long and one way wey each person get one line of di data contain di same information, but dem represent quite dierent way of organising dat information.",Computer science
"sometimes you nd yourself needing to analyse data in wide form, and sometimes you nd that you need long form.","Di sometimes you dey need analyse data for one way wey each person get one line, and sometimes you nd say you need long form",Computer science
so it's really useful to know how to switch between the two.,So e dey very good to know how to switch between di two.,Computer science
"in the example i gave above, i used a function called widetolong() to do the transformation.","For di example wey I give above, I use function wey dem call widetolong() to do di transformation.",Computer science
the widetolong() function is part ofthe lsrpackage.,Di widetolong() function dey part of di lsrpackage,Computer science
the key to understanding this function is that it relies on the variable names to do all the work.,Di key to sabi dis function na say e reli on di dem name wey dey represent figure wey fit change for kompyuta program to do all di work.,Computer science
notice that the variable names in the drugs data frame follow avery clear scheme.,Di dem name wey dey represent figure wey fit change for kompyuta program for di drug one kind of table follow very clear scheme.,Computer science
"whenever you have a variable with a name like wmc caffeine you know that the variable being measured is \wmc"", and that the speci c condition in which it is being measured is the \caeine"" condition.","We know say di variable wey dey measured na \wmc"", and say di speci c condition wey dey being measured na di \caeine condition.",Computer science
"similarly, you know that rt no. drug refers to the\rt"" variable measured in theo drug""condition.","We know say rt no. drug to talk about dirt"" variable wey dey measure for di o drug condition.",Computer science
"the measured variable comes rst (e. g, wmc), followed by a separator character(in this case the separator is an underscore, ), and then the name ofthe condition in which it is being measured(e. g, caffeine ).","Di measured variable kom rst (e. g, wmc), followed by separator character(in dis case di separator dey underscore, ), and then di name of di condition wey dey measured(e. g, caffeine ).",Computer science
"there are two dierent pre xes (i. e, the strings before the separator, wmc, rt)which means that there are two separate variables being measured.","I. e, di strings before di separator, wmc, rt) wey mean say na two separate variables wey dey measure",Computer science
"there are three dierent suxes (i. e, the strings after the separtator, caffeine, alcohol, no. drug) meaning that there are three dierent levels ofthe within-subject factor.","I. e, di strings afta di separtator, caffeine, alcohol, no. drug) meaning say e dey three dierent level of di within-subject factor.",Computer science
"finally, notice that the separator string(i. e,) does not appear anywhere in two ofthe variables( id, gender ), indicating that these are between-subject variables, namely variables that do not vary within participant(e. g, a person's gender is the same regardless of whether they're-225- under the in uence of alcohol, caeine etc).","Di sign wey go separate(i. e,) no dey appear anywhere for two of di variables( id, gender), namely variables wey dey between-subject variables, namely variables wey dey between-subject variables, namely variables wey dey between-subject variables, namely variables wey dey between-subject variables, namely variables wey dey between-subject variables, namely variables wey dey between-subject variables, namely variables",Computer science
"because ofthe fact that the variable naming scheme here is so informative, it's quite possible to reshape the data frame without any additional input from the user.","Di fact say di variable naming scheme here dey informative, na quite possible to reshape di one kind of table without any input from di user.",Computer science
"for example, in this particular case, you could just type the following:> widetolong( drugs) id gender within wmc rt 11 female alcohol 3. 7 488 22 female alcohol 6. 4 607 33 female alcohol 4. 6 643 44 male alcohol 6. 4 684 blah blah blah this is pretty good, actually.","for example, for dis particular case, you fit just type di following:> widetolong(drugs). Dis one dey e dey good for true.",Computer science
"the only think it has gotten wrong here is that it doesn't know what name to assign to the within-subject factor, so instaed of calling it something sensible like drug, it has use the unimaginative name within.","Di only think say e no know what name wey dey assign to di within-subject factor, so instaed of calling e something sensible like drug, e don use di unimaginative name within.",Computer science
"if you want to ensure that the widetolong() function applies a sensible name, you have to specify the within argument, which is just a character string that species the name ofthe within-subject factor.","If you wan to ensure say di widetolong() function appli sensible name, you need to specify di name of di within-subject factor.",Computer science
"so when i used this command earlier,> drugs.2 <- widetolong( data= drugs, within =""drug"" )all i was doing was telling rto use drug as the name ofthe within subject factor.","Di<- widetolong( data= drugs, within =""drug"" )all i dey do am tell rto use drug as di name of di within subject factor.",Computer science
"now, as i was hinting earlier, the widetolong() function is very in exible.","I dey hint earlier, di widetolong() function dey very in exible",Computer science
it requires that the variable names all follow this naming scheme that i outlined earlier.,I dey require say di dem name wey dey represent figure wey fit change for kompyuta program all follow dis naming scheme wey i outline earlier.,Computer science
if you don't follow this naming scheme it won't work. 18the only exibility that i've included here is that you can change the separator character by specifying the separgument.,Di only exibility wey i dey include here na say you fit change di separator character by specifying di separgument.,Computer science
"recall from earlier that the long form ofthe data(i. e, the drugs.2 data frame)contains variables named id, gender, drug, wmcand rt.","Di long form of di data(i. e, di drugs.2 one kind of table)contains variables wey dey named gender, drug, wmcand rt.",Computer science
"in order to convert from long form to wide form, all you need to do is indicate which of these variables are measured separately for each condition(i. e, wmc and rt), and which variable is the within-subject factor that species the condition(i. e, drug).","All you need to do dey indicate which of these variables dey measure separately for each different way(i. e, wmc and rt), and which variable dey di within-subject factor wey dey species di condition(i. e, drug).",Computer science
"you do this via a two-sided formula, in which the measured variables are on the left hand side, and the withinsubject factor is on the ritght hand side.","Di two-sided formula, wey di numbers wey we take dey on di left hand side, and di withinsubject factor dey on di ritght hand side.",Computer science
"in this case, the formula would be wmc + rt ~drug.",Di formula go be wmc + rt ~drug,Computer science
"for instance, if the command i used had been> longtowide( drugs.2, wmc+rt ~drug, sep=""/"") the output would contain variables with names like rt/alcohol instead of rt alcohol.","for example, if di command i use don dey> longtowide( drugs.2, wmc+rt ~drug, sep="""") di output go contain variables wit name like rt alcohol forstead of rt alcohol.",Computer science
"however, they do handle a broader range of situations than the one outlined above.","Di one wey outline above, dem do handle a wide range of situations than di one wey dey outline above.",Computer science
"consider the following, fairly simple psychological experiment.","Consider di following, one easy test for psychology.",Computer science
i'm interested in the eects of practice on some simple decision making problem.,"I dey interest for di eect of practice on some simple Di proses to chuze di best tin to do, as dem don gada tori and sabi wetin dey suppose do, den dem go yuz am take decide problem.",Computer science
"it doesn't really matter what the problem is, other than to note that i'm interested in two distinct outcome variables.","E no matter which di problem dey, oda than to note say i dey interest for two distinct outcome variables.",Computer science
"firstly, i care about people's accuracy, measured by the proportion of decisions that people make correctly, denoted pc.","I care about pipo's accuracy, measured by di proportion of decision wey pipo make correctly, denoted pc.",Computer science
"secondly, i care about people's speed, measured by the mean response time taken to make those decisions, denoted mrt.","Di secondly, i care about pipo speed, measured by di mean how fast person answer wey dem take make those decisions, denot mrt.",Computer science
"that's standard in psychological experiments: the speed-accuracy trade-o is pretty ubiquitous, so we generally need to care about both variables.","Di speed-accuracy trade-o dey pretty ubiquitous, so we generally need care about both variables.",Computer science
"to look at the eects of practice over the long term, i test each participant on two days, day1 and day2, where for the sake of argument i'll assume that day1 and day2 are about a week apart.","I test each participant on two days, day1 and day2, wia for di sake of argument i go assume say day1 and day2 dey about week apart.",Computer science
"to look at the eects of practice over the short term, the testing during each day is broken into two locks"", block1 and block2, which are about 20 minutes apart.","Di testing during each day dey broken into two locks"", block1 and block2, wey dey about 20 minutes apart.",Computer science
"this isn't the world's most complicated experiment, but it's still a fair bit more complicated than the last one.","Dis no be di world's most complicated experiment, but na fair bit more complicated than di last one.",Computer science
"this time around we have two within-subject factors(i. e, dayand block) and we have two measured variables for each condition(i. e, pcand mrt).","Dis time around, we get two within-subject factors(i. e, day and block)and we get two numbers wey we take for each different way(i. e, pc and mrt).",Computer science
"as before, the rst part ofthe name refers to the measured variable(response time), but there are now two suxes, one indicating that the testing took place in block 1, and the other indicating that it took place on day 2.","Di rst part of di name to talk about di measured variable(how fast person answer), but na now two suxes, one indicating say di testing take place for block 1, and di oda indicating say di testing take place for day 2.",Computer science
"and just to complicate matters, it uses/as the separator character rather than.",E use as di separator character no be.,Computer science
"even so, reshaping this dataset is pretty easy.","E dey easy, reshaping dis group of related numbers or data wey belong together dey easy",Computer science
"the only dierence here is that, because there are two within-subject factors, the within argument is a vector that contains two names.","Di only dierence here na say, because di two within-subject factors, di within argument dey a vector wey dey contains two name",Computer science
"when we look at the long form data frame that this creates, we get this:> choice.2 id gender mrt pc block day 11 male 415 79 block1 day1 22 male 500 83 block1 day1 33 female 478 91 block1 day1 44 female 550 75 block1 day1 51 male 400 88 block1 day2 62 male 490 92 block1 day2 blah blah blah 15 3 female 474 100 block2 day2 16 4 female 588 95 block2 day2 in this long form data frame we have two between-subject variables( idand gender), two variables that de ne our within-subject manipulations (block and day), and two more contain the measurements we took( mrtand pc).","When we make we look di one table wey each person get many lines wey dis create, we get dis. For dis one table wey each person get many lines, we get two between-subject variables(id and gender), two variables wey define our within-subject manipulations (block and day), and two more wey contain di measurements wey we take (mrt and pc).",Computer science
to convert this back to wide form is equally straightforward.,E dey equally straightforward.,Computer science
"we use the longtowide() function, but this time around we need to alter the formula in order to tell it that we have two within-subject factors.","We use di longtowide() function, but dis time around we need to change di formula for order to tell am say we get two within-subject factors.",Computer science
"the command is now> longtowide( choice.2, mrt+pc ~block+day, sep=""/"") and this produces a wide form dataset containing the same variables as the original choice data frame.","Di command now na > longtowide(choice.2, mrt + pc ~block +day, sep= "" "")and dis one produce one data wey each person get one line wey contain di same variables as di original choice one kind of table.",Computer science
the disadvantage is that the tools are quite limited in scope.,Di disadvantage na say di tools dey quite limited for scope,Computer science
they allow you to switch your data back and forth between two dierent formats that are very common in everyday data analysis.,Dem allow you to switch your data back and forth between two dierent formats wey dey common for everyday to study numbers.,Computer science
"however, there a number of other tools that you can use if need be.",Di number of oda tools wey you fit use if need be.,Computer science
"just within the core packages distributed with rthere is the reshape() function, as well as the stack()and unstack() functions, all of which can be useful under certain circumstances.","Di reshape() function, as well as di stack()and unstack() functions, all of which dey useful under certain circumstances.",Computer science
and there are ofcourse thousands of packages on cran that you can use to help you with dierent tasks.,Na ofcourse thousands of package on cran wey you fit use to help you wit dierent tasks,Computer science
"one popular package for this purpose is the reshape package, written by hadley wickham (see wickham, 2007, for details).","Di reshape package wey dey written by hadley wickham (see wickham, 2007, for more small tins).",Computer science
"there are two key functions in this package, called melt()and cast()that are pretty useful for solving alot of reshaping problems.","Di two key functions for dis package, called melt()and cast() wey dey useful for solving alot of reshaping problems",Computer science
in a future version of this book i intend to-228- discuss melt()and cast()in a fair amount of detail.,"For next one of dis book, I intend to discuss melt()and cast()for fair amount of detail.",Computer science
this can be for alot of dierent reasons.,Dis fit be for alot of dierent reasons,Computer science
"maybe the raw data are actually taken from text sources(e. g, newspaper articles), or maybe your dataset contains alot of free responses to survey questions, in which people can write whatever text they like in response to some query.","Di first numbers don actually take from text sources(e. g, newspaper articles), or maybe your group of related numbers or data wey belong together contains plenti free responses to survey questions, wey pipo fit write whatever text dem like for response to some query.",Computer science
or maybe you just need to rejig some ofthe text used to describe nominal scale variables.,Di text wey dey use to describe names wey no need order.,Computer science
"however, because text data is quite rich, and generally not aswell structured as numeric data, rprovides alot of additional tools that are quite speci c to text.","Di however, because text data dey rich, and generally no dey structured as numbers, rprovides additional tools wey dey quite speci c to text.",Computer science
"this is often useful when annotating gures, or when creating variable labels: it's often very inconvenient to use the full name, so you want to shorten it to a short code for space reasons.","Di often useful when annotating gures, or when create variable label, so you fit shorten am to short code for space reasons.",Computer science
the strtrim() function can be used for this purpose.,Di strtrim() function go use for dis purpose.,Computer science
it has two arguments: xis a vector containing the text to be shortened and width species the number of characters to keep.,Dem get two arguments: xis a vector wey dey containing di text to shortened and width speci e di number of character wey dey keep,Computer science
it doesn't insert any whitespace characters toll them out if the original string is shorter than the width argument.,E no fit insert any whitespace character toll dem out if di original string dey shorter than di width argument,Computer science
"okay, but what if you don't want to start from the rst letter?","Di rst letter no dey okay, but what if you no fit start from di rst letter?",Computer science
"suppose, for instance, i only wanted to keep the second and third letter of each word.","suppose for example, I only wan keep di second and third letter of each word.",Computer science
"that doesn't happen quite as often, but there are some situations where you need to do something like that.",Di situation wey you need to do something like dat.,Computer science
"if that does happen, then the function you need is substr(), in which you specify a start point and a stop point instead of specifying the width.","Di function you need dey substr(), in which you specify start point and stop point forstead of specifying di width.",Computer science
"to glue several strings together, the paste()function is very useful.",Di paste()function dey useful.,Computer science
"there are three arguments to the paste()function:. as usual, the dots\match"" up against any number of inputs.","three tins wey you give dey for paste()function:. as normal, di dots""match"" up against many tins.",Computer science
"in this case, the inputs should be the various dierent strings you want to paste together.",Di inputs go be di various dierent strings wey dey wan paste together.,Computer science
"this argument should be a string, indicating what characters rshould use as separators, in order to keep each ofthe original strings separate from eachother in the pasted output.","Di argument go be string, indicating how character dey use as separators, in order to keep each of di original strings separate from each oda for di past output.",Computer science
"by default the value is a single space, sep = "" "".","Di value dey single space, sep = "" """,Computer science
this is made a little clearer when we look at the examples.,E dey make a little clearer wen we make we look di examples.,Computer science
"this is an argument indicating whether the paste()function should interpret vector inputs as things to be collapsed, or whether a vector of inputs should be converted into a vector of outputs.","Di argument dey indicating whether di paste()function go interpret vector input as things to dey collapse, or whether a vector of inputs go convert into vector of outputs.",Computer science
the default value is collapse= null which is interpreted as meaning that vectors should not be collapsed.,Di normal number dey collapse= null wey dey interpret as meaning say vectors no dey collapse,Computer science
"if you want to collapse vectors into as single string, then you should specify a value for collapse.",I go specify value for collapse.,Computer science
"speci cally, the value of collapse should correspond to the separator character that you want to use for the collapsed inputs.",Di value of collapse go correspond to di separator character wey you wan use for di collapse inputs.,Computer science
"again, see the examples below for more details.","For more details, see di example below for more details",Computer science
"that probably doesn't make much sense yet, so let's start with a simple example.","For simple example, let start wit simple example",Computer science
suppose that's not what i wanted.,I dey suppose say no dey wey i wan,Computer science
"instead, i might want to use. as the separator character, or to use no separator at all.","I go wan use. as di separator character, or to use no separator for all.",Computer science
"to do either of those, i would need to specify sep= "".""","I go need to specify sep= "".""",Computer science
suppose i have two vectors that i want to paste()together.,Di suppose i get two vectors wey i wan to paste()together,Computer science
"however, if you think about it, this statement is kind of ambiguous.","If you think about am, dis statement dey kind of ambiguous.",Computer science
"it could mean that i want to do an\element wise""paste, in which all ofthe rst elements get pasted together( ""hello nasty"") and all the second elements get pasted together( ""world government"").","I go mean say i wan to do\element wise""paste, wey all of di rst elements get past together( ""hello nasty"") and all di second elements get past together( ""world government"").",Computer science
"or, alternatively, i might intend to collapse everything into one big string( ""hello nasty world government"").","Or, I fit intend to put all together into one long word(""hello nasty world government"").",Computer science
"all you have to do is specify a value for the collapse argument, and rwill chuck everything into one dirty big string.","Di all you go get to do dey specify value for di collapse argument, and rwill chuck all into one dirty big string.",Computer science
"to give you a sense of exactly how this works, what i'll doin this next example is specify dierent values for sepand collapse: 19to be honest, it does bother me a little that the default value of sepis a space.",Di next example dey specify dierent value for sepis a space,Computer science
"normally when i want to paste strings together i don't want any separator character, so i'd prefer it if the default were sep="""".","Na normally wen i wan paste strings together i don wan any separator character, so i prefer say di default dey sep=""""",Computer science
"to that end, it's worth noting that there's also a paste0() function, which is identical to paste()except that it always assumes that sep="""".","E dey worth note say there dey also paste0() function, wey dey identical to paste()except say e always assum say sep="""".",Computer science
paste for more information about this.,Dem paste for more tins about dis,Computer science
"for instance, the dataset that you get sent might include a single variable containing someone's full name, and you need to separate it into rst names and last names.","for example, di group of related numbers or data wey belong together wey you go get send might include single variable containing someone's full name, and you need to separate am into rst name and last name.",Computer science
"to do this in ryou can use the strsplit() function, and for the sake of argument, let's assume that the string you want to split up is the following string:> monkey<- ""it was the best of times.","For di sake of argument, let assume say di string you wan to split up na di following string:> monkey<- ""it na di best of times",Computer science
"it was the blurst of times.""",Di blurst of times,Computer science
"to use the strsplit() function to break this apart, there are three arguments that you need to pay particular attention to: x.",Di three tins wey you give wey you need to pay particular attention to: x.,Computer science
a vector of character strings containing the data that you want to split.,Di vector of character strings wey dey containing di data wey you wan split,Computer science
"depending on the value ofthe fixed argument, this is either a xed string that species a delimiter, or a regular expression that matches against one or more possible delimiters.","Di fixed argument dey either xed string wey dey species a delimiter, or regular expression wey dey to check one or more possible delimiters.",Computer science
"if you don't know what regular expressions are(probably most readers of this book), don't use this option.","If you no know what regular expressions dey(probably most readers of dis book), don use dis option.",Computer science
"just specify a separator string, just like you would for the paste()function.","just give di sign wey go separate, just like you go do for paste()function.",Computer science
set fixed= true if you want to use a xed delimiter.,Set fixed= TRUE if you wan use one sign wey no change.,Computer science
"as noted above, unless you understand regular expressions this is de nitely what you want.",Dem to sabi how pattern dey work dis dey de nitely wey you wan.,Computer science
"however, the default value is fixed= false, so you have to set it explicitly.","Di normal number dey fixed= true, so you go set am explicitly.",Computer science
"one thing to note in passing is that the output here is a list(you can tell from the[[1]] part ofthe output), whose rst and only element is a character vector.","One thing to note for passing na say di output here dey list( you fit tell from di[[1]] part of di output), wey dey rst and only element dey character vector.",Computer science
"this is useful in alot of ways, since it means that you can input a character vector for xand then then have the strsplit() function split all of them, but it's kind of annoying when you only have a single input.","E dey useful for alot of way, since e means say you fit input character vector for xand then get strsplit() function split all of dem, but e dey small annoying wen you only get single input",Computer science
"to understand why it's important to remember to use the fixed= true argument, suppose we wanted to split this into two separate sentences.","to know why e important to remember to use fixed= TRUE argument, suppose we wan split dis into two different sentences.",Computer science
"that is, we want to use split= "".""","Dat mean say, we wan use split= "".""",Computer science
as our delimiter string.,Di delimiter string wey we dey string as we dey di delimiter string,Computer science
"as long as we tell rto remember to treat this as a xed separator character, then we get the right answer:> strsplit( x=monkey, split= "".","as long as we tell R to remember to treat dis as fixed separator character, den we get di right answer:> strsplit(x =monkey, split= ""."", fixed =TRUE)",Computer science
"you were trying to construct a egular expression"", and as it happens the character. has a special meaning within a regular expression.","Di character wey dey try construct egular expression"", and as e dey happen di character.",Computer science
"as a consequence, if you forget to include the fixed= true part, you won't get the answers you're looking for.","as result, if you forget to include di fixed= true part, you no get di answer wey dey looking for.",Computer science
"a simple example of this would be converting text to lower case or upper case, which you can do using the toupper() and tolower() functions.","Di simple example of dis go convert text to lower case or upper case, wey you go use di toupper() and tolower() functions.",Computer science
both of these functions have a single argument xwhich contains the text that needs to be converted.,Di function don get single argument x wey dey contains di text wey need convert,Computer science
"this function contains three arguments, old, new and x.","Dis function contain three tins wey you give: old, new, and x.",Computer science
as usual xspeci es the text that needs to be transformed.,as normal xspecies dey di text wey need transform,Computer science
"the oldand newarguments are strings ofthe same length, and they specify how xis to be converted.","Di oldand newarguments dey string of di same length, and dem specify how xis to be converted",Computer science
every instance ofthe rst character in old is converted to the rst character in newand soon.,Di rst character for old dey convert to di rst character for new and soon.,Computer science
"for instance, suppose i wanted to convert""albino"" to""libido"".","for example, suppose I wan convert""albino"" to""libido"".",Computer science
"to do this, i need to convert all ofthe ""a""characters(all 1 of them)in ""albino""into ""l""characters (i. e, anl).","I need to convert all of di""a""characters (all 1 of dem)for ""albino""into ""l""character (i. e, anl).",Computer science
"additionally, i need to make the substitutions lniand nnd.",I need make di substitutions lniand nnd,Computer science
"however, you can also use other logical operators too.",E no dey use oda logical operator too.,Computer science
"for instance ralso allows you to use the<and >operators to determine which of two strings comes rst, alphabetically speaking.","for example, R also allow you use< and> operators to determine which of two strings come first, according to alphabet.",Computer science
but text data is a bit more complicated than the dictionary suggests.,Di dictionary suggest say text data dey more complicated than di dictionary suggest.,Computer science
"what about""cat"" and""cat""?","Na what about""cat"" and""cat""?",Computer science
which of these comes rst?,For which of dis kom rst?,Computer science
"not shown is the\space"" character, which actually comes rst on the list.","Di\space"" character wey actually kom rst for di list.",Computer science
"in other words, rassumes that uppercase letters come before lowercase ones.","For oda words, rassume say uppercase letter dey before lowercase ones.",Computer science
no-one is likely to be surprised by that.,Nano-one dey like say no-one dey surprise by dat,Computer science
what you might nd surprising is that rassumes that alluppercase letters come before alllowercase ones.,Dem suppose nd surprising na say alluppercase letters kom before alllowercase ones.,Computer science
"with that in mind, it may help to have a quick look table 7.3, which lists various text characters in the order that ruses.","Di quick look table 7.3, wey list different text character for di order wey dey ruses.",Computer science
the cat()function is a of mixture of paste()and print().,Di cat()function dey of mixture of paste()and print(),Computer science
"that is, what it does is concatenate strings and then print them out.",Dem dey concatenate strings and then print dem out,Computer science
"in your own work you can probably survive without it, since print()and paste()will actually do what you need, but the cat()function is so widely used that i think it's a good idea to talk about it here.",Di cat()function dey so widely use say i think na good idea to talk about am here.,Computer science
the basic idea behind cat()is straightforward.,Di basic idea behind cat()dey straightforward.,Computer science
"like paste(), it takes several arguments as inputs, which it converts to strings, collapses (using a separator character speci ed using the separgument), and prints on screen.","E take several arguments as inputs, wey dey convert to strings, collapses (using separator character wey dey using di separgument), and prints on screen",Computer science
"if you want, you can use the file argument to tellrto print the output into a le rather than on screen(i won't do that here).",I no go do dat here).,Computer science
"however, it's important to note that the cat()function collapses vectors rst, and then concatenates them.","E important to note say di cat()function collapse vectors rst, and then concatenates dem",Computer science
there's a few additional details that i need to mention about cat().,Few additional details wey I need mention about cat().,Computer science
"firstly, cat() really is a function for printing, and not for creating text strings to store for later.","Di firstly, cat() really dey function for printing, and no dey create text strings to store for later.",Computer science
"for example, the command x <-capture. output(cat(hw, ng)) would work just ne.","for example, di command x <- capture. output(cat(hw, ng))go work just fine.",Computer science
"reduced to its most basic form, the problem we have is that rcommands are written using text characters, and our strings also consist of text characters.","Di problem wey we get na say rcommands dey written using text character, and awa strings also consist of text character.",Computer science
"so, suppose i want to type in the word\hello"", and have rencode it as a string.","So, suppose I wan type di word""hello"", and makeR encode am as string.",Computer science
"if i were to just type hello, rwill think that i'm referring to a variable or a function called hello rather than interpret it as a string.","Di rwill think say i dey referring to a variable or a function wey dey call hello, rwill think say i dey interpret am as string.",Computer science
"the solution that radopts is to require you to enclose your string by delimiter characters, which can be either double quotes or single quotes.","Di solution wey radopts dey require you to enclose your string by delimiter character, wey fit be either double quote or single quote.",Computer science
"so, when i type""hello"" or'hello' thenrknows that it should treat the text in between the quote marks as a character string.","I type""hello"" or'hello' tok say e go treat di text for between di small marks for around words as character string.",Computer science
"however, this isn't a complete solution to the problem: after all,""and 'are themselves perfectly legitimate text characters, and so we might want to include those in our string aswell.","Aswell, dis no dey complete solution to di problem: after all,""and 'aren themselves perfectly legitimate text character, and so we go fit include those for awa string aswell.",Computer science
"for instance, suppose i wanted to encode the name \o'rourke"" as a string.","for example, suppose I wan encode di name ""O'Rourke"" as string.",Computer science
"it's notlegitimate for me to type 'o'rourke' because ris too stupid to realise that \o'rourke"" is a real word.","E nolegitimate for me to type 'o'rourke' because dey too stupid to realise say \o'rourke"" na real word",Computer science
"so it will interpret the 'o'part as a complete string, and then will get confused when it reaches the rourke' part.","E go interpret di 'o'part as complete string, and then go get confused wen e reach di rourke' part",Computer science
"as a consequence, what you get is an error message:> 'o'rourke' error: unexpected symbol in ""'o'rourke"" to some extent, roers us a cheap x to the problem because ofthe fact that it allows us to use either""or 'as the delimiter character.","Di 'o'rourke' error: unexpected symbol for ""'o'rourke"" to some extent, roers us cheap x to di problem because of di fact say e dey allow us use either""or 'as di delimiter character",Computer science
"although 'o'rourke' will make rcry, it is perfectly happy with ""o'rourke"": > ""o'rourke"" [1] ""o'rourke"" this is a real advantage to having two dierent delimiter characters.","Di advantage wey 'o'rourke go make rcry, e dey very happy wit ""o'rourke""",Computer science
"unfortunately, anyone with even the slightest bit of deviousness to them can see the problem with this.",Anyone wit even di slightest bit of deviousness to dem go see di problem wit dis.,Computer science
"suppose i'm reading a book that contains the following passage, p. j.","Di suppose i read book wey dey contain di following passage, p. j.",Computer science
"o'rourke says,\yay, money!"".","O'rourke tok say,\yay, money",Computer science
"it's a joke, but no-one laughs.","E dey joke, but noone laugh",Computer science
andi want to enter this as a string.,I wan to enter dis as string,Computer science
"neither the 'or""delimiters will solve the problem here, since this string contains both a single quote character and a double quote character.","Neither di single quote nor double quote delimiter go solve di problem here, because dis string contain both single quote and double quote character.",Computer science
"to encode strings like this one, we have to do something a little bit clever.",We don do something a little bit clever.,Computer science
"the solution to the problem is to designate an escape character, which in this case is\, the humble backslash.","Di solution to di problem dey designate escape character, wey for dis case dey\, di humble backlash.",Computer science
"the escape character is a bit of a sacri cial lamb: if you include a backslash character in your string, rwill nottreat it as a literal character at all.","If you include backslash character for your string, rwill no treat am as literal character for all.",Computer science
"it's actually used as away of inserting\special"" characters into your string.","Di way wey dey insert\special"" character into your string",Computer science
"for instance, if you want to force rto insert actual quote marks into the string, then what you actually type is'or""(these are called escape sequences).","If you wan force rto insert actual di small marks for around words into di string, then what you actually type na'or""(these dey call escape sequences).",Computer science
"so, in order to encode the string discussed earlier, here's a command i could use:-234- table 7.4: standard escape characters that are evaluated by some text processing commands, including cat().","Di command wey dey use:-234- table 7.4: standard escape character wey dey evaluated by some text processing commands, including cat().",Computer science
"this convention dates back to the development ofthe c programming language in the 1970s, and as a consequence alot of these characters make most sense if you pretend that ris actually a typewriter, as explained in the main text.","Di convention dates back to di development of di c kod langwej wey dem dey use write instruksiyon wey komputa go fit undastand for di 1970s, and as result alot of these character make most sense if you pretend say ris actually typewriter, as e explain for di main text.",Computer science
quotes for the corresponding rhelp le.,Quotes for di corresponding R help file.,Computer science
"escape sequence interpretation newline horizontal tab vertical tab backspace carriage returnescape sequence interpretation form feed alert sound\ backslash 'single quote"" double quote.","one way to write special sign interpretation: newline (\n), small space for side(\t), space wey dey go down(\v), backspace (\b), to goto start of line(\r), to break page(\f), one sound wey dey warn(\a), backslash (\), single quote('), double quote("").",Computer science
"o'rourke says,""yay, money!"".","O'rourke tok say,""yay, money!"".",Computer science
"it's a joke, but no-one laughs.""","Di joke, but no-one laugh",Computer science
notice that i've included the backslashes for both the single quotes and double quotes.,Di backslashes for both di single quote and double quote,Computer science
"that's actually overkill: since i've used""as my delimiter, i only needed to do this for the double quotes.","Dem use""as my delimiter, i only need to do dis for di double quote",Computer science
"nevertheless, the command has worked, since i didn't get an error message.","Di command don work, since i no get error message",Computer science
"now let's see what happens when i print it out:> print(pj )[1] ""p. j.","Now make we see wetin happen when I print am:> print(pj)[1] ""p. j.""",Computer science
"why has rprinted out the string using""?","Di string wey dey rprinted out di string using""?",Computer science
for the exact same reason that ineeded to insert the backslash in the rst place.,Di exact same reason wey i need to insert backslash for di rst place.,Computer science
"that is, when rprints out the pjstring, it has enclosed it with delimiter characters, and it wants to unambiguously show us which ofthe double quotes are delimiters and which ones are actually part ofthe string.","Di double quote na, wen rprints out di pjstring, e don enclosed am wit delimiter character, and e wan to unambiguously show us which of di double quote delimiters and which ones dey part of di string",Computer science
"fortunately, if this bugs you, you can make it go away by using the print. noquote() function, which will just print out the literal string that you encoded in the rst place:> print. noquote( pj )[1] p. j.","If dis bugs you, you fit make am go away by using di print. noquote() function, wey go just to show di literal string wey you encoded for di rst place:",Computer science
typing cat(pj)will produce a similar output.,Typing cat(pj)go produce similar output.,Computer science
"introducing the escape character solves alot of problems, since it provides a mechanism by which we can insert all sorts of characters that aren't on the keyboard.","Di escape character solve alot of problems, since e provide mechanism wey we fit insert all sort of character wey no dey on di keyboard.",Computer science
"for instance, as far as a computer is concerned, ew line""is actually a text character.","as for a computer dey concerned, ew line""na text character",Computer science
"it's the character that is printed whenever you hit the eturn"" key on your keyboard.","Di character wey dey printed whenever you hit di eturn"" key on your keyboard.",Computer science
"if you want to insert anew line character into your string, you can actually do this by including the escape sequence.","If you wan to insert new line character into your string, you fit do dis by including di one way to write special sign.",Computer science
"or, if you want to insert a backslash character, then you can use.","Or, if you wan insert backslash character, den you fit use\.",Computer science
a list ofthe standard escape sequences recognised by ris shown in table 7.4.,Di standard one way to write special sign wey dey recognise by ris show for table 7.4. 4.,Computer science
"alot of these actually date back to the days ofthe typewriter(e. g, carriage return), so they might seem a bit counterintuitive to people who've never used one.","E. g, to goto start of line), so dem go seem a bit counterintuitive to pipo wey no use one",Computer science
"there area few other escape sequence that rrecognises, which you can use to insert arbitrary ascii or unicode characters into your string(type?","Di one way to write special sign wey rrecognises, wey you use to insert arbitrary ascii or unicode character into your string(type?",Computer science
quotes for more details)but i won't go into details here.,I no go into details here,Computer science
"there are several functions in rthat allow you to do this, three of which i'll talk about brie y here: grep(), gsub() and sub().","plenty ways for R wey allow you do dis, three of which I go talk about small here: grep(), gsub(), and sub().",Computer science
"so, how do these functions work?",How do dis function work?,Computer science
let's start with the grep() function.,Na let start wit di grep() function,Computer science
"the purpose of this function is to input a vector of character strings x, and to extract all those strings that ta certain pattern.","Di purpose of dis function nato input vector of character strings x, and to extract all those strings wey dey certain pattern.",Computer science
"in our examples, i'll assume that the pattern in question is a literal sequence of characters that the string must contain(that's what fixed= true does).",I go assume say di pattern for question na literal sequence of character wey di string must contain(that's what fixed= true does).,Computer science
"to illustrate this, let's start with a simple dataset, a vector that contains the names of three beers.","Dem start wit simple group of related numbers or data wey belong together, a vector wey dey contains di name of three beers",Computer science
"alternatively, however, we might prefer it if grep() returned the actual strings themselves.",We go prefer am if grep() return di actual strings themselves.,Computer science
we can do this by specifying value= true in our function call.,We fit do dis by specifying value= true for awa function call.,Computer science
these are both similar in spirit to grep() insofar as what they do is search through the input strings( x)and nd all ofthe strings that match a pattern.,Dem dey similar for spirit to grep() insofar as what dem do dey search through di input strings( x)and nd all of di strings wey dey match pattern.,Computer science
"however, what these two functions do is replace the pattern with areplacement string.",Di two functions dey replace di pattern wit replacement string,Computer science
"the gsub() function will replace allinstances ofthe pattern, whereas the sub()function just replaces the rst instance of it in each string.","Di gsub() function goto change all of dem of di pattern, while sub()function just replace di first instance for each string.",Computer science
"to illustrate how this works, suppose i want to replace all instances ofthe letter""a""with the string""blah"".","To show how dis work, suppose I wan to change all of dem of letter""a"" with di string""blah"".",Computer science
"so, before moving on, i want to very brie y explain what regular expressions are.",I wan to very brie y explain what regular expressions dey.,Computer science
"i'm notgoing to talk at all about how they work or how you specify them, because they're genuinely complicated and not at all relevant to this book.","I no go talk at all about how dem work or how you specify dem, bikos dem no dey complicated and no dey relevant to dis book.",Computer science
"however, they are extremely powerful tools and they're quite widely used by people who have to work with lots of text data(e. g, people who work with natural language data), and so it's handy to atleast have a vague idea about what they are.","Dem dey extremely powerful tools and dem dey quite widely use by pipo wey dey work wit natural language data(e. g, pipo wey work wit natural language data), and so e dey handy to atleast get vague idea about what dem dey.",Computer science
the basic idea is quite simple.,Di basic idea dey simple,Computer science
"suppose i want to extract all strings in my beers vector that contain a vowel followed immediately by the letter""s"".","Na suppose i wan to extract all strings for my beers vector wey contain vowel follow immediately by di letter""s"".",Computer science
"that is, i want to nds the beer names that contain either""as"",""es"",""is"",""os"" or""us"".","I wan to nd di beer name wey contain either""as"",""es"",""is"",""os"" or""us"".",Computer science
"one possibility would be to manually specify all of these possibilities and then match against these as xed strings one at a time, but that's tedious.","one way wey e fit be nato write all by yourself all dese possibilities and den to check dem as words wey no change one by one, but dat one dey tedious.",Computer science
"the alternative is to try to write out a single egular"" expression that matches all of these.","Di alternative dey try to write out single egular"" expression wey dey match all of dis",Computer science
"the regular expression that does this21is""[aeiou]s"", and you can kind of see what the syntax is doing here.","Di regular expression wey dey do dis21is""[aeiou]s"", and you fit kind of see what di syntax dey do here",Computer science
"the bracketed expression means ny ofthe things in the middle"", so the expression as a whole means ny ofthe things in the middle""(i. e.","Di bracketed expression means ny of di things for di middle"", so di expression as whole means ny of di things for di middle""(i. e.",Computer science
"vowels)followed by the letter""s"".","Di letter""s"" follow di letter""s"".",Computer science
"but ofcourse, had the data contained a beer like""fosters"", that would have matched aswell because it contains the string""os"".","Di data dey contain beer like""fosters"", wey go match aswell bikos e dey contains di string""os"".",Computer science
"however, i deliberately chose not to include it because fosters is not{ in my opinion{a proper beer. 22as you can tell from this example, regular expressions area neat tool for specifying patterns in text: in this case, owel then s"".","Di example, regular expressions dey neat tool for specifying patterns for text: for dis case, owel and s",Computer science
so they are de nitely things worth knowing about if you ever nd yourself needing to work with a large body of text.,Dem dey de nitely things wey dey know about if you ever nd you need work wit large body of text.,Computer science
"however, since they are fairly complex and not necessary for any ofthe applications discussed in this book, i won't talk about them any further.",I no talk about dem any further.,Computer science
and turn to the question of how you can load data from a range of dierent sources.,Di question of how you fit load data from range of dierent sources.,Computer science
"throughout this book i've assumed that your data are stored as an. rdata le or as a\properly"" formatted csv le.","I dey assum say your data dey store as. rdata le or as a\properly"" formatted csv le",Computer science
"however, in real life that's not a terribly plausible assumption to make, so i'd better talk about some ofthe other possibilities that you might run into.","Di for real life no dey a terribly plausible assumption to make, so i go better talk about some of di oda possibilities wey you go run into.",Computer science
for advanced users: ractually supports two dierent ways of specifying regular expressions.,For pipo wey sabi well: R actually support two different ways to specify regular expressions.,Computer science
"one is the posix standard, the other is to use perl-style regular expressions.","One dey di posix standard, di oda dey use perl-style regular expressions",Computer science
the default is generally posix.,Di default dey generally posix,Computer science
"if you understand regular expressions, that probably made sense to you.","If you to sabi how pattern dey work, dat one probably make sense to you.",Computer science
"if not, don't worry.",Dem no dey worry,Computer science
it's not important.,E no dey important.,Computer science
you just need to specify a few more ofthe optional arguments to the function.,We need to specify few more of di optional argument to di function.,Computer science
read. csv you'll see that the read. csv() function actually has several arguments that you can specify.,Di read. csv function don see say di read. csv function don get several arguments wey you fit specify.,Computer science
"obviously you need to specify the file that you want it to load, but the others all have sensible default values.","Dem need to specify di file wey you wan load, but di odas all don sensitive di normal number.",Computer science
"nevertheless, you will sometimes need to change them.",Di sometimes need to change dem,Computer science
the ones that i've often found myself needing to change are: header.,Di ones wey i find myself need to change dey: header.,Computer science
"alot ofthe time when you're storing data as a csv le, the rst row actually contains the column names and not data.",Di rst row actually contains di column name and no data.,Computer science
"if that's not true, you need to set header= false.",Di need to set header= true,Computer science
"as the name\comma separated value""indicates, the values in a row of a csv le are usually separated by commas.","Di name\comma separated value""indicates, di value for row of csv le dey separated by commas.",Computer science
"this isn't universal, however.","E no dey universal, however.",Computer science
"in europe the decimal point is typically written as, instead of. and as a consequence it would be somewhat awkward to use, as the separator.","Di decimal point dey typically written as, not dat one. and as consequence e go be somewhat awkward to use, as di separator.",Computer science
therefore it is not unusual to use; over there.,E no dey unusual to use; over there,Computer science
"at other times, i've seen a tab character used.",I see a tab character wey dey use,Computer science
"to handle these cases, we'd need to set sep= "";"" orsep = "" "".","We need set sep= "";"" orsep = "" """,Computer science
it's conventional in csv les to include a quoting character for textual data.,E dey conventional for files wey use comma to separate to include one sign wey dey wrap words for text data.,Computer science
"as you can see by looking at the booksales. csv le, this is usually a double quote character,"".","E dey usually double quote character,""",Computer science
"but sometimes there is no quoting character at all, or you might see a single quote mark 'used instead.","But sometimes no sign wey dey wrap, or you fit see one small line for top' dem use am.",Computer science
"in those cases you'd need to specify quote= """" orquote = ""'"".","For those cases, you go need specify quote= """"or quote= ""'"".",Computer science
it's actually very common to receive csv les in which the rst few rows have nothing to do with the actual data.,Di very common to receive csv les for which di rst few rows don nothing to do wit di actual data.,Computer science
"instead, they provide a human readable summary of where the data came from, or maybe they include some technical info that doesn't relate to the data.","Diy provide human readable summary of where di data kom from, or maybe dem include some technical info wey dey relate to di data.",Computer science
"to tell rto ignore the rst (say)three lines, you'd need to set skip=3 na. strings.","Di rst (say)three lines, you need set skip=3 na. strings.",Computer science
often you'll get given data with missing values.,Di often you go get data wit missing value.,Computer science
"for one reason or another, some entries in the table are missing.","For one reason or another, some entries for di table dey missing",Computer science
"the data le needs to include a\special"" string to indicate that the entry is missing.","Di data le need to include a\special"" string to indicate say di entry dey missing",Computer science
"by default rassumes that this string is na, since that's what itwould do, but there's no universal agreement on what to use in this situation.","For default rassume say dis string dey na, since dat's what e go do, but no universal agreement on what to use for dis situation.",Computer science
if the le uses?,Di le use?,Computer science
"instead, then you'll need to set na. strings= ""?""","Di strings= ""?""",Computer science
it's kind of nice to be able to have all these options that you can tinker with.,E kind of nice to be able to get all dis options wey you fit tinker wit.,Computer science
"for instance, have a look at the data le shown pictured in figure 7.1.","for example, don make we look di data wey dey picture for figure 7.",Computer science
"this le contains almost the same data as the last le(except it doesn't have a header), and it uses a bunch of wacky features that you don't normally see in csv les.","Di le contains almost di same data as di last le(except e no get header), and e use bunch of wacky features wey you no see for csv les.",Computer science
"in fact, it just so happens that i'm going to have to change all ve of those arguments listed above in order to load this le.",E just so happen say i go get change all ve of arguments wey i dey list above for order to load dis le.,Computer science
"if i now have a look at the data i've loaded, i see that this is what i've got:> head(data ) v1 v2 v3 v4 1 january 31 0 high-238- figure 7.1: the booksales2. csv data le.",Di head(data) v1 v2 v3 v4 1 january 31 0 high-238 figure 7.1: di booksales2. csv data le.,Computer science
"it contains more or less the same data as the original booksales. csv data le, but has alot of very quirky features.","Di csv data le, but na lot of very quirky features.",Computer science
"however, since booksales2. csv doesn't contain the column names, rhas made them up.","Di bookales2. csv no contain di column name, rhas make dem up.",Computer science
"showing the kind of imagination i expect from insentient software, rdecided to call them v1, v2, v3and v4.","Di kind of imagination wey i expect from insentient software, rdecided to call dem v1, v2, v3 and v4",Computer science
"finally, because i told it that the le uses \nfi"" to denote missing data, rcorrectly gures out that the sales data for may are actually missing.","I tell am say di le use \nfi"" to denote missing data, rcorrectly gures out say di sales data wey dey missing.",Computer science
in real life you'll rarely see data this stupidly formatted. 237. 9. 2 loading data from spss (and other statistics packages)the commands listed above are the main ones we'll need for data les in this book.,Di commands wey dey listed above dey di main ones wey dey need for data wey dey for di book.,Computer science
but in real life we have many more possibilities.,We get many more possibilities but for real life we get many more possibilities but for real life we get many more possibilities,Computer science
"for example, you might want to read data les in from other statistics programs.","for example, you fit wan read data files from oda programs for statistics.",Computer science
"since spss is probably the most widely used statistics package in psychology, it's worth 23if you're lucky.","Na since spss dey probably di most widely used statistics package for psychology, e worth 23if you dey lucky.",Computer science
it's surprisingly easy.,E dey surprisingly easy,Computer science
"as far as other statistical software goes, the foreign package provides a wealth of possibilities.","As for other software for statistics, di special package provide plenty possibilities.",Computer science
"to open sas les, check out the read. ssd()and read. xport() functions.","To bring SAS files, check di read. ssd() and read. xport() functions.",Computer science
"to open data from minitab, the read. mtp() function is what you're looking for.",Di read. mtp() function dey what you look for,Computer science
"for stata, the read. dta() function is what you want.",Di read. dta() function dey what you wan.,Computer science
"for systat, the read. systat() function is what you're after.",Di read. systat() function dey what you dey after.,Computer science
"despite years of yelling at people for sending data tome encoded in a proprietary data format, i get sent alot of excel les.","Dem despite years of yelling at pipo for sending data tome encoded for proprietary data format, i get alot of excel les.",Computer science
"in general rdoes a pretty good job of opening them, but it's bit nicky because microsoft don't seem to be terribly fond of people using non-microsoft products, and goto some lengths to make it tricky.","For general, microsoft don dey pretty good job of opening dem, but e dey bit nicky because microsoft no seem to be terribly fond of pipo wey dey use non-microsoft products, and to try to make am tricky.",Computer science
"if you get an excel le, my suggestion would be to open it up in excel(or better yet, openoce, since that's free software)and then save the spreadsheet as a csv le.","Di suggestion go be to open am up for excel(or better yet, openoce, since dat free software)and then save di spreadsheet as csv le.",Computer science
"once you've got the data in that format, you can open it using read. csv().","Di data for dat format, you go open amusing read. csv()",Computer science
"and if it doesn't, you're probably justi ed in\suggesting"" to the person that sent you the le that they should send you a nice clean csv le instead.",Di person wey send you di le say dem go send you nice clean csv le forstead.,Computer science
"opening matlab data les( le extension. mat) slightly more complicated, and if it wasn't for the fact that matlab is so very widespread and is an extremely good platform, i wouldn't mention it.","Di fact say matlab dey widespread and dey extremely good platform, i go mention am.",Computer science
"however, since matlab is so widely used, i think it's worth discussing brie y how to get matlab and rto play nicely together.","Di however, since matlab dey widely used, i think e worth discuss brie y how to get matlab and rto play nicely together",Computer science
the way to do this is to install ther. matlab package(don't forget to install the dependencies too).,Di way to do dis nato install dir. matlab package(don't forget to install di dependencies too).,Computer science
"once you've installed and loaded the package, you have access to the readmat() function.",We get access to di readmat() function.,Computer science
"as any matlab user will know, the. mat les that matlab produces are workspace les, very much like the. rdata les that rproduces.","As any matlab user go know, di mat les wey matlab produce dey workspace, very much like di. rdata wey rproduce.",Computer science
so you can't import a. mat le as a data frame.,So you no fit import. mat file as one kind of table.,Computer science
"however, you can import it as a list.",Di list no dey import am as list.,Computer science
"it's fairly straightforward, though there are some subtleties that i'm ignoring.","E dey fairly straightforward, though there dey some subtleties wey i dey ignorin.",Computer science
"in particular,-240- note that if you don't have the rcompression package, you can't open matlab les above the version 6 format.","For particular,-240- note say if you no get di rcompression package, you go open matlab les above diversion 6 format.",Computer science
"so, if like me you've got a recent version of matlab, and don't have the rcompression package, you'll need to save your les using the-v6 ag otherwise rcan't open them.","If like me you go get recent version of matlab, and don get di rcompression package, you need to save your les using di-v6 ag odawise rcan't open dem",Computer science
"oh, and octave users?","E dey oh, and octave users?",Computer science
the foreign package contains a read. octave()command.,Di special package contain read. octave() command.,Computer science
"just this once, the world makes life easier for you folks than it does for all those cashed-up swanky matlab bastards.",Di world dey make life easier for you folks than e go for all those cashed-up swanky matlab bastards.,Computer science
"there are also alot of low level commands that you can use to write very speci c information to ale, so if you really, really needed to you could create your own write. obscurefiletype() function, but that's also along way beyond the scope of this book.","Na alot of low level command wey you fit use to write very speci c information to ale, so if you really truly need to make your own write",Computer science
"for now, all that i want you to recognise is that this capability is there if you need it.",I wan you recognise na say dis capability dey there if you need am,Computer science
ofcourse not.,For course no.,Computer science
if i've learned nothing else about rit's that you're never bloody done.,I learn nothing else about rit's say you no dey bloody done,Computer science
this listing doesn't even come close to exhausting the possibilities.,Di listing no dey even kom close to exhaust di possibilities.,Computer science
"databases are supported by the rodbc, dbi, and rmysql packages among others.","Di rodbc, dbi, and rmysql package among odas.",Computer science
you can open webpages using the rcurl package.,Di rcurl package.,Computer science
reading and writing json objects is supported through the rjson package.,Di rjson package dey support di rjson package.,Computer science
and soon.,Na soon.,Computer science
"in a sense, the right question is not so much\can rdo this?""",Di right question no so much\can rdo dis?,Computer science
"so much as\whereabouts in the wilds of cran isthe damn package that does it?""",For di wilds of cran dey di damn package wey dey do am?,Computer science
this can happen for all sorts of reasons.,Dis fit happen for plenty different tins.,Computer science
"sometimes when you import data from les, it can come to you in the wrong format: numbers sometimes get imported as text, dates usually get imported as text, and many other possibilities besides.","sometimes when you bring data from files, e fit come to you for wrong format: numbers sometimes dey import as text, dates usually dey import as text, and plenty other possibilities.",Computer science
"regardless of how you've ended up in this situation, there's avery good chance that sometimes you'll want to convert a variable from one class into another one.",Di very good chance say sometimes you go convert a variable from one class into one,Computer science
"or, to use the correct term, you want to coerce the variable from one class into another.","Or, to use di correct term, you wan coerce di variable from one class to another.",Computer science
"coercion is a little tricky, and so i'll only discuss the very basics here, using a few simple examples.","I go only discuss di very basics here, using few simple examples.",Computer science
"firstly, let's suppose we have a variable xthat is supposed to be representing a number, but the data le that you've been given has encoded it as text.","Na firstly, let suppose we get variable x wey dey suppose represent a number, but di data wey you dey give don encoded am as text.",Computer science
"it thinks that xis text, so it's not going to allow me to try to do mathematics using it!","E think say xis text, so e no go allow me to try to do mathematics use am",Computer science
"obviously, we need to coerce xfrom character to numeric.","Obviously, we need to turn x from word to number.",Computer science
"or, at least, you can't do anything useful:> as. numeric( ""hello world"") #this isn't going to work.","Or atleast, you no fit do anything useful:> as. numeric(""hello world"")# dis one no go work.",Computer science
that gives you a feel for how to change between numeric and character data.,Dat one give you feel for how to change from one to another numeric and words.,Computer science
what about logical data?,For true and false things?,Computer science
"similarly""f"",""false"",""false"", and""false"" all become false.","Na similarly""f"",""false"",""false"", and""false"" all dey false",Computer science
all other strings convert to na.,all oda words go turn to NA.,Computer science
"when you go back the other way using as. character(), true converts to""true"" and false converts to""false"".","When you go back di other way using as. character(), TRUE convert to""TRUE"" and FALSE convert to""FALSE"".",Computer science
converting numbers to logicals {again using as. logical(){ is straightforward.,Di logical()na straightforward.,Computer science
"following the convention in the study of logic, the number 0converts to false.",Di number 0convert to false.,Computer science
everything else is true.,E no dey true,Computer science
"going back using as. numeric(), false converts to 0and true converts to 1.","Di numeric(), false convert to 0 and true convert to 1.",Computer science
"at the simplest level, we've seen numeric data, logical data and character data.","For di simplest level, we don see numbers, true and false things, and words.",Computer science
"however, we've also encountered some more complicated kinds of variables, namely factors, formulas, data frames and lists.","But we don also encounter some harder kinds of things: factors, formulas, tables, and lists.",Computer science
"we'll see a few more specialised data structures later on in this book, but there's a few more generic ones that i want to talk about in passing.","We go see few more specialised data structure later on for dis book, but na few more generic ones wey i wan to talk about for pass.",Computer science
"none of them are central to the rest ofthe book(and in fact, the only one we'll even see anywhere else is the matrix), but they do crop up a fair bit in real life.","Di only one wey dey central to di rest of di book(and for true, di only one we go see anywhere else dey di matrix), but dem do crop up fair bit for real life.",Computer science
that time has come.,Di time don kom.,Computer science
"much like a data frame, a matrix is basically a big rectangular table of data, and in fact there are quite a few similarities-242- between the two.","Di one kind of table dey big rectangular table of data, and for true e dey quite few similarities-242-between di two.",Computer science
"however, there are also some key dierences, so it's important to talk about matrices in a little detail.","E dey also some key dierences, so e important to talk about matrices for little detail",Computer science
"notice that, when we bound the two vectors together, rretained the names ofthe original variables as row names.","Di two vectors together, rretained di name of di original variables as row name.",Computer science
"we could delete these if we wanted by typing rownames(m)<-null, but i generally prefer having meaningful names attached to my variables, so i'll keep them.","I generally prefer make rownames(m)<-null, but i generally prefer having names wey get meaning attach to my variables, so i fit keep dem",Computer science
"for instance, m[2, 3]pulls out the entry in the 2nd row and 3rd column ofthe matrix(i. e,7), whereas m[2,]pulls out the entire 2nd row, and m[,3] pulls out the entire 3rd column.","for example, m[2,3] pull out di entry for di 2nd row and 3rd column of di matrix(i. e, 7), while m[2,]pull out di whole 2nd row, and m[,3]pull out di whole 3rd column.",Computer science
"however, it's worth noting that when you pull out a column, rwill print the results horizontally, not vertically.","But e worth to note say when you pull out column, R go print di results horizontally, no be for up-down.",Computer science
the reason for this relates to how matrices(and arrays generally)are implemented.,Di reason for dis relates to how matrices(and array generally)dey implemented,Computer science
"the original matrix mistreated as a two-dimensional objects, containing 2 rows and 3 columns.","Di first table m dey dem take am as two-dimensional object, wey contain 2 rows and 3 columns.",Computer science
"however, whenever you pull out a single row or a single column, the result is considered to be one-dimensional.",Di result dey consider one-dimensional.,Computer science
"as far as ris concerned there's no real reason to distinguish between a one-dimensional object printed vertically(a column)and a one-dimensional object printed horizontally(a row), and it prints them all out horizontally. 25there is also away of using only a single index, but due to the internal structure to how rde nes a matrix, it works very dierently to what we saw previously with data frames.","Di way wey dey use only single index, but due to di internal structure to how rde nes a matrix, we dey work very dierently to what we dey see previously wit one kind of table.",Computer science
"the single-index approach is illustrated in table 7. 5 but i don't really want to focus on it since we'll never really need it for this book, and matrices don't play anywhere near as large a role in this book as data frames do.","Di single-index approach dey illustrated for table 7. 5 but i no fit focus on am since we no fit need am for dis book, and matrices don play anywhere near as large role for dis book as one kind of table do.",Computer science
"the critical dierence between a data frame and a matrix is that, in a data frame, we have this notion that each ofthe columns corresponds to a dierent variable: as a consequence, the columns in a data frame can be of dierent data types.","as result, di critical dierence wey dey between one kind of table and matrix dey say, for one kind of table, we get dis notion say each of di columns fit be of dierent data type.",Computer science
"the rst column could be numeric, and the second column could contain character strings, and the third column could be logical data.","Di first up-down fit be numeric, di second up-down fit contain character strings, and di third up-down fit be true and false things.",Computer science
"in that sense, there is a fundamental asymmetry build into a data frame, because ofthe fact that columns represent variables 24you can also use the matrix()command itself, but i think the inding"" approach is a little more intuitive.","Di fundamental symmetry build into one kind of table, because of di fact say columns represent variables 24you go use di matrix()command itself, but i think di inding"" approach dey intuitive.",Computer science
"that is, suppose mis the 23 matrix, and visa 13 row vector.","Di 23 matrix, suppose mis di 23 matrix, and vis 13 row vector.",Computer science
"it is impossible to multiply mv, since the dimensions don't conform, but you canmultiply by the corresponding column vector, mv1.","Di dimensions don conform, but you fitmultiply by di corresponding column vector, mv1.",Computer science
"so, if i set v <-m[2,] and then try to calculate m%*% v, which you'd think would fail, it actually works because rtreats the one dimensional array as if it were a column vector for the purposes of matrix multiplication.","If i set v <-m[2,] and then try to calculate m %%v, wey you think go fail, e actually works because rtreat di one dimensional array as if e dey column vector for di purpose of matrix multiplication.",Computer science
"note that if both objects are one dimensional arrays/vectors, this leads to ambiguity since vv1(inner product)and v1v(outer product)yield dierent answers.","Di note say if both objects dey one dimensional array vectors, dis lead to ambiguity since vv1(inner product)and v1v(outer product)yield dierent answers.",Computer science
"in this situation, the %*%operator returns the inner product not the outer product.",Di%*%operator return di inner product no di outer product,Computer science
"to understand all the details, check out the help documentation.","For di papers wey dey help, to look at di papers wey dey help",Computer science
"on the left we see the row and column version, which is identical to the corresponding indexing scheme for a data frame ofthe same size.","Di row and column version, wey dey identical to di corresponding indexing scheme for one kind of table of di same size.",Computer science
"on the right we see the single-index version, which is quite dierent to what we would get with a data frame.","We see di single-index version, wey dey quite dierent to what we go get wit one kind of table.",Computer science
"the reason for this is that, for both data frames and matrices, the ow and column""version exists to allow the human user to interact with the object in the psychologically meaningful way: since both data frames and matrices are basically just tables of data, it's the same in each case.","Di reason for dis na say, for both one kind of table and matrices, di ow and column""version exist to allow di human user to interact wit di object for di wey dey important for mind study way: since both one kind of table and matrices dey just table of data, na di same for each case.",Computer science
"however, the single-index version is really a method for you to interact with the object in terms of its internal structure, and the internals for data frames and matrices are quite dierent.","Di single-index version dey really a method for you to interact wit di object for terms of its internal structure, and di internals for one kind of table and matrices dey quite dierent.",Computer science
(which can be qualitatively dierent to eachother) and rows represent cases(which cannot).,Di row represent cases(which no dey)and rows represent case(which no dey)and rows represent case(which no dey,Computer science
matrices are intended to be thought of in a dierent way.,Di matrices dey intended to be thought of in a dierent way,Computer science
"at a fundamental level, a matrix really is just one variable: it just happens that this one variable is formatted into rows and columns.",E just happen say dis one variable dey formatted into rows and columns,Computer science
"if you want a matrix of numeric data, every single element in the matrix must be a number.","If you wan one table wey get numbers, each one for inside for di matrix must be number.",Computer science
"if you want a matrix of character strings, every single element in the matrix must be a character string.","If you wan one table wey get words, each one for inside for di matrix must be character string.",Computer science
"if you try to mix data of dierent types together, then rwill either spit out an error, or quietly coerce the underlying data into a list.","If you try mix different types of data together, den R go either spit out error, or to change without noise di real numbers into list.",Computer science
"and in fact, if we now typed in class(m[1])we'd see that this is exactly what has happened.",If we dey type for class(m[1])we see say dis na exactly what we dey happen.,Computer science
there's only one more thing i want to talk about regarding matrices.,Only one more thing I wan talk about concerning matrices.,Computer science
"the concept behind a matrix is very much a mathematical one, and in mathematics a matrix is a most de nitely a two-dimensional object.","Di concept wey dey behind matrix dey very much mathematical one, and for mathematics a matrix dey very much mathematical one, and for mathematics a matrix dey very much mathematical one, and for mathematics a matrix dey very much mathematical one, and for mathematics a matrix dey very much mathematical one, and for mathematics a matrix dey very much mathematical one, and for mathematics a matrix dey",Computer science
"however, when doing data analysis, we often have reasons to want to use higher dimensional tables(e. g, sometimes you need to cross-tabulate three variables against eachother).","But when dey work with numbers, we often get reasons to wan use higher-dimensional tables(e. g, sometimes you need cross-tabulate three variables against eachother).",Computer science
"you can't do this with matrices, but you can do it with arrays.","E no fit do dis wit matrices, but you fit do am wit arrays.",Computer science
"an array is just like a matrix, except it can have more than two dimensions if you need it to.","Di array dey just like matrix, except e fit get more than two dimensions if you need am to.",Computer science
"in fact, as far as ris concerned a matrix is just a special kind of array, in much the same way that a data frame is a special kind of list.","as for ris concerned a matrix dey just special kind of array, for much di same way say one kind of table dey special kind of list.",Computer science
"however, it's often very useful to explicitly tell rthat your variable is ordinal scale, and if so you need to declare it to be anordered factor.","E dey very useful to tell r say your variable dey ordinal scale, and if so you need declare am to be anordered factor.",Computer science
"to illustrate how this works, let's create an ordered factor called likert. ordinal and have a look at it: 26i should note that if you type class(xtab. 3d)you'll discover that this is a""table"" object rather than an""array"" object.","Di 26i should note say if you type class(xtab. 3d)you go discover say dis dey a""table"" object wey dey be""array"" object",Computer science
"however, this labelling is only skin deep.","Di labelling dey only skin deep however, dis labelling dey only skin deep",Computer science
the underlying data structure here is actually an array.,Di real numbers structure here dey actually an array,Computer science
"advanced users may wish to check this using the command class(unclass(xtab. 3d)), but it's not important for our purposes.","Di pipo wey sabi well go wish to check dis using di command class(unclass(xtab. 3d), but e no important for awa purpose.",Computer science
"because i wanted to order my levels in terms of increasing strength of agreement, and because a response of 1 corresponded to the strongest agreement and 7 to the strongest disagreement, it was important that i tellrto encode 7 as the lowest value and 1 as the largest.","E dey important say i tell my level for terms of increasing strength of agreement, and because a response of 1 correspond to di strongest agreement and 7 to di strongest disagreement, e dey important say i tell my level as di lowest value and 1 as di largest.",Computer science
"always check this when creating an ordered factor: it's very easy to accidentally encode your data\upside down""if you're not paying attention.","E dey easy to accidentally encode your data\upside down""if you no pay attention.",Computer science
"however, since i don't discuss that in this book, i won't go into details.","I don discuss say for dis book, i no go into details",Computer science
"to a rst approximation we can say that there are 365 days in a year,24 hours in a day,60 minutes in an hour and 60 seconds in a minute, but that's not quite correct.","Di rst approximation wey dey say 365 days for year,24 hours for a day,60 minutes for a hour and 60 seconds for minute, but dat no dey correct.",Computer science
"the length ofthe solar day is not exactly 24 hours, and the length of solar year is not exactly 365 days, so we have a complicated system of corrections that have to be made to keep the time and date system working.","Di length of di solar day no dey 24 hours, and di length of solar year no dey exactly 24 hours, and di length of solar year no dey 365 days, so we get hard system of correction wey dey make we keep di time and date system work.",Computer science
"on top of that, the measurement of time is usually taken relative to a local time zone, and most(but not all)time zones have both a standard time and a daylight savings time, though the date at which the switch occurs is not at all standardised.","Di measurement of time dey take relative to local time zone, and most(but no all)time zone don get standard time and daylight saving time, though di date wey di switch occurs no dey standardised.",Computer science
"so, as a form of data, times and dates suck.","So, as form of data, times and dates dey suck.",Computer science
"unfortunately, they're also important.","For unfortunately, dem dey important.",Computer science
sometimes it's possible to avoid having to use any complicated system for dealing with times and dates.,Sometimes e possible to avoid using any hard system for to work with times and dates.,Computer science
"often you just want to know what year something happened in, so you can just use numeric data: in quite alot of situations something as simple as this. year<- 2011 works just ne.","For quite alot of situation something as simple as dis. year<- 2011 work just na, so you fit just use numbers",Computer science
"if you can getaway with that for your application, this is probably the best thing to do.",Di best thing to do.,Computer science
"however, sometimes you really do need to know the actual date.",But sometimes you really need know di real day.,Computer science
"or, even worse, the actual time.",Di actual time.,Computer science
the goal here is to show you the basics of what you need to do if you ever encounter this kind of data in real life.,Di goal here dey to show you di basics of wetin you need do if you ever encounter dis kind of data for real life.,Computer science
and then we'll all agree never to speak of it again.,We go all agree never to speak of am again,Computer science
"to start with, let's talk about the date.","For di date, let talk about di date",Computer science
"as it happens, modern operating systems are very good at keeping track ofthe time and date, and can even handle all those annoying timezone issues and daylight savings pretty well.","Di modern system wey dey control komputa hardware and give chance to odas programs to run well, make dem function as dem suppose dey good for keeping track of di time and date, and fit even handle all those annoying timezone issues and daylight savings well.",Computer science
so rtakes the quite sensible view that it can just ask the operating system what the date is.,"Di quite sensible view say e fit ask di system wey dey control wetin computer fit do, e dey manage hardware and software, make am possible for apps and services to dey run, e be like brain wey dey direct computer what di date dey.",Computer science
"but, it does rather look like today is just a character string, doesn't it?","But, e dey look like today na just character string, e no dey e?",Computer science
"that would be a problem, because dates really do have a numeric character to them, and it would be nice to be able to do basic addition and subtraction to them.","Di dates really don get numeric character to dem, and e go nice to do basic addition and subtraction to dem.",Computer science
"well, fear not.",Di fear no dey.,Computer science
"if you type in class(today), rwill tell you that the class ofthe today variable is""date"".","Di class of di today variable dey""date""",Computer science
"what this means is that, hidden underneath this text string that prints out an actual date, ractually has a numeric representation. 27what that means is that you actually can add and subtract days.","Di means na say, hidden underneath dis text string wey dey to show di real day, ractually get numeric representation. 27what dat means na say, hidden underneath dis text string wey dey to show di real day, ractually get numeric representation.",Computer science
"rprovides a number of functions for working with dates, but i don't want to talk about them in any detail.",I no wan to talk about dem for any detail.,Computer science
"if the data happen to be strings formatted exactly according to the international standard notation(i. e, yyyy-mm-dd )then the conversion is straightforward, because that's the format that rexpects to see by default.","I. e, yyyy-mm-dd )then di conversion dey straightforward, because dat's di format wey dey default.",Computer science
"you can convert dates from other formats too, but it's slightly trickier, and beyond the scope of this book.","Di book dey trickier, and beyond di scope of dis book.",Computer science
what about times?,How about times?,Computer science
"well, times are even more annoying, so much so that i don't intend to talk about them at all in this book, other than to point you in the direction of some vaguely useful things.","I don intend to talk about dem for all for dis book, oda than to point you for di direction of some vaguely useful things.",Computer science
"ritself does provide you with some tools for handling time data, and in fact there are two separate classes of data that are used to represent times, known by the odd names posixct and posixlt.","Di ritself don provide you wit some tools for handling time data, and for true na two separate classes of data wey dey use to represent times, and for true na two separate classes of data wey dey use to represent times, wey dey known by di odd names posixct and posixlt.",Computer science
"you can use these to work with times if you want to, but for most applications you would probably be better o downloading thechron package, which provides some much more user friendly tools for working with times and dates.","Dichron package wey dey provide some more user friendly tools wey dey work wit times if you wan to, but for most applications you go probably be better o download dichron package, wey provide some much more user friendly tools wey dey work wit times if you wan to, but for most applications you go probably be better o download dichron package, wey provide some much more user friendly tools wey dey work wit times if you wan to, but for most applications you go probably be better o download dichron package, wey",Computer science
"they're all kind of useful things to know about, but they are really just\odd topics""that don't t with the other examples.","Diy dey all kind of useful things wey dey know about, but dem dey really just\odd topics"" wey no dey wit di oda examples.",Computer science
"here goes: 27date objects are coded as the number of days that have passed since january 1, 1970.","Di 27date objects dey coded as di how many days wey dey pass since january 1, 1970",Computer science
"not only is it annoying and counterintuitive at times, but it has nasty practical consequences.","E no only dey annoying and counterintuitive for times, but e don get nasty practical consequences.",Computer science
"as we were all taught in highschool, there are some numbers that cannot be represented as a decimal number of nite length, nor can they be represented as any kind of fraction between two whole numbers;?","As we dey all taught for highschool, na some numbers wey no dey represent as decimal number of nite length, nor can dem represent any kind of fraction wey dey between two whole numbers;?",Computer science
in everyday life we mostly don't care about this.,We no care about dis.,Computer science
"i'm perfectly happy to approximate as 3. 14, quite frankly.","I dey very happy to approximate am as 3.14, to be honest.",Computer science
"sure, this does produce some rounding errors from time to time, and if i'd used a more detailed approximation like 3.","Sure, dis one dey to give small mistakes from time to time, and if I use one better guess like 3.14159, e go reduce di error.",Computer science
"i'd be less likely to run into those issues, but in all honesty i've never needed my calculations to be that precise.","I dey less likely to run into those issues, but for all honesty i no need my calculation to be dat exacte.",Computer science
"in other words, although our pencil and paper calculations cannot represent the number exactly as a decimal number, we humans are smart enough to realise that we don't care.","Di pencil and paper calculation no represent di number exactly as decimal number, we humans dey e know say more must dey come say we no care.",Computer science
"computers, unfortunately, are dumb. and you don't have to dig too deep in order to run into some very weird issues that arise because they can't represent numbers perfectly.",E no get to dig too deep for order to run into some very weird issues wey dey arise because dem no represent numbers perfectly.,Computer science
"your rst thought might be that ris broken, and you might be considering switching to some other language.","Your di first thing wey come to mind fit be say R don break, and you fit dey consider switching to oda kind of code.",Computer science
"but you can reproduce the same error in dozens of dierent programming languages, so the issue isn't speci c tor. your next thought might be that it's something in the hardware, but you can get the same mistake on any machine.","Di next thought might be say na something for di hardware, but you fit reproduce di same error for dozens of dierent programming languages, so di issue no dey speci c tor.",Computer science
it's something deeper than that.,E dey something deeper than dat,Computer science
"the fundamental issue at hand is oating point arithmetic, which is a fancy way of saying that computers will always round a number to xed number of signi cant digits.","Di fundamental issue for hand dey oating point arithmetic, wey dey fancy way say computers go round a number to xed number of signi cant digit.",Computer science
"the exact number of signi cant digits that the computer stores isn't important to us: 28what matters is that whenever the number that the computer is trying to store is very long, you get rounding errors.","For 28what matters is say whenever di number wey di computer dey try to store very long, you go get round errors.",Computer science
that's actually what's happening with our example above.,Na actually wey dey happen wit awa example above.,Computer science
"there are teeny tiny rounding errors that have appeared in the computer's storage ofthe numbers, and these rounding errors have in turn caused the internal storage of 0.1+ 0. 2 to be a tiny bit dierent from the internal storage of 0. 3.","Di tiny rounding errors wey dey appear for di computer's storage of di numbers, and dis rounding errors don in turn caused di way wey e keep for inside of 0.1+ 0. 2 to be tiny bit di inside storage of 0.",Computer science
how big are these dierences?,How big dey those dierences?,Computer science
let's askr: > 0.1+ 0. 2-0. 3[1] 5. 551115e-17 very tiny indeed.,Di 0.1+ 0. 2-0. 3,Computer science
no sane person would care about dierences that small.,Nano sane person go care about dierences wey small,Computer science
it returns a value of true only when the two values that it is given are absolutely identical to eachother.,Di two values wey dem give dey true only when di two values wey dem give dey identical to each oda,Computer science
and in this case they are not.,Di case dem no dey.,Computer science
"however, this only answers half ofthe question.",Di only answer half of di question,Computer science
"the other half ofthe question is, why are we getting these rounding errors when we're only using nice simple numbers like 0.1, 0. 2 and 0. 3?","Di oda half of di question na, why dey we get these rounding errors wen we no use nice simple numbers like 0.1, 0. 2 and 0. 3?",Computer science
this seems a little counterintuitive.,Di seem a little counterintuitive,Computer science
"the answer is that, like most programming languages, rdoesn't store numbers using their decimal expansion(i. e, base 10: using digits 0, 1, 2, 9).","Di answer na say, like most programming languages, r no store numbers using dia decimal expansion(i. e, base 10: using digits 0, 1, 2, 9).",Computer science
we humans like to write our numbers in base 10 because we have 10 ngers.,We human like to write awa numbers for base 10 because we don get 10 ngers,Computer science
"but computers don't have ngers, they have transistors; and transistors are built to store 2 numbers not 10.","But computers don get ngers, dem don get transistors; and transistors dey build to store 2 numbers no 10.",Computer science
"so you can see where this is going: the internal storage of a number in ris based on its binary expansion(i. e, base 2: using digits 0 and 1).","So you fit see where dis one dey go: di way wey e keep for inside of number for R dey based on im di base‐2 way(i. e, base 2: using only 0 and 1).",Computer science
"and unfortunately, here's what the binary expansion of 0. 1 looks like:: 1(decimal): 00011001100110011:::(binary)and the pattern continues forever.","And unfortunately, here's wetin di base‐2 way of 0.1 look like: 0.1(decimal) = 0.00011001100110011. (binary)and di pattern continue forever.",Computer science
"in other words, from the perspective of your computer, which likes to 28for advanced users: type?","Di perspective of your computer, wey like to 28for pipo wey sabi well: type?",Computer science
double for more information.,See? double for more tins.,Computer science
"to a computer,0. 1 is actually an in nitely long binary number!","For a computer,0. 1 dey actually one for nitely long binary number",Computer science
"as a consequence, the computer can make minor errors when doing calculations here.",Di computer fit make minor errors wen dey do calculations here,Computer science
"with any luck you now understand the problem, which ultimately comes down to the twin fact that(1) we usually thinkin decimal numbers and computers usually compute with binary numbers, and (2)computers are nite machines and can't store in nitely long numbers.","Di problem wey ultimately kom down to di twin fact say(1) we dey think for decimal numbers and computers dey compute wit binary numbers, and (3)computers dey nite machines and no dey store for nitely long numbers.",Computer science
the only questions that remain are when you should care and what you should do about it.,Di only question wey dey remain na when you go care and what you go do about it,Computer science
"thankfully, you don't have to care very often: because the rounding errors are small, the only practical situation that i've seen this issue arise for is when you want to test whether an arithmetic fact holds exactly numbers are identical(e. g, is someone's response time equal to exactly 20:33 seconds?)","Di only practical situation wey i dey see for di rounding errors dey small, di only practical situation wey i dey arise for dey when you wan to test whether arithmetic fact holds exactly numbers dey identical(e. g, na someone's how fast person answer equal to exactly 20:33 seconds?)",Computer science
"this is pretty rare in real world data analysis, but justin case it does occur, it's better to use a test that allows for a small tolerance.","E dey rare for real numbers work, but just for case e dey occur, e better to use test wey dey allow for small tolerance.",Computer science
"that is, if the dierence between the two numbers is below a certain threshold value, we deem them to be equal for all practical purposes.","If di dierence between di two numbers dey below certain threshold value, we dey equal for all practical purposes.",Computer science
the easiest way to explain it is to give a simple example.,Di easiest way to explain am nato give simple example,Computer science
"suppose i have two vectors of dierent length, xand y, and i want to add them together.","Di suppose i get two vectors of dierent length, xand y, and i wan add dem together",Computer science
"that is, the rst element of xis added to the rst element of y, and the second element of xis added to the second element of y.","Dat mean say, di first one of x dey add to di first one of y, and di second one of x dey add to di second one of y.",Computer science
"however, when rreaches the third element of x there isn't any corresponding element in y, so it returns to the beginning: thus, the third element of xis added to the rstelement of y.",Di third element of x dey add to di rstelement of y.,Computer science
this process continues until rreaches the last element of x.,Di process continue until rreach di last element of x.,Computer science
and that's all there is to it really.,Di all wey dey to am really.,Computer science
"the same recycling rule also applies for subtraction, multiplication and division.","Di same di way wey e dey repeat also apply for subtraction, multiplication, and division.",Computer science
"if all your numbers are integers(whole numbers), then you can explicitly tell rto store them as integers by adding an lsux at the end ofthe number.","Di number dey integers(whole numbers), then you fit tell rto store dem as integers by adding lsux for di end of di number",Computer science
"that is, an assignment like x <- 2l tells rto assign xa value of 2, and to store it as an integer rather than as a binary expansion.","Dat mean say, assignment like to put integer 2 for x tell R to assign x value of 2, and store am as integer not dat one as di base‐2 way.",Computer science
integer for more details.,Na integer for more details,Computer science
"this question seems simple, but there's a fair bit to it.","Di question dey simple, but e dey fair bit to dey",Computer science
"in the description i gave earlier, i talked about the workspace as an abstract location in which rvariables are stored.",I tok about di workspace as abstract location wey rvariables dey store.,Computer science
"that's basically true, but it hides a couple of key details.","Di key details dey true, but e dey hide couple of key details.",Computer science
"for example, any time you have ropen, it has to store lotsof things in the computer's memory, not just your variables.","for example, any time you don ropen, e don store lots of things for di computer's memory, no just your variables.",Computer science
"for example, the who()function that i wrote has to be stored in memory somewhere, right?","for example, di who()function wey i write don store for memory somewhere, right?",Computer science
if it weren't i wouldn't be able to use it.,I no go use am,Computer science
that's pretty obvious.,Na pretty obvious.,Computer science
"but equally obviously it's not in the workspace either, otherwise you should have seen it!","Di workspace no dey for workspace either, odawise you go see am",Computer science
here's what's happening.,We dey suppose dey happenin,Computer science
"rneeds to keep track of alot of dierent things, so what it does is organise them into environments, each of which can contain lots of dierent variables and functions.","Di rneeds to keep track of alot of di dierent things, so we go dey organise dem into environments, each of which fit contain lots of di dierent variables and functions.",Computer science
your workspace is one such environment.,Di workspace na one such environment,Computer science
every package that you have loaded is another environment.,E dey another environment.,Computer science
"and everytime you call a function, rbrie y creates a temporary environment in which the function itself can work, which is then deleted after the calculations are complete.","For everytime you call a function, rbrie y create temporary environment wey di function dey work, which dey deleted afta di calculations dey complete.",Computer science
"the rst one,"". globalenv"" is the technicallycorrect name for your workspace.","Di rst one,"". globalenv"" dey di technicallycorrect name for your workspace",Computer science
no-one really calls it that: it's either called the workspace or the global-250- environment.,Di workspace or di global-250- environment.,Computer science
you just have to be a bit more explicit in your command.,Di command no dey explicit for your command.,Computer science
"in fact, you can actually use the environment panel in rstudio to browse any of your loaded packages(just click on the text that says\global environment""and you'll see a dropdown menu like the one shown in figure 7.2).","For fact, you go use di place wey show your things for rstudio to browse any of your loaded package(just to press di text wey says\global environment""and you go see dropdown menu like di one show for figure 7.2)",Computer science
"whenever it is introduced, the author ofthe book usually mentions that the attach()function can be used to ttach"" the data frame to the search path, so you don't have to use the$operator.","Di author of di book usually mention say di attach()function go use to ttach"" di one kind of table to di search path, so you no need use di$operator.",Computer science
"that is, if i use the command attach(df)to attach my data frame, i no longer need to type df$variable, and instead i can just type variable.","Dat mean say, if I use command attach(df)to bring my table, I no longer need type df$variable, and instead I fit just write di name.",Computer science
"this is true as far as it goes, but it's very misleading and novice users often get led astray by this description, because it hides alot of critical details.","E dey true as fore go, but e dey very misleading and novice users dey get led astray by dis description, bikos e dey hide alot of critical details.",Computer science
"here is the very abridged description: when you use the attach()function, what rdoes is create an entirely new environment in the search path, just like when you load a package.","Di very abridged description: when you use di attach()function, wey dey create entirely new environment for di search path, just like when you load package.",Computer science
"then, what it does is copy all ofthe variables in your data frame into this new environment.",We go copy all of di variables for your one kind of table into dis new environment.,Computer science
"when you do this, however, you end up with two completely dierent versions of all your variables: one in the original data frame, and one in the new environment.","Dem end up wit two completely dierent versions of all your variables: one for di original one kind of table, and one for di new environment.",Computer science
whenever you make a statement like df$variable you're working with the variable inside the data frame; but when you just type variable you're working with the copy in the new environment.,Di statement like df$variable you dey work wit di variable inside di one kind of table; but wen you just write di name you dey work wit di copy for di new environment.,Computer science
and here's the part that really upsets new users: changes to one version are notre ected in the other version.,Di part wey really upsets new users: change to one version no dey re ected for di oda version,Computer science
"as a consequence, it's really easy for rto end up with dierent value stored in the two dierent locations, and you end up really confused as a result.","E dey easy for rto end up wit dierent value wey dey store for two di locations, and you end up really confused as result.",Computer science
"to be fair to the writers ofthe attach()function, the help documentation does actually state all this quite explicitly, and they even give some examples of how this can cause confusion at the bottom ofthe help page.","Di papers wey dey help don state all dis quite explicitly, and dem even give some examples of how dis fit cause confusion for di bottom of di help page.",Computer science
"andi can actually see how it can be very useful to create copies of your data in a separate location(e. g, it lets you make all kinds of modi cations and deletions to the data without having to touch the original data frame).","I go see howe dey useful to create copies of your data for separate location(e. g, e make you make all kinds of modi cations and deletions to di data without touch di original one kind of table).",Computer science
"however, i don't think it's helpful for new users, since it means you have to be very careful to keep track of which copy you're talking about.","I no think e dey helpful for new users, since e mean you go keep track of which copy you dey talking about.",Computer science
"as a consequence of all this, for the purpose of this book i've decided not to use the attach()function.",I decide no use di attach()function.,Computer science
it's something that you can 30for advanced users: that's a little over simplistic in two respects.,E dey something wey you fit 30for pipo wey sabi well: na a little over simplistic for two respects.,Computer science
"first, it's a terribly imprecise way of talking about scoping.","First, e be one bad way to talk about scoping.",Computer science
"second, it might give you the impression that all the variables in question are actually loaded into memory.",E go give you di impression say all di variables wey dey question dey loaded into memory,Computer science
"that's not quite true, since that would be very wasteful of memory.","Dem no dey true, since dem no dey quite true, since dat suppose be very wasteful of memory.",Computer science
"instead rhas a\lazy loading""mechanism, in which what r actually does is create a\promise"" to load those objects if they're actually needed.","Forstead rhas a lazy loading""mechanism, wey dey create a promise""to load those objects if dem no need.",Computer science
"for details, check out the delayedassign() function.",Di delayedassign() function.,Computer science
there area number of books out there that extend this discussion.,Di number of books out there wey dey extend dis discussion,Computer science
"a couple of my favourites are spector (2008)\data manipulation with r""and teetor (2011)\r cookbook"".","Couple of my favourites na Spector (2008)""one book name""and Teetor (2011)""another book name"".",Computer science
basic programming machine dreams hold a special vertigo.,di first things for coding wetin machine dey think hold special vertigo.,Computer science
"for one reason or another, programming (like mathematics and statistics)is often perceived by people on the\outside"" as a black art, a magical skill that can be learned only by some kind of super-nerd.","Di programming(like mathematics and statistics)dey often perceived by pipo for di\outside"" as a black art, a magical skill wey dey learn only by some kind of super-nerd.",Computer science
"it's certainly true that advanced programming is avery specialised skill: several dierent skills actually, since there's quite alot of dierent kinds of programming out there.","E dey true say advanced programming dey very specialised skill, since e dey quite alot of dierent kinds of programming out there",Computer science
"however, the basics of programming aren't all that hard, and you can accomplish alot of very impressive things just using those basics.","Di basics of programming no dey all dat hard, and you fit accomplish alot of impressive things just using dia basics.",Computer science
"stripped to its essentials, programming is nothing more(and nothing less)than the process of writing out a bunch of instructions that a computer can understand.",Di process of writing out bunch of instructions wey a computer fit understand.,Computer science
"to phrase this slightly dierently, when you write a computer program, you need to write it in a programming language that the computer knows how to interpret.","Di computer program, you need to write am for kod langwej wey dem dey use write instruksiyon wey komputa go fit undastand wey di computer know how to interpret.",Computer science
ris one such language.,Na one such language.,Computer science
"although i've been having you type all your commands at the command prompt, and all the commands in this book so far have been shown as if that's what i were doing, it's also quite possible(and as you'll see shortly, shockingly easy)to write a program using these rcommands.","I dey having you type all your commands for di place wey you type command, and all di commands for dis book so far don show as if dat's what i dey do, e dey quite possible(and as you see shortly, shockingly easy)to write program using dis rcommands.",Computer science
"the idea behind a script is that, instead of typing your commands into the rconsole one at a time, instead you write them all in a text le.","Di idea wey dey behind a script dey say, not dat one typing your commands into di rconsole one by one, instead you write dem all for text le.",Computer science
"then, once you've nished writing them and saved the text le, you can get rto execute all the commands in your le by using the source()function.","for now, once you dey write demand saved di text le, you fit get rto execute all di commands for your le by using di source()function.",Computer science
"in a moment i'll show you exactly how this is done, but rst i'd better explain why you should care.","I goto show you exactly how dis dey done, but first i go explain why you go care",Computer science
"before discussing scripting and programming concepts in anymore detail, it's worth stopping to ask why you should bother.",Di worth stop to ask why you go bother,Computer science
"after all, if you look at the rcommands that i've used everywhere else this book, you'll notice that they're all formatted as if i were typing them at the command line.","If you make we look di rcommands wey i use everywhere else dis book, you fit notice say dem dey all formatted as if i dey typ dem for di place wey you type command.",Computer science
do not be fooled by this.,Dem no dey fooled by dis,Computer science
the reason that i've done it that way is purely for pedagogical reasons.,Di reason wey i dey done say way dey purely for pedagogical reasons.,Computer science
"as much as possible, i want you to see what each function does in isolation, one command at a time.","I wan you see what each function dey in isolation, one command for time.",Computer science
"by forcing myself to write everything as if it were being typed at the command line, it imposes a kind of discipline on me: it prevents me from piecing together lots of commands into one big script.",Di place wey you type command dey impose kind discipline on me: e prevent me from piecing lots of commands into one big script.,Computer science
"from a teaching(and learning)perspective i think that's the right thing to do. but from a data analysis perspective, it is not.","Di right thing wey dey do, but from to study numbers perspective, e no dey.",Computer science
"when you start analysing real world data sets, you will rapidly nd yourself needing to write scripts.","When you start to check real numbers, you go quickly find yourself needing to write codes.",Computer science
"to understand why scripts are so very useful, it maybe helpful to consider the drawbacks to typing commands directly at the command prompt.","As scripts dey so useful, e dey helpful to consider di drawbacks to typing command directly for di place wey you type command.",Computer science
"the approach that we've been adopting so far, in which you type commands one at a time, and rsits there patiently in between commands, is referred to as theinteractive style.","Di approach wey we dey adopt so far, in which you type command one for time, and rsits there patiently for between commands, dey dem dey call diinteractive style.",Computer science
"doing your data analysis this way is rather like having a conversation. avery annoying conversation between you and your dataset, in which you and the data aren't directly speaking to eachother, and so you have to rely on rto pass messages back and forth.","Di way dey like having conversation between you and your group of related numbers or data wey belong together, wey you and di data no dey directly speaking to each oda, and so you go rely on rto pass messages back and forth.",Computer science
"this approach makes alot of sense when you're just trying out a few ideas: maybe you're trying to gure out what analyses are sensible for your data, or maybe just you're trying to remember how the various rfunctions work, so you're just typing in a few commands until you get the one you want.","Di approach make alot of sense wen you dey try out few ideas: maybe you dey try to gure out what analyses dey sensible for your data, or maybe just you dey try to remember how di different rfunction work, so you dey typin for few commands until you go get di one you wan.",Computer science
"in other words, the interactive style is very useful as a tool for exploring your data.",Di interactive style dey useful as tool for exploring your data,Computer science
"however, it has a number of drawbacks: it's hard to save your work eectively.",E don dey hard to save your work eectively.,Computer science
"you can save the workspace, so that later on you can load any variables you created.","Di workspace, so say later on you fit load any variables wey dey create.",Computer science
you can save your plots as images.,We go save your plot as images,Computer science
"taken together, all these things let you create a reasonably decent record of what you did.",Di things make you create reasonably decent record of what you do.,Computer science
but it does leave alot to be desired.,E go leave alot to be desired but e go leave alot to be desired but e go leave alot to be desired,Computer science
"it seems like you ought to be able to save a single le that rcould use(in conjunction with your raw data les)and reproduce everything(or atleast, everything interesting)that you did during your data analysis.","E seem like you go save single le wey dey use(in conjunction wit your di first numbers les)and reproduce everything(or atleast, everything interesting) wey you do during your to study numbers.",Computer science
it's annoying to have to go back to the beginning when you make a mistake.,E dey annoying to get to go back to di beginning wen you make mistake,Computer science
suppose you've just spent the last two hours typing in commands.,Di last two hours wey dey typin for commands.,Computer science
over the course of this time you've created lots of new variables and run lots of analyses.,Di course of dis time you create lots of new variables and run lots of analysis.,Computer science
"then suddenly you realise that there was a nasty typo in the rst command you typed, so all of your later numbers are wrong.","Di nasty typo for di rst command wey you type, so all of your later numbers dey wrong.",Computer science
"now you have to x that rst command, and then spend another hour or so combing through the rhistory to try and recreate what you did.","Na now you go get to x dat rst command, and then spend one hour or so combing through di rhistory to try and recreate what you do",Computer science
you can't leave notes for yourself.,E no dey leave notes for yourself,Computer science
"sure, you can scribble down some notes on apiece of paper, or even save a word document that summarises what you did.","For sure, you fit scribble down some notes on apiece of paper, or even save word document wey dey summarises what you do.",Computer science
"but what you really want to be able to do is write down an english translation of your rcommands, preferably right ext to""the commands themselves.","But wetin you really wan be able to do nato write down English translation of your R commands, preferably just near di commands themselves.",Computer science
"that way, you can look back at what you've done and actually remember what you were doing.","Di way, you fit look back at what you dey done and actually remember what you dey do.",Computer science
"in the simple exercises we've engaged in so far, it hasn't been all that hard to remember what you were doing or why you were doing it, but only because everything we've done could be done using only a few commands, and you've never been asked to reproduce your analysis six months after you originally did it!","Di simple exercise wey we dey engage for so far, e no be all dat hard to remember what you dey door why you dey do am, but only because all wey we dey do could be done using only few commands, and you no dey asked to reproduce your analysis six months before you originally do am",Computer science
"when your data analysis starts involving hundreds of variables, and requires quite complicated commands to work, then you really, really need to leave yourself some notes to explain your analysis to, well, yourself.","When your to study numbers start to involve plenty things, and e require plenty complicated commands to work, den you really-really need to put small notes for yourself to tell how you do am to, well, yourself.",Computer science
"it's nearly impossible to reuse your analyses later, or adapt them to similar problems.","E dey nearly impossible to reuse your analysis later, or adapt dem to similar problems.",Computer science
"suppose that, sometime in january, you are handed a dicult data analysis problem.","Di suppose say, sometime for january, you go hand dicult to study numbers problem.",Computer science
"after working on it-254- for ages, you gure out some really clever tricks that can be used to solve it.",Di huge out some really clever tricks wey dey use to solve am,Computer science
"then, in september, you get handed a really similar problem.","Den, for September, you go get handed one same kind problem.",Computer science
"you can sort of remember what you did, but not very well.","I go sort of remember what you do, but no very well.",Computer science
"you'd like to have a clean record of what you did last time, how you did it, and why you did it the way you did.","If you like to get clean record of what you dey last time, how you do am, and why you do am di way you do.",Computer science
something like that would really help you solve this new problem.,Di new problem go help you solve dis new problem.,Computer science
it's hard to do anything except the basics.,E hard to do anything except di basics.,Computer science
there's a nasty side eect of these problems.,Di problem dey nasty side eect of dis problems,Computer science
typos are inevitable.,E dey inevitable.,Computer science
even the best data analyst in the world makes alot of mistakes.,Di best data analyst for di world make mistakes.,Computer science
so the chance that you'll be able to string together dozens of correct rcommands in a row are very small.,Di chance say you fit string together dozens of correct rcommands for row dey small.,Computer science
"so unless you have some way around this problem, you'll never really be able to do anything other than simple analyses.","So unless you go get some way around dis problem, you go never really fit do only simple checking.",Computer science
it's dicult to share your work other people.,E dey dicult to share your work oda pipo.,Computer science
"because you don't have this nice clean record of what rcommands were involved in your analysis, it's not easy to share your work with other people.","Dis clean record of what rcommands dey involved for your analysis, no easy to share your work wit oda pipo.",Computer science
"sure, you can send them all the data les you've saved, and your history and console logs, and even the little notes you wrote to yourself, but odds are pretty good that no-one else will really understand what's going on(trust me on this: i've been handed lots of random bits of output from people who've been analysing their data, and it makes very little sense unless you've got the original person who did the work sitting right next to you explaining what you're looking at)ideally, what you'd like to be able to do is something like this.","I dey hand lots of random bits of output from pipo wey dey analyse dia data, and e make very little sense unless you go get di original person wey dey analyse dia data, and e make very little sense unless you go get di original person wey dey monitor dia data, and e make very little sense unless you go get di original person wey dey monitor dia data, and even di little notes wey dey write to you, but odds dey good say no-one else go understand what wey dey suppose",Computer science
suppose you start out with a data setmyrawdata. csv.,Di suppose start out wit data setmyrawdata.,Computer science
what you want is a single document{ let's call it mydataanalysis.,Dem call am mydataanalysis,Computer science
r{that stores all ofthe commands that you've used in order to do your data analysis.,Dem store all of di command wey you use for order to do your to study numbers,Computer science
kind of similar to the rhistory but much more focused.,almost same as di R history but wey dey more direct.,Computer science
it would only include the commands that you want to keep for later.,E go only include di command wey you wan to keep for later,Computer science
"then, later on, instead of typing in all those commands again, you'd just tell rto run all ofthe commands that are stored in mydataanalysis.",E just tell you rto run all of di commands wey dey store for mydataanalysis.,Computer science
"also, in order to help you make sense of all those commands, what you'd want is the ability to add some notes or comments within the le, so that anyone reading the document for themselves would be able to understand what each ofthe commands actually does.","E dey also, for order to help you make sense of all di commands, wey you fit wan be di ability to add some notes or comments within di le, so say anyone reading di document for themselves go understand what each of di commands actually does.",Computer science
but these comments wouldn't get in the way: when you try to get rto run mydataanalysis.,Dem no get for di way: wen you try to get rto run mydataanalysis,Computer science
"r it would be smart enough would recognise that these comments are for the bene t of humans, and so it would ignore them.","Di comments dey for di bene t of humans, and so e go ignore dem",Computer science
later on you could tweak a few ofthe commands inside the le(maybe in anew le called mynewdatanalaysis.,Na later on you go tweak few of di command inside di le(maybe for new le call mynewdatanalaysis).,Computer science
r)so that you can adapt an old analysis to be able to handle anew problem.,As you fit adapt an old analysis to handle new problem,Computer science
and you could email your friends and colleagues a copy of this le so that they can reproduce your analysis themselves.,Di friend and colleagues a copy of dis le so say dem fit reproduce your analysis themselves.,Computer science
"in other words, what you want is a script.",Di script na script.,Computer science
"since scripts are so terribly awesome, let's write one.","But since scripts dey so amazing, let write one",Computer science
"to do this, open up a simple text editing program, like textedit (on a mac)or notebook(on windows).","To do dis, open one simple program for writing, like TextEdit (for Mac)or Notepad (for Windows).",Computer science
don't use a fancy word processing program like microsoft word or openoce: use the simplest program you can nd.,"No use one big program for writing papers like Microsoft Word na software wey dey help pesin dey type and edit document, e dey under Microsoft, e plenti pipul dey use am for write and edit tori for komputa or OpenOffice: use di simplest program you fit find.",Computer science
"open anew text document, and type some rcommands, hitting enter after each command.","Open new text document, and to write some R ways, pressing enter after each command.",Computer science
"let's try using x <-""hello world""and print(x)as our commands.","E dey try using x <-""hello world""and print(x)as awa command.",Computer science
then save the document as hello.,E save di document as hello,Computer science
"r, and remember to save it as a plain text le: don't save it as a word document or a rich text le.",Di remember to save am as word document or rich text le,Computer science
just a boring old plain text le.,Na just boring old plain text le.,Computer science
"also, when it asks you where to save the le, save it to whatever folder you're using as your working directory in r. at this point, you should be looking at something like figure 8.1.","Di point, when e ask you where to save di le, save am to whatever folder you dey use as your work directory for r.",Computer science
"and if so, you have now successfully written your rst rprogram.","If so, you don successfully write your rst rprogram.",Computer science
"using a simple text editor like textedit on a mac or notepad on windows isn't actually the best way to write your scripts, but it is the simplest.","Di simple di editor for words like textedit on mac or notepad on windows no dey actually di best way to write your scripts, but na di simplest.",Computer science
"more to the point, it highlights the fact that a script really is just an ordinary text le.",E highlight di fact say script really dey just ordinary text le.,Computer science
"the line at the top is the lename, and not part ofthe script itself.","Di line wey dey top dey di lename, and no part of di script wey deyself",Computer science
"below that, you can see the two rcommands that makeup the script itself.",Di two rcommand wey makeup di script itself,Computer science
next to each command i've included the line numbers.,I dey include di line numbers,Computer science
"you don't actually type these into your script, but alot of text editors(including the one built into rstudio that i'll show you in a moment)will show line numbers, since it's avery useful convention that allows you to say things like\line 1 ofthe script creates anew variable, and line 2 prints it out"".","Di very useful convention wey dey allow you say things like\line 1 of di script create new variable, and line 2 prints am out",Computer science
so how do we run the script?,We run di script?,Computer science
assuming that the hello.,Di hello.,Computer science
"r le has been saved to your working directory, then you can run the script using the following command:> source(""hello.","R file don save to your working directory, den you fit run di script using dis command:> source(""hello. R"")",Computer science
"r"" ) if the script le is saved in a dierent directory, then you need to specify the path to the le, in exactly the same way that you would have to when loading a data le using load().","If di script le dey saved for di dierent directory, then you need to specify di path to di le, for exactly di same way wey you go need to when to bring data le using load().",Computer science
"in any case, when you type this command, ropens up the script le: it then reads each command in the le in the same order that they appear in the le, and executes those commands in that order.","As you type dis command, ropens up di script le: e read each command for di le for di same order wey dem appear for di le, and execute dia commands for dat order.",Computer science
the simple script that i've shown above contains two commands.,I show di simple script wey i show above contains two commands,Computer science
the rst one creates a variable xand the second one prints it on screen.,Di first one create variable x and di second one print am for screen.,Computer science
"and just like that, you've written your rst program r. it really is that simple.",Di really na simple.,Computer science
"however, it's usually more convenient to use a text editor that is speci cally designed to help you write scripts.",Di usually more convenient to use di editor for words wey dey speci cally designed to help you to write codes,Computer science
there's alot -256-figure 8.2: a screenshot showing the hello.,Di screenshot show di hello,Computer science
r script open in rstudio.,Di script open for rstudio,Computer science
"assuming that you're looking at this document in colour, you'll notice that the\hello world""text is shown in green.","Di\hello world""text dey show for green, you go notice say di\hello world""text dey show for green",Computer science
this isn't something that you do yourself: that's rstudio being helpful.,E no be something wey you do yourself: na rstudio being helpful,Computer science
"because the text editor in rstudio \knows""something about how rcommands work, it will highlight dierent parts of your script in dierent colours.","Because di editor for words for RStudio ""know""something about how R commands work, e goto show different parts with colour of your script for different colours.",Computer science
"this is useful, but it's not actually part ofthe script itself.","E no dey useful, but e no dey part of di script wey deyself",Computer science
"of these out there, and experienced programmers will all have their own personal favourites.",Di experienced programmers go all get dia own personal favourites.,Computer science
"for our purposes, however, we can just use the one built into rstudio.",We fit just use di one wey we fit build into rstudio.,Computer science
"to create new script le in r studio, go to the\file ""menu, select the\new"" option, and then click on\r script"".","To create new script file for RStudio, goto ""File""menu, select""New"" option, and den to press""R Script"".",Computer science
"this will open anew window within the\source"" panel.","Dis go open new window within di\source"" panel.",Computer science
then you can type the commands you want(or code as it is generally called when you're typing the commands into a script le)and save it when you're done.,I fit type di command wey you wan(or code as e dey generally call when you dey typ di command into script le)and save am when you dey done.,Computer science
"the nice thing about using rstudio to do this is that it automatically changes the colour ofthe text to indicate which parts ofthe code are comments and which are parts are actual rcommands (these colours are called syntax highlighting, but they're not actually part ofthe le {it's just rstudio trying to be helpful.",Di nice thing about using rstudio to do dis na say e automatically change di colour of di text to indicate which parts of di code dey comments and which dey part of di le,Computer science
"to see an example of this, let's open up our hello.","Di example of dis, let to start awa hello",Computer science
r script in rstudio.,Na r script for rstudio,Computer science
"to do this, go to the\file"" menu again, and select\open."".","To do dis, go to""File"" menu again, and select""Open."".",Computer science
"once you've opened the le, you should be looking at something like figure 8.2.","Dem dey open di le, you go make we look something like figure 8.",Computer science
"as you can see(if you're looking at this book in colour)the character string\hello world""is highlighted in green.","Di character string\hello world""dey highlight for green",Computer science
using rstudio for your text editor is convenient for other reasons too.,Di rstudio for your di editor for words dey convenient for oda reason too.,Computer science
"notice in the top right hand corner of figure 8. 2 there's a little button that reads\source""?","Di top right hand corner of figure 8. 2 na little button wey read\source""?",Computer science
"if you click on that, rstudio will construct the relevant source()command for you, and send it straight to the rconsole.","Di rstudio go construct di relevant di way to run code for you, and send am straight to di rconsole.",Computer science
"so you don't even have to type in the source()command, which actually i think is a great thing, because it really bugs me having to type all those extra keystrokes everytime i want to run my script.","So you no even need type di way to run code, wey actually I think be great thing, because e really dey annoy me to type all those more key pressing everytime I wan run my script.",Computer science
"anyway, rstudio provide several other convenient little tools to-257- help make scripting easier, but i won't discuss them here.1 8.1. 4 commenting your script when writing up your data analysis as a script, one thing that is generally a good idea is to include alot of comments in the code.","Di 8.1. 4 commenting your script wen dey write up your to study numbers as a script, one thing wey dey generally good idea nato include alot of comments for di code.",Computer science
"that way, if someone else tries to read it(or if you comeback to it several days, weeks, months or years later)they can gure out what's going on.","Di way, if someone else tries read am(or if you kom back to am several days, weeks, months or years later)dem fit gure out what's goon",Computer science
"as a beginner, i think it's especially useful to comment thoroughly, partly because it gets you into the habit of commenting the code, and partly because the simple act of typing in an explanation of what the code does will help you keep it clear in your own mind what you're trying to achieve.","I think e dey especially useful to comment thoroughly, partly because di simple action of typing in explanation of what di code go help you keep am clear for your own mind wey you dey try to achieve.",Computer science
"to illustrate this idea, consider the following script: itngscript.","To illustrate dis idea, consider di following script: itngscript. R",Computer science
r1#a script to analyse nightgarden.,Di script wey dey analyse nightgarden,Computer science
"rdata 2#author: dan navarro 3#date: 22/11/2011 45#load the data, and tell the user that this is what we're 6#doing.","Na dan navarro 3#date: 22 11 2011 45#load di data, and tell di user say dis na what we dey 6#do.",Computer science
note that this assumes the nightgarden data file 7#is in the working directory.,Di note say di nightgarden data file 7#dey for di work directory.,Computer science
"secondly, notice that i've gone a bit overboard with my commenting: at the top ofthe script i've explained the purpose ofthe script, who wrote it, and when it was written.","Di top of di script i dey explain di purpose of di script, wey dey write am, and wen e dey write am.",Computer science
"in real life people don't tend to comment this thoroughly, but the basic idea is avery good one: you really do want your script to explain itself.",Di basic idea dey good one: you go wan your script to explain amself,Computer science
"nevertheless, as you'd expect rcompletely ignores all ofthe commented parts.","As you expect rcompletely ignor all of di comment parts, as you expect rcompletely ignor all of di comment parts.",Computer science
"when we run this script, this is what we see on screen:> source( ""itngscript.","Di source( ""itngscript.",Computer science
"r"" )loading data from nightgarden.",to bring data from nightgarden.,Computer science
"rdata. tabulating data. utterance speaker ee onk oo pip makka-pakka 0 202 tombliboo 1010 upsy-daisy 0 202 even here, notice that the script announces its behaviour.",Dem notice say di script announce dia behaviour,Computer science
the rst two lines ofthe output tell us alot about what the script is actually doing behind the scenes(the code do to this corresponds to the two cat()commands on lines 8 and 12 ofthe script).,Di rst two lines of di output tell us alot about what di script dey do behind di scenes( di code do to dis correspond to di two cat()commands online 8 and 12 of di script).,Computer science
"it's usually a pretty good idea to do this, since it helps ensure that the output makes sense when the script is executed.","E dey usually good idea to do dis, since e help ensure say di output make sense when di script dey executed.",Computer science
"one ofthe coolest features of rstudio is the support for r markdown, which lets you embed r code inside a markdown document, and you can automatically publish your r markdown to the web on rstudio's servers.","One of di coolest feature of rstudio na di support for r markdown, wey make you embed r code inside markdown document, and you fit automatically publish your r markdown to di web on rstudio servers.",Computer science
"if you're the kind of nerd interested in this sort of thing, it's really nice.","Di kind of nerd interested for dis sort of thing, na really nice",Computer science
"and, yes, since i'm also that kind of nerd, of course i'm aware that ipython notebooks do the same thing and that rjust nicked their idea.","Di kind of nerd, of course i dey aware say ipython notebooks do di same thing and say rjust nick dia idea.",Computer science
it's still cool.,E still cool,Computer science
"and anyway, this book isn't called learning statistics with python now, is it?","Di book no dey call learning statistics wit python now, na im?",Computer science
"maybe i should write a python version.-258- 8.1. 5 dierences between scripts and the command line for the most part, commands that you insert into a script behave in exactly the same way as they would if you typed the same thing in at the command line.","I go write a python version for di most part, commands wey you insert into script behave for exactly di same way as dem fit type di same thing for di place wey you type command",Computer science
"the one major exception to this is that if you want a variable to be printed on screen, you need to explicitly tell rto print it.","Di one major exception to dis na say if you wan a variable to be printed on screen, you need to tell rto print am",Computer science
you can't just type the name ofthe variable.,Di variable no fit type di name of di variable,Computer science
"for example, our original hello.","We dey original hello for example, awa original hello",Computer science
r script produced visible output.,Di script produce visible output,Computer science
the following script does not: silenthello.,Di following script no dey: silenthello,Computer science
"r 1x<- ""hello world""2x itdoes still create the variable xwhen you source()the script, but it won't print anything on screen.","Di r 1x<- ""hello world""2 xe no create di variable wey you source di script, but e no print anything on screen",Computer science
"however, apart from the fact that scripts don't use uto-printing"" as it's called, there aren't alot of dierences in the underlying mechanics.","Di fact say scripts no use uto-printing"" as e call, e no dey alot of dierences for di underlying mechanics.",Computer science
there area few stylistic dierences though.,Small stylistic differences dey though.,Computer science
"for instance, if you want to load a package at the command line, you would generally use the library()function.","If you wan to load package for di place wey you type command, you go generally use di library()function.",Computer science
"if you want do to it from a script, it's conventional to use require()instead.",Di script dey conventional to use require() forstead,Computer science
"the two commands are basically identical, the only dierence being that if the package doesn't exist, require() produces a warning whereas library()gives you an error.","Di two commands dey basically identical, di only difference being say if di package no exist, require() produce warning while library()give you error.",Computer science
"stylistically, what this means is that if the require()command fails in your script, rwill boldly continue on and try to execute the rest ofthe script.","If di require()command fail for your script, rwill boldly continue on and try to execute di rest of di script.",Computer science
"often that's what you'd like to see happen, so it's better to use require().","E dey often say we dey like to see happen, so dey better to use require().",Computer science
"clearly, however, you can get by just ne using the library()command for everyday usage.",Di library()command for everyday use.,Computer science
"at this point, you've learned the basics of scripting.",I learn di basics of scripting.,Computer science
"you are now ocially allowed to say that you can program inr, though you probably shouldn't say it too loudly.","I dey now ocially allowed say you go program forr, though you probably go say you go program forr, though you probably go say you go program forr, though you probably go say am too loudly.",Computer science
"there's a lotmore to learn, but nevertheless, if you can write scripts like these then what you are doing is in fact basic programming.","Di lotmore to learn, but nevertheless, if you fit to write codes like those, but nevertheless, if you fit to write codes like those then what you dey do for fact di first things for coding.",Computer science
"speci cally, it's not necessarily the case that rstarts at the top ofthe le and runs straight through to the end ofthe le.",E no necessarily di case wey rstart for top of di le and run straight through to di end of di le.,Computer science
"for all the scripts that we've seen so far that's exactly what happens, and unless you insert some commands to explicitly alter how the script runs, that is what will always happen.","For all di scripts wey we see so far say dey exactly what dey happen, and unless you insert some commands to explicitly alter how di script run, dat na what we go always happen.",Computer science
"however, you actually have quite alot of exibility in this respect.",Di respect dey quite alot of exibility for disrespect.,Computer science
"depending on how you write the script, you can have rrepeat several commands, or skip over dierent commands, and soon.","based on how you write di script, you fit makeR repeat several commands, or to pass some ways, and soon.",Computer science
"this topic is referred to as ow control, and the rst concept to discuss in this respect is the idea of a loop.","Di topic dey dem dey call ow control, and di rst concept to discuss for disrespect na di idea of loop.",Computer science
"the basic idea is very simple: a loop is a block of code(i. e, a sequence of commands)that r will execute over and over again until some termination criterion is met.","Di basic idea dey simple: loop dey block of code(i. e, sequence of commands) wey r go execute many times until some termination criterion dey met.",Computer science
looping is avery powerful idea.,Na very powerful idea.,Computer science
"there are three dierent ways to construct a loop in r, based on the while, forand repeat functions.","three different ways to construct loop for R dey, based on while, for, and repeat functions.",Computer science
i'll only discuss the rst two in this book.,I go only discuss di rst two for dis book,Computer science
"the basic format ofthe loop looks like this: while( condition) { statement1 -259- statement2 etc} the code corresponding to condition needs to produce a logical value, either true orfalse.","Di normal way of di loop look like dis: while(condition) { statement1; statement2; etc}. Di code wey correspond to condition need produce logical value, either TRUE or FALSE.",Computer science
"whenever r encounters awhile statement, it checks to see if the condition istrue.","For whenever r encounter di while way, e check say di condition dey true",Computer science
"if it is, then rgoes onto execute all ofthe commands inside the curly brackets, proceeding from top to bottom as usual.","E go execute all of di command inside di curly brackets, proceeding from top to top as normal.",Computer science
"however, when it gets to the bottom of those statements, it moves backup to the while statement.","Di bottom of di statements, e move backup to di while way.",Computer science
"then, like the mindless automaton it is, it checks to see if the condition istrue.","Di mindless automaton wey dey, e check say di condition dey true",Computer science
"if it is, then rgoes onto execute all. well, you get the idea.",We get di idea.,Computer science
this continues endlessly until at some point the condition turns out to be false.,Di continue endlessly until afta some point di condition turnout to be false,Computer science
"once that happens, rjumps to the bottom ofthe loop(i. e, to the}character), and then continues on with whatever commands appear next in the script.","For once dat happen, rjump to di bottom of di loop(i. e, to di}character), and then continue on wit whatever command wey dey appear next for di script.",Computer science
"to start with, let's keep things simple, and use awhile loop to calculate the smallest multiple of 17 that is greater than or equal to 1000.","E dey keep things simple, and use while loop to calculate di smallest multiple of 17 wey dey pass, as in one thing pass anoda, for example, if u get 10 naira and v get 5 naira, u pass v or equal to 1000",Computer science
"this is avery silly example since you can actually calculate it using simple arithmetic operations, but the point here isn't to do something novel.","Di example na very silly example since you fit calculate amusing simple arithmetic operations, but di point here no dey to do something novel.",Computer science
the point is to show how to write awhile loop.,Di point dey show how to write while loop,Computer science
"it then moves down to the loop, and otices"" that the condition here is x< 1000.",Di condition here dey x< 1000,Computer science
"since the current value of xis zero, the condition is true, so it enters the body ofthe loop(inside the curly braces).","Di current value of xis zero, di condition dey true, so e enter di bodi of di loop(inside di curly braces).",Computer science
there's only one command here2which instructs rto increase the value of xby 17.,Di only one command here2 wey instruct rto increase di value of xby 17.,Computer science
"rthen returns to the top ofthe loop, and rechecks the condition.","For di top of di loop, and recheck di condition.",Computer science
"the value of xis now 17, but that's still less than 1000, so the loop continues.",Di loop continue.,Computer science
"this cycle will continue for a total of 59 iterations, until nally xreaches a value of 1003 (i. e, 59 171003).","Dis cycle go continue for total of 59 iterations, until finally x reach value of 1003 (i. e,59 × 17 = 1003).",Computer science
"at this point, the loop stops, and r nally reaches line 5 ofthe script, prints out the value of xon screen, and then halts.","For dis point, di loop stop, and R finally reach line 5 of di script, print di value of x for screen, and den stop.",Computer science
"let's watch:> source( ""whileexample.","Di source( ""whileexample",Computer science
"r"" )[1] 1003 truly fascinating stu.",[1] 1003. one thing wey dey really interesting.,Computer science
"the basic format of this loop goes like this: for( var in vector) { statement1 statement2 etc} in a forloop, rruns a xed number of iterations.","Di normal way of dis loop na dis: for(var in vector){ statement1; statement2; etc}. For a for loop, R dey run fixed number of iterations.",Computer science
"we have a vector which has several elements, each one corresponding to a possible value ofthe variable var.","We get vector wey get several elements, each one corresponding to a possible value of di variable var.",Computer science
"in the rst iteration ofthe loop, var is given a value corresponding to the rst element of vector; in the second iteration ofthe loop vargets a value corresponding 2as an aside: if there's only a single command that you want to include inside your loop, then you don't actually need to bother including the curly braces at all.","For di second iteration of di loop, var get value corresponding to di rst element of vector; for di second iteration of di loop dey give value corresponding to di rst element of vector; for di second iteration of di loop dey give value corresponding to di rst element of vector; for di second iteration of di loop dey give value corresponding to di rst element of vector; for di second iteration of di loop dey give value corresponding to di rst element of vector; for di second iteration of di loop",Computer science
"however, until you're comfortable programming in ri'd advise always using them, even when you don't have to.","Di however, until you dey comfortable programming for ri'd advise always using dem, even if you no get to.",Computer science
"once we've exhausted all ofthe values in vector, the loop terminates and the ow ofthe program continues down the script.","We dey exhaust all of di values for vector, di loop terminates and di ow of di program continue down di script.",Computer science
"once again, let's use some very simple examples.",E dey use some simple examples,Computer science
the vector of possible values for the ivariable just corresponds to the numbers from 1 to 3.,Di list of numbers wey fit be for di i variable just correspond to di numbers from 1 to 3.,Computer science
"not only that, the body ofthe loop doesn't actually depend on iat all.",Di bodi of di loop no dey depend on iat all,Computer science
"this time around, we'll use a character vector to control our loop, which in this case will be a vector of words.","We go use character vector to control awa loop, which for dis case go be vector of words",Computer science
"and what we'll doin the loop is get rto convert the word to upper case letters, calculate the length ofthe word, and print it out.","Di loop dey get rto convert di word to upper case letters, calculate di length of di word, and print am out.",Computer science
"suppose we have a nice young couple who borrow $300000 from the bank,-261- at an annual interest rate of 5%.","Di suppose we get nice young couple wey borrow $300000 from di bank,-261- for annual interest rate of 5%.",Computer science
"the mortgage is a 30 year loan, so they need to pay it o within 360 months total.","Di mortgage dey 30 year loan, so dem need to pay am within 360 months total.",Computer science
our happy couple decide to set their monthly mortgage payment at $1600 per month.,Our pipo wey marry wey dey happy decide to set dia monthly mortgage payment at $1600 every month.,Computer science
will they pay o the loan in time or not?,Dem pay o di loan for time or no?,Computer science
"only time will tell. 3or, alternatively, we could simulate the whole process and get rto tell us.",We go simulate di whole process and get rto tell us,Computer science
the script to run this is a fair bit more complicated.,Di script to run dis dey fair bit complicated.,Computer science
in the rst block of code(lines 2-6)all we're doing is specifying all the variables that de ne the problem.,Di rst block of code(lines 2-6)all we dey do dey specifying all di variables wey dey di problem.,Computer science
"the loan starts with a balance of$300, 000 owed to the bank on month zero, and at that point in time the total. paid money is nothing.","Di loan start wit balance of$300, 000 wey dey owed to di bank on month zero, and at dat point for time di total. paid money no dey nothing.",Computer science
"the couple is making monthly payments of $1600, at an annual interest rate of 5%.","Di couple dey make monthly payments of $1600, for annual interest rate of 5%",Computer science
"next, on line 9, we convert the annual percentage interest into a monthly multiplier.","Next, for line 9, we convert di interest for one year into di number wey you go use every month.",Computer science
"that is, the number that you have to multiply the current balance by each month in order to produce an annual interest rate of 5%.",Di number wey you go get to multiply di current balance by each month for order to produce annual interest rate of 5%,Computer science
"an annual interest rate of 5%implies that, if no payments were made over 12 months the balance would end up being 1:05 times what it was originally, so the annual multiplier is 1:05.","Di annual interest rate of 5%implies say, if no payments dey made over 12 months di balance go end up being 1:05 times wey dem originally, so di annual multiplier dey 1:05 times wey dem originally, so di annual multiplier dey 1:05 times wey dem originally, so di annual multiplier dey 1:05 times wey dem originally, so di annual multiplier dey 1:05 times wey dem originally, so di annual multiplier dey 1:",Computer science
"to calculate the monthly multiplier, we need to calculate the 12th root of 1. 05(i. e, raise 1. 05 to the power of 1/12).","To calculate di number wey you go use every month, we need calculate di 12th root of 1.05 (i. e, raise 1.05 to di power of 112).",Computer science
"we store this value in as the monthly. multiplier variable, which as it happens corresponds to a value of about 1. 004.","We dey store dis value for as di monthly. multiplier variable, wey dey correspond to value of about 1. 004.",Computer science
all of which is a rather long winded way of saying that the annual interest rate of 5%corresponds to a monthly interest rate of about 0. 4%.,All of which na rather long-winded way to say di annual interest rate of 5%correspond to di percent wey dey for one month of about 0.4%.,Computer science
anyway. all of that is really just setting the stage.,All of dat dey just setting di stage,Computer science
it's not the interesting part ofthe script.,Di script no dey interesting part of di script.,Computer science
the interesting part(such as it is)is the loop which unfolds over lines 12-23.,Di interesting part(such as e dey) dey di loop wey dey unfold over line 12-23.,Computer science
"the while statement online 12 tells rthat it needs to keep looping until the balance reaches zero(or less, since it might be that the nal payment of $1600 pushes the balance below zero).","Di while way for line 12 tell R say e need to dey continue to repeat until di balance reach zero(or less, because e fit be say di last money wey you pay of $1600 push di balance below zero).",Computer science
"then, inside the body ofthe loop, we have two dierent blocks of code.","Di bodi of di loop, we get two dierent blocks of code",Computer science
"in the rst bit, on lines 15-18, we do all the number crunching.",We do all di number crunching.,Computer science
firstly we increase the value month by 1(on line 15).,"First, we increase di value of month by 1(for line 15).",Computer science
"next, the bank charges the interest(on line 16), so the balance goes up.","Di bank charge di interest(on line 16), so di balance go up.",Computer science
"then, the couple makes their monthly payment(on line 17)and the balance goes down.",Di couple make dia monthly payment(on line 17)and di balance go down,Computer science
"finally, we keep track ofthe total amount of money that the couple has paid so far, by adding the payments to the running tally(on line 18).","We keep track of di total amount of money wey di couple don pay so far, by add di payment to di running tally(on line 18).",Computer science
"after having done all this number 3okay, ne.","Di number 3okay, ne.",Computer science
"this example is still a bit ridiculous, in three respects.","Di example dey still ridiculous, for three respects.",Computer science
"firstly, the bank absolutely will not let the couple pay less than the amount required to terminate the loan in 30 years.",Di bank no go let di couple pay less than di amount wey dey need to terminate di loan for 30 years.,Computer science
"secondly, a constant interest rate of 30 years is hilarious.",Di constant interest rate of 30 years dey hilarious,Computer science
"thirdly, you can solve this much more eciently than through brute force simulation.","Third, you fit solve dis much better than through one way wey dey hard but e go work.",Computer science
"however, we're not exactly in the business of being realistic or ecient here.",We no dey exactly for di business of being realistic or ecient here,Computer science
which is rather rude of us really.,We dey rude of us really.,Computer science
i've grown attached to this couple andi really feel they deserve better than that.,I grow attached to dis couple andi feel say dem deserve better than dat,Computer science
"but, that's banks for you.",Di banks for you.,Computer science
"in any case, the key thing here is the tension between the increase in balance online 16 and the decrease online 17.",Di key thing here dey di tension between di increase for balance online 16 and di decrease online 17.,Computer science
"as long as the decrease is bigger, then the balance will eventually drop to zero and the loop will eventually terminate.",Di balance go drop to zero and di loop go eventually terminate.,Computer science
"if not, the loop will continue forever!",Di loop go continue forever,Computer science
this is actually very bad programming on my part: i really should have included something to force rto stop if this goes on too long.,I don include something to force rto stop if dis goon too long.,Computer science
"however, i haven't shown you how to evaluate\if"" statements yet, so we'll just have to hope that the author ofthe book has rigged the example so that the code actually runs.","I don to show you how to evaluate\if"" statements yet, so we fit hope say di author of di book don rigged di example so say di code actually run.",Computer science
"anyway, assuming that the loop does eventually terminate, there's one last line of code(line 26)that prints out the total amount of money that the couple handed over to the bank over the lifetime ofthe loan.","Di loop does eventually terminate, na one last line of code(line 26) wey to write for screen di total amount of money wey di couple hand over to di bank over di lifetime of di loan.",Computer science
a happy ending!,E dey happy ending,Computer science
"unlike loops, which can repeat over and over again, a conditional statement only executes once, but it can switch between dierent possible commands depending on a condition that is speci ed by the programmer.","Na conditional statement only execute once, but e fit switch between dierent possible commands wey dey based on condition wey dey speci ed by di programmer.",Computer science
"the power of these commands is that they allow the program itself to make choices, and in particular, to make dierent choices depending on the context in which the program is run.","Di power of these commands dey say dem allow di program make choices, and especially, to make dierent choices based on di context wey di program dey run.",Computer science
"the most prominent of example of a conditional statement is the ifstatement, and the accompanying else statement.","Di most prominent of example of conditional statement dey di ifstatement, and di accompanying else statement",Computer science
the basic format of an if statement in ris as follows: if (condition ) { statement1 statement2 etc} and the execution ofthe statement is pretty straightforward.,"If (condition) { statement1 statement2 etc, and di execution of di statement dey straightforward.",Computer science
"if the condition is true, then rwill execute the statements contained in the curly braces.","Di condition dey true, then rwill execute di statement wey dey contain for curly braces.",Computer science
"if the condition is false, then it dose not.","If di condition dey true, then dose no.",Computer science
"if you want to, you can extend the ifstatement to include an else statement aswell, leading to the following syntax:-263- if (condition ) { statement1 statement2 etc} else{ statement3 statement4 etc} as you'd expect, the interpretation of this version is similar.",Di interpretation of dis version dey similar.-263- if (condition ) { statement1 statement2 etc,Computer science
"to give you a feel for how you can use ifandelse to do something useful, the example that i'll show you is a script that prints out a dierent message depending on what day ofthe week you run it.",Di example wey i to show you na script wey dey to show di dierent message based on what day of di week you run am.,Computer science
"in particular, i want to show you how to create your own.","Especially, I wan to show you how to make your own.",Computer science
"note, however, that rdoes not execute the commands inside the function in the workspace.","Di note, however, say r no execute di command inside di function for workspace.",Computer science
"instead, what it does is create a temporary local environment: all the internal statements in the body ofthe function are executed there, so they remain invisible to the user.","Di internal statements for di bodi of di function dey executed, so dem remain invisible to di user.",Computer science
only the nal results in the value are returned to the workspace.,Di nal results for di value dey return to di workspace,Computer science
"to give a simple example of this, let's create a function called quadruple()which multiplies its inputs by four.","Di simple example of dis, let create a function wey dey quadruple() wey multiplie dia input by four.",Computer science
"now that we know how to create our own functions in r, it's probably a good idea to talk a little more about some ofthe other properties of functions that i've been glossing over.","We know how to create awa own functions for r, na good idea to talk a little more about some of di oda properties of functions wey i dey to passover.",Computer science
"to start with, let's take this opportunity to type the name ofthe function at the command line without the parentheses:> quadruple function(x)y <-x*4 return(y)as you can see, when you type the name of a function at the command line, rprints out the underlying source code that we used to de ne the function in the rst place.","Di quadruple function(x)y <-x*4 return(y)as you fit see, wen you type di name of di function for di place wey you type command, rprints out di underlying source code wey we use to dey use to dey for di rst place.",Computer science
"in the case ofthe quadruple()function, this is quite helpful to us { we can read this code and actually see what the function does.",Di code dey helpful to us { we go read dis code and actually see what di function does.,Computer science
the source code for these functions is contained within the functionexample2. rand functionexample3. r scripts.,Di source code for dis functions dey contain within di functionexample2. rand functionexample3. r script.,Computer science
"as you can see from looking at the code for this function, it has two arguments xand y, and all it does is raise xto the power of y.","As you see from looking at di code for dis function, e don get two arguments xand y, and all e don raise xto di power of y.",Computer science
"for instance, this command> pow(x=3, y=2) [1]9 calculates the value of 32.","Di command> pow(x=3, y=2)[1] 9 calculat di value of 32.",Computer science
"the interesting thing about this function isn't what it does, since ralready has has perfectly good mechanisms for calculating powers.","Di interesting thing about dis function dey no dey, since ralready don get perfectly good mechanisms for calculating powers.",Computer science
"rather, notice that when i de ned the function, i speci ed y=1when listing the arguments?","Dem notice say wen i dey di function, i speci ed y=1when listing di argument?",Computer science
that's the default value for y.,Dat na di normal number for y.,Computer science
"so if we enter a command without specifying a value for y, then the function assumes that we want y=1:> pow(x=3 )[1] 3 however, since i didn't specify any default value for xwhen i de ned the pow()function, we always need to input a value for x.","I no dey specify any di normal number for x, then di function assum say we need input value for x",Computer science
if we don't rwill spit out an error message.,We no fit spit out error message if we no fit spit out error message,Computer science
so now you know how to specify default values for an argument.,So now you know how to give di normal numbers for argument.,Computer science
the other thing i should point out while i'm on this topic is the use ofthe. argument.,Di oda thing wey i goto show while i dey on dis topic na di use of di. argument.,Computer science
the. argument is a special construct in rwhich is only used within functions.,Di. argument na special construct for r wey dey use within functions.,Computer science
it is used as away of matching against multiple user inputs: in other words. is used as a mechanism to allow the user to enter as many inputs as they like.,For oda words. dey use as away to allow di user enter as many inputs as dem like,Computer science
you can type in as many inputs as you like.,E fit type for many inputs as you like.,Computer science
"the doublemax() function identi es the largest value in the inputs, by passing all the user inputs to the max()function, and then doubles it.","Di doublemax() function identies di most for di inputs, by pass all di user inputs to di max()function, and then double am",Computer science
"experienced programmers will wonder exactly how the \scoping rules""work in r, 4or want to know how to use a function to create variables in other environments5, or if function objects can be assigned as elements of a list6and probably 4lexical scope.","Di experienced programmers go wonder exactly how di \scoping rules""work for r, 4or wan to know how to use a function to create variable for oda environment5, or if function objects fit dey assigned as elements of list6and probably 4lexical scope.",Computer science
"however, i don't want to have this discussion get too cluttered with details, so i think it's best{ atleast for the purposes ofthe current book{ to stop here.","I don wan say dis discussion get too cluttered wit details, so i think e dey best{ atleast for di purpose of di current book{ to stop here.",Computer science
"in addition to providing the explicit looping structures viawhile and for, ralso provides a collection of functions for implicit loops.","Di collection of functions wey dey explicit looping structure viawhile and for, ralso provide collection of functions for implicit looping structures wey dey implicit loop.",Computer science
what i mean by this is that these are functions that carry out operations very similar to those that you'd normally use a loop for.,I mean by dis na say dis dey functions wey dey carry out operations very similar to those wey you normally use loop for.,Computer science
"however, instead of typing out the whole loop, the whole thing is done with a single command.",Di whole thing dey done wit single command.,Computer science
the main reason why this can be handy is that{ due to the way that ris written{ these implicit looping functions are usually about to do the same calculations much faster than the corresponding explicit loops.,"Di main reason wey dey why dis fit be handy na say{ due to di way wey dey written, dis implicit looping function dey about to do di same calculations much faster than di corresponding explicit loops.",Computer science
"in most applications that beginners might want to undertake, this probably isn't very important, since most beginners tend to start out working with fairly small data sets and don't usually need to undertake extremely time consuming number crunching.","Di probably dey important, since most beginners don start out work wit fairly small data sets and don need to undertake extremely time consuming number crunching.",Computer science
"however, because you often see these functions referred to in other contexts, it maybe useful to very brie y discuss a few of them.","Di functions wey dey referred to for oda context, e dey useful to very brie y discuss few of dem",Computer science
the rst and simplest of these functions is sapply().,Di rst and simplest of dis functions dey apply(),Computer science
"the two most important arguments to this function arex, which species a vector containing the data, and fun, which species the name of a function that should be applied to each element ofthe data vector.","Di two most important argument to dis function nax, wey dey species a vector wey dey containing di data, and fun, wey dey speci as di name of a function wey dey applied to each element of di data vector.",Computer science
"the sapply() function has implicitly looped over the elements of words, and for each such element applied the nchar() function to calculate the number of letters in the corresponding word.","Di sapply() function don implicitly loop over di elements of words, and for each such element apply di nchar() function to calculate di number of letters for di corresponding word.",Computer science
"the second of these functions is tapply(), which has three key arguments.","Di second of dis functions dey tapply(), wey get three key argument.",Computer science
"as before xspeci es the data, and funspeci es a function.","as before xspeci dey di data, and funspeci dey function",Computer science
"however, there is also an index argument which species a grouping variable. 7what thetapply() function does is loop overall ofthe dierent values that appear in the index variable.",Ditapply() function no dey loop overall of di dierent values wey dey appear for di index variable.,Computer science
"each such value de nes a group: the tapply() function constructs the subset of xthat corresponds to that group, and then applies the function funto that subset ofthe data.","Di tapply() function construct di subset of xthat correspond to dat group, and then appli di function funto dat subset of di data.",Computer science
"this probably sounds a little abstract, so let's consider a speci c example, using the nightgarden.","Dis one probably sound small abstract, so make we consider specific example, using nightgarden.",Computer science
"we then calculate the mean()of the ages, separately for the males and the females.","Di mean()of di ages, separately for di males and di females.",Computer science
a closely related function is by().,Di closely related function dey by,Computer science
"it actually does the same thing as tapply(), but the output is formatted a bit dierently.","Di output dey formatted a bit dierently, but di output dey formatted a bit dierently",Computer science
"this time around the three arguments are called data, indices and fun, but they're pretty much the same thing.","Di time around di three argument dey call data, indices and fun, but dem dey pretty much di same thing.",Computer science
"however, although i do make passing reference to the tapply() later on, i don't make much use of them in this book.","I no make passing reference to di tapply() later on, i no make much use of dem for dis book.",Computer science
"before moving on, i should mention that there are several other functions that work along similar lines, and have suspiciously similar names: lapply, mapply, apply, vapply, rapply and eapply.","I go mention say e dey several different functions wey work along similar lines, and dey suspiciously similar name: lapply, mapply, apply, apply, vapply, rapply and eapply",Computer science
"however, none of these come up anywhere else in this book, so all i wanted to do here is draw your attention to the fact that they exist.","Di however, none of dis kom up anywhere else for dis book, so all i waned to do here dey draw your attention to di fact say dem exist",Computer science
"it takes alot of work to become a proper programmer, just as it takes alot of work to be a proper psychologist or a proper statistician, and this book is certainly not going to provide you with all the tools you need to make that step.",Di book no go provide you wit all di tools wey you need make dat step.,Computer science
"however, you'd be amazed at how much you can achieve using only the tools that i've covered upto this point.",E dey amazed at how much you fit achieve using only di tools wey i to cover upto dis point.,Computer science
"believe it or not, you're o to a pretty good start just by having made it to this point.","As you believe amor no, you dey o to a good start just by having make am to dis point.",Computer science
"if you want to keep going, there are(as always!)","di normal way, na (di normal way!)",Computer science
several other books you might want to look at.,Na several oda books wey dey go look for.,Computer science
"one that i've read and enjoyed is\a rst course in statistical programming with r""(braun &murdoch, 2007), but quite a few people have suggested tome that\the art of programming with r"" (matlo & matlo, 2011)is worth the eort too.","Di one wey i read and enjoy na rst course for statistical programming wit r"" (matlo & matlo, 2011), but quite few pipo don suggest tome say\the art of programming wit r"" (matlo & matlo, 2011)dey worth di eort too.",Computer science
"statistical theory-269- prelude to part iv part iv ofthe book is by far the most theoretical one, focusing as it does on the theory of statistical inference.","Di theory of statistical theory-269- prelude to part iv of di book dey by far di most theoretical one, focusing as e goon di theory of statistical inference.",Computer science
"before we get started though, i want to say something about the big picture.",I wan say something about di big picture,Computer science
statistical inference is primarily about learning from data.,Di statistical inference na primarily about learning from data,Computer science
"the goal is no longer merely to describe our data, but to use the data to draw conclusions about the world.","Di goal dey no longer to describe awa data, but to use di data to draw conclusions about di world.",Computer science
"to motivate the discussion, i want to spend a bit of time talking about a philosophical puzzle known as the riddle of induction, because it speaks to an issue that will pop up over and over again throughout the book: statistical inference relies onassumptions.","I wan spend a bit of time talking about philosophical puzzle wey dey known as di riddle of induction, because e speak to issue wey dey to show many times throughout di book: statistical inference relies onassumptions.",Computer science
this sounds like a bad thing.,Dis one sound like bad thing.,Computer science
"in everyday life people say things like\you should never make assumptions"", and psychology classes often talk about assumptions and biases as bad things that we should try to avoid.","For everyday life pipo say things like\you go never make assumptions"", and psychology class often talk about assumption and biases as bad things wey we go try to avoid.",Computer science
from bitter personal experience i have learned never to say such things around philosophers.,I don learn never say such things around philosophers.,Computer science
"on the limits of logical reasoning the whole art of war consists in getting at what is on the other side ofthe hill, or, in other words, in learning what we do not know from what we do.","Di limits of logical reasoning di whole art of war wey dey suppose to get at what we dey on di other side of di hill, or, in oda words, for learning we no know from what we do.",Computer science
in every case it turned out that wellesley was right and croker was wrong.,Dem turnout say wellesley dey right and croker dey wrong,Computer science
"many years later when wellesley was asked about the game, he explained that he whole art of war consists in getting at what is on the other side ofthe hill"".","E tok say wellesley dey ask about di game, hin explain say he whole art of war wey dey for di oda side of di hill.",Computer science
"indeed, war is not special in this respect.",We no dey special for disrespect,Computer science
"all of life is a guessing game of one form or another, and getting by on a day today basis requires us to make good guesses.","Di all of life dey guess game of one form or another, and getting by on day today basis require us make good guesses.",Computer science
so let's playa guessing game of our own.,We dey playa guessing game of our own.,Computer science
"suppose you andi are observing the wellesley-croker competition, and after every three hills you andi have to predict who will win the next one, wellesley or croker.","Di suppose you andi dey observin di wellesley-croker competition, and afta every three hills you andi don predict who go win di next one, wellesley or croker.",Computer science
let's say that wrefers to a wellesley victory and c refers to a croker victory.,Dem tok say wrefer to wellesley victory and c to talk about croker victory.,Computer science
"after three hills, our dataset looks like this: www our conversation goes like this: you: three in a row doesn't mean much.",Di group of related numbers or data wey belong together look like dis: you: three for row no mean much,Computer science
"still, i'm a bit of a gambler.",I dey a bit of gambler,Computer science
i'll bet on wellesley.,I go bet on wellesley,Computer science
"me: i agree that three in a row isn't informative, and i see no reason to prefer wellesley's guesses over croker's.","I agree say three for row no dey informative, and i see no reason to prefer wellesley's guesses over croker's",Computer science
no bet for me.,I no go bet.,Computer science
"your gamble paid o: three more hills go by, and wellesley wins all three.","Your gamble payoff: three more hills pass, and Wellesley win all three.",Computer science
"going into the next round of our game the score is 1-0 in favour of you, and our dataset looks like this: www www i've organised the data into blocks of three so that you can see which batch corresponds to the observations that we had available at each step in our little side game.",Dem organise di data into blocks of three so say you fit see which batch correspond to di observation wey we get available for each step for our little side game.,Computer science
"after seeing this new batch, our conversation continues: you: six wins in a row for duke wellesley.",Di conversation continue: you: six wins for row for duke wellesley,Computer science
this is starting to feel a bit suspicious.,Dis one dey start to feel small suspicious.,Computer science
"i'm still not certain, but i reckon that he's going to win the next one too.","I still no certain, but i reckon say hin go win di next one too.",Computer science
"sure, i agree that wellesley has won six in a row, but i don't see any logical reason why that means he'll win the seventh one.","I agree say wellesley don win six for row, but i no see any logical reason why he go win seventh one",Computer science
you: do your really think so?,Di really think so?,Computer science
"fair enough, but my bet worked out last time, and i'm okay with my choice.","Di bet workout last time, and my bet workout last time, and i dey okay wit my choice.",Computer science
"for a second time you were right, and for a second time i was wrong.","Di second time you dey right, and for second time i dey wrong",Computer science
"wellesley wins the next three hills, extending his winning record against croker to 9-0.","Di wellesley win di next three hills, extend hin winning record against croker to 9-0.",Computer science
"the dataset available to us is now this: www www www and our conversation goes like this: you: okay, this is pretty obvious.",Di data wey dey available to us dey now dis: www,Computer science
wellesley is way better at this game.,Di wellesley dey way better for dis game,Computer science
"we both agree he's going to win the next hill, right?","We both agree say he go win di next hill, right?",Computer science
me: is there really any logical evidence for that?,Na really any logical evidence for dat?,Computer science
"before we started this game, there were lots of possibilities for the rst 10 outcomes, and i had no idea which one to expect.","Di game dey lots of possibilities for di rst 10 outcomes, and i no idea which one to expect.",Computer science
"www www www w was one possibility, but so was wcc cwc wwc c andwww www www c or even ccc ccc ccc c.",Na wcc cwc wwc c andwww www c or even ccc c.,Computer science
because i had no idea what would happen so i'd have said they were all equally likely.,I no get idea wen dem go happen so i don tok say dem dey all equally likely,Computer science
you: i suppose so.,Isuppose so.,Computer science
"me: well then, the observations we've made logically rule out all possibilities except two: www www www c orwww www www w.",Di observation wey we make logically rule out all possibilities except two: www c orwww www w.,Computer science
"both of these are perfectly consistent with the evidence we've encountered so far, aren't they?","Di evidence wey dey encounter so far, aren't diy?",Computer science
"you: yes, of course they are.","Na, of course dem dey.",Computer science
where are you going with this?,Di where dey you go wit dis?,Computer science
me: so what's changed then?,So what's change now?,Computer science
"at the start of our game, you'd have agreed with me that these are equally plausible, and none ofthe evidence that we've encountered has discriminated between these two possibilities.","E don agree wit me say dis dey equally plausible, and none of di evidence wey we dey encounter between dis two possibilities.",Computer science
"therefore, both of these possibilities remain equally plausible, and i see no logical reason to prefer one over the other.","Di possibilities dey equally plausible, and i see no logical reason to prefer one over di oda.",Computer science
"so yes, while i agree with you that wellesley's run of 9 wins in a row is remarkable, i can't think of a good reason to think he'll win the 10th hill.","I agree wit you say wellesley's run of 9 wins for row dey remarkable, i no think of good reason to think hin win di 10th hill.",Computer science
"you: i see your point, but i'm still willing to chance it.","You: I see wetin you mean, but I still willing to chance am.",Computer science
i'm betting on wellesley.,I dey betting on wellesley,Computer science
wellesley's winning streak continues for the next three hills.,Wesley's win streak continue for di next three hills.,Computer science
"the score in the wellesley-croker game is now 12-0, and the score in our game is now 3-0.","Di score for di wellesley-croker game dey now 12-0, and di score for awa game dey 3-0",Computer science
"as we approach the fourth round of our game, our dataset is this: www www www www and the conversation continues: you: oh yeah!","As we approach di fourth round of our game, awa group of related numbers or data wey belong together na dis: www",Computer science
three more wins for wellesley and another victory for me.,three more times wey dem win for Wellesley and one more win for me.,Computer science
"admit it, i was right about him!",I dey right about hin,Computer science
me: i don't know what to think.,I no know what to think,Computer science
"there are only two legitimate possibilities for a sequence of 13 hills that haven't already been ruled out, www www www www c andwww www www www w. it's just like i said last time: if all possible outcomes were equally sensible before the game started, shouldn't these two be equally sensible now given that our observations don't rule out either one?","I tok last time: if all di things wey fit happen dey equally sensible before di game start, e no dey rule out either one?",Computer science
you: i think you're being unreasonable.,I think you dey unreasonable,Computer science
"why not take a look at ourscorecard, if you need evidence?","Why no take make we look our scorecard, if you need evidence?",Computer science
"you're the expert on statistics and you've been using this fancy logical analysis, but the fact is you're losing.","Di fact dey say you dey expert on statistics and you dey use dis fancy logical analysis, but di fact na you dey losing.",Computer science
i'm just relying on common sense and i'm winning.,I just dey rely on common sense andI dey win.,Computer science
maybe you should switch strategies.,If you go switch strategies.,Computer science
"it seems tome that if there were someone else watching our game, what they'd have observed is a run of three wins to you.","I seem tome say if someone else dey watch our game, what dem don observe na run of three wins to you.",Computer science
their data would look like this: yyy.,Dia data go look like dis: YYY.,Computer science
"logically, i don't see that this is any dierent to our rst round of watching wellesley and croker.",I don see say dis na any dierent to our rst round of watch wellesley and croker,Computer science
"three wins to you doesn't seem like alot of evidence, and i see no reason to think that your strategy is working out any better than mine.",I see no reason to think say your strategy dey workout any better than mine,Computer science
"if i didn't think that wwwwas good evidence then for wellesley being better than croker at their game, surely i have no reason now to think that yyyis good evidence that you're better at ours?","If i no think say yyyis good evidence then for wellesley being better than croker for dia game, surely i get no reason now to think say yyyis good evidence wey you dey better for ours?",Computer science
"you: okay, now i think you're being a jerk.","okay, now i think you dey jerk",Computer science
me: i don't see the logical evidence for that.,I don see di logical evidence for dat,Computer science
"learning without making assumptions is a myth there are lots of dierent ways in which we could dissect this dialogue, but since this is a statistics book pitched at psychologists, and not an introduction to the philosophy and psychology of reasoning, i'll keep it brief.","Di statistics book wey dey pitch for psychologists, and no dey introduction to di philosophy and psychology of reasoning, i go keep am brief.",Computer science
"what i've described above is sometimes referred to as the riddle of induction: it seems entirely reasonable to think that a 12-0 winning record by wellesley is pretty strong evidence that he will win the 13th game, but it is not easy to provide a proper logical justi cation for this belief.","E dey reasonable to think say 12-0 winning record by wellesley dey strong evidence say hin go win di 13th game, but e no dey easy to provide proper logical justi cation for disbelief.",Computer science
"on the contrary, despite the obviousness ofthe answer, it's not actually possible to justify betting on wellesley without relying on some assumption that you don't have any logical justi cation for.",Di answer no dey possible to justify betting on wellesley without relying on some assumption say you no get any logical justi cation for.,Computer science
"the riddle of induction is most associated with the philosophical work of david hume and more recently nelson goodman, but you can nd examples ofthe problem popping up in elds as diverse literature(lewis carroll)and machine learning(the o free lunch""theorem).","Di riddle of induction dey associated wit di philosophical work of david hume and more recently nelson goodman, but you fit nd examples of di problem wey dey popping up for elds as diverse literature(di man wey write Alice for Wonderland)and machine learning(the o free lunch""theorem).",Computer science
"there really is something weird about trying to\learn what we do not know from what we do"".",Di really na something weird about trying to\learn what we no know from what we do,Computer science
the critical point is that assumptions and biases are unavoidable if you want to learn anything about the world.,Di critical point na say assumptions and biases dey unavoidable if you wan learn anything about di world.,Computer science
"there is no escape from this, and it is just as true for statistical inference as it is for human reasoning.","Nano escape from dis, and na just as true for statistical inference as im dey for human reasoning.",Computer science
"in the dialogue, i was taking aim at your perfectly sensible inferences as a human being, but the common sense reasoning that you relied on in is no dierent to what a statistician would have done.","I dey take aim for youre good to talk inference as human being, but di common sense reasoning say you relied on for nano dierent to what statistician go do.",Computer science
"your\common sense""half ofthe dialog relied an implicit assumption that there exists some dierence in skill between wellesley and croker, and what you were doing was trying to workout what that dierence in skill level would be.","Di dialog relied implicit assumption say there exist some dierence for skill between wellesley and croker, and how you dey try to workout what dat dierence for skill level would be.",Computer science
"my\logical analysis""rejects that assumption entirely.","Di\logical analysis""reject say assumption entirely.",Computer science
"all i was willing to accept is that there are sequences of wins and losses, and that i did not know which sequences would be observed.","Di all i dey willing to accept na say sequences of wins and losses, and say i no know which sequences go observe.",Computer science
"throughout the dialogue, i kept insisting that all logically possible data sets were equally plausible at the start ofthe wellesely-croker game, and the only way in which i ever revised my beliefs was to eliminate those possibilities that were factually inconsistent with the observations.","I kept insist say all logically possible data sets dey equally plausible for di start of di wellesely-croker game, and di only way wey i ever revise my beliefs dey eliminate those possibilities wey dey factually inconsistent wit di observations.",Computer science
that sounds perfectly sensible on its own terms.,E dey e good to talk on its own terms,Computer science
"in fact, it even sounds like the hallmark of good deductive reasoning.",Di hallmark of good deductive reasoning even sounds like di hallmark of good deductive reasoning,Computer science
"like sherlock holmes, my approach was to rule out that which is impossible, in the hope that what would be left is the truth.","Di approach dey rule out say we dey impossible, for di hope say we go dey left na di truth.",Computer science
"yet as we saw, ruling out the impossible never led me to make a prediction.","Yet as we see, to rule out di impossible never lead me make prediction.",Computer science
"on its own terms, everything i said in my half ofthe dialogue was entirely correct.",I tok for my half of di dialogue na completely correct.,Computer science
"an inability to make any predictions is the logical consequence of making o assumptions"".",Di logical consequence of make any predictions dey di logical consequence of make any assumptions,Computer science
"in the end i lost our game, because you did make some assumptions and those assumptions turned out to be right.","For di end, I lose our game, because you make some assumptions and those assumptions turnout to be right.",Computer science
"skill is a real thing, and because you believed in the existence of skill you were able to learn that wellesley had more of it than croker.","Di existence of skill na real thing, and because you believe for di existence of skill you dey able to learn say wellesley don more of it than croker.",Computer science
"had you relied on a less sensible assumption to drive your learning, you might not have won the game.","If you don rely on less sensible assumption to make you learn, you fit no win di game.",Computer science
ultimately there are two things you should takeaway from this.,Di two things you go takeaway from dis.,Computer science
"firstly, as i've said, you cannot avoid making assumptions if you want to learn anything from your data.","I tok say, you no avoid make assumptions if you wan learn anything from your data.",Computer science
"but secondly, once you realise that assumptions are necessary, it becomes important to make sure you make the right ones!","But secondly, once you realise say assumptions dey necessary, e dey important to make sure you make di right ones",Computer science
a data analysis that relies on few assumptions is not necessarily better than one that makes many assumptions: it all depends on whether those assumptions are good ones for your data.,Di to study numbers wey dey relies on few assumptions no dey necessarily better than one wey dey make many assumptions,Computer science
"as we go through the rest of this book i'll often point out the assumptions that underpin a particular tool, and how you can check whether those assumptions are sensible.","As we go through di rest of dis book i goto show di assumptions wey underpin particular tool, and how you fit check whether those assumptions dey sensible.",Computer science
introduction to probability[god] has aorded us only the twilight.,Di introduction to probability[god] don aord us only di twilight,Computer science
"to alot of people, this is all there is to statistics: it's about calculating averages, collecting all the numbers, drawing pictures, and putting them all in a report somewhere.","E dey about calculating averages, collect all di numbers, drawing pictures, and putting dem all for report somewhere.",Computer science
"kind of like stamp collecting, but with numbers.","almost like to collect stamps, but with numbers.",Computer science
"however, statistics covers much more than that.",But statistics cover much more than dat.,Computer science
"in fact, descriptive statistics is one ofthe smallest parts of statistics, and one ofthe least powerful.","Di numbers wey describe dey one of di smallest parts of statistics, and one of di least powerful",Computer science
the bigger and more useful part of statistics is that it provides that let you make inferences about data.,Di bigger and more useful part of statistics na say e provide say make you make inferences about data,Computer science
once you start thinking about statistics in these terms{ that statistics is there to help us draw inferences from data{ you start seeing examples of it everywhere.,For once you start thinking about statistics for dis terms{ say statistics dey there to help us draw inference from data{ you start seeing examples of it everywhere.,Computer science
"for instance, here's a tiny extract from a newspaper article in the sydney morning herald(30 oct 2010):\i have a tough job,""the premier said in response to a poll which found her government is now the most unpopular labor administration in polling history, with a primary vote of just 23 percent.","Di premier tok say for example, here's tiny extract from newspaper article for di sydney morning herald(30 oct 2010):\i get tough job, di premier tok say for response to poll wey found her goment dey now di most unpopular labor administration for polling history, wit primary vote of just 23 percent",Computer science
"this kind of remark is entirely unremarkable in the papers or in everyday life, but let's have a think about what it entails.","Di kind of remark dey entirely unremarkable for di paper or for everyday life, but let's get think about what dey entails.",Computer science
"a polling company has conducted a survey, usually a pretty big one because they can aord it.","Di polling company don conduct a survey, usually a big one because dem fit aord am",Computer science
"i'm too lazy to track down the original survey, so let's just imagine that they called 1000 nsw voters at random, and 230(23%) of those claimed that they intended to vote for the alp.","I dey too lazy to track down di original survey, so let's imagine say dem call 1000 nsw voters for random, and 230(23%) of dem claim say dem go vote for di alp.",Computer science
"for the 2010 federal election, the australian electoral commission reported 4, 610, 795 enrolled voters in nsw; so the opinions ofthe remaining 4, 609, 795 voters(about 99. 98%of voters)remain unknown to us.","Di australian electoral commission don report 4, 610, 795 voters for nsw; so di opinion of di remaining 4, 609, 795 voters(about 99 98%of voters)remain unknown to us.",Computer science
even assuming that no-one lied to the polling company the only thing we can say with 100%con dence is that the true alp primary vote is somewhere between 230/(about 0. 005%) and/ (about 99. 83%).,Di only thing wey we fit say wit 100%con dence na say di true alp primary vote dey for somewhere for between 230(about 0. 005%) and(about 99 83%).,Computer science
"so, on what basis is it legitimate for the polling company, the newspaper, and the readership to conclude that the alp primary vote is only about 23%?","Di polling company, di newspaper, and di readership to conclude say di alp primary vote only about 23%?",Computer science
"the answer to the question is pretty obvious: if i call 1000 people at random, and 230 of them say they intend to vote for the alp, then it seems very unlikely that these are the only 230 people out ofthe entire voting public who actually intend to do so.","If i call 1000 pipo for random, and 230 of dem say dem intend to vote for di alp, then e seem very unlikely say e dey di only 230 pipo out of di entire voting public wey actually intend to do so.",Computer science
"in other words, we assume that the data collected by the polling company is pretty representative ofthe population at large.",We assume say di data collect by di polling company dey representative of di population for large.,Computer science
but how representative?,But howe dey show di real thing?,Computer science
would we be surprised to discover that the true alp primary vote is actually 24%?,We go surprise say di true alp primary vote dey actually 24%?,Computer science
at this point everyday intuition starts to breakdown a bit.,"For dis point, di sense wey everybody get start to breakdown small.",Computer science
"no-one would be surprised by 24%, and everybody would be surprised by 37%, but it's a bit hard to say whether 29%is plausible.",Di bit hard to say whether 29%dey plausible.,Computer science
we need some more powerful tools than just looking at the numbers and guessing.,We need some better ways than just to make we look di numbers and guess.,Computer science
"inferential statistics provides the tools that we need to answer these sorts of questions, and since these kinds of questions lie at the heart ofthe scienti c enterprise, they take up the lions share of every introductory course on statistics and research methods.",Dem take up di lions share of every introductory course on statistics and ways to do research.,Computer science
"however, the theory of statistical inference is built on top of probability theory.",Di theory of statistical inference dey build on top of di study of chance.,Computer science
and it is to probability theory that we must now turn.,E dey to di study of chance wey we must turn,Computer science
"nevertheless, because probability theory does underpin so much of statistics, it's worth covering some ofthe basics.","Di study of chance don underpin so much of statistics, e worth covering some of di basics.",Computer science
"before we start talking about probability theory, it's helpful to spend a moment thinking about the relationship between probability and statistics.","We start talking about di study of chance, e dey helpful to spend moment thinking about di how two things dey related probability and statistics.",Computer science
the two disciplines are closely related but they're not identical.,Di two disciplines dey closely related but dem no dey identical.,Computer science
"probability theory is he doctrine of chances"".","di study of chance na""di doctrine of chances"".",Computer science
it's a branch of mathematics that tells you how often dierent kinds of events will happen.,Di branch of mathematics wey tell you how often dierent kinds of events go happen,Computer science
"for example, all of these questions are things you can answer using probability theory: what are the chances of a fair coin coming up heads 10 times in a row?","for example, all of dis questions dey things you go answer using di study of chance: what dey di chance of fair coin coming up heads 10 times for row?",Computer science
"if i roll two six sided dice, how likely is it that i'll roll two sixes?","Di likely dey say i roll two six sided dice, how likely dey say i roll two sixes?",Computer science
how likely is it that ve cards drawn from a perfectly shued deck will all be hearts?,How likely dey say ve cards draw from perfectly shued deck go all be hearts?,Computer science
what are the chances that i'll win the lottery?,Di chances wey i win di lottery?,Computer science
notice that all of these questions have something in common.,Di question don dey common.,Computer science
"in each case the ruth ofthe world""is known, and my question relates to the\what kind of events""will happen.","Di ruth of di world""dey known, and my question relates to di\what kind of events""go happen",Computer science
"in the rst question i know that the coin is fair, so there's a 50%chance that any individual coin ip will come up heads.","I know say di coin fair, so na 50%chance say any individual coin ip go kom up heads.",Computer science
"in the second question, i know that the chance of rolling a6 on a single die is 1 in 6.",I know say di chance of rolling 6 on single die dey 1 for 6.,Computer science
in the third question i know that the deck is shued properly.,I know say di deck dey shued properly,Computer science
"and in the fourth question, i know that the lottery follows speci c rules.",I know say di lottery follow speci c rules.,Computer science
you get the idea.,I get di idea,Computer science
"the critical point is that probabilistic questions start with a known model ofthe world, and we use that model to do some calculations.","Di critical point na say probabilistic questions start wit known model of di world, and we use dat model to do some calculations.",Computer science
the underlying model can be quite simple.,Di underlying model fit be simple.,Computer science
"for instance, in the coin ipping example, we can write down the model like this: ppheadsq0: 5 which you can read ashe probability of heads is 0. 5"".","We fit write down di model like dis: ppheadsq0: 5 wey you go read ashe probability of heads dey 0. 5"".",Computer science
"as we'll see later, in the same way that percentages are numbers that range from 0%to 100%, probabilities are just numbers that range from 0 to 1.","We go see later, for di same way say percentages dey numbers wey range from 0%to 100%, probabilities dey just numbers wey range from 0 to 1",Computer science
"when using this probability model to answer the rst question, i don't actually know exactly what's going to happen.",I no know exactly what's go happen.,Computer science
"maybe i'll get 10 heads, like the question says.","Di question tok say, maybe i get 10 heads, like di question says.",Computer science
but maybe i'll get three heads.,I go get three heads but maybe i go get three head,Computer science
"that's the key thing: in probability theory, the model is known, but the data are not.","For di study of chance, di model dey known, but di data no dey.",Computer science
so that's probability.,Di probability wey dey probability,Computer science
what about statistics?,Di statistics wey dey about statistics,Computer science
statistical questions work the other way around.,Di statistical question work di oda way around,Computer science
"in statistics, we do not know the truth about the world.",We no know di truth about di world,Computer science
"all we have is the data, and it is from the data that we want to learn the truth about the world.","Di data wey we get na di data, and na from di data wey we wan learn di truth about di world.",Computer science
"statistical questions tend to look more like these: if my friend ips a coin 10 times and gets 10 heads, are they playing a trick on me?","If my friend ips a coin 10 times and get 10 heads, na dem play trick on me?",Computer science
"if ve cards o the top ofthe deck are all hearts, how likely is it that the deck was shued?",Di deck dey shued?,Computer science
"if the lottery commissioner's spouse wins the lottery, how likely is it that the lottery was rigged?","Di lottery commissioner's spouse win di lottery, how likely be say di lottery commissioner don win di lottery, how likely be say di lottery don rigged?",Computer science
"this time around, the only thing we have are data.","Di only thing we get data, di only thing we get data",Computer science
what i know is that i saw my friend ip the coin 10 times and it came up heads everytime.,I know na say i saw my friend ip di coin 10 times and e kom up heads everytime,Computer science
"and what i want to infer is whether or not i should conclude that what i just saw was actually a fair coin being ipped 10 times in a row, or whether i should suspect that my friend is playing a trick on me.","I wan to conclude say what i just saw na fair coin wey dey throw 10 times for row, or whether i go suspect say my friend dey play trick on me.",Computer science
"the data i have look like this:-276- h h h h h h h h hhh and what i'm trying to do is workout which\model ofthe world""i should put my trust in.",Na 276-h,Computer science
"if the coin is fair, then the model i should adopt is one that says that the probability of heads is 0. 5; that is, ppheadsq0: 5.","Di model wey i go adopt na one wey tok say di probability of heads dey 0. 5; na, ppheadsq0",Computer science
"if the coin is not fair, then i should conclude that the probability of heads is not0. 5, which we would write as ppheadsq0: 5.","I go conclude say di probability of heads no dey fair, then i go conclude say di probability of heads no dey fair",Computer science
"in other words, the statistical inference problem is to gure out which of these probability models is right.",Di statistical inference problem dey to gure out which of dis probability model dey right,Computer science
"clearly, the statistical question isn't the same as the probability question, but they're deeply connected to one another.","Di statistical question no dey di same as di probability question, but dem deeply connect to one another.",Computer science
"because of this, a good introduction to statistical theory will start with a discussion of what probability is and how it works.",Di good introduction to statistical theory go start wit discussion of what probability dey and how it works,Computer science
let's start with the rst of these questions.,We go start wit di rst of dis questions,Computer science
"what is\probability""?","Na what dey\probability""?",Computer science
"it might seem surprising to you, but while statisticians and mathematicians(mostly) agree on what the rules of probability are, there's much less of a consensus on what the word really means.","Di statisticians and mathematicians(mostly) agree on what di rules of probability dey, na much less of consensus on what di word really means.",Computer science
"it seems weird because we're all very comfortable using words like\chance"", \likely"",\possible"" and\probable"", and it doesn't seem like it should be avery dicult question to answer.","We dey all very comfortable using words like\chance"", \likely"",\possible"" and probable"", and e no seem like e dey very dicult question to answer.",Computer science
"if you had to explain\probability"" to a ve year old, you could do a pretty good job.","If you don explain\probability"" to a ve year old, you go do a good job.",Computer science
"but if you've ever had that experience in real life, you might walk away from the conversation feeling like you didn't quite get it right, and that(like many everyday concepts)it turns out that you don't really know what it's all about.","If you no get experience for real life, you go walk away from di conversation feeling like you no get am right, and say(like many everyday concepts)e turnout say you no know what dey all about.",Computer science
so i'll have a goat it.,I go for am,Computer science
"let's suppose i want to bet on a soccer game between two teams of robots, arduino arsenal and c milan.","Make we suppose I wan bet on soccer game between two teams wey be machine, two names for teams.",Computer science
"after thinking about it, i decide that there is an 80%probability that arduino arsenal winning.",I decide say di 80%probability wey arduino arsenal win,Computer science
what do i mean by that?,I mean by dat?,Computer science
"here are three possibilities. they're robot teams, so i can make them play over and over again, and if i did that, arduino arsenal would win 8 out of every 10 games on average.","Na three possibilities wey dem dey robot team, so i fit make dem play many times, and if i do dat, arduino arsenal go win 8 out of every 10 games for average.",Computer science
"for any given game, i would only agree that betting on this game is only air""if a $1 bet on c milan gives a $5 payo (i. e.","I go only agree say betting on dis game only air""if $1 bet on c milan give$5 payo (i. e.",Computer science
"my subjective elief"" or\con dence"" in an arduino arsenal victory is four times as strong as my belief in ac milan victory.","Di subjective elief"" or\con dence"" for arduino arsenal victory na four times as strong as my belief for c milan victory.",Computer science
each of these seems sensible.,Di each of dis dey sensible,Computer science
"however they're not identical, and not every statistician would endorse all of them.","Dem no dey identical, and no evri statistician go endorse all of dem",Computer science
"the reason is that there are dierent statistical ideologies(yes, really!)","Di reason na say na dierent statistical ideologies(yes, really!)",Computer science
"and depending on which one you subscribe to, you might say that some of those statements are meaningless or irrelevant.",Di suppose say some of dis statements dey meaningless or irrelevant.,Computer science
"these are by no means the only approaches, but they're the two big ones.","Dem dey by no means di only approaches, but dem dey di two big ones.",Computer science
"suppose we were to try ipping a fair coin, over and over again.","We dey try ipping fair coin, many times.",Computer science
"by de nition, this is a coin that has pphq0: 5.","Di coin wey dey nition, dis dey coin wey dey pphq0",Computer science
what might we observe?,We dey observe?,Computer science
"one possibility is that the rst 20 ips might look like this: t, h, h, h, h, t, t, h, h, h, h, t, h, h, t, t, t, t, t, h-277- in this case 11 of these 20 coin ips(55%) came up heads.","one way wey e fit be na say di first 20 times wey you turn fit look like dis: T, H, H, H, H, T, T, H, H, H, H, T, H, H, T, T, T, T, T, H. For dis case,11 out of dese 20 coin flips(55%) come up heads.",Computer science
"now suppose that i'd been keeping a running tally ofthe number of heads(which i'll call nh)that i've seen, across the rst n ips, and calculate the proportion of heads nh{nevery time.","Na now suppose say i dey keep run tally of di number of heads( wey i call nh) wey i dey see, across di rst n ips, and calculate di proportion of heads wey i've see, across di rst n ips, and calculate di proportion of heads",Computer science
here's what i'd get(i did literally ip coins to produce this!,I don get(i don literally ip coins to produce dis,Computer science
"later on, one gets the impression that it dampens out a bit, with more and more ofthe values actually being pretty close to the ight"" answer of.50.","One get di impression say e damp out a bit, wit more and more of di values wey dey close to di ight"" answer of.50.",Computer science
"this is the frequentist de nition of probability in a nutshell: ip a fair coin over and over again, and as ngrows large(approaches in nity, denotednn8 ), the proportion of heads will converge to 50%.","Di frequentist dey nition of probability for a nutshell: ip fair coin many times, and as ngrows large(approaches for nity, denotedn8), di proportion of heads go converge to 50%",Computer science
"there are some subtle technicalities that the mathematicians care about, but qualitatively speaking, that's how the frequentists de ne probability.","Na some subtle technicalities wey di mathematicians care about, but qualitatively speaking, na how di frequentists dey probability.",Computer science
"unfortunately, i don't have an in nite number of coins, or the in nite patience required to ip a coin an in nite number of times.","Unfortunately, i no get any in nite number of coins, or di in nite patience wey dey required to ip a coin for nite number of times.",Computer science
"however, i do have a computer, and computers excel at mindless repetitive tasks.","I don get computer, and computers excel for mindless repetitive tasks.",Computer science
"so i asked my computer to simulate ipping a coin 1000 times, and then drew a picture of what happens to the proportion nh{nasnincreases.","I ask my computer to simulate ipping a coin 1000 times, and then drew picture of what dey happen to di proportion wey dey increase",Computer science
"actually, i did it four times, just to make sure it wasn't a uke.","I don do am four times, just make sure e no dey a uke.",Computer science
the results are shown in figure 9.1.,Di results dey show for figure 9.,Computer science
"as you can see, the proportion of observed heads eventually stops uctuating, and settles down; when it does, the number at which it nally settles is the true probability of heads.","As you see, di proportion of observed heads dey stop uctuating, and settle down; wen e does, di number wey e nally settle down, di true probability of heads.",Computer science
the frequentist de nition of probability has some desirable characteristics.,Di way of chance wey dey count many times of probability get some desirable characteristics.,Computer science
"firstly, it is objective: the probability of an event is necessarily grounded in the world.",Di probability of event dey ground for di world,Computer science
"the only way that probability statements can make sense is if they refer to(a sequence of)events that occur in the physical universe. 1secondly, it is unambiguous: any two people watching the same sequence of events unfold, trying to calculate the probability of an event, must inevitably come up with the same answer.","Di only way wey dem dey watch di same sequence of events unfold, try to calculate di probability of an event, must inevitably kom up wit di same answer.",Computer science
"however, it also has undesirable characteristics.",E also get undesirable characteristics,Computer science
"firstly, in nite sequences don't exist in the physical world.",For nite sequences don exist for di physical world,Computer science
suppose you picked up a coin from your pocket and started to ip it.,Suppose you pickup coin from your pocket and start to flip am.,Computer science
"everytime it lands, it impacts on the ground.",Di ground impact on di ground.,Computer science
"each impact wears the coin down a bit; eventually, the coin will be destroyed.","Di impact wear di coin down a bit; eventually, di coin go destroy di coin",Computer science
"so, one might ask whether it really makes sense to pretend that an\in nite"" sequence of coin ips is even a meaningful concept, or an objective one.","One go ask whether e really make sense to pretend say a\in nite"" sequence of coin ips dey even meaningful concept, or objective one.",Computer science
"we can't say that an\in nite sequence""of events is a real thing in the physical universe, because the physical universe doesn't allow in nite anything.","Di physical universe no allow for nite anything, because di physical universe no allow for nite anything.",Computer science
"more seriously, the frequentist de nition has a narrow scope.",Di frequentist de nition dey narrow scope.,Computer science
"there are lots of things out there that human beings are happy to assign probability to in everyday language, but cannot(even in theory)be mapped onto a hypothetical sequence of events.","Di lots of things wey human beings dey happy to assign probability to for normal talk, but no fit(even in theory)be mapped onto a hypothetical sequence of events.",Computer science
"for instance, if a meteorologist comes on tv and says, he probability of rain in adelaide on 2 november 2048 is 60%""we humans are happy to accept this.","If meteorologist kom on tv and tok say hin probability of rain for adelaide on 2 november 2048 dey 60%""we humans dey happy to accept dis.",Computer science
but it's not clear how to de ne this in frequentist terms.,E no clear how to dene dis for frequentist terms,Computer science
"there's only one city of adelaide, and only 2 november 2048.","Only one city of Adelaide dey, and only one November 2, 2048.",Computer science
"there's no in nite sequence of events here, just a once-o thing.","no end of things wey go happen dey here, just once-off thing.",Computer science
frequentist probability genuinely forbids us from making probability statements about a single event.,Frequentist probability genuinely forbid us from to talk about chance about single event.,Computer science
"from the frequentist perspective, it will either rain tomorrow or it will not; there is no\probability"" that attaches to a single non-repeatable event.","Di frequentist perspective, e go rain tomorrow or e no fit; there no\probability"" wey dey attach to single non-repeatable event",Computer science
"now, it should be said that there are some very clever tricks that frequentists can use to get around this.",E go tok say na some very clever tricks wey frequentists go use to get around dis.,Computer science
"one possibility is that what the meteorologist means is something like this:\there is a category of days for which i predict a 60%chance of rain; if we look only across those days for which i make this prediction, then on 60%of those days it will actually rain"".","Di category of days wey i predict 60%chance of rain; if we look only across dis days for which i make dis prediction, then on 60%of dis days e go rain",Computer science
"it's very weird and counterintuitive to think of it this way, but you do see 1this doesn't mean that frequentists can't make hypothetical statements, of course; it's just that if you want to make a statement about probability, then it must be possible to redescribe that statement in terms of a sequence of potentially observable events, and the relative frequencies of dierent outcomes that appear within that sequence.","Di very weird and counterintuitive to think of dis way, but you go see 1this no mean say frequentists no make hypothetical statements, of course; e no mean say if you wan make a statement about probability, and di relative frequencies of dierent outcomes wey dey within dat sequence.",Computer science
"if you ip a fair coin over and over again, the proportion of heads that you've seen eventually settles down, and converges to the true probability of 0. 5.","Di proportion of heads wey you see eventually settle down, and converge to di true probability of 0.",Computer science
"each panel shows four dierent simulated experiments: in each case, we pretend we ipped a coin 1000 times, and kept track ofthe proportion of ips that were heads as we went along.","Di panel show four dierent simulated experiments: for each case, we pretend we get coin 1000 times, and we keep track of di proportion of ips wey dey head as we dey go.",Computer science
"although none of these sequences actually ended up with an exact value of. 5, if we'd extended the experiment for an in nite number of coin ips they would have.",We dey extend di experiment for di in nite number of coin ips wey dey get,Computer science
"there are many avours of bayesianism, making hard to say exactly what he"" bayesian view is.","Na many avours of bayesianism, make hard to say exactly what he"" bayesian view dey.",Computer science
the most common way of thinking about subjective probability is to de ne the probability of an event as the degree of belief that an intelligent and rational agent assigns to that truth of that event.,Di most common way of thinking about subjective probability dey to de ne di probability of event as di how much you believe say intelligent and rational agent assign to dat truth of dat event.,Computer science
"from that perspective, probabilities don't exist in the world, but rather in the thoughts and assumptions of people and other intelligent beings.","Di perspective, probabilities don exist for di world, but rather for di thoughts and assumptions of pipo and oda intelligent beings.",Computer science
"however, in order for this approach to work, we need some way of operationalising \degree of belief"".","But for dis approach to work, we need some way to operationalise ""how much you believe"".",Computer science
"one way that you can do this is to formalise it in terms of ational gambling"", though there are many other ways.","Di one way wey you fit do dis nato formalise am for terms of ational gambling"", though e dey many oda way.",Computer science
suppose that i believe that there's a 60%probability of rain tomorrow.,I suppose say na 60%probability of rain tomorrow,Computer science
"if someone oers me a bet: if it rains tomorrow, then i win$5, but if it doesn't rain then i lose$5.","If someone offer me bet: if e rain tomorrow, den I to get 5 dollars, but if e no rain, den I to lose 5 dollars.",Computer science
"clearly, from my perspective, this is a pretty good bet.","E dey good bet, from my perspective, dis dey good bet.",Computer science
"on the other hand, if i think that the probability of rain is only 40%, then it's a bad bet to take.","If i think say di probability of rain only 40%, then e bad bet to take.",Computer science
"thus, we can operationalise the notion of a\subjective probability""in terms of what bets i'm willing to accept.","We go operationalise di notion of a\subjective probability""for terms of what bets i fit accept.",Computer science
what are the advantages and disadvantages to the bayesian approach?,Di advantage and disadvantages to di bayesian approach?,Computer science
the main advantage is that it allows you to assign probabilities to any event you want to.,Di main advantage na say e allow you to assign probabilities to any event you wan to.,Computer science
you don't need to be limited to those events that are repeatable.,I no need to limited to those events wey dey repeatable.,Computer science
the main disadvantage(to many people)is that we can't be purely objective{ specifying a probability requires us to specify an entity that has the relevant degree of belief.,Di main disadvantage(to many pipo) na say we no be objective{ specifying a probability requires us to specify entity wey dey relevant how much you believe.,Computer science
"this entity might be a human, an alien, a robot, or even a statistician, but there has to bean intelligent agent out there that believes in things.","Di entity go be human, an alien, a robot, or even statistician, but e go be intelligent agent out there wey dey believe in things.",Computer science
to many people this is uncomfortable: it seems to make probability arbitrary.,E dey uncomfortable: e seem to make probability arbitrary,Computer science
"while the bayesian approach does require that the agent in question be rational(i. e, obey the rules of probability), it does allow everyone to have their own beliefs; i can believe the coin is fair and you don't have to, even though we're both rational.","Di bayesian approach go require say di agent for question be rational(i. e, obey di rules of probability), e go allow evri pipo to get dia own beliefs; i fit believe di coin fair and you no get to, even though we dey both rational.",Computer science
"the frequentist view doesn't allow any two observers to attribute dierent probabilities to the same event: when that happens, then atleast one of them must be wrong.","Di frequentist view no allow any two observers to attribute dierent probabilities to di same event: when dat happen, then atleast one of dem must be wrong.",Computer science
the bayesian view does not prevent this from occurring.,Di bayesian view no prevent dis from occurring,Computer science
two observers with dierent background knowledge can legitimately hold dierent beliefs about the same event.,Di two observers wit dierent background knowledge go legitimately hold di same event.,Computer science
"in short, where the frequentist view is sometimes considered to be too narrow(forbids lots of things that that we want to assign probabilities to), the bayesian view is sometimes thought to be too broad(allows too many dierences between observers).","Di frequentist view dey consider to be too narrow(forbid lots of things wey we wan assign probabilities to), di bayesian view dey sometimes consider to be too narrow(forbid lots of things wey we wan to assign probabilities to), di bayesian view dey sometimes consider to be too narrow(forbid lots of things wey we wan to assign probabilities to), di bayesian view dey sometimes consider to be too narrow(forbid lots of things wey we wan to assign probabilities to), di bay",Computer science
and who is right?,We dey right?,Computer science
"now that you've seen each of these two views independently, it's useful to make sure you can compare the two.","Na now say you see each of dis two views independently, make sure you fit compare di two",Computer science
what do you think a frequentist and a bayesian would say about these three statements?,Wetin you think frequentist and Bayesian go say about dese three statements?,Computer science
which statement would a frequentist say is the correct de nition of probability?,Di statement go a frequentist say na di correct de nition of probability?,Computer science
which one would a bayesian do?,One go a bayesian do?,Computer science
would some of these statements be meaningless to a frequentist or a bayesian?,Di statement dey meaningless to a frequentist or a bayesian?,Computer science
"if you've understood the two perspectives, you should have some sense of how to answer those questions.","Di two perspectives, you go get some sense of how to answer those questions.",Computer science
"okay, assuming you understand the dierent, you might be wondering which of them is right?","E dey okay, assuming you understand di dierent, you go wonder why dem dey right?",Computer science
"honestly, i don't know that there is a right answer.",I no know say e dey right answer,Computer science
"as far as i can tell there's nothing mathematically incorrect about the way frequentists think about sequences of events, and there's nothing mathematically incorrect about the way that bayesians de ne the beliefs of a rational agent.","as for i fit tell say nothing mathematically incorrect about di way frequentists think about sequences of events, and nothing mathematically incorrect about di way wey bayesians dey think about sequences of events, and nothing mathematically incorrect about di way wey bayesians dey think about sequences of events, and nothing mathematically incorrect about di way wey bayesians dey think about sequences of events, and nothing mathematically incorrect about di way wey bayesians dey think about di",Computer science
"in fact, when you dig down into the details, bayesians and frequentists actually agree about alot of things.","For fact, wen you dig down into di details, bayesians and frequentists dey agree about alot of things.",Computer science
many frequentist methods lead to decisions that bayesians agree a rational agent would make.,Na many frequentist methods lead to decision wey bayesians agree a rational agent go make.,Computer science
many bayesian methods have very good frequentist properties.,Di bayesian methods don very good frequentist properties.,Computer science
"as it turns out, that makes me prefer bayesian methods, for reasons i'll explain towards the end ofthe book, but i'm not fundamentally opposed to frequentist methods.","I dey prefer bayesian methods, for reasons i go explain towards di end of di book, but i no dey fundamentally oppose to frequentist methods.",Computer science
not everyone is quite so relaxed.,We no dey quite so relaxed,Computer science
"for instance, consider sir ronald fisher, one ofthe towering gures of 20th century statistics and a vehement opponent to all things bayesian, whose paper on the mathematical foundations of statistics referred to bayesian probability as n impenetrable jungle[that] arrests progress towards precision of statistical concepts""(fisher, 1922b, p.311).","for example, consider one big name for statistics, one of di towering gures of 20th century statistics and a vehement opponent to all things bayesian, wey dey describe to bayesian probability as n impenetrable jungle wey dey arrest progress towards precision of statistical concepts""(fisher, 1922b, p.311).",Computer science
"or the psychologist paul meehl, who suggests that relying on frequentist methods could turn you into potent but sterile intellectual rake who leaves in his merry path along train of ravished maidens but no viable scienti c ospring"" (meehl, 1967, p. 114).","Dem suggest say relying on frequentist methods go turn you into potent but sterile intellectual rake wey dey leave for hin merry path long train of ravished maidens but no viable scienti c ospring"" (meehl, 1967, p. 114).",Computer science
"the history of statistics, as you might gather, is not devoid of entertainment.","Di story of how statistics start, as you fit gather, no be without entertainment.",Computer science
"in any case, while i personally prefer the bayesian view, the majority of statistical analyses are based on the frequentist approach.","I personally prefer di bayesian view, di majority of statistical analyses dey base on di frequentist approach.",Computer science
"my reasoning is pragmatic: the goal of this book is to cover roughly the same territory as atypical undergraduate stats class in psychology, and if you want to understand the statistical tools used by most psychologists, you'll need a good grasp of frequentist methods.","Di goal of dis book dey cover roughly di same territory as atypical undergraduate stats class for psychology, and if you wan to understand di statistical tools wey most psychologists need good grasp of frequentist methods.",Computer science
"even if you end up wanting to switch to the bayesian perspective, you really should read through atleast one book on the\orthodox"" frequentist view.","Even if you end up waning to switch to Bayesian perspective, you really suppose read through atleast one book on di""orthodox"" frequentist view.",Computer science
"and since ris the most widely used statistical language for bayesians, you might aswell read a book that uses r. besides, i won't completely ignore the bayesian perspective.","Di most widely used statistical language for bayesians, you go read book wey dey user. besides, i go ignore di bayesian perspective.",Computer science
there are lots of dierent ways of arriving at these rules.,Na lots of dierent way wey dey arrive at dis rules.,Computer science
"the most commonly used approach is based on the work of andrey kolmogorov, one ofthe great soviet mathematicians ofthe 20th century.","Di most commonly used approach dey based on di work of andrey kolmogorov, one of di great soviet mathematicians of di 20th century.",Computer science
"and in order to do so, i'm going to have to talk about my pants.","I go talk about my pants and in order to do so, i go get to talk about my pants",Computer science
"even sadder, i've given them names: i call them x1, x2, x3, x4andx5.","I call dem x1, x2, x3, x4andx5",Computer science
"now, on any given day, i pick out exactly one of pair of pants to wear.","Now, for any given day, I to take only one trouser to wear.",Computer science
"not even i'm so stupid as to try to wear two pairs of pants, and thanks to years of training i never go outside without wearing pants anymore.","Not even me dey so stupid to try wear two pairs of pants, and because of many years of learning, I no ever go outside without wear trouser anymore.",Computer science
"if i were to describe this situation using the language of probability theory, i would refer to each pair of pants(i. e, eachx) as an elementary event.","If I go describe dis situation using di words of chance study, I goto talk about each one trouser (i. e, each x)as di small thing wey fit happen.",Computer science
"the key characteristic of elementary events is that everytime we make an observation(e. g, every time i put on a pair of pants), then the outcome will be one and only one of these events.","Di key characteristic of elementary events na say everytime we make observation(e. g, every time we put on one trouser), then di outcome go be one and only one of dis events.",Computer science
"like i said, these days i always wear exactly one pair of pants, so my pants satisfy this constraint.","Like I talk, dese days I always wear exactly one trouser, so my pants satisfy dis constraint.",Computer science
"similarly, the set of all possible events is called a sample space.",Di set of all possible events dey call sample space,Computer science
"granted, some people would call it a\wardrobe"", but that's because they're refusing to think about my pants in probabilistic terms.","Di pipo go call am a\wardrobe"", but say dem no go think about my pants for probabilistic terms.",Computer science
"okay, now that we have a sample space(a wardrobe), which is built from lots of possible elementary events(pants), what we want to do is assign a probability of one of these elementary events.","Di sample space(a wardrobe), wey dey build from lots of possible elementary events(pants), we wan to assign probability of one of dis elementary events.",Computer science
"for an eventx, the probability of that event ppxqis a number that lies between 0 and 1.",Di probability of say event ppxqis a number wey dey between 0 and 1,Computer science
"the bigger the value ofppxq, the more likely the event is to occur.","Di bigger di value ofppxq, di more likely di event dey occur.",Computer science
"so, for example, if ppxq0, it means the event xis impossible(i. e, i never wear those pants).","So for example, if P(x)=0, e mean di event x dey impossible(i. e, I never wear those pants).",Computer science
"on the other hand, if ppxq1 it means that event xis -281-blue jeans grey jeans black suit blue track eventprobability of event 0. 0 0. 1 0. 2 0. 3 0. 4 0. 5figure 9.2: a visual depiction ofthe \pants""probability distribution.",If ppxq1 dey mean say event xis -281-blue jeans grey jeans black suit blue track eventprobability of event 0.,Computer science
"there are ve\elementary events"", corresponding to the ve pairs of pants that i own.",Di pairs of pants wey i own.,Computer science
each event has some probability of occurring: this probability is a number between 0 to 1.,Di probability dey between 0 to 1,Computer science
the sum of these probabilities is 1.,Di sum of dis probabilities dey 1.,Computer science
"certain to occur(i. e, i always wear those pants).","I. e, i always wear dia pants",Computer science
"for probability values in the middle, it means that i sometimes wear those pants.",Di means say i sometimes wear dia pants.,Computer science
"for instance, if ppxq0: 5 it means that i wear those pants half ofthe time.",If ppxq0: 5e mean say i wear dia pants half of di time,Computer science
"at this point, we're almost done.","Di point, we dey almost done",Computer science
"the last thing we need to recognise is that\something always happens"".",Di last thing we need recognise na say\something always happen,Computer science
"everytime i put on pants, i really do end up wearing pants(crazy, right?).","I go end up wear pants(crazy, right?).",Computer science
"what this somewhat trite statement means, in probabilistic terms, is that the probabilities ofthe elementary events need to add upto 1.","Di somewhat trite statement means, for probabilistic terms, na say di probabilities of di elementary events need add upto 1.",Computer science
"this is known as the law of total probability, not that any of us really care.","Di law of total probability, no say any of us really care.",Computer science
"more importantly, if these requirements are satis ed, then what we have is a probability distribution.","Di requirement dey satis ed, then we get formula wey show how likely different results be.",Computer science
"for example, this is an example of a probability distribution which pants?",E dey example of formula wey show how likely different results be wey pants?,Computer science
"label probability blue jeans x1ppx1q: 5 grey jeans x2ppx2q: 3 black jeans x3ppx3q: 1 black suit x4ppx4q0 blue tracksuit x5ppx5q: 1 each ofthe events has a probability that lies between 0 and 1, and if we add up the probability of all events, they sum to 1.","Di each of di events don a probability wey dey between 0 and 1, and if we add up di probability of all events, dem add to one",Computer science
"and at this point, we've all achieved something.",We get all achieve something.,Computer science
"you've learned what a probability distribution is, and i've nally managed to nd away to create a graph that focuses entirely on my pants.","I learn say a formula wey show how likely different results be dey, and i don manage to create graph wey focus entirely on my pants.",Computer science
the only other thing that i need to point out is that probability theory allows you to talk about non elementary events aswell as elementary ones.,Di only one thing wey i need to show na say di study of chance don allow you to talk about non elementary events aswell as elementary ones.,Computer science
the easiest way to illustrate the concept is with an example.,Di easiest way to illustrate di concept dey wit example,Computer science
"in the pants example, it's perfectly legitimate to refer to the probability that i wear jeans.",E perfectly legitimate to talk about di probability say i wear jeans,Computer science
in-282- table 9.1: some basic rules that probabilities must satisfy.,Di basic rules wey probabilities must satisfy.,Computer science
"you don't really need to know these rules in order to understand the analyses that we'll talk about later in the book, but they are important if you want to understand probability theory a bit more deeply.","Di rules dey important if you need to know dis rules for order to understand di analyses wey we go talk about later for di book, but dem dey important if you need to understand di study of chance a bit more deeply.",Computer science
english notation formula nota pp aq 1ppaq aorb ppaybq ppaq,Di notation formula note ppaq 1ppaq aorb ppaybq ppaq,Computer science
"this scenario, the \dan wears jeans""event said to have happened as long as the elementary event that actually did occur is one ofthe appropriate ones; in this case lue jeans"", lack jeans""or \grey jeans"".","Di\dan wear jeans""event tok say na long as di small thing wey fit happen wey dey occur na one of di appropriate ones; for dis case lue jeans"", lack jeans""or \grey jeans",Computer science
"in mathematical terms, we de ned the\jeans"" event eto correspond to the set of elementary events px1; x2; x3q.","Di\jeans"" event wey dey correspond to di set of elementary events px1; x2; x3q",Computer science
"if any of these elementary events occurs, then eis also said to have occurred.","E dey tok say if any dey of dis elementary events dey occur, then e tok say if any dey of dis elementary events dey occur.",Computer science
"having decided to write down the de nition ofthe ethis way, it's pretty straightforward to state what the probability ppeqis: we just add everything up.","We dey decide to write down di de nition of di ethis way, e dey straightforward to state what di probability ppeqis wey dey ppeqi.",Computer science
in this particular case ppeqppx1q,"For dis particular case, P(E) =P(x1) +P(x2) +.",Computer science
at this point you might be thinking that this is all terribly obvious and simple and you'd be right.,Di point you go think say dis dey all terribly obvious and simple and you go right.,Computer science
all we've really done is wrap some basic mathematics around a few common sense intuitions.,All we really do nato put small math around few normal sense ideas.,Computer science
"however, from these simple beginnings it's possible to construct some extremely powerful mathematical tools.",Di simple begins dey possible to construct some extremely powerful mathematical tools.,Computer science
"i'm de nitely not going to go into the details in this book, but what i will do is list{ in table 9.1{ some ofthe other rules that probabilities satisfy.","I dey nitely no go into di details for dis book, but what i go do dey list{ for table 9.1{ some of di oda rules wey probabilities satisfy.",Computer science
"these rules can be derived from the simple assumptions that i've outlined above, but since we don't actually use these rules for anything in this book, i won't do so here.","Di rules go dey derived from di simple assumption wey i dey outline above, but since we no use these rules for anything for dis book, i no go do so here.",Computer science
"however, they aren't all equally important.","Dem no dey all important, however, dem no dey all important",Computer science
"in fact, the vast majority ofthe content in this book relies on one of ve distributions: the binomial distribution, the normal distribution, thetdistribution, the 2(\chi-square"")distribution and the fdistribution.","for true, di most part of di content for dis book rely on one of five distributions: di yes, di bell way, di t-distribution, di χ2 (chi-square)distribution, and di F-distribution.",Computer science
"i'll start with the binomial distribution, since it's the simplest ofthe ve.","I go start wit di yes, since na di simplest of dive.",Computer science
"let's imagine a simple\experiment"": in my hot little hand i'm holding 20 identical sixsided dice.",For my hot little hand i dey holding 20 identical sixsided dice,Computer science
on one face of each die there's a picture of a skull; the other ve faces are all blank.,Di oda face of each die na picture of skull; di oda face dey blank.,Computer science
"if i-283- proceed to roll all 20 dice, what's the probability that i'll get exactly 4 skulls?","Di probability say i go roll all 20 dice, what's di probability say i go get exactly 4 skulls?",Computer science
"assuming that the dice are fair, we know that the chance of anyone die coming up skulls is 1 in 6; to say this another way, the skull probability for a single die is approximately: 167.","We know say di chance of anyone die coming up skulls dey 1 for 6; to say dis one way, di chance of anyone die coming up skulls dey approximately: 167.",Computer science
"this is enough information to answer our question, so let's have a look at how it's done.","Dis dey enough information wey dey answer awa question, so let's get make we look how dey done",Computer science
"as usual, we'll want to introduce some names and some notation.","as normal, we go wan to show some names and some signs.",Computer science
we'll let ndenote the number of dice rolls in our experiment; which is often referred to as the size parameter of our binomial distribution.,We go let ndenote di number of dice rolls for our experiment; wey dey often dem dey call di size parameter of our di yes.,Computer science
"we'll also use to refer to the the probability that a single die comes up skulls, a quantity that is usually called the success probability ofthe binomial. 2finally, we'll use xto refer to the results of our experiment, namely the number of skulls i get when i roll the dice.","We go use xto to talk about di probability say single die kom up skulls, quantity wey dey call di success probability of di binomial.",Computer science
"since the actual value of xis due to chance, we refer to it as a random variable.","Since di actual value of x dey because of luck, we to talk about am as one number wey fit change.",Computer science
"in any case, now that we have all this terminology and notation, we can use it to state the problem a little more precisely.","We get all dis terminology and notation, we go use am to state di problem a little more precisely.",Computer science
the quantity that we want to calculate is the probability that x4 given that we know that: 167 andn20.,Di quantity wey we wan to calculate na di probability say x4 give say we know say: 167 andn20.,Computer science
"the general orm"" ofthe thing i'm interested in calculating could be written as ppx|; nq and we're interested in the special case where x4,: 167 andn20.","Di general orm"" of di thing wey we dey interest for calculating could be ppx|; nq and we dey interest for di special case wey x4,: 167 andn20.",Computer science
there's only one more piece of notation i want to refer to before moving onto discuss the solution to the problem.,Di only one piece of notation wey i wan to talk about before we goto discuss di solution to di problem,Computer science
"if i want to say thatxis generated randomly from a binomial distribution with parameters andn, the notation i would use is as follows: xbinomialp; nq yeah, yeah.","Di notation wey i go use na as follow: xbinomialp; nq yeah, yeah.",Computer science
"really, who cares?","Na really, who care?",Computer science
"very few readers of this book are here for the notation, so i should probably move on and talk about how to use the binomial distribution.","Di book dey here for di notation, so i go move on and talk about how to use di yes",Computer science
"i've included the formula for the binomial distribution in table 9.2, since some readers may want to play with it themselves, but since most people probably don't care that much and because we don't need the formula in this book, i won't talk about it in any detail.","I don include di formula for di yes for table 9.2, since some pipo no need di formula for di yes for table 9.2, but since some pipo no need di formula for di yes for table 9.2, since some pipo no need di formula for di yes for table 9.2, but since some pipo no need di formula for di yes for table 9.2, since some pipo no need di formula for di yes for table 9.2, but since some pipo no need di formula for di yes for table 9.2, since",Computer science
"instead, i just want to show you what the binomial distribution looks like.","Instead, I just wan to show you wetin di yes look like.",Computer science
"to that end, figure 9. 3 plots the binomial probabilities for all possible values of xfor our dice rolling experiment, from x0 (no skulls)all the way up tox20 (all skulls).","To dat end, Figure 9.3 plot di binomial probabilities for all di numbers wey fit be of x for our one test wey you roll dice, from x=0(no skulls)all di way upto x=20(all skulls).",Computer science
"note that this is basically a bar chart, and is no dierent to the\pants probability""plot i drew in figure 9.2.","Di bar chart dey bar chart, and dey no dierent to di\pants probability""plot wey i drew for figure 9.",Computer science
"on the horizontal axis we have all the possible events, and on the vertical axis we can read o the probability of each of those events.","Di line wey dey go side we get all di possible events, and on di line wey dey go up we get all di possible events, and on di line wey dey go up we get all di possible events, and on di line wey dey go up we go read o di probability of each of dis events.",Computer science
"so, the probability of rolling 4 skulls out of 20 times is about 0. 20(the actual answer is 0,",Di probability of rolling 4 skulls out of 20 times dey about 0. 20 ( di actual answer dey 0.,Computer science
as we'll see in a moment).,We go see for moment,Computer science
"in other words, you'd expect that to happen about 20%of the times you repeated this experiment.",I expect say to happen about 20%of di times you repeat dis experiment.,Computer science
"to that end, rhas a function called dbinom() that calculates binomial probabilities for us.","For dat end, rhas a function wey called dbinom() wey dey calculat binomial probabilities for us",Computer science
the main arguments to the function are x.,Di main arguments to di function dey x,Computer science
"this is a number, or vector of numbers, specifying the outcomes whose probability you're trying to calculate.","Di number, or one group of numbers, wey dey specifying di outcomes wey you dey try to calculate.",Computer science
this is a number telling rthe size ofthe experiment.,Di number wey dey telling rthe size of di experiment.,Computer science
this is the success probability for anyone trial in the experiment.,Di success probability for anyone trial for di experiment.,Computer science
"ifreferred to the probability that anyone passenger gets injured in a bus crash, i'd still call it the success probability, but that doesn't mean i want people to get hurt in bus crashes!","I still call di probability say anyone passenger get injured for bus crash, but e no mean i wan pipo to get injured for bus crash",Computer science
"each vertical bar depicts the probability of one speci c outcome(i. e, one possible value of x).","Each one line wey dey stand up depict di probability of one certain result(i. e, one possible value of x).",Computer science
"because this is a probability distribution, each ofthe probabilities must be a number between 0 and 1, and the heights ofthe bars must sum to 1 aswell.","Because dis na formula wey show how likely different results be, each of di probabilities must be number between 0 and 1, and di heights of di bars must add to one aswell.",Computer science
"this time around, my experiment involves ipping a fair coin repeatedly, and the outcome that i'm interested in is the number of heads that i observe.","Di time around, my experiment involves ipping fair coin repeatedly, and di outcome wey i dey interest for dey di number of heads wey i observe.",Computer science
"in this scenario, the success probability is now 1{2.",Di success probability dey now 1{2.,Computer science
suppose i were to ip the coin n20 times.,Na suppose i dey ip di coin n20 times.,Computer science
"in this example, i've changed the success probability, but kept the size ofthe experiment the same.","I don change di success probability, but i keep di size of di experiment di same.",Computer science
what does this do to our binomial distribution?,Di yes wey dey do to awa di yes?,Computer science
"well, as figure 9. 4a shows, the main eect of this is to shift the whole distribution, as you'd expect.","Di main eect of dis nato shift di whole distribution, as you expect.",Computer science
"okay, what if we ipped a coin n100 times?","We dey okay, what if we tight a coin n100 times?",Computer science
"well, in that case, we get figure 9. 4b.","Well, for dat case, we see picture 9.4b.",Computer science
"the distribution stays roughly in the middle, but there's a bit more variability in the possible outcomes.","Di distribution stay roughly for di middle, but small more variability dey for di things wey fit happen.",Computer science
"at this point, i should probably explain the name ofthe dbinom() function.",I go probably explain di name of di dbinom() function,Computer science
"obviously, the inom"" part comes from the fact that we're working with the binomial distribution, but the\d"" pre x is probably a bit of a mystery.","Di inom"" part kom from di fact say we dey work wit di yes, but di\d"" pre x dey probably a bit of mystery.",Computer science
what's going on here is that ractually provides four functions in relation to the binomial distribution.,Dem goon here na say ractually provide four functions for relation to di yes.,Computer science
"these four functions aredbinom(), pbinom(), rbinom() and qbinom(), and each one calculates a dierent quantity of interest.","Di four functions deydbinom(), pbinom(), pbinom(), rbinom() and qbinom(), and each one dey calculat dia dierent quantity of interest.",Computer science
"not only that, rdoes the same thing for every probability distribution that it implements.",Di same thing for every formula wey show how likely different results be wey dey implement.,Computer science
"no matter what distribution you're talking about, there's a dfunction, a pfunction, a qfunction and a rfunction.","No matter which distribution you dey talk about, dfunction, pfunction, qfunction, and rfunction dey.",Computer science
"this is illustrated in table 9.3, using the binomial distribution and the normal distribution as examples.","Dis one dey illustrated for Table 9.3, using di yes and di bell way as examples.",Computer science
"in panel(a), we assume i'm ipping the coin n20 times.",We assume i'm ipping di coin n20 times,Computer science
in panel(b) we assume that the coin is ipped n100 times.,We assume say di coin dey ipped n100 times.,Computer science
"we don't really use these formulas for anything in this book, but they're pretty important for more advanced work, so i thought it might be best to put them herein a table, where they can't get in the way ofthe text.","I tok say we no use these formulas for anything for dis book, but dem dey important for more advanced work, so i think e go dey important for more advanced work.",Computer science
"in the equation for the binomial, x!","Equation for di binomial, x!",Computer science
"if these equations don't make alot of sense to you, don't worry too much about them.","Di equations don make alot of sense to you, don worry too much about dem",Computer science
binomial normal ppx|; nqn!,Na!,Computer science
"every probability distribution implemented in ris actually associated with four separate functions, and there is a pretty standardised way for naming these functions.","E dey standardised way for naming dis functions, and e dey standardised way for naming dis functions",Computer science
let's have a look at what all four functions do.,I go make we look what all four functions do.,Computer science
"firstly, all four versions ofthe function require you to specify the size and prob arguments: no matter what you're trying to get rto calculate, it needs to know what the parameters are.","no matter which you dey try to get rto calculate, e need to know what di parameters dey.",Computer science
"however, they dier in terms of what the other argument is, and what the output is.","Di pipo dey dier for terms of what di oda argument dey, and what di output dey.",Computer science
so let's look at them one at a time.,E dey make we look dem one time,Computer science
"the dform we've already seen: you specify a particular outcome x, and the output is the probability of obtaining exactly that outcome.","You specify a particular outcome x, and di output dey di chance to get exactly dat outcome",Computer science
"(the\d"" is short for density, but ignore that for now).","Di\d"" dey short for density, but ignore say for now",Computer science
the pform calculates the cumulative probability.,Di pform dey calculat di cumulative probability.,Computer science
"you specify a particular quantile q, and it tells you the probability of obtaining an outcome smaller than or equal to q.","You specify particular quantile q, and e tell you di chance to get result wey dey less or equal q.",Computer science
the qform calculates the quantiles ofthe distribution.,Di qform dey calculat di quantiles of di distribution,Computer science
"you specify a probability value p, and gives you the corresponding percentile.","You specify probability value p, and e give you di corresponding percentile.",Computer science
"that is, the value ofthe variable for which there's a probability pof obtaining an outcome lower than that value.","Di value of di variable wey dey, di value of di variable for which dey probability pof obtain outcome lower than dat value.",Computer science
"the rform is a random number generator: speci cally, it generates nrandom outcomes from the distribution.","Di rform dey something wey dey generate random numbers: speci cally, e generate nrandom outcomes from di distribution.",Computer science
"this is a little abstract, so let's look at some concrete examples.","E dey little abstract, so let make we look some concrete examples",Computer science
"again, we've already covered dbinom() so let's focus on the other three versions.",We don covered dbinom() so let focus on di oda three version.,Computer science
"we'll start with pbinom(), and we'll go back to the skull-dice example.","We goto start with pbinom(), and we to go back to di skull-dice example.",Computer science
"again, i'm rolling 20 dice, and each die has a1 in 6 chance of coming up skulls.","I dey rolling 20 dice, and each die get 1 for 6 chance of coming up skulls",Computer science
"suppose, however, that i want to know the probability of rolling 4 or fewer skulls.","suppose, but, say I wan know di chance to get 4 or less.",Computer science
"if i wanted to, i could use the dbinom() function to calculate the exact probability of rolling 0 skulls,1 skull,2 skulls,3 skulls and 4 skulls and then add these up, but there's a faster way.","I go use di dbinom() function to calculate di exact probability of rolling 0 skull,1 skull,2 skull,2 skull,2 skulls,3 skulls and 4 skulls and dem add dem up, but na faster way.",Computer science
"instead, i can calculate this using the pbinom() function.",I fit calculate dis using di pbinom() function,Computer science
"or, to put it another way, ris telling us that a value of 4 is actually the 76. 9th percentile of this binomial distribution.",Di value of 4 na di 76. 9th percentile of dis di yes.,Computer science
"next, let's consider the qbinom() function.",Dem consider di qbinom() function,Computer science
let's say i want to calculate the 75th percentile ofthe binomial distribution.,Make I say I wan calculate di 75th percentile of di yes.,Computer science
"if we're sticking with our skulls example, i would use the following command to do this:> qbinom( p=0. 75, size =20, prob= 1/6) [1]4 hm.","If we dey stick with our skull example, I go use dis command to do dis:> qbinom(p = 0.75, size= 20, prob =16) [1]4. Hmm.",Computer science
there's something odd going on here.,Na something wey dey going on here,Computer science
let's think this through.,We dey think dis through,Computer science
"what the qbinom() function appears to be telling us is that the 75th percentile ofthe binomial distribution is 4, even though we saw from thepbinom() function that 4 is actually the 76. 9th percentile.","Di qbinom() function suppose tell us say di 75th percentile of di yes dey 4, even though we saw from dipbinom() function say 4 dey actually di 76. 9th percentile.",Computer science
and it's de nitely the pbinom() function that is correct.,Di pbinom() function wey dey correct.,Computer science
the weirdness here comes from the fact that our binomial distribution doesn't really have a 75th percentile.,Di weirdness here kom from di fact say awa di yes no get 75th percentile.,Computer science
"well, there's a 56. 7%chance of rolling 3 or fewer skulls(you can type pbinom(3, 20, 1/6)to con rm this if you want), and a 76. 9%chance of rolling 4 or fewer skulls.","Di 56. 7%chance of rolling 3 or fewer skulls( you fit type pbinom(3, 20, 1 6)to con rm dis if you wan), and a 76. 9%chance of rolling 4 or fewer skulls( you fit type pbinom(3, 20, 1 6)to con rm dis if you wan), and 76. 9%chance of rolling 4 or fewer skulls.",Computer science
"so there's a sense in which the 75th percentile should lie\in between""3 and 4 skulls.","Di 75th percentile go lie between""3 and 4 skulls.",Computer science
but that makes no sense at all!,Nano sense for all!,Computer science
you can't roll 20 dice and get 3. 9 of them come up skulls.,Dem don roll 20 dice and get 3. 9 of dem kom up skulls.,Computer science
"this issue can be handled in dierent ways: you could report an in between value(or interpolated value, to use the technical name)like 3.9, you could round down(to 3)or you could roundup (to 4).","Di issue go dey handle for dierent way: you go report an in between value(or interpolated value, to use di technical name)like 3.9, you go round down(to 3)or you go roundup (to 4).",Computer science
"the qbinom() function rounds upwards: if you ask for a percentile that doesn't actually exist(like the 75th in this example), r nds the smallest value for which the the percentile rank is atleast what you asked for.","If you ask for percentile wey no exist(like di 75th for dis example), rnds di least wey di percentile rank dey atleast what you ask for.",Computer science
"in this case, since the rue""75th percentile(whatever that would mean)lies somewhere between 3 and 4 skulls, rrounds up and gives you an answer of 4.","Di rue""75th percentile(whatever wey go mean)lies for somewhere for between 3 and 4 skulls, rround up and give you answer of 4.",Computer science
"the other distributions that i'll talk about(normal, t, 2andf) are all continuous, and so rcan always return an exact quantile whenever you ask for it.","I go talk about(normal, t, 2andf) dey all continuous, and so rcan always return exact quantile wey you ask for am.",Computer science
"finally, we have the random number generator.",We get something wey dey generate random numbers,Computer science
"to use the rbinom() function, you specify how many times rshould \simulate""the experiment using the nargument, and it will generate random outcomes from the binomial distribution.","To use di rbinom() function, you specify how many times R suppose""simulate"" di experiment using di n argument, and e goto make chance numbers from di yes.",Computer science
"so, for instance, suppose i were to repeat my die rolling experiment 100 times.","So for example, suppose I go repeat my dice test 100 times.",Computer science
most ofthe time i roll somewhere between 1 to 5 skulls.,"Most of di time, I goto get number for between 1 to 5 skulls.",Computer science
"there area lot of subtleties associated with random number generation using a computer, 3but for the purposes of this book we don't need to worry too much about them.",Di book we no need to worry too much about dem,Computer science
"instead, what they do is take advantage of various mathematical functions that share alot of similarities with true randomness.",We go take advantage of different mathematical functions wey dey share similarities wit true randomness.,Computer science
"what this means is that any random numbers generated on a computer are pseudorandom, and the quality of those numbers depends on the speci c method used.","Di means na say any random numbers wey dey generate on a computer dey pseudorandom, and di quality of those numbers depend on di speci c method use.",Computer science
"by default ruses the \mersenne twister""method.","as e be, R dey use di ""Mersenne Twister""method.",Computer science
"in any case, you can nd out more by typing?","Di case, you fit nd out more by typing?",Computer science
"random, but as usual the rhelp les are fairly dense.","as normal di rhelp dey fairly dense, but as normal di rhelp dey fairly dense",Computer science
"thex-axis corresponds to the value of some variable, and they-axis tells us something about how likely we are to observe that value.","Dix-axis correspond to di value of some variable, and diy-axis tell us something about how likely we dey observe dat value.",Computer science
"however, notice that they-axis is labelled\probability density""and not\probability"".","Diy-axis dey label\probability density""and no\probability"".",Computer science
there is a subtle and somewhat frustrating characteristic of continuous distributions that makes theyaxis behave a bit oddly: the height ofthe curve here isn't actually the probability of observing a particularxvalue.,Di height of di curve here no dey actually di probability of observing particularxvalue.,Computer science
"on the other hand, it istrue that the heights ofthe curve tells you which xvalues are more likely(the higher ones!).",E deytrue say di height of di curve tell you which xvalues dey more likely(the higherones).,Computer science
"that particular honour goes to the normal distribution, which is also referred to ashe bell curve""or a \gaussian distribution"".","E dey also dem dey call he bell curve""or a\data pattern wey look like a bell, balanced on both sides"".",Computer science
"a normal distribution is described using two parameters, the mean ofthe distribution and the standard deviation ofthe distribution.","Dem described using two parameters, di mean of di distribution and di howe dey spread of di distribution.",Computer science
"the notation that we sometimes use to say that a variable xis normally distributed is as follows: xnormalp; q ofcourse, that's just notation.","Di notation wey we use to say a variable xis normally distributed dey as follows: xnormalp; q ofcourse, na just notation.",Computer science
it doesn't tell us anything interesting about the normal distribution itself.,E no tell us anything interesting about di bell way wey deyself,Computer science
"as was the case with the binomial distribution, i have included the formula for the normal distribution in this book, because i think it's important enough that everyone who learns statistics should atleast look at it, but since this is an introductory text i don't want to focus on it, so i've tucked it away in table 9.2.","Di case wit di yes, i don include di formula for di bell way for dis book, but since di case wit di yes, i don include di formula for di bell way for dis book, e don include di formula for di bell way for dis book, because i think e dey important enough say e no fit focus on am, but since di case wit di yes, i don include di formula for di bell way for di table 9.",Computer science
"similarly, the rfunctions for the normal distribution are dnorm(), pnorm(), qnorm() and rnorm().","Di rfunctions for di bell way dey dnorm(), pnorm(), qnorm() and rnorm()",Computer science
"however, they behave in pretty much exactly the same way as the corresponding functions for the binomial distribution, so there's not alot that you need to know.","Di yes dey pretty much exactly di same way as di corresponding functions for di yes, so no dey no get lot wey you need know.",Computer science
the only thing that i should point out is that the argument names for the parameters are mean and sd.,Di only thing wey i goto show na say di argument name for di parameters dey mean and sd.,Computer science
"in pretty much every other respect, there's nothing else to add.",Di nothing else wey dey add,Computer science
the solid line depicts a normal distribution with a mean of 4.,Di one line wey no cut depict di bell way with mean of 4.,Computer science
the dashed line shows a normal distribution with a mean of7.,Di line wey dey break show di bell way wit mean of7,Computer science
"in both cases, the standard deviation is 1.",Di howe dey spread dey 1.,Computer science
"not surprisingly, the two distributions have the same shape, but the dashed line is shifted to the right.","Di two distributions don dey same shape, but di line wey dey break dey shift to di right.",Computer science
"instead of focusing on the maths, let's try to get a sense for what it means for a variable to be normally distributed.","not to look at di maths, make we try get sense for wetin e mean for variable to dey normally distributed.",Computer science
"to that end, have a look at figure 9.5, which plots a normal distribution with mean0 and standard deviation 1.","Na make we look figure 9.5, wey plot di bell way wit mean0 and howe dey spread 1.",Computer science
"you can see where the name ell curve""comes from: it looks a bit like a bell.",Di name ell curve kom from: e look like a bell,Computer science
"notice that, unlike the plots that i drew to illustrate the binomial distribution, the picture ofthe normal distribution in figure 9. 5 shows a smooth curve instead of \histogram-like"" bars.","Di plot wey i drew to illustrate di yes, di picture of di bell way for figure 9. 5 show smooth curve forstead of \histogram-like bars.",Computer science
"this isn't an arbitrary choice: the normal distribution is continuous, whereas the binomial is discrete.","Di bell way dey continuous, whereas di binomial dey discrete.",Computer science
continuous quantities don't have this constraint.,Di constraint don get dis constraint.,Computer science
"for instance, suppose we're talking about the weather.",We dey talk about di weather,Computer science
"the temperature on a pleasant spring day could be 23 degrees,24 degrees,23. 9 degrees, or anything in between since temperature is a continuous variable, and so a normal distribution might be quite appropriate for describing spring temperatures.4 with this in mind, let's see if we can't get an intuition for how the normal distribution works.","For di mind, let see if we no get intuition for how di bell way works.",Computer science
"firstly, let's have a look at what happens when we play around with the parameters ofthe distribution.",We go make we look how we play around wit di parameters of di distribution.,Computer science
"to that end, figure 9. 6 plots normal distributions that have dierent means, but have the same standard deviation.","For dat end, figure 9. 6 plot di bell way wey don dey animal means, but don get di same howe dey spread.",Computer science
"as you might expect, all of these distributions have the same\width"".","As you might expect, all of dis distributions don get di same\width",Computer science
the only dierence between them is that they've been shifted to the left or to the right.,Di only dierence wey dem dey between dem na say dem dey shift to di left or to di right.,Computer science
in every other respect they're identical.,For every oda respect dem dey identical,Computer science
"in contrast, if we increase the standard deviation while keeping the mean constant, the peak 4in practice, the normal distribution is so handy that people tend to use it even when the variable isn't actually continuous.","For contrast, if we increase di howe dey spread while keeping di mean constant, di peak 4in practice, di bell way dey so handy say pipo go use am even wen di variable no dey continuous.",Computer science
"as long as there are enough categories(e. g, likert scale responses to a questionnaire), it's pretty standard practice to use the normal distribution as an approximation.","E. g, one kind of scale response to questionnaire), e dey standard practice to use di bell way as approximation.",Computer science
this works out much better in practice than you'd think.,Dis one workout much better for practice than you go think.,Computer science
"both distributions plotted in this gure have a mean of 5, but they have dierent standard deviations.","Di distributions wey dey plot for dis gure don mean of 5, but dem don dey di standard deviations.",Computer science
"the solid line plots a distribution with standard deviation 1, and the dashed line shows a distribution with standard deviation 2.","Di one line wey no cut plot distribution wit howe dey spread 1, and di line wey dey break show distribution wit howe dey spread 2, and di line wey dey break show distribution wit howe dey spread 2, and di line wey dey break show distribution wit howe dey spread 2.",Computer science
"as a consequence, both distributions are\centred"" on the same spot, but the dashed line is wider than the solid one.","as result, both distributions dey centred on di same spot, but di line wey dey break dey wider than di solid one.",Computer science
"ofthe distribution stays in the same place, but the distribution gets wider, as you can see in figure 9. 7.","Di distribution stay for di same place, but di distribution get wider, as you see for figure 9. 7.7. 7.7. 7.",Computer science
"notice, though, that when we widen the distribution, the height ofthe peak shrinks.","Di distribution wey we wide di distribution, di height of di peak shrinks.",Computer science
"this has to happen: in the same way that the heights ofthe bars that we used to draw a discrete binomial distribution have tosum to 1, the total area under the curve for the normal distribution must equal 1.","For di same way say di height of di bars wey we use to draw discrete di yes don add to one, di total area under di curve for di bell way must equal 1, di total area under di curve for di bell way must equal 1.",Computer science
"before moving on, i want to point out one important characteristic ofthe normal distribution.","Before we move on, I wan to show one important thing of di bell way.",Computer science
"irrespective of what the actual mean and standard deviation are,68. 3%of the area falls within 1 standard deviation ofthe mean.","Di actual mean and howe dey spread dey,68. 3%of di area fall within 1 howe dey spread of di mean.",Computer science
"similarly,95. 4%of the distribution falls within 2 standard deviations ofthe mean, and 99. 7%of the distribution is within 3 standard deviations.","Dem similarly,95. 4%of di distribution fall within 2 standard deviations of di mean, and 99. 7%of di distribution dey within 3 standard deviations.",Computer science
this idea is illustrated in figure 9. 8.,Di idea dey illustrate for figure 9. 8. 8.,Computer science
"they might be right to do so: this hing"" that i'm hiding is weird and counterintuitive even by the admittedly distorted standards that apply in statistics.","Di hing"" wey i dey hidin dey weird and counterintuitive even by di admittedly distorted standards wey apply for statistics.",Computer science
"fortunately, it's not something that you need to understand at a deep level in order to do basic statistics: rather, it's something that starts to become important later on when you move beyond the basics.",E no dey something wey you need understand for deep level for order to do basic statistics,Computer science
"so, if it doesn't make complete sense, don't worry: try to make sure that you follow the gist of it.",I go make sure say you follow di gist of am.,Computer science
"throughout my discussion ofthe normal distribution, there's been one or two things that don't quite make sense.","Di bell way, na one or two things wey don make sense.",Computer science
the solid lines plot normal distributions with mean 0 and standard deviation 1.,Di one line wey no cut plot di bell way wit mean 0 and howe dey spread 1.,Computer science
"the shaded areas illustrate reas under the curve""for two important cases.",Di shaded area dey illustrate reas under di curve for two important cases.,Computer science
"in panel a, we can see that there is a 68. 3%chance that an observation will fall within one standard deviation ofthe mean.",We fit see say there dey 68. 3%chance say an observation go fall within one howe dey spread of di mean.,Computer science
"in panel b, we see that there is a 95. 4%chance that an observation will fall within two standard deviations ofthe mean.",We see say di 95. 4%chance wey dey fall within two standard deviations of di mean.,Computer science
"there is a 15. 9%chance that an observation is one standard deviation below the mean or smaller(panel a), and a 34. 1%chance that the observation is greater than one standard deviation below the mean but still below the mean(panel b).","Na 15. 9%chance say di observation dey one howe dey spread below di mean but still below di mean(panel b), and 34. 1%chance say di observation dey smaller than one howe dey spread below di mean but still below di mean(panel b).",Computer science
notice that if you add these two numbers together you get 15: 9%,"Notice say if you add dese two numbers together, you go get 15.9%",Computer science
"for normally distributed data, there is a 50%chance that an observation falls below the mean.","For normally distributed data, na 50%chance say di observation falls below di mean.",Computer science
and ofcourse that also implies that there is a 50%chance that it falls above the mean.,Di course wey also implies say e dey 50%chance wey dey fall above di mean.,Computer science
maybe you noticed that i used ppxqinstead ofppxqwhen giving the formula for the normal distribution.,Maybe you notice say I use P(x)not dat one p(x)when giving di formula for di bell way.,Computer science
"maybe you're wondering why ruses the\d"" pre x for functions like dnorm().","Di maybe you dey wonder why ruses di\d"" pre x for function like dnorm()",Computer science
"i've asked rto calculate the probability that x=1, for a normally distributed variable with mean=1 and standard deviation sd = 0.1; and it tells me that the probability is 3. 99.","I ask rto calculate di probability wey x=1, for normally distributed variable wit mean=1 and howe dey spread sd=0",Computer science
"but, as we discussed earlier, probabilities can't be larger than 1.","As we discuss earlier, probabilities no fit be larger than 1.",Computer science
"so either i've made a mistake, or that's not a probability.","I dey make mistake, or dat no dey probability.",Computer science
"as it turns out, the second answer is correct.",Di second answer na correct.,Computer science
what we've calculated here isn't actually a probability: it's something else.,Di probability wey we dey calculat here no dey actually a probability: na something else.,Computer science
"to understand what that something is, you have to spend a little time thinking about what it really means to say that xis a continuous variable.","E go spend a little time thinking about what dat something dey, you go spend a little time thinking about what e really means to say xis a continuous variable.",Computer science
let's say we're talking about the temperature outside.,We dey talk about di temperature outside,Computer science
"the thermometer tells me it's 23 degrees, but i know that's not really true.","I know say na 23 degrees, but i know say na true.",Computer science
it's notexactly 23 degrees.,E no dey exactly 23 degrees,Computer science
"maybe it's 23.1 degrees, i think to myself.","Maybe e be 23.1 degrees, I think for my head.",Computer science
"but i know that that's not really true either, because it might actually be 23. 09 degrees.","I know say dat no true either, bikos e go actually be 23. 09 degrees.",Computer science
"but, i know that. well, you get the idea.","I know say, well, you go get idea",Computer science
the tricky thing with genuinely continuous quantities is that you never really know exactly what they are.,Di tricky thing wit genuinely continuous quantities dey say you never know exactly what dem dey.,Computer science
now think about what this implies when we talk about probabilities.,Na now think about what dis implies wen we talk about probabilities.,Computer science
suppose that tomorrow's maximum temperature is sampled from a normal distribution with mean 23 and standard deviation 1.,Di suppose say tomorrow maximum temperature dey sample from di bell way wit mean 23 and howe dey spread 1.,Computer science
what's the probability that the temperature will be exactly 23 degrees?,Di probability say di temperature go be exactly 23 degrees?,Computer science
"the answer is\zero"", or possibly, number so close to zero that it might aswell be zero"".","Di answer dey\zero"", or possibly, number wey dey close to zero wey might aswell be zero"".",Computer science
why is this?,Di why dey dis?,Computer science
"it's like trying to throw a dart at an in nitely small dart board: no matter how good your aim, you'll never hit it.","E dey like try to throw dart for di in nitely small dart board: no matter how good your aim, you no fit hit am",Computer science
in real life you'll never get a value of exactly 23.,E no get value of exactly 23.,Computer science
it'll always be something like 23.1 or 22. 99998 or something.,E go always be something like 23.1 or 22.99998 or something.,Computer science
"in other words, it's completely meaningless to talk about the probability that the temperature is exactly 23 degrees.",E completely meaningless to talk about di probability say di temperature dey exactly 23 degrees,Computer science
"however, in everyday language, if i told you that it was 23 degrees outside and it turned out to be 22. 9998 degrees, you probably wouldn't call me a liar.","Di normal talk, if i tell you say e dey 23 degree outside and e turnout to be 22. 9998 degrees, you go call me a liar.",Computer science
"because in everyday language, degrees"" usually means something like\somewhere between 22. 5 and 23. 5 degrees"".","Because for normal talk,""degrees"" usually mean something like""for somewhere for between 22.5 and 23.5 degrees"".",Computer science
"and while it doesn't feel very meaningful to ask about the probability that the temperature is exactly 23 degrees, it does seem sensible to ask about the probability that the temperature lies between 22. 5 and 23. 5, or between 20 and 30, or any other range of temperatures.","E no feel very meaningful to ask about di probability say di temperature dey exactly 23 degrees, e no feel very meaningful to ask about di probability say di temperature dey between 22. 5 and 23. 5, or between 20 and 30, or any oda range of temperatures.",Computer science
"the point of this discussion is to make clear that, when we're talking about continuous distributions, it's not meaningful to talk about the probability of a speci c value.","Di point of dis discussion dey make clear say, wen we dey talk about continuous distributions, no dey meaningful to talk about di probability of a speci c value.",Computer science
"however, what we cantalk about is the probability that the value lies within a particular range of values.",We fit talk about na di probability say di value lies within a particular range of values.,Computer science
"to nd out the probability associated with a particular range, what you need to do is calculate the rea under the curve"".","We need to nd out di probability wey dey associated wit a particular range, wey you need to calculate di rea under di curve"".",Computer science
"we've seen this concept already: in figure 9. 8, the shaded areas shown depict genuine probabilities(e. g, in figure 9. 8a it shows the probability of observing a value that falls within 1 standard deviation ofthe mean).","For figure 9. 8, di shaded area show di probability of observing value wey dey fall within 1 howe dey spread of di mean).",Computer science
"okay, so that explains part ofthe story.","Di story dey okay, so dat explain part of di story.",Computer science
"i've explained a little bit about how continuous probability distributions should be interpreted(i. e, area under the curve is the key thing), but i haven't actually explained what the dnorm() function actually calculates.","I don explain a little bit about how continuous probability distributions dey interpreted(i. e, area under di curve dey di key thing), but i don explain how di dnorm() function actually calculates.",Computer science
"equivalently, what does the formula for ppxq that i described earlier actually mean?",Di formula for ppxq wey i described earlier actually mean?,Computer science
"obviously, ppxqdoesn't describe a probability, but what is it?","E no dey describe a probability, but what dey e?",Computer science
"the name for this quantity ppxqis aprobability density, and in terms ofthe plots we've been drawing, it corresponds to the height ofthe curve.","Di name for dis quantity ppxqis aprobability density, and for terms of di plot wey we dey draw, e correspond to di height of di curve.",Computer science
"the densities themselves aren't meaningful in and of themselves: but they're igged"" to ensure that the area under the curve is always interpretable as-293- 4 202 40. 0 0. 1 0. 2 0. 3 0. 4 observed valueprobability densityfigure 9. 10: a tdistribution with 3 degrees of freedom(solid line).","Dem dey igged"" to ensure say di area under di curve dey always interpretable as-293- 4 202 40.",Computer science
"it looks similar to a normal distribution, but it's not quite the same.","Di bell way dey similar to di bell way, but no dey quite di same.",Computer science
"for comparison purposes, i've plotted a standard normal distribution as the dashed line.",I plot standard di bell way as di line wey dey break.,Computer science
"note that the ails"" ofthe tdistribution are\heavier"" (i. e, extend further outwards) than the tails ofthe normal distribution?","Di ails"" of di tdistribution dey \heavier""(i. e, extend further outwards) than di tails of di bell way?",Computer science
that's the important dierence between the two.,Di important dierence between di two,Computer science
"to be honest, that's about as much as you really need to know for now.5 9. 6 other useful distributions the normal distribution is the distribution that statistics makes most use of(for reasons to be discussed shortly), and the binomial distribution is avery useful one for lots of purposes.","Di bell way dey di distribution wey statistics make most use of(for reasons wey dey discuss shortly), and di yes dey useful one for lots of purposes.",Computer science
"but the world of statistics is lled with probability distributions, some of which we'll run into in passing.","Di world of statistics dey lled wit probability distributions, some of which we go run into for pass.",Computer science
"in particular, the three that will appear in this book are the tdistribution, the 2distribution and the fdistribution.","Di three wey go appear for dis book dey di tdistribution, di 2distribution and di fdistribution.",Computer science
"thetdistribution is a continuous distribution that looks very similar to a normal distribution, but has heavier tails: see figure 9. 10.",We check di picture 9. 10. 10. 10.,Computer science
"this distribution tends to arise in situations where you think that the data actually follow a normal distribution, but you don't know the mean or standard deviation.","Di distribution dey arise for situations wey you think say di data follow di bell way, but you no know di mean or howe dey spread.",Computer science
"in the same way that probabilities are non-negative numbers that must sum to 1, probability densities are non-negative numbers that must integrate to 1(where the integral is taken across all possible values of x).","Di same way say probabilities dey non-negative numbers wey must add to one, probability densities dey non-negative numbers wey must integrate to 1(where di integral dey take across all possible value of x).",Computer science
"to calculate the probability that xfalls between aandbwe calculate the de nite integral ofthe density function over the corresponding range,3b appxqdx.","Di probability wey xfall between aandbwe calculate di density function over di corresponding range,3b appxqdx.",Computer science
"if you don't remember or never learned calculus, don't worry about this.","But if you don remember or never learn calculus, don worry about dis.",Computer science
it's not needed for this book.,Di book no need for dis book,Computer science
"notice that the observed values must always be greater than zero, and that the distribution is pretty skewed.","Di observe values must always be pass, as in one thing pass anoda, for example, if u get 10 naira and v get 5 naira, u pass v zero, and say di distribution dey pretty skewed.",Computer science
these are the key features of a chi-square distribution.,Dis dey di key feature of chi-square distribution,Computer science
"qualitatively speaking, it looks pretty similar to a chi-square distribution, but they're not quite the same in general.","E look similar to chi-square distribution, but dem no dey quite di same for general.",Computer science
when you dig into the maths(and who doesn't love doing that?,For when you dig into di maths(and who no love do dat?,Computer science
you'd be amazed how often this fact turns out to be useful.,Di fact turnout to be useful.,Computer science
"anyway, here's what a 2distribution looks like: figure 9. 11.",Di 2distribution look like: figure 9. 11. 11.,Computer science
"once again, the rcommands for this one are pretty predictable: dchisq(), pchisq(), qchisq(), rchisq().","Di rcommand for dis one dey predictable: dchisq(), pchisq(), pchisq(), rchisq()",Computer science
"thefdistribution looks a bit like a 2distribution, and it arises whenever you need to compare two2distributions to one another.","Di F-distribution look small like χ2 distribution, and e dey arise whenever you need compare two χ2 distributions to eachother.",Computer science
"admittedly, this doesn't exactly sound like something that any sane person would want to do, but it turns out to be very important in real world data analysis.","E no sound like something wey any sane person go wan to do, but e turnout to be important for real numbers work.",Computer science
"remember when i said that 2turns out to be the key distribution when we're taking a\sum of squares""?","I tok say 2turn out to be di key distribution wen we dey take a\adding all the squared gaps to measure total error""?",Computer science
"well, what that means is if you want to compare two dierent \sums of squares"", you're probably talking about something that hasan fdistribution.","Di thing wey means na if you fit compare two dierent \sums of squares"", you dey probably talk about something wey dey fdistribution.",Computer science
and that's where we'll run into the fdistribution.,We go run into di fdistribution.,Computer science
"oh, and here's a picture: figure 9. 12.",E dey picture: figure 9. 12.,Computer science
"and ofcourse we can get rto do things with fdistributions just by using the commands df(), pf(), qf() and rf().","Di command df(), pf(), qf(), qf() and rf().",Computer science
"because these distributions are all tightly related to the normal distribution and to eachother, and because they are will turnout to be the important distributions when doing inferential statistics later in this book, i think it's useful to do a little demonstration using r, just to\convince ourselves""that these distributions really are related to eachother in the way that they're supposed to be.","I think e dey useful to do a little demonstration wey dey using r, just to\convince ourselves""say dis distributions dey related to di bell way and to each oda, and because dem dey turnout to be di important distribution wey dey related to di bell way and to each oda way wey dem dey suppose be.",Computer science
"note that, because the default parameters ofthe rnorm() function are mean=0 and sd=1, i could have shortened the command to rnorm( n=1000 ).","Di default parameters of di rnorm() function dey mean=0 and sd=1, i go shorten di command to rnorm( n=1000 )",Computer science
"in any case, what we can do is use the hist() function to draw a histogram ofthe data, like so:> hist( normal. a)if you do this, you should see something similar to figure 9. 13a.","Di hist() function to draw hintogram of di data, like so:> hist( normal. a)if you do dis, you go see something similar to figure 9. 13a.",Computer science
"in the previous example all i did was generate lots of normally distributed observations using rnorm() and then compared those to the true probability distribution in the gure (using dnorm() to generate the black line in the gure, but i didn't show the commmands for that).","I don generate lots of normally distributed observations using rnorm() and then compare those to di true formula wey show how likely different results be for di gure (using dnorm() to generate di black line for di gure, but i no show di commmands for dat).",Computer science
now let's try something trickier.,Na now let try something trickier,Computer science
see the main text for details.,Check di main text for more small tins.,Computer science
can exploit the known relationships between normal and chi-square distributions to do the work.,Di work wey dey suppose exploit di known relationships between normal and chi-square distributions to do di work.,Computer science
"as i mentioned earlier, a chi-square distribution with kdegrees of freedom is what you get when you take knormally-distributed variables(with mean 0 and standard deviation 1), square them, and add them up.","As I mention earlier, chi-square distribution with k freedom numbers na wetin you go get when you take k normally-distributed variables (wey get average 0 and spread 1), square dem, and add dem up.",Computer science
"you can use the hist() function to have a look at these observations yourself, using a command like this,> hist( chi. sq.3) and you should obtain a result that looks pretty similar to the plot in figure 9. 13b.","Di hist() function make you use di hist() function make you make we look dis observations yourself, using command like dis,> hist( chi. sq.3) and you go obtain result wey dey similar to di plot for figure 9. 13b.",Computer science
"once again, the plot that i've drawn is a little fancier: in addition to the histogram of chi. sq.3, i've also plotted a chi-square distribution with 3 degrees of freedom.","For addition to di hintogram of chi. sq.3, i dey plot chi-square distribution wit 3 degree of freedom.",Computer science
it's pretty clear that{ even though i used rnorm() to do all the-297- work rather than rchisq() {the observations stored in the chi. sq.3 variable really do follow a chi-square distribution.,I use rnorm() to do all di-297 work no be rchisq() { di observation wey dey store for di chi. sq.3 variable go follow a chi-square distribution,Computer science
we can extend this demonstration to the tdistribution and the fdistribution.,We fit extend dis demonstration to di tdistribution and di fdistribution.,Computer science
"earlier, i implied that thetdistribution is related to the normal distribution when the standard deviation is unknown.",Ditdistribution dey related to di bell way wen di howe dey spread dey unknown.,Computer science
"similarly, we can obtain an fdistribution by taking the ratio between two scaled chi-square distributions.",We fit obtain fdistribution by taking di ratio between two scale chi-square distributions.,Computer science
"suppose, for instance, we wanted to generate data from an fdistribution with 3 and 20 degrees of freedom.","Suppose for example, we wan to make data from F-distribution with 3 and 20 freedom.",Computer science
"we could do this using df(), but we could also do the same thing by generating two chi-square variables, one with 3 degrees of freedom, and the other with 20 degrees of freedom.","We fit do dis using df(), but we fit also do di same thing by generating two chi-square variables, one with 3 freedom, and di other with 20 how many things you fit adjust inside a system.",Computer science
"this is illustrated in figure 9. 13d, which plots the histgram ofthe observations stored inf. 3. 20 against the true fdistribution with df13 anddf220.","E dey illustrated for figure 9. 13d, wey plot di histgram of di observation wey dey store for f.3. 20 against di true fdistribution wit df13 anddf220.",Computer science
"again, they match.","Di match again, dem match again, dem match again.",Computer science
"we've seen three new distributions:2, tandf.","We don see three new distributions: χ2, t, and F.",Computer science
"they're all continuous distributions, and they're all closely related to the normal distribution.","Dem dey all continuous distributions, and dem dey closely related to di bell way.",Computer science
"i've talked a little bit about the precise nature of this relationship, and shown you some rcommands that illustrate this relationship.","I talk a little bit about di precise nature of dis relationship, and to show you some rcommands wey dey illustrate dis relationship.",Computer science
"the key thing for our purposes, however, is not that you have a deep understanding of all these dierent distributions, nor that you remember the precise relationships between them.","Di key thing for awa purpose, na no say you go get deep understanding of all dis dierent distributions, nor say you remember di exacte how two things dey related dem",Computer science
"the main thing is that you grasp the basic idea that these distributions are all deeply related to one another, and to the normal distribution.","Di main thing na say you grasp di basic idea say dis distributions deeply related to one another, and to di bell way.",Computer science
"later on in this book, we're going to run into data that are normally distributed, or atleast assumed to be normally distributed.","We go run into data wey dey normally distributed, or atleast assumed to be normally distributed",Computer science
"what i want you to understand right now is that, if you make the assumption that your data are normally distributed, you shouldn't be surprised to see 2, t andfdistributions popping up all over the place when you start trying to do your data analysis.","If you make di assumption say your data dey normally distributed, you go surprise to see 2, t andfdistributions popping up all over di place wen you start try to do your to study numbers.",Computer science
"we've talked what probability means, and why statisticians can't agree on what it means.","We don talk about wetin probability mean, and why statisticians no fit agree on wetin e mean.",Computer science
we talked about the rules that probabilities have to obey.,We talk about di rules wey probabilities don obey.,Computer science
"probability theory is a large branch of mathematics in its own right, entirely separate from its application to statistics and data analysis.","di study of chance na one big part of math for im own right, no connect with im application to statistics and to study numbers.",Computer science
"as such, there are thousands of books written on the subject and universities generally oer multiple classes devoted entirely to probability theory.",Di thousands of books wey dey write on di subject and universities generally oer multiple class dey devoted entirely to di study of chance.,Computer science
"even the\simpler"" task of documenting standard probability distributions is a big topic.","Di\simpler"" task of document standard probability distributions dey big topic.",Computer science
"fortunately for you, very little of this is necessary.","good for you, very little of dis one dey necessary.",Computer science
"you're unlikely to need to know dozens of statistical distributions when you go out and do real world data analysis, and you de nitely won't need them for this book, but it never hurts to know that there's other possibilities out there.","E no dey hurt to know dozens of statistical distributions wey you go out and do for real numbers work, and you dey no need dem for dis book, but e no dey hurt to know say there's oda possibilities out there.",Computer science
"many undergraduate psychology classes on statistics skim over this content very quickly(i know mine did), and even the more advanced classes will often orget"" to revisit the basic foundations ofthe eld.","I know mine do), and even di more advanced classes go often orget"" to revisit di basic foundations of di eld.",Computer science
"most academic psychologists would not know the dierence between probability and density, and until recently very few would have been aware ofthe dierence between bayesian and frequentist probability.","Most scholars of mind no go know di difference between chance and spread, and until not long ago, very few go know di difference between Bayesian and frequentist probability.",Computer science
"however, i think it's important to understand these things before moving onto the applications.",But I think e important to understand dese things before we goto di applications.,Computer science
"for example, there area lot of rules about what you're llowed"" to say when doing statistical inference, and many of these can seem arbitrary and weird.","for example, na lot of rules about what you dey do, and many of dem dey arbitrary and weird.",Computer science
"however, they start to make sense if you understand that there is this bayesian/frequentist distinction.",Dem start to make sense if you understand say di bayesian frequentist distinction.,Computer science
"you get the idea, i hope.","you go get di idea, I hope.",Computer science
"in contrast, the purpose of inferential statistics is to\learn what we do not know from what we do"".",Di purpose of inferential statistics nato \learn what we no know from what we do,Computer science
"now that we have a foundation in probability theory, we are in a good position to think about the problem of statistical inference.","Na now say we get foundation for di study of chance, we dey good position to think about di problem of statistical inference.",Computer science
what kinds of things would we like to learn about?,Di kind of things wey we like to learn about?,Computer science
and how do we learn them?,We learn dem?,Computer science
"these are the questions that lie at the heart of inferential statistics, and they are traditionally divided into two ig ideas"": estimation and hypothesis testing.","Di question wey lie for di heart of inferential statistics, and dem dey traditionally divide into two ig ideas""estimation and way to check if your idea be true.",Computer science
"accepting that this is true, our rst task to come up with some fairly general assumptions about data that make sense.",Di rst task to kom up wit some fairly general assumption about data wey make sense.,Computer science
this is where sampling theory comes in.,Dis dey where sampling theory kom for.,Computer science
"if probability theory is the foundations upon which all statistical theory builds, sampling theory is the frame around which you can build the rest ofthe house.","If di study of chance dey di foundation wey all statistical theory build, sampling theory dey di frame wey you fit build di rest of di house.",Computer science
sampling theory plays a huge role in specifying the assumptions upon which your statistical inferences rely.,Di sampling theory play huge role for specifying di assumptions wey your statistical inference rely.,Computer science
"and in order to talk about\making inferences"" the way statisticians think about it, we need to be a bit more explicit about what it is that we're drawing inferences from(the sample)and what it is that we're drawing inferences about(the population).","Di way statisticians think about am, we need to talk about\making inferences"" di way statisticians think about am, we need to talk about\making inferences"" di way statisticians think about am, we need to talk about how we dey drawing inferences from(the sample)and how we dey drawing inferences about(all di pipo).",Computer science
"in almost every situation of interest, what we have available to us as researchers is a sample of data.",We dey available to us as researchers dey sample of data.,Computer science
we might have run experiment with some number of participants; a polling company might have phoned some number of people to ask questions about voting intentions; etc.,We fit run experiment with some amount of pipo; polling company fit don phone some amount of pipo to ask questions about who dem go vote for; etc.,Computer science
"regardless: the dataset available to us is nite, and incomplete.","Di group of related numbers or data wey belong together available to us dey nite, and incomplete",Computer science
we can't possibly get every person in the world to do our experiment; a polling company doesn't have the time or the money to ring up every voter in the country etc.,Di polling company no get di time or di money to ring up every voter for di kontri etc.,Computer science
"our only goal was to nd ways of describing, summarising and graphing that sample.","We only goal nato nd way of describing, summarising and graphing dat sample.",Computer science
this is about to change.,Dem dey about to change,Computer science
"you can open up a data le, and there's the data from your sample.","I goto start data le, and di data from your sample",Computer science
"a population, on the other hand, is a more abstract idea.","For di oda hand, na more abstract idea.",Computer science
"it refers to the set of all possible people, or all possible observations, that you want to draw conclusions about, and is generally much bigger than the sample.","Di set of all possible pipo, or all possible observations, wey you wan to draw conclusion about, and dey generally much bigger than di sample.",Computer science
"in an ideal world, the researcher would begin the study with a clear idea of what the population of interest is, since the process of designing a study and testing hypotheses about the data that it produces does depend on the population about which you want to make statements.","Di researcher go begin di study wit clear idea of what di population of interest dey, since di process of designing study and testing hypotheses about di data wey dey produce does depend on di population about which you wan make statements.",Computer science
"however, that doesn't always happen in practice: usually the researcher has a fairly vague idea of what the population is and designs the study as best he/she canon that basis.",Di researcher get fairly vague idea of what di population dey and design di study as best he she fit on dat basis.,Computer science
sometimes it's easy to state the population of interest.,Di population of interest dey easy to state di population of interest,Computer science
the sample was a set of 1000 people who all belong to that population.,Di sample dey set of 1000 pipo wey all belong to dat population.,Computer science
in most situations the situation is much less simple.,Di situation dey much simple,Computer science
"in atypical a psychological experiment, determining the population of interest is a bit more complicated.",Di psychological experiment dey determining di population of interest dey a bit complicated.,Computer science
suppose i run an experiment using 100 undergraduate students as my participants.,Suppose I run experiment using 100 university students as my pipo for di test.,Computer science
"my goal, as a cognitive scientist, is to try to learn something about how the mind works.","Di goal, as cognitive scientist, dey try to learn something about how di mind works",Computer science
"so, which ofthe following would count ashe population"": all ofthe undergraduate psychology students at the university of adelaide?",All of di undergraduate psychology students for di university of adelaide?,Computer science
"undergraduate psychology students in general, anywhere in the world?","For general, anywhere for di world?",Computer science
australians currently living?,Australians wey dey currently alive?,Computer science
australians of similar ages to my sample?,Australians wey get same age to my own pipo?,Computer science
anyone currently alive?,Anybody wey dey currently alive?,Computer science
"any human being, past, present or future?","any human, past, present, or future?",Computer science
any biological organism with a sucient degree of intelligence operating in a terrestrial environment?,Di biological organism wit sucient degree of intelligence wey dey operate for terrestrial environment?,Computer science
any intelligent being?,Di intelligent being?,Computer science
"each of these de nes a real group of mind-possessing entities, all of which might be of interest tome as a cognitive scientist, and it's not at all clear which one ought to be the true population of interest.","Di each of dis dey real group of mind-possessing entities, all of which go be of interest tome as cognitive scientist, and e no dey clear which one go be di true population of interest.",Computer science
"as another example, consider the wellesley-croker game that we discussed in the prelude.",Di wellesley-croker game wey we discuss for di prelude.,Computer science
the sample here is a speci c sequence of 12 wins and 0 losses for wellesley.,Di sample here dey sequence of 12 wins and 0 losses for wellesley.,Computer science
what is the population?,Di population?,Computer science
all outcomes until wellesley and croker arrived at their destination?,Wesley and croker arrive for dia destination?,Computer science
all outcomes if wellesley and croker had played the game for the rest of their lives?,Wesley and croker don play di game for di rest of dia lives?,Computer science
all outcomes if wellseley and croker lived forever and played the game until the world ran out of hills?,all di things wey fit happen if Wellesley and Croker live forever and play di game until di world run out of hills?,Computer science
all outcomes if we created an in nite set of parallel universes and the wellesely/croker pair made guesses about the same 12 hills in each universe?,Di wellesely croker pair make guesses about di same 12 hills for each universe?,Computer science
"again, it's not obvious what the population is.",Di population no dey obvious what di population dey,Computer science
the relationship between the two depends on the procedure by which the sample was selected.,Di how two things dey related di two depend on di procedure wey di sample dey selected.,Computer science
"this procedure is referred to as a sampling method, and it is important to understand why it matters.","Di procedure dey dem dey call sampling method, and e dey important to know why e matters",Computer science
"to keep things simple, let's imagine that we have a bag containing 10 chips.",Dem imagine say we get bag wey dey containing 10 chips,Computer science
"each chip has a unique letter printed on it, so we can distinguish between the 10 chips.","As each chip get unique letter printed on am, so we fit distinguish between di 10 chips",Computer science
"the chips come in two colours, black and white.","Di chips kom for two colours, black and white",Computer science
"this set of chips is the population of interest, and it is depicted graphically on the left of figure 10.1.","Di set of chips dey di population of interest, and e depict graphically on di left of figure 10.",Computer science
"as you can see from looking at the picture, there are 4 black chips and 6 white chips, but ofcourse in real life we wouldn't know that unless we looked in the bag.","As you see from di picture,4 black chips and 6 white chips, but ofcourse for real life we no know say unless we look for di bag.",Computer science
"now imagine you run the following\experiment"": you shake up the bag, close your eyes, and pull out 4 chips without putting any of them back into the bag.","now think of say you run di following""experiment"": you shake di bag, to close your eyes, and to take out 4 chips without putting any of dem back into di bag.",Computer science
"first outcomes the achip (black), then the cchip (white), then j(white)and then nally b(black).","First outcome di A chip(black), den di C chip(white), den J(white), and den finally B(black).",Computer science
"if you wanted, you could then put all the chips back in the bag and repeat the experiment, as depicted on the right hand side of figure 10.1.","If you wan, you fit den put all di chips back inside di bag and repeat di experiment, as e dey draw for di right-hand side of picture 10.1.",Computer science
"each time you get dierent results, but the procedure is identical in each case.",Di procedure dey identical for each case.,Computer science
"the fact that the same procedure can lead to dierent results each time, we refer to it as a random process. 1however, because we shook the bag before pulling any chips out, it seems reasonable to think that every chip has the same chance of being selected.","Di fact say di same procedure go lead to dierent results each time, we to talk about am as random process.",Computer science
a procedure in which every member ofthe population has the same chance of being selected is called a simple random sample.,Di procedure wey every member of di population get di same chance of being selected na simple random sample.,Computer science
"the fact that we did notput the chips back in the bag after pulling them out means that you can't observe the same thing twice, and in such cases the observations are said to have been sampled without replacement.","Di fact say we no put di chips back for di bag before pull dem out means say you no observe di same thing twice, and for such cases di observations dey tok say you no observe di same thing twice, and for such cases di observation dey tok say you no observe di same thing twice, and for such cases di observation dey tok say you no observe di same thing twice, and for such cases di observation dey tok say you no observe di same thing twice, and for such cases di observation dey tok say you no",Computer science
"to help make sure you understand the importance ofthe sampling procedure, consider an alternative way in which the experiment could have been run.","We go help make sure you understand di importance of di sampling procedure, consider another way wey di experiment go run.",Computer science
"suppose that my 5-year old son had opened the bag, and decided to pull out four black chips without putting any of them back in the bag.","Di 5-year old son don open di bag, and decide to pull out four black chips without putting any of dem back for di bag.",Computer science
this biased sampling scheme is depicted in figure 10.2.,Di biased sampling scheme depict for figure 10.,Computer science
now consider the evidentiary value of seeing 4 black chips and 0 white chips.,now think of di howe dey show evidence of to see 4 black and 0 white.,Computer science
"clearly, it depends on the sampling scheme, does it not?","Di sampling scheme no depend on di sampling scheme, does it no?",Computer science
"if you know that the sampling scheme is biased to select only black chips, then a sample that consists of only black chips doesn't tell you very much about the population!","If you know say di sampling scheme dey bias to select only black chips, then a sample wey dey consist of only black chips don tell you very much about di population",Computer science
"for this reason, statisticians really like it when a dataset can be considered a simple random sample, because it makes the data analysis much easier.","For dis reason, statisticians really like say when group of related numbers or data wey belong together go consider simple random sample, because e make di to study numbers much easier.",Computer science
a third procedure is worth mentioning.,Di third procedure dey worth mention.,Computer science
"this time around we close our eyes, shake the bag, and pull out a chip.","Dis time around, we to close our eyes, shake di bag, and pull out chip.",Computer science
"this time, however, we record the observation and then put the chip back in the bag.",We record di observation and then put di chip back for di bag,Computer science
"again we close our eyes, shake the bag, and pull out a chip.","We close awa eyes, shake di bag, and pull out chip",Computer science
we then repeat this procedure until we have 4 chips.,We den repeat dis procedure until we get 4 chips.,Computer science
"data sets generated in this way are still simple random samples, but because we put the chips back in the bag immediately after drawing them it is referred to as a sample with replacement.","We dey put di chips back for di bag immediately afta we dey draw dem, but because we put di chips back for di bag immediately after drawing dem dey call sample wit replacement.",Computer science
"the dierence between this situation and the rst one is that it is possible to observe the same population 1the proper mathematical de nition of randomness is extraordinarily technical, and way beyond the scope of this book.","E dey possible to observe di same population 1the proper mathematical de nition of randomness dey extraordinarily technical, and way beyond di scope of dis book.",Computer science
we'll be non-technical here and say that a process hasan element of randomness to it whenever it is possible to repeat the process and get dierent answers each time.,We go dey non-technical here and say a process don get element of randomness to di process wey dey possible to repeat di process and get dierent answers each time,Computer science
"member multiple times, as illustrated in figure 10. 3.",Di figure 10. 3.,Computer science
"in my experience, most psychology experiments tend to be sampling without replacement, because the same person is not allowed to participate in the experiment twice.","Di experience, most psychology experiments dey sampling without replacement, because di same person no fit participate for di experiment twice.",Computer science
"however, most statistical theory is based on the assumption that the data arise from a simple random sample with replacement.",Di statistical theory dey base on di assumption say di data arise from simple random sample wit replacement.,Computer science
"in real life, this very rarely matters.",Di very rarely matter.,Computer science
"if the population of interest is large(e. g, has more than 10 entities!)","Di population of interest dey large(e. g, don more than 10 entities",Computer science
the dierence between sampling withand withoutreplacement is too small to be concerned with.,Di dierence between sampling wit and withoutreplacement dey too small to be concerned wit.,Computer science
"the dierence between simple random samples and biased samples, on the other hand, is not such an easy thing to dismiss.","Di difference between simple random samples and biased samples, for di other hand, no be easy thing to dismiss.",Computer science
"when i run experiments, i'd consider it a minor miracle if my participants turned out to be a random sampling ofthe undergraduate psychology students at adelaide university, even though this is by far the narrowest population that i might want to generalise to.","I go consider a minor miracle if my participants turnout to be picking pipo or things randomly from a group of di undergraduate psychology students for adelaide university, even though dis dey by far di narrowest population wey i go need generalise to.",Computer science
"a thorough discussion of other types of sampling schemes is beyond the-304- scope of this book, but to give you a sense of what's out there i'll list a few ofthe more important ones: strati ed sampling.","E go list few of di more important ones: strati ed sampling schemes wey dey beyond di-304-scope of dis book, but to give you sense of what dey out there i go list few of di more important ones: strati ed sampling",Computer science
"suppose your population is(or can be)divided into several dierent subpopulations, or strata.","Di population dey divide into several dierent subpopulations, or strata.",Computer science
"perhaps you're running a study at several dierent sites, for example.","E dey run study for several dierent sites, for example.",Computer science
"instead of trying to sample randomly from the population as a whole, you instead try to collect a separate random sample from each ofthe strata.","no be to try to pick by luck from di population as a whole, you instead try to collect separate random sample from each of di strata.",Computer science
"strati ed sampling is sometimes easier to do than simple random sampling, especially when the population is already divided into the distinct strata.","Di population dey divide into di distinct strata, especially wen di population dey divide into di distinct strata.",Computer science
"it can also be more ecient that simple random sampling, especially when some ofthe subpopulations are rare.","E dey more ecient say simple picking pipo or things randomly from a group, especially wen some of di subpopulations dey rare.",Computer science
"for instance, when studying schizophrenia it would be much better to divide the population into two2strata (schizophrenic and not-schizophrenic), and then sample an equal number of people from each group.","for example, wen study schizophrenia na much better to divide di population into two2strata (schizophrenic and not-schizophrenic), and then sample equal number of pipo from each group.",Computer science
"if you selected people randomly, you would get so few schizophrenic people in the sample that your study would be useless.","If you select pipo randomly, you go get so few schizophrenic pipo for di sample wey your study go useless",Computer science
this speci c kind of of strati ed sampling is referred to asoversampling because it makes a deliberate attempt to over-represent rare groups.,Dis specific kind of di way wey you divide for groups dey dem dey call oversampling because e make one try wey you plan to over-represent rare groups.,Computer science
"snowball sampling is a technique that is especially useful when sampling from a\hidden"" or hard to access population, and is especially common in social sciences.","Di technique wey dey especially useful wen sampling from a hidden or hard to access population, and dey especially common for social sciences.",Computer science
"for instance, suppose the researchers want to conduct an opinion poll among transgender people.",Di researchers wan to conduct opinion poll among transgender pipo.,Computer science
"the research team might only have contact details for a few trans folks, so the survey starts by asking them to participate(stage 1).","Di research team go only get contact details for few trans folks, so di survey start by asking dem to participate(stage 2).",Computer science
"at the end ofthe survey, the participants are asked to provide contact details for other people who might want to participate.",Di participants dey ask to provide contact details for oda pipo wey dey wan participate.,Computer science
"in stage 2, those new contacts are surveyed.","Di new contacts dey survey for stage 2, di new contacts dey survey",Computer science
the process continues until the researchers have sucient data.,Di process continue until di researchers don sucient data,Computer science
the big advantage to snowball sampling is that it gets you data in situations that might otherwise be impossible to get any.,Di big advantage to snowball sampling na say e get you data for situations wey dey impossible to get any.,Computer science
"on the statistical side, the main disadvantage is that the sample is highly non-random, and non-random in ways that are dicult to address.","Di main disadvantage na say di sample dey highly non-random, and non-random for way wey dey dicult to address.",Computer science
"on the real life side, the disadvantage is that the procedure can be unethical if not handled well, because hidden populations are often hidden for a reason.","Di disadvantage na say di procedure fit dey unthical if no dey handle well, because hidden populations dey often hidden for reason.",Computer science
"it's certainly very hard to get people's informed consent before contacting them, yet in many cases the simple act of contacting them and saying\hey we want to study you""can be hurtful.","Dem dey hard to get pipo to agree after dem don tell you before contact dem, yet for many cases di simple action of contacting demand say\hey we wan to study you""dey hurtful.",Computer science
"social networks are complex things, and just because you can use them to get data doesn't always mean you should.","Di netwok of pipo wey dey connect through tori, especially dem wey dey use intanet, like facebook, wey pipo dey share tori, foto, and vidio dey complex things, and just because you fit use dem to get data always mean you need.",Computer science
convenience sampling is more or less what it sounds like.,Di convenience sampling dey more or less wey dey sounds like,Computer science
"the samples are chosen in away that is convenient to the researcher, and not selected at random from the population of interest.","Di samples dey chosen for way wey dey convenient to di researcher, and no dey selected for random from di population of interest.",Computer science
"snowball sampling is one type of convenience sampling, but there are many others.","Na one type of convenience sampling, but na many odas.",Computer science
a common example in psychology are studies that rely on undergraduate psychology students.,Di common example for psychology dey study wey dey rely on undergraduate psychology students.,Computer science
"these samples are generally non-random in two respects: rstly, reliance on undergraduate psychology students automatically means that your data are restricted to a single subpopulation.","Di samples dey generally non-random for two respects: rstly, reliance on undergraduate psychology students automatically means say your data dey restrict to single subpopulation.",Computer science
"secondly, the students usually get to pick which studies they participate in, so the sample is a self selected subset of psychology students not a randomly selected subset.","Di students usually get pick which study dem participate for, so di sample dey self selected subset of psychology students no dey randomly selected subset.",Computer science
"in real life, most studies are convenience samples of one form or another.",Di study dey convenience samples of one form or another.,Computer science
"this is sometimes a severe limitation, but not always.","Dis dey sometimes severe limitation, but no always.",Computer science
"okay, so real world data collection tends not to involve nice simple random samples.",Di real world data collection no dey involve nice simple random sample.,Computer science
does that matter?,Di matter does dat matter?,Computer science
a little thought should make it clear to you that it canmatter if your data are not a simple random sample: just think about the dierence between figures 10.1 and 10.2.,Small thought go make e clear to you say e fit matter if your data no be simple random sample: just think of di difference between Figures 10.1 and 10.2.,Computer science
"however, it's not quite as bad as it sounds.",E no dey bad as e sounds.,Computer science
some types of biased samples are entirely unproblematic.,Di types of biased samples dey entirely unproblematic.,Computer science
"for instance, when using 2nothing in life is that simple: there's not an obvious division of people into binary categories like\schizophrenic"" and ot schizophrenic"".","for example, nothing for life be dat simple: no obvious division of pipo into groups wey get two parts like""schizophrenic"" and""not schizophrenic"".",Computer science
"but this isn't a clinical psychology text, so please forgive me a few simpli cations here and there.","But dis no be clinical psychology text, so sorry for me for few simplifications for different places.",Computer science
so in those situations it's not a problem.,Di situation no dey problem.,Computer science
"more generally though, it's important to remember that random sampling is a means to an end, not the end in itself.","Di important to remember say picking pipo or things randomly from a group dey means to an end, no di end for itself",Computer science
"let's assume you've relied on a convenience sample, and as such you can assume it's biased.","She dey assume you dey relied on convenience sample, and because of dat you fit assume am biased.",Computer science
a bias in your sampling method is only a problem if it causes you to draw the wrong conclusions.,Di bias for your sampling method dey only problem if dey cause you to draw di wrong conclusions.,Computer science
"when viewed from that perspective, i'd argue that we don't need the sample to be randomly generated inevery respect: we only need it to be random with respect to the psychologically-relevant phenomenon of interest.",I argue say we no need di sample to be random wit respect to di psychologically-relevant phenomenon of interest.,Computer science
suppose i'm doing a study looking at working memory capacity.,Di suppose i do study looking at work memory capacity.,Computer science
"in study 1, i actually have the ability to sample randomly from all human beings currently alive, with one exception: i can only sample people born on a monday.","I actually get di ability to pick by luck from all human beings currently alive, wit one exception: i fit only sample pipo born on monday.",Computer science
"in study 2, i am able to sample randomly from the australian population.",I dey able to pick by luck from di australian population,Computer science
which study is better?,Di study dey better?,Computer science
"the answer, obviously, is study 1.","Di answer, obviously, na study 1.",Computer science
"because we have no reason to think that being orn on a monday""has any interesting relationship to working memory capacity.","We no go think say being orn on a monday""don any interesting relationship to work memory capacity.",Computer science
"in contrast, i can think of several reasons why eing australian""might matter.","I fit think of several reasons wey eing australian""might matter.",Computer science
"australia is a wealthy, industrialised country with avery well-developed education system.","Australia na wealthy, industrialised country with very well-developed education system.",Computer science
people growing up in that system will have had life experiences much more similar to the experiences ofthe people who designed the tests for working memory capacity.,Di pipo wey dey grow up for dat system go get life experiences much more similar to di experience of di pipo wey dey designed di tests for work memory capacity.,Computer science
"this shared experience might easily translate into similar beliefs about how to ake a test"", a shared assumption about how psychological experimentation works, and soon.","Dis shared experience fit easily translate into same kind thoughts about how to""take a test"", shared assumption about how psychological experimentation dey work, and soon.",Computer science
these things might actually matter.,Di things suppose matter,Computer science
"for instance, est taking""style might have taught the australian participants how to direct their attention exclusively on fairly abstract test materials relative to people that haven't grown up in a similar environment; leading to a misleading picture of what working memory capacity is.",Di australian participants how to direct dia attention exclusively on fairly abstract test materials wey dey relative to pipo wey don grow up for similar environment; leading to misleading picture of what work memory capacity dey.,Computer science
there are two points hidden in this discussion.,Na two points wey dey hidden for dis discussion,Computer science
"firstly, when designing your own studies, it's important to think about what population you care about, and try hard to sample in away that is appropriate to that population.","E important to think about what population you care about, and try hard to sample for way wey dey appropriate to dat population.",Computer science
"in practice, you're usually forced to put up with a\sample of convenience""(e. g, psychology lecturers sample psychology students because that's the least expensive way to collect data, and our coers aren't exactly over owing with gold), but if so you should atleast spend sometime thinking about what the dangers of this practice might be.","E. g, psychology lecturers sample psychology students because dat dey di least expensive way to collect data, and awa coers no dey exactly over owing wit gold), but if so you go spend sometime thinking about what di danger of dis practice might be.",Computer science
"secondly, if you're going to criticise someone else's study because they've used a sample of convenience rather than laboriously sampling randomly from the entire human population, at least have the courtesy to oer a speci c theory as to howthis might have distorted the results.","If you go criticise someone else's study because dem use sample of convenience no be laboriously sampling randomly from di entire human population, at least get courtesy to oer a speci c theory as to how dis might distorte di results.",Computer science
"remember, everyone in science is aware of this issue, and does what they can to alleviate it.","Di remember, all for science dey to know dis issue, and does what dem fit to alleviate am",Computer science
"merely pointing out that he study only included people from group blah""is entirely unhelpful, and borders on being insulting to the researchers, who are ofcourse aware ofthe issue.","Di study only include pipo from group blah"" dey entirely unhelpful, and borders on being insulting to di researchers, wey dey to know di issue.",Computer science
they just don't happen to bein possession ofthe in nite supply of time and money required to construct the perfect sample.,Di pipo just don dey possession of di in nite supply of time and money wey dey required to construct di perfect sample.,Computer science
"in short, if you want to oer a responsible critique ofthe sampling process, then be helpful.","For short, if you wan offer responsible critique of di sampling process, den to help.",Computer science
"setting aside the thorny methodological issues associated with obtaining a random sample and my rather unfortunate tendency to rant about lazy methodological criticism, let's consider a slightly dierent issue.","Dem set aside di thorny methodological issues wey dey associated wit obtaining random sample and my rather unfortunate tendency to rant about lazy methodological criticism, let's consider a slightly dierent issue.",Computer science
upto this point we have been talking about populations the way a scientist might.,We don talk about populations di way scientist might.,Computer science
"to a psychologist, a population might be a group of people.",Di population go be group of pipo.,Computer science
"to an ecologist, a population might be a group of bears.",Di population go be group of bears.,Computer science
in most cases the populations that scientists care about are concrete things that actually exist in the real world.,Di population wey scientists care about dey concrete things wey dey exist for di real world.,Computer science
"statisticians, however, are a funny lot.",Di statisticians dey funny lot.,Computer science
"on the one hand, they areinterested in real world data and real science in the same way that scientists are.","Di one hand, dem deyinterest for real world data and real science for di same way wey scientists dey.",Computer science
"on the other hand, they also operate in the realm of pure abstraction in the way that mathematicians do.",Dem also operate for di realm of pure abstraction for di way wey mathematicians do.,Computer science
"as a consequence, statistical theory tends to be a bit abstract in how a population is de ned.","as result, statistical theory dey bit abstract for how population dey",Computer science
"in panel b we have a sample of 100 observations, and panel c we have a sample of 10, 000 observations.","Di panel b we get sample of 100 observations, and panel c we get sample of 10, 000 observations, and panel c we get sample of 10, 000 observations",Computer science
the idea is quite simple.,Di idea dey simple,Computer science
let's say we're talking about iq scores.,Dem tok say we dey talk about iq scores,Computer science
"to a psychologist, the population of interest is a group of actual humans who have iq scores.",Di population of interest dey group of actual humans wey get iq scores.,Computer science
"a statistician \simpli es""this by operationally de ning the population as the probability distribution depicted in figure 10. 4a.","Di statistician \simplies"" dis by operationally dey ning di population as di formula wey show how likely different results be depicted for figure 10. 4a.",Computer science
"iq tests are designed so that the average iq is 100, the standard deviation of iq scores is 15, and the distribution of iq scores is normal.","Di average iq dey 100, di howe dey spread of iq scores dey 15, and di distribution of iq scores dey normal.",Computer science
these values are referred to as the population parameters because they are characteristics ofthe entire population.,Di values dey dem dey call di real number for everybody bikos dem dey characteristics of di entire population.,Computer science
"that is, we say that the population mean is 100, and the population standard deviationis 15.","We tok say di population mean 100, and di population standard deviationis 15.",Computer science
now suppose i run an experiment.,Na now suppose i run experiment,Computer science
my sample would consist of a collection of numbers like this:106 101 98 80 74. 107 72 100 each of these iq scores is sampled from a normal distribution with mean 100 and standard deviation 15.,Di sample go consist of collection of numbers like dis:106 101 98 80 74,Computer science
"so if i plot a histogram ofthe sample, i get something like the one shown in figure 10. 4b.","So if I plot histogram of di sample, I get something like di one wey dem show for Figure 10.4b.",Computer science
"as you can see, the histogram is roughly the right shape, but it's avery crude approximation to the true population distribution shown in figure 10. 4a.","Di hintogram dey roughly di right shape, but e dey crude approximation to di true population distribution show for figure 10. 4a.",Computer science
"when i calculate the mean of my sample, i get a number that is fairly close to the population mean 100 but not identical.",I get number wey dey close to di population mean 100 but no identical.,Computer science
"in this case, it turns out that the people in my sample have a mean iq of 98. 5, and the standard deviation of their iq scores is 15. 9.","E turnout say di pipo for my sample don di average IQ of 98. 5, and di howe dey spread of dia iq scores dey 15. 9. 9. 9.",Computer science
"these sample statistics are properties of my dataset, and although they are fairly similar to the true population values, they are not the same.","Di numbers from di sample dey properties of my group of related numbers or data wey belong together, and although dem dey fairly similar to di true population values, dem no dey same.",Computer science
"in general, sample statistics are the things you can calculate from your dataset, and the population parameters are the things you want to learn about.","For general, di numbers from di sample dey di things you fit calculate from your group of related numbers or data wey belong together, and di population parameters dey di things wey dey learn about.",Computer science
"the results were somewhat encouraging: the true population mean is 100, and the sample mean of 98. 5 is a pretty reasonable approximation to it.","Di results dey somewhat encouraging: di true population mean dey 100, and di average number of 98",Computer science
"in many scienti c studies that level of precision is perfectly acceptable, but in other situations you need to be alot more precise.","For many scienti c studies say level of precision dey perfectly acceptable, but for oda situation you need to be alot more precise",Computer science
"if we want our sample statistics to be much closer to the population parameters, what can we do about it?","If we wan our di numbers from di sample to be closer to di population parameters, we fit we do about it?",Computer science
the obvious answer is to collect more data.,Di obvious answer nato collect more data,Computer science
"suppose that we rana much larger experiment, this time measuring the iqs of 10, 000 people.","Suppose say we run much bigger experiment, dis time measuring di IQs of 10,000 pipo.",Computer science
the histogram of this much larger sample is shown in figure 10. 4c.,Di hintogram of dis small sample dey show for figure 10. 4c.,Computer science
even a moment's inspections makes clear that the larger sample is a much better approximation to the true population distribution than the smaller one.,Di moment's inspection make clear say di larger sample dey much better approximation to di true population distribution than di smaller one.,Computer science
"this is re ected in the sample statistics: the mean iq for the larger sample turns out to be 99. 9, and the standard deviation is 15.1.","Dis one dey reflected for di numbers from di sample: di average IQ for di larger sample turnout to be 99.9, and di howe dey spread na 15.1.",Computer science
these values are now very close to the true population.,Di value dey now close to di true population.,Computer science
"in fact, it's such an obvious point that when jacob bernoulli {one ofthe founders of probability theory{ formalised this idea back in 1713, he was kind of a jerk about it.","Di point wey jacob bernoulli {one of di founders of di study of chance{ formalised dis idea back for 1713, hin kind of jerk about am.",Computer science
"here's how he described the fact that we all share this intuition: for even the most stupid of men, by some instinct of nature, by himself and without any instruction(which is a remarkable thing), is convinced that the more observations have been made, the less danger there is of wandering from one's goal(see stigler, 1986, p65) okay, so the passage comes across as a bit condescending(not to mention sexist), but his main point is correct: it really does feel obvious that more data will give you better answers.","For even di most stupid of men, by some instinct of nature, by himself and without any instruction(which dey remarkable thing), dey convinced say di more observations don make, di less danger wey dey wandering from one goal(see stigler, 1986, p65) okay, so di passage kom across as a bit condescending(not to mention sexist), but hin main point dey correct.",Computer science
"the question is, why is this so?","Di question na, why dey dis so?",Computer science
"not surprisingly, this intuition that we all share turns out to be correct, and statisticians refer to it as the law of large numbers.","Di intuition wey we all share turnout to be correct, and statisticians to talk about am as di law of large numbers",Computer science
"the law of large numbers is a mathematical law that applies to many dierent sample statistics, but the simplest way to think about it is as a law about averages.","Di law of large numbers dey mathematical law wey dey apply to many dierent di numbers from di sample, but di simple way to think about it dey as law about averages.",Computer science
"the sample mean is the most obvious example of a statistic that relies on averaging(because that's what the mean-308- is. an average), so let's look at that.","Di average number na di most obvious example of statistic wey dey relies on averaging(because dat's what di mean-308- na average), so let make we look dat.",Computer science
"when applied to the sample mean, what the law of large numbers states is that as the sample gets larger, the sample mean tends to get closer to the true population mean.","Di law of large numbers state na say as di sample get small, di average number tend to get closer to di true population mean",Computer science
"or, to say it a little bit more precisely, as the sample size pproaches"" in nity (written as nn8 )the sample mean approaches the population mean( xn). 3i don't intend to subject you to a proof that the law of large numbers is true, but it's one ofthe most important tools for statistical theory.","Di law of large numbers dey true, but na one of di most important tools for statistical theory.",Computer science
the law of large numbers is the thing we can use to justify our belief that collecting more and more data will eventually lead us to the truth.,Di law of large numbers dey di thing we go use to justify awa belief say collect more and more data go eventually lead us to di truth.,Computer science
"for any particular dataset, the sample statistics that we calculate from it will be wrong, but the law of large numbers tells us that if we keep collecting more data those sample statistics will tend to get closer and closer to the true population parameters.","Di law of large numbers tell us say if we keep collect more data, di numbers from di sample wey we dey calculate from dem go get closer and closer to di true population parameters.",Computer science
"among other things, all it gives us is a\long run guarantee"".","Dem give us a\long run guarantee"".",Computer science
"in the long run, if we were somehow able to collect an in nite amount of data, then the law of large numbers guarantees that our sample statistics will be correct.","For di long run, if we dey somehow able to collect di innite amount of data, then di law of large numbers guarantee say awa di numbers from di sample go correct.",Computer science
"but as john maynard keynes famously argued in economics, a long run guarantee is of little use in real life:[the] long run is a misleading guide to current aairs.","As john maynard keynes famously argued for economics, long run guarantee dey of little use for real life",Computer science
in the long run we are all dead.,We dey all dead,Computer science
"economists set themselves too easy, too useless a task, if in tempestuous seasons they can only tell us, that when the storm is long past, the ocean is at again.","Di economists set themselves too easy, too useless task, if for tempestuous seasons dem only tell us, say when di storm dey long past, di ocean dey at again.",Computer science
"(keynes,1923, p.80) as in economics, so too in psychology and statistics.","(Keynes,1923, p.80)as e be for economics, so too for psychology and statistics.",Computer science
it is not enough to know that we will eventually arrive at the right answer when calculating the sample mean.,E no enough to know say we go arrive at di right answer wen we dey calculating di average number.,Computer science
knowing that an in nitely large dataset will tell me the exact value ofthe population mean is cold comfort when my actual dataset has a sample size ofn100.,Di in nitely large group of related numbers or data wey belong together go tell me di exact value of di population mean dey cold comfort wen my actual group of related numbers or data wey belong together get sample size ofn100.,Computer science
"in real life, then, we must know something about the behaviour ofthe sample mean when it is calculated from a more modest dataset!",We must know something about di behaviour of di average number wen e dey calculat from modest group of related numbers or data wey belong together!,Computer science
this time around we'll sample n5 people and measure their iq scores.,Di time around we go sample n5 pipo and measure dia iq score,Computer science
"not surprisingly, this is much less accurate than the previous experiment.",Di previous experiment dey less accurate than di previous experiment.,Computer science
now imagine that i decided to replicate the experiment.,Na now think of say i decide to replicate di experiment,Computer science
"that is, i repeat the procedure as closely as possible: i randomly sample 5 new people and measure their iq.",I randomly sample 5 new pipo and measure dia iq,Computer science
"again, rallows me to simulate the results of this procedure: 3technically, the law of large numbers pertains to any sample statistic that can be described as an average of independent quantities.","For 3technically, di law of large numbers dey described as average of independent quantities.",Computer science
that's certainly true for the sample mean.,Na certainly true for di average number.,Computer science
"however, it's also possible to write many other sample statistics as averages of one form or another.",E dey possible to write many oda di numbers from di sample as average of one form or another,Computer science
"the variance of a sample, for instance, can be rewritten as a kind of average and so is subject to the law of large numbers.","Di variance of sample, for example, go dey rewritten as kind of average and so dey subject to di law of large numbers.",Computer science
"the minimum value of a sample, however, cannot be written as an average of anything and is therefore not governed by the law of large numbers.","Di smawest amont or degree wey dey possible or dem dey allow of sample, however, no fit write as average of anything and therefore no dey governed by di law of large numbers.",Computer science
person 1 person 2 person 3 person 4 person 5 sample mean replication 1 90 82 94 99 110 95. 0 replication 2 78 88 111 111 117 101. 0 replication 3 111 122 91 98 86 101. 6 replication 4 98 96 119 99 107 103. 8 replication 5 105 113 103 103 98 104. 4 replication 6 81 89 93 85 114 92. 4 replication 7 100 93 108 98 133 106. 4 replication 8 107 100 105 117 85 102. 8 replication 9 86 119 108 73 116 100. 4 replication 10 95 126 112 120 76 105. 8.,(Table data shown in original),Computer science
"if i repeat the experiment 10 times i obtain the results shown in table 10.1, and as you can see the sample mean varies from one replication to the next.","If I repeat di experiment 10 times, I get di results wey dem show for Table 10.1, and as you fit see, di average number dey vary from one replication to di next.",Computer science
"now suppose that i decided to keep going in this fashion, replicating this\ ve iq scores""experiment over and over again.","Na now suppose say i decide to keep going for dis fashion, replicating dis\ ve iq scores""experiment many times.",Computer science
everytime i replicate the experiment i write down the sample mean.,I write down di average number.,Computer science
"overtime, i'd be amassing anew dataset, in which every experiment generates a single data point.","I dey Amassing new group of related numbers or data wey belong together, wey every experiment generate single data point.",Computer science
"the rst 10 observations from my dataset are the sample means listed in table 10.1, so my dataset starts out like this:95. 0 101. 0 101. 6 103. 8 104. 4. what if i continued like this for 10, 000 replications, and then drew a histogram?","Di rst 10 observations from my group of related numbers or data wey belong together na di sample means listed for table 10.1, so my group of related numbers or data wey belong together start out like dis:95. 0 101. 0 101. 6 103. 8 104. 4",Computer science
"using the magical powers ofrthat's exactly what i did, and you can see the results in figure 10. 5.","Di magical power ofrthat's exactly what i do, and you fit see di results for figure 10. 5.5.",Computer science
"as this picture illustrates, the average of 5 iq scores is usually between 90 and 110.","As dis picture illustrate, di average of 5 iq scores dey between 90 and 110.",Computer science
"but more importantly, what it highlights is that if we replicate an experiment over and over again, what we end up with is a distribution of sample means!","Di highlights na say if we replicate experiment many times, we end up wit distribution of sample means!",Computer science
this distribution has a special name in statistics: it's called the sampling distribution ofthe mean.,Di distribution don call di sampling distribution of di mean.,Computer science
"sampling distributions are another important theoretical idea in statistics, and they're crucial for understanding the behaviour of small samples.","Dem dey crucial for understanding di behaviour of small samples, and dem dey crucial for understanding di behaviour of small samples.",Computer science
"for instance, when iran the very rst \ ve iq scores""experiment, the sample mean turned out to be 95.","I run di very rst \ ve iq scores""experiment, di average number turnout to be 95.",Computer science
"what the sampling distribution in figure 10. 5 tells us, though, is that the\ ve iq scores""experiment is not very accurate.","Di sampling distribution for figure 10. 5 tell us, though, na say di \ ve iq scores""experiment no dey accurate.",Computer science
"if i repeat the experiment, the sampling distribution tells me that i can expect to see a sample mean anywhere between 80 and 120.",Di sampling distribution tell me say i fit expect to see di average number anywhere between 80 and 120.,Computer science
one thing to keep in mind when thinking about sampling distributions is that anysample statistic you might care to calculate has a sampling distribution.,One thing to remember wen thinking about sampling distributions dey say anysample statistic you go care to calculate a sampling distribution.,Computer science
"for example, suppose that each time i replicated the\ ve iq scores""experiment i wrote down the largest iq score in the experiment.","for example, suppose say each time I replicate di""five IQ scores""experiment, I write down di largest IQ score for di experiment.",Computer science
"this would give me a dataset that started out like this:110 117 122 119 113. -310-iq score60 80 100 120 140figure 10. 5: the sampling distribution ofthe mean for the\ ve iq scores experiment"".",E go give me group of related numbers or data wey belong together wey dey start like dis:110 117 122 119 113. -310-iq score60 80 100 120 140figure 10. 5: di sampling distribution of di mean for di \ ve iq score experiment,Computer science
"if you sample 5 people at random and calculate their average iq, you'll almost certainly get a number between 80 and 120, even though there are quite alot of individuals who have iqs above 120 or below 80.","If you sample 5 pipo for random and calculate dia average iq, you fit get number between 80 and 120, even though there dey quite alot of individuals wey get iq above 120 or below 80.",Computer science
"for comparison, the black line plots the population distribution of iq scores.","for compare, di black line plot di population distribution of IQ scores.",Computer science
"iq score60 80 100 120 140 160 figure 10. 6: the sampling distribution ofthe maximum for the\ ve iq scores experiment"".","Di sampling distribution of di maximum for di \ ve iq score experiment"".",Computer science
"if you sample 5 people at random and select the one with the highest iq score, you'll probably see someone with an iq between 100 and 140.","if you pick 5 pipo by luck and select di one with di highest IQ score, you go probably see someone with IQ between 100 and 140.",Computer science
"in each panel, i generated 10, 000 samples of iq data, and calculated the mean iq observed within each of these data sets.","I generate 10, 000 samples of iq data, and dey calculat di average IQ observe within each of dis data sets.",Computer science
"the histograms in these plots show the distribution of these means(i. e, the sampling distribution ofthe mean).","Di hintograms for dis plot show di distribution of dis means(i. e, di sampling distribution of di mean).",Computer science
"each individual iq score was drawn from a normal distribution with mean 100 and standard deviation 15, which is shown as the solid black line).","Di individual iq score dey draw from di bell way wit mean 100 and howe dey spread 15, wey dey show as di solid di black line).",Computer science
"in panel a, each dataset contained only a single observation, so the mean of each sample is just one person's iq score.","Di group of related numbers or data wey belong together contain only single observation, so di mean of each sample dey just one person's iq score.",Computer science
"as a consequence, the sampling distribution ofthe mean is ofcourse identical to the population distribution of iq scores.",Di sampling distribution of di mean na ofcourse identical to di population distribution of iq scores.,Computer science
"however, when we raise the sample size to 2, the mean of anyone sample tends to be closer to the population mean than a one person's iq score, and so the histogram (i. e, the sampling distribution)is a bit narrower than the population distribution.","We raise di sample size to 2, di mean of anyone sample dey closer to di population mean than one person's iq score, and so di hintogram (i. e, di sampling distribution)dey bit narrower than di population distribution.",Computer science
"by the time we raise the sample size to 10(panel c), we can see that the distribution of sample means tend to be fairly tightly clustered around the true population mean.","Di time wey we raise di sample size to 10(panel c), we fit see say di distribution of sample means dey fairly tightly cluster around di true population mean.",Computer science
"doing this over and over again would give me avery dierent sampling distribution, namely the sampling distribution ofthe maximum.","Namely di sampling distribution of di maximum, namely di sampling distribution of di maximum",Computer science
the sampling distribution ofthe maximum of 5 iq scores is shown in figure 10. 6.,For figure 10. 6.6. 6.6.,Computer science
"not surprisingly, if you pick 5 people at random and then nd the person with the highest iq score, they're going to have an above average iq.","If you pick 5 pipo for random and then nd di person wit di highest iq score, dem go get above average iq.",Computer science
most ofthe time you'll end up with someone whose iq is measured in the 100 to 140 range.,For most of di time you go end up wit someone wey dey measurin di 100 to 140 range.,Computer science
"intuitively, you already know part ofthe answer: if you only have a few observations, the sample mean is likely to be quite inaccurate: if you replicate a small experiment and recalculate the mean you'll get avery dierent answer.","If you only get few observations, di average number dey likely to be quite inaccurate: if you replicate small experiment and recalculate di mean wey dey quite inaccurate: if you replicate small experiment and recalculate di mean wey dey quite inaccurate",Computer science
"in other words, the sampling distribution is quite wide.",Di sampling distribution dey wide,Computer science
"if you replicate a large experiment and recalculate the sample mean you'll probably get the same answer you got last time, so the sampling distribution will be very narrow.","Di sampling distribution go be very narrow, so di sampling distribution go be very narrow.",Computer science
"you can see this visually in figure 10. 7: the bigger the sample size, the narrower the sampling distribution gets.","Di bigger di sample size, di narrower di sampling distribution get",Computer science
"we can quantify this eect by calculating the standard deviation ofthe sampling distribution, which is referred to as the standard error.","We fit quantify dis eect by calculating di howe dey spread of di sampling distribution, wey dey dem dey call di standard error.",Computer science
"the standard error of a statistic is often denoted se, and since we're usually interested in the standard error ofthe sample mean, we often use the acronym sem.","Di standard error of a statistic dey often denot se, and since we dey interest for di standard error of di average number, we often use acronym sem.",Computer science
"as you can see just by looking at the picture, as the sample size nincreases, the-312- sem decreases.","As di sample size increase, di -312- sem decrease",Computer science
"okay, so that's one part ofthe story.","Di story dey okay, so na one part of di story",Computer science
"however, there's something i've been glossing over so far.","Di thing wey dey to passover so far, na something wey dey to passover so far",Computer science
"all my examples upto this point have been based on the\iq scores""experiments, and because iq scores are roughly normally distributed, i've assumed that the population distribution is normal.","Di examples upto dis point don based on di\iq scores""experiments, and because iq scores dey normally distributed, i dey assum say di population distribution dey normal.",Computer science
what if it isn't normal?,If e no dey normal?,Computer science
what happens to the sampling distribution ofthe mean?,Di sampling distribution of di mean?,Computer science
"the remarkable thing is this: no matter what shape your population distribution is, as nincreases the sampling distribution ofthe mean starts to look more like a normal distribution.","Nano matter which shape your population distribution dey, as nincrease di sampling distribution of di mean start to look more like di bell way.",Computer science
"to give you a sense of this, i ran some simulations using r. to do this, i started with the amped"" distribution shown in the histogram in figure 10. 8.","I start wit di amped"" distribution show for hintogram for figure 10. 8. 8. 8.",Computer science
"as you can see by comparing the triangular shaped histogram to the bell curve plotted by the black line, the population distribution doesn't look very much like a normal distribution at all.","As you fit see by comparing di triangular shaped hintogram to di bell curve plotted by di black line, di population distribution no look like di bell way for all",Computer science
"next, i used rto simulate the results of a large number of experiments.","Next, I useR to simulate di results of large number of experiments.",Computer science
"in each experiment i took n2 samples from this distribution, and then calculated the sample mean.","I tok n2 sample from dis distribution, and then calculate di average number.",Computer science
"this time, the histogram produces ax-shaped distribution: it's still not normal, but it's alot closer to the black line than the population distribution in figure 10. 8a.","Di hintogram produce x-shaped distribution: e still no normal, but e dey closer to di black line than di population distribution for figure 10. 8a.",Computer science
"when i increase the sample size to n4, the sampling distribution ofthe mean is very close to normal(figure 10. 8c), and by the time we reach a sample size of n8 it's almost perfectly normal.","Di sampling distribution of di mean dey close to normal(figure 10. 8c), and by di time we reach sample size of n4, di sampling distribution of di mean dey close to normal(figure 10. 8c), and by di time we reach sample size of n8, di sampling distribution of di mean dey close to normal(figure 10. 8c), and by di time we reach sample size of n8 dey perfectly normal",Computer science
"in other words, as long as your sample size isn't tiny, the sampling distribution ofthe mean will be approximately normal no matter what your population distribution looks like!","as long as your sample size dey tiny, di sampling distribution of di mean go be approximately normal no matter which your population distribution look like",Computer science
"on the basis of these gures, it seems like we have evidence for all ofthe following claims about the sampling distribution ofthe mean: the mean ofthe sampling distribution is the same as the mean ofthe population the standard deviation ofthe sampling distribution(i. e, the standard error)gets smaller as the sample size increases the shape ofthe sampling distribution becomes normal as the sample size increases as it happens, not only are all of these statements true, there is avery famous theorem in statistics that proves all three of them, known as the central limit theorem.","Di mean of di sampling distribution na di same as di mean of di population di howe dey spread of di sampling distribution(i. e, di standard error)get smaller as di sample size increase as di sample size increase as di sample size dey increase as di sample size dey increase as di sample size dey increase as di sample size dey increase as di sample size dey increase as di sample size dey increase as di sample size dey increase as di sample size dey increase as di sample size dey increase as dem",Computer science
"among other things, the central limit theorem tells us that if the population distribution has mean and standard deviation, then the sampling distribution ofthe mean also has mean, and the standard error ofthe mean is sem?","Di central limit diorem tell us say if di population distribution don mean and howe dey spread, then di sampling distribution of di mean don mean, and di standard error of di mean na sem?",Computer science
"n because we divide the population standard devation by the square root ofthe sample size n, the sem gets smaller as the sample size increases.","because we dey divide di spread for all di pipo by di numba wey if you multiply am by itself, e go give you the original numba, we dey call am squa root, but for pidgin, we fit say 'numba wey e be root of anoda numba' of di sample size n, di SEM dey get smaller as di sample size dey increase.",Computer science
it also tells us that the shape ofthe sampling distribution becomes normal.4 this result is useful for all sorts of things.,Di result dey useful for all sorts of things.,Computer science
"it tells us why large experiments are more reliable than small ones, and because it gives us an explicit formula for the standard error it tells us how much more reliable a large experiment is.","E tell us why large experiments dey more reliable than small ones, and because e give explicit formula for di standard error wey dey tell us how much more reliable a large experiment dey.",Computer science
"it tells us why the normal distribution is, well, normal.","E tell us why di bell way dey, well, normal",Computer science
"in real experiments, many ofthe things that we want to measure are actually averages of lots of dierent quantities(e. g, arguably, \general""intelligence as measured by iq is an average of a large number of \speci c""skills and abilities), and when that happens, the averaged quantity should follow a normal distribution.","For real experiments, many of di things wey we dey measure dey average of lots of dierent quantities(e. g, arguably, \general""intelligence as measure by iq dey average of lots of \speci c""skills and abilities), and when dat happen, di average quantity go follow di bell way.",Computer science
"because of this mathematical law, the normal distribution pops up over and over again in real data.","Because of dis mathematical law, di bell way dey to show many times for real data.",Computer science
"like most introductory stats texts, i've discussed one situation where the central limit theorem holds: when you're taking an average across lots of independent events drawn from the same distribution.",I dey discuss one situation wey di central limit diorem hold: wen you take average across lots of independent events wey dey draw from di same distribution.,Computer science
"however, the central limit theorem is much broader than this.",Di central limit diorem dey much broader than dis.,Computer science
"there's a whole class of things called\ u-statistics""for instance, all of which satisfy the central limit theorem and therefore become normally distributed for large sample sizes.","Whole class of things wey dem call""U-statistics"" dey, for example, all of which satisfy di central limit theorem and therefore go become like bell when numbers plenty.",Computer science
"the mean is one such statistic, but it's not the only one.","Di mean dey one such statistic, but e no be di only one",Computer science
"in panel a, we have anon-normal population distribution; and panels b-d show the sampling distribution ofthe mean for samples of size 2, 4 and 8, for data drawn from the distribution in panel a.","We don show di sampling distribution of di mean for samples of size 2, 4 and 8, for data draw from di distribution for di first part.",Computer science
"as you can see, even though the original population distribution is non-normal, the sampling distribution ofthe mean becomes pretty close to normal by the time you have a sample of even 4 observations.","Di original population distribution dey non-normal, di sampling distribution of di mean dey close to normal by di time you go get sample of even 4 observations.",Computer science
"as every undergraduate gets taught in their very rst lecture on the measurement of intelligence, iq scores are de ned to have mean 100 and standard deviation 15.","As every undergraduate get taught for dia very rst lecture on di measurement of intelligence, iq scores dey mean 100 and howe dey spread 15.",Computer science
"however, this is a bit of a lie.",E dey bit of lie.,Computer science
how do we know that iq scores have a true population mean of 100?,We know say iq scores don dey true population mean of 100?,Computer science
"well, we know this because the people who designed the tests have administered them to very large samples, and have then igged"" the scoring rules so that their sample has mean 100.","We know dis bikos di pipo wey dey design di tests don administered dem to very large samples, and don then igged di scoring rules so say dia sample don mean 100",Computer science
that's not a bad thing ofcourse: it's an important part of designing a psychological measurement.,Dat one no be bad thing ofcourse: e be important part of designing measuring mind tins.,Computer science
"however, it's important to keep in mind that this theoretical mean of 100 only attaches to the population that the test designers used to design the tests.",Di important to remember say dis theoretical mean of 100 only attach to di population wey di test designers use to design di tests.,Computer science
"good test designers will actually goto some lengths to provide est norms""that can apply to lots of dierent populations(e. g, dierent age groups, nationalities etc).","pipo wey good for making tests go actually to try to provide""test norms"" wey fit apply to plenty different populations(e. g, different age groups, nationalities, etc.).",Computer science
"this is very handy, but ofcourse almost every research project of interest involves looking at a dierent population of people to those used in the test norms.","Dis dey very handy, but ofcourse almost every research project of interest dey involve looking at di dierent population of pipo wey dey use for test norms.",Computer science
"for instance, suppose you wanted to measure the eect of low level lead poisoning on cognitive functioning in port pirie, a south australian industrial town with a lead smelter.","for example, suppose you wan measure di effect of low-level lead poisoning on how di mind dey work for Port Pirie, one South Australian one town wey dey do factory with lead smelter.",Computer science
"perhaps you decide that you want to compare iq scores among people in port pirie to a comparable sample in whyalla, a south australian industrial town with a steel re nery. 5 regardless of which town you're thinking about, it doesn't make alot of sense simply to assume that the true population mean iq is 100.",E no make alot of sense simply to assume say di true population di average IQ dey 100.,Computer science
"no-one has, to my knowledge, produced sensible norming data that can automatically be applied to south australian industrial towns.","Di knowledge, no-one don produce sensible norming data wey go automatically apply to south australian industrial towns.",Computer science
we're going to have to estimate the population parameters from a sample of data.,We go get to estimate di population parameters from sample of data.,Computer science
so how do we do this?,Na how we do dis?,Computer science
the average iq score among these people turns out to be x98: 5.,Di average iq score among dis pipo turnout to be x98,Computer science
so what is the true mean iq for the entire population of port pirie?,So wetin be di true di average IQ for di entire population of Port Pirie?,Computer science
"obviously, we don't know the answer to that question.",We no know di answer to dat question,Computer science
"it could be 97: 2, but if could also be 103: 5.","Di suppose be 97: 2, but if e fit also be 103: 5. but if e fit also be 103: 5. but if e fit also be 103: 5.",Computer science
our sampling isn't exhaustive so we cannot give a de nitive answer.,Di sampling no dey exhaustive so we no get de nitive answer.,Computer science
"nevertheless if i was forced at gunpoint to give a est guess""i'd have to say 98: 5.","Na nevertheless if i force gunpoint to give aest guess""i get say 98",Computer science
that's the essence of statistical estimation: giving a best guess.,Di essence of statistical estimation: give di best try,Computer science
"in this example, estimating the unknown poulation parameter is straightforward.","Di example, estimating di unknown poulation parameter dey straightforward.",Computer science
"however, for the moment what i want to do is make sure you recognise that the sample statistic and the estimate ofthe population parameter are conceptually dierent things.",For di moment wey i wan to do na make sure you recognise say di number from di small group and di estimate of di real number for everybody dey conceptually dierent things.,Computer science
"a sample statistic is a description of your data, whereas the estimate is a guess about the population.","di number from di small group na how to talk about your numbers, while estimate na guess about di population.",Computer science
"with that in mind, statisticians often dierent notation to 5please note that if you were actually interested in this question, you would need to be a lotmore careful than i'm being here.","If you dey interest for dis question, you go need to be lotmore careful than i'm being here",Computer science
you can't just compare iq scores in whyalla to port pirie and assume that any dierences are due to lead poisoning.,We no fit compare iq score for whyalla to port pirie and assume say any dierences dey due to lead poisoning.,Computer science
"in other words, you might end up with an illusory group dierence in your data, caused by the fact that people think that there is a real dierence.","E go end up wit illusory group dierence for your data, caused by di fact say pipo think say na real dierence.",Computer science
those people won't be as co-operative in the tests.,Di pipo no be co-operative for di tests,Computer science
other people in port pirie might be more motivated to do well because they don't want their hometown to look bad.,Di oda pipo wey dey port pirie go dey motivate to do well because dem don wan dia hometown to look bad.,Computer science
"the motivational eects that would apply in whyalla are likely to be weaker, because people don't have any concept of\iron ore poisoning""in the same way that they have a concept for\lead poisoning"".","Di motivational eects wey go apply for whyalla dey likely to be weaker, because pipo don get any concept of\iron ore poisoning""for di same way say dem don get concept for\lead poisoning""for di same way say dem don get concept for\lead poisoning"".",Computer science
psychology is hard.,Di psychology na hard,Computer science
"for instance, if true population mean is denoted, then we would use^ to refer to our estimate ofthe population mean.","If true population mean denoted, then we go use^ to talk about awa estimate of di population mean",Computer science
"in contrast, the sample mean is denoted xor sometimes m. however, in simple random samples, the estimate ofthe population mean is identical to the sample mean: if i observe a sample mean of x98: 5, then my estimate ofthe population mean is also^ 98:5.","If i observe di average number of x98: 5, then my estimate of di population mean dey denoted xor sometimes m.",Computer science
"to help keep the notation clear, here's a handy table: symbol what is it?",Di handy table: symbol wey dey e?,Computer science
do we know what it is?,We know what it dey?,Computer science
"in the case ofthe mean, our estimate ofthe population parameter(i. e.","Di case of di mean, awa estimate of di real number for everybody(i. e.",Computer science
"however, that's not always true.",Dem no always true.,Computer science
"to see this, let's have a think about how to construct an estimate ofthe population standard deviation, which we'll denote^.","Dem don think about how to construct estimate of di spread for all di pipo, wey we go denote^",Computer science
what shall we use as our estimate in this case?,Dem use as awa estimate for dis case?,Computer science
"your rst thought might be that we could do the same thing we did when estimating the mean, and just use the sample statistic as our estimate.","Di rst thought might be say we go do di same thing wey we don do wen we dey estimat di mean, and just use di number from di small group as awa estimate.",Computer science
"that's almost the right thing to do, but not quite.","Di right thing to do, but no quite.",Computer science
suppose i have a sample that contains a single observation.,Di suppose get sample wey dey contains single observation.,Computer science
"for this example, it helps to consider a sample where you have no intutions at all about what the true population values might be, so let's use something completely ctitious.","E help to consider sample wey you no dey intutions for all about what di true population value might be, so let use something completely ctitious.",Computer science
suppose the observation in question measures the cromulence of my shoes.,Di observation for question measure di cromulence of my shoes.,Computer science
it turns out that my shoes have a cromulence of 20.,I turnout say my shoes don dey cromulence of 20.,Computer science
"so here's my sample:20 this is a perfectly legitimate sample, even if it does have a sample size of n1.","Di sample:20 na perfectly legitimate sample, even if e don get sample size of n1.",Computer science
"it has a sample mean of 20, and because every observation in this sample is equal to the sample mean(obviously!)","Di average number of 20, and because every observation for dis sample dey equal to di average number(obviously!)",Computer science
it has a sample standard deviation of 0.,E get sample howe dey spread of 0.,Computer science
as a description ofthe sample this seems quite right: the sample contains a single observation and therefore there is no variation observed within the sample.,Di sample contains single observation and therefore e no dey observe within di sample.,Computer science
a sample standard deviation of s0 is the right answer here.,Di right answer here.,Computer science
"but as an estimate ofthe population standard deviation, it feels completely insane, right?","But as estimate of di spread for all di pipo, e feel completely crazy, right?",Computer science
"admittedly, you andi don't know anything at all about what \cromulence"" is, but we know something about data: the only reason that we don't see any variability in the sample is that the sample is too small to display any variation!",Di only reason say we don see anyvariability for di sample na say di sample dey too small to display any variation,Computer science
"so, if you have a sample size of n1, it feels like the right answer is just to say o idea at all"".","If you go get sample size of n1, e feel like di right answer na just to say o idea for all"".",Computer science
notice that you don't have the same intuition when it comes to the sample mean and the population mean.,Di notice say you no get di same intuition wen dem kom to di average number and di population mean,Computer science
"if forced to make a best guess about the population mean, it doesn't feel completely insane to guess that the population mean is 20.",E no feel completely insane to guess say di population mean na 20.,Computer science
"sure, you probably wouldn't feel very con dent in that guess, because you have only the one observation to work with, but it's still the best guess you can make.","For sure, you no fit feel very con dent for dat guess, because you go get only di one observation to work wit, but e still dey still di best try you fit make.",Computer science
let's extend this example a little.,E dey extend dis example a little,Computer science
suppose i now make a second observation.,I suppose make second observation,Computer science
"my dataset now has n2 observations ofthe cromulence of shoes, and the complete sample now looks like this:20, 22 this time around, our sample is justlarge enough for us to be able to observe some variability: two observations is the bare minimum number needed for any variability to be observed!","Di group of related numbers or data wey belong together now don get n2 observations of di cromulence of shoes, and di complete sample now look like dis:20, 22 dis time around, awa sample dey justlarge enough for us to observe some variability",Computer science
"for our new dataset, the sample mean is x21, and the sample standard deviation is s1.","Di average number na x21, and di sample howe dey spread na s1.",Computer science
what intuitions do we have about the population?,Di intuitions do we get about di population?,Computer science
"again, as far as the population mean goes, the best guess we can possibly make-316- sample standard deviation0 10 2030 40 50 60population standard deviationfigure 10. 9: the sampling distribution ofthe sample standard deviation for a wo iq scores""experiment.","as for di population mean go, di best try we fit make-316- sample standard deviation0 10 2030 40 50 60population standard deviationfigure 10. 9.",Computer science
"the true population standard deviation is 15(dashed line), but as you can see from the histogram, the vast majority of experiments will produce a much smaller sample standard deviation than this.","As you see from di hintogram, di most part of experiments go produce large sample howe dey spread than dis.",Computer science
"on average, this experiment would produce a sample standard deviation of only 8.5, well below the true value!","for average, dis experiment go produce sample howe dey spread of only 8.5, well below di true value!",Computer science
"in other words, the sample standard deviation is a biased estimate ofthe population standard deviation.",Di sample howe dey spread dey biased estimate of di spread for all di pipo,Computer science
"is the sample mean: if forced to guess, we'd probably guess that the population mean cromulence is 21.","If force to guess, we go probably guess say di population mean cromulence dey 21.",Computer science
what about the standard deviation?,Di howe dey spread?,Computer science
this is a little more complicated.,E dey complicated,Computer science
"the sample standard deviation is only based on two observations, and if you're at all like me you probably have the intuition that, with only two observations, we haven't given the population\enough of a chance""to reveal its true variability to us.","Di sample howe dey spread dey only based on two numbers, and if you dey for all like me, we don give di population\enough of chance""to reveal im true variability to us.",Computer science
"it's not just that we suspect that the estimate is wrong: after all, with only two observations we expect it to be wrong to some degree.","As all, wit only two observation wey we dey suspect say di estimate dey wrong to some degree.",Computer science
the worry is that the error is systematic.,Di worry na say di error dey systematic.,Computer science
"speci cally, we suspect that the sample standard deviation is likely to be smaller than the population standard deviation.",We suspect say di sample howe dey spread dey smaller than di spread for all di pipo.,Computer science
"this intuition feels right, but it would be nice to demonstrate this somehow.","Di intuition feel right, but e go nice to demonstrate dis somehow.",Computer science
"there are in fact mathematical proofs that con rm this intuition, but unless you have the right mathematical background they don't help very much.","Di mathematical proofs wey dey con rm dis intuition, but unless you go get di right mathematical background dem don help very much.",Computer science
"instead, what i'll do is use rto simulate the results of some experiments.",I go use rto simulate di results of some experiments.,Computer science
"with that in mind, let's return to our iq studies.",Dem return to awa iq study.,Computer science
suppose the true population mean iq is 100 and the standard deviation is 15.,Di true population di average IQ na 100 and di howe dey spread na 15.,Computer science
"if i do this over and over again, and plot a histogram of these sample standard deviations, what i have is the sampling distribution ofthe standard deviation.","Di sampling distribution of di howe dey spread, wey i get na di sampling distribution of di howe dey spread.",Computer science
i've plotted this distribution in figure 10. 9.,I plot dis distribution for figure 10. 9. 9. 9. 9. 9. 9.,Computer science
"even though the true population standard deviation is 15, the average ofthe sample standard deviations is only 8.5.","Di true di spread for all di pipo dey 15, di average of di sample standard deviations dey only 8.5. 5.",Computer science
notice that this is avery dierent result to what we found in figure 10. 7b when we plotted the sampling distribution ofthe mean.,Di notice say dis na very dierent result wey we find for figure 10. 7b wen we plot di sampling distribution of di mean.,Computer science
"if you look at that sampling distribution, what you see is that the population mean is 100, and the average ofthe sample means is also 100.","Di population mean dey 100, and di average of di sample means also 100",Computer science
now let's extend the simulation.,Na now let extend di simulation,Computer science
"instead of restricting ourselves to the situation where we have a sample size of n2, let's repeat the exercise for sample sizes from 1 to 10.","no be to hold ourselves to di situation where we get sample size of n=2, make we repeat di exercise for number of pipo from 1 to 10.",Computer science
"to generate the gure, i generated 10, 000 simulated data sets with 1 observation each,10, 000 more with 2 observations, and soon upto a sample size of 10.","To generate di figure, I generate 10,000 simulated data sets wey get one number each, 10,000 more wey get two, and soon until sample size of 10.",Computer science
"each dataset consisted of fake iq data: that is, the data were normally distributed with a true population mean of 100 and standard deviation 15.","Na, di data dey normally distributed wit true population mean of 100 and howe dey spread 15.",Computer science
"on average, the sample means turnout to be 100, regardless of sample size(panel a).","for average, di sample means turnout to be 100, no matter how many pipo (di first part).",Computer science
"however, the sample standard deviations turnout to be systematically too small(panel b), especially for small sample sizes.","But di sample standard deviations e dey too small for all(panel b), especially when pipo no plenty.",Computer science
"mean and average sample standard deviation as a function of sample size, you get the results shown in figure 10. 10.",Di results wey dey show for figure 10. 10. 10.,Computer science
"on the left hand side(panel a), i've plotted the average sample mean and on the right hand side(panel b), i've plotted the average standard deviation.","I plot di average number and on di right side(panel b), i plot di average howe dey spread.",Computer science
"the two plots are quite dierent: on average, the average sample mean is equal to the population mean.","for average, di average number dey equal to di population mean",Computer science
"it is an unbiased estimator, which is essentially the reason why your best estimate for the population mean is the sample mean. 6the plot on the right is quite dierent: on average, the sample standard deviation sissmaller than the population standard deviation.","E be one guess wey no dey always too high or low, wey be essentially di reason why your best try for di population mean na di average number. Di plot for di right dey very different: for average, di sample howe dey spreads dey smaller than di spread for all di pipo σ.",Computer science
it is a biased estimator.,E dey biased estimator.,Computer science
"in other words, if we want to make a est guess""^about the value ofthe population standard deviation, we should make sure our guess is a little bit larger than the sample standard deviations. the x to this systematic bias turns out to be very simple.","For other words, if we wan make""di best try"" σ̂ about di value of di spread for all di pipo σ, we suppose make sure our guess dey small larger than di sample howe dey spreads. Di fix to dis di same mistake turnout to be very simple.",Computer science
here's how it works.,Di work wey dey work,Computer science
"before tackling the standard deviation, let's look at the variance.","Di howe dey spread, let make we look di variance.",Computer science
that is: s21 nn i1pxixq2 the sample variance s2is a biased estimator ofthe population variance 2.,s21 nn i1pxixq2 di sample variance wey dey biased estimator of di population variance,Computer science
"but as it turns out, we only 6i should note that i'm hiding something here.",We only 6i go note say i dey hid something here,Computer science
"unbiasedness is a desirable characteristic for an estimator, but there are other things that matter besides bias.","Di unbiasedness dey desirable characteristic for estimator, but na oda things wey matter besides bias.",Computer science
"however, it's beyond the scope of this book to discuss this in any detail.",E dey beyond di scope of dis book to discuss dis for any detail,Computer science
"all we have to do is divide by n1 rather than by n. if we do that, we obtain the following formula:^21 n1n i1pxixq2 this is an unbiased estimator ofthe population variance.","If we do dat, we obtain di following formula:^21 n1n i1pxixq2 dis dey one guess wey no dey always too high or low of di population variance",Computer science
why did rgive us slightly dierent answers when we used the var()function?,Di why don rgive us slightly dierent answers wen we use di var()function?,Computer science
"because the var()function calculates^ 2nots2, that's why.","Di var()function calculates^ 2nots2, dat's why",Computer science
a similar story applies for the standard deviation.,Di howe dey spread wey dey apply for howe dey spread,Computer science
"if we divide by n1 rather than n, our estimate ofthe population standard deviation becomes: ^gffe1 n1n i1pxixq2 and when we user's built in standard deviation function sd(), what it's doing is calculating^, nots. 7 one nal point: in practice, a lot of people tend to refer to ^(i. e, the formula where we divide by n1) as the sample standard deviation.","For practice, a lot of pipo dey to talk about^ (i. e, di formula wey we divide by n1 no ben, awa estimate of di spread for all di pipo become:",Computer science
"technically, this is incorrect: the sample standard deviation should be equal tos(i. e,",Di sample howe dey spread go be equal tos(i. e.,Computer science
the formula where we divide by n).,Di formula where we divide by n).,Computer science
"these aren't the same thing, either conceptually or numerically.","Dem no be di same thing, either conceptually or numerically.",Computer science
"one is a property ofthe sample, the other is an estimated characteristic ofthe population.","Di one dey property of di sample, di oda dey estimated characteristic of di population.",Computer science
"however, in almost every real life application, what we actually care about is the estimate ofthe population parameter, and so people always report^ rather than s. this is the right number to report, of course, it's that people tend to get a little bit imprecise about terminology when they write it up, because \sample standard deviation""is shorter than\estimated population standard deviation"".","For almost every for real life application, we dey care about di estimate of di real number for everybody, and so pipo always report^ no be s.",Computer science
"it's no big deal, and in practice i do the same thing everyone else does.","E no big deal, and for real life i do di same thing evri oda does.",Computer science
"nevertheless, i think it's important to keep the two concepts separate: it's never a good idea to confuse\known properties of your sample""with \guesses about the population from which it came"".","I think e dey important to keep di two concepts separate: e no dey good idea to confuse\known properties of your sample""wit \guesses about di population wey dey kom",Computer science
"the moment you start thinking thatsand ^are the same thing, you start doing exactly that.","Di moment you start thinking saysand ^are di same thing, you start do exactly dat",Computer science
"s sample standard deviation yes, calculated from the raw data population standard deviation almost never known for sure^ estimate ofthe population yes, but not the same as the standard deviation sample standard deviation symbol what is it?",Di sample howe dey spread wey dey calculated from di first numbers di spread for all di pipo almost never known for sure,Computer science
"s2sample variance yes, calculated from the raw data 2population variance almost never known for sure ^2estimate ofthe population yes, but not the same as the variance sample variance 7okay, i'm hiding something else here.","Di first numbers 2population variance no dey known for sure ^2estimate of di population yes, but no di same as di variance sample variance 7okay, i'm hid something else here.",Computer science
"in a bizarre and counterintuitive twist, since ^ 2is an unbiased estimator of 2, you'd assume that taking the square root would be ne, and ^would bean unbiased estimator of.","For one strange and not straightforward change, since σ̂2 na one guess wey no dey always too high or low of σ2, you go assume say taking di numba wey if you multiply am by itself, e go give you the original numba, we dey call am squa root, but for pidgin, we fit say 'numba wey e be root of anoda numba' go be fine, and σ̂ go be one guess wey no dey always too high or low of σ.",Computer science
"weirdly, it's not.",E no dey.,Computer science
"there's actually a subtle, tiny bias in ^.","Di subtle, tiny bias for^.",Computer science
"this is just bizarre:^ 2is and unbiased estimate ofthe population variance 2, but when you take the square root, it turns out that^ is a biased estimator ofthe population standard deviation.","E dey bizarre:^ 2is and unbiased estimate of di population variance 2, but wen you take di numba wey if you multiply am by itself, e go give you the original numba, we dey call am squa root, but for pidgin, we fit say 'numba wey e be root of anoda numba', e turnout say^ dey biased estimator of di spread for all di pipo.",Computer science
"weird, weird, weird, right?","Di weird, weird, weird, right?",Computer science
"so, why is ^biased?",Di why dey biased?,Computer science
"the technical answer is ecause non-linear transformations(e. g, the square root)don't commute with expectation"", but that just sounds like gibberish to everyone who hasn't taken a course in mathematical statistics.","Di technical answer dey ecause non-linear transformations(e. g, di numba wey if you multiply am by itself, e go give you the original numba, we dey call am squa root, but for pidgin, we fit say 'numba wey e be root of anoda numba') don commute wit expectation"", but dat just sounds like gibberish to all wey dey take course for mathematical statistics.",Computer science
"fortunately, it doesn't matter for practical purposes.",E no matter for practical purposes,Computer science
"the bias is small, and in real life everyone uses^and it works just ne.","Di bias dey small, and for real life e use^and e works just ne.",Computer science
sometimes mathematics is just annoying.,But sometimes mathematics dey just annoying.,Computer science
"as this discussion illustrates, one ofthe reasons we need all this sampling theory is that every dataset leaves us with a some of uncertainty, so our estimates are never going to be perfectly accurate.","One of di reason we need all dis sampling theory na say every group of related numbers or data wey belong together leave us wit some of uncertainty, so awa estimates no go dey perfectly accurate.",Computer science
the thing that has been missing from this discussion is an attempt to quantify the amount of uncertainty that attaches to our estimate.,Di thing wey dey missing from dis discussion na attempt to quantify di amount of uncertainty wey we attach to awa estimate.,Computer science
"it's not enough to be able guess that, say, the mean iq of undergraduate psychology students is 115(yes, i just made that number up).","Di average IQ of undergraduate psychology students dey 115(yes, i just make say, di average IQ of undergraduate psychology students dey 115(yes, i just make say, di average IQ of undergraduate psychology students dey 115(yes, i just make dat number up).",Computer science
we also want to be able to say something that expresses the degree of certainty that we have in our guess.,We also wan say something wey dey express di degree of certainty wey we get for awa guess.,Computer science
"for example, it would be nice to be able to say that there is a 95%chance that the true mean lies between 109 and 121.",E go be nice to say 95%chance say di true mean dey for between 109 and 121.,Computer science
the name for this is a con dence interval for the mean.,Di name for dis dey con dence interval for di mean,Computer science
"armed with an understanding of sampling distributions, constructing a con dence interval for the mean is actually pretty easy.","E dey armed wit understanding of sampling distributions, construct con dence interval for di mean dey actually easy.",Computer science
suppose the true population mean is and the standard deviation is.,Di true population mean na and di howe dey spread na.,Computer science
"i've just nished running my study that has nparticipants, and the mean iq among those participants is x.",Di average IQ wey dey among those participants dey x,Computer science
the more correct answer is that 95%chance that a normally-distributed quantity will fall within 1. 96 standard deviations ofthe true mean.,Di more correct answer na say 95%chance say a normally-distributed quantity go fall within 1. 96 standard deviations of di true mean.,Computer science
"next, recall that the standard deviation ofthe sampling distribution is referred to as the standard error, and the standard error ofthe mean is written as sem.","Di howe dey spread of di sampling distribution dey dem dey call di standard error, and di standard error of di mean dey written as sem.",Computer science
"when we put all these pieces together, we learn that there is a 95%probability that the sample mean xthat we have actually observed lies within 1. 96 standard errors ofthe population mean.",We learn say 95%probability say di average number wey we dey observe within 1. 96 standard errors of di population mean.,Computer science
"mathematically, we write this as: p1: 96semq x",We write dis as: p1: 96semq x,Computer science
"n, and we can be 95%con dent that this is true.",We fit be 95%con dent say dis dey true,Computer science
"however, that's not answering the question that we're actually interested in.",Dem no answer di question wey we dey interest for.,Computer science
"the equation above tells us what we should expect about the sample mean, given that we know what the population parameters are.","Di equation above tells us what we go expect about di average number, given say we know what di population parameters dey.",Computer science
"what we want is to have this work the other way around: we want to know what we should believe about the population parameters, given that we have observed a particular sample.","We wan know how we go believe about di population parameters, given say we don observe a particular sample.",Computer science
"however, it's not too dicult to do this.",E no too dicult to do dis,Computer science
"using a little highschool algebra, a sneaky way to rewrite our equation is like this: xp1: 96semq x",E1: 96semq x1: 96semq x1,Computer science
"we refer to this range as a 95%con dence interval, denoted ci 95.","We to talk about dis range as 95%di place where di true number fit dey, wey dem denote as CI95.",Computer science
"n ofcourse, there's nothing special about the number 1. 96: it just happens to be the multiplier you need to use if you want a 95%con dence interval.",Di multiplier wey you need use if you wan 95%con dence interval.,Computer science
"the formula that i've given above for the 95%con dence interval is approximately correct, but i glossed over an important detail in the discussion.","Di formula wey i give above for di 95%con dence interval dey approximately correct, but i to passover important detail for di discussion.",Computer science
"notice my formula requires you to use the standard error ofthe mean, sem, which in turn requires you to use the true population standard deviation.","Di formula suppose use di standard error of di mean, sem, wey in turn require you to use di true di spread for all di pipo.",Computer science
"because we don't know the true value of, we have to use an estimate ofthe population standard deviation^ instead.","We no know di true value of, we go use estimate of di spread for all di pipo ^instead.",Computer science
"this is pretty straightforward to do, but this has the consequence that we need to use the quantiles ofthe t-distribution rather than the normal distribution to calculate our magic number; and the answer depends on the sample size.",Di consequence wey we need use di quantiles of di t-distribution no be di bell way to calculate our magic number; and di answer depend on di sample size.,Computer science
"bigger values mean that the con dence interval is wider, indicating that we're more uncertain about what the true value of actually is.","Di con dence interval dey wider, indicating say we dey more uncertain about what di true value of actually dey.",Computer science
"when we use the tdistribution instead ofthe normal distribution, we get bigger numbers, indicating that we have more uncertainty.","Di tdistribution forstead of di bell way, we get bigger numbers, indicating say we get more uncertainty",Computer science
and why do we have that extra uncertainty?,Na why do we get extra uncertainty?,Computer science
"well, because our estimate ofthe population standard deviation^ might be wrong!","Well, because our guess of di spread for all di pipo σ̂ fit be wrong!",Computer science
"if it's wrong, it implies that we're a bit less sure about what our sampling distribution ofthe mean actually looks like. and this uncertainty ends up getting re ected in a wider con dence interval.",Di uncertainty end up getting re ected for wider con dence interval.,Computer science
"whenever people rst encounter con dence intervals, the rst instinct is almost always to say that here is a 95% probabaility that the true mean lies inside the con dence interval"".",Di rst instinct dey always say here dey 95% probabaility wey di true mean lies inside di con dence interval,Computer science
"it's simple, and it seems to capture the common-321- sense idea of what it means to say that i am\95% con dent"".","E dey simple, and e seem to capture di common-321 sense idea of what e mean say i am\95% con dent",Computer science
"unfortunately, it's not quite right.","Na unfortunately, e no dey right.",Computer science
the intuitive de nition relies very heavily on your own personal beliefs about the value ofthe population mean.,Di easy way rely very heavily on your own thoughts about di value of di population mean.,Computer science
"personally(speaking as a bayesian) i have no problem with the idea that the phrase\95% probability""is allowed to refer to a personal belief.","I no wahala wit di idea say di phrase\95% probability""dey allowed to talk about personal belief.",Computer science
"however, con dence intervals are notbayesian tools.",Di con dence intervals dey nobayesian tools.,Computer science
"if you use frequentist methods, you must adopt frequentist interpretations!","if you use di counting way, you must use di counting way to understand!",Computer science
"okay, so if that's not the right answer, what is?","If dat no dey di right answer, what dey?",Computer science
"remember what we said about frequentist probability: the only way we are allowed to make\probability statements""is to talk about a sequence of events, and to count up the frequencies of dierent kinds of events.","Di only way we go make\probability statements""na to talk about sequence of events, and to count up di frequencies of dierent kinds of events.",Computer science
"from that perspective, the interpretation of a 95%con dence interval must have something to do with replication.",Di interpretation of 95%con dence interval must get something to do wit replication.,Computer science
"speci cally: if we replicated the experiment over and over again and computed a 95%con dence interval for each replication, then 95%of those intervals would contain the true mean.","Specifically: if we replicate di experiment many times and compute 95%di place where di true number fit dey for each time, den 95%of those intervals go contain di true mean.",Computer science
"more generally,95% of all con dence intervals constructed using this procedure should contain the true population mean.",Di procedure go contain di true population mean.,Computer science
"this idea is illustrated in figure 10. 11, which shows 50 con dence intervals constructed for a\measure 10 iq scores""experiment (top panel)and another 50 con dence intervals for a\measure 25 iq scores""experiment (bottom panel).","Di idea dey illustrated for figure 10. 11, wey show 50 con dence intervals wey dey construct for a\measure 10 iq scores""experiment (top panel)and another 50 con dence intervals for a\measure 25 iq scores""experiment (top panel)and another 50 con dence intervals for a\measure 25 iq scores""experiment (bottom panel).",Computer science
"a bit fortuitously, across the 100 replications that i simulated, it turned out that exactly 95 of them contained the true mean.",I turnout say exactly 95 of dem contain di true mean.,Computer science
"the critical dierence here is that the bayesian claim makes a probability statement about the population mean(i. e, it refers to our uncertainty about the population mean), which is not allowed under the frequentist interpretation of probability because you can't eplicate"" a population!","Di critical dierence here dey say di bayesian claim make a probability statement about di population mean(i. e, e dey to talk about awa uncertainty about di population mean), wey no allow under di frequentist interpretation of probability because you no eplicate"" a population",Computer science
"in the frequentist claim, the population mean is xed and no probabilistic claims can be made about it.",Di population mean dey xed and no probabilistic claim go make about am,Computer science
"con dence intervals, however, are repeatable so we can replicate experiments.",E dey repeatable so we fit replicate experiments,Computer science
therefore a frequentist is allowed to talk about the probability that the con dence interval(a random variable)contains the true mean; but is not allowed to talk about the probability that the true population mean(not a repeatable event)falls within the con dence interval.,Di frequentist dey allowed to talk about di probability say di con dence interval(a one number wey fit change)contains di true mean; but no allowed to talk about di probability say di true population mean(not repeatable event)falls within di con dence interval.,Computer science
it matters because the dierence in interpretation leads to a dierence in the mathematics.,Di dierence for interpretation lead to di dierence for di mathematics.,Computer science
"there is a bayesian alternative to con dence intervals, known as credible intervals.","Di bayesian alternative to con dence intervals, wey dey known as credible intervals",Computer science
"in most situations credible intervals are quite similar to con dence intervals, but in other cases they are drastically dierent.","For most situations credible intervals dey similar to con dence intervals, but for oda cases dem dey drastically diat.",Computer science
"but i gure that when you're rst learning statistics, it might be useful to start with something simpler.","I gure say wen you dey learn statistics, e go useful to start wit something simpler.",Computer science
"as a consequence, the lsrpackage includes a function called cimean() which you can use to calculate your con dence intervals.",Di lsrpackage includes function wey dey call cimean() wey you fit use to calculate your con dence intervals.,Computer science
there are two arguments that you might want to specify:9 x.,Di two arguments wey you go need to specify: 9x,Computer science
this should be a numeric vector containing the data.,Di should be numeric vector wey dey containing di data,Computer science
"this should be a number, specifying the con dence level.","Dis go be number, specifying di con dence level",Computer science
"by default, conf =. 95, since 95%con dence intervals are the de facto standard in psychology.",Di 95%con dence intervals dey di de facto standard for psychology,Computer science
"however, i am planning to add a bit more functionality to cimean().",But I dey plan to add small more functionality to cimean().,Computer science
"however, regardless of what those future changes might look like, the xand conf arguments will remain the same, and the commands used in this book will still work.","Di xand conf arguments go remain di same, and di command wey dey use for dis book go still work.",Computer science
the top(panel a)shows 50 simulated replications of an experiment in which we measure the iqs of 10 people.,Di top(di first part)show 50 simulated replications of an experiment wey we measure di iqs of 10 pipo,Computer science
"the dot marks the location ofthe sample mean, and the line shows the 95%con dence interval.","Di dot mark di location of di average number, and di line show di 95%con dence interval.",Computer science
"in total 47 ofthe 50 con dence intervals do contain the true mean(i. e,100), but the three intervals marked with asterisks do not.","For total 47 of di 50 con dence intervals don contain di true mean(i. e,100), but di three intervals wey dey marked wit asterisks no dey.",Computer science
"the lower graph(panel b)shows a similar simulation, but this time we simulate replications of an experiment that measures the iqs of 25 people.","Di lower graph(panel b)show similar simulation, but dis time we simulate replications of experiment wey measure di iqs of 25 pipo.",Computer science
this graph was drawn using the bargraph.,Di graph dey draw using di bargraph,Computer science
"so, for example, if i load the afl24. rdata le, calculate the con dence interval associated with the mean attendance:> cimean( x=afl$attendance ) 2.5% 97. 5% 31597. 32 32593. 12 hopefully that's fairly clear.","for example, if i load di afl24. rdata le, calculate di con dence interval wey dey associated wit di mean attendance:",Computer science
"i'll show three versions here, but this certainly doesn't exhaust the possibilities.","I go show three version here, but dis no dey exhaust di possibilities.",Computer science
"in doing so, what i'm assuming is that you want to draw is a plot showing the means and con dence intervals for one variable, broken down by dierent levels of a second variable.","I tok say you wan draw na plot show di means and con dence interval for one variable, broken down by dierent level of a second variable.",Computer science
"for instance, in our afldata that we discussed earlier, we might be interested in plotting the average attendance byyear.","for example, for our afldata wey we discuss earlier, we go interest for plotting di average attendance byyear",Computer science
"i'll do this using three dierent functions, bargraph.",I go do dis using three different functions: bargraph.,Computer science
"ci()(both of which are in the sciplot package), and plotmeans() (which is in the gplots )package.","Di ci()(both of which dey for di sciplot package), and plotmeans() (which dey for di gplot package), and plotmeans() (which dey for di gplot package).",Computer science
this graph was drawn using the lineplot.,Di graph dey draw using di lineplot,Computer science
this graph was drawn using the plotmeans() function.,Di graph dey draw using di plotmeans() function,Computer science
for most applied researchers you won't need much more theory than this.,"for most pipo wey dey use research, you no go need much more theory than dis.",Computer science
"there is alot of statistical theory you can draw onto handle this situation, but it's well beyond the scope of this book.","E dey alot of statistical theory wey dey draw onto handle dis situation, but e well beyond di scope of dis book.",Computer science
hypothesis testing the process of induction is the process of assuming the simplest law that can be made to harmonize with our experience.,Di hypothesis test di process of induction na di process of assuming di simplest law wey dey make we dey harmonize wit awa experience.,Computer science
"this process, however, has no logical foundation but only a psychological one.","Dis process, however, get no logical foundation, only psychological one.",Computer science
it is clear that there are no grounds for believing that the simplest course of events will really happen.,E dey clear say nano grounds for believing say di simple course of events go really happen,Computer science
it is an hypothesis that the sun will rise tomorrow: and this means that we do not know whether it will rise.,Di hypothesis say di sun go rise tomorrow: and dis mean say we no know whether di sun go rise,Computer science
"it's now time to turnout attention to the other big idea, which is hypothesis testing.","E now time to turnout attention to di oda big idea, wey dey way to check if your idea be true.",Computer science
"in its most abstract form, hypothesis testing really avery simple idea: the researcher has some theory about the world, and wants to determine whether or not the data actually support that theory.","Di researcher don get some theory about di world, and wan to determine whether or no di data support dat theory.",Computer science
"however, the details are messy, and most people nd the theory of hypothesis testing to be the most frustrating part of statistics.","Di details dey messy, and most pipo nd di theory of way to check if your idea be true to be di most frustrating part of statistics.",Computer science
"firstly, i'll describe how hypothesis testing works, in a fair amount of detail, using a simple running example to show you how a hypothesis test is uilt"".","I go describe how hypothesis test work, for fair amount of detail, using simple run example to show you how a hypothesis test dey uilt",Computer science
"i'll try to avoid being too dogmatic while doing so, and focus instead on the underlying logic ofthe testing procedure. 2afterwards, i'll spend a bit of time talking about the various dogmas, rules and heresies that surround the theory of hypothesis testing.","I go spend a bit of time talking about di different dogmas, rules and heresies wey dey surround di theory of way to check if your idea be true.",Computer science
"for me, that day will arrive once i'm nally promoted to full professor.","For me, dat day go arrive once i dey promoted to full professor",Computer science
"safely ensconced in my ivory tower, happily protected by tenure, i will nally be able to take leave of my senses(so to speak), and indulge in that most thoroughly unproductive line of psychological research: the search for extrasensory perception(esp). 3 1the quote comes from wittgenstein's (1922)text, tractatus logico-philosphicus.","Safely inside my ivory tower, wey tenure dey protect me well, I go finally be able to leave my sense(so to speak), and indulge for dat di most useless kind of psychological research: di to find extrasensory perception(ESP). Di quote come from Wittgenstein's (1922)text, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus.",Computer science
the description below diers subtly from the standard description given in alot of introductory texts.,Di description below di description below diers subtly from di standard description wey dey give for alot of introductory texts.,Computer science
the orthodox theory of null hypothesis testing emerged from the work of sir ronald fisher and jerzy neyman in the early 20th century; but fisher and neyman actually had very dierent views about how it should work.,Di normal theory of di test of null emerge from di work of one big name for statistics and Jerzy Neyman for di early 20th century; but Fisher and Neyman actually get very different views about howe suppose work.,Computer science
the standard treatment of hypothesis testing that most texts use is a hybrid ofthe two approaches.,Di standard treatment of way to check if your idea be true say most text use dey hybrid of di two approaches.,Computer science
"the treatment here is a little more neyman-style than the orthodox view, especially as regards the meaning ofthe pvalue.","Di treatment here dey little more neyman-style than di orthodox view, especially as regard di meaning of di pvalue",Computer science
"to be fair, though, some ofthe studies are rigorously designed; so it's actually an interesting area for thinking about psychological research design.","Di study dey rigorously designed; so, some of di studies dey rigorously design; so e dey actually interesting area for thinking about psychological research design.",Computer science
"and ofcourse it's a free country, so you can spend your own time and eort proving me wrong if you like, but i wouldn't think that's a terribly practical use of your intellect.","E dey free kontri, so you fit spend your own time and eort proving me wrong if you like, but i no think say na terribly practical use of your intellect.",Computer science
"my rst study is a simple one, in which i seek to test whether clairvoyance exists.","Di rst study dey simple one, wey i seek to test whether clairvoyance exist.",Computer science
"each participant sits down at a table, and is shown a card by an experimenter.","Di participant sit down for table, and dey show card by an experimenter.",Computer science
the card is black on one side and white on the other.,Di card dey black on one side and white on di oda.,Computer science
"the experimenter takes the card away, and places it on a table in an adjacent room.","Di experimenter take di card away, and place am on table for adjacent room.",Computer science
"the card is placed black side up or white side up completely at random, with the randomisation occurring only after the experimenter has left the room with the participant.","Di card dey place black side up or white side up completely at random, wit di randomisation occur only after di experimenter don left di room wit di participant.",Computer science
a second experimenter comes in and asks the participant which side ofthe card is now facing upwards.,Di second experimenter kom for and ask di participant wey side of di card dey face upwards.,Computer science
it's purely a one-shot experiment.,E dey purely one-shot experiment,Computer science
"each person sees only one card, and gives only one answer; and at no stage is the participant actually in contact with someone who knows the right answer.","Di participant dey only one card, and give only one answer; and at no stage dey di participant actually contact wit someone wey know di right answer.",Computer science
"my dataset, therefore, is very simple.","Di group of related numbers or data wey belong together, therefore, dey simple",Computer science
"to make things concrete, let's suppose that i have testedn100 people, and x62 of these got the answer right. a surprisingly large number, sure, but is it large enough for me to feel safe in claiming i've found evidence for esp?","Di surprisingly large number, sure, but na e large enough for me to feel safe for claiming i don find evidence for esp?",Computer science
this is the situation where hypothesis testing comes in useful.,Di situation wey way to check if your idea be true kom for useful.,Computer science
"however, before we talk about how to testhypotheses, we need to be clear about what we mean by hypotheses.","But before we talk about how to test ideas, we need clear about wetin we mean by hypotheses.",Computer science
"in my esp study, my overall scienti c goal is to demonstrate that clairvoyance exists.",Di overall scienti c goal dey to demonstrate say clairvoyance exist,Computer science
"in this situation, i have a clear research goal: i am hoping to discover evidence for esp.",I get clear research goal: i go discover evidence for esp.,Computer science
"in other situations i might actually be alot more neutral than that, so i might say that my research goal is to determine whether or not clairvoyance exists.","I go say my research goal dey to determine whether or no clairvoyance exist, so i go say my research goal dey to determine whether or no clarvoyance exist.",Computer science
"regardless of how i want to portray myself, the basic point that i'm trying to convey here is that a research hypothesis involves making a substantive, testable scienti c claim. if you area psychologist, then your research hypotheses are fundamentally about psychological constructs.","Di basic point wey i try to convey here na say research hypothesis dey making substantive, testable scientic claim",Computer science
any ofthe following would count as research hypotheses: listening to music reduces your ability to pay attention to other things.,Any of di following go count as ideas for research: listening to music dey reduce your ability to focus for other things.,Computer science
"this is a claim about the causal relationship between two psychologically meaningful concepts(listening to music and paying attention to things), so it's a perfectly reasonable research hypothesis.","Dis na claim about di how one thing cause another between two ideas wey matter for mind(listening to music and paying attention to things), so na e dey okay research hypothesis.",Computer science
intelligence is related to personality.,Di intelligence dey related to personality,Computer science
"like the last one, this is a relational claim about two psychological constructs(intelligence and personality), but the claim is weaker: correlational not causal.","Na relational claim about two psychological constructs(intelligence and personality), but di claim dey weaker: correlational no causal.",Computer science
intelligence is speed of information processing.,Di intelligence dey speed of information processing,Computer science
this hypothesis has a quite dierent character: it's not actually a relational claim at all.,Di hypothesis don dey quite animal character: e no dey actually relational claim for all.,Computer science
it's an ontological claim about the fundamental character of intelligence(and i'm pretty sure it's wrong).,I dey pretty sure say e dey wrong,Computer science
"it's worth expanding on this one actually: it's usually easier to think about how to construct experiments to test research hypotheses ofthe form\does x aect y?""",E dey easier to think about how to construct experiments to test ideas for research of di form\does x aect y?,Computer science
"than it is to address claims like\what is x?""","E dey address claims like\what dey x?""",Computer science
"and in practice, what usually happens is that you nd ways of testing relational claims that follow from your ontological ones.",Di usually happen na say you nd way of testing relational claims wey dey follow from your ontological ones.,Computer science
"for instance, if i believe that intelligence isspeed of information processing in the brain, my experiments will often involve looking for relationships between measures of intelligence and measures of speed.","for example, if I believe say intelligence na speed of information processing for di brain, my experiments go often involve to find how dem connect between numbers wey show intelligence and numbers wey show speed.",Computer science
"as a consequence, most everyday research questions do tend to be relational in nature, but they're almost always motivated by deeper ontological questions about the state of nature.","as result, most everyday research questions don dey relational for nature, but dem dey motivate by deeper ontological questions about di state of nature.",Computer science
"notice that in practice, my research hypotheses could overlap alot.","Dem notice say for practice, my ideas for research go overlap alot",Computer science
"my ultimate goal in the esp experiment might be to test an ontological claim like\esp exists"", but i might operationally restrict myself to a narrower hypothesis like\some people can`see' objects in a clairvoyant fashion"".","Di ultimate goal for di esp experiment go be to test an ontological claim like\esp exist"", but i go operationally restrict myself to a narrower hypothesis like\some pipo go see objects for a clairvoyant fashion"".",Computer science
"that said, there are somethings that really don't count as proper research hypotheses in any meaningful sense: love is a battle eld.",Na somethings wey really don count as proper ideas for research for any meaningful sense: love dey battle eld,Computer science
this is too vague to be testable.,Di dey too vague to be testable,Computer science
"while it's okay for a research hypothesis to have a degree of vagueness to it, it has to be possible to operationalise your theoretical ideas.","Di research hypothesis dey okay for research hypothesis to get degree of vagueness to di theoretical idea, e go possible to operationalise your theoretical ideas.",Computer science
"if that's true, then this isn't a scienti c research hypothesis, it's a pop song.","E no be scienti c research hypothesis, na pop song.",Computer science
that doesn't mean it's not interesting{a lot of deep questions that humans have fall into this category.,Na alot of deep questions wey humans don fall into dis category,Computer science
"maybe one day science will be able to construct testable theories of love, or to test to see if god exists, and soon; but right now we can't, and i wouldn't bet on ever seeing a satisfying scienti c approach to either.","Di day science go be able to construct testable diories of love, or to test to see if god exist, and soon; but right now we no fit bet on ever seeing a satisfying scientic approach to either.",Computer science
the rst rule of tautology club is the rst rule of tautology club.,Di rst rule of tautology club na di rst rule of tautology club,Computer science
this is not a substantive claim of any kind.,Dis no be substantive claim of any kind,Computer science
it's true by de nition.,E true by definition.,Computer science
no conceivable state of nature could possibly be inconsistent with this claim.,Di claim no conceivable state of nature dey inconsistent wit dis claim.,Computer science
"as such, we say that this is an unfalsi able hypothesis, and as such it is outside the domain of science.","We tok say dis na unfalsi able hypothesis, and because of dat na inside di domain of science.",Computer science
"whatever else you doin science, your claims must have the possibility of being wrong.",Di claim must have di possibility of being wrong.,Computer science
"more people in my experiment will say\yes"" than o"".","Na more pipo for my experiment go say\yes"" than o""",Computer science
"this one fails as a research hypothesis because it's a claim about the dataset, not about the psychology(unless ofcourse your actual research question is whether people have some kind of\yes"" bias!).","Di one fail as research hypothesis because e dey claim about di group of related numbers or data wey belong together, no about di psychology(unless ofcourse your actual research question dey whether pipo get some kind of\yes"" bias).",Computer science
"as we'll see shortly, this hypothesis is starting to sound more like a statistical hypothesis than a research hypothesis.","We go see shortly, dis hypothesis dey start to sound more like statistical hypothesis than research hypothesis",Computer science
"as you can see, research hypotheses can be somewhat messy at times; and ultimately they are scienti c claims.","As you see, ideas for research dey somewhat messy for times; and ultimately dem dey scienti c claim.",Computer science
statistical hypotheses are neither of these two things.,Di ideas for statistics dey either of dis two things.,Computer science
"statistical hypotheses must be mathematically precise, and they must correspond to speci c claims about the characteristics ofthe data generating mechanism(i. e, the \population"").","ideas for statistics must get clear math, and dem must go with certain ideas about di characteristics of di data-generating mechanism(i. e, di""population"").",Computer science
"even so, the intent is that statistical hypotheses bear a clear relationship to the substantive research hypotheses that you care about!",Di intent na say ideas for statistics bear clear relationship to di substantive ideas for research wey you care about,Computer science
"for instance, in my esp study my research hypothesis is that some people are able to see through walls or whatever.","for example, for my esp study my research hypothesis na say some pipo dey able to see through walls or whatever.",Computer science
"what i want to do is to\map"" this onto a statement about how the data were generated.","I wan to do nato \map""dis onto statement about how di data dey generate",Computer science
so let's think about what that statement would be.,So make we think about wetin dat statement go be.,Computer science
"the quantity that i'm interested in within the experiment is pp\correct""q, the true-but-unknown probability with which the participants in my experiment answer the question correctly.","Di quantity wey i dey interest for inside di experiment dey pp\correct""q, di true-but-unknown probability wey di participants for my experiment answer di question correctly.",Computer science
let's use the greek letter(theta) to refer to this probability.,Dem use di greek letter(theta) to talk about dis probability.,Computer science
"here are four dierent statistical hypotheses: if esp doesn't exist and if my experiment is well designed, then my participants are just guessing.","If esp no exist and if my experiment dey well designed, then my participants dey just guess",Computer science
so i should expect them to get it right half ofthe time and so my statistical hypothesis is that the true probability of choosing correctly is 0:5.,Di statistical hypothesis na say di true probability of choosing correctly dey 0:5.,Computer science
"alternatively, suppose esp does exist and participants can see the card.",Na suppose esp no exist and participants go see di card.,Computer science
"if that's true, people will perform better than chance.","Di true, pipo go perform better than chance",Computer science
the statistical hypotheis would be that 0:5.,Di statistical hypotheis go be say 0:5.,Computer science
"a third possibility is that esp does exist, but the colours are all reversed and people don't realise it(okay, that's wacky, but you never know.).","Di third possibility dey say esp no exist, but di colours dey reversed and pipo don realise am(okay, dat's wacky, but you never know).",Computer science
if that's how it works then you'd expect people's performance to be below chance.,Dem expect pipo's performance to be below chance,Computer science
this would correspond to a statistical hypothesis that 0:5.,Di suppose correspond to statistical hypothesis say 0:5.,Computer science
"finally, suppose esp exists, but i have no idea whether people are seeing the right colour or the wrong one.",I don no idea wen pipo dey see di right colour or di wrong one.,Computer science
"in that case, the only claim i could make about the data would be that the probability of making the correct answer is notequal to 50.",Di only claim wey i fit make about di data go be say di probability of make di correct answer noequal to 50,Computer science
this corresponds to the statistical hypothesis that 0:5.,Di statistical hypothesis wey 0:5.,Computer science
all of these are legitimate examples of a statistical hypothesis because they are statements about a population parameter and are meaningfully related to my experiment.,Dem dey legitimate examples of statistical hypothesis bikos dem dey statement about di real number for everybody and dem dey meaningfully related to my experiment.,Computer science
"what this discussion makes clear, i hope, is that when attempting to construct a statistical hypothesis test the researcher actually has two quite distinct hypotheses to consider.","Di discussion make clear, I hope, na say when attempt to construct statistical hypothesis test di researcher actually get two quite distinct hypotheses to consider.",Computer science
"first, he or she has a research hypothesis(a claim about psychology), and this corresponds to a statistical hypothesis(a claim about the data generating population).","Di first, hin or she get research hypothesis(a claim about psychology), and dis correspond to statistical hypothesis(a claim about di data generating population).",Computer science
"in my esp example, these might be-329- dan's research hypothesis:\esp exists"" dan's statistical hypothesis:0: 5 and the key thing to recognise is this: a statistical hypothesis test is a test ofthe statistical hypothesis, not the research hypothesis.","Di key thing to recognise na dis: statistical hypothesis test na test of di statistical hypothesis, no di research hypothesis.",Computer science
"if your study is badly designed, then the link between your research hypothesis and your statistical hypothesis is broken.",Di link between your research hypothesis and your statistical hypothesis dey broken,Computer science
"to give a silly example, suppose that my esp study was conducted in a situation where the participant can actually see the card re ected in a window; if that happens, i would be able to nd very strong evidence that 0:5, but this would tell us nothing about whether\esp exists"".","Na suppose say my esp study dey conduct for situation wey di participant go see di card re ected for window; if dat dey happen, i go tell us nothing about whether\esp exist",Computer science
it's at this point that things get somewhat counterintuitive for alot of people.,Di point say things get somewhat counterintuitive for alot of pipo.,Computer science
"because what i'm about to do is invent anew statistical hypothesis(the ull"" hypothesis, h0) that corresponds to the exact opposite of what i want to believe, and then focus exclusively on that, almost to the neglect ofthe thing i'm actually interested in(which is now called the lternative"" hypothesis, h1).","Di ull"" hypothesis, h0) wey dey correspond to di exact opposite of what i wan to believe, and then focus exclusively on dat, almost to di neglect of di thing wey i wan to believe, and then focus exclusively on dat, almost to di neglect of di thing wey i wan to believe, and then focus exclusively on dat, almost to di neglect of di thing wey i wan to believe, and then focus exclusively on dat, almost to di neg",Computer science
"in our esp example, the null hypothesis is that 0:5, since that's what we'd expect if esp didn't exist.","Di null idea na say 0:5, since dat's what we expect if esp no exist",Computer science
"my hope, of course, is that esp is totally real, and so the alternative to this null hypothesis is 0:5.","My hope, of course, na say esp dey totally real, and so di alternative to dis di null idea dey 0:5.",Computer science
"in essence, what we're doing here is dividing up the possible values of into two groups: those values that i really hope aren't true(the null), and those values that i'd be happy with if they turnout to be right(the alternative).","We dey do here dey divid up di possible values of into two groups: those values wey I hope aren't true(the null), and those values wey i dey happy wit if dem turnout to be right(the alternative).",Computer science
"having done so, the important thing to recognise is that the goal of a hypothesis test is notto show that the alternative hypothesis is(probably) true; the goal is to show that the null hypothesis is(probably) false.",Di important thing to recognise na say di goal of a hypothesis test no show say di other idea dey true; di goal dey show say di other idea dey true; di goal dey show say di other idea dey true; di goal dey show say di other idea dey true; di goal dey show say di null idea dey true; di goal dey show say di null idea dey true; di goal dey show say di null idea dey true; di goal dey show say di null idea dey,Computer science
most people nd this pretty weird.,Di most pipo nd dis pretty weird.,Computer science
"the best way to think about it, in my experience, is to imagine that a hypothesis test is a criminal trial4. the trial ofthe null hypothesis.","Di best way to think about it, for my experience, na to imagine say a hypothesis test dey criminal trial4",Computer science
"the null hypothesis is the defendant, the researcher is the prosecutor, and the statistical test itself is the judge.","Di null idea dey di defendant, di researcher dey di prosecutor, and di statistical test dey di judge.",Computer science
"just like a criminal trial, there is a presumption of innocence: the null hypothesis is deemed to be true unless you, the researcher, can prove beyond a reasonable doubt that it is false.","Di null idea dey true unless you, di researcher, go prove beyond reasonable doubt say e dey true.",Computer science
"you are free to design your experiment however you like(within reason, obviously!","You dey free to design your experiment however you like(as e dey reasonable, e clear!)",Computer science
"the catch is that the statistical test sets the rules ofthe trial, and those rules are designed to protect the null hypothesis{ speci cally to ensure that if the null hypothesis is actually true, the chances of a false conviction are guaranteed to below.","Di catch na say di statistical test set di rules of di trial, and those rules dey designed to protect di null idea{ speci cally to ensure say if di null idea dey true, di chances of false conviction dey low.",Computer science
"this is pretty important: after all, the null hypothesis doesn't get a lawyer.","As all, di null idea no get lawyer",Computer science
"and given that the researcher is trying desperately to prove it to be false, someone has to protect it.","Di researcher dey try desperately to prove am to be false, someone don protect am",Computer science
"ideally, we would like to construct our test so that we never make any errors.",We go like to construct our test so we no make any errors.,Computer science
"unfortunately, since the world is messy, this is never possible.","Di world dey messy, dis no dey possible.",Computer science
"sometimes you're just really unlucky: for instance, suppose you ip a coin 10 times in a row and it comes up heads all 10 times.","for example, suppose you ip 10 times for row and e kom up heads all 10 times",Computer science
that feels like very strong evidence that the coin is biased(and it is!,Dem feel like strong evidence say di coin dey biased(and e dey!,Computer science
"as i understand these things, the french inquisitorial system is quite dierent.","I understand dis things, di French inquisitorial system dey quite dierent.",Computer science
"in other words, in real life we always have to accept that there's a chance that we did the wrong thing.",Di for real life we dey always get to accept say na chance we go do di wrong thing.,Computer science
"as a consequence, the goal behind statistical hypothesis testing is not to eliminate errors, but to minimise them.","Di goal behind statistical way to check if your idea be true no dey eliminate errors, but to minimise dem",Computer science
"at this point, we need to be a bit more precise about what we mean by\errors"".","For dis point, we need be small more precise about wetin we mean by""errors"".",Computer science
"firstly, let's state the obvious: it is either the case that the null hypothesis is true, or it is false; and our test will either reject the null hypothesis or retain it. 5so, as the table below illustrates, after we run the test and make our choice, one of four things might have happened: retainh0 rejecth0 h0is true correct decision error(type i) h0is false error(type ii)correct decision as a consequence there are actually twodierent types of error here.","As di table above wey dey illustrate, afta we run di test and make awa choice, one of four things go happen: retainh0 rejecth0 h0is true correct decision error(type ii)correct decision as result wey dey false; and awa test go either reject di null idea or retain am",Computer science
"if we reject a null hypothesis that is actually true, then we have made a type i error.",We don make a type i error.,Computer science
"on the other hand, if we retain the null hypothesis when it is in fact false, then we have made a type ii error.","For di oda hand, if we retain di null idea wen e dey true, then we get type ii error.",Computer science
remember how i said that statistical testing was kind of like a criminal trial?,I tok say statistical testing na almost like criminal trial?,Computer science
"well, i meant it.","I meant am well, i meant am",Computer science
"a criminal trial requires that you establish eyond a reasonable doubt""that the defendant did it.","Di criminal trial require say you establish eyon a reasonable doubt"" wey di defendant don do am.",Computer science
"all ofthe evidentiary rules are(in theory, at least)designed to ensure that there's(almost) no chance of wrongfully convicting an innocent defendant.","Di evidentiary rules dey(in theory, at least)designed to ensure say there no chance of wrongfully convictin an innocent defendant.",Computer science
"the trial is designed to protect the rights of a defendant: as the english jurist william blackstone famously said, it is etter that ten guilty persons escape than that one innocent suer.""","As di english jurist william blackstone famously tok say, di trial dey designed to protect di rights of a defendant: as di english jurist william blackstone tok say, di trial dey designed to protect di rights of one defendant: as di english jurist william blackstone tok say, di trial dey designed to protect di rights of one defendant.",Computer science
"in other words, a criminal trial doesn't treat the two types of error in the same way.",Di criminal trial no treat di two types of error for di same way,Computer science
punishing the innocent is deemed to be much worse than letting the guilty go free.,Di innocent dey deemed to be much worse than letting di guilty go free,Computer science
"a statistical test is pretty much the same: the single most important design principle ofthe test is to control the probability of a type i error, to keep it below some xed probability.","Di single most important design principle of di test nato control di probability of type i error, to keep am below some xed probability.",Computer science
"this probability, which is denoted, is called the signi cance level ofthe test(or sometimes, the sizeof the test).","Di probability, wey denot, dey call di signi cance level of di test(or sometimes, di size of di test).",Computer science
"and i'll say it again, because it is so central to the whole set-up.","I go say am again, bikos e dey central to di whole set-up.",Computer science
a hypothesis test is said to have signi cance level if the type i error rate is no larger than.,Di hypothesis test dey tok say signi cance level if di type i error rate no larger than.,Computer science
"so, what about the type ii error rate?","So, wetin about di Type II error rate?",Computer science
"well, we'd also like to keep those under control too, and we denote this probability by.","Well, we go also like keep those under control too, and we denote dis probability by β.",Computer science
"however, it's much more common to refer to the power ofthe test, which is the probability with which we reject a null hypothesis when it really is false, which is 1.","E dey much more common to talk about di power of di test, wey dey di probability wit wey we reject di null idea wey dey true, wey dey 1",Computer science
"by convention, scientists make use of three dierent levels::05,: 01 and: 001.","for di normal way, scientists dey use three different numbers.",Computer science
notice the asymmetry here.,Dem notice di symmetry here,Computer science
"the tests are designed to ensure that thelevel is kept small, but there's no corresponding guarantee regarding.","Di tests dey design to ensure say dilevel dey small, but no corresponding guarantee regarding.",Computer science
"we'd certainly likethe type ii error rate to be small, and we try to design tests that keep it small, but this is very much secondary to the overwhelming need to control 5an aside regarding the language you use to talk about hypothesis testing.","We dey certainly like di type ii error rate to be small, and we try to design tests wey dey small, but dis dey very secondary to di overwhelming need to control 5an aside regarding di language you use to talk about way to check if your idea be true.",Computer science
"firstly, one thing you really want to avoid is the word\prove"": a statistical test really doesn't prove that a hypothesis is true or false.",Di statistical test no dey prove say a hypothesis dey true or true,Computer science
"proof implies certainty, and as the saying goes, statistics means never having to say you're certain.","As di saying go, statistics means never having say you dey certain, and as di saying go, statistics means never having say you dey certain",Computer science
on that point almost everyone would agree.,Di point almost everyone go agree.,Computer science
"however, beyond that there's a fair amount of confusion.",Di fair amount of confusion dey beyond say na fair amount of confusion.,Computer science
"some people argue that you're only allowed to make statements like ejected the null"", ailed to reject the null"", or possibly etained the null"".","Some pipo argue say you only allowed make statement like ejected di null"", ailed to reject di null"", or possibly etained di null"", or possibly etained di null"".",Computer science
"according to this line of thinking, you can't say things like ccept the alternative""or ccept the null"".","Di line of thinking, you no go say things like ccept di alternative""or ccept di null",Computer science
"personally i think this is too strong: in my opinion, this con ates null hypothesis testing with karl popper's falsi cationist view ofthe scienti c process.","for myself I think dis one too strong: for my opinion, dis one confuse di test of null with Karl Popper im di way of false proof of di scientific way.",Computer science
"while there are similarities between falsi cationism and null hypothesis testing, they aren't equivalent.","Di similarities wey dey between falsi cationism and di test of null, dem no dey equivalent",Computer science
"however, while i personally think it's ne to talk about accepting a hypothesis(on the proviso that cceptance"" doesn't actually mean that it's necessarily true, especially in the case ofthe null hypothesis), many people will disagree.","I personally think say e no go talk about accepting a hypothesis(on di proviso say cceptance"" no mean say e necessarily true, especially for di case of di null idea), many pipo go disagree.",Computer science
"and more to the point, you should be aware that this particular weirdness exists, so that you're not caught unawares by it when writing up your own results.","Di particular weirdness exist, so say you no dey aware say dis particular weirdness exist, so say you no dey caught unaware by dia when writing up your own results.",Computer science
"as blackstone might have said if he were a statistician, it is etter to retain 10 false null hypotheses than to reject a single true one"".","As blackstone go tok say if he dey statistician, e dey etter to retain 10 false null hypotheses than to reject single true one",Computer science
"to be honest, i don't know that i agree with this philosophy{ there are situations where i think it makes sense, and situations where i think it doesn't{ but that's neither here nor there.","I no know say i agree wit dis philosophy{ situations wey i think make sense, and situations wey i think make sense, and situations wey i think make sense, and situations wey i think make sense, and situations wey i think make sense, and situations wey i think make sense, and situations wey i think make sense, and situations wey i think make sense, and situations wey i think make sense, and situations wey i think make sense, and situations wey",Computer science
it's how the tests are built.,E dey how di tests go build,Computer science
"to that end, let's return to the esp example.",Dem return to di esp example.,Computer science
"let's ignore the actual data that we obtained, for the moment, and think about the structure ofthe experiment.","For di moment, let's ignore di actual data wey we get, for di moment, and think about di structure of di experiment",Computer science
"regardless of what the actual numbers are, the form ofthe data is that xout ofnpeople correctly identi ed the colour ofthe hidden card.",Di form of di data na say xout of pipo correctly identi ed di colour of di hidden card.,Computer science
"moreover, let's suppose for the moment that the null hypothesis really is true: esp doesn't exist, and the true probability that anyone picks the correct colour is exactly 0:5.","Dem suppose for di moment say di null idea no exist, and di true probability say anyone pick di correct colour na exactly 0:5.",Computer science
what would we expect the data to look like?,We expect di data to look like?,Computer science
"well, obviously, we'd expect the proportion of people who make the correct response to be pretty close to 50%.",We expect di proportion of pipo wey make di correct response to be close to 50%,Computer science
"or, to phrase this in more mathematical terms, we'd say that x{nis approximately 0:5.",We tok say x{nis approximately 0:5.,Computer science
"ofcourse, we wouldn't expect this fraction to be exactly 0. 5: if, for example we tested n100 people, and x53 of them got the question right, we'd probably be forced to concede that the data are quite consistent with the null hypothesis.","If, for example we dey test n100 pipo, and x53 of dem get di question right, we go expect say di data dey consistent wit di null idea.",Computer science
"on the other hand, if x99 of our participants got the question right, then we'd feel pretty con dent that the null hypothesis is wrong.","If x99 of awa participants get di question right, then we feel pretty con dent say di null idea dey wrong",Computer science
"similarly, if only x3 people got the answer right, we'd be similarly con dent that the null was wrong.","If only x3 pipo get di answer right, we go be similarly con dent say di null dey wrong",Computer science
"let's be a little more technical about this: we have a quantity xthat we can calculate by looking at our data; after looking at the value of x, we make a decision about whether to believe that the null hypothesis is correct, or to reject the null hypothesis in favour ofthe alternative.","We don get quantity x wey we fit calculate by looking at di value of x, we make decision about whether to believe say di null idea correct, or to reject di null idea for favour of di alternative.",Computer science
the name for this thing that we calculate to guide our choices is a test statistic.,Di name for dis thing wey we dey calculate to guide our choices na test statistic.,Computer science
"having chosen a test statistic, the next step is to state precisely which values ofthe test statistic would cause is to reject the null hypothesis, and which values would cause us to keep it.","Di next step dey state exactly wich values of di test statistic go cause nato reject di null idea, and wich values go cause us to keep am",Computer science
why do we need this?,Na why we need dis?,Computer science
because this distribution tells us exactly what values of xour null hypothesis would lead us to expect.,Because dis distribution tell us exactly which values of x our di null idea go lead us to expect.,Computer science
"and therefore, we can use this distribution as a tool for assessing how closely the null hypothesis agrees with our data.",We fit use dis distribution as tool for assess how closely di null idea agree wit awa data.,Computer science
how do we actually determine the sampling distribution ofthe test statistic?,How we to really know di sampling distribution of di test statistic?,Computer science
"for alot of hypothesis tests this step is actually quite complicated, and later on in the book you'll see me being slightly evasive about it for some ofthe tests(some of them i don't even understand myself).","Di step dey complicated, and later on for di book you go see me being slightly evasive about am for some of di tests(some of dem no even understand myself).",Computer science
"however, sometimes it's very easy.","For however, sometimes e dey easy.",Computer science
"and, fortunately for us, our esp example provides us with one ofthe easiest cases.",Di esp example provide us wit one of di easiest case.,Computer science
this sampling distribution is plotted in figure 11.1.,Di sampling distribution dey plot for figure 11.,Computer science
"no surprises really: the null hypothesis says that x50 is the most likely outcome, and it says that we're almost certain to see somewhere between 40 and 60 correct responses.","Di null idea tok say x50 dey di most likely outcome, and e tok say we dey certain to see for somewhere for between 40 and 60 correct responses.",Computer science
"for our esp scenario, this is a binomial distribution.","Di yes for our esp scenario, dis na di yes.",Computer science
"not surprisingly, since the null hypothesis says that the probability of a correct response is: 5, the sampling distribution says that the most likely value is 50(our of 100)correct responses.",Di null idea tok say di probability of correct response dey 50(our of 100)correct response,Computer science
most ofthe probability mass lies between 40 and 60.,Most of di probability mass dey lie between 40 and 60.,Computer science
"we've constructed a test statistic( x), and we chose this test statistic in such away that we're pretty con dent that if xis close ton{2 then we should retain the null, and if not we should reject it.","We dey construct test statistic( x), and we dey choose di test statistic for such way wey we dey pretty con dent say if xis close ton{2 then we go retain di null, and if no we go reject am.",Computer science
"the question that remains is this: exactly which values ofthe test statistic should we associate with the null hypothesis, and which exactly values go with the alternative hypothesis?","Di question wey dey remain na dis: exactly which value of di test statistic go we associate wit di null idea, and which exactly value go wit di other idea?",Computer science
"in my esp study, for example, i've observed a value of x62.",I dey observe a value of x62.,Computer science
what decision should i make?,Di decision i make?,Computer science
"should i choose to believe the null hypothesis, or the alternative hypothesis?","I suppose choose to believe di null idea, or di other idea?",Computer science
the critical region ofthe test corresponds to those values of xthat would lead us to reject null hypothesis(which is why the critical region is also sometimes called the rejection region).,Di critical region of di test correspond to those values of xthat go lead us to reject di null idea(which dey why di critical region dey also call di rejection region).,Computer science
how do we nd this critical region?,How we go find dis critical region?,Computer science
"well, let's consider what we know: xshould be very big or very small in order to reject the null hypothesis.",We dey consider say xshould be big or small for order to reject di null idea.,Computer science
"if the null hypothesis is true, the sampling distribution of xis binomialp0: 5; nq.","If di null idea dey true, di sampling distribution of x na Binomial(0.5, n).",Computer science
"if:05, the critical region must cover 5%of this sampling distribution.","if di alpha be 0.05, di critical region must cover 5%of dis sampling distribution.",Computer science
"the plot itself shows the sampling distribution of xunder the null hypothesis(i. e, same as figure 11.1): the grey bars correspond to those values of xfor which we would retain the null hypothesis.",Di grey bars correspond to those values of xfor wey we go retain di null idea.,Computer science
the black bars show the critical region: those values of xfor which we would reject the null.,Di black bars show di critical region: those values of xfor wey we go reject di null,Computer science
"because the alternative hypothesis is two sided(i. e, allows both:5 and: 5), the critical region covers both tails ofthe distribution.","Di other idea dey two sided(i. e, allow both:5 and: 5), di critical region cover both tails of di distribution.",Computer science
"to ensure an level of:05, we need to ensure that each ofthe two regions encompasses 2.5% ofthe sampling distribution.","To ensure α level of 0.05, we need ensure say each of di two regions dey cover 2.5%of di sampling distribution.",Computer science
"it's important to make sure you understand this last point: the critical region corresponds to those values ofxfor which we would reject the null hypothesis, and the sampling distribution in question describes the probability that we would obtain a particular value of xif the null hypothesis were actually true.","Di critical region correspond to di value ofxfor wey we go reject di null idea, and di sampling distribution for question describe di probability wey we go reject di null idea, and di sampling distribution for question describe di probability wey we go obtain particular value of xif di null idea dey true.",Computer science
"now, let's suppose that we chose a critical region that covers 20%of the sampling distribution, and suppose that the null hypothesis is actually true.","Na now, let suppose say we go choose critical region wey covers 20%of di sampling distribution, and suppose say di null idea dey true.",Computer science
what would be the probability of incorrectly rejecting the null?,Di probability of incorrectly reject di null?,Computer science
the answer is ofcourse 20%.,Di answer na ofcourse 20%,Computer science
"and therefore, we would have built a test that had an level of 0:2.",We go build test wey get level of 0:,Computer science
"if we want: 05, the critical region is only allowed to cover 5%of the sampling distribution of our test statistic.",Di critical region dey only allow to cover 5%of di sampling distribution of awa test statistic.,Computer science
"as it turns out, those three things uniquely solve the problem: our critical region consists ofthe most extreme values, known as the tails ofthe distribution.",We dey critical region dey di most extreme values wey dey known as di tails of di distribution.,Computer science
this is illustrated in figure 11.2.,Dem dey illustrate for figure 11.,Computer science
"as it turns out, if we want:05, then our critical regions correspond to x40 andx60. 6that is, if the number of people saying rue""is between 41 and 59, then we should retain the null hypothesis.","Di number of pipo wey dey say rue"" dey between 41 and 59, we go retain di null idea.",Computer science
"if the number is between 0 to 40 or between 60 to 100, then we should reject the null hypothesis.",We go reject di null idea.,Computer science
"the numbers 40 and 60 are often referred to as the critical values, since they de ne the edges ofthe critical region.","Di numbers 40 and 60 dey often dem dey call di critical values, since dem dey di edges of di critical region.",Computer science
"however, if i'd chosen 39 and 61 to be the boundaries for the critical region, then the critical region only covers 3.5% ofthe distribution.","But if I choose 39 and 61 to be di boundaries for di critical region, den di critical region only cover 3.5%of di distribution.",Computer science
"all that we have to do now is calculate the value ofthe test statistic for the real data(e. g, x62) and then compare it to the critical values to make our decision.","Di all we get to do now na calculate di value of di test statistic for di real data(e. g, x62) and compare am to di critical values wey make awa decision.",Computer science
"since 62 is greater than the critical value of 60, we would reject the null hypothesis.",We go reject di null idea.,Computer science
"or, to phrase it slightly dierently, we say that the test has produced a signi cant result.",We tok say di test don produce signi no result,Computer science
"the concept of statistical signi cance is actually avery simple one, but has avery unfortunate name.","Di concept of sign wey show the result no be by luck na very simple one, but e get very unfortunate name.",Computer science
"if the data allow us to reject the null hypothesis, we say that he result is statistically signi cant"", which is often shortened to he result is signi cant"".","Di data allow us to reject di null idea, we tok say hin result dey statistically signi cant"", which dey often shortened to hin result dey signi cant",Computer science
"this terminology is rather old, and dates back to a time when \signi cant""just meant something like\indicated"", rather than its modern meaning, which is much closer to\important"".","Dis terminology dey rather old, and e date back to time when""significant"" just mean something like""indicated"", not dat one im modern meaning, wey dey much closer to""important"".",Computer science
"as a result, a lot of modern readers get very confused when they start learning statistics, because they think that a \signi cant result""must bean important one.","Di modern readers get very confused wen dem start learning statistics, bikos dem think say a \signi cant result""must be important one.",Computer science
it doesn't mean that at all.,E no mean say at all.,Computer science
"all that\statistically signi cant""means is that the data allowed us to reject a null hypothesis.","All dat""statistically significant""mean na say di data allow us to reject di null idea.",Computer science
"whether or not the result is actually important in the real world is avery dierent question, and depends on all sorts of other things.","Di result dey important for di real world na very dierent question, and depend on all sorts of oda things.",Computer science
"if we take a moment to think about the statistical hypotheses i've been using, h0:: 5 h1::5 we notice that the alternative hypothesis covers both the possibility that:5 and the possibility that: 5.",We notice say di other idea covers both di possibility say:5 and di possibility say: 5.,Computer science
this makes sense if i really think that esp could produce better-than-chance performance or worse-than-chance performance(and there are some people who think that).,"Di sabi wetin dey happen, to understand or sabi wetin dey goon, mean say dem dey find explanation or meaning for things wey dey happen if i think say esp go produce better-than-chance performance or worse-than-chance performance(and na some pipo wey think say",Computer science
"in statistical language, this is an example of a two-sided test.",Di example of two-sided test.,Computer science
"it's called this because the alternative hypothesis covers the area on both\sides"" ofthe null hypothesis, and as a consequence the critical region ofthe test covers both tails ofthe sampling distribution(2. 5%on either side if:05), as illustrated earlier in figure 11.2.","Dem call am dis because di other idea cover di area for both""sides"" of di null idea, and as consequence, di critical region of di test cover both tails of di sampling distribution(2.5% for each side if di alpha be 0.05), as we see before for Figure 11.2.",Computer science
"however, that's not the only possibility.","Di only possibility, na di only possibility",Computer science
"it might be the case, for example, that i'm only willing to believe in esp if it produces better than chance performance.","Di case, for example, say i no fit believe for esp if e produce better than chance performance",Computer science
"in this case, the alternative hypothesis is that: 05, so we would only reject the null hypothesis for large values of x.","Di other idea na say: 05, so we go only reject di null idea for large values of x",Computer science
"as a consequence, the critical region only covers the upper tail ofthe sampling distribution; speci cally the upper 5%of the distribution.","As consequence, di critical region only cover di upper tail of di sampling distribution; specifically di upper 5%of di distribution.",Computer science
contrast this to the two-sided version in figure 11.2.,Di two-sided version for figure 11.,Computer science
only covers one tail ofthe sampling distribution.,We only cover one tail of di sampling distribution.,Computer science
this is illustrated in figure 11. 3.,Dis dey illustrate for figure 11.,Computer science
"nevertheless, i've actually omitted the most important number of all: thepvalue.",I dey actually omitted di most important number of all: dipvalue,Computer science
it is to this topic that we now turn.,Di topic wey we now turn,Computer science
"there are two somewhat dierent ways of interpreting a pvalue, one proposed by sir ronald fisher and the other by jerzy neyman.","two small different ways of interpreting p-value dey, one wey one person talk one big name for statistics and di other by Jerzy Neyman.",Computer science
"both versions are legitimate, though theyre ect very dierent ways of thinking about hypothesis tests.","Di versions dey legitimate, though dem re ect very dierent way of thinking about hypothesis tests.",Computer science
"most introductory textbooks tend to give fisher's version only, but i think that's a bit of a shame.","I think say fisher's version only give fisher version only, but i think say na bit of shame.",Computer science
"to my mind, neyman's version is cleaner, and actually better re ects the logic ofthe null hypothesis test.","Diversion dey cleaner, and actually better re ect di logic of di null idea test.",Computer science
"you might disagree though, so i've included both.","I dey include both, so i dey include both.",Computer science
"i'll start with neyman's version.11. 5. 1a softer view of decision making one problem with the hypothesis testing procedure that i've described is that it makes no distinction at all between a result this arely signi cant""and those that are\highly signi cant"".","Di softer view of decision make one problem wit di way to check if your idea be true procedure wey i described na say e make no distinction for all between a result wey dey signi cant""and those wey dey\highly signi cant"".",Computer science
"for instance, in my esp study the data i obtained only just fell inside the critical region- so i did get a signi cant eect, but was a pretty near thing.","for example, for my esp study di data wey i obtained only just fall inside di critical region- so i go get signi cant eect, but na a pretty near thing.",Computer science
"in contrast, suppose that i'd run a study in which x97 out of 7the internet seems fairly convinced that ashley said this, though i can't for the life of mend anyone willing to give a source for the claim.","Na suppose say i run study for which x97 out of 7the internet dey fairly convinced say ashley tok say dis, though i fit for di life of mend anyone willing to give source for di claim.",Computer science
"this would obviously be signi cant too, but my a much larger margin; there's really no ambiguity about this at all.","Di suppose be signi cant too, but my larger margin; no ambiguity about dis for all.",Computer science
the procedure that i described makes no distinction between the two.,I described make no distinction between di two,Computer science
"if i adopt the standard convention of allowing: 05 as my acceptable type i error rate, then both of these are signi cant results.","I adopt di standard convention of allowing: 05 as my acceptable type i error rate, then both of dis dey signi cant result.",Computer science
this is where the pvalue comes in handy.,Di pvalue kom for handy,Computer science
"to understand how it works, let's suppose that we ran lots of hypothesis tests on the same dataset: but with a dierent value of in each case.",Di suppose say we ran lots of hypothesis tests on di same group of related numbers or data wey belong together: but wit di dierent value of for each case.,Computer science
"when we do that for my original esp data, what we'd get is something like this value of 0. 05 0. 04 0. 03 0. 02 0. 01 reject the null?","When we do dat for my di first esp numbers, wetin we go get na something like dis: α= 0.05, 0.04, 0.03, 0.02, 0.01. Reject di null?",Computer science
"yes yes yes no no when we test esp data( x62 successes out of n100 observations)using levels of. 03 and above, we'd always nd ourselves rejecting the null hypothesis.",We don always reject di null idea.,Computer science
"for levels of. 02 and below, we always end up retaining the null hypothesis.","for numbers of 0.02 and less, we dey always end up retaining di null idea.",Computer science
"therefore, somewhere between. 02 and. 03 there must be a smallest value ofthat would allow us to reject the null hypothesis for this data.","Di therefore, for somewhere for between. 02 and. 03 na di least wey dey allow us to reject di null idea for dis data.",Computer science
this is the pvalue; as it turns out the esp data has p: 021.,Di pvalue; as e turnout di esp data don p: 021,Computer science
in short: pis de ned to be the smallest type i error rate( )that you have to be willing to tolerate if you want to reject the null hypothesis.,Di smallest type i error rate( ) wey you need tolerate if you wan to reject di null idea.,Computer science
"if it turns out that pdescribes an error rate that you nd intolerable, then you must retain the null.","Di error rate wey you nd intolerable, then you must retain di null.",Computer science
"if you're comfortable with an error rate equal top, then it's okay to reject the null hypothesis in favour of your preferred alternative.",Di okay to reject di null idea for favour of your preferred alternative.,Computer science
"in eect, pisa summary of all the possible hypothesis tests that you could have run, taken across all possiblevalues.","Eect, pis summary of all di possible hypothesis tests wey you go run, take across all possiblevalues.",Computer science
"and as a consequence it has the eect of\softening"" our decision process.","Di eect of\softening"" awa decision process.",Computer science
"for those tests in which pyou would have rejected the null hypothesis, whereas for those tests in which p you would have retained the null.","For those tests wey p you go reject di null idea, whereas for those tests wey p you go reject di null idea, whereas for those tests wey p you go get reject di null idea, whereas for those tests wey p you go get reject di null idea, whereas for those tests wey p you go reject di null idea, whereas for those tests wey p you go reject di null idea, whereas for those tests we",Computer science
"in my esp study i obtained x62, and as a consequence i've ended up withp: 021.","I get x62, and as result i dey ended up witp: 021",Computer science
so the error rate i have to tolerate is 2.1%.,Di error rate i get to tolerate na 2.1%.,Computer science
"in contrast, suppose my experiment had yieldedx97.",Di experiment don yieldx97.,Computer science
what happens to my pvalue now?,Na my pvalue now?,Computer science
"this time it's shrunk to p1: 361025, which is a tiny, tiny8type i error rate.","E dey shrunk to p1: 361025, wey dey tiny, tiny8type i error rate.",Computer science
"for this second case i would be able to reject the null hypothesis with alot more con dence, because i only have to be\willing"" to tolerate a type i error rate of about 1 in 10 trillion trillion in order to justify my decision to reject.","Di second case i go be able to reject di null idea wit alot more con dence, because i only get to tolerate type i error rate of about 1 for 10 trillion for order to justify my decision to reject.",Computer science
"notice how, when i constructed the critical region, it corresponded to the tails(i. e, extreme values)of the sampling distribution?","Di critical region, e correspond to di tails(i. e, one value wey too high or too low)of di sampling distribution?",Computer science
"that's not a coincidence: almost all\good"" tests have this characteristic(good in the sense of minimising our type ii error rate,).","Almost all\good"" tests don get dis characteristic(good for di sense of minimising our type ii error rate,).",Computer science
the reason for that is that a good critical region almost always corresponds to those values ofthe test statistic that are least likely to be observed if the null hypothesis is true.,Di reason for say na good critical region always correspond to those values of di test statistic wey dey least likely to observe if di null idea dey true.,Computer science
"if this rule is true, then we can de ne the p-value as the probability that we would have observed a test statistic that is atleast as extreme as the one we actually did get.","Di rule dey true, then we get dip-value as di probability say we go observe test statistic wey dey true, then we go dey very as di one we dey get.",Computer science
"in other words, if the data are extremely implausible according to the null hypothesis, then the null hypothesis is probably wrong.","If di data dey extremely implausible according to di null idea, then di null idea dey wrong",Computer science
"unfortunately, there is a third explanation that people sometimes give, especially when they're rst learning statistics, and it is absolutely and completely wrong.","Di third explanation wey pipo give, especially wen dem dey rst learning statistics, and e dey completely wrong.",Computer science
"this mistaken approach is to refer to the pvalue ashe probability that the null hypothesis is true"".","Di mistaken approach dey to talk about di pvalue as hin probability say di null idea dey true"".",Computer science
"it's an intuitively appealing way to think, but it's wrong in two key respects:(1) null hypothesis testing is a frequentist tool, and the frequentist approach to probability does notallow you to assign probabilities to the null hypothesis. according to this view of probability, the null hypothesis is either true or it is not; it cannot have a%chance"" of being true.","Di test of null dey frequentist tool, and di frequentist approach to probability no allow you to assign probabilities to di null idea",Computer science
"(2)even within the bayesian approach, which does let you assign probabilities to hypotheses, the pvalue would not correspond to the probability that the null is true; this interpretation is entirely inconsistent with the mathematics of how the pvalue is calculated.","Di interpretation dey entirely inconsistent wit di mathematics of how di pvalue dey calculated, di pvalue no correspond to di probability wey di null dey true; dis interpretation dey entirely inconsistent wit di mathematics of how di pvalue dey calculated.",Computer science
"put bluntly, despite the intuitive appeal of thinking this way, there is no justi cation for interpreting a pvalue this way.","Di intuitive appeal of thinking dis way, na no justi cation for interpreting pvalue dis way.",Computer science
never do it.,We never do am,Computer science
"however, regardless of what test you're doing, the one thing that you always have to do is say something about the pvalue, and whether or not the outcome was signi cant.","Di one thing wey you dey do, di one thing wey you dey do dey say something about di pvalue, and whether or not di outcome dey signi cant.",Computer science
the fact that you have to do this is unsurprising; it's the whole point of doing the test.,Di fact say you don do di test dey unsurprising; na di whole point of do di test,Computer science
what might be surprising is the fact that there is some contention over exactly how you're supposed to do it.,Di fact say there dey some contention over exactly how you go do am,Computer science
"leaving aside those people who completely disagree with the entire framework underpinning null hypothesis testing, there's a certain amount of tension that exists regarding whether or not to report the exactpvalue that you obtained, or if you should state only that p for a signi cance level that you chose in advance(e. g, p: 05).","Di certain amount of tension wey dey exist regarding whether or no to report di exactpvalue wey you go get, or if you go state only say p for signi cance level wey you choose for advance(e. g, p: 05).",Computer science
"in practice, the fact that we can compute a pvalue means that we don't actually have to specify any level at all in order to run the test.",Di fact say we go compute pvalue means say we no get any level for all for order to run di test.,Computer science
"instead, what you can do is calculate your pvalue and interpret it directly: if you getp: 062, then it means that you'd have to be willing to tolerate a type i error rate of 6.2% to justify rejecting the null.","If you getp: 062, then e mean say you go tolerate type i error rate of 6.2% to justify reject di null.",Computer science
"if you personally nd 6.2% intolerable, then you retain the null.","if you think 6.2%too much, den you retain di null.",Computer science
"therefore, the argument goes, why don't we just report the actual pvalue and let the reader makeup their own minds about what an acceptable type i error rate is?","Di argument go, why we just report di actual pvalue and let di reader makeup dia own mind about what acceptable type i error rate dey?",Computer science
"this approach has the big advantage of\softening"" the decision making process{ in fact, if you accept the neyman de nition ofthe pvalue, that's the whole point ofthe pvalue.","Di approach don get big advantage of\softening"" di proses to chuze di best tin to do, as dem don gada tori and sabi wetin dey suppose do, den dem go yuz am take decide process{ for true, if you accept di neyman de nition of di pvalue, na di whole point of di pvalue.",Computer science
"we no longer have a xed signi cance level of: 05 as a bright line separating ccept"" from eject"" decisions; and this removes the rather pathological problem of being forced to treatp: 051 in a fundamentally dierent way top: 049.","We no longer get xed signi cance level of: 05 as a bright line wey dey separating ccept"" from eject"" decisions; and dis remove di rather pathological problem of being forced to treatp: 051 for a fundamentally di pathological problem of being forced to treatp: 051 for a fundamentally di pathological problem of being forced to treatp: 051 for eject"" decisions; and dis remove di rather pathological problem of being forced to treatp: 051 for",Computer science
this exibility is both the advantage and the disadvantage to the pvalue.,Di exibility dey both di advantage and di disadvantage to di pvalue,Computer science
the reason why alot of people don't like the idea of reporting an exact pvalue is that it gives the researcher a bit too much freedom.,Di reason why alot of pipo don like di idea of reporting exact pvalue na say e give di researcher freedom,Computer science
"in particular, it lets you change your mind about what error tolerance you're willing to put up with after you look at the data.",E make you change your mind about what how much mistake you fit accept in your estimate wey dey willing to put up wit after you make we look di data.,Computer science
"for instance, consider my esp experiment.","for example, think about my esp test.",Computer science
"suppose iran my test, and ended up with a pvalue of.09.","Dem suppose iran my test, and ended up wit pvalue of.09. 09.",Computer science
should i accept or reject?,I suppose accept or reject?,Computer science
"now, to be honest, i haven't yet bothered to think about what level of type i error i'm eally"" willing to accept.","Now, to be true, I no don yet bother to think about which level of Type I error I""really"" dey willing to accept.",Computer science
"but i dohave an opinion about whether or not esp exists, and i de nitely have an opinion about-338- table 11.1: a commonly adopted convention for reporting pvalues: in many places it is conventional to report one of four dierent things(e. g, p: 05)as shown below.","Di commonly adopted convention for reporting pvalues: for many place e dey conventional to report one of four dierent things(e. g, p: 05)as show below.",Computer science
"i've included the \signi cance stars""notation (i. e, a*indicates p:05) because you sometimes see this notation produced by statistical software.","I don include di""significance stars""notation (i. e, a* indicate di p less than 0.05) because you sometimes dey see dis notation wey software for statistics produce.",Computer science
it's also worth noting that some people will write n. s.,Dem also worth not say some pipo go write n. s.,Computer science
(not signi cant)rather than p:05.,(no be important)no be di p less than 0.05.,Computer science
usual notation signif.,di normal signs: signif.,Computer science
whether my research should be published in a reputable scienti c journal.,Di research dey publish for reputable scienti c journal,Computer science
"and amazingly, now that i've looked at the data i'm starting to think that a 9%error rate isn't so bad, especially when compared to how annoying it would be to have to admit to the world that my experiment has failed.","Di data wey i make we look di data wey i dey look say 9%error rate no dey bad, especially when compare to howe dey suppose admit to di world say my experiment don fail.",Computer science
"so, to avoid looking like i just made it up after the fact, i now say that my is. 1: a 10%type i error rate isn't too bad, and at that level my test is signi cant!","Di fact, to avoid looking like i just make am up after di fact, i now tok say my dey. 1: a 10%type i error rate dey too bad, and for dat level my test dey signi cant",Computer science
"in other words, the worry here is that i might have the best of intentions, and be the most honest of people, but the temptation to just\shade"" things a little bit here and there is really, really strong.","Di worry here na say i go get di best of intentions, and be di most honest of pipo, but di temptation to just shade things a little bit here and na really strong.",Computer science
"as anyone who has ever run an experiment can attest, it's along and dicult process, and you often getvery attached to your hypotheses.","As anyone wey dey run experiment don attest, e dey long and dicult process, and you often get attached to your hypotheses.",Computer science
it's hard to let go and admit the experiment didn't nd what you wanted it to nd.,Di experiment no dey hard to let go and admit di experiment no dey nd what you go nd.,Computer science
and that's the danger here.,Di danger wey dey here,Computer science
"if we use the aw""p-value, people will start interpreting the data in terms of what they want to believe, not what the data are actually saying. and if we allow that, well, why are we bothering to do science at all?","If we allow say, well, why dey we do science for all? and if we allow say, well, why dey we do science for all?",Computer science
"why not let everyone believe whatever they like about anything, regardless of what the facts are?","Na why no let all believe anything, regardless of what di facts dey?",Computer science
"okay, that's a bit extreme, but that's where the worry comes from.","Di worry kom from, but na where di worry kom from.",Computer science
"according to this view, you really must specify your value in advance, and then only report whether the test was signi cantor not.","Di view, you really must specify your value for advance, and then only report whether di test dey signi cantor no.",Computer science
it's the only way to keep ourselves honest.,Di only way to keep awaselves honest,Computer science
"instead, the convention is that scientists rely on three standard signi cance levels:. 05. 01 and. 001.",Di convention dey say scientists rely on three standard signi cance level:. 05. 01 and. 001.,Computer science
"when reporting your results, you indicate which(if any)of these signi cance levels allow you to reject the null hypothesis.","When you dey report your results, you dey show which one(if any dey)of dese significance levels dey allow you to throw away di null idea.",Computer science
this is summarised in table 11.1.,Dem dey summarise for table 11.,Computer science
"this allows us to soften the decision rule a little bit, since p:01 implies that the data meet a stronger evidentiary standard than p:05 would.","Dis one allow us to soften di decision rule small, because p< 0.01 imply say di data meet stronger evidentiary standard than di p less than 0.05 go do.",Computer science
"nevertheless, since these levels are xed in advance by convention, it does prevent people choosing their level after looking at the data.","Di level dey xed for advance for di normal way, e go prevent pipo choosing dia level after looking at di data.",Computer science
"nevertheless, quite alot of people still prefer to report exact pvalues.",Di lot of pipo still prefer to report exact pvalues,Computer science
"to many people, the advantage of allowing the reader to makeup their own mind about how to interpret p:06 outweighs any disadvantages.",Di advantage of allow di reader makeup dia own mind about how to interpret p:06 outweigh any disadvantages.,Computer science
"in practice, however, even among those researchers who prefer exact pvalues it is quite common to just write p: 001 instead of reporting an exact value for small p. this is in part because alot of software doesn't actually print out the pvalue when it's that small(e. g, spss just writes p:000 wheneverp: 001), and in part because avery small pvalue can be kind of misleading.","E. g, spss just write p:000 wheneverp:000, and for part because alot of software no fit to show di pvalue wey dey small(e. g, spss just write p",Computer science
the human mind sees a number like.,Di human mind see number like 0.,Computer science
and it's hard to suppress the gut feeling that the evidence in favour ofthe -339-alternative hypothesis is a near certainty.,E hard to suppress di gut feeling say di evidence for favour of di-339 di other idea dey near certainty.,Computer science
"in practice however, this is usually wrong.",Dis dey wrong.,Computer science
"life is a big, messy, complicated thing: and every statistical test ever invented relies on simpli cations, approximations and assumptions.","Life na big, messy, complicated thing: and every statistics test wey dem ever make dey rely on simplifications, approximations, and assumptions.",Computer science
"as a consequence, it's probably not reasonable to walk away from anystatistical analysis with a feeling of con dence stronger than p: 001 implies.","As consequence, e probably no be reasonable to move away from any numbers work with feeling of confidence stronger than p< 0.001 imply.",Computer science
"in other words, p: 001 is really code for s far as this test is concerned, the evidence is overwhelming.""","Di evidence dey overwhelm, di evidence dey overwhelming",Computer science
"in light of all this, you might be wondering exactly what you should do.",I go wonder exactly what you go do.,Computer science
"there's a fair bit of contradictory advice on the topic, with some people arguing that you should report the exact pvalue, and other people arguing that you should use the tiered approach illustrated in table 11.1.","Di fair bit of contradictory advice for di topic, wit some pipo arguing say you go report di exact pvalue, and oda pipo arguing say you go use di tiered approach wey dey illustrated for table 11.",Computer science
"as a result, the best advice i can give is to suggest that you look at papers/reports written in your eld and see what the convention seems to be.",Di best advice wey i fit give nato suggest say you make we look paper reports wey dey write for your eld and see what di convention seem to be.,Computer science
"if there doesn't seem to be any consistent pattern, then use whichever method you prefer.","If no consistent pattern dey, den use whichever method you prefer.",Computer science
"in the previous discussion i built the test from rst principles, thinking that it was the simplest possible problem that you might ever encounter in real life.","I build di test from rst principles, thinking say e dey di simplest possible problem wey you go encounter for real life.",Computer science
"however, this test already exists: it's called the binomial test, and it's implemented by an rfunction called binom. test().","Di test don dey called di binomial test, and e dey implement by rfunction wey be binom. test().",Computer science
"speci cally, the p-value of 0. 02 is less than the usual choice of:05, so you can reject the null.","E dey less than di usual choice of:05, so you go reject di null",Computer science
we'll talk alot more about how to read this sort of output as we go along; and after awhile you'll hopefully nd it quite easy to read and understand.,"We go talk plenty more about how to read dis kind of output as we dey go; and after sometime, you go hopefully find am very easy to see and know.",Computer science
"for now, however, i just wanted to make the point that rcontains a whole lot of functions corresponding to dierent kinds of hypothesis test.",I just waned make di point wey rcontains whole lot of functions wey dey corresponding to dierent kinds of hypothesis test.,Computer science
"and while i'll usually spend quite alot of time explaining the logic behind how the tests are built, every time i discuss a hypothesis test the discussion will end with me showing you a fairly simple rcommand that you can use to run the test in practice.",Di discussion go end wit me to show you a fairly simple rcommand wey you fit use to run di test for practice.,Computer science
"the pargument in the binom. test()function corresponds to the probability of making a correct response, according to the null hypothesis.","Di test()function correspond to di probability of make correct response, according to di null idea.",Computer science
"in other words, it's the value.",Di value dey value,Computer science
a reasonable proportion ofthe distribution lies in the rejection region.,Na reasonable proportion of di distribution lies for di rejection region.,Computer science
when we x:05 we are attempting to ensure that only 5%of true null hypotheses are incorrectly rejected.,We dey attempt to ensure say only 5%of true null hypotheses dey incorrectly rejected,Computer science
"however, this doesn't mean that we don't care about type ii errors.",Dino mean say we no care about type ii errors.,Computer science
"in fact, from the researcher's perspective, the error of failing to reject the null when it is actually false is an extremely annoying one.","Di researcher's perspective, di error of failing to reject di null wen e dey false dey extremely annoying one.",Computer science
"with that in mind, a secondary goal of hypothesis testing is to try to minimise, the type ii error rate, although we don't usually talkin terms of minimising type ii errors.","Di secondary goal of way to check if your idea be true dey try to minimise, di type ii error rate, although we no talkin terms of minimise type ii error rate.",Computer science
"instead, we talk about maximising the power ofthe test.",We talk about maximising di power of di test,Computer science
"since power is de ned as 1, this is the same thing.",Di same thing.,Computer science
"a type ii error occurs when the alternative hypothesis is true, but we are nevertheless unable to reject the null hypothesis.","Di other idea dey true, but we no dey unable to reject di null idea.",Computer science
"ideally, we'd be able to calculate a single number that tells us the type ii error rate, in the same way that we can set:05 for the type i error rate.","We fit calculate just one number wey tell us di type i error rate, for di same way we fit set:05 for di type i error rate.",Computer science
"unfortunately, this is alot trickier to do.","Unfortunately, dis dey alot trickier to do.",Computer science
"to see this, notice that in my esp study the alternative hypothesis actually corresponds to lots of possible values of.",For my esp study di other idea actually correspond to lots of possible value of.,Computer science
"in fact, the alternative hypothesis corresponds to every value of except 0. 5.","for true, di other idea correspond to all di numbers for θ except 0.5.",Computer science
"let's suppose that the true probability of someone choosing the correct response is 55%(i. e,: 55).","Di true probability of someone choosing di correct response na 55%(i. e,: 55).",Computer science
"if so, then the truesampling distribution forxis not the same one that the null hypothesis predicts: the most likely value for xis now 55 out of 100.",Di truesampling distribution forxis no di same one wey di null idea predict: di most likely value for xis now 55 out of 100.,Computer science
"not only that, the whole sampling distribution has now shifted, as shown in figure 11. 4.","Di whole sampling distribution don shift, as show for figure 11. 4.4.",Computer science
almost all ofthe distribution lies in the rejection region.,Di distribution lies for di rejection region.,Computer science
"what we're seeing in this gure is the fact that when the null hypothesis is wrong, a much larger proportion ofthe sampling distribution distribution falls in the critical region.","Di fact say when di null idea dey wrong, a much bigger proportion of di sampling distribution fall for di critical region.",Computer science
and ofcourse that's what should happen: the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis is larger when the null hypothesis is actually false!,Di probability of reject di null idea dey small wen di null idea dey true,Computer science
however: 55 is not the only possibility consistent with the alternative hypothesis.,Di only possibility wey dey consistent wit di other idea,Computer science
let's instead suppose that the true value of is actually 0. 7.,Di true value of dey 0,Computer science
what happens to the sampling distribution when this occurs?,Di sampling distribution when dis occur?,Computer science
"the answer, shown in figure 11. 5, is that almost the entirety ofthe sampling distribution has now moved into the critical region.","Di answer, show for figure 11. 5, na say almost di entirety of di sampling distribution don move into di critical region",Computer science
"therefore, if 0: 7 the probability of us correctly rejecting the null hypothesis(i. e, the power ofthe test)is much larger than if 0:55.","Di probability of us correctly reject di null idea(i. e, di power of di test)dey much bigger than if 0:55.",Computer science
"in short, while: 55 and:70 are both part ofthe alternative hypothesis, the type ii error rate is dierent.","For short, while: 55 and 70 dey part of di other idea, di type ii error rate na dierent",Computer science
"what all this means is that the power of a test(i. e,1) depends on the true value of.","Di power of test(i. e,1) depend on di true value of.",Computer science
"to illustrate this, i've calculated the expected probability of rejecting the null hypothesis for all values of, and plotted it in figure 11. 6.","I dey calculat di expected probability of reject di null idea for all values of, and plot am for figure 11. 6.6. 6.",Computer science
this plot describes what is usually called the power function ofthe test.,Di plot describe say di power function of di test.,Computer science
"it's a nice summary of how good the test is, because it actually tells you the power(1 )for all possible values of.","E dey nice summary of how good di test dey, because e actually tell you di power(1 )for all possible value of.",Computer science
"as you can see, when the true value of is very close to 0. 5, the power ofthe test drops very sharply, but when it is further away, the power is large.","As you see, wen di true value of dey close to 0. 5, di power of di test drop very sharply, but wen di power dey large, di power dey large",Computer science
"it is inappropriate to be concerned with mice when there are tigers abroad{ george box(1976, p.792) the plot shown in figure 11. 6 captures a fairly basic point about hypothesis testing.",Di plot show for figure 11. 6 captures fairly basic point about way to check if your idea be true.,Computer science
"if the true state ofthe world is very dierent from what the null hypothesis predicts, then your power will be very high; but if the true state ofthe world is similar to the null(but not identical)then the power ofthe test is-342- 0. 0 0. 2 0. 4 0. 6 0. 8 1. 00.0 0. 2 0. 4 0. 6 0. 8 1. 0power function for the test(n=100) true value of probability of rejecting the nullfigure 11. 6: the probability that we will reject the null hypothesis, plotted as a function ofthe true value of.",For di test(n=100) true value of probability of reject di nullfigure 11. 6: di probability wey we go reject di nullfigure 11. 6: di probability wey we go reject di nullfigure 11. 6: di probability wey we go reject di nullfigure 11. 6: di probability wey we go reject di nullfigure 11. 6: di probability wey we go reject di nullfigure 11. 6: di probability wey we go reject di nullfigure 11. 6: di probability wey we go reject di nullfigure 11. 6: di,Computer science
"obviously, the test is more powerful(greater chance of correct rejection)if the true value ofis very dierent from the value that the null hypothesis species (i. e,:5).","Di test dey powerful(greater chance of correct rejection)if di true value of office very dierent from di value wey di null idea species(i. e,: 5).",Computer science
"notice that when actually is equal to.5 (plotted as a black dot), the null hypothesis is in fact true: rejecting the null hypothesis in this instance would be a type i error.",Di null idea dey true: reject di null idea for dis instance go be type i error.,Computer science
going to be very low.,E go dey very low,Computer science
"therefore, it's useful to be able to have some way of quantifying how\similar"" the true state ofthe world is to the null hypothesis.","Di useful to be able to know how\similar"" di true state of di world dey to di null idea.",Computer science
"a statistic that does this is called a measure of eect size(e. g, cohen, 1988; ellis, 2010).","Statistic wey dey do dis dem call one way to see how big di change be(e. g, Cohen,1988; Ellis,2010).",Computer science
"in our esp example, if we let 00:5 denote the value assumed by the null hypothesis, and let denote the true value, then a simple measure of eect size could be something like the dierence between the true value and null(i. e,0), or possibly just the magnitude of this dierence, abs p0q.","If we let 00:5 denote di value wey dey assumed by di null idea, and let denote di true value, then simple measure of eect size go be something like di dierence between di true value and null(i. e,0), or just di magnitude of dis dierence, abs p0q.",Computer science
why calculate eect size?,Why you go calculate effect size?,Computer science
"let's assume that you've run your experiment, collected the data, and gotten a signi cant eect when you ran your hypothesis test.","She dey assume say you run your experiment, collect di data, and get signi cant eect when you ran your hypothesis test.",Computer science
isn't it enough just to say that you've gotten a signi cant eect?,Di signi no dey enough just to say you go get signi cant eect?,Computer science
surely that's the point of hypothesis testing?,Surely dat na di point of way to check if your idea be true?,Computer science
"yes, the point of doing a hypothesis test is to try to demonstrate that the null hypothesis is wrong, but that's hardly the only thing we're interested in.","Di point wey dey do a hypothesis test dey try to demonstrate say di null idea dey wrong, but na hardly di only thing we dey interest for.",Computer science
"if the null hypothesis claimed that: 5, and we show that it's wrong, we've only really told half ofthe story.","Di null idea claim say: 5, and we show say na wrong, we only tell half of di story",Computer science
"rejecting the null hypothesis implies that we believe that: 5, but there's a big dierence between: 51 and:8.","We reject di null idea implies say we believe say: 5, but na big dierence between: 51 and:8.",Computer science
"if we nd that: 8, then not only have we found that the null hypothesis is wrong, it appears to be very wrong.","Di null idea dey wrong, e dey suppose very wrong.",Computer science
"on the other hand, suppose we've successfully rejected the null hypothesis, but it looks like the true value of is only. 51(this would only be possible with a large study).","Na suppose we successfully reject di null idea, but e look like di true value of na only. 51(e go only possible wit large study).",Computer science
"sure, the null hypothesis is wrong, but it's not at all clear that we actually care, because the eect size is so small.","Di null idea dey wrong, but e no dey clear say we dey care, because di eect size dey so small.",Computer science
"in the context of my esp study we might still care, 10there's an rpackage called compute. es that can be used for calculating avery broad range of eect size measures; but for the purposes ofthe current book we won't need it: all ofthe eect size measures that i'll talk about here have functions in the lsrpackage -343-table 11.2: a crude guide to understanding the relationship between statistical signi cance and eect sizes.","For di context of my ESP study we fit still care. R package wey dem call compute. es dey wey fit use for calculating very broad range of effect size measures; but for di purposes of dis current book, we no go need am: all of di effect size measures wey I go talk about here get functions for di lsr package. di picture number 11.2: crude guide to sabi di how two things dey related sign wey show the result no be by luck and effect sizes.",Computer science
"basically, if you don't have a signi cant result, then the eect size is pretty meaningless; because you don't have any evidence that it's even real.","If you don get signi cant result, then di eect size dey no dey tell anything; because you no get any evidence say e dey even real.",Computer science
"on the other hand, if you do have a signi cant eect but your eect size is small, then there's a pretty good chance that your result(although real)isn't all that interesting.","If you don get signi cant eect but your eect size dey small, then e dey good chance say your result(although real)no dey interesting.",Computer science
"however, this guide is very crude: it depends alot on what exactly you're studying.",Di guide dey crude: e depend alot on what you dey study,Computer science
small eects can be of massive practical importance in some situations.,Di small eects dey of massive practical importance for some situation.,Computer science
so don't take this table too seriously.,"Di table too seriously, so don take dis table too seriously",Computer science
it's a rough guide at best.,Di rough guide for best,Computer science
"big eect size small eect size signi cant result dierence is real, and dierence is real, but of practical importance might not be interesting non-signi cant result no eect observed no eect observed.","Eect size small eect size small eect size signi cant result dirence dey real, but of practical importance might no be interesting non-signi cant result no eect observed",Computer science
"since any demonstration of real psychic powers would actually be pretty cool11, but in other contexts a 1% dierence isn't very interesting, even if it is a real dierence.","Di demonstration of real psychic powers go actually be cool11, but for oda contexts 1% dierence no dey interesting, even if e dey real dierence.",Computer science
"for instance, suppose we're looking at dierences in highschool exam scores between males and females, and it turns out that the female scores are 1%higher on average than the males.","for example, suppose we make we look dierences for highschool exam scores between males and females, and e turnout say di female scores dey 1%higher for average than di males.",Computer science
"if i've got data from thousands of students, then this dierence will almost certainly be statistically signi cant, but regardless of how small the pvalue is it's just not very interesting.","Di dierence go almost certainly be statistically signi cant, but regardless of how small di pvalue dey interesting.",Computer science
you'd hardly want to go around proclaiming a crisis in boys education on the basis of such a tiny dierence would you?,Dem hardly wan go around proclaiming crisis for boys education on di basis of such tiny dierence would you?,Computer science
"it's for this reason that it is becoming more standard(slowly, but surely)to report some kind of standard measure of eect size along with the the results ofthe hypothesis test.","E dey for dis reason say e dey be more standard(slowly, but surely)to report some kind standard measure of eect size along wit di results of di hypothesis test.",Computer science
"the hypothesis test itself tells you whether you should believe that the eect you have observed is real(i. e, not just due to chance); the eect size tells you whether or not you should care.","Di hypothesis test deyself tells you whether you go believe say di eect you don observe na real(i. e, no just because of luck); di eect size tell you whether or no you go care.",Computer science
"we want our experiments to work, and so we want to maximise the chance of rejecting the null hypothesis if it is false(and ofcourse we usually want to believe that it is false!)","We wan awa experiment to work, and so we go maximise di chance of reject di null idea if e dey true(and ofcourse we usually wan to believe say e dey true)",Computer science
"as we've seen, one factor that in uences power is the eect size.","We see, one factor wey dey in uences power dey di eect size",Computer science
so the rst thing you can do to increase your power is to increase the eect size.,Di rst thing you go do to increase your power nato increase di eect size.,Computer science
"in practice, what this means is that you want to design your study in such away that the eect size gets magni ed.",Di means na say you wan design your study for such away say di eect size get magni ed.,Computer science
"for instance, in my esp study i might believe that psychic powers work best in a quiet, darkened room; with fewer distractions to cloud the mind.","I go believe say psychic power work best for quiet, darkened room; wit fewer distractions to cloud di mind.",Computer science
"therefore i would try to conduct my experiments in just such an environment: if i can strengthen people's esp abilities somehow, then the true value of will go up12and therefore my eect size will be larger.","If i fit strengthen pipo's esp abilities somehow, then di true value of go up12and therefore my eect size go larger",Computer science
"in short, clever experimental design is one way to boost power; because it can alter the eect size.",Clever experimental design dey one way to boost power; because e fit alter di eect size,Computer science
"unfortunately, it's often the case that even with the best of experimental designs you may have only a small eect.",E dey often di case say even wit di best of experimental designs you go get only small eect,Computer science
"perhaps, for example, esp really does exist, but even under the best of conditions it's very very weak.","for example, esp really don exist, but even under di best of conditions every weak.",Computer science
"under those circumstances, your best bet for increasing power is to increase the 11although in practice avery small eect size is worrying, because even very minor methodological aws might be responsible for the eect; and in practice no experiment is perfect, so there are always methodological issues to worry about.","Di best bet for increasing power nato increase di 11although for practice very small eect size dey worrying, because even very minor methodological aws dey responsible for di eect; and for practice no experiment dey perfect, so always methodological issues to worry about.",Computer science
in this contextis just the true probability that people would correctly guess the colour ofthe card in the other room.,Di contextis just di true probability say pipo go correctly guess di colour of di card for di oda room.,Computer science
as such the population parameter can bein uenced by all sorts of things.,Di real number for everybody dey uenced by all sorts of things,Computer science
"ofcourse, this is all on the assumption that esp actually exists!","Dis dey all on di assumption say esp actually exist, dis na all on di assumption say esp actually exist",Computer science
"overall, larger nmeans greater power.","Di overall, small nmeans great power.",Computer science
"(the small zig-zags in this function occur because of some odd interactions between, and the fact that the binomial distribution is discrete; it doesn't matter for any serious purpose).","Di small zig-zags for dis function occur because of some odd interactions between, and di fact say di yes dey discrete; e no matter for any serious purpose)",Computer science
"in general, the more observations that you have available, the more likely it is that you can discriminate between two hypotheses.","Di more observation wey you go get available, di more likely e dey say you fit discriminate between two hypotheses",Computer science
"if iran my esp experiment with 10 participants, and 7 of them correctly guessed the colour ofthe hidden card, you wouldn't be terribly impressed.","Iran my esp experiment wit 10 participants, and 7 of dem correctly guess di colour of di hidden card, you no fit impress.",Computer science
"but if iran it with 10, 000 participants and 7, 000 of them got the answer right, you would be much more likely to think i had discovered something.","If iran am wit 10, 000 participants and 7, 000 of dem get di answer right, you go be much more likely to think i don discover something",Computer science
"in other words, power increases with the sample size.","One words, power increase wit di sample size",Computer science
"this is illustrated in figure 11. 7, which shows the power ofthe test for a true parameter of 0:7, for all sample sizes n from 1 to 100, where i'm assuming that the null hypothesis predicts that 00:5.","Di figure 11. 7, wey show di power of di test for true parameter of 0:7, for all sample sizes n from 1 to 100, wey i dey assum say di null idea predict say 00:5.",Computer science
"because power is important, whenever you're contemplating running an experiment it would be pretty useful to know how much power you're likely to have.","E dey important, whenever you dey contemplating run an experiment e go be e good to know how much power you dey like.",Computer science
"it's never possible to know for sure, since you can't possibly know what your eect size is.","I never possible to know for sure, since you no fit know what your eect size dey.",Computer science
"however, it's often(well, sometimes)possible to guess how big it should be.","E dey often(well, sometimes)possible to guess how big e fit be",Computer science
"if so, you can guess what sample size you need!","If so, you fit guess what sample size you need",Computer science
"this idea is called power analysis, and if it's feasible to do it, then it's very helpful, since it can tell you something about whether you have enough time or money to be able to run the experiment successfully.","Di idea dey call one way to see if test fit catch difference, and if e dey feasible to do am, then e go tell you something about whether you go get enough time or money to run di experiment successfully.",Computer science
"it's increasingly common to see people arguing that power analysis should be a required part of experimental design, so it's worth knowing about.","E dey happen more to see pipo argue say one way to see if test fit catch difference suppose be required part for planning di test, so e worth to know about am.",Computer science
this is partly for a boring reason and partly for a substantive one.,Dis dey partly for boring reason and partly for substantive one,Computer science
the boring reason is that i haven't had time to write about power analysis yet.,I don get time to write about one way to see if test fit catch difference yet,Computer science
the substantive one is that i'm still a little suspicious of power analysis.,Di substantive one na say i still dey suspicious of one way to see if test fit catch difference,Computer science
"speaking as a researcher, i have very rarely found myself in a position to be able to do one{ it's either the case that(a) my experiment is a bit non-standard andi don't know how to de ne eect size properly,(b) i literally have so little idea about what the eect size will be that i wouldn't know how to interpret the answers.","I don find myself for position to dey able to do one{ either di case say(a) my experiment dey bit non-standard andi no know how to dey eect size properly,(b) i no know how to interpret di answer.",Computer science
"not only that, after extensive conversations with someone who does stats consulting for a living(my wife, as it happens), i can't help but notice that in practice the only time anyone ever asks her for a power analysis is when she's helping someone write a grant application.","Di only time wey anyone get stats consulting for a living(my wife, as e dey happen), i no fit help but notice say for practice di only time anyone ask her for one way to see if test fit catch difference na wen she dey help someone write grant application",Computer science
"in other words, the only time any scientist ever seems to want a power analysis in real life is when they're being forced to do it by-345- bureaucratic process.",Di only time any scientist ever seem to wan one way to see if test fit catch difference for real life dey wen dem force dem do am by-345 bureaucratic process.,Computer science
it's not part of anyone's day today work.,E no be part of anybody day-to-day work.,Computer science
"in short, i've always been ofthe view that while power is an important concept, power analysis is not as useful as people make it sound, except in the rare cases where(a) someone has gured out how to calculate power for your actual experimental design and(b) you have a pretty good idea what the eect size is likely to be.","I dey tok say while power dey important concept, one way to see if test fit catch difference no dey as useful as pipo make am sound, except for di rare case wey (a)someone get gured out how to calculate power for your actual experimental design and(b) you go get good idea what di eect size dey likely to be.",Computer science
"maybe other people have had better experiences than me, but i've personally never been in a situation where both(a) and(b) were true.",I dey personally never dey for situation wey both(a) and(b) dey true.,Computer science
"maybe i'll be convinced otherwise in the future, and probably a future version of this book would include a more detailed discussion of power analysis, but for now this is about as much as i'm comfortable saying about the topic.","Di book go include more detailed discussion of one way to see if test fit catch difference, but for now dis dey about as much as i dey comfortable say about di topic",Computer science
"understanding how nhst works is an absolute necessity, since it has been the dominant approach to inferential statistics ever since it came to prominence in the early 20th century.","Di dominant approach to inferential statistics na absolute necessity, since di dominant approach to inferential statistics ever since dem kom prominence for di early 20th century.",Computer science
"it's what the vast majority of working scientists rely on for their data analysis, so even if you hate it you need to know it.","Di most part of work scientists dey rely on for dia to study numbers, so even if you hate am you need know am",Computer science
"however, the approach is not without problems.",Di approach no dey without problem.,Computer science
"there area number of quirks in the framework, historical oddities in how it came to be, theoretical disputes over whether or not the framework is right, and alot of practical traps for the unwary.","Di number of pipo wey dey inside di framework, historical oddities for howe kom to be, theoretical disputes over whether or no di framework dey right, and alot of practical traps for di unwary",Computer science
"i'm not going to go into alot of detail on this topic, but i think it's worth brie y discussing a few of these issues.","I no go into alot of detail on dis topic, but i think e dey worth brie y discuss few of dis issues.",Computer science
"the history is messy because fisher and neyman were real people whose opinions changed overtime, and at no point did either of them oer he de nitive statement""of how we should interpret their work many decades later.","Di history dey messy because fisher and neyman dey real pipo wey dey opinions change overtime, and at no point dey either of dem oer hin dey nitive statement of how we go interpret dia work many decades later.",Computer science
"that said, here's a quick summary of what i take these two approaches to be.",Di small summary of how i take these two approaches to be.,Computer science
"first, let's talk about fisher's approach.",Dem talk about fisher's approach,Computer science
"as far as i can tell, fisher assumed that you only had the one hypothesis(the null), and what you want to do is nd out if the null hypothesis is inconsistent with the data.","as for i fit tell, fisher assum say you only get one hypothesis(the null), and what you wan to do dey nd out if di null idea dey inconsistent wit di data.",Computer science
"from his perspective, what you should do is check to see if the data are \suciently unlikely""according to the null.","Dem go check to see if di data dey unlikely""according to di null.",Computer science
"in fact, if you remember back to our earlier discussion, that's how fisher de nes thep-value.","If you remember back to awa earlier discussion, say how fisher dey nes dip-value",Computer science
"according to fisher, if the null hypothesis provided avery poor account ofthe data, you could safely reject it.","If di null idea don provide very poor account of di data, you go safely reject am",Computer science
"but, since you don't have any other hypotheses to compare it to, there's no way of ccepting the alternative""because you don't necessarily have an explicitly stated alternative.","Na, since you no get any other hypotheses wey dey compare am to, na no way of cceptin di alternative""because you no get any other hypotheses to compare am to, na no way of cceptin di alternative.",Computer science
that's more or less all that there was to it.,E dey more or less all wey dey to am,Computer science
"in contrast, neyman thought that the point of hypothesis testing was as a guide to action, and his approach was somewhat more formal than fisher's.","neyman tok say di point of way to check if your idea be true na as guide to action, and hin approach na somewhat formal than fisher's.",Computer science
his view was that there are multiple things that you could do(accept the null or accept the alternative)and the point ofthe test was to tell you which one the data support.,Di view na say na multiple things wey you go do(accept di null or accept di alternative)and di point of di test na tell you which one di data support.,Computer science
"from this perspective, it is critical to specify your alternative hypothesis properly.",E dey critical to specify your di other idea properly,Computer science
"if you don't know what the alternative hypothesis is, then you don't know how powerful the test is, or even which action makes sense.","If you no know what di other idea dey, then you no know how powerful di test dey, then you no know how powerful di test dey, or even which action make sense.",Computer science
his framework genuinely requires a competition between dierent hypotheses.,Im framework genuinely require competition between different ideas.,Computer science
"for neyman, the pvalue didn't directly measure the probability ofthe data(or data more extreme)under the null, it was more of an abstract description about which\possible tests""were telling you to accept the null, and which\possible tests""were telling you to accept the alternative.","Di pvalue don directly measure di probability of di data(or data more extreme)under di null, and which\possible tests""dey tell you to accept di alternative.",Computer science
"as you can see, what we have today is an odd mishmash ofthe two.","As you fit see, what we get today na odd mishmash of di two.",Computer science
"we talk about having both a-346- null hypothesis and an alternative (neyman), but usually13de ne thepvalue in terms of exreme data(fisher), but we still have values (neyman).","we dey talk about having both null idea and other idea (Neyman), but normally we dey say dip-value for terms of extreme numbers(Fisher), but we still get alpha numbers (Neyman).",Computer science
some ofthe statistical tests have explicitly speci ed alternatives (neyman) but others are quite vague about it(fisher).,Some of di statistical tests don explicitly speci ed alternatives (neyman) but odas dey quite vague about am(fisher).,Computer science
"and, according to some people atleast, we're not allowed to talk about accepting the alternative(fisher).",Dem no allowed to talk about accepting di alternative(fisher).,Computer science
it's a mess: but i hope this atleast explains why it's a mess.,I hope dis atleast explain why e dey mess,Computer science
"the bayesian approach to statistics interprets probability as a degree of belief, so it's totally okay to say that there is a 10%chance that the null hypothesis is true: that's just a re ection ofthe degree of con dence that you have in this hypothesis.","Di bayesian approach to statistics interpret probability as a how much you believe, so e dey totally okay to say di null idea dey true: na just a re ection of di degree of con dence wey you go get for dis hypothesis.",Computer science
you aren't allowed to do this within the frequentist approach.,Di frequentist approach no dey allowed to do dis within di frequentist approach,Computer science
"remember, if you're a frequentist, a probability can only be de ned in terms of what happens after a large number of independent replications (i. e, along run frequency).","If you dey frequentist, a probability go only dey dened for terms of what dey happen after large number of independent replications (i. e, long run frequency).",Computer science
"if this is your interpretation of probability, talking about the\probability"" that the null hypothesis is true is complete gibberish: a null hypothesis is either true or it is false.",Di null idea dey true or false.,Computer science
there's no way you can talk about along run frequency for this statement.,Nano way you go talk about long run frequency for dis statement.,Computer science
"to talk about he probability ofthe null hypothesis""is as meaningless ashe colour of freedom"".","We dey talk about hin probability of di null idea""dey meaningless ashe colour of freedom",Computer science
it doesn't have one!,E no get one,Computer science
"most importantly, this isn't a purely ideological matter.",E no dey a purely ideological matter,Computer science
"if you decide that you area bayesian and that you're okay with making probability statements about hypotheses, you have to follow the bayesian rules for calculating those probabilities.","If you decide say you dey bayesian and say you dey okay wit make probability statements about hypotheses, you go follow di bayesian rules for calculating those probabilities.",Computer science
"if what you want to know is the probability ofthe null, then the pvalue is not what you're looking for!","Di probability of di null, then di pvalue no dey what you dey looking for",Computer science
"however, disagreements among statisticians are not our real concern here.",Di disagreement wey dey among statisticians no dey real concern here,Computer science
our real concern is practical data analysis.,Di real concern na practical to study numbers,Computer science
"and while the\orthodox"" approach to null hypothesis signi cance testing has many drawbacks, even an unrepentant bayesian like myself would agree that they can be useful if used responsibly.","Di\orthodox"" approach to di null idea signi cance testing don get many drawbacks, even an unrepentant bayesian like myself go agree say dem fit use responsibly.",Computer science
"most ofthe time they give sensible answers, and you can use them to learn interesting things.","Di time dem give sensible answers, and you fit use dem to learn interesting things",Computer science
"setting aside the various ideologies and historical confusions that we've discussed, the fact remains that the biggest danger in all of statistics is thoughtlessness.",Di fact remain say di biggest danger for all of statistics dey thoughtlessness.,Computer science
"the rush to interpret a result without spending time thinking through what each test actually says about the data, and checking whether that's consistent with how you've interpreted it.","Di rush to interpret a result without spending time thinking through what each test tok say about di data, and check whether dat consistent wit how you dey interpret am.",Computer science
that's where the biggest trap lies.,Di biggest trap lies,Computer science
"to give an example of this, consider the following example(see gelman &stern, 2006).","To give example of dis, consider di following example(see gelman and stern,2006).",Computer science
"suppose i'm running my esp study, and i've decided to analyse the data separately for the male participants and the female participants.",I decide to analyse di data separately for di male participants and di female participants.,Computer science
"ofthe male participants,33 out of 50 guessed the colour ofthe card correctly.","For di male participants,33 out of 50 guess di colour of di card correctly.",Computer science
this is a signi cant eect ( p:03).,Dis na significant effect(p less than 0.03).,Computer science
"ofthe female participants,29 out of 50 guessed correctly.","For di female participants,29 out of 50 to choose di right one.",Computer science
this is not a signi cant eect ( p:32).,Di signi no fit eect ( p:32).,Computer science
"upon observing this, it is extremely tempting for people to start wondering why there is a dierence between males and females in terms of their psychic abilities.",E dey extremely tempting for pipo to start wondering why di dierence between males and females for terms of dia psychic abilities.,Computer science
"however, this is wrong.",Di dey wrong.,Computer science
"if you think about it, we haven't actually run a test that explicitly compares males to females.","If you think about it, we no run test wey explicitly compare male to females",Computer science
"all we have done is compare males to chance (binomial test was signi cant)and compared females to chance 13although this book describes both neyman's and fisher's de nition ofthe pvalue, most don't.","Di book describe both neyman and fisher's dey nition of di pvalue, most don dey don.",Computer science
most introductory textbooks will only give you the fisher version.,most books for starting go only give you di Fisher version.,Computer science
"if we want to argue that there is a real dierence between the males and the females, we should probably run a test ofthe null hypothesis that there is no dierence!",We go probably run test of di null idea say e no dey dierence,Computer science
"we can do that using a dierent hypothesis test, 14but when we do that it turns out that we have no evidence that males and females are signi cantly dierent ( p:54).","We don do dat using a dierent hypothesis test, 14but wen we do say we no dey evidence say male and females dey signi cantly dierent ( p:54).",Computer science
now do you think that there's anything fundamentally dierent between the two groups?,Na now do you think say anything fundamentally dierent between di two groups?,Computer science
"what's happened here is that the data from both groups(male and female)are pretty borderline: by pure chance, one of them happened to end upon the magic side ofthe p:05 line, and the other one didn't.","Di data from both groups(male and female)dey pretty borderline: by pure chance, one of dem don end upon di magic side of dip: 05 line, and di oda one no dey borderline",Computer science
that doesn't actually imply that males and females are dierent.,E no dey suppose imply say male and females dey dierent,Computer science
"this mistake is so common that you should always be wary of it: the dierence between signi cant and not-signi cant is notevidence of a real dierence { if you want to say that there's a dierence between two groups, then you have to test for that dierence!",Di mistake dey so common say you need say di dierence between signi cant and no-signi cant dey evidence of real dierence,Computer science
the example above is just that: an example.,Di example above dey just say: an example.,Computer science
"i've singled it out because it's such a common one, but the bigger picture is that data analysis can be tricky to get right.",Di bigger picture dey say to study numbers go tricky to get right,Computer science
"think about what it is you want to test, why you want to test it, and whether or not the answers that your test gives could possibly make any sense in the real world.","I think about what e dey you wan test, why you wan to test am, and whether or not di answer wey you test give could make any sense for di real world.",Computer science
the vast majority of scienti c papers report the results of some hypothesis test or another.,Di most part of science papers report di results of one hypothesis test or another.,Computer science
null and alternative hypotheses.,null and other ideas.,Computer science
"but for now, though, we're done with the abstract statistical theory, and we can start discussing speci c data analysis tools.","We dey done wit di abstract statistical theory, and we fit start discuss speci c to study numbers tools",Computer science
"categorical data analysis now that we've got the basic theory behind hypothesis testing, it's time to start looking at speci c tests that are commonly used in psychology.","We get di basic theory wey dey behind way to check if your idea be true, na time to start looking at speci c tests wey dey common for psychology.",Computer science
so where should we start?,So where we suppose start?,Computer science
"the term \categorical data""is just another name for ominal scale data"".","Di term \kata data wey dey group tinz into difren group, like color, sex, or brand, wey each group no dey mix wit anoda, no be say one group pass anoda"" dey just one name for ominal scale data",Computer science
"it's nothing that we haven't already discussed, it's just that in the context of data analysis people tend to use the term \categorical data""rather than ominal scale data"".","Di context of to study numbers pipo go use di term \kata data wey dey group tinz into difren group, like color, sex, or brand, wey each group no dey mix wit anoda, no be say one group pass anoda"" no be ominal scale data"".",Computer science
"in any case, categorical data analysis refers to a collection of tools that you can use when your data are nominal scale.","Di kata data wey dey group tinz into difren group, like color, sex, or brand, wey each group no dey mix wit anoda, no be say one group pass anoda analysis to talk about collection of tools wey you fit use when your data dey nominal scale.",Computer science
"to introduce the statistical problem that it addresses, let's start with some psychology.12. 1. 1 the cards data over the years, there have been alot of studies showing that humans have alot of diculties in simulating randomness.","Di cards data over di years, na alot of studies show say humans don get di lot of diculties wey dem dey simulating randomness.",Computer science
"try as we might to ct""random, we thinkin terms of patterns and structure, and so when asked to\do something at random"", what people actually do is anything but random.","Try as we fit to""fake"" random, we dey think for terms of ways wey dey same and shape, and so when dem ask us to""do something at random"", wetin pipo actually do na anything but random.",Computer science
"as a consequence, the study of human randomness (or non-randomness, as the case maybe) opens up alot of deep psychological questions about how we think about the world.","As consequence, di study of human randomness (or non-randomness, as di case fit be)to start plenty deep psychological questions about how we think about di world.",Computer science
"with this in mind, let's consider avery simple study.",E dey consider very simple study,Computer science
"suppose i asked people to imagine a shued deck of cards, and mentally pick one card from this imaginary deck t random"".","Na suppose i ask pipo to imagine shued deck of cards, and mentally pick one card from dis imaginary deck t random"".",Computer science
"after they've chosen one card, i ask them to mentally select a second one.","I ask dem to mentally select one card, i ask dem to mentally select di second one",Computer science
"for both choices, what we're going to look at is the suit(hearts, clubs, spades or diamonds)that people chose.","Di suit(hearts, club, spades or diamonds) wey pipo dey choose.",Computer science
"after asking, say, n200 people to do this, i'd like to look at the data and gure out whether or not the cards that people pretended to select were really random.","I tok say, n200 pipo to do dis, i like to make we look di data and gure out whether or no di card wey pipo pretend to select dey random.",Computer science
the data are contained in the randomness.,Di data dey contain for di randomness,Computer science
"rdata le, which contains a single data frame called cards.","Di rdata le, wey be single one kind of table wey dey call card.",Computer science
"here's the rst few entries in the data frame:> head(cards ) id choice 1 choice 21 subj1 spades clubs 2 subj2 diamonds clubs 3 subj3 hearts clubs 4 subj4 spades clubs 5 subj5 hearts spades 6 subj6 clubs hearts for the moment, let's just focus on the rst choice that people made.","Di rst few entries for di one kind of table:> head(card) id choice 1 choice 21 subj1 spades clubs 2 subj2 diamonds club 4 subj5 hearts spades 6 subj6 club hearts for di moment, let focus on di rst choice wey pipo make.",Computer science
we'll use the table()function to count the number of times that we observed people choosing each suit.,We go use di table()function to count di number of times wey we observe pipo choosing each suit.,Computer science
"i'll save the table to a variable called observed, for reasons that will become clear very soon:> observed<- table(cards$choice 1)>observed clubs diamonds hearts spades 35 51 64 50 that little frequency table is quite helpful.",Di observed<- table(cards$choice 1) >observe clubs diamonds hearts spades 35 51 64 50 say little a list of how many dey helpful.,Computer science
"looking at it, there's a bit of a hint that people might be more likely to select hearts than clubs, but it's not completely obvious just from looking at it whether that's really true, or if this is just due to chance.","Di bit of hint say pipo go dey more likely to select hearts than club, but e no completely obvious just from looking at am whether dat dey true, or if dis dey just because of luck.",Computer science
"from this point on, we'll treat this table as the data that we're looking to analyse.",We go treat dis table as di data wey we dey looking to analyse,Computer science
"however, since i'm going to have to talk about this data in mathematical terms(sorry!)",I go talk about dis data for mathematical terms(sorry!),Computer science
it might be a good idea to be clear about what the notation is.,Di notation dey clear about what di notation dey.,Computer science
"in r, if i wanted to pull out the number of people that selected diamonds, i could do it by name by typing observed[""diamonds""]but, since""diamonds"" is second element ofthe observed vector, it's equally eective to refer to it as observed[2].","I go pull out di number of pipo wey dey selected diamonds, i go do am by name by typing observed[""diamonds""]but, since""diamonds"" dey di second one of di observed vector, e dey equally ective to talk about am as observed[2].",Computer science
"the mathematical notation for this is pretty similar, except that we shorten the human-readable word\observed"" to the letter o, and we use subscripts rather than brackets: so the second observation in our table is written as observed[2] inr, and is written as o2in maths.","So di second observation for awa table dey written as observed[2] forr, and we use subscript no be brackets.",Computer science
"the relationship between the english descriptions, the rcommands, and the mathematical symbols are illustrated below: label index, imath.","Di how two things dey related di english descriptions, di rcommands, and di signs wey dem use for math dey illustrated below: label index, imath",Computer science
"it's also worth nothing that mathematicians prefer to talk about things in general rather than speci c things, so you'll also see the notation oi, which refers to the number of-352- observations that fall within the i-th category(where icould be 1, 2, 3 or 4).","Di notation oi, wey to talk about di number of-352- observations wey fall within di i-th category(where i go be 1, 2, 3 or 4).",Computer science
"finally, if we want to refer to the set of all observed frequencies, statisticians group all of observed values into a vector, which i'll refer to as o. opo1; o2; o3; o4q again, there's nothing new or interesting here: it's just notation.","For finally, if we wan to talk about di set of all di numbers wey we see, statisticians group all of observed values into vector, wey i goto talk about as o. opo1; o2; o4; o4q again, e dey just notation.",Computer science
"if i say that o p35; 51; 64; 50qall i'm doing is describing the table of observed frequencies(i. e, observed ), but i'm referring to it using mathematical notation, rather than by referring to an rvariable.","Di table of di numbers wey we see(i. e, observed), but i dey referring to di table of di numbers wey we see(i. e, observed), but i dey referring to amusing di way wey math dey write, no be by referring to rvariable.",Computer science
"what we're going to want to do now is translate this into some statistical hypotheses, and construct a statistical test of those hypotheses.","Wetin we go wan do now nato translate dis into some statistics ideas, and construct statistical test for those ideas.",Computer science
"the test that i'm going to describe to you is pearson's 2goodness of t test, and as is so often the case, we have to begin by carefully constructing our null hypothesis.","Di test wey i go describe to you na pearson's 2goodness of t test, and as na so often di case, we go begin by carefully construct our di null idea.",Computer science
"in this case, it's pretty easy.","Di case, e dey easy",Computer science
"first, let's state the null hypothesis in words: h0: all four suits are chosen with equal probability now, because this is statistics, we have to be able to say the same thing in a mathematical way.","For first, let state di null idea for words: h0: all four suits dey chosen wit equal probability now, because dis dey statistics, we get to say di same thing for mathematical way.",Computer science
"to do this, let's use the notation pjto refer to the true probability that the j-th suit is chosen.",Dem use di notation pjto to talk about di true probability say di j-th suit dey chosen.,Computer science
"if the null hypothesis is true, then each ofthe four suits has a 25%chance of being selected: in other words, our null hypothesis claims that p1:25, p2:25, p3:25 and nally that p4: 25.","Di null idea claim say p1:25, p2:25, p4: 25 and nally say p4: 25 and nally say p4: 25 and nally say p4: 25.",Computer science
"however, in the same way that we can group our observed frequencies into a vector othat summarises the entire dataset, we can use pto refer to the probabilities that correspond to our null hypothesis.","Di same way we fit group awa di numbers wey we see into a vector wey dey summarises di entire group of related numbers or data wey belong together, we fit use pto to talk about di probabilities wey dey correspond to awa di null idea.",Computer science
but this doesn't have to be the case.,Di case no fit be di case but dis no fit be di case but dis no fit be di case.,Computer science
"for instance, if the experimental task was for people to imagine they were drawing from a deck that had twice as many clubs as any other suit, then the null hypothesis would correspond to something like p p:4;: 2;:2;: 2q.","If di experimental task dey for pipo to imagine dem dey draw from deck wey dey twice as many clubs as any oda suit, then di null idea go correspond to something like p:4;: 2;",Computer science
"as long as the probabilities are all positive numbers, and they all sum to 1, them it's a perfectly legitimate choice for the null hypothesis.","Di probabilities dey all positive numbers, and dem all add to one, dem dey perfectly legitimate choice for di null idea.",Computer science
"however, the most common use ofthe goodness of t test is to test a null hypothesis that all ofthe categories are equally likely, so we'll stick to that for our example.","Di most common use of di goodness of test nato test di null idea wey all of di categories dey likely, so we goto hold onto dat for awa example.",Computer science
"what about our alternative hypothesis, h1?","Wetin about our di other idea, H1?",Computer science
"all we're really interested in is demonstrating that the probabilities involved aren't all identical(that is, people's choices weren't completely random).","All we dey interested for dey demonstrate say di probabilities wey dey involved no dey all identical(that na, pipo choices no dey completely random).",Computer science
"so maybe what i should do is store the pvector in ras well, since we're almost certainly going to need it later.","Di pvector for ras well, since we get almost certainly go need am later",Computer science
we've stored these in ras the corresponding variables observed and probabilities.,We don store these for ras di corresponding variables observe and probabilities.,Computer science
what we now want to do is construct a test ofthe null hypothesis.,We now wan to construct test of di null idea.,Computer science
"as always, if we want to testh0againsth1, we're going to need a test statistic.","di normal way, if we wan to test null against other, we go need test statistic.",Computer science
"the basic trick that a goodness of t test uses is to construct a test statistic that measures how\close"" the data are to the null hypothesis.","Di basic trick wey a goodness of t test use be to construct test statistic wey measure how\close"" di data dey to di null idea.",Computer science
"if the data don't resemble what you'd\expect"" to see if the null hypothesis were true, then it probably isn't true.","Di data don resemble what you dey expect""to see if di null idea dey true, then probably dey true.",Computer science
"okay, if the null hypothesis were true, what would we expect to see?","If di null idea dey true, we go expect to see?",Computer science
"or, to use the correct terminology, what are the expected frequencies.",Di expected frequencies wey dey expected,Computer science
"there are n200 observations, and (if the null is true)the probability of anyone of them choosing a heart is p3:25, so i guess we're expecting 200: 2550 hearts, right?","Di probability of anyone of dem choosing heart dey p3:25, so i guess we expect 200: 2550 hearts, right?",Computer science
"now, how do we translate this into a test statistic?","Now, how we take translate dis into test statistic?",Computer science
"clearly, what we want to do is compare the expected number of observations in each category( ei)with the observed number of observations in that category(oi).","Clearly, wetin we wan do nato compare di expected number of observations for each category(Ei) with di observed number of observations for dat category(Oi).",Computer science
"and on the basis of this comparison, we ought to be able to come up with a good test statistic.",We go suppose kom up wit good test statistic.,Computer science
"to start with, let's calculate the dierence between what the null hypothesis expected us to nd and what we actually did nd.","Di null idea wey dey expected us to start wit, let's calculate di dierence between what di null idea wey we go nd and what we actually do nd.",Computer science
"that is, we calculate the\observed minus expected"" dierence score, oiei.","Dat mean say, we dey calculate di""observed minus expected""difference score, di observed minus di expected.",Computer science
this is illustrated in the following table.,Di table dey illustrated for di following table.,Computer science
"however, a moment's thought suggests that these raw dierences aren't quite what we're looking for.",Di moment's thought suggest say these raw dierences no dey quite what we dey look for.,Computer science
"intuitively, it feels like it's just as bad when the null hypothesis predicts too few observations(which is what happened with hearts)as -354-it is when it predicts too many(which is what happened with clubs).",E feel like e just bad when di null idea predict too many observations(which dey wey dey happen wit clubs)as -354-,Computer science
so it's a bit weird that we have a negative number for clubs and a positive number for heards.,Di bit weird say we get negative number for club and positive number for heards.,Computer science
"one easy way to x this is to square everything, so that we now calculate the squared dierences, peioiq2.","Di easy way to x dis nato square all, so we now calculate di squared dierences, peioiq2.",Computer science
"as before, we could do this by hand, but it's easier to do it in r.> (observed- expected)^2 clubs diamonds hearts spades 225 1 1960 now we're making progress.",E dey observed- expected)^2 club diamonds hearts spades 225 1 1960 now we go make progress,Computer science
"what we've got now is a collection of numbers that are big whenever the null hypothesis makes a bad prediction(clubs and hearts), but are small whenever it makes a good one(diamonds and spades).","Di collection of numbers wey dey big whenever di null idea make bad prediction(clubs and hearts), but dey small when dem make good one(diamonds and spades).",Computer science
"next, for some technical reasons that i'll explain in a moment, let's also divide all these numbers by the expected frequency ei, so we're actually calculatingpeioiq2 ei.","For some technical reasons wey i dey explain for moment, let's divide all dis numbers by di number wey we expect, so we dey actually calculatingpeioiq2",Computer science
"sinceei50 for all categories in our example, it's not avery interesting calculation, but let's do it anyway.","E no dey interesting calculation, but let's do am anyway.",Computer science
"so, in order to convert this into a useful test statistic, one thing we could do is just add these numbers up.","For order to convert dis into useful test statistic, one thing we go do na just add dis numbers up.",Computer science
"the result is called the goodness of t statistic, conventionally referred to either as x2or gof.","Di result dey call di goodness of t statistic, conventionally referred to either as x2or gof",Computer science
we can calculate it using this command in r>sum( (observed- expected)^2/ expected) [1]8. 44 the formula for this statistic looks remarkably similar to the rcommand.,Di formula for dis statistic look remarkably similar to di rcommand,Computer science
"if we let krefer to the total number of categories(i. e, k4 for our cards data), then the x2statistic is given by: x2k i1poieiq2 ei intuitively, it's clear that if x2is small, then the observed data oiare very close to what the null hypothesis predicted ei, so we're going to need a large x2statistic in order to reject the null.","Di x2k i1poieiq2 na intuitively, e clear say if x2is small, then di observed data oi dey close to what di null idea predict, so we go need large x2statistic for order to reject di null.",Computer science
"as we've seen from our calculations, in our cards dataset we've got a value of x28: 44.","As we see from awa calculation, we get value of x28: 44.",Computer science
"so now the question becomes, is this a big enough value to reject the null?","Di question become, na dis big enough value to reject di null?",Computer science
"however, if you want to understand whythe goodness of t test works the way it does, read on.-355- okay, let's suppose that the null hypothesis is actually true.","If you wan to know why di goodness of t test work di way wey dey suppose, read on.-355-okay, if you wan to know why di goodness of t test work di way wey dey suppose, read on.-355-okay, if you wan to understand say di goodness of t test works di way wey dey true.",Computer science
"if so, then the true probability that an observation falls in the i-th category is pi{after all, that's pretty much the de nition of our null hypothesis.","Di true probability say a observation fall for di i-th category dey pi{after all, na di true probability say a observation fall for di i-th category dey pi{after all, na di true probability say a observation fall for di i-th category dey pipo, and di true probability say a observation fall for di i-th category dey pipo, na pretty much di de nition of our di null idea",Computer science
let's think about what this actually means.,We dey think about what dis actually mean,Computer science
"if you think about it, this is kind of like saying that ature"" makes the decision about whether or not the observation ends up in category iby ipping a weighted coin(i. e, one where the probability of getting ahead is pj).","Di almost like say ature"" make di decision about whether or not di observation end up for category i. e, one wey di probability of getting head dey pj).",Computer science
"and therefore, we can think of our observed frequency oiby imagining that nature ipped nof these coins(one for each observation in the dataset). and exactly oiof them came up heads.",We fit think of awa observed frequency oiby imagining say nature tight nof dis coins(one for each observation for di group of related numbers or data wey belong together)and exactly oiof dem kom up heads.,Computer science
"obviously, this is a pretty weird way to think about the experiment.",E dey pretty weird way to think about di experiment.,Computer science
but what it does(i hope)is remind you that we've actually seen this scenario before.,I hope)dey remind you say we actually see dis scenario before.,Computer science
"in other words as long as npiis large enough{ or, to put it another way, when the expected frequency eiis large enough{ the theoretical distribution of oiis approximately normal.","For other words, as long as n pi dey large enough— or to put am another way, when di number wey we expect Ei dey large enough— di theoretical distribution of Oi dey approximately normal.",Computer science
"better yet, if oiis normally distributed, then so is poieiq{? ei. sinceeiis a xed value, subtracting o eiand dividing by? eichanges the mean and standard deviation ofthe normal distribution; but that's all it does.","As oiis normally distributed, then so dey poieiq",Computer science
"okay, so now let's have a look at what our goodness of t statistic actually is.","Di goodness of t statistic actually dey, so now let's make we look what wey awa goodness of t statistic actually dey.",Computer science
"what we're doing is taking a bunch of things that are normally-distributed, squaring them, and adding them up.","We dey do na taking bunch of things wey dey normally-distributed, squaring dem, and add dem up",Computer science
we've seen that before too!,We dey see say before too,Computer science
so now we know that the null hypothesis predicts that the sampling distribution ofthe goodness of t statistic is a chi-square distribution.,Di null idea predict say di sampling distribution of di goodness of t statistic na chi-square distribution.,Computer science
"there's one last detail to talk about, namely the degrees of freedom.","Di last detail to talk about, namely di degree of freedom",Computer science
what's up with that?,We dey up wit dat?,Computer science
the answer here is that what we're supposed to be looking at is the number of genuinely independent things that are getting added together.,We dey suppose make we look na di number of genuinely independent things wey dey get add together,Computer science
"obviously, it matters: looking figure 12.1 you can see that if we change the degrees of freedom, then the chi-square distribution changes shape quite substantially.","Di figure 12.1 you fit see say if we change di degree of freedom, then di chi-square distribution change shape quite substantially.",Computer science
but what exactly isit?,But what exactly nait? but what exactly nait? but what exactly nait,Computer science
"again, when i introduced the distribution and explained its relationship to the normal distribution, i did oer an answer. it's the number of ormally distributed variables""that i'm squaring and adding together.","Di number of ormally distributed variables"" wey i dey squaring and add together.",Computer science
"but, for most people, that's kind of abstract, and not entirely helpful.","But for most pipo, dat one kind of abstract, and no entirely helpful.",Computer science
what we really need to do is try to understand degrees of freedom in terms of our data.,We go need to understand degree of freedom for terms of our data.,Computer science
so here goes.,Di yarn wey dey go,Computer science
"the basic idea behind degrees of freedom is quite simple: you calculate it by counting up the number of 1i should point out that this issue does complicate the story somewhat: i'm not going to cover it in this book, but there's a sneaky trick that you can do to rewrite the equation for the goodness of t statistic as a sum over k1 independent things.","Di basic idea wey dey behind degree of freedom dey simple: you calculate am by counting up di number of 1i goto show say dis issue dey complicate di story somewhat: i no go cover am for dis book, but na sneaky trick wey you go do to rewrite di equation for di goodness of t statistic as a sum over k1 independent things.",Computer science
"when we do so we get the\proper"" sampling distribution, which is chi-square with k1 degrees of freedom.","We do so we get di\proper"" sampling distribution, wey dey chi-square wit k1 degree of freedom",Computer science
"in fact, in order to get the maths to workout properly, you actually have to rewrite things that way.","For fact, in order to get di maths to workout properly, you suppose get di maths to workout properly, you go rewrite things wey way.",Computer science
but it's beyond the scope of an introductory book to show the maths in that much detail: all i wanted to do is give you a sense of why the goodness of t statistic is associated with the chi-squared distribution.,All i waned to do na give you sense of why di goodness of t statistic dey associated wit di chi-squared distribution.,Computer science
"distinct\quantities"" that are used to describe your data; and then subtracting o all ofthe \constraints""that those data must satisfy. 2this is a bit vague, so let's use our cards data as a concrete example.",Dem use awa card data as one real example.,Computer science
"we describe out data using four numbers, o1, o2, o3ando4corresponding to the observed frequencies ofthe four dierent categories(hearts, clubs, diamonds, spades).","we dey talk about our numbers using four numbers, wey correspond to di numbers wey we see of di four different categories(di four types for card).",Computer science
these four numbers are the random outcomes of our experiment.,Di four numbers dey di random outcomes of awa experiment.,Computer science
"but, my experiment actually has a xed constraint built into it: the sample sizen. 3that is, if we know how many people chose hearts, how many chose diamonds and how many chose clubs; then we'd be able to gure out exactly how many chose spades.","Na, if we know how many pipo choose hearts, how many chose diamonds and how many chose club; then we go gure out exactly how many chose spades.",Computer science
"in other words, although our data are described using four numbers, they only actually correspond to 4 13 degrees of freedom.","Di data described using four numbers, dem only actually correspond to 4 13 degree of freedom",Computer science
"a slightly dierent way of thinking about it is to notice that there are four probabilities that we're interested in(again, corresponding to the four dierent categories), but these probabilities must sum to one, which imposes a constraint.","Na four probabilities wey we dey interest for(again, corresponding to di four di categories), but e must sum to one, wey dey impose constraint.",Computer science
"therefore, the degrees of freedom is 413.",Di degree of freedom dey 413.,Computer science
"regardless of whether you want to think about it in terms ofthe observed frequencies or in terms ofthe probabilities, the answer is the same.",Di answer na di same.,Computer science
"in general, when running the chi-square goodness of t test for an experiment involving kgroups, then the degrees of freedom will be k1.","For general, when running di chi-square goodness of fit test for experiment wey involve k groups, den di how many things you fit adjust inside a system go be k−1.",Computer science
"that is, what values of x2would lead is to reject the null hypothesis.",Di value of x2 go lead nato reject di null idea.,Computer science
"as we saw earlier, 2i feel obliged to point out that this is an over-simpli cation.","As we saw earlier, 2i feel oblige to show say dis na over-simpli cation",Computer science
it works nicely for quite a few situations; but every now and then we'll come across degrees of freedom values that aren't whole numbers.,But every now and then we go come across degree of freedom values wey dey whole numbers; but every now and then we go come across degree of freedom values wey dey whole numbers.,Computer science
"don't let this worry you too much{ when you come across this, just remind yourself that\degrees of freedom""is actually a bit of a messy concept, and that the nice simple story that i'm telling you here isn't the whole story.","We dey kom across dis, just remind yourself say how many things you fit adjust inside a system dey actually a bit of messy concept, and say di nice simple story wey i dey tell you here no dey di whole story",Computer science
"for an introductory class, it's usually best to stick to the simple story: but i gure it's best to warn you to expect this simple story to fall apart.",I gure na best to tell you make you know to expect dis simple story to fall apart,Computer science
"if i didn't give you this warning, you might start getting confused when you see df3: 4 or something; and (incorrectly)thinking that you had misunderstood something that i've taught you, rather than(correctly) realising that there's something that i haven't told you.","As you see df3: 4 or something; and (incorrectly)thinking say you don misunderstood something wey i dey taught you, no be(correctly) realising say na something wey i don tell you.",Computer science
"e. g, we might run the experiment over a xed period of time, and the number of people participating depends on how many people show up.","We go run di experiment over xed period of time, and di number of pipo wey dey participate depend on how many pipo show up.",Computer science
that doesn't matter for the current purposes.,E no matter for di current purposes,Computer science
"large values of x2imply that the null hypothesis has done a poor job of predicting the data from our experiment, whereas small values of x2imply that it's actually done pretty well.","Di null idea don do poor job of predict di data from awa experiment, whereas small values of x2imply say di null idea don do poor job of predict di data from awa experiment, whereas small values of x2imply say di null idea don do well.",Computer science
"therefore, a pretty sensible strategy would be to say there is some critical value, such that if x2is bigger than the critical value we reject the null; but if x2is smaller than this value we retain the null.",Di very sensible strategy go be say if x2is smaller than di critical value wey we reject di null; but if x2is smaller than dis value we dey retain di null; but if x2is smaller than dis value we retain di null.,Computer science
"right, so all we have to do is gure out what this critical value is.","Di critical value dey, so all we go do na gure out what dis critical value dey.",Computer science
and it's pretty straightforward.,E dey straightforward and e dey clear,Computer science
"if we want our test to have signi cance level of: 05(that is, we are willing to tolerate a type i error rate of 5%), then we have to choose our critical value so that there is only a 5%chance that x2could get to be that big if the null hypothesis is true.","We dey willing to tolerate type i error rate of 5%), then we go choose awa critical value so say na only 5%chance say x2 go get big if di null idea dey true.",Computer science
"that is to say, we want the 95th percentile ofthe sampling distribution.","Dat mean say, we wan di 95th percentile of di sampling distribution.",Computer science
this is illustrated in figure 12.2.,Dem dey illustrate for figure 12.,Computer science
"ah, but {i hear you ask{ how do i calculate the 95th percentile of a chi-squared distribution with k1 degrees of freedom?","Ah, but —I hear you ask— how I go calculate di 95th percentile of chi-squared distribution with k minus 1 freedom?",Computer science
"like this.> qchisq( p=.95, df=3) [1]7. 814728 so if ourx2statistic is bigger than 7. 81 or so, then we can reject the null hypothesis.","Like dis.> qchisq(p = 0.95, df = 3)[1] 7.814728. So if our χ2 statistic dey bigger than 7.81 or so, den we fit reject di null idea.",Computer science
"since we actually calculated that before(i. e, x28: 44)we can reject the null.","We actually calculat say before(i. e, x28:44) we go reject di null",Computer science
we want the opposite: the probability of getting a value of 8. 44 or more.,We wan di opposite: di probability of getting value of 8.44 or more.,Computer science
"and that's it, basically.","Di's e, basically.",Computer science
"you now know \pearson's 2test for the goodness oft"".",Dem know \pearson's 2test for di goodness of t,Computer science
"although we did manage to do everything in ras we were going through that little example, it does rather feel as if we're typing too many things into the magic computing box.","We don manage to do things for ras wey dey go through dat little example, e go feel as if we dey typ too many things into di magic computing box.",Computer science
andi hate typing.,andI no like to write.,Computer science
"not surprisingly, rprovides a function that will do all of these calculations for you.",Di function wey go do all of dis calculations for you.,Computer science
"in fact, there are several dierent ways of doing it.",E dey several dierent way wey dey do am,Computer science
"it's pretty straightforward: our raw data are stored in the variable cards$choice 1, right?","Di first numbers dey store for di variable cards$choice 1, right?",Computer science
"if you want to test the null hypothesis that all four suits are equally likely, then (assuming you have the lsrpackage loaded)all you have to do is type this:> goodnessoffittest( cards$choice 1) rthen runs the test, and prints several lines of text.","Di goodnessoffittest( card$choice 1) rthen run di test, and print several lines of text.",Computer science
"i'll go through the output line by line, so that you can make sure that you understand what you're looking at.","I go through di output line by line, so say you fit make sure say you understand what you dey make we look.",Computer science
"the rst two lines are just telling you things you already know: chi-square test against specified probabilities data variable: cards$choice 1 the rst line tells us what kind of hypothesis test we ran, and the second line tells us the name ofthe variable that we ran it on.","cards$choice 1 di rst line tell us what kind of hypothesis test wey we ran, and di second line tell us di name of di variable wey we ran am on.",Computer science
"after that comes a statement of what the null and alternative hypotheses are: hypotheses: null: true probabilities areas specified alternative: true probabilities differ from those specified for a beginner, it's kind of handy to have this as part ofthe output: it's a nice reminder of what your null and alternative hypotheses are.","Di null and other ideas: null: true probabilities differ from those wey dey specified for beginner, e kind of handy to get di statement of what di null and other ideas dey.",Computer science
don't get used to seeing this though.,E no get used to seeing dis though,Computer science
the vast majority of hypothesis tests in raren't so kind to novices.,Di most part of hypothesis tests for R no be so kind to novices.,Computer science
"most rfunctions are written on the assumption that you already understand the statistical tool that you're using, so they don't bother to include an explicit statement ofthe null and alternative hypothesis.","Di most rfunctions dey write on di assumption say you dey understand di statistical tool wey you use, so dem no dey bother to include explicit statement of di null and di other idea.",Computer science
the only reason that goodnessoffittest() actually does give you this is that i wrote it with novices in mind.,Di only reason say goodnessoffittest() actually don give you dis na say i write am wit novices for mind.,Computer science
the next part ofthe output shows you the comparison between the observed frequencies and the expected frequencies: descriptives: observed freq.,Di next part of di output to show you di comparison between di numbers wey we see and di expected frequencies: descriptives: observed freq.,Computer science
"clubs 35 500. 25 diamonds 51 500. 25-359- hearts 64 500. 25 spades 50 500. 25 the rst column shows what the observed frequencies were, the second column shows the expected frequencies according to the null hypothesis, and the third column shows you what the probabilities actually were according to the null.","Di second up-down show say di numbers wey we see dey according to di null idea, and di second up-down show say di probabilities wey dey according to di null.",Computer science
"for novice users, i think this is helpful: you can look at this part ofthe output and check that it makes sense: if it doesn't you might have typed something incorrecrtly.",I think dis dey helpful: you fit make we look dis part of di output and check say e make sense: if e no fit type something incorrecrtly,Computer science
"the last part ofthe output is the\important"" stu: it's the result ofthe hypothesis test itself.",E dey di result of di hypothesis test amself.,Computer science
"there are three key numbers that need to be reported: the value ofthe x2statistic, the degrees of freedom, and thep-value: test results: x-squared statistic:8. 44 degrees of freedom:3 p-value:0. 038 notice that these are the same numbers that we came up with when doing the calculations the long way.","three important numbers wey need to dey reported: di value of di χ2 statistic, di how many things you fit adjust inside a system, and dip-value: test results: χ2 = 8.44, df = 3, p= 0.038. Notice say dese na di same numbers wey we come up with when doing di calculations di long way.",Computer science
"for instance, let's suppose that someone had made the theoretical prediction that people should choose red cards 60%of the time, and black cards 40%of the time(i've no idea why you'd predict that), but had no other preferences.","for example, let suppose say someone don make di theoretical prediction say pipo go choose red card 60%of di time, and black card 40%of di time(i no idea why you predict dat), but nano oda preferences.",Computer science
"if that were the case, the null hypothesis would be to expect 30%of the choices to be hearts,30% to be diamonds,20% to be spades and 20%to be clubs.","If dat be di case, di null idea go be to expect 30%of di choices to be hearts,30% to be diamonds,20% to be spades, and 20%to be clubs.",Computer science
"this seems like a silly theory tome, and it's pretty easy to test it using our data.","Dis seem like a silly theory tome, and e dey easy to test amusing our data.",Computer science
all we need to do is specify the probabilities associated with the null hypothesis.,All we need to do dey specify di probabilities wey dey associated wit di null idea.,Computer science
this time round i'll use the argument names properly.,Di time round i go use di argument name properly,Computer science
"as a consequence our x2test statistic is dierent, and our p-value is dierent too.","as result awa x2test statistic na dierent, and awa p-value na dierent too.",Computer science
"annoyingly, thep-value is.192, so we can't reject the null hypothesis.","Dip-value dey. 192, so we no reject di null idea.",Computer science
"sadly, despite the fact that the null hypothesis corresponds to avery silly theory, these data don't provide enough evidence against it.","Despite di fact say di null idea correspond to very silly theory, dis data don provide evidence against am.",Computer science
the next thing you need to know is how to write up the results.,Di next thing you need know na how to write up di results,Computer science
"after all, there's no point in designing and running an experiment and then analysing the data if you don't tell anyone about it!",Nano point for designing and running an experiment and then analyse di data if you no tell anyone about it,Computer science
so let's now talk about what you need to do when reporting your analysis.,So make we now talk about wetin you need do when reporting your analysis.,Computer science
let's stick with our card-suits example.,Make we stick with our card-suits example.,Computer science
"if i wanted to write this result up for a paper or something, the conventional way to report this would be to write something like this: ofthe 200 participants in the experiment,64 selected hearts for their rst choice,51 selected diamonds,50 selected spades, and 35 selected clubs.","If I wan write dis result for paper or something, di conventional way to report dis go be to write something like dis:""Of di 200 participants for di experiment,64 select hearts for dia first choice,51 select diamonds,50 select spades, and 35 select clubs.""",Computer science
a chi-square goodness of t test was conducted to test whether the choice probabilities were identical for all four suits.,Di chi-square goodness of t test don conduct to test whether di choice probabilities dey identical for all four suits.,Computer science
"the results were signi cant( 2p3q8: 44; p: 05), suggesting that people did not select suits purely at random.","Di results dey signi cant( 2p3q8: 44; p: 05), suggest say pipo no select suits purely at random",Computer science
"this is pretty straightforward, and hopefully it seems pretty unremarkable.","E dey straightforward, and hopefully e dey pretty unremarkable",Computer science
"that said, there's a few things that you should note about this description: the statistical test is preceded by the descriptive statistics.",Di statistical test dey follow di numbers wey describe,Computer science
"that is, i told the reader something about what the data look like before going onto do the test.",I tell di reader something about how di data look like before going onto do di test,Computer science
"in general, this is good practice: always remember that your reader doesn't know your data anywhere near aswell as you do.",always remember say your reader no know your data anywhere near aswell as you do.,Computer science
"so unless you describe it to them properly, the statistical tests won't make any sense to them, and they'll get frustrated and cry.","Di statistical tests no make any sense to dem, and dem go get frustrated and cry.",Computer science
the description tells you what the null hypothesis being tested is.,Di description tell you what di null idea wey dey tested na.,Computer science
"to be honest, writers don't always do this, but it's often a good idea in those situations where some ambiguity exists; or when you can't rely on your readership being intimately familiar with the statistical tools that you're using.","Di writers don always do dis, but e dey often good idea for dis situation wey some ambiguity exist; or wen you dey rely on your readership being intimately familiar wit di statistical tools wey you use.",Computer science
"quite often the reader might not know(or remember)all the details ofthe test that your using, so it's a kind of politeness to emind"" them!","Di reader no know(or remember)all di details of di test wey you use, so e kind of politeness to emind"" dem",Computer science
"as far as the goodness of t test goes, you can usually rely on a scienti c audience knowing how it works(since it's covered in most intro stats classes).","as for di goodness of t test go, you go rely on scienti c audience know howe work(since e dey covered for most intro stats class).",Computer science
"however, it's still a good idea to be explicit about stating the null hypothesis(brie y!)",But e still good idea to dey clear about talking di null idea(briefly!),Computer science
because the null hypothesis can be dierent depending on what you're using the test for.,Di null idea go dey based on what you use di test for.,Computer science
"for instance, in the cards example my null hypothesis was that all the four suit probabilities were identical(i. e, p1p2p3p40: 25), but there's nothing special about that hypothesis.","Di card example my di null idea na say all di four suit probabilities dey identical(i. e, p1p2p3p40: 25), but nothing special about dat hypothesis.",Computer science
so it's helpful to the reader if you explain to them what your null hypothesis was.,E dey helpful to di reader if you explain to dem what your di null idea was,Computer science
"also, notice that i described the null hypothesis in words, not in maths.","Di notice say i described di null idea for words, no for maths.",Computer science
that's perfectly acceptable.,E dey perfectly acceptable,Computer science
"you can-361- describe it in maths if you like, but since most readers nd words easier to read than symbols, most writers tend to describe the null using words if they can.","Di readers go describe di null wey dem like, but since most readers go describe di null wey dem like, but since most readers go describe di null wey dem dey like, but since most readers go describe di null wey dem use symbols, most writers go describe di null using words if dem fit read",Computer science
"a\stat block""is included.","Di\stat block""dey include.",Computer science
"when reporting the results ofthe test itself, i didn't just say that the result was signi cant, i included a\stat block""(i. e, the dense mathematical-looking part in the parentheses), which reports all the aw""statistical data.","E. e, di dense mathematical-looking part for di parentheses), wey reports all di aw""statistical data.",Computer science
"for the chi-square goodness of t test, the information that gets reported is the test statistic(that the goodness of t statistic was 8. 44), the information about the distribution used in the test( 2with 3 degrees of freedom, which is usually shortened to 2p3q), and then the information about whether the result was signi cant(in this casep:05).","For di chi-square goodness of t test, di information wey get reported na di test statistic( say di goodness of t statistic na 8. 44), di information about di distribution wey dey use for di test( 2with 3 how many things you fit adjust inside a system, wey dey shortened to 2p3q), and then di information about whether di result dey signi cant(in dis casep:05).",Computer science
"the particular information that needs to go into the stat block is dierent for every test, and so each time i introduce anew test i'll show you what the stat block should look like. 4however the general principle is that you should always provide enough information so that the reader could check the test results themselves if they really wanted to.",Di general principle na say you go provide enough information so say di reader go check di test results themselves if dem really wan to.,Computer science
the results are interpreted.,Di results dey interpret.,Computer science
"in addition to indicating that the result was signi cant, i provided an interpretation ofthe result(i. e, that people didn't choose randomly).","I provide interpretation of di result(i. e, say pipo no go choose randomly).",Computer science
"this is also a kindness to the reader, because it tells them something about what they should believe about what's going on in your data.",Di kindness wey di reader dey tell dem something about what dem goon for your data.,Computer science
"if you don't include something like this, it's really hard for your reader to understand what's going on.5 as with everything else, your overriding concern should be that you explain things to your reader.",Di overriding concern go be say you explain things to your reader,Computer science
always remember that the point of reporting your results is to communicate to another human being.,Di point of reporting your results nato communicate to another human being.,Computer science
"there's something that feels a bit wrong with writing\ 2p3q8: 44"", you might be thinking.","Di thing wey feel a bit wrong wit writing\ 2p3q8: 44"", you go think.",Computer science
"after all, it's the goodness of t statistic that is equal to 8. 44, so shouldn't i have written x28: 44 or maybe gof8: 44?",I don write x28: 44 or maybe gof8: 44?,Computer science
"this seems to be con ating the sampling distribution(i. e, 2withdf3) with the test statistic(i. e, x2).","Dis one seem to dey confuse di sampling distribution(i. e, χ2 with df=3)with di test statistic(i. e, χ2).",Computer science
"odds are you gured it was a typo, since andxlook pretty similar.","Di odds na you gured na typo, since andxlook pretty similar",Computer science
"oddly, it's not.",E no dey.,Computer science
"writing 2p3q8: 44 is essentially a highly condensed way of writing he sampling distribution ofthe test statistic is 2p3q, and the value ofthe test statistic is 8. 44"".","Di essentially highly condensed way of writing hin sampling distribution of di test statistic na 2p3q, and di value of di test statistic na 8. 44"".",Computer science
"in one sense, this is kind of stupid.",Di kind of stupid.,Computer science
"there are lotsof dierent test statistics out there that turnout to have a chi-square sampling distribution: the x2statistic that we've used for our goodness of t test is 4well, sort of.","Di x2statistic wey we use for awa goodness of t test na 4well, sort of.",Computer science
"the conventions for how statistics should be reported tend to dier somewhat from discipline to discipline; i've tended to stick with how things are done in psychology, since that's what i do.","I dey suppose stick wit how things dey done for psychology, since dat's what i do.",Computer science
"but the general principle of providing enough information to the reader to allow them to check your results is pretty universal, i think.","Di general principle of providing enough information to di reader to allow dem check your results dey universal, i think.",Computer science
"that's true as far as it goes, but i think people often interpret it way too literally.","I think pipo often interpret am way too literally, but i think pipo often interpret am way too literally",Computer science
"then, in the discussion, i try to tell a bigger story; about how my results t with the rest ofthe scienti c literature.","Den, for di discussion, I try tell bigger story; about how my results dey fit with di rest of di scientific literature.",Computer science
being understood by your reader is much more important.,Di reader dey important,Computer science
"in a sensible, perfectly organised world, we'd always have a separate name for the test statistic and the sampling distribution: that way, the stat block itself would tell you exactly what it was that the researcher had calculated.",Di stat block wey dey always get separate name for di test statistic and di sampling distribution.,Computer science
sometimes this happens.,Na sometimes dis happen,Computer science
"for instance, the test statistic used in the pearson goodness of t test is written x2; but there's a closely related test known as the g-test6(sokal & rohlf, 1994), in which the test statistic is written asg.",Di test statistic wey dey use for pearson goodness of t test dey written asg.,Computer science
"as it happens, the pearson goodness of t test and the g-test both test the same null hypothesis; and the sampling distribution is exactly the same(i. e, chi-square with k1 degrees of freedom).","Di pearson goodness of t test and dig-test both test di same di null idea; and di sampling distribution dey exactly di same(i. e, chi-square wit k1 degree of freedom).",Computer science
"if i'd done ag-test for the cards data rather than a goodness of t test, then i'd have ended up with a test statistic ofg8: 65, which is slightly dierent from the x28: 44 value that i got earlier; and produces a slightly smaller p-value ofp: 034.","Di test statistic ofg8: 65, wey dey slightly dierent from di x28: 44 value wey i get earlier; and produce slightly smaller p-value ofp: 034.",Computer science
"suppose that the convention was to report the test statistic, then the sampling distribution, and then the p-value.","Di convention dey report di test statistic, then di sampling distribution, and then dip-value.",Computer science
"if that were true, then these two situations would produce dierent stat blocks: my original result would be written x28: 44; 2p3q; p: 038, whereas the new version using the g-test would be written as g8: 65; 2p3q; p: 034.","If dat be true, den dese two situations go produce different stat blocks: my original result go write as di first way, while di new version using diG-test go write as G= 8.65, χ2(3), p= 0.034.",Computer science
"however, using the condensed reporting standard, the original result is written 2p3q8: 44; p: 038, and the new one is written2p3q8: 65; p: 034, and so it's actually unclear which test i actually ran.","Di original result dey written 2p3q8: 44; p: 038, and di new one dey written 2p3q8: 65; p: 034, and di new one dey written 2p3q8: 65; p: 034, and di new one dey written 2p3q8: 65; p: 034, and di new one dey written 2p3q8: 65; p: 034, and di new one dey written 2p3q8: 65; p: 034, and so",Computer science
the deep reason is that life is messy.,Di deep reason na say life dey messy,Computer science
"we(as users of statistical tools)want it to be nice and neat and organised. we want it to be designed, as if it were a product.","We(as users of statistical tools)wan am to be nice and neat and organised. we wan am to be designed, as if e be product.",Computer science
"but that's not how life works: statistics is an intellectual discipline just as much as any other one, and as such it's a massively distributed, partly-collaborative and partly-competitive project that no-one really understands completely.","Di statistics dey intellectual discipline just as much as any oda one, and as e dey massively distributed, partly-collaborative and partly-competitive project wey no dey understand completely.",Computer science
"the things that you andi use as data analysis tools weren't created by an act ofthe gods of statistics; they were invented by lots of dierent people, published as papers in academic journals, implemented, corrected and modi ed by lots of other people, and then explained to students in textbooks by someone else.","Di things wey you andi use as to study numbers tools no dey create by di act of di gods of statistics; dem dey invented by lots of pipo wey dey publish as paper for academic journals, implemented, correct and modi ed by lots of oda pipo, and then explain to students for textbooks by someone else.",Computer science
"as a consequence, there's a lotof test statistics that don't even have names; and as a consequence they're just given the same name as the corresponding sampling distribution.",Di lot of test statistics wey don even get name; and as result dem don give di same name as di corresponding sampling distribution.,Computer science
"as we'll see later, any test statistic that follows a 2distribution is commonly called a\chi-square statistic""; anything that follows at-distribution is called a\t-statistic"" and soon.","As we see later, any test statistic wey follow 2distribution dey commonly call a t-stationistic"" and soon.",Computer science
"but, as the x2versusgexample illustrates, two dierent things with the same sampling distribution are still, well, dierent.","As di x2versusgexample illustrate, two dierent things wit di same sampling distribution dey still, well, dierent",Computer science
"as a consequence, it's sometimes a good idea to be clear about what the actual test was that you ran, especially if you're doing something unusual.","E dey good idea to clear about what di actual test dey dat you ran, especially if you dey do something unusual.",Computer science
"if you just say\chi-square test"", it's not actually clear what test you're talking about.","If you just say\chi-square test"", e no clear what test you dey talking about.",Computer science
"nevertheless, it's something to be aware of.",E dey something wey dey to know.,Computer science
guardbot 2: be you robot or human?,Di robot or human?,Computer science
leela: robot. we be.,one talk from a show.,Computer science
"fry: uh, yup!",another talk!,Computer science
just two robots out roboting it up!,But two robots out robotin am up!,Computer science
guardbot 1: administer the test.,E dey administer di test,Computer science
guardbot 2: which ofthe following would you most prefer?,which of di following go you prefer?,Computer science
"a: a puppy, b: a pretty ower from your sweetie, or c: a large properly-formatted data le?","A: a puppy, B: a pretty flower from your sweetie, or C: a large properly-formatted data file?",Computer science
guardbot 1: choose!,one way to tell make dem choose!,Computer science
"apparently, in order to gain access to their capital city, a visitor must prove that they're a robot, not a human.","For order to gain access to dia capital city, visitor must prove say dem dey robot, no human",Computer science
"in order to determine whether or not visitor is human, they ask whether the visitor prefers puppies, owers or large, properly formatted data les.","Di visitor ask whether or no visitor dey human, dem ask whether di visitor prefer puppies, owers or large, properly formatted data les.",Computer science
"that probably wouldn't be avery good test then, would it?""","Di test wey probably no fit be good test then, would am?",Computer science
"as it happens, i got my hands on the testing data that the civil authorities ofchapek 9 used to check this.",I get my hands on di testing data wey di civil authorities ofchapek 9 use check dis.,Computer science
it turns out that what they did was very simple. they found a bunch of robots and a bunch of humans and asked them what they preferred.,Dem find a bunch of robots and a bunch of humans and dem ask dem what dem preferred.,Computer science
"speci cally, there's 93 humans and 87 robots; and overwhelmingly the preferred choice is the data le.",Di preferred choice dey di data le.,Computer science
"however, these summaries don't address the question we're interested in.",Di summaries don address di question wey we dey interest for.,Computer science
"to do that, we need a more detailed description ofthe data.",We need more thorough description of di data.,Computer science
what we want to do is look at the choices broken down byspecies.,Di choice wey we wan to do dey make we look di choice wey we dey broken down byspecies,Computer science
"there's quite a few ways to do this, as we've seen, but since our data are stored in a data frame, it's convenient to use the xtabs() function.","We dey see, but since awa data dey store for one kind of table, e dey convenient to use di xtabs() function",Computer science
"so, if we add the row and column totals(which is convenient for the purposes of explaining the statistical tests), we would have a table like this, robot human total puppy 13 15 28 flower 30 13 43 data le 44 65 109 total 87 93 180 which actually would be a nice way to report the descriptive statistics for this dataset.","Di table like dis, robot human total puppy 13 15 28 flower 30 13 43 data le 44 65 109 total 87 93 180 wey dey nice way to report di statistical tests for dis group of related numbers or data wey belong together.",Computer science
"in any case, it's quite clear that the vast majority ofthe humans chose the data le, whereas the robots tended to be alot more even in their preferences.","E dey clear say di most part of di humans dey choose di data le, whereas di robots dey suppose get lot more even for dia preferences.",Computer science
"leaving aside the question of whythe humans might be more likely to choose the data le for the moment(which does seem quite odd, admittedly), our rst order of business is to determine if the discrepancy between human choices and robot choices in the dataset is statistically signi cant.",Di rst order of business dey to determine if di discrepancy between human choice and robot choices for di group of related numbers or data wey belong together dey statistically signi cant.,Computer science
"speci cally, since my research hypothesis is that\humans and robots answer the question in dierent ways"", how can i construct a test ofthe nullhypothesis that\humans and robots answer the question the same way""?","Di research hypothesis na say\humans and robots answer di question for di same way"", how fit i construct test of di nullhypothesis say\humans and robots answer di question di same way""?",Computer science
"as before, we begin by establishing some notation to describe the data: robot human total puppy o11o12r1 flower o21o22r2 data le o31o32r3 total c1c2n in this notation we say that oijis a count(observed frequency)of the number of respondents that are of speciesj(robots or human)who gave answer i(puppy, ower or data)when asked to make a choice.","We begin by establish some signs to describe di data: robot human total puppy o11o12r1 flower o21o22r2 data le o31o32r3 total c1c2n for dis notation we tok say oijis a count(observed frequency)of di number of respondents wey dey of speciesj(robots or human) wey give answer i(puppy, ower or data) wey asked to make choice.",Computer science
"the total number of observations is written n, as usual.","Di total number of observations dey written n, as normal",Computer science
"finally, i've used rito denote the row totals(e. g, r1is the total number of people who chose the ower), and cjto denote the column totals(e. g, c1is the total number of robots).7 so now let's think about what the null hypothesis says.","I use rito denote di row totals(e. g, r1is di total number of pipo wey dey choose di ower), and cjto denote di column totals(e. g, c1is di total number of pipo wey dey choose di ower), and cjto denote di column totals(e. g, c1is di total number of pipo wey dey choose di ower), and cjto denote di column totals(e. g,",Computer science
"if robots and humans are responding in the same way to the question, it means that the probability that robot says puppy""is the same as the probability that human says puppy"", and soon for the other two possibilities.","Di probability say robots and humans dey respond for di same way to di question, e mean say di probability wey human says puppy""na di same as di probability wey human says puppy"", and soon for di oda two possibilities.",Computer science
"and actually, since the null hypothesis is claiming that the true choice probabilities don't depend on the species ofthe person making the choice, we can let pirefer to this probability: e. g, p1is the true probability of choosing the puppy.","E. g, p1is di true probability of choosing di puppy.",Computer science
"the way i've described the test pretends that the column totals are xed (i. e, the researcher intended to survey 87 robots and 93 humans)and the row totals are random(i. e, it just turned out that 28 people chose the puppy).","Di way i described di test pretend say di column totals dey xed (i. e, di researcher dey suppose to survey 87 robots and 93 humans)and di row totals dey random(i. e, e just turnout say 28 pipo choose di puppy)and di row totals dey random(i. e, e just turnout say 28 pipo choose di puppy).",Computer science
"to use the terminology from my mathematical statistics textbook(hogg, mckean, &craig, 2005)i should technically refer to this situation as a chi-square test of homogeneity; and reserve the term chi-square test of independence for the situation where both the row and column totals are random outcomes ofthe experiment.",I go technically to talk about dis situation as chi-square test of homogeneity; and reserve di term chi-square test of independence for di situation wey both di row and column totals dey random outcomes of di experiment.,Computer science
in the initial drafts of this book that's exactly what i did.,Di initial draft of dis book wey dey exactly what i dey do.,Computer science
"however, it turns out that these two tests are identical; and so i've collapsed them together.",E turnout say dis two tests dey identical; and so i dey collapse dem together,Computer science
"that is, for each ofthe observed counts oij, we need to gure out what the null hypothesis would tell us to expect.",We need to gure out what di null idea go tell us to expect.,Computer science
let's denote this expected frequency by eij.,Dem denote dis di number wey we expect by eij,Computer science
"this time, it's a little bit trickier.","Di time, na little bit trickier",Computer science
"if there area total of cjpeople that belong to species j, and the true probability of anyone(regardless of species)choosing option iispi, then the expected frequency is just: eijcjpi now, this is all very well and good, but we have a problem.","Di number wey we expect dey just: eijcjpi now, dis dey all well and good, but we get problem.",Computer science
"unlike the situation we had with the goodness of t test, the null hypothesis doesn't actually specify a particular value for pi.",Di null idea no dey specify a particular value for pi.,Computer science
"fortunately, this is pretty easy to do.",E dey easy to do.,Computer science
"if 28 out of 180 people selected the owers, then a natural estimate for the probability of choosing owers is 28{180, which is approximately: 16.","Di natural estimate for di probability of choosing owers na 28{180, wey dey approximately: 16. 16. 16.",Computer science
"if we phrase this in mathematical terms, what we're saying is that our estimate for the probability of choosing option iis just the row total divided by the total sample size: ^piri n therefore, our expected frequency can be written as the product(i. e.","If we phrase dis for mathematical terms, wetin we dey say na say our guess for di chance to pick option i na just di total for one line divided by di total sample size: p̂i = RiN. Therefore, our di number wey we expect fit write as product(i. e, di math way).",Computer science
"multiplication)of the row total and the column total, divided by the total number of observations:8 eijricj n now that we've gured out how to calculate the expected frequencies, it's straightforward to de ne a test statistic; following the exact same strategy that we used in the goodness of t test.","Na 8 eijricj n now say we dey gured out how to calculate di expected frequencies, e straightforward to dey calculate di expected frequencies wey we use for di goodness of t test.",Computer science
"in fact, it's pretty much the same statistic.",E dey pretty much di same statistic.,Computer science
"for a contingency table with rrows andccolumns, the equation that de nes ourx2statistic is x2r i1c j1peijoijq2 eij the only dierence is that i have to include two summation sign(i. e,)to indicate that we're summing over both rows and columns.","Di only dierence na say we get two summation sign(i. e,)to indicate say we dey summin over both row and columns.",Computer science
"as before, large values of x2indicate that the null hypothesis provides a poor description ofthe data, whereas small values of x2suggest that it does a good job of accounting for the data.","as before, big chi‐square numbers dey show say di null idea provide poor description of di data, while small values of χ2 suggest say e do good job of accounting for di data.",Computer science
"therefore, just like last time, we want to reject the null hypothesis if x2is too large.","Di last time, we go reject di null idea if x2is too large",Computer science
"not surprisingly, this statistic is 2distributed.",Di statistic dey 2distributed,Computer science
"all we need to do is gure out how many degrees of freedom are involved, which actually isn't too hard.","Di all we need to do dey gure out how many things you fit adjust inside a system dey involved, we no dey too hard.",Computer science
"as i mentioned before, you can(usually) think ofthe degrees of freedom as being equal to the number of data points that you're analysing, minus the number of constraints.","I mention before, you fit think of di degree of freedom as e dey equal to di how many data wey you dey analyse, minus di number of constraints.",Computer science
"a contingency table with rrows andccolumns contains a total of rcobserved frequencies, so that's the total number of observations.","one table wey dey show how two things connect wey get r lines and cup-downs contain total of r×c di numbers wey we see, so dat na di total number of observations.",Computer science
what about the constraints?,Di constraints?,Computer science
"here, it's slightly trickier.",E dey tricker,Computer science
the answer is always the same dfpr1qpc1q but the explanation for whythe degrees of freedom takes this value is dierent depending on the experimental design.,Di answer dey always di same dfpr1qpc1q but di explanation for why di degree of freedom take dis value based on di experimental design.,Computer science
"for the sake of argument, let's suppose that we had honestly intended to survey exactly 87 robots and 93 humans(column totals xed by the experimenter), but left the row totals free to vary(row totals are random variables).","For di sake of argument, make we suppose say we get honestly intended to survey 87 robots and 93 humans(column totals wey dey xed by di experimenter), but dey left di total for one line free to vary(row totals dey random variables).",Computer science
let's think about the constraints that apply here.,We go think about di constraint wey dey apply here,Computer science
"well, since we deliberately xed the column totals by act of experimenter, we have cconstraints right there.","Na since we deliberately xed di column total by act of experimenter, we get cconstraint right there.",Computer science
"but, there's actually more to it than that.",Di actually more to dey than dat,Computer science
"remember how our null hypothesis had some free parameters(i. e, we had to estimate the pivalues)?","Di null idea don get some free parameters(i. e, we don estimate di pivalues)?",Computer science
those matter too.,Di matter too.,Computer science
"so, how many of those are there?",How many of those dey there?,Computer science
"but since no-one else does, i won't either.","I no go either but since no-one else does, i no go either.",Computer science
so our total degrees of freedom is: df(number of observations)(number of constraints) prcqpc,Di total degree of freedom dey: df(number of observation)(number of constraints) prcqpc,Computer science
"this time around our reasoning would be slightly dierent, but would still lead is to the same answer.","Di time around awa reasoning go be slightly dierent, but go still lead nato di same answer.",Computer science
"our null hypothesis still has r1 free parameters corresponding to the choice probabilities, but it now alsohasc1 free parameters corresponding to the species probabilities, because we'd also have to estimate the probability that a randomly sampled person turns out to be a robot. 9finally, since we did actually x the total number of observations n, that's one more constraint.","Di null idea still get r1 free parameters wey dey corresponding to di choice probabilities, but e now also get estimate di probability say a randomly sampled person turnout to be robot. 9finally, since we don estimate di probability say a randomly sampled person turnout to be robot",Computer science
"so now we have, rc observations, and pc1q","So now we get, r times c data, and di freedom limits.",Computer science
what does that give?,wetin e go give?,Computer science
df(number of observations)(number of constraints) rcppc1q,df =(number of observations)− (number of constraints)= di math way= (r−1)(c−1).,Computer science
"so instead, i'll go straight to showing you the easy way.",I go straight to show you di easy way,Computer science
"as always, rlets you do it multiple ways.","di normal way, R let you do am multiple ways.",Computer science
it works in the exact same way as the xtabs() function.,Di xtabs() function dey work for di exact same way as di xtabs() function.,Computer science
"so the command is just this:> associationtest( formula= ~choice+species, data = chapek9 )just like we did with the goodness of t test, i'll go through it line by line.","Di command dey just dis:> associationtest( formula= ~choice+species, data = chapek9 )just like we go through di line by line.",Computer science
"the rst two lines are, once again, just reminding you what kind of test you ran and what variables were used: 9a problem many of us worry about in real life.","Di rst two line dey, one more time, just reminding you what kind of test you ran and what variables wey dey use",Computer science
i'll talk about it in just a moment.,I go talk about am for just a moment,Computer science
"this output gives us enough information to write up the result: pearson's2revealed a signi cant association between species and choice( 2p2q10: 7; p: 01): robots appeared to be more likely to say that they prefer owers, but the humans were more likely to say they prefer data.","Dis output give us enough information to write up di result: ""Pearson's χ2 revealed significant association between di kind of being and wetin dem choose(di numbers for di test): robots dey more likely to talk say dem prefer flowers, but di humans dey more likely to say dem prefer data.""",Computer science
"notice that, once again, i provided a little bit of interpretation to help the human reader understand what's going on with the data.","Notice say, one more time, I provide small interpretation to help di human reader understand wetin dey goon with di data.",Computer science
"to illustrate the dierence, here's what i'd probably say later on: the fact that humans appeared to have a stronger preference for raw data les than robots is somewhat counterintuitive.",Di fact say humans dey get stronger preference for di first numbers wey robots dey counterintuitive.,Computer science
"however, in context it makes some sense: the civil authority on-368- chapek 9 hasan unfortunate tendency to kill and dissect humans when they are identi ed.",Di civil authority on-368- chapek 9 don dey unfortunate tendency to kill and dect humans wen dem dey identi ed.,Computer science
"as such it seems most likely that the human participants did not respond honestly to the question, so as to avoid potentially undesirable consequences.","because of dat, e seem most likely say di human participants no respond honestly to di question, so as so dat wahala no go come.",Computer science
this should be considered to be a substantial methodological weakness.,Dis one suppose dey considered as substantial methodological weakness.,Computer science
"this could be classi ed as a rather extreme example of a reactivity eect, i suppose.","Dis one fit classify as rather extreme example of reactivity effect, I suppose.",Computer science
"obviously, in this case the problem is severe enough that the study is more or less worthless as a tool for understanding the dierence preferences among humans and robots.",Di problem dey severe enough say di study dey more or less worthless as tool for understanding di dierence preferences among humans and robots.,Computer science
"however, i hope this illustrates the dierence between getting a statistically signi cant result(our null hypothesis is rejected in favour ofthe alternative), and nding something of scienti c value(the data tell us nothing of interest about our research hypothesis due to a big methodological aw).","I hope dis illustrate di dierence between getting statistically signi cant result(our di null idea dey reject for favour of di alternative), and nding something of scienti c value(the data tell us nothing of interest about our research hypothesis due to big methodological aw).",Computer science
i've been lying to you a little bit so far.,I dey lying to you a little bit so far,Computer science
there's a tiny change that you need to make to your calculations whenever you only have 1 degree of freedom.,Di tiny change wey you need make to your calculations wenever you only get 1 degree of freedom,Computer science
"it's called the\continuity correction"", or sometimes the yates correction.","Dem call di\continuity correction"", or sometimes di yates correction",Computer science
"remember what i pointed out earlier: the 2test is based on an approximation, speci cally on the assumption that binomial distribution starts to look like a normal distribution for large n. one problem with this is that it often doesn't quite work, especially when you've only got 1 degree of freedom(e. g, when you're doing a test of independence on a 22 contingency table).","Di 2test dey based on approximation, speci cally on di assumption say di yes start to look like di bell way for large n. one problem wey dey especially wen you go get 1 degree of freedom(e. g, wen you dey do a test of independence for 22 one table wey dey show how two things connect).",Computer science
the main reason for this is that the true sampling distribution for the x2 statistic is actually discrete(because you're dealing with categorical data!),"Di main reason for dis na say di true sampling distribution for di x2 statistic dey discrete(because you dey dealing wit kata data wey dey group tinz into difren group, like color, sex, or brand, wey each group no dey mix wit anoda, no be say one group pass anoda!)",Computer science
but the 2distribution is continuous.,Di 2distribution dey continuous but di 2distribution dey continuous but di 2distribution dey continuous,Computer science
this can introduce systematic problems.,Dis go introduce systematic problems.,Computer science
"speci cally, when nis small and when df1, the goodness of t statistic tends to be oo big"", meaning that you actually have a bigger value than you think(or, equivalently, the pvalues area bit too small).","Di goodness of t statistic dey too small, meaning say you actually get bigger value wey you think(or di same tins, di pvalues dey too small).",Computer science
"yates(1934) suggested a simple x, in which you rede ne the goodness of t statistic as: x2 ip|eioi|0: 5q2 ei(12. 1)basically, he just subtracts o 0. 5 everywhere.","Di yates(1934) suggest simple x, wey you rede ne di goodness of t statistic as: x2 ip|eioi|0: 5q2 eioi|0",Computer science
"as far as i can tell from reading yates' paper, the correction is basically a hack.","as for i fit tell from reading yates paper, di correction na hack.",Computer science
"it's not derived from any principled theory: rather, it's based on an examination ofthe behaviour ofthe test, and observing that the corrected version seems to work better.","Dem dey based on examination of di behaviour of di test, and observing say di correct version dey work better",Computer science
"you'll know when it happens, because the routput will explicitly say that it has used a\continuity correction""or \yates' correction"".","Di routput go explicitly say e don use a continuity correction""or \yates' correction"".",Computer science
"so, let's suppose that you've run your chi-square test, which turns out to be signi cant.","Dem suppose say you run your chi-square test, wey turnout to be signi cant.",Computer science
so you now know that there is some association between your variables(independence test)or some deviation from the speci ed probabilities(goodness of t test).,Di now know say na some association between your variables(independence test)or some deviation from di speci ed probabilities(goodness of t test).,Computer science
now you want to report a measure of eect size.,Na now you go report measure of eect size,Computer science
"that is, given that there is an association/deviation, how strong is it?","Di association deviation, how strong na am?",Computer science
"there are several dierent measures that you can choose to report, and several dierent tools that you can use to calculate them.","E dey several dierent measures wey you fit choose to report, and several dierent tools wey you fit use to calculate dem",Computer science
"by default, the two measures that people tend to report most frequently are the statistic and the somewhat superior version, known as cram er's v. mathematically, they're very simple.","Di two measures wey pipo dey report most frequently na di statistic and di somewhat superior version, wey dey known as cram er's v. mathematically, dem dey simple.",Computer science
"to calculate the statistic, you just divide your x2value by the sample size, and take the square root: c x2 n the idea here is that the statistic is supposed to range between 0(no at all association)and 1(perfect association), but it doesn't always do this when your contingency table is bigger than 2 2, which is a total pain.","C x2 n di idea here na say di statistic dey suppose range between 0(no for all association)and 1(perfect association), but e no dey always do dis when your one table wey dey show how two things connect dey bigger than 2, wey dey total pain.",Computer science
"for bigger tables it's actually possible to obtain 1, which is pretty unsatisfactory.","E dey possible to obtain 1, wey dey quite unsatisfactory.",Computer science
"so, to correct for this, people usually prefer to report the vstatistic proposed by cram er(1946).",Dem prefer to report di vstatistic proposed by cram er(1946).,Computer science
it's a pretty simple adjustment to.,E dey simple adjustment to.,Computer science
"if you've got a contingency table with rrows andccolumns, then de ne kminpr; cqto be the smaller ofthe two values.","If you go get one table wey dey show how two things connect wey get r lines and cup-downs, den define k=min(r, c)to be di smaller of di two values.",Computer science
"if so, then cram er's vstatistic is vd x2 npk1q and you're done.",Di vstatistic dey vd x2 npk1q and you dey done.,Computer science
"this seems to be a fairly popular measure, presumably because it's easy to calculate, and it gives answers that aren't completely silly: you know that vreally does range from 0(no at all association)to 1(perfect association).",We know say vreally does range from 0(no for all association)to 1(perfect association).,Computer science
calculating voris obviously pretty straightforward.,Na very straightforward.,Computer science
"so much so that the core packages in rdon't seem to have functions to do it, though other packages do.","Di core packages for rdon't seem to get function to do am, though oda package don do.",Computer science
"to save you the time and eort of nding one, i've included one in the lsrpackage, called cramersv().","I dey include one for di lsrpackage, called cramersv().",Computer science
"it takes a contingency table as input, and prints out the measure of eect size:> cramersv( chapekfrequencies )[1] 0. 244058 however, if you're using the associationtest() function to do your analysis, then you won't actually need to use this at all, because it reports the cram er's vstatistic as part ofthe output.","If you use di associationtest() function to do your analysis, then you no need to use dis for all, because e dey report di cram er's vstatistic as part of di output.",Computer science
what that means in practice is that all ofthe expected frequencies need to be reasonably big.,For practice na say all of di expected frequencies need to be reasonably big,Computer science
how big is reasonably big?,How big dey reasonably big?,Computer science
"opinions dier, but the default assumption seems to be that you generally would like to see all your expected frequencies larger than about 5, though for larger tables you would probably be okay if atleast 80%of the the expected frequencies are above 5 and none of them are below 1.","Di default assumption dey be say you generally go see all your expected frequencies larger than about 5, though for small table you go probably be okay if di expected frequencies dey above 5 and none of dem dey below 1.",Computer science
"however, from what i've been able to discover(e. g, cochran, 1954), these seem to have been proposed as rough guidelines, not hard and fast rules; and they seem to be somewhat conservative (larntz, 1978).","Die. g, cochran, 1954), dem dey propos as rough guidelines, no hard and fast rules; and dem seem to be somewhat conservative (larntz, 1978).",Computer science
data are independent of one another.,Di data dey independent of one another,Computer science
one somewhat hidden assumption ofthe chi-square test is that you have to genuinely believe that the observations are independent.,One somewhat hidden assumption of di chi-square test na say you go genuinely believe say di observations dey independent.,Computer science
suppose i'm interested in proportion of babies born at a particular hospital that are boys.,Di suppose i interest for proportion of babies born for particular hospital wey dey boys,Computer science
"seems like a pretty convincing dierence, right?","E dey like convincing dierence, right?",Computer science
"but later on, it turns out that i'd actually walked into the same ward 10 times, and in fact i'd only seen 2 girls and 1 boy.","E turnout say i actually walk into di same ward 10 times, and for true i only see 2 girls and 1 boy",Computer science
"not as convincing, is it?","As convincing, na im?",Computer science
my original 30 observations were massively non-independent. and were only in fact equivalent to 3 independent observations.,Di original 30 observations dey massively non-independent. and dey only for fact equivalent to 3 independent observations.,Computer science
"obviously this is an extreme(and extremely silly)example, but it illustrates the basic issue.","E dey extreme(and extremely silly)example, but e dey illustrate di basic issue.",Computer science
"nonindependence \stus things up"".","Non-independence""stuff things up"".",Computer science
"sometimes it causes you to falsely reject the null, as the silly hospital example illustrats, but it can go the other way too.","Di silly hospital example illustrate, but e fit go di oda way too.",Computer science
"to give a slightly less stupid example, let's consider what would happen if i'd done the cards experiment slightly dierently: instead of asking 200 people to try to imagine sampling one card at random, suppose i asked 50 people to select 4 cards.","not dat one asking 200 pipo to try to imagine sampling one card for random, suppose i ask 50 pipo to select 4 card",Computer science
"one possibility would be that everyone selects one heart, one club, one diamond and one spade(in keeping with the epresentativeness heuristic""; tversky & kahneman 1974).","Dem select one heart, one club, one diamond and one spade(in keeping wit di epresentativeness heuristic; tversky & kahneman 1974).",Computer science
"this is highly non-random behaviour from people, but in this case, i would get an observed frequency of 50 four all four suits.","E dey highly non-random behaviour from pipo, but for dis case, i go get observed frequency of 50 four all four suits.",Computer science
"for this example, the fact that the observations are non-independent(because the four cards that you pick will be related to eachother) actually leads to the opposite eect. falsely retaining the null.",Di fact say di observations dey non-independent(because di four cards wey you pick go dey related to each oda)actually lead to di opposite eect,Computer science
"if you happen to nd yourself in a situation where independence is violated, it maybe possible to use the mcnemar test(which we'll discuss)or the cochran test(which we won't).",Di mcnemar test(which we go discuss)or di cochran test( wey we go discuss)or di cochran test( wey we go discuss).,Computer science
"similarly, if your expected cell counts are too small, check out the fisher exact test.","If your expected cell count dey too small, to look at di fisher exact test.",Computer science
it is to these topics that we now turn.,Di topics wey we now turn,Computer science
"we ran our goodness of t tests using the goodnessoffittest() function, and our tests of independence(or association)using the associationtest() function.","We run our goodness of fit tests using di goodnessOfFitTest() function, and our tests of independence(or association)using di associationTest() function.",Computer science
"and both of those functions produced quite-371- detailed output, showing you the relevant descriptive statistics, printing out explicit reminders of what the hypotheses are, and soon.","Di function produce quite-371-detailed output, to show you di relevant numbers wey describe, printing out explicit reminders of what di hypotheses dey, and soon.",Computer science
"when you're rst starting out, it can be very handy to be given this sort of guidance.",Di sort of guidance don be very handy to be give dis sort of guidance.,Computer science
"however, once you start becoming a bit more pro cient in statistics and in rit can start to get very tiresome.",Di once you start becoming a bit more pro cient for statistic and for rit fit start to get very tiresome.,Computer science
"a real statistician hardly needs to be told what the null and alternative hypotheses for a chi-square test are, and if an advanced ruser wants the descriptive statistics to be printed out, they know how to produce them!","Di real statistician hardly need to tell say di null and other ideas for chi-square test dey, and if advanced ruser wan di numbers wey describe to be to print, dem know how dem produce dem",Computer science
"for this reason, the basic chisq. test()function in ris alot more terse in its output, and because the mathematics that underpin the goodness of t test and the test of independence is basically the same in each case, it can run either test depending on what kind of input it is given.","Di basic chisq. test()function for ris alot more terse for its output, and because di mathematics wey underpin di goodness of t test and di test of independence dey basically di same for each case, e fit run either test based on what kind of input wey dey give.",Computer science
"first, here's the goodness of t test.",Di goodness of t test,Computer science
"it doesn't bother to give you any descriptive statistics, it doesn't tell you what null hypothesis is being tested, and soon.","E no dey bother to give you any numbers wey describe, e no tell you what di null idea dey tested, and soon.",Computer science
"and as long as you already understand the test, that's not a problem.","as long as you already understand di test, na problem.",Computer science
"once you start getting familiar withrand with statistics, you'll probably nd that you prefer this simple output rather than the rather lengthy output that goodnessoffittest() produces.","For once you start getting familiar witrand witstatistics, you go probably nd say you prefer dis simple output no be di rather lengthy output wey goodnessoffittest() produce.",Computer science
"anyway, if you want to change the null hypothesis, it's exactly the same as before, just specify the probabilities using the pargument.","If you wan change di null idea, e dey exactly di same as before, just give di probabilities wey dey use di pargument",Computer science
it just hasn't included any ofthe other details.,E no fit include any of di oda details,Computer science
what about a test of independence?,Wetin about test of independence?,Computer science
"as it turns out, the chisq. test()function is pretty clever. 11if you input a cross-tabulation rather than a simple frequency table, it realises that you're asking for a test of independence and not a goodness of t test.","Di chisq. test()function dey pretty clever. 11if you input cross-tabulation no be simple a list of how many, e realise say you dey ask for test of independence and no goodness of t test",Computer science
recall that we already have this cross-tabulation stored as the chapekfrequencies variable:> chapekfrequencies species choice robot human puppy 13 15 flower 30 13 data 44 65 11not really.,Recall say we already get dis cross-tabulation stored as di chapekFrequencies variable:> chapekFrequencies.,Computer science
"as before, my intuition is that when you're just getting started it's easier to use something like associationtest() because it shows you more detail about what's going on, but later on you'll probably nd that chisq. test()is more convenient.","My intuition dey say when you go get start e dey easier to use something like associationtest() because e to show you more detail about what's goon, but later on you probably nd say chisq. test()dey more convenient.",Computer science
"one answer would be\collect more data"", but that's far too glib: there area lot of situations in which it would be either infeasible or unethical do that.",Di lot of situations wey dey infeasible or unethical do dat,Computer science
"if so, statisticians have a kind of moral obligation to provide scientists with better tests.",Di statisticians don get kind moral obligation to provide scientists wit better tests.,Computer science
"in this instance, fisher (1922)kindly provided the right answer to the question.","For dis instance, Fisher (1922)kindly provide di right answer to di question.",Computer science
"to illustrate the basic idea, let's suppose that we're analysing data from a eld experiment, looking at the emotional status of people who have been accused of witchcraft; some of whom are currently being burned at the stake. 12unfortunately for the scientist(but rather fortunately for the general populace), it's actually quite hard to nd people in the process of being set on re, so the cell counts are awfully small in some cases.","Di scientist(but rather fortunately for di general populace), e dey suppose say we dey analyse data from eld experiment, looking at di emotional status of pipo wey dey accused of witchcraft; some of whom dey burn for di stake.",Computer science
"however, the chi-square test makes this very hard to test because ofthe small sample size.",Di chi-square test make di very hard to test bikos of di small sample size,Computer science
"if i try to do so, rgives me a warning message: 12this example is based on a joke article published in the journal of irreproducible results.",Di example dey based on joke article wey dey publish for di journal of irreproducible results,Computer science
"this is where fisher's exact test(fisher, 1922a) comes in very handy.","E dey where fisher's exact test(fisher, 1922a) kom for very handy.",Computer science
"the fisher exact test works somewhat dierently to the chi-square test(or in fact any ofthe other hypothesis tests that i talk about in this book)insofar as it doesn't have a test statistic; it calculates the p-value\directly"".",Di fisher exact test work somewhat dierently to di chi-square test(or for true any of di oda hypothesis tests wey i talk about for dis book)insofar as e no get test statistic; e dey calculat dip-value \directly,Computer science
"i'll explain the basics of how the test works for a22 contingency table, though the test works ne for larger tables.","I go explain di basics of how di test work for 2 one table wey dey show how two things connect, though di test work na for small table.",Computer science
"as before, let's have some notation: happy sad total set on re o11o12r1 not set on re o21o22r2 total c1c2n in order to construct the test fisher treats both the row and column totals( r1, r2, c1andc2) are known, xed quantities; and then calculates the probability that we would have obtained the observed frequencies that we did( o11, o12, o21ando22) given those totals.","We get some signs: happy sad total set on re o11o12r1 no set on re o21o22r2 total c1c2n for order to construct di test fisher treat both di row and column totals( r1, r2, c1andc2) wey dey given those totals.",Computer science
"now that we know this, what we have to do to calculate our p-value is calculate the probability of observing this particular table or a table that is\more extreme"". 14back in the 1920s, computing this sum was daunting even in the simplest of situations, but these days it's pretty easy as long as the tables aren't too big and the sample size isn't too large.","For di 1920s, computing dis sum dey daunting even for di simplest of situations, but dis days e dey easy as long as di table dey too big and di sample size dey too large",Computer science
"the conceptually tricky issue is to gure out what it means to say that one contingency table is more\extreme"" than another.","Di conceptually tricky issue dey to gure out say one table wey dey show how two things connect dey more\extreme"" than one.",Computer science
the easiest solution is to say that the table with the lowest probability is the most extreme.,Di easiest solution dey say di table wit di lowest probability dey di most extreme,Computer science
this then gives us the p-value.,Dip-value give us dip-value,Computer science
the implementation ofthe test in ris via the fisher. test()function.,Di implementation of di test for R dey via di fisher. test() function.,Computer science
"the main thing we're interested in here is the p-value, which in this case is small enough( p: 036) to justify rejecting the null hypothesis that people on re are just as happy as people not on re.","Di main thing wey we dey interest for here dey dip-value, wey for dis case dey small enough( p: 036) to justify reject di null idea say pipo no dey on re",Computer science
"so, what you do, is you put together a sample of n100 people, and ask them to watch the agpp ads.","So, what you do, na you put together sample of n100 pipo, and ask dem to watch di agpp ads",Computer science
"before they see anything, you ask them if they intend to vote for the agpp; and then after showing the ads, you ask them again, to see if anyone has changed their minds.","As dem see anything, you ask dem if dem intend to vote for di agpp; and then after show di ads, you ask dem if dem go vote for di agpp; and then after show di ads, you ask dem if dem fit vote for di agpp; and then after show di ads, you ask dem if dem fit vote for di agpp; and then after show di ads, you ask dem if dem fit vote for di agpp; and then after show di ads, you ask dem if dem fit vote for di agpp; and then after show di ads, you ask dem if dem go",Computer science
"obviously, if you're any good at your job, you'd also do a whole lot of other things too, but let's consider just this one simple experiment.","If you dey any good for your job, you go do whole lot of oda things too, but let's consider just dis one simple experiment.",Computer science
"however, a little bit of thought reveals that we've got a problem: we have 100 participants, but 200 observations.","Di little bit of thought reveal say we get 100 participants, but 200 observations.",Computer science
this is because each person has provided us with an answer in both the before column and the after column.,Dina because each person don provide us wit answer for both di before column and di after column.,Computer science
"what this means is that the 200 observations aren't independent of eachother: if voter a says\yes"" the rst time and voter b says o"", then you'd expect that voter a is more likely to say\yes"" the second time than voter b!","If voter a tok say\yes"" di rst time and voter b tok say o"", then you expect say voter a dey more likely to say\yes"" di second time than voter b",Computer science
the consequence of this is that the usual 2 test won't give trustworthy answers due to the violation ofthe independence assumption.,Di consequence of dis na say di usual 2 test don give trustworthy answers due to di violation of di independence assumption.,Computer science
"now, if this were a really uncommon situation, i wouldn't be bothering to waste your time talking about it.","If dis dey a really uncommon situation, i go waste your time talking about am.",Computer science
"but it's not uncommon at all: this is a standard repeated measures design, and none ofthe tests we've considered so far can handle it.","Di standard repeat measures design, and none of di tests wey dey consider so far fit handle am",Computer science
the solution to the problem was published by mcnemar (1947).,Di solution to di problem dey published by mcnemar (1947).,Computer science
"the trick is to start by tabulating your data in a slightly dierent way: before: yes before: no total after: yes 55 10 after: no 25 65 90 total 30 70 100 this is exactly the same data, but it's been rewritten so that each of our 100 participants appears in only one cell.","Di trick dey start by tabulating your data for a slightly dierent way: before: no total before: no 25 65 90 total 30 70 100, but e dey rewritten so say each of our 100 participants dey appear for only one cell",Computer science
"because we've written our data this way, the independence assumption is now satis ed, and this is a contingency table that we canuse to construct an x2goodness of t statistic.","Di independence assumption na now satis ed, and dis na one table wey dey show how two things connect wey we fit use to construct x2goodness of t statistic.",Computer science
"however, as we'll see, we need to do it in a slightly nonstandard way.","As we see, we need to do am for a slightly nonstandard way",Computer science
"to see what's going on, it helps to label the entries in our table a little dierently: before: yes before: no total after: yes aba",Dem help to label di entry for awa table a little dierently: before: no total before: no total before: no total,Computer science
"because ofthe way that we have rewritten the data, it means that we're now testing the hypothesis that the row totals and column totals come from the same distribution.","Di way wey we get rewritten di data, e mean say we don test di hypothesis say di total for one line and column totals kom from di same distribution.",Computer science
"thus, the null hypothesis in mcnemar's test is that we have\marginal homogeneity"".","Di null idea for mcnemar test na say we get marginal homogeneity"".",Computer science
"that is, the row totals and column totals have the same distribution: pa","Na, di row totals and column totals don di same distribution",Computer science
notice that this means that the null hypothesis actually simpli es to pbpc.,Dis means say di null idea actually simplies to pbpc,Computer science
"in other words, as far as the mcnemar test is concerned, it's only theo-diagonal entries in this table(i. e, bandc) that matter!","as for di mcnemar test dey concerned, na only di o-diagonal entries for dis table(i. e, bandc) wey matter!",Computer science
"after noticing this, the mcnemar test of marginal homogeneity is no dierent to a usual 2test.",Di mcnemar test of marginal homogeneity no dey dierent to usual 2test,Computer science
"after applying the yates correction, our test statistic becomes: x2p|bc|0: 5q2 b","After applying di Yates correction, our test statistic become: χ2 =(b−c− 0.5)2 (b+c)",Computer science
"however, remember that{ just like the other 2tests {it's only an approximation, so you need to have reasonably large expected cell counts for it to work.","Di 2tests dey only approximation, so you need to get reasonably large expected cell counts for di work.",Computer science
we've just run a mcnemar's test to determine if people were just as likely to vote agpp after the ads as they were beforehand.,We just run mcnemar test to determine if pipo dey likely to vote agpp afta di ads as dem dey beforehand,Computer science
"the test was signi cant( 2p1q12: 04; p: 001), suggesting that they were not.","Di test dey signi cant( 2p1q12: 04; p: 001), suggest say dem no dey",Computer science
"and in fact, it looks like the ads had a negative eect: people were less likely to vote agpp after seeing the ads.",E look like di ads don negative eect: pipo dey less likely to vote agpp afta seeing di ads,Computer science
which makes alot of sense when you consider the quality of atypical political advertisement.,Di quality of political advertisement make alot of sense wen you consider di quality of political advertisement,Computer science
"if you recall, the actual experimental design that i described involved people making twochoices.",Di actual experimental design wey i described involved pipo make twochoices.,Computer science
"because we have information about the rst choice and the second choice that everyone made, we can construct the following contingency table that cross-tabulates the rst choice against the second choice.","We get information about di rst choice and di second choice wey dem make, we fit construct di following one table wey dey show how two things connect wey cross-tabulate di rst choice against di second choice.",Computer science
"this is where a test of independence is useful, and what we're trying to do is see if there's some relationship between the rows and columns of this table.","Di test of independence dey useful, and what we dey try to do na see if di relationship wey dey between di rows and columns of dis table.",Computer science
"in that situation, what i'm really trying to see if the row totals in cardchoices (i. e, the frequencies for choice 1)are dierent from the column totals(i. e, the frequencies forchoice 2 ).","We dey try to see if di row totals for cardchoices (i. e, di frequencies forchoice 2)dey dierent from di column totals(i. e, di frequencies forchoice 2 ).",Computer science
these aren't the same test.,Dem no dey di same test.,Computer science
"you can either use the goodnessoffittest() function in the lsrpackage to run this test, or the chisq. test()function.","Di goodnessoffittest() function for di lsrpackage to run dis test, or di chisq. test()function.",Computer science
the null hypothesis is that there is no relationship/association between the variables.,Di null idea dey say no relationship association between di variables,Computer science
"you can either use the associationtest() function in the lsrpackage, or you can use chisq. test().","Di associationtest() function for di lsrpackage, or you fit use chisq. test().",Computer science
"in particular we noted the cram er's vstatistic, which can be calculated using cramersv().","We note di cram er's vstatistic, wey dey calculated using cramersv().",Computer science
this is also part ofthe output produced by associationtest().,Di output wey dey produce by associationtest().,Computer science
"if you're interested in learning more about categorical data analysis, a good rst choice would be agresti (1996)which, as the title suggests, provides an introduction to categorical data analysis.","Di title suggest say, if you dey interest for learning more about kata data wey dey group tinz into difren group, like color, sex, or brand, wey each group no dey mix wit anoda, no be say one group pass anoda analysis, good rst choice go be agresti (1996) wey, as di title suggest, provide introduction to kata data wey dey group tinz into difren group, like color, sex, or brand, wey each group no dey mix wit anoda, no be say one group pass anoda analysis.",Computer science
"if the introductory book isn't enough for you(or can't solve the problem you're working on)you could consider agresti (2002), categorical data analysis.","Di introductory book no dey enough for you(or dey solve di problem you dey work on)you go consider agresti (2002), kata data wey dey group tinz into difren group, like color, sex, or brand, wey each group no dey mix wit anoda, no be say one group pass anoda analysis.",Computer science
"the latter is a more advanced text, so it's probably not wise to jump straight from this book to that one.","Di former dey more advanced text, so e no wise to jump straight from dis book to dat one.",Computer science
"lots of real world situations have that character, and so you'll nd that chi-square tests in particular are quite widely used.","Di lots of real world situation don get character, and so you go nd say chi-square tests for particular dey quite widely use.",Computer science
"however, you're much more likely to nd yourself in a situation where your outcome variable is interval scale or higher, and what you're interested in is whether the average value ofthe outcome variable is higher in one group or another.","Di however, you dey likely to nd yourself for situation wey your outcome variable dey interval scale or higher, and what you dey interest for is whether di average value of di outcome variable dey higher for one group or another.",Computer science
"for instance, a psychologist might want to know if anxiety levels are higher among parents than non-parents, or if working memory capacity is reduced by listening to music(relative to not listening to music).","Di psychologist go wan know if anxiety level dey higher among parents than non-parents, or if work memory capacity dey reduce by listening to music(relative to no listen to music).",Computer science
"in a medical context, we might want to know if anew drug increases or decreases blood pressure.",We go wan know if new drug increase or decrease blood pressure.,Computer science
"an agricultural scientist might want to know whether adding phosphorus to australian native plants will kill them. 2in all these situations, our outcome variable is a fairly continuous, interval or ratio scale variable; and our predictor is a binary\grouping"" variable.","Di outcome variable dey fairly continuous, interval or scale wey dey measure tins wey get zero point wey be real, and di difference between each point dey equal, so you fit compare dem well variable; and awa predictor dey binary\grouping"" variable.",Computer science
"in other words, we want to compare the means ofthe two groups.",We wan to compare di means of di two groups,Computer science
"the standard answer to the problem of comparing means is to use at-test, of which there are several varieties depending on exactly what question you want to solve.","Di standard answer to di problem of comparing means dey use t-test, of which na several varieties based on exactly what question you wan solve.",Computer science
"however, before discussing any of these useful things, we'll start with a discussion ofthe z-test.",We go start wit discussion of di Z-test.,Computer science
seriously{ this test is almost never used in real life.,Di test dey almost never use for real life,Computer science
"its only real purpose is that, when teaching statistics, it's avery convenient stepping stone along the way towards the t-test, which is probably the most(over)used tool in all statistics.","Di only real purpose na say, when teaching statistics, na very convenient stepping stone along di way towards di t-test, wey dey probably di most(over)used tool for all statistics.",Computer science
"australian natives are adapted to low phosphorus levels relative to everywhere else on earth, apparently, so if you've bought a house with a bunch of exotics and you want to plant natives, don't follow my example: keep them separate.","Di australian natives dey adapt to low phosphorus level relative to everywhere else on earth, apparently, so if you go get house wit bunch of exotics and you wan to plant natives, don follow my example: keep dem separate.",Computer science
nutrients to european plants are poison to australian ones.,Di nutrients to european plant dey poison to australianones,Computer science
"there's probably a joke in that, but i can't gure out what it is.","I no get joke for dat, but i no dey gure out what e dey.",Computer science
"a friend of mine, dr zeppo, grades his introductory statistics class on a curve.","Di friend of mine, dr Zeppo, grade hin introductory statistics class on curve.",Computer science
"let's suppose that the average grade in his class is 67. 5, and the standard deviation is 9.5.","Dem suppose say di average grade for hin class dey 67. 5, and di howe dey spread na 9.5. 5.",Computer science
"of his many hundreds of students, it turns out that 20 of them also take psychology classes.",E turnout say 20 of dem take psychology class.,Computer science
"out of curiosity, i nd myself wondering: do the psychology students tend to get the same grades as everyone else(i. e, mean 67. 5)or do they tend to score higher or lower?","I nd myself wonder say do di psychology students go get di same grades as everyone else(i. e, mean 67. 5)or do dem go score higher or lower?",Computer science
"it might be that the psychology students are scoring a bit higher than normal: that sample mean of x72: 3 is a fair bit higher than the hypothesised population mean of 67:5, but on the other hand, a sample size of n20 isn't all that big.","Di psychology students dey scor a bit higher than normal: dat di average number of x72: 3 dey fair bit higher than di hypothesised population mean of 67:5, but on di oda hand, sample size of n20 no dey big.",Computer science
maybe it's pure chance.,E dey pure chance,Computer science
"to answer the question, it helps to be able to write down what it is that i think i know.","I help to answer di question, e help to write down what e dey say i know.",Computer science
"firstly, i know that the sample mean is x72: 3.",I know say di average number x72,Computer science
if i'm willing to assume that the psychology students have the same standard deviation as the rest ofthe class then i can say that the population standard deviation is 9:5.,Di psychology students don get di same howe dey spread as di rest of di class then i fit say di spread for all di pipo na 9:5.,Computer science
"i'll also assume that since dr zeppo is grading to a curve, the psychology student grades are normally distributed.","I go also assume say since dr Zeppo dey grading to curve, di psychology student grade dey normally distributed.",Computer science
"next, it helps to be clear about what i want to learn from the data.","Next, e help to dey clear about wetin I wan learn from di data.",Computer science
"in this case, my research hypothesis relates to the population meanfor the psychology student grades, which is unknown.","Di case, my research hypothesis relates to di population meanfor di psychology student grade, wey dey unknown.",Computer science
"speci cally, i want to know if 67:5 or not.","Specifically, I wan know if di true average be 67.5 or no.",Computer science
"given that this is what i know, can we devise a hypothesis test to solve our problem?","I know say dis na what i know, can we devise a hypothesis test to solve our problem?",Computer science
"the data, along with the hypothesised distribution from which they are thought to arise, are shown in figure 13.1.","Di data, along wit di hypothesised distribution wey dem dey thought to arise, dey show for figure 13.",Computer science
"not entirely obvious what the right answer is, is it?","Di right answer na, na e?",Computer science
"for this, we are going to need some statistics.","For dis, we go need some statistics.",Computer science
this isn't too hard to do.,Dis no dey too hard to do.,Computer science
"our null hypothesis, h0, is that the true population mean for psychology student grades is 67. 5%; and our alternative hypothesis is that the population mean isn't 67. 5%.","Di null idea, h0, na say di true population mean for psychology student grades na 67. 5%; and awa di other idea na say di population mean na 67. 5%; and awa di other idea na say di population mean na 67. 5%; and awa di other idea na say di population mean na 67. 5%; and awa di other idea na say di population mean na 67. 5%.",Computer science
"if we write this in mathematical notation, these hypotheses become, h0: 67:5 h1:67: 5 though to be honest this notation doesn't add much to our understanding ofthe problem, it's just a compact way of writing down what we're trying to learn from the data.","Di notation no add much to awa understanding of di problem, na just a compact way of write down what we dey learn from di data.",Computer science
the null hypotheses h0and the alternative hypothesis h1for our test are both illustrated in figure 13.2.,Di null hypotheses h0and di other idea h1for awa test dey illustrated for figure 13.,Computer science
"in addition to providing us with these hypotheses, the scenario outlined above provides us with a fair amount of background knowledge that might be useful.",Di scenario wey dey outline above provide us wit fair amount of background knowledge wey dey useful.,Computer science
"speci cally, there are two special pieces of information that we can add:1.",Di two special one piece of information wey we fit add:,Computer science
the psychology grades are normally distributed.,Di psychology grade dey normally distributed.,Computer science
the true standard deviation of these scores is known to be 9.5.,Di true howe dey spread of dis scores dey known to be 9.5. 5.,Computer science
"for the moment, we'll act as if these are absolutely trustworthy facts.",We go act as if dem dey trustworthy facts.,Computer science
"in real life, this kind of absolutely trustworthy background knowledge doesn't exist, and so if we want to rely on these facts we'll just have make the assumption that these things are true.","For real life, dis kind of absolutely trustworthy background knowledge no exist, and so if we wan to rely on dis facts wey dey true, dis kind of absolutely trustworthy background knowledge no exist, and so if we wan to rely on dis facts wey dey true",Computer science
"however, since these assumptions mayor may not be warranted, we might need to check them.","Di assumptions no dey warranted, we go need check dem",Computer science
"for now though, we'll keep things simple.",We go keep things simple.,Computer science
the next step is to gure out what we would be a good choice for a diagnostic test statistic; something that would help us discriminate between h0andh1.,Di next step dey to gure out what we go be good choice for diagnostic test statistic; something we go help us discriminate between h0andh1.,Computer science
"given that the hypotheses all refer to the population mean, you'd feel pretty con dent that the sample mean xwould be a pretty useful place to start.","Di hypotheses all to talk about di population mean, you feel pretty con dent say di average number x go be useful place to start.",Computer science
"what we could do, is look at the dierence between the sample mean xand the value that the null hypothesis predicts for the population mean.",Na make we look di dierence between di average number xand di value wey di null idea predict for di population mean.,Computer science
"in our example, that would mean we calculate x67: 5.","For awa example, we go mean we dey calculate x67",Computer science
"more generally, if we let0refer to the value that the null hypothesis claims is our population mean, then we'd want to calculate x0 if this quantity equals or is very close to 0, things are looking good for the null hypothesis.","If we let0refer to di value wey di null idea claim dey awa population mean, then we go wan to calculate x0 if dis quantity equal or dey close to 0, things dey look good for di null idea.",Computer science
"if this quantity is along way away from 0, then it's looking less likely that the null hypothesis is worth retaining.",Di null idea dey worth retaining.,Computer science
but how far away from zero should it be for us to reject h0?,but how far from zero e suppose be for us to reject H0?,Computer science
"to gure that out, we need to be a bit more sneaky, and we'll need to rely on those two pieces of background knowledge that i wrote down previously, namely that the raw data are normally distributed, and we know the value ofthe population standard deviation.","Di first numbers dey normally distributed, and we know di value of di spread for all di pipo.",Computer science
"if the null hypothesis is actually true, and the true mean is 0, then these facts together mean that we know the complete population distribution ofthe data: a normal distribution with mean 0and standard deviation.",Di facts together mean say we know di complete population distribution of di data: di bell way wit mean 0 and howe dey spread,Computer science
"the null and alternative hypotheses both assume that the population distribution is normal, and additionally assumes that the population standard deviation is known( xed at some value 0).","Di null and other ideas both assume say di population distribution dey normal, and additionally assum say di spread for all di pipo dey known( xed for some value 0).",Computer science
the null hypothesis(left) is that the population mean is equal to some speci ed value0.,Di null idea(left) na say di population mean dey equal to some speci ed value0,Computer science
"the alternative hypothesis is that the population mean diers from this value,0.","Di other idea na say di population mean di value,0",Computer science
"okay, if that's true, then what can we say about the distribution of x?",Di distribution of x?,Computer science
"but the standard deviation of this sampling distribution sepxq, which is called the standard error ofthe mean, is sepxq?","Di howe dey spread of dis sampling distribution sepxq, wey dey call di standard error of di mean, na sepxq?",Computer science
"n in other words, if the null hypothesis is true then the sampling distribution ofthe mean can be written as follows: xnormalp0; sepxqq now comes the trick.","For oda words, if di null idea dey true then di sampling distribution of di mean go written as follows: xnormalp0; sepxqq now kom di trick.",Computer science
"this is conventionally written as z, but for now i'm going to refer to it as zx.","E dey conventionally written as Z, but for now i goto talk about am as Zx",Computer science
"(the reason for using this expanded notation is to help you remember that we're calculating standardised version of a sample mean, nota standardised version of a single observation, which is what az-score usually refers to).","Di reason wey dey use dis expanded notation dey to help you remember say we dey calculat standardised version of a di average number, note standardised version of a single observation, wey dey what aZ-score usually to talk about).",Computer science
"when we do so, thez-score for our sample mean is zxx0 sepxq or, equivalently zxx0 {?","when we do am, di z-score for our di average number na z= (x̄ − μ0) SE(x̄), or equivalently z= (x̄ − μ0) (σ √n).",Computer science
n thisz-score is our test statistic.,Di test statistic dey awa test statistic.,Computer science
the null hypothesis.,Di null idea.,Computer science
"better yet, regardless of what the population parameters for the raw scores actually are, the 5%critical regions for z-test are always the same, as illustrated in figure 13. 3.","Di population parameters for di raw score actually dey, di 5%critical regions for Z-test dey always di same, as dey illustrated for figure 13. 3.",Computer science
"and what this meant, way back in the days where people did all their statistics by hand, is that someone could publish a table like this: criticalzvalue desiredlevel two-sided test one-sided test.1 1. 644854 1. 281552. 05 1. 959964 1. 644854. 01 2. 575829 2. 326348. 001 3. 290527 3. 090232 which in turn meant that researchers could calculate their z-statistic by hand, and then look up the critical value in a textbook.","And wetin dis mean, way back for di days where pipo dey do all dia statistics by hand, na say someone fit publish table like dis: critical z-value. Which for turn mean say researchers fit calculate diaz-statistic by hand, and den look up di critical value for textbook.",Computer science
"that was an incredibly handy thing to be able to do back then, but it's kind of unnecessary these days, since it's trivially easy to do it with software like r.13. 1. 3a worked example using r now, as i mentioned earlier, the z-test is almost never used in practice.","Di work example wey dey user now, as i mention earlier, di Z-test dey almost never use for practice.",Computer science
it's so rarely used in real life that the basic installation of rdoesn't have a built in function for it.,Di basic installation of r no dey use for real life say di basic installation of r no get built for function for am,Computer science
"however, the test is so incredibly simple that it's really easy to do one manually.",Di test dey so simple say dey easy to do one manually.,Computer science
let's go back to the data from dr zeppo's class.,Dem to go back to di data from dr Zeppo class,Computer science
"we could count up the number of observations ourselves, and type n <-20 at the command prompt, but counting is tedious and repetitive.","We go count up di number of observation wey we dey, and type n <-20 for di place wey you type command, but counting dey tedious and repetitive.",Computer science
our original hypothesis was two-sided(we didn't really have any theory about whether psych students would be better or worse at statistics than other students)so our hypothesis test is two-sided(or two-tailed)also.,Di original hypothesis test dey two-sided(we no get any theory about whether psych students go better or worse for statistics than oda students)so awa hypothesis test dey two-sided(or two-tailed)also.,Computer science
"looking at the little table that i showed earlier, we can see that 2. 26 is bigger than the critical value of 1. 96 that would be required to be signi cant at:05, but smaller than the value of 2. 58 that would be required to be signi cant at a level of:01.","We fit see say 2. 26 dey smaller than di value of 1. 96 wey go need to signi cant at level of:05, but smaller than di value of 2. 58 wey go need to signi cant at level of:01.",Computer science
"therefore, we can conclude that we have a signi cant eect, which we might write up by saying something like this: with a mean grade of 73. 2 in the sample of psychology students, and assuming a true population standard deviation of 9.5, we can conclude that the psychology students have signi cantly dierent statistics scores to the class average( z2: 26, n20, p:05).","We go conclude say we don get signi cant eect, wey we fit conclude say we don dey eect, wey we fit write up by say di psychology students don get signi cant eect, wey we fit write up by say di psychology students don get signi cant eect, wey we fit write up by say di psychology students don get signi cant eect, wey we fit write up by say di psychology students don get signi cant eect, wey we dey suppose dey",Computer science
"however, what if want an exact p-value?",Wetin if wan exact p-value?,Computer science
"well, back in the day, the tables of critical values were huge, and so you could look up your actual z-value, and nd the smallest value of for which your data would be signi cant(which, as discussed earlier, is the very de nition of ap-value).","Di table of critical values dey huge, and so you go look up your actual Z-value, and nd di least of for which your data go signi cant(which, as discuss earlier, na di very dey signi cant).",Computer science
"however, looking things up in books is tedious, and typing things into computers is awesome.","Di however, looking things up for books dey tedious, and typing things into computers dey awesome",Computer science
so let's do it using rinstead.,So make we do amusing R instead.,Computer science
"now, notice that the level of az-test(or any other test, for that matter)de nes the total area\under the curve""for the critical region, right?","Di level of Az-test(or any oda test, for dat matter)dey nes di total area\under di curve""for di critical region, right?",Computer science
"that is, if we set: 05 for a two-sided test, then the critical region is setup such that the area under the curve for the critical region is:05.","We set: 05 for two-sided test, then di critical region dey setup such say di area under di curve for di critical region dey: 05.",Computer science
"and, for the z-test, the critical value of 1. 96 is chosen that way because the area in the lower tail(i. e, below 1:96) is exactly: 025 and the area under the upper tail(i. e, above 1:96) is exactly: 025.","Di area for di lower tail(i. e, above 1:96) dey exactly: 025 and di area under di upper tail(i. e, above 1:96) dey exactly: 025 and di area under di upper tail(i. e, above 1:96) dey exactly: 025 and di area under di upper tail(i. e, above 1:96) dey exactly: 025 and di area under di upper tail(i.",Computer science
"so, since our observed z-statistic is 2:26, why not calculate the area under the curve below 2:26 or above 2:26?","Di observed Z-statistic dey 2:26, why no calculate di area under di curve below 2:26 or above 2:26?",Computer science
in rwe can calculate this using thepnorm() function.,Di pnorm() function dey use dipnorm() function,Computer science
"if i'd told it that lower. tail= true, then rwould calculate the area from 2. 26 and below, and it would give mean answer 0.","E go calculate di area from 2. 26 and below, and e go give me answer 0.",Computer science
"some tests make reasonable assumptions, while other tests do not.","For some tests make reasonable assumptions, while oda tests no dey.",Computer science
the test i've just described{ the one sample z-test{ makes three basic assumptions.,Di test wey I just describe— di one-sample z-test— make three basic assumptions.,Computer science
these are: normality.,Dem dey normality,Computer science
"the second assumption ofthe test is that the observations in your dataset are not correlated with eachother, or related to eachother in some funny way.","Di second assumption of di test na say di observations for your group of related numbers or data wey belong together no dey correlated wit each oda, or related to each oda for some funny way.",Computer science
this isn't as easy to check statistically: it relies a bit on good experimetal design.,E no dey easy to check statistically: e dey relie a bit on good experimetal design,Computer science
"an obvious(and stupid)example of something that violates this assumption is a dataset where you\copy"" the same observation over and over again in your data le: so you end up with a massive\sample size"", consisting of only one genuine observation.","So you end up wit massive\sample size"", wey be only one genuine observation.",Computer science
"more realistically, you have to ask yourself if it's really plausible to imagine that each observation is a completely random sample from the population that you're interested in.",I go ask you if each observation dey completely random sample from di population wey you interest for.,Computer science
"in practice, this assumption is never met; but we try our best to design studies that minimise the problems of correlated data.",We try awa best to design studies wey dey minimise di problem of correlated data.,Computer science
known standard deviation.,E dey known howe dey spread.,Computer science
the third assumption ofthe z-test is that the true standard deviation ofthe population is known to the researcher.,Di third assumption of di Z-test na say di true howe dey spread of di population dey known to di researcher.,Computer science
this is just stupid.,Dis dey just stupid,Computer science
"in no real world data analysis problem do you know the standard deviation of some population, but are completely ignorant about the mean.","Di howe dey spread of some population, but dey completely ignorant about di mean.",Computer science
"in other words, this assumption is always wrong.",Di assumption dey wrong,Computer science
"in view ofthe stupidity of assuming that is known, let's see if we can live without it.","For view of di stupidity of assuming say na known, let see if we fit live without am",Computer science
"this takes us out ofthe dreary domain ofthe z-test, and into the magical kingdom ofthe t-test, with unicorns and fairies and leprechauns, and um.","Dis one take us out of di dreary domain of di z-test, and into di magical kingdom of di t-test, with unicorns and fairies and leprechauns, and um.",Computer science
"after all, if i'm 3actually this is too strong.","If i dey 3, if i dey 3 no dey strong.",Computer science
strictly speaking the ztest only requires that the sampling distribution ofthe mean be normally distributed; if the population is normal then it necessarily follows that the sampling distribution ofthe mean is also normal.,"Di Ztest only require say di sampling distribution of di mean be normally distributed; if di population dey normal then e necessarily follow say di sampling distribution of di mean dey normal; if di population dey normal then e necessarily follow say di sampling distribution of di mean dey normal; if di population dey normal then e necessarily follow say di sampling distribution of di mean dey normal; if di population dey normal then e necessarily follow say di sampling distribution of di mean dey normal; if di population dey normal,",Computer science
"however, as we saw when talking about the central limit theorem, it's quite possible(even commonplace)for the sampling distribution to be normal even if the population distribution itself is non-normal.","As we saw when we talk about di central limit diorem, e dey possible(even commonplace)for di sampling distribution to be normal even if di population distribution wey dey non-normal.",Computer science
"however, in light ofthe sheer ridiculousness ofthe assumption that the true standard deviation is known, there really isn't much point in going into details on this front!","For light of di sheer ridiculousness of di assumption say di true howe dey spread dey known, e no be much point for going into details on dis front",Computer science
null hypothesis value of x=0=?,di null idea: di average be zero.,Computer science
alternative hypothesis value of xfigure 13. 4: graphical illustration ofthe null and alternative hypotheses assumed by the(two sided)one samplet-test.,di other idea: di average no be zero. di picture number 13.4: one drawing wey dey show of di null and other ideas assumed by di(two-sided) one-sample t-test.,Computer science
note the similarity to the z-test(figure 13.2).,Di similarity to di Z-test(figure 13.2).,Computer science
"the null hypothesis is that the population meanis equal to some speci ed value 0, and the alternative hypothesis is that it is not.","Di null idea na say di population mean equal to some speci ed value 0, and di other idea na say nano.",Computer science
"like the z-test, we assume that the data are normally distributed; but we do not assume that the population standard deviationis known in advance.",We no assume say di data dey normally distributed; but we no assume say di population standard deviationis known for advance.,Computer science
"entertaining the hypothesis that they don't have the same mean, then why should i believe that they absolutely have the same standard deviation?","Di hypothesis say dem no get di same mean, then why should i believe say dem no get di same howe dey spread?",Computer science
"in view of this, i should really stop assuming that i know the true value of.",I go stop assuming say i know di true value of.,Computer science
"this violates the assumptions of my z-test, so in one sense i'm back to square one.","Di violate di assumption of my Z-test, so for one sensei go square one.",Computer science
"however, it's not like i'm completely bereft of options.",I no dey like i'm completely bereft of options.,Computer science
"after all, i've still got my raw data, and those raw data give mean estimate ofthe population standard deviation:> sd(grades )[1] 9. 520615 in other words, while i can't say that i know that 9:5, icansay that^9: 52.","I no tok say i know say 9:5, icansay say^9: 52.",Computer science
"the obvious thing that you might think to do is run az-test, but using the estimated standard deviation of 9. 52 instead of relying on my assumption that the true standard deviation is 9.5.","Di obvious thing wey you go think to do na run aZ-test, but using di estimated howe dey spread of 9. 52 forstead of relying on my assumption say di true howe dey spread na 9.5.",Computer science
"so, we could just type this new number into rand out would come the answer.",We go just type dis new number into rand out go kom di answer.,Computer science
and you probably wouldn't be surprised to hear that this would still give us a signi cant result.,Di signi don still give us signi cant result,Computer science
"this approach is close, but it's not quite correct.","Di approach dey close, but dey no correct.",Computer science
"because we are now relying on an estimate ofthe population standard deviation, we need to make some adjustment for the fact that we have some uncertainty about what the true population standard deviation actually is.",We need make some adjustment for di fact say we get some uncertainty about what di true di spread for all di pipo actually dey.,Computer science
maybe our data are just a uke.,Di data dey just a uke.,Computer science
"maybe the true population standard deviation is 11, for instance.","Di true di spread for all di pipo dey 11, for example.",Computer science
"but if that were actually true, and we ran the z-test assuming 11, then the result would end up being non-signi cant.","If we dey true, and we ran di Z-test assuming 11, then di result go end up being non-signi cant.",Computer science
"that's a problem, and it's one we're going to have to address.","Di problem wey dey problem, and na one we go get to address.",Computer science
"because guinness took a dim view of its employees publishing statistical analysis(apparently they felt it was a trade secret), he published the work under the pseudonym\a student"", and to this day, the full name of thet-test is actually student's t-test.",Di full name of dit-test dey student's t-test.,Computer science
"notice that the tdistribution has heavier tails(higher kurtosis) than the normal distribution; this eect is quite exaggerated when the degrees of freedom are very small, but negligible for larger values.","Dem notice say di tdistribution don heavier tails(higher kurtosis) than di bell way; dis eect dey quite exaggerated wen di degree of freedom dey small, but dey negligible for larger value.",Computer science
"in other words, for large dfthetdistribution is essentially identical to a normal distribution.","Di words, for large dfthetdistribution dey essentially identical to di bell way.",Computer science
accommodate the fact that we aren't completely sure what the true standard deviation is. 4the answer is that it subtly changes the sampling distribution.,Di answer na say e subtly change di sampling distribution.,Computer science
"in the t-test, our test statistic(now called at-statistic) is calculated in exactly the same way i mentioned above.",Di test statistic(now call t-statistic) dey calculated for exactly di same way wey we mention above.,Computer science
"if our null hypothesis is that the true mean is, but our sample has mean xand our estimate ofthe population standard deviation is ^, then ourt statistic is: tx^{?","Di null idea na say di true mean na, but awa sample don mean xand awa estimate of di spread for all di pipo na ^, then awa statistic na: tx^{?",Computer science
"n the only thing that has changed in the equation is that instead of using the known true value, we use the estimate^.","Di only thing wey dey change for di equation na say not dat one use di known true value, we use di estimate^.",Computer science
"and if this estimate has been constructed from nobservations, then the sampling distribution turns into at-distribution with n1degrees of freedom(df).","If dis estimate don construct from nobservations, then di sampling distribution turn into t-distribution wit n1degree of freedom(df).",Computer science
"notice, though, that as df gets larger, the t-distribution starts to look identical to the standard normal distribution.","As df get small, di t-distribution start to look identical to di standard di bell way.",Computer science
"this is as it should be: if you have a sample size of n70; 000; 000 then your\estimate"" ofthe standard deviation would be pretty much perfect, right?","If you go get sample size of n70; 000; 000 then your estimate""of di howe dey spread go be perfect, right?",Computer science
"so, you should expect that for large n, thet-test would behave exactly the same way as az-test.","E go expect say for large n, dit-test go behave exactly di same way as aZ-test",Computer science
and that's exactly what happens!,Di exactly wey dey happen,Computer science
"so there's not much point in going through the tedious exercise of showing you how to do the calculations using low level commands: it's pretty much identical to the calculations that we did earlier, except that we use the estimated standard deviation(i. e, something like se. est<- sd(grades)), and then we test our hypothesis using the tdistribution rather than the normal distribution(i. e.","Di calculation wey we dey earlier, except say we use di estimated howe dey spread(i. e, something like se. est<- sd(grades)), and then we test awa hypothesis using di tdistribution no be di bell way(i. e.).",Computer science
"we use pt()rather than 4well, sort of.","we dey use pt()no be. well, sort of.",Computer science
"as i understand the history, gosset only provided a partial solution: the general solution to the problem was provided by sir ronald fisher.","I understand di history, gosset only provide partial solution: di general solution to di problem wey dey provided by one big name for statistics.",Computer science
"and so instead of going through the calculations in tedious detail for a second time, i'll jump straight to showing you how t-tests are actually done in practice.",I go jump straight to show you how t-tests dey done for practice.,Computer science
rcomes with one function called t. test()that is very exible (it can run lots of dierent kinds oft-tests)and is somewhat terse (the output is quite compressed).,Di output dey very exible (it fit run lots of dierent kinds oft-test)and dey somewhat terse ( di output dey quite compressed).,Computer science
"just like last time, what i've done is written a few simpler functions, each of which does only one thing.","Di last time, wey i dey done dey write few simple functions, each of which dey only one thing.",Computer science
"so, if you want to run a one-sample t-test, use the onesamplettest() function!","So, if you wan run one-sample t-test, use di oneSampleTTest() function!",Computer science
"it's pretty straightforward to use: all you need to do is specify x, the variable containing the data, and mu, the true population mean according to the null hypothesis.","All you need to do na specify x, di variable wey dey containing di data, and mu, di true population mean according to di null idea.",Computer science
"assuming that you've already loaded the lsrpackage, all you need to type is this:> onesamplettest( x=grades, mu=67. 5)easy enough.","Assuming say you don already load di lsr package, all you need type na dis:> oneSampleTTest(x =grades, mu = 67.5). easy.",Computer science
now lets go through the output.,Dem go through di output,Computer science
it tries to describe in alot of detail what its actually done: one sample t-test data variable: grades descriptive statistics: grades mean 72. 300 std dev.,"E dey try describe for plenty detail wetin e don actually do: one-sample t-test, data variable: grades. numbers wey describe: di average for grades, std dev.",Computer science
the rst two lines tell you what kind of test was run and what data were used.,Di rst two line tell you what kind of test dey run and what data dey used,Computer science
"it then gives you some basic information about the sample: speci cally, the sample mean and standard deviation ofthe data.","Eden give you some simple tins about di sample: specifically, di average number and howe dey spread of di data.",Computer science
it then moves towards the inferential statistics part.,E then move towards di inferential statistics part.,Computer science
"it starts by telling you what the null and alternative hypotheses were, and then it reports the results ofthe test: the t-statistic, the degrees of freedom, and the p-value.","Di t-statistic, di degree of freedom, and dip-value.",Computer science
"finally, it reports two other things you might care about: the con dence interval for the mean, and a measure of eect size(we'll talk more about eect sizes later).","Di con dence interval for di mean, and measure of eect size(we go talk more about eect size later).",Computer science
so that seems straightforward enough.,E dey straightforward enough.,Computer science
now what do we dowith this output?,Di output do we dofor dis output?,Computer science
"well, since we're pretending that we actually care about my toy example, we're overjoyed to discover that the result is statistically signi cant(i. e.","We dey pretend say we actually care about my toy example, we dey overjoy to discover say di result dey statistically signi cant(i. e.",Computer science
pvalue below. 05).,For 05).,Computer science
"we could report the result by saying something like this: with a mean grade of 72. 3, the psychology students scored slightly higher than the average grade of 67. 5( tp19q2: 25, p: 05); the 95%con dence interval is[67. 8, 76. 8].","Di psychology students score slightly higher than di average grade of 67. 5( tp19q2: 25, p: 05); di 95%con dence interval dey[67. 8, 76. 8].",Computer science
wheretp19qis shorthand notation for at-statistic that has 19 degrees of freedom.,Di p19qi shorthand notation for at-statistic wey don get 19 degree of freedom,Computer science
"that said, it's often the case that people don't report the con dence interval, or do so using a much more compressed form-388- than i've done here.","Di case wey pipo don report di con dence interval, or do so using a much more compressed form-388- than i dey done here.",Computer science
"for instance, it's not uncommon to see the con dence interval included as part ofthe stat block, like this: tp19q2: 25, p: 05, ci 95r67: 8; 76: 8s with that much jargon crammed into half a line, you know it must be really smart.5 13.2. 3 assumptions ofthe one sample t-test okay, so what assumptions does the one-sample t-test make?","Di tp19q2: 25, p: 05, ci 95r67: 8; 76: 8s wit dat much jargon wey dey crammed into half a line, you know e must be smart.5 13.2. 3 assumptions wey dey make di one sample t-test make?",Computer science
"well, since the t-test is basically az-test with the assumption of known standard deviation removed, you shouldn't be surprised to see that it makes the same assumptions as the z-test, minus the one about the known standard deviation.","Di t-test dey basically aZ-test wit di assumption of known howe dey spread removed, e no dey surprise to see say e make di same assumption as di Z-test, plus di one about di known howe dey spread.",Computer science
that is normality.,Di normality dey normality,Computer science
"once again, we have to assume that the observations in our sample are generated independently of one another.",We don assume say di observations wey we dey generate independently of one another.,Computer science
"overall, these two assumptions aren't terribly unreasonable, and as a consequence the one-sample t-test is pretty widely used in practice as away of comparing a sample mean against a hypothesised population mean.","Di two assumptions dey unreasonable, and as result di one-sample t-test dey pretty widely use for practice as way of comparing di average number against a hypothesised population mean.",Computer science
a much more common situation arises when you've got two dierent groups of observations.,As you go get two dierent groups of observations arises wen you go get two dierent groups of observation.,Computer science
"in psychology, this tends to correspond to two dierent groups of participants, where each group corresponds to a dierent condition in your study.","Di tendence to correspond to two di group of participants, wey dey correspond to di dierent condition for your study.",Computer science
"for each person in the study, you measure some outcome variable of interest, and the research question that you're asking is whether or not the two groups have the same population mean.","For each person for di study, you measure some outcome variable of interest, and di research question wey you ask na whether or not di two groups don get di same population mean.",Computer science
this is the situation that the independent samples t-test is designed for.,Di situation wey di independent samples t-test dey design for.,Computer science
"it might just be that i'm an arrogant jerk, but i often feel like an author that makes no attempt to explain and interpret their analysis to the reader either doesn't understand it themselves, or is being a bit lazy.","I often feel like an author wey make no attempt to explain and interpret dia analysis to di reader, but i often feel like an author wey no dey understand am themselves, or e no dey understand am themselves, or dey being bit lazy.",Computer science
"your readers are smart, but not in nitely patient.","Di readers dey intelligent, but no in nitely patient",Computer science
don't annoy them if you can help it.,Dem don annoy dem if you fit help am,Computer science
"however, for the t-test, it's trickier to do this.","For di t-test, dey trickier to do dis.",Computer science
"as before, we can replace the assumption of population normality with an assumption that the sampling distribution of xis normal.","as before, we fit replace di assumption wey say all di pipo dey follow bell-shape with assumption say di sampling distribution of x̄ dey normal.",Computer science
"however, remember that we're also relying on a sample estimate ofthe standard deviation; and so we also require the sampling distribution of ^ to be chi-square.",Di remember say we dey also relying on sample estimate of di howe dey spread; and so we also require di sampling distribution of ^ to be chi-square.,Computer science
"that makes things nastier, and this version is rarely used in practice: fortunately, if the population is normal, then both of these two assumptions are met.","Fortunately, if di population dey normal, then both of dis two assumptions dey met.",Computer science
"actually, dr harpo's grading is a bit of a mystery, so we don't really know anything about what the average grade is for the class as a whole.","Di actually, dr harpo grading na bit of mystery, so we no know anything about how di average grade dey for di class as a whole.",Computer science
"there are two tutors for the class, anastasia and bernadette.","Di two tutors for di class, anastasia and bernadette",Computer science
"there aren115 students in anastasia's tutorials, and n218 in bernadette's tutorials.","There n1 = 15 students for Anastasia tutorials, and n2 = 18 for Bernadette tutorials.",Computer science
"the research question i'm interested in is whether anastasia or bernadette is a better tutor, or if it doesn't make much of a dierence.","Di research question wey i interest for dey whether anastasia or bernadette dey better tutor, or if e no make much of dierence.",Computer science
"dr harpo emails me the course grades, in the harpo.","Dr harpo email me di course grades, for di harpo.",Computer science
"the grade variable is a numeric vector, containing the grades for all n33 students taking dr harpo's class; the tutor variable is a factor that indicates who each student's tutor was.","Di grade variable dey numeric vector, wey dey containing di grades for all n33 students take dr harpo class; di tutor variable dey factor wey dey indicate who each student dey tutor.",Computer science
"the rst six observations in this dataset are shown below:> head( harpo )grade tutor 1 65 anastasia 2 72 bernadette 3 66 bernadette 4 74 anastasia 5 73 anastasia 6 71 bernadette we can calculate means and standard deviations, using the mean()and sd()functions.","Di head( harpo )grade tutor 1 65 anastasia 2 72 bernadette 3 66 bernadette 4 74 anastasia 6 71 bernadette we fit calculate means and standard deviations, using di mean()and sd()functions.",Computer science
"rather than show theroutput, here's a nice little summary table: mean std dev n anastasia's students 74. 539. 00 15 bernadette's students 69. 06 5. 77 18 to give you a more detailed sense of what's going on here, i've plotted histograms showing the distribution of grades for both tutors(figure 13. 6), as well as a simpler plot showing the means and corresponding con dence intervals for both groups of students(figure 13. 7).","Dem plot hintograms show di distribution of grades for both tutors(figure 13. 6), as well as simple plot show di means and corresponding con dence intervals for both groups of students(figure 13. 7).",Computer science
"assuming for the moment that you want to run a two-sided test, the goal is to determine whether two\independent samples""of data are drawn from populations with the same mean(the null hypothesis)or dierent means(the alternative hypothesis).","Di goal dey to determine whether two samples""of data dey draw from populations wit di same mean(di null idea)or dierent means(the di other idea).",Computer science
"when we say\independent"" samples, what we really mean here is that there's no special relationship between observations in the two samples.","We tok say\independent"" samples, we dey mean here na say no special how two things dey related observations for two samples.",Computer science
"inspection of these histograms suggests that the students in anastasia's class maybe getting slightly better grades on average, though they also seem a little more variable.","Di inspection of dis hintograms suggest say di students for anastasia class go get slightly better grades for average, though dem dey also seem a little more variable.",Computer science
will be clearer when we come to talk about the paired samples t-test later on.,We kom talk about di paired samples t-test later on.,Computer science
"for now, let's just point out that if we have an experimental design where participants are randomly allocated to one of two groups, and we want to compare the two groups' mean performance on some outcome measure, then an independent samples t-test(rather than a paired samples t-test)is what we're after.","for now, let to show say if we get experimental design wey participants dey randomly allocate to one of two groups, and we wan to compare di two groups mean performance on some outcome measure, then independent samples t-test(no be paired samples t-test(no be paired samples t-test)na what we dey after.",Computer science
"okay, so let's let 1denote the true population mean for group 1(e. g, anastasia's students), and 2will be the true population mean for group 2(e. g, bernadette's students), 8and as usual we'll let x1 and x2denote the observed sample means for both of these groups.","Okay, so make we let μ1 denote di true population mean for group 1(e. g, Anastasia students), and μ2 be di true population mean for group 2(e. g, Bernadette students), and as normal we go let x̄1 and x̄2 denote di observed sample means for both of dese groups.",Computer science
our null hypothesis states that the two population means are identical( 12)and the alternative to this is that they are not( 12).,Di null idea states say di two population mean dey identical( 12)and di alternative to dis na say dem no dey( 12).,Computer science
"written in mathematical-ese, this is. h0: 12 h1:12 to construct a hypothesis test that handles this scenario, we start by noting that if the null hypothesis is true, then the dierence between the population means is exactly zero,120 as a consequence, a diagnostic test statistic will be based on the dierence between the two sample means.","Na 12 to construct a hypothesis test wey handle dis scenario, we start by noting say if di null idea dey true, then di dierence between di population means dey zero,120 as consequence, a diagnostic test statistic go dey based on di dierence between di two sample means.",Computer science
"because if the null hypothesis is true, then we'd expect x1x2to be pretty close to zero.","Di null idea dey true, then we expect x1x2to be close to zero",Computer science
"however, just like we saw with our one-sample tests(i. e, the one-sample z-test and the one-sample t-test)we have to be precise 8a funny question almost always pops up at this point: what the heck isthe population being referred to in this case?",Di heck dey di population wey dey referred to for dis case?,Computer science
is it the set of students actually taking dr harpo's class(all 33 of them)?,Di set of students wey dey take dr harpo class(all 33 of dem)?,Computer science
the set of people who might take the class(an unknown number)of them?,Di set of pipo wey go take di class(unknown number)of dem?,Computer science
or something else?,Na something else?,Computer science
does it matter which of these we pick?,E no matter which of those we pick?,Computer science
"it's traditional in an introductory behavioural stats class to mumble alot at this point, but since i get asked this question every year by my students, i'll give a brief answer.","E dey traditional for introductory behavioural stats class to mumble plenty for dis point, but since I dey get asked dis question every year by my students, I go give brief answer.",Computer science
"technically yes, it does matter: if you change your de nition of what the eal world""population actually is, then the sampling distribution of your observed mean xchanges too.","If you change your de nition of what di eal world population actually dey, then di sampling distribution of your observed mean xchange too.",Computer science
"the t-test relies on an assumption that the observations are sampled at random from an in nitely large population; and to the extent that real life isn't like that, then thet-test can be wrong.","Di t-test relies on assumption say di observations dey sample for random from an in nitely large population; and to di extent say for real life no dey like dat, then dit-test go wrong.",Computer science
"in practice, however, this isn't usually a big deal: even though the assumption is almost always wrong, it doesn't lead to alot of pathological behaviour from the test, so we tend to just ignore it.","But even though di assumption dey wrong, e no lead to alot of pathological behaviour from di test, so we go ignore am.",Computer science
error bars depict 95%con dence intervals around the mean.,Error bars dey depict di 95 percent ranges wey dey show where true number fit dey around di mean.,Computer science
"on the basis of visual inspection, it does look like there's a real dierence between the groups, though it's hard to say for sure.","For di basis of visual inspection, e dey look like real dierence between di groups, though e hard to say for sure.",Computer science
about exactly how close to zero this dierence should be.,Di dierence go be about exactly how close to zero dis dierence should be,Computer science
"and the solution to the problem is more or less the same one: we calculate a standard error estimate(se), just like last time, and then divide the dierence between means by this estimate.","And di solution to di problem na more or less di same one: we dey calculate standard error estimate(SE), same as before, and den divide di difference between means by dis estimate.",Computer science
so our t-statistic will be ofthe form tx1x2 se we just need to gure out what this standard error estimate actually is.,So our t-statistic go be of di form di math way. We just need sabi wetin dey happen or find solution by dey think amor try different tin wetin dis standard error estimate actually be.,Computer science
"this is a bit trickier than was the case for either ofthe two tests we've looked at so far, so we need to go through it alot more carefully to understand how it works.","Di case for either of di two tests wey we look for so far, so we need go through am alot more carefully to understand how dem work",Computer science
"since we're assuming that the two standard deviations are the same, we drop the subscripts and refer to both of them as.","We dey assum say di two standard deviations dey di same, we drop di subscripts and to talk about both of dem as.",Computer science
how should we estimate this?,How we go estimate dis?,Computer science
how should we construct a single estimate of a standard deviation when we have two samples?,How we construct single estimate of howe dey spread wey we get two samples?,Computer science
"the answer is, basically, we average them.",We dey average dem,Computer science
"actually, what we do is take a weighed average of thevariance estimates, which we use as our pooled estimate ofthe variance.","We dey take weigh average of divariance estimates, we use as our pooled estimate of divariance estimate.",Computer science
"the weight assigned to each sample is equal to the number of observations in that sample, minus 1.","Di weight assigned to each sample dey equal to di number of observations for dat sample, minus 1.",Computer science
"mathematically, we can write this as w1n11 w2n21 -392-null hypothesis value of x12alternative hypothesis value of xfigure 13. 8: graphical illustration ofthe null and alternative hypotheses assumed by the student t-test.",We fit write dis as w1n11 w2n21 -392-di null idea value of x12alternative hypothesis value of xfigure 13. 8: one drawing wey dey show of di null and di other idea value of xfigure 13. 8: one drawing wey dey show of di null and di other idea value of xfigure 13. 8: one drawing wey dey show of di null and di other idea value of xfigure 13. 8: one drawing wey dey show of di null and di other idea value of xfigure 13. 8: one drawing wey dey show of di null and di other idea value of,Computer science
"the null hypothesis assumes that both groups have the same mean, whereas the alternative assumes that they have dierent means 1and2.","Di null idea assumes say both groups get di same mean, whereas di alternative assumes say dem get dierent means 1and2.",Computer science
"notice that it is assumed that the population distributions are normal, and that, although the alternative hypothesis allows the group to have dierent means, it assumes they have the same standard deviation.","Di other idea means say di population distributions dey normal, and say, although di other idea allow di group to get di same howe dey spread.",Computer science
"now that we've assigned weights to each sample, we calculate the pooled estimate ofthe variance by taking the weighted average ofthe two variance estimates,^2 1and ^2 2 ^2 pw1^2 1","Now dat we don assign weights to each sample, we dey calculate di pooled estimate of di variance by taking di weighted average of di two variance estimates, di two variance numbers: σ̂2 = (w1 σ̂12 + w2 σ̂22) (w1 + w2).",Computer science
"this gives us the following formula for^ p,^pd w1^2 1",Dis give us di following formula for σ̂2: σ̂2 = ( (n1−1) σ̂12 + (n2−1) σ̂22 ) (n1 + n2 −2).,Computer science
"it's not my favourite way of thinking about pooled standard deviations, however. 9 13. 3. 4 the same pooled estimate, described dierently i prefer to think about it like this.","E no be my favourite way to think about pooled standard deviations, however. Di same pooled estimate, if we talk am another way: I prefer to think about am like dis.",Computer science
"our dataset actually corresponds to a set of nobservations, which are sorted into two groups.","Di group of related numbers or data wey belong together actually correspond to set of nobservations, wey dey sort into two groups.",Computer science
"so let's use the notation xikto refer to the grade received by the i-th student in the k-th tutorial group: that is, x11is the grade received by the rst student in anastasia's class, x21is her second student, and soon.","Di notation xikto to talk about di grade wey di rst student for anastasia class, x21is her second student, and soon.",Computer science
"and we have two separate group means x1and x2, which we could \generically"" refer to using the notation xk, i. e, the mean grade for the k-th tutorial group.","Di notation xk, i. e, di mean grade for di k-th tutorial group.",Computer science
"now, since every single student falls into one ofthe two tutorials, and so we can describe their deviation from the group mean as the dierence xikxk 9yes, i have a avourite"" way of thinking about pooled standard deviation estimates.","I don describe dia deviation from di group mean as di dierence xikxk 9yes, and so we fit describe dia deviation from di group mean as di dierence xikxk 9yes, i don describe dia deviation from di group mean as di dierence xikxk 9yes, i get a avourite way of thinking about pool howe dey spread estimates.",Computer science
"remember, a variance is just the average of a bunch of squared deviations, so let's do that.","Di variance dey just di average of bunch of squared deviations, so let's do dat.",Computer science
"mathematically, we could write it like this: ik",I go write am like dis: Ik suppose write am like dis:,Computer science
"and previously, we needed to divide by n1 to x this.","And previously, we need to divide by n−1 to fix dis.",Computer science
"however, as i mentioned at the time, the reason why this bias exists is because the variance estimate relies on the sample mean; and to the extent that the sample mean isn't equal to the population mean, it can systematically bias our estimate ofthe variance.","As i mention at di time, di reason wey dis bias exist na because di variance estimate relies on di average number; and to di extent say di average number no dey equal to di population mean, e fit systematically bias awa estimate of di variance.",Computer science
but this time we're relying on twosample means!,Di time we dey relying on twosample means,Computer science
does this mean that we've got more bias?,Di mean say we get more bias?,Computer science
"yes, yes it does.","E no dey, e no dey.",Computer science
"and does this mean we now need to divide by n2 instead of n1, in order to calculate our pooled variance estimate?","And dis mean say we now need divide by n−2 not dat one n−1, so dat we fit calculate our mixed variance guess?",Computer science
"why, yes. ^2 p ik","Na why, yes, ^2 p Ik",Computer science
"in other words, the pooled standard deviation calculation is nothing special: it's not terribly dierent to the regular standard deviation calculation.",Di pooled howe dey spread calculation no dey special: e no dey di regular howe dey spread calculation.,Computer science
"from now on, i'll drop the silly psubscript, and just refer to this estimate as ^.","I go drop di silly psubscript, and just to talk about dis estimate as ^",Computer science
"let's now go back to thinking about the bloody hypothesis test, shall we?","Make we now to think again about di bloody hypothesis test, shall we?",Computer science
our whole reason for calculating this pooled estimate was that we knew it would be helpful when calculating our standard error estimate.,Di whole reason wey we dey calculate di pooled estimate na say we know e go help when we dey calculating our standard error estimate,Computer science
"but, standard error of what?","But, standard error of wetin?",Computer science
"in the one-sample t-test, it was the standard error ofthe sample mean, sepxq, and since sepxq{?","For di one-sample t-test, e be di standard error of di average number, SE(x̄), and because SE of x̄ dey equal σ over square root of n.",Computer science
nthat's what the denominator of our t-statistic looked like.,Di denominator of awa t-statistic look like.,Computer science
"this time around, however, we have twosample means.",We get twosample means.,Computer science
"and what we're interested in, speci cally, is the the dierence between the two x1x2.","We dey interest for, speci cally, na di dierence between di two x1x2",Computer science
"as a consequence, the standard error that we need to divide by is in fact thestandard error ofthe dierence between means.",Di standard error wey we need divide by dey for true di standard error of di dierence between means.,Computer science
"as long as the two variables really do have the same standard deviation, then our estimate for the standard error is sepx1x2q^c 1 n1",Di estimate for di standard error na sepx1x2q^c 1 n1,Computer science
"as long as the null hypothesis is true, and all ofthe assumptions ofthe test are met.","Di null idea dey true, and all of di assumptions of di test dey met.",Computer science
"the degrees of freedom, however, is slightly dierent.","Di degree of freedom, however, dey slightly dierent",Computer science
"as usual, we can think ofthe degrees of freedom to be equal to the number of data points minus the number of constraints.","as normal, we fit think of di how many things you fit adjust inside a system to be equal to di how many data minus di number of constraints.",Computer science
"in this case, we haven observations( n1in sample 1, and n2in sample 2), and 2 constraints(the sample means).","We don observe( n1in sample 1, and n2in sample 2), and 2 constraints( di sample means).",Computer science
so the total degrees of freedom for this test are n2.,Di total degree of freedom for dis test dey n2.,Computer science
that function is unimaginatively called independentsamplesttest().,Di function dey unimaginatively call independentsamplesttest(),Computer science
"first, recall that our data look like this:> head( harpo )grade tutor 1 65 anastasia 2 72 bernadette 3 66 bernadette 4 74 anastasia 5 73 anastasia 6 71 bernadette the outcome variable for our test is the student grade, and the groups are de ned in terms ofthe tutor for each class.","Di head( harpo )grade tutor 1 65 anastasia 2 72 bernadette 3 66 bernadette 4 74 anastasia 5 74 anastasia 6 71 bernadette di outcome variable for awa test na di student grade, and di groups dey for each class.",Computer science
so you probably won't be too surprised to see that we're going to describe the test that we want in terms of an rformula that reads like this grade~ tutor.,We go describe di test wey we wan for terms of rformula wey read like dis grade~ tutor.,Computer science
the rst one is the formula that tells rwhat variables to use and the second one tells rthe name ofthe data frame that stores those variables.,Di rst one dey di formula wey tell rwhat variables to use and di second one tell rthe name of di one kind of table wey dey store those variables.,Computer science
the third argument is not so obvious.,Di third argument no dey so obvious,Computer science
"by saying var. equal= true, what we're really doing is telling rto use the student independent samples t-test.","Dem tok say var. equal= true, we dey tell rto use di student independent samples t-test.",Computer science
more on this later.,For dis later.,Computer science
"for now, lets ignore that bit and look at the output: student's independent samples t-test outcome variable: grade grouping variable: tutor descriptive statistics: anastasia bernadette mean 74. 533 69. 056 std dev.","for now, make we ignore dat bit and make we look di output: Student's independent samples t-test, di thing wey dey measured: grade, di thing wey dey group: tutor. numbers wey describe: Anastasia mean= 74.533, std dev.; Bernadette mean= 69.056, std dev.",Computer science
"first, it tells you what test was run, and it tells you the names ofthe variables that you used.","E tell you what test dey run, and e tell you di name of di variables wey you use.",Computer science
"the second part ofthe output reports the sample means and standard deviations for both groups(i. e, both tutorial groups).",Di second part of di output report di sample means and di spreads for both groups (wey mean both class groups).,Computer science
"it then reports the test results: just like last time, the test results consist of at-statistic, the degrees of freedom, and the p-value.","But like last time, di test results dey t-statistic, di degree of freedom, and dip-value.",Computer science
i'll talk about eect sizes later.,I go talk about effect sizes later.,Computer science
"the con dence interval, however, i should talk about now.",I go talk about now.,Computer science
it's pretty important to be clear on what this con dence interval actually refers to: it is a con dence interval for the dierence between the group means.,E dey important to clear on what dis con dence interval actually to talk about: di con dence interval for di dierence between di group means.,Computer science
"in our example, anastasia's students had an average grade of 74. 5, and bernadette's students had an average grade of 69. 1, so the dierence between the two sample means is 5.4.","For our example, Anastasia students get average grade of 74.5, and Bernadette students get average grade of 69.1, so di difference between di two sample means na 5.4.",Computer science
but ofcourse the dierence between population means might be bigger or smaller than this.,"but ofcourse, di difference between population means fit be bigger or smaller than dis.",Computer science
the con dence interval reported by the independentsamplesttest() function tells you that there's a 95%chance that the true dierence between means lies between 0. 2 and 10. 8.,Di con dence interval wey di independentsamplesttest() function don tell you say di true dierence between means dey for between 0. 2 and 10. 8. 8. 8. 8. 8.,Computer science
"a student's independent samples t-test showed that this 5.4% dierence was signi cant( tp31q2: 1, p: 05, ci95r0: 2; 10: 8s, d:74), suggesting that a genuine dierence in learning outcomes has occurred.","Di student independent sample t-test show say dis 5.4% dierence don signi cant( tp31q2: 1, p: 05, ci95r0: 2; 10: 8s, d:74), suggest say genuine dierence for learning outcomes don occur.",Computer science
notice that i've included the con dence interval and the eect size in the stat block.,Di con dence interval and di eect size for di stat block.,Computer science
people don't always do this.,Di pipo don always do dis,Computer science
"at a bare minimum, you'd expect to see the t-statistic, the degrees of freedom and the pvalue.","Di t-statistic, di degree of freedom and di pvalue.",Computer science
"so you should include something like this at a minimum: tp31q2: 1, p: 05.",So you suppose include something like dis at minimum: di numbers wey you go talk.,Computer science
"if statisticians had their way, everyone would also report the con dence interval and probably the eect size measure too, because they are useful things to know.","Di statisticians don report di con dence interval and probably di eect size measure too, bikos dem dey useful things to know.",Computer science
"but real life doesn't always work the way statisticians want it to: you should make a judgment based on whether you think it will help your readers, and (if you're writing a scienti c paper)the editorial standard for the journal in question.","I go make judgment based on whether you think e fit help your readers, and (if you write scienti c paper)di editorial standard for di journal for question.",Computer science
"some journals expect you to report eect sizes, others don't.","Some journals expect you to report eect sizes, odas don dey.",Computer science
"within some scienti c communities it is standard practice to report con dence intervals, in other it is not.","For some scienti c community wey dey standard practice to report con dence intervals, for oda dey no.",Computer science
you'll need to gure out what your audience expects.,You go need sabi wetin dey happen or find solution by dey think amor try different tin wetin your audience expect.,Computer science
"but, just for the sake of clarity, if you're taking my class: my default position is that it's usually worth includng the eect size, but don't worry about the con dence interval unless the assignment asks you to or implies that you should.","My default position dey say e dey worth includin di eect size, but no dey worry about di con dence interval unless di assignment ask you to or implies say you need.",Computer science
"the rst one relates to the sign ofthe t-statistic(that is, whether it is a positive number or a negative one).","Di rst one relates to di sign of di t-statistic(that na, whether e dey positive number or negative one).",Computer science
"one very common worry that students have when they start running their rst t-test is that they often end up with negative values for the t-statistic, and don't know how to interpret it.","One very common worry wey students get wen dem start run dia rst t-test na say dem often end up wit negative values for di t-statistic, and no know how to interpret am",Computer science
"in fact, it's not at all uncommon for two people working independently to end up with routputs that are almost identical, except that one person has a negative tvalues and the other one has a positive tvalue.","E no dey all uncommon for two pipo wey dey work independently to end up wit routputs wey dey almost identical, except say one person get positive tvalues and di oda one get positive tvalue.",Computer science
"assuming that you're running a two-sided test, then the p-values will be identical.",Dip-values go be identical.,Computer science
"on closer inspection, the students will notice that the con dence intervals also have the opposite signs.",Di students go notice say di con dence intervals also have di opposite sign.,Computer science
"this is perfectly okay: whenever this happens, what you'll nd is that the two versions ofthe routput arise from slightly dierent ways of running the t-test.",We go nd say di two version of di routput arise from slightly dierent way of running di t-test.,Computer science
what's happening here is very simple.,E dey simple.,Computer science
"okay, that's pretty straightforward when you think about it, but now consider our t-test comparing anastasia's class to bernadette's class.","E dey straightforward wen you think about am, but now think of awa t-test comparing anastasia class to bernadette class",Computer science
"which one should we call\mean 1""and which one should we call\mean 2"".","We go call\mean 1""and which one go call\mean 2""and wich one go call\mean 2"".",Computer science
"however, you really do need to designate one of them as\mean 1""and the other one as\mean 2"".","E no need to design one of dem as\mean 1""and di oda one as\mean 2"".",Computer science
"not surprisingly, the way that rhandles this is also pretty arbitrary.",Di way wey dey rhandle dis dey arbitrary,Computer science
"in earlier versions ofthe book i used to try to explain it, but after awhile i gave up, because it's not really all that important, and to be honest i can never remember myself.","I use try to explain am, but after awhile i give up, because e no really all dat important, and to be true i no remember myself.",Computer science
"whenever i get a signi cant t-test result, and i want to gure out which mean is the larger one, i don't try to gure it out by looking at the t-statistic.","Di signi no fit t-test result, and i don try to gure out wey mean na di larger one, i no try to gure am out by looking at di t-statistic.",Computer science
why would i bother doing that?,Na why i dey bother do dat?,Computer science
"it's easier just look at the actual group means, since ther output actually shows them!","Di r output actually show dem, since di r output actually show dem",Computer science
here's the important thing.,Di important thing wey dey important,Computer science
"because it really doesn't matter what rprinted out, i usually try to report thet-statistic in such away that the numbers matchup with the text.",I usually try report dit-statistic for such way say di numbers matchup wit di text.,Computer science
"here's what i mean. suppose that what i want to write in my report is \anastasia's class had higher grades than bernadette's class"".","Dem mean say what i wan write for my report na\anastasia class don higher grades than bernadette's class"".",Computer science
"the phrasing here implies that anastasia's group comes rst, so it makes sense to report the t-statistic as if anastasia's class corresponded to group 1.","Di phrasing here imply say Anastasia group come first, so e make sense to report di t-statistic as if Anastasia class correspond to group 1.",Computer science
"if so, i would write anastasia's class had higher grades than bernadette's class( tp31q2: 1; p: 04).","If so, I go write:""Anastasia class get higher grades than Bernadette class(t(31) =2.1, p< 0.04).""",Computer science
"(i wouldn't actually underline the word\higher"" in real life, i'm just doing it to emphasise the point that\higher"" corresponds to positive tvalues).","I no suppose underline di word\higher"" for real life, i just do am to emphasise di point wey \higher""correspond to positive tvalues).",Computer science
"on the other hand, suppose the phrasing i wanted to use has bernadette's class listed rst.",Di phrasing wey i need use don be bernadette class listed rst.,Computer science
"if so, it makes more sense to treat her class as group 1, and if so, the write up looks like this: bernadette's class had lower grades than anastasia's class( tp31q 2:1; p:04).",Di write up look like dis: bernadette's class don lower grades than anastasia class( tp31q 2:1; p:04).,Computer science
"because i'm talking about one group having\lower"" scores this time around, it is more sensible to use the negative form ofthe t-statistic.","I dey talk about one group wey dey having\lower"" score dis time around, e dey more sensible to use di negative form of di t-statistic.",Computer science
it just makes it read more cleanly.,E just make e read more cleanly,Computer science
one last thing: please note that you can't do this for other types of test statistics.,Di last thing: please note say you no go do test statistics for oda type of test statistics,Computer science
"it works fort-tests, but it wouldn't be meaningful for chi-square testsm f-tests or indeed for most ofthe tests i talk about in this book.",I dey talk about di book.,Computer science
so don't overgeneralise this advice!,Di advice no dey overgeneralise dis advice,Computer science
i'm really just talking about t-tests here and nothing else!,I dey really just talking about t-tests here and nothing else!,Computer science
so what are they?,So what dem dey diy?,Computer science
"like the one-sample t-test, it is assumed that the data are normally distributed.",Di one-sample t-test dey assum say di data dey normally distributed.,Computer science
"specifically, we assume that both groups are normally distributed.",We assume say both groups dey normally distributed,Computer science
"once again, it is assumed that the observations are independently sampled.",E dey assum say di observation dey independently sample,Computer science
in the context ofthe student test this has two aspects to it.,Di student test na two aspects to dey.,Computer science
"firstly, we assume that the observations within each sample are independent of one another(exactly the same as for the one-sample test).",We assume say di observation wey dey within each sample dey independent of one another(exactly di same as for di one-sample test).,Computer science
"however, we also assume that there are no cross-sample dependencies.",We also assume say no cross-sample dependencies.,Computer science
"if, for instance, it turns out that you included some participants in both experimental conditions of your study(e. g, by accidentally allowing the same person to signup to dierent conditions), then there are some cross sample dependencies that you'd need to take into account.","E turnout say you include some participants for both experimental conditions of your study(e. g, by accidentally allow di same person signup to dierent condition), then na some cross sample dependencies wey you need take into account.",Computer science
the third assumption is that the population standard deviation is the same in both groups.,Di third assumption na say di spread for all di pipo dey di same for both groups.,Computer science
"this is rarely true in real life: if two samples don't have the same means, why should we expect them to have the same standard deviation?","If two sample don get di same means, why we expect dem to get di same howe dey spread?",Computer science
there's really no reason to expect this assumption to be true.,Nano reason to expect dis assumption to be true,Computer science
"we'll talk a little bit about how you can check this assumption later on because it does crop up in a few dierent places, not just the t-test.","We go talk a little bit about how you fit check dis assumption later on because di crop up for few dierent place, no just di t-test.",Computer science
"but right now i'll talk about a dierent form ofthe t-test(welch, 1947)that does not rely on this assumption.","I go talk about di dierent form of di t-test(welch, 1947) wey no rely on dis assumption.",Computer science
"a graphical illustration of what the welchttest assumes about the data is shown in figure 13. 9, to provide a contrast with the student test version in figure 13. 8.","Di wenchttest assume about di data wey dey show for figure 13. 9, to provide contrast wit di student test version for figure 13. 8.",Computer science
"i'll admit it's a bit odd to talk about the cure before talking about the diagnosis, but as it happens the welch test is the default t-test in r, so this is probably the best place to discuss it.","I go admit say e dey a bit odd to talk about di cure before talking about di diagnosis, but as di wench test dey di default t-test for r, so dis dey probably di best place to discuss am.",Computer science
the welch test is very similar to the student test.,Di wench test dey similar to di student test.,Computer science
"for example, the t-statistic that we use in the welch test is calculated in much the same way as it is for the student test.",Di t-statistic wey we use for di wench test dey calculated for much di same way as e dey for di student test.,Computer science
"that is, we take the dierence between the sample means, and then divide it by some estimate ofthe standard error of that dierence: tx1x2 sepx1x2q the main dierence is that the standard error calculations are dierent.","Dem take di dierence between di sample means, and then divide am by some estimate of di standard error of dat dierence.",Computer science
"if the two populations have dierent standard deviations, then it's a complete nonsense to try to calculate a pooled standard deviation estimate, because you're averaging apples and oranges. 11but you can still estimate the standard error ofthe dierence between sample means; it just ends up looking dierent: sepx1x2qd ^2 1 n1","Di standard error of di dierence between sample means; na complete nonsense to try to calculate di pooled howe dey spread estimate, because you dey averaging apples and oranges",Computer science
what matters for our purposes is that the t-statistic that comes out ofthe welch test is actually somewhat dierent to the one that comes from the student test.,Di t-statistic wey kom out of di wench test dey actually somewhat dierent to di one wey kom from di student test.,Computer science
the second dierence between welch and student is that the degrees of freedom are calculated in avery dierent way.,Di second dierence between wench and student dey say di degree of freedom dey calculated for very dierent way.,Computer science
"in the welch test, the \degrees of freedom"" doesn't have to be a whole number anymore, and it doesn't correspond all that closely to the umber of data points minus the number of constraints"" heuristic that i've been using upto this point.","Di degree of freedom"" no fit be whole number anymore, and di number of constraints wey i dey use upto dis point.",Computer science
"the degrees of freedom are, in fact. dfp^2 1{n1","Di degree of freedom dey, for true",Computer science
"well, perhaps not.","E dey well, perhaps no.",Computer science
it doesn't really matter for out purposes.,E no matter for out purposes,Computer science
"what matters is that you'll see that the\df"" value that pops out of a welch test tends to be a little bit smaller than the one used for the student test, and it doesn't have to be a whole number.","Di\df"" value wey dey pops out of wench test dey smaller than di one wey dey use for di student test, and e no get whole number.",Computer science
"but noone really thinks that a fruit smoothie is avery good way to describe the original fruits, do they?","But noone really think say fruit smoothie dey good way to describe di original fruits, do dem?",Computer science
like the student test(figure 13. 8)we assume that both samples are drawn from a normal population; but the alternative hypothesis no longer requires the two populations to have equal variance.,We assume say both sample dey draw from normal population; but di other idea no require di two populations to get equal variance.,Computer science
all you have to do is not bother telling rto assume equal variances.,Di all you go get to do no dey bother telling rto assume equal variances,Computer science
"that is, you take the command we used to run a student's t-test and drop the var. equal= true bit.",Di command wey we use to run a student's t-test and drop di var. equal= true bit,Computer science
"so the command for a welch test becomes:> independentsamplesttest( formula= grade~ tutor,# formula specifying outcome and group variables data= harpo #data frame that contains the variables) not too dicult, right?","Di command for wench test become:> independentsamplesttest( formula= grade~ tutor,# formula specifying outcome and group variables data= harpo #one kind of table wey contains di variables) no too dicult, right?",Computer science
"not surprisingly, the output has exactly the same format as it did last time too: welch's independent samples t-test outcome variable: grade grouping variable: tutor descriptive statistics: anastasia bernadette mean 74. 533 69. 056 std dev.","No surprise, di output get exactly di same format as e do last time too: Welch's independent samples t-test, di thing wey dey measured: grade, di thing wey dey group: tutor. numbers wey describe: Anastasia mean= 74.533, std dev.; Bernadette mean= 69.056, std dev.",Computer science
but i hope that the interpretation of this output should be fairly obvious.,I hope say di interpretation of dis output go fairly obvious but I hope say di interpretation of dis output go fairly obvious,Computer science
you read the output in the same way that you would for the student test.,Di output for di same way wey you go for di student test.,Computer science
"you've got your descriptive statistics, the hypotheses, the test results and some other information.","Di numbers wey describe, di hypotheses, di test results and some oda information.",Computer science
so that's all pretty easy.,"E dey easy, so e dey all easy.",Computer science
"except, except. our result isn't signi cant anymore.",Di result no dey signi anymore,Computer science
"when we ran the student test, we did get a signi cant eect; but the welch test on the same dataset is not( tp23: 03q2: 03, p: 054).","Di wen we dey ran di student test, we don get signi cant eect; but di wench test on di same group of related numbers or data wey belong together no dey( tp23: 03q2: 03, p: 054).",Computer science
what does this mean?,Di mean?,Computer science
should we panic?,We suppose panic?,Computer science
is the sky burning?,Di sky burning?,Computer science
"the fact that one test is signi cant and the other isn't doesn't itself mean very much, especially since i kind of rigged the data so that this would happen.","Di fact say one test dey signi cant and di oda no dey mean very much, especially since i kind of rigged di data so say dis go happen",Computer science
"as a general rule, it's not a good idea to go out of your way to try to interpret or explain the dierence between ap-value of. 049 and ap-value of. 051.",E no good idea to go out of your way to try interpret or explain di dierence between p-value of.049 and p-value of.051.,Computer science
"if this sort of thing happens in real life, thedierence in thesep-values is almost certainly due to chance.",Didierence for disep-values dey almost certainly because of luck,Computer science
what does matter is that you take a little bit of care in thinking about what test you use.,We dey matter na say you take a little bit of care for thinking about what test you use,Computer science
the student test and the welch test have dierent strengths and weaknesses.,Di student test and di wench test don dey weakness and weaknesses.,Computer science
"if the two populations really do have equal variances, then the student test is slightly more powerful(lower type ii error rate)than the welch test.",Di student test dey slightly more powerful(lower type ii error rate)than di wench test,Computer science
"however, if they don't have the same variances, then the assumptions ofthe student test are violated and you may not be able to trust it: you might end up with a higher type i error rate.","If dem no get di same variances, then di assumption of di student test no dey violated and you no fit trust am.",Computer science
so it's a trade o.,E dey trade o.,Computer science
"however, in real life, i tend to prefer the welch test; because almost no-one actually believes that the population variances are identical.","Di for real life, i go prefer di wench test; because almost noone actually believe say di population variances dey identical.",Computer science
"this leaves only the assumption of normality, and the assumption of independence.","Dis one leave only di assumption of bell shape, and di assumption of independence.",Computer science
the speci cs of these assumptions are the same for the welch test as for the student test.,Di speci cs of dis assumptions dey di same for di wench test as for di student test,Computer science
"this situation arises naturally when participants are assigned randomly to one of two experimental conditions, but it provides avery poor approximation to other sorts of research designs.","Di situation arises naturally wen participants dey assigned randomly to one of two experimental conditions, but e provide very poor approximation to oda sort of research designs.",Computer science
"in particular, a repeated measures design{ in which each participant is measured(with respect to the same outcome variable)in both experimental conditions{ is not suited for analysis using independent samplest-tests.",Di repeat measures design wey each participant dey measure(about di same outcome variable)for both experimental conditions{ no suite for analysis using independent samplest-tests.,Computer science
"for example, we might be interested in whether listening to music reduces people's working memory capacity.",We go interest for whether listening to music reduce pipo's work memory capacity,Computer science
"to that end, we could measure each person's working memory capacity in two conditions: with music, and without music.","To dat end, we fit measure each person working memory capacity for two conditions: with music, and without music.",Computer science
"in an experimental design such as this one, 12each participant appears in bothgroups.","Di one, 12each participant dey appear for both groups",Computer science
this requires us to approach the problem in a dierent way; by using the paired samplest-test.,Dis one require us to approach di problem for different way; by using di paired samples t-test.,Computer science
this should be no surprise.,Nano surprise.,Computer science
both are standard repeated measures designs involving two measurements.,Di standard one kind of experiment wey dem dey measure di same pipo many times wey dey involve two measurements.,Computer science
"the only dierence is that this time our outcome variable is interval scale(working memory capacity)rather than a binary, nominal scale variable(a yes-or-no question).","Di only dierence na say dis time awa outcome variable dey interval scale(working memory capacity)no be binary, nominal scale variable(a yes-or-no question).",Computer science
"to hear her tell it, she runs avery hard class, one that most students nd very challenging; but she argues that by setting hard assessments, students are encouraged to work harder.","She argues say by setting hard assessment, students dey encourage to work harder; but she argu say by setting hard assessment, students dey encourage to work harder.",Computer science
"her theory is that the rst test is a bit of a\wake up call""for students: when they realise how hard her class really is, they'll work harder for the second test and get a better mark.","Di theory dey say di rst test dey bit of a\wake up call""for students: wen dem realise how hard her class really dey, dem go work harder for di second test and get better mark",Computer science
is she right?,Na she right?,Computer science
"here's the rst six students:> head(chico ) id grade test1 grade test2 1 student1 42. 9 44. 62 student2 51. 8 54. 03 student3 71. 772. 34 student4 51. 653. 45 student5 63. 563. 86 student6 58. 0 59. 3 at a glance, it does seem like the class is a hard one(most grades are between 50%and 60%), but it does look like there's an improvement from the rst test to the second one.","Here's di first six students:> head(chico). For one glance, e seem like di class hard(most grades dey between 50%and 60%), but e look like improvement dey from di first test to di second one.",Computer science
if we take a quick look at the descriptive statistics> library(psych ) >describe( chico) var n mean sd median trimmed mad min max range skew kurtosis se id*1 2010. 505. 92 10. 510. 507. 411. 0 20. 0 19. 0 0.00 -1. 201. 32 grade test1 2 20 56. 98 6. 62 57. 756. 92 7. 71 42. 9 71. 728. 8 0. 05 0. 281. 48 grade test2 3 20 58. 386. 41 59. 758. 356. 45 44. 672. 327. 7-0. 05 0. 231. 43 we see that this impression seems to be supported.,"If we take quick make we look di numbers wey describe, we see say dis impression seem to dey supported.",Computer science
"across all 20 students14the mean grade for the rst test is 57%, but this rises to 58%for the second test.","Di mean grade for di rst test dey 57%, but dis rises to 58%for di second test.",Computer science
"although, given that the standard deviations are 6.6% and 6.4% respectively, it's starting to feel like maybe the improvement is just illusory; maybe just random variation.","Di standard deviations dey 6.6% and 6.4% respectively, e start to feel like maybe di improvement dey just illusory; maybe just random variation.",Computer science
this impression is reinforced when you see the means and con dence intervals plotted in figure 13. 10a.,Di impression dey reinforce when you see di means and con dence intervals plotted for figure 13. 10a.,Computer science
"if we were to rely on this plot alone, we'd come to the same conclusion that we got from looking at the descriptive statistics that the describe()function produced.",We dey kom to di same conclusion say we get from looking at di numbers wey describe wey di describe()function produce.,Computer science
"looking at how wide those con dence intervals are, we'd be tempted to think that the apparent improvement in student performance is pure chance.",We dey tempt say di apparent improvement for student performance dey pure chance.,Computer science
no prizes for guessing who dr groucho is.,For guessing wey dr groucho dey.,Computer science
i've never taught an intro stats class with less than 350 students.,I never teach intro stats class with less than 350 students.,Computer science
scatterplot showing the individual grades for test 1 and test 2(panel b).,Scatterplot wey show di individual grades for test 1 and test 2(panel b).,Computer science
histogram showing the improvement made by each student in dr chico's class(panel c).,Di hintogram show di improvement wey each student for dr chico class(panel c).,Computer science
"in panel c, notice that almost the entire distribution is above zero: the vast majority of students did improve their performance from the rst test to the second one.",Di most part of students don improve dia performance from di rst test to di second one,Computer science
"nevertheless, this impression is wrong.",Di impression dey wrong.,Computer science
"to see why, take a look at the scatterplot ofthe grades for test 1 against the grades for test 2.",Di scatterplot of di grades for test 1 against di grades for test 2.,Computer science
shown in figure 13. 10b.,Di figure 13. 10b show for figure 13. 10b,Computer science
"in this plot, each dot corresponds to the two grades for a given student: if their grade for test 1( xco-ordinate) equals their grade for test 2(y co-ordinate), then the dot falls on the line.","If dia grade for test 1( xco-ordinate) equal dia grade for test 2(y co-ordinate), then di dot fallon di line.",Computer science
points falling above the line are the students that performed better on the second test.,Di students wey dey perform better on di second test.,Computer science
"critically, almost all ofthe data points fall above the diagonal line: almost all ofthe students doseem to have improved their grade, if only by a small amount.","Critically, almost all of di data points dey fall above di diagonal line: almost all of di students do seem to don improve dia grade, even if e be by small amount.",Computer science
"this suggests that we should be looking at the improvement made by each student from one test to the next, and treating that as our raw data.","Di suggest say we go make we look di improvement wey each student from one test to di next, and treat say as awa di first numbers.",Computer science
"to do this, we'll need to create anew variable for the improvement that each student makes, and add it to the chico data frame.","We need create new variable for di improvement wey each student make, and add am to di chico one kind of table.",Computer science
the easiest way to do this is as follows:> chico$improvement<- chico$grade test2 -chico$grade test1 notice that i assigned the output to a variable called chico$improvement.,chico$improvement<- chico$grade test2 notice say i assigned di output to a variable called chico$improvement,Computer science
that has the eect of creating anew variable called improvement inside the chico data frame.,Di chico one kind of table don get di eect of create new variable called improvement inside di chico one kind of table.,Computer science
"so now when i look at the chico data frame, i get an output that looks like this:> head(chico ) id grade test1 grade test2 improvement 1 student1 42. 9 44. 6 1. 72 student2 51. 8 54. 0 2. 23 student3 71. 772. 3 0. 64 student4 51. 653. 4 1. 85 student5 63. 563. 8 0. 36 student6 58. 0 59. 3 1. 3 now that we've created and stored this improvement variable, we can draw a histogram showing the distribution of these improvement scores(using the hist() function), shown in figure 13. 10c.","so now when I look at di chico one kind of table, I get output wey look like dis:> head(chico). Now dat we don create and store dis improvement variable, we fit draw histogram wey show di distribution of dese improvement scores(using hist() function), wey dem show for Figure 13.10c.",Computer science
"when we look at histogram, it's very clear that there isa real improvement here.","We make we look hintogram, e dey clear say na real improvement here",Computer science
"the vast majority ofthe students scored higher on the test 2 than on test 1, re ected in the fact that almost the entire histogram is above zero.","Di most part of di students score higher on di test 2 than on test 1, re ected for di fact say almost di entire hintogram dey above zero",Computer science
"so you can see, qualitatively, what's going on: there is a real\within student""improvement (everyone improves by about 1%), but it is very small when set against the quite large etween student"" dierences (student grades vary by about 20%or so).","Di real\within student""improvement (everyone improve by about 1%), but e dey small when set against di quite large between student"" dierences (student grades vary by about 20%or so).",Computer science
"in light ofthe previous exploration, let's think about how to construct an appropriate ttest.","For light of di previous exploration, make we think about how to construct appropriate t-test.",Computer science
one possibility would be to try to run an independent samples t-test using grade test1 and grade test2 as the variables of interest.,one way wey e fit be go be to try run independent samples t-test using grade test one and grade test two as di variables of interest.,Computer science
"however, this is clearly the wrong thing to do: the independent samples t-test assumes that there is no particular relationship between the two samples.",Di independent samples t-test assum say no particular how two things dey related di two samples,Computer science
"yet clearly that's not true in this case, because ofthe repeated measures structure to the data.","Di case no true for dis case, because of di repeat measure structure to di data.",Computer science
"instead of running an independent samples t-test on grade test1 and grade test2, we run a one-sample t-test on the within-subject dierence variable, improvement.","no be to do independent samples t-test on grade test one and grade test two, we run one-sample t-test on di within-subject difference variable, improvement.",Computer science
"to formalise this slightly, if xi1 is the score that the i-th participant obtained on the rst variable, and xi2is the score that the same person obtained on the second one, then the dierence score is: dixi1xi2 notice that the dierence scores is variable 1 minus variable 2 and not the other way around, so if we want improvement to correspond to a positive valued dierence, we actually want est 2""to be our ariable 1"".","Di dierence score dey variable 1 plus variable 2 and no di oda way around, so if we wan improvement to correspond to positive valued dierence, we actually wan 2""to be awa ariable 1"".",Computer science
"equally, we would say that d12is the population mean for this dierence variable.",We go say d12is di population mean for dis dierence variable.,Computer science
"so, to convert this to a hypothesis test, our null hypothesis is that this mean dierence is zero; the alternative hypothesis is that it is not: h0: d0 h1: d0 (this is assuming we're talking about a two-sided test here).",Di other idea na say dis mean dierence dey zero; di other idea na say dis mean dierence dey zero; di other idea na say dis mean dierence dey zero; di other idea na say dis mean dierence dey zero; di other idea na say dis mean dierence dey zero; di other idea na say dis mean dierence dey zero; di other idea na say dis mean dierence dey zero; di other idea na say dis mean dierence dey zero; di other idea na say dis mean dierence dey zero; di,Computer science
this is more or less identical to the way we described the hypotheses for the one-sample t-test: the only dierence is that the speci c value that the null hypothesis predicts is 0.,Di only dierence na say di speci c value wey di null idea predicts na 0.,Computer science
and so our t-statistic is de ned in more or less the same way too.,Di t-statistic dey dened for more or less di same way too.,Computer science
"if we let ddenote the mean ofthe dierence scores, then td sepdq which is td^d{?","We let ddenote di mean of di dierence scores, then td sepdq wey dey td^d{?",Computer science
n where^dis the standard deviation ofthe dierence scores.,"n, where σ̂ d na di howe dey spread of di difference scores.",Computer science
"since this is just an ordinary, one-sample t-test, with nothing special about it, the degrees of freedom are still n1.","Di ordinary, one-sample t-test, wit nothing special about it, di degree of freedom dey still n1.",Computer science
"and that's it: the paired samplest-test really isn't anew test at all: it's a one-sample t-test, but applied to the dierence between two variables.","Di paired samplest-test no dey new test for all: na one-sample t-test, but apply to di dierence between two variables.",Computer science
"it's actually very simple; the only reason it merits a discussion as long as the one we've-403- just gone through is that you need to be able to recognise when a paired samples test is appropriate, and to understand whyit's better than an independent samples ttest.","Di only reason wey dey merit a discussion as long as di one wey dey -403-just go through dey say you need to recognise when paired samples test dey appropriate, and to know why e dey better than independent samples ttest.",Computer science
"there's an average improvement of 1.4% from test 1 to test 2, and this is signi cantly dierent from 0( tp19q6: 48; p: 001).","Di average improvement of 1.4% from test 1 to test 2, and dis dey signi cantly dierent from 0( tp19q6: 48; p:001)",Computer science
"however, suppose you're lazy and you don't want to goto all the eort of creating anew variable.",Di suppose say you dey lazy and you don wan goto all di eort of creating new variable.,Computer science
or perhaps you just want to keep the dierence between one-sample and paired-samples tests clear in your head.,Or perhaps you just wan keep di difference between one-sample and paired-samples tests clear for your head.,Computer science
"if so, you can use the pairedsamplesttest() function, also in the lsrpackage.","Di pairedsamplesttest() function, also for di lsrpackage.",Computer science
"let's assume that your data organised like they are in the chico data frame, where there are two separate variables, one for each measurement.","She dey assume say your data organised like di chico one kind of table, wey dey two separate variables, one for each measurement.",Computer science
"for the chico data frame, the formula that you need would be ~grade time2 +grade time1.",Di formula wey you need go be grade time2 +grade time1,Computer science
"as usual, you'll also need to input the name ofthe data frame too.","as normal, you need input di name of di one kind of table too.",Computer science
"the numbers are identical to those that come from the one sample test, which ofcourse they have to be given that the paired samples t-test is just a one sample test under the hood.","Di numbers dey identical to those wey kom from di one sample test, wey ofcourse dem don give say di paired samples t-test dey just one sample test under di hood.",Computer science
"however, the output is a bit more detailed:-404- paired samples t-test variables: grade test2, grade test1 descriptive statistics: grade test2 grade test1 difference mean 58. 385 56. 980 1. 405 std dev.",Di output dey detailed: grade test2 grade test1 numbers wey describe: grade test2 grade test1 difference mean 58. 385 56. 980 1. 405 std dev.,Computer science
"the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis are now framed in terms ofthe original variables rather than the dierence score, but you should keep in mind that in a paired samples test it's still the dierence score being tested.","Di null idea and di other idea dey framed for terms of di original variables no be di dierence score, but you goto remember say for paired samples test dey still di dierence score wey dey tested.",Computer science
the statistical information at the bottom about the test result is ofcourse the same as before.,Di statistical information for di bottom about di test result dey ofcourse di same as before.,Computer science
"for the chico data, every student is\measured"" twice, once for the rst test, and again for the second test.","Di chico data, every student dey\measure"" twice, once for di rst test, and again for di second test.",Computer science
the chico data frame is in wide form: every row corresponds to a unique person.,Di chico one kind of table dey one way wey each person get one line: every row correspond to unique person,Computer science
"i've shown you the data in that form rst because that's the form that you're most used to seeing, and it's also the format that you're most likely to receive data in.","I to show you di data for dat form rst because dat's di form wey you dey use to seeing, and e also di format wey you dey like to receive data for.",Computer science
"however, the majority of tools in rfor dealing with repeated measures data expect to receive data in long form.","However, di majority of tools for R for handling repeat measures data dem expect to get data for long form.",Computer science
the paired samples t-test is a bit of an exception that way.,Di paired samples t-test dey a bit of exception dat way.,Computer science
"as you make the transition from a novice user to an advanced one, you're going to have to get comfortable with long form data, and switching between the two forms.","As you dey make di transition from novice user to advanced one, you go get to dey comfortable with long form data, and switching between di two forms.",Computer science
"to that end, i want to show you how to apply the pairedsamplesttest() function to long form data.","To dat end, I wan to show you how to apply di pairedSamplesTTest() function to long form data.",Computer science
"first, let's use the widetolong() function to create along form version ofthe chico data frame.",Dem use di widetolong() function to create long form version of di chico one kind of table.,Computer science
notice that this data frame is in long form: every row corresponds to a unique measurement.,Di one kind of table dey long form: every row correspond to unique measurement.,Computer science
"because every person provides two observations(test 1 and test 2), there are two rows for every person.","Because every person provide two numbers(test 1 and test 2), two rows dey for every person.",Computer science
how would we run our paired samplest-test now?,We run awa paired samplest-test now?,Computer science
"but that's sort of defeating the point, and besides, there's an easier way.","Di sort of defeating di point, and besides, e dey easier way.",Computer science
"let's think about what how the chico2 data frame is structured: there are three variables here, and they all matter.","We dey think about how di chico2 one kind of table dey structured: three variables here, and dem all matter.",Computer science
"the outcome measure is stored as the grade, and we eectively have two\groups"" of measurements(test 1 and test 2)that are de ned by the time points at which a test is given.","Di outcome measure dey store as di grade, and we eectively get two\groups"" of measurements(test 1 and test 2) wey dey given.",Computer science
"finally, because we want to keep track of which measurements should be paired together, we need to know which student obtained each grade, which is what the idvariable gives us.","We need to keep track of which measurements go pair together, we need to know which student wey dey obtained each grade, we need to know which student wey dey obtained each grade, we need to know which student wey dey obtained each grade, we need to know which student dey obtained each grade, we need to know which student dey obtained each grade, we need to know which student dey obtained each grade, we need know wich di idvariable give us.",Computer science
"so, when your data are presented to you in long form, we would want specify a two-sided formula and a data frame, in the same way that we do for an independent samples t-test: the formula species the outcome variable and the groups, so in this case it would be grade~ time, and the data frame is chico2.","We go wan specify two-sided formula and one kind of table, for di same way we go do for independent samples t-test: di formula wey we do for independent samples t-test.",Computer science
"however, we also need to tell it the id variable, which in this case is boringly called id.","We also need tell am di id variable, wey dey boringly call id.",Computer science
note that the idvariable must be a factor.,Di idvariable must be factor,Computer science
"as ofthe current writing, you do need to include the quote marks, because the pairedsamplesttest() function is expecting a character string that species the name of a variable.",Di pairedsamplesttest() function dey expect character string wey dey species di name of a variable.,Computer science
if i ever nd the time i'll try to relax this constraint.,I go try to relax dis constraint.,Computer science
"it gives you the descriptive statistics for the original variables, states the null hypothesis in a fashion that is a bit more appropriate for a repeated measures design, and then reports all the nuts and bolts from the hypothesis test itself.","Di numbers wey describe for di original variables, state di null idea for fashion wey dey appropriate for one kind of experiment wey dem dey measure di same pipo many times design, and then report all di nuts and bolts from di hypothesis test itself.",Computer science
not surprisingly the numbers the same as the ones that we saw last time.,Di numbers di same as di ones wey we saw last time.,Computer science
one nal comment about the pairedsamplesttest() function.,one last talk about di pairedSamplesTTest() function.,Computer science
"one ofthe reasons i designed it to be able handle long form and wide form data is that i want you to be get comfortable thinking about repeated measures data in both formats, and also to become familiar with the dierent ways in which rfunctions tend to specify models and tests for repeated measures data.","One of di reasons wey i design am to handle long form and one way wey each person get one line data na say i wan you to get comfortable thinking about one kind of experiment wey dem dey measure di same pipo many times data for both formats, and also to become familiar wit di dierent way wey rfunctions tend to specify model and tests for one kind of experiment wey dem dey measure di same pipo many times data.",Computer science
"with that last point in mind, i want to highlight a slightly dierent way of thinking about what the paired samples t-test is doing.",I wan to highlight a slightly dierent way of thinking about how di paired samples t-test dey do.,Computer science
"there's a sense in which what you're really trying to do is look at how the outcome variable( grade) is related to the grouping variable( time), after taking account ofthe fact that there are individual dierences between people( id).","Di sense wey you dey try to do dey make we look how di outcome variable( grade) dey related to di grouping variable( time), after taking account of di fact say there dey individual dierences between pipo (id).",Computer science
so there's a sense in which idis actually a second predictor: you're trying to predict the grade on the basis ofthe time and the id.,We dey try to predict di grade on di basis of di time and di id.,Computer science
"that being said, the main reason for allowing you to write your formulas that way is that they're-407- quite similar to the way that mixed models(fancy pants repeated measures analyses)are speci ed in the lme4 package.",Di main reason for allow you write your formulas say way dey mixed models(fancy pants repeat measures analyses) dey speci ed for di lme4 package.,Computer science
this book doesn't talk about mixed models(yet!,Di book no dey talk about mixed models(yet!),Computer science
"so far, all ofthe t-tests have been two-sided tests.",Di t-tests don dey two-sided tests.,Computer science
"for instance, when we speci ed a one sample t-test for the grades in dr zeppo's class, the null hypothesis was that the true mean was 67. 5%.",Di null idea na say di true mean na 67. 5%.,Computer science
the alternative hypothesis was that the true mean was greater than orless than 67. 5%.,"Di other idea na say di true mean dey pass, as in one thing pass anoda, for example, if u get 10 naira and v get 5 naira, u pass v orless than 67. 5%.",Computer science
"suppose we were only interested in nding out if the true mean is greater than 67. 5%, and have no interest whatsoever in testing to nd out if the true mean is lower than 67. 5%.","Di suppose we only interest for nding out if di true mean dey pass, as in one thing pass anoda, for example, if u get 10 naira and v get 5 naira, u pass v 67. 5%, and no interest wey dey for testing to nd out if di true mean dey pass, as in one thing pass anoda, for example, if u get 10 naira and v get 5 naira, u pass v 67. 5%, and no interest wey dey for testing to nd out if di true mean dey pass, as in one thing pass anoda, for example, if u get 10 naira and v get 5 naira, u pass v 67. 5%.",Computer science
"if so, our null hypothesis would be that the true mean is 67. 5%or less, and the alternative hypothesis would be that the true mean is greater than 67. 5%.","Di other idea go be say di true mean dey 67. 5%or less, and di other idea go be say di true mean dey pass, as in one thing pass anoda, for example, if u get 10 naira and v get 5 naira, u pass v 67. 5%.",Computer science
"the onesamplettest() function lets you do this, by specifying the one. sided argument.","Di onesamplettest() function don allow you do dis, by specifying di one. sided argument",Computer science
"if you set one. sided=""greater"", it means that you're testing to see if the true mean is larger than mu.",Di means say you dey test to see if di true mean dey larger than mu,Computer science
"if you set one. sided=""less"", then you're testing to see if the true mean is smaller than mu.",Di true mean dey smaller than mu,Computer science
"most important is the fact that the null and alternative hypotheses have changed, to re ect the dierent test.","Di most important is di fact say di null and other ideas don change, to re ect di dierent test.",Computer science
"the second thing to note is that, although the t-statistic and degrees of freedom have not changed, the p-value has.","Di second thing to note na say, although di t-statistic and degree of freedom no change, di p-value don.",Computer science
this is because the one-sided test has a dierent rejection region from the two-sided test.,Di one-sided test don get di dierent rejection region from di two-sided test.,Computer science
"the third thing to note is that the con dence interval is dierent too: it now reports a\one-sided"" con dence interval rather than a two-sided one.","Di second thing wey dey note na say di con dence interval dey dierent too: e now report a\one-sided"" con dence interval no be two-sided one",Computer science
"in a two-sided con dence interval, we're trying to nd numbers aandbsuch that we're 95%con dent that the true mean lies betweenaandb.",We dey try to nd numbers aandbsuch say we dey 95%con dent say di true mean lies betweenaandb,Computer science
so that's how to do a one-sided one sample t-test.,E dey how to do one-sided one sample t-test,Computer science
"however, all versions ofthe t-test can be one-sided.",Di t-test no be one-sided.,Computer science
"for an independent samples ttest, you could have a one-sided test if you're only interestd in testing to see if group a has higher scores than group b, but have no interest in nding out if group b has higher scores than group a.","Di one-sided test if you dey interest for testing to see if group a get higher scores than group b, but no interest for nding out if group b get higher scores than group a.",Computer science
"let's suppose that, for dr harpo's class, you wanted to see if anastasia's students had higher grades than bernadette's.","Dem suppose say, for dr harpo class, you go see if anastasia students get higher grades than bernadette's.",Computer science
"the independentsamplesttest() function lets you do this, again by specifying the one. sided argument.","Di independentSamplesTTest() function let you do dis, again by giving di one. sided argument.",Computer science
"however, this time around you need to specify the name ofthe group that you're expecting to have the higher score.",Di time around you need to specify di name of di group wey you expect to get di higher score.,Computer science
"in our case, we'd write one. sided= ""anastasia"".","For our case, we go write one. sided =""Anastasia"".",Computer science
"the de nition ofthe null and alternative hypotheses has changed, the p-value has changed, and it now reports a one-sided con dence interval rather than a two-sided one.","Di de nition of di null and other ideas don change, di p-value don change, and dip-value don change, di p-value don change, and dip-value don change, di p-value don change, di p-value don change, di p-value don change, and dip-value don change, di p-value don change, di p-value don change, di p-value don change, and dip-value don change, di p-value don change, and dip-value don change, di p-value don change, and",Computer science
what about the paired samples t-test?,Wetin about di paired samples t-test?,Computer science
"suppose we wanted to test the hypothesis that grades go up from test 1 to test 2 in dr zeppo's class, and are not prepared to consider the idea that the grades go down.","We suppose test di hypothesis say grades go up from test 1 to test 2 for dr Zeppo class, and no dey prepared to consider di idea say di grades go down.",Computer science
"again, we can use the one. sided argument to specify the one-sided test, and it works the same way it does for the independent samples t-test.","We go use di one. sided argument to specify di one-sided test, and e works di same way we dey do for di independent samples t-test.",Computer science
you need to specify the name ofthe group whose scores are expected to be larger under the alternative hypothesis.,We need to specify di name of di group wey dey scores dey expected to be larger under di other idea.,Computer science
"the hypotheses have changed, the p-value has changed, and the con dence interval is now one-sided.","Di hypotheses don change, di p-value don change, and di con dence interval dey one-sided.",Computer science
"if your data are in long form, as they are in the chico2 data frame, it still works the same way.","As di data dey long form, as dem dey in di chico2 one kind of table, e still work di same way",Computer science
"in order to run these dierent tests, i've shown you three dierent functions: onesamplettest(), independentsamplesttest() and pairedsamplesttest().","To run dese different tests, I don to show you three different functions: oneSampleTTest(), independentSamplesTTest(), and pairedSamplesTTest().",Computer science
"firstly, i thought it made sense to have separate functions for each test, in order to help make it clear to beginners that there are different tests.","First, I think say e make sense to get separate functions for each test, so date go clear to beginners sey different tests dey.",Computer science
"secondly, i wanted to show you some functions that produced erbose"" output, to help you see what hypotheses are being tested and soon.","I goto show you some functions wey produce erbose"" output, to help you see what hypotheses dey tested and soon.",Computer science
"however, once you've started to become familiar with t-tests and with using r, you might nd it easier to use the t. test()function.","However, once you don start to know t-tests and how to useR well, you go find am easier to use di t. test() function.",Computer science
"it's one function, but it can run all four ofthe dierent t-tests that we've talked about.",We dey talk about di dierent t-test wey we dey talk about.,Computer science
"firstly, suppose you want to run a one sample t-test.","First, make we suppose sey you wan run one-sample t-test.",Computer science
"the output is alot more compressed: one sample t-test data: grades t=2. 2547, df =19, p-value= 0. 03615 alternative hypothesis: true mean is not equal to 67. 5 95 percent confidence interval:67. 84422 76. 75578 sample estimates: mean of x 72. 3 as you can see, it still has all the information you need.","Di output dey more short: one-sample t-test data: grades t= 2.2547, df =19, p-value= 0.03615. di other idea: true mean no equal to 67.5. 95%di place where di true number fit dey: 67.84422 to 76.75578. Sample estimates: mean of x= 72.3. As you dey see, e still get all di info wey you need.",Computer science
it tells you what type of test it ran and the data it tested it on.,E tell you what type of test wey dey ran and di data wey dey test am on.,Computer science
"it gives you the t-statistic, the degrees of freedom and the p-value.","Di t-statistic, di degree of freedom and dip-value.",Computer science
"there's nothing wrong with this output, but in my experience it can be a little confusing when you're just starting to learn statistics, because it's a little disorganised.","Di experience dey a little confusing wen you dey start to learn statistics, but for my experience na a little confusing wen you dey start to learn statistics, but for my experience na little confusing wen you dey start to learn statistics, but for my experience na a little disorganised.",Computer science
"once you know what you're looking at though, it's pretty easy to read o the relevant information.",E dey easy to read o di relevant information.,Computer science
what about independent samples t-tests?,For independent samples t-test?,Computer science
"as it happens, the t. test()function can be used in much the same way as the independentsamplesttest() function, by specifying a formula, a data frame, and using var. equal to indicate whether you want a student test or a welch test.","Di t. test()function go use for much di same way as di independentsamplesttest() function, by specifying formula, one kind of table, and using var. equal to indicate whether you wan student test or a welch test",Computer science
this is no dierent to how it worked in the independentsamplesttest() function.,Dina no dierent to how dem work for di independentsamplesttest() function.,Computer science
"finally, we come to the paired samples t-test.",We kom to di paired samples t-test,Computer science
"somewhat surprisingly, given that most rfunctions for dealing with repeated measures data require data to bein long form, the t. test()function isn't really-411- setup to handle data in long form.",Di t. test()function no dey really-411 setup to handle data for long form.,Computer science
"instead it expects to be given two separate variables, xand y, and you need to specify paired=true.","Instead, e expect sey you give am two different variables, x andy, and you need to say paired be true.",Computer science
"and on top of that, you'd better make sure that the rst element of xand the rst element of yactually correspond to the same person!",Di rst element of xand di rst element of yactually correspond to di same person,Computer science
"because it doesn't ask for an\id"" variable.","Dem no ask for\id"" variable",Computer science
feel free to check.,Dem dey feel free to check,Computer science
"it's avery simple measure in principle, with quite a few wrinkles when you start digging into the details.","Di very simple measure for principle, wit quite few wrinkles wey you start di details.",Computer science
"cohen himself de ned it primarily in the context of an independent samples t-test, speci cally the student test.","Cohen himself dey neva primarily for di context of independent samples t-test, speci call di student test.",Computer science
"in that context, a natural way of de ning the eect size is to divide the dierence between the means by an estimate ofthe standard deviation.",Di natural way of dey ning di eect size dey divide di dierence between di means by an estimate of di howe dey spread.,Computer science
"in other words, we're looking to calculate something along the lines of this: d(mean 1)(mean 2)std dev and he suggested a rough guide for interpreting din table 13.1.",D(mean 1)(mean 2)std dev and hin suggest rough guide for interpreting din table 13.,Computer science
"you'd think that this would be pretty unambiguous, but it's not; largely because cohen wasn't too speci c on what he thought should be used as the measure ofthe standard deviation(in his defence, he was trying to make a broader point in his book, not nitpick about tiny details).","Di suppose think say dis go be pretty unambiguous, but e no dey; largely because cohen no dey too speci c on what he thought go use as di measure of di howe dey spread(in hin defence, hin try make a broader point for hin book, no nitpick about tiny details",Computer science
"as discussed by mcgrath and meyer(2006), there are several dierent version in common usage, and each author tends to adopt slightly dierent notation.","Dem dey discuss mcgrath and meyer(2006), na several dierent version for common usage, and each author dey adopt slightly dierent notation.",Computer science
"for the sake of simplicity(as opposed to accuracy)i'll use dto refer to any statistic that you calculate from the sample, and use to refer to a theoretical population eect.","For di sake of simplicity(not accuracy), I go use""d"" to talk about any statistic wey you calculate from di sample, and I go use ""δ"" to talk about theoretical population effect.",Computer science
"obviously, that does mean that there are several dierent things all called d. the cohensd() function in the lsrpackage uses the method argument to distinguish between them, so that's what i'll doin the text.","Di cohensd() function for di lsrpackage use di method argument to distinguish between dem, so dat's what i go do for di text.",Computer science
"my suspicion is that the only time that you would want cohen's dis when you're running at-test, and if you're using the onesamplettest, independentsamplesttest and pairedsamplesttest() functions to run yourt-tests, then you don't need to learn any new commands, because they automatically produce-412- table 13.1: a(very) rough guide to interpreting cohen's d. my personal recommendation is to not use these blindly.","Di only time wey you go wan cohen dis when you run t-test, and if you use di onesamplettest, independentsamplesttest and pairedsamplesttest() function to run yourt-test, then you no need learn any new commands, because dem automatically produce-412- table 13.",Computer science
the dstatistic has a natural interpretation in and of itself: it redescribes the dierent in means as the number of standard deviations that separates those means.,Di dstatistic don describe di dierent for means as di number of howe dey spread wey dey separates those means,Computer science
so it's generally a good idea to think about what that means in practical terms.,So na generally good idea to think about wetin dat mean for practical terms.,Computer science
"in some contexts a\small"" eect could be of big practical importance.","Di\small"" eect go be of big practical importance.",Computer science
"in other situations a\large"" eect may not be all that interesting.","Di\large"" eect no be all dat interesting.",Computer science
"d-value rough interpretation about 0. 2\small"" eect about 0. 5\moderate"" eect about 0. 8\large"" eect.","Di rough meaning of d-value: about 0.2 na""small"" effect, about 0.5 na""moderate"" effect, about 0.8 na""large"" effect.",Computer science
an estimate of cohen's das part ofthe output.,Estimate of Cohen's d dey part of di output.,Computer science
"however, if you're using t. test()then you'll need to use thecohensd() function(also in the lsrpackage) to do the calculations.",If you use t. test()then you need use dicohensd() function(also for di lsrpackage) to do di calculations.,Computer science
"in this case, the one sample mean xand one (hypothesised) population mean oto compare it to.","For this case, na one di average number x and one(hypothesized) population mean μ wey you go compare am to.",Computer science
"not only that, there's really only one sensible way to estimate the population standard deviation: we just use our usual estimate^.",We just use awa usual estimate,Computer science
"therefore, we end up with the following as the only way to calculated, dx0 ^when writing the cohensd() function, i've made some attempt to make it workin a similar way tot. test().","So we con end up with dis as di only way to find d: d= (x̄ - μ0) σ̂. When I write di cohensd() function, I try make am work similarly to t. test().",Computer science
"as a consequence, cohensd() can calculate your eect size regardless of which type oft-test you performed.","As e be so, cohensd() fit calculate your effect size no matter which type oft-test you run.",Computer science
"if what you want is a measure of cohen's dto accompany a one-sample t-test, there's only two arguments that you need to care about.",Di only two arguments wey you need care about.,Computer science
these are: x.,Dem be: x.,Computer science
a numeric vector containing the sample data.,A numeric vector wey dey containing di sample data,Computer science
the mean against which the mean of xis compared(default value is mu=0 ).,Di mean wey di mean of xis compare(di normal number na mu=0 ).,Computer science
"we don't need to specify what method to use, because there's only one version of dthat makes sense in this context.","We no need to specify what method to use, because na only one version of dthat make sense for dis context.",Computer science
"overall, then, the psychology students in dr zeppo's class are achieving grades(mean =72. 3%)that are about.5 standard deviations higher than the level that you'd expect(67. 5%)if they were performing at the same level as other students.",Di psychology students for dr Zeppo class dey achieve grades(mean =72. 3%) wey dey about.5 standard deviations wey dem expect(67. 5%)if dem perform at di same level as oda students.,Computer science
"judged against cohen's rough guide, this is a moderate eect size.",E dey moderate eect size.,Computer science
"to understand why there are multiple versions of d, it helps to take the time to write down a formula that corresponds to the true population eect size.","E help to know why na multiple version of d, e help to take di time to write down a formula wey correspond to di true population eect size.",Computer science
"it's pretty straightforward,12 where, as usual, 1and2are the population means corresponding to group 1 and group 2 respectively, andis the standard deviation(the same for both populations).","E dey clear: as normal, μ1 and μ2 na di population means for group 1 and group 2, and σ na di howe dey spread (wey dey same for both populations).",Computer science
"the obvious way to estimate is to do exactly the same thing that we did in the t-test itself: use the sample means as the top line, and a pooled standard deviation estimate for the bottom line: dx1x2 ^p where ^pis the exact same pooled standard deviation measure that appears in the t-test.","Na use di sample means as di top line, and a pooled howe dey spread measure wey we dey for di wetin dey show say dem don succeed, like if dem make profit or loss, dem get one way to take know am, no be like for school wey dem no dey count profit: dx1x2",Computer science
"this is the most commonly used version of cohen's dwhen applied to the outcome of a student t-test, and is sometimes referred to as hedges' gstatistic (hedges,1981).","Di most common version of cohen's dwhen apply to di outcome of student t-test, and dey sometimes dem dey call hedges' gstatistic (hedges,1981).",Computer science
"it corresponds to method= ""pooled"" in the cohensd() function, and it's the default.",Di default.,Computer science
"however, there are other possibilities, which i'll brie y describe.",Di possibilities wey i'll brie ydescribe.,Computer science
"firstly, you may have reason to want to use only one ofthe two groups as the basis for calculating the standard deviation.",Di reason to wan to use only one of di two groups as di basis for calculating di howe dey spread.,Computer science
"this approach(often called glass') only makes most sense when you have good reason to treat one ofthe two groups as a purer re ection of atural variation""than the other.","Dis approach (wey dem often call Glass's delta)only make sense well when you go get good reason to treat one of di two groups as better reflection of""natural variation""than di other.",Computer science
"this can happen if, for instance, one ofthe two groups is a control group.","for example, one of di two groups dey control group",Computer science
"if that's what you want, then use method= ""x. sd"" ormethod =""y. sd""when using cohensd().","If dat be wetin you wan, den use method= ""x. sd"" or method= ""y. sd"" when you dey use cohensd().",Computer science
"secondly, recall that in the usual calculation ofthe pooled standard deviation we divide byn2 to correct for the bias in the sample variance; in one version of cohen's dthis correction is omitted.",Dem recall say for di usual calculation of di pooled howe dey spread we divide byn2 to correct for di bias for di sample variance; for one version of cohen's dthis correction dey omitted.,Computer science
"instead, we divide by n. this version( method= ""raw"") makes sense primarily when you're trying to calculate the eect size in the sample; rather than estimating an eect size in the population.","Diversion (method =""raw"" )make sense primarily wen you dey try to calculate di eect size for di sample; no be estimating an eect size for di population.",Computer science
"in any case, ignoring all those variations that you could make use of if you wanted, let's have a look at how to calculate the default version.","For any case, ignorin all those variations wey you goto use if you waned, let's make we look how to calculate di default version.",Computer science
"in particular, suppose we look at the data from dr harpo's class(the harpo data frame).",We make we look di data from dr harpo class(the harpo one kind of table).,Computer science
this is the version of cohen's dthat gets reported by the independentsamplesttest() function whenever it runs a student t-test.,Dis na diversion of Cohen's d wey di independentsamplesttest() function dey report whenever e run Student's t-test.,Computer science
"when this happens, we have to rede ne what we mean by the population eect size.",We don rede ne we mean by di population eect size.,Computer science
"i'll refer to this new measure as 1, so as to keep it distinct from the measure which we de ned previously.","I goto talk about dis new measure as 1, so as to keep di distinct from di measure wey we dey neva previously.",Computer science
what cohen(1988) suggests is that we could de ne our new population eect size by averaging the two population variances.,Dem suggest say we go dey new population eect size by averaging di two population variances.,Computer science
what this means is that we get:112 1 where 1c 12,We get:112 1 wia 1c 12,Computer science
"it might just be my own ignorance ofthe topic, but i'm only aware of one version of cohen's dthat actually estimates the unequal-variance eect size 1rather than the equal-variance eect size.","E fit be my own ignorance for dis matter, but I only know one version of Cohen's d wey actually estimate unequal-variance effect size (δ1) not dat one equal-variance effect size (δ).",Computer science
"all we do to calculate dfor this version( method= ""unequal"") is substitute the sample means x1and x2and the corrected sample standard deviations^ 1and ^2into the equation for1.","Diversion (method =""unequal"" )dey substitute di sample means x1and x2and di correct sample standard deviations^ 1and ^2for di equation for1.",Computer science
"this gives us the following equation ford, dx1x2c ^2 1",Dis give us di following equation ford: d= (x̄1 - x̄2) σ̂2 (where σ̂2 na di SD of group 2).,Computer science
"in this case, the answer depends on what it is you're trying to do.",Di answer depend on how you dey try to do.,Computer science
"ifyou want to measure your eect sizes relative to the distribution of dierence scores, the measure of dthat you calculate is just( method= ""paired"") dd^d where^dis the estimate ofthe standard deviation ofthe dierences.","Di measure of dthat you calculate na just( method= ""paired"") dd wia di estimate of di howe dey spread of di dierences.",Computer science
the only wrinkle is guring out whether this is the measure you want or not.,Di only wrinkle dey guring out whether dis dey di measure you wan or no.,Computer science
"to the extent that you care about-415- the practical consequences of your research, you often want to measure the eect size relative to the original variables, not the dierence scores(e. g, the 1%improvement in dr chico's class is pretty small when measured against the amount of between-student variation in grades), in which case you use the same versions of cohen's dthat you would use for a student or welch test.","For di extent wey you care about-415- di practical consequences of your research, you often wan to measure di eect size relative to di original variables, no di dierence scores(e. g, di 1%improvement for dr chico class dey small wen you dey measure against di amount of between-student variation for grades), in which case you use di same versions of cohen's dthat you go use for student or welch test.",Computer science
"however, life doesn't come with guarantees; and besides, there are lots of ways in which you can end up with variables that are highly non-normal.","For however, life no dey kom wit guarantees; and besides, e dey lots of way wey you fit end up wit variables wey dey highly non-normal",Computer science
"for example, any time you think that your variable is actually the minimum of lots of dierent things, there's avery good chance it will end up quite skewed.","Di time you think say your variable dey actually di minimum of lots of dierent things, na very good chance e go end up quite skewed.",Computer science
"in psychology, response time(rt) data is a good example of this.","For psychology, how fast person answer(rt) data na good example of dis",Computer science
"if you suppose that there are lots of things that could trigger a response from a human participant, then the actual response will occur the rst time one of these trigger events occurs. 16this means that rt data are systematically non-normal.",Di means say rt data dey systematically non-normal.16,Computer science
"okay, so if normality is assumed by all the tests, and is mostly but not always satis ed(at least approximately)by real world data, how can we check the normality of a sample?","If normality dey assumed by all di tests, and dey mostly but no always satis ed(at least approximately)by real world data, how fit we check di normality of a sample?",Computer science
this allows you to visually check whether you're seeing any systematic violations.,Di allows you to check whether you dey see any systematic violations.,Computer science
"in a qq plot, each observation is plotted as a single dot.",Di observation dey plot as single dot.,Computer science
"the x co-ordinate is the theoretical quantile that the observation should fall in, if the data were normally distributed(with mean and variance estimated from the sample)and on they co-ordinate is the actual quantile ofthe data within the sample.","Di x co-ordinate na di theoretical quantile wey di observation go fall for, if di data dey normally distributed(with mean and variance wey dey estimated from di sample)and on di y co-ordinate na di actual quantile of di data wey dey within di sample.",Computer science
"if the data are normal, the dots should form a straight line.",Di dots go form straight line.,Computer science
"for instance, lets see what happens if we generate data by sampling from a normal distribution, and then drawing a qq plot using the rfunction qqnorm().","for example, make we see wetin go happen if we to make data by sampling from di bell way, and den draw QQ plot using di R function qqnorm().",Computer science
"the qqnorm() function has a few arguments, but the only one we really need to care about here is y, a vector specifying the data whose normality we're interested in checking.","Di qqnorm() function don get few arguments, but di only one we dey need care about here dey y, vector wey dey specifying di data wey dey normality wey we dey interest for checking.",Computer science
"the shapiro-wilk statistic associated with these data is w:99, indicating that no signi cant departures from normality were detected( p:73).","Di shapiro-wilk statistic wey dey associated wit dis data dey w:99, indicating say no signi fit departure from normality dey detected( p:73).",Computer science
and the results are shown in figure 13. 11.,Di results dey show for figure 13. 11. 11.,Computer science
"as you can see, these data form a pretty straight line; which is no surprise given that we sampled them from a normal distribution!","As you see, dis data form pretty straight line; we no surprise given say we sample dem from di bell way",Computer science
"in contrast, have a look at the two data sets shown in figure 13. 12.",Di two data sets show for figure 13. 12.,Computer science
the top panels show the histogram and a qq plot for a dataset that is highly skewed: the qq plot curves upwards.,Di top panel show di hintogram and qq plot for group of related numbers or data wey belong together wey dey highly skewed: di qq plot curves upwards.,Computer science
"the lower panels show the same plots for a heavy tailed(i. e, high kurtosis) dataset: in this case, the qq plot attens in the middle and curves sharply at either end.","Di lower panels show di same plots for heavy-tailed (wey mean high kurtosis) data: for dis case, di QQ plot dey flatten for middle and curve sharply for both ends.",Computer science
"and when that moment comes, the shapiro-wilk test(shapiro & wilk, 1965)is probably what you're looking for. 17as you'd expect, the null hypothesis being tested is that a set of nobservations is normally distributed.","For 17as you expect, di null idea wey dey tested na say a set of nobservations dey normally distributed.",Computer science
"the test statistic that it calculates is conventionally denoted as w, and it's calculated as follows.","Di test statistic wey dey calculate na conventionally denoted as w, and e dey calculated as follows.",Computer science
"first, we sort the observations in order of increasing size, and let x1be the smallest value in the sample, x2be the second smallest and soon.","First, we sort di observations from smallest to biggest, and make x1 be di least for di sample, x2 be di second smallest, and soon.",Computer science
"then the value of wis given by wn i1aixi 2n i1pxixq2 where xis the mean ofthe observations, and the aivalues are. mumble, mumble. something complicated that is a bit beyond the scope of an introductory text.","Di value of wit wn i1aixi 2n i1pxixq2 wey dey xis di mean of di observations, and di aivalues dey. mumble, mumble",Computer science
"the skewness ofthe data here is 1. 94, and is re ected in a qq plot that curves upwards.","Di skewness of di data here dey 1. 94, and dey re ected for qq plot wey dey curves upwards",Computer science
"as a consequence, the shapiro-wilk statistic is w:80, re ecting a signi cant departure from normality (p: 001).","Di shapiro-wilk statistic dey w:80, re ect signi cant departure from normality (p:001)",Computer science
"the bottom row shows the same plots for a heavy tailed dataset, again consisting of 100 observations.","Di bottom row show di same plot for heavy tailed group of related numbers or data wey belong together, again wey dey consist of 100 observations.",Computer science
"in this case, the heavy tails in the data produce a high kurtosis (2. 80), and cause the qq plot to atten in the middle, and curve away sharply on either side.","For dis case, di heavy tails for di data produce high kurtosis (2.80), and e make di QQ plot flatten for middle, and curve sharply for both sides.",Computer science
"the resulting shapiro-wilk statistic isw: 93, again re ecting signi cant non-normality (p: 001).","Di resulting shapiro-wilk statistic na 93, again re ect signi cant non-normality (p:001)",Computer science
note that small values ofwindicate departure from normality.,Dem note say small value ofwindicate departure from normality.,Computer science
"because it's a little hard to explain the maths behind the wstatistic, a better idea is to give abroad brush description of how it behaves.","E dey hard to explain di maths wey dey behind di wstatistic, a better idea nato give abroad brush description of how im fit behaves",Computer science
"unlike most ofthe test statistics that we'll encounter in this book, it's actually small values ofwthat indicated departure from normality.","Di test statistics wey we dey encounter for dis book, e dey small value ofw wey dey indicated departure from normality.",Computer science
"the wstatistic has a maximum value of 1, which arises when the data look\perfectly normal"".","Di wstatistic don get maximum value of 1, wey arises wen di data look normal"".",Computer science
"the smaller the value of w, the less normal the data are.","Di smaller di value of w, di less normal di data dey.",Computer science
"notice that, as the sample size starts to get large, the sampling distribution becomes very tightly clumped up near w1, and as a consequence, for larger samples wdoesn't have to be very much smaller than 1 in order for the test to be signi cant.","As di sample size start to get large, di sampling distribution dey very tightly clump up near w1, and as consequence, for small samples no get smaller than 1 for order for di test to signi cant.",Computer science
"to run the test in r, we use the shapiro. test()function.","To run di test for R, we use di shapiro. test() function.",Computer science
"it has only a single argument x, which is a numeric vector containing the data whose normality needs to be tested.","E no get single argument x, wey dey numeric vector wey dey containing di data wey dey normality need to test.",Computer science
"for example, when we apply this function to our normal. data, we get the following:> shapiro. test(x= normal. data) shapiro-wilk normality test data: normal. data w=0. 9903, p-value= 0. 6862 so, not surprisingly, we have no evidence that these data depart from normality.","for example, when we apply dis function to our normal. data, we get:> shapiro. test(x = normal. data) Shapiro-Wilk normality test data: normal. data w= 0.9903, p-value= 0.6862. So, no surprise, we no get evidence sey dis data no be normal.",Computer science
"when reporting the results for a shapiro-wilk test, you should(as usual)make sure to include the test statistic wand the pvalue, though given that the sampling distribution depends so heavily on nit would probably be a politeness to include nas well.","Di test statistic wand di pvalue, though given say di sampling distribution depend so heavily on nit go probably be politeness to include na well.",Computer science
"this situation occurs alot in real life: for the afl winning margins data, for instance, the shapiro-wilk test made it very clear that the normality assumption is violated.","For di afl winning margin data, for example, di shapiro-wilk test make dem clear say di normality assumption dey violated.",Computer science
this is the situation where you want to use wilcoxon tests.,Di situation wey you wan use wilcoxon tests.,Computer science
"like thet-test, the wilcoxon test comes in two forms, one-sample and two-sample, and they're used in more or less the exact same situations as the corresponding t-tests.","Di wilcoxon test kom for two forms, one-sample and two-sample, and dem dey use for more or less di exact same situation as di corresponding t-tests.",Computer science
"unlike the t-test, the wilcoxon test doesn't assume normality, which is nice.","Di wilcoxon test no assume normality, wey dey nice.",Computer science
"in fact, they don't make any assumptions about what kind of distribution is involved: in statistical jargon, this makes them nonparametric tests.","For statistical jargon, dis make dem no make any assumptions about what kind of distribution dey involved: for statistical jargon, dis make dem nonparametric tests",Computer science
"while avoiding the normality assumption is nice, there's a drawback: the wilcoxon test is usually less powerful than the t-test(i. e, higher type ii error rate).","Di wilcoxon test dey usually less powerful than di t-test(i. e, higher type ii error rate).",Computer science
suppose we're looking at the scores of 10 people on some test.,We dey make we look di score of 10 pipo for some test,Computer science
"since my imagination has now failed me completely, let's pretend it's a est of awesomeness"", and there are two groups of people,\a"" and\b"".","Di imagination don failed me completely, let's pretend am aest of awesomeness"", and na two groups of pipo, \a""and \b"".",Computer science
i'm curious to know which group is more awesome.,I dey curious to know which group dey more awesome,Computer science
the data are included in the le awesome.,Di data dey include for di le awesome,Computer science
"rdata, and like many ofthe data sets i've been using, it contains only a single data frame, in this case called awesome.","Di data sets wey dey use, and like many of di data sets wey dey use, na only single one kind of table, for dis case call awesome.",Computer science
all we have to do is construct a table that compares every observation in groupaagainst every observation in group b.,Di all we go do dey construct table wey compare every observation for groupaagainst every observation for group b.,Computer science
"whenever the group adatum is larger, we place a check mark in the table: group b 14. 510. 412. 411. 713. 0 6.4.",We place check mark for di table: group b 14. 510. 412. 411. 713. 0 6. 4,Computer science
group a 11. 9. x. x.,"Group A: 11.9, x, x.",Computer science
"this is our test statistic, w. 18the actual sampling distribution for wis somewhat complicated, and i'll skip the details.","Dis na our test statistic, W. Di real sampling distribution for W dey somehow complicated, and I go skip di details.",Computer science
"for our purposes, it's sucient to note that the interpretation of wis qualitatively the same as the interpretation of torz.",Di interpretation of wis qualitatively di same as di interpretation of torz.,Computer science
"that is, if we want a two-sided test, then we reject the null hypothesis when wis very large or very small; but if we have a directional(i. e, one-sided) hypothesis, then we only use one or the other.","If we get two-sided test, then we reject di null idea wen we dey large or very small; but if we get directional(i. e, one-sided) hypothesis, then we reject di null idea wen we dey small or very small; but if we get directional(i. e, one-sided) hypothesis, we only use one or di oda",Computer science
the structure ofthe wilcox. test()function should feel very familiar to you by now.,Di structure of di wilcox. test() function suppose to dey familiar to you by now.,Computer science
"similarly, the wilcox. test()function allows you to use the xand y arguments when you have your data stored separately for each group.",Di Wilcox. test()function dey allow you use di xand y argument wey you go get separately for each group.,Computer science
suppose i'm interested in nding out whether taking a statistics class has any eect on the happiness of students.,Di suppose i interest for nding out whether taking statistics class don any eect on di happiness of students.,Computer science
the version that i've described is the one that rcalculates.,I dey described na di one wey dey rcalculate,Computer science
"just like we saw with the t-test, there's no fundamental dierence between doing a paired-samples test using before and after, versus doing a onesample test using the change scores.","Just as we see with t-test, no real di difference between running paired-samples test using before and after, versus running one-sample test using change scores.",Computer science
"as before, the simplest way to think about the test is to construct a tabulation.",Di simple way to think about di test dey construct tabulation,Computer science
"the way to do it this time is to take those change scores that are positive valued, and tabulate them against all the complete sample.","Di way to do di time nato take change scores wey dey positive value, and tabulate dem against all di complete sample.",Computer science
what you end up with is a table that looks like this: all dierences -24-14 -107 -6-38 2-35 -30 57.,"Wetin you go end up with na table wey look like dis: all differences:-24, -14,-10, 7,-6, -38, 2,-35, -30, 5, 7.",Computer science
"as before, if our test is two sided, then we reject the null hypothesis when vis very large or very small.","as before, if awa test dey two sided, then we reject di null idea wey dey when vis very large or very small.",Computer science
"as far of running it in rgoes, it's pretty much what you'd expect.","As far of running am for rgoes, e dey pretty much what you expect.",Computer science
"evidently, taking a statistics class does have an eect on your happiness.","For evidently, take statistics class don get eect on your happiness",Computer science
"it is equivalent to taking the dierence between the two scores for each person, and then running a one sample t-test on the dierence scores.","E dey equivalent to take di dierence between di two scores for each person, and then run one sample t-test on di dierence scores.",Computer science
you can check the normality of a sample using qq plots and the shapiro-wilk test.,You fit check normality of sample using QQ plots and di Shapiro-Wilk test.,Computer science
"the basic technique was developed by sir ronald fisher in the early 20th century, and it is to him that we owe the rather unfortunate terminology.","Di basic technique dey develop by one big name for statistics for di early 20th century, and nato him say we owe di rather unfortunate terminology.",Computer science
"the term anova is a little misleading, in two respects.","Di term anova dey little misleading, for two respects.",Computer science
"firstly, although the name ofthe technique refers to variances, anova is concerned with investigating dierences in means.","Di name of di technique to talk about variances, anova dey concerned wit investigating dierences for means.",Computer science
"secondly, there are several dierent things out there that are all referred to as anovas, some of which have only avery tenuous connection to one another.","E dey several dierent things out there wey dey dem dey call anovas, some of which don only very tenuous connection to one another.",Computer science
this is the question that is addressed by aone-way anova.,Di question wey dey address by one-way anova.,Computer science
"in order to construct a fair test ofthe drug's eectiveness, the study involves three separate drugs to be administered.","To build fair test of di drug effectiveness, di study involve three separate drugs wey dem go give.",Computer science
"one is a placebo, and the other is an existing antidepressant /anti-anxiety drug called anxifree.","One dey placebo, and di oda dey existing antidepressant anti-anxiety drug wey dey called anxifree.",Computer science
a collection of 18 participants with moderate to severe depression are recruited for your initial testing.,Dem recruit 18 participants wey get moderate to severe depression for your first test.,Computer science
"because the drugs are sometimes administered in conjunction with psychological therapy, your study includes 9 people undergoing cognitive behavioural therapy (cbt) and 9 who are not.",Di study includes 9 pipo wey dey undergoing cognitive behavioural therapy (cbt) and 9 wey no dey no.,Computer science
"participants are randomly assigned(doubly blinded, of course)a treatment, such that there are 3 cbt people and 3 no-therapy people assigned to each ofthe 3 drugs.","Di participants dey randomly assigned(doubly blind, of course)treatment, such say na 3 cbt pipo and 3 no-therapy pipo assigned to each of di 3 drugs.",Computer science
a psychologist assesses the mood of each person after a3 month run with each drug: and the overall improvement in each person's mood is assessed on a scale ranging from 5 to,A psychologist assess di mood of each person after 3 month run wit each drug: and di overall improvement for each person for 3 month run wit each drug,Computer science
"next, let's print the data frame to get a sense of what the data actually look like.","Na next, let print di one kind of table to get sense of what di data look like",Computer science
the rst thing to do is calculate some descriptive statistics and draw some graphs.,Di first thing to do nato calculate numbers wey describe and draw some graphs.,Computer science
error bars depict 95%con dence intervals associated with each ofthe group means.,Di lines wey show error dey draw 95%con dence intervals wey dey associated wit each of di group means.,Computer science
"finally, we can use plotmeans() from the gplots package to produce a pretty picture.",We go use plotmeans() from di gplot package to produce pretty picture,Computer science
"as the plot makes clear, there is a larger improvement in mood for participants in the joyzepam group than for either the anxifree group or the placebo group.","Di plot make clear, e dey small improvement for mood for participants for joyzepam group than for either di anxifree group or di placebo group.",Computer science
"the anxifree group shows a larger mood gain than the control group, but the dierence isn't as large.","Di anxifree group show larger mood gain than di control group, but di dierence no dey as large.",Computer science
"the question that we want to answer is: are these dierence eal"", or are they just due to chance?","Di question wey we wan answer na: na dis dierence eal"", or na dem just because of luck?",Computer science
"as usual, i'm going to start by showing you how to do it the hard way, building the statistical tool from-427- the ground up and showing you how you could do it in rif you didn't have access to any ofthe cool built-in anova functions.","I go start by to show you how to do am di hard way, building di statistical tool from-427- di ground up and to show you how you go do am for rif you no get access to any of di cool built-in anova functions.",Computer science
"and, as always, i hope you'll read it carefully, try to do it the long way once or twice to make sure you really understand how anova works, and then{ once you've grasped the concept{ never ever do it this way again.","di normal way, I hope you read am carefully, try to do di long way once or twice to make sure you understand how anova works, and then{ once you dey learn how anova works, and then{ once you dey learn how anova works, and then{ once you dey learn how anova works, and once you dey learn how anova works, and then{ once you dey learn how anova works, and then{ once you dey learn how anova works, and once you dey learn how anova",Computer science
"if we let pdenote the population mean for the mood change induced by the placebo, and let aandjdenote the corresponding means for our two drugs, anxifree and joyzepam, then the(somewhat pessimistic)null hypothesis that we want to test is that all three population means are identical: that is, neither ofthe two drugs is anymore eective than a placebo.","Di(somewhat pessimistic)di null idea wey we wan test na say all three population mean for di mood change induced by di placebo, and let aandjdenote di corresponding means for awa two drugs, anxifree and joyzepam, and let aandjdenote di corresponding means for awa two drugs, anxifree and joyzepam, and let aandjdenote di corresponding means for awa two drugs, anxifree and joyzepam.",Computer science
"mathematically, we write this null hypothesis like this: h0: it is true that paj as a consequence, our alternative hypothesis is that atleast one ofthe three dierent treatments is dierent from the others.","E dey true say paj as consequence, we write dis di null idea like dis: h0: e dey true say paj as consequence, we write dis di null idea like dis: h0: e dey true say least one of di three treatments dey di oda.",Computer science
"it's a little trickier to write this mathematically, because (as we'll discuss)there are quite a few dierent ways in which the null hypothesis can be false.","As we dey discuss)e dey quite trickier to write dis mathematically, because (as we dey discuss)na quite few dierent way wey di null idea dey true.",Computer science
so for now we'll just write the alternative hypothesis like this: h1: it is not true thatpaj this null hypothesis is alot trickier to test than any ofthe ones we've seen previously.,E no true saypaj dis di null idea dey alot trickier to test than any of di ones wey dey see previously.,Computer science
how shall we do it?,How we go do am?,Computer science
"in fact, this is one ofthe biggest conceptual diculties that people have when rst encountering anova.",Dem dey one of di biggest conceptual diculties wey pipo get wen rst encounter anova.,Computer science
"to see how this works, i nd it most helpful to start by talking about variances.","To see how dis one dey work, I find am most helpful to start by talking about variances.",Computer science
"in fact, what i'm going to do is start by playing some mathematical games with the formula that describes the variance.",I go start by playing some mathematical games wit di formula wey describe di variance.,Computer science
"that is, we'll start out by playing around with variances, and it will turnout that this gives us a useful tool for investigating means.","Dat nato say, we go start by playing with variances, and e go turnout sey dis one give us useful tool to investigate means.",Computer science
we'll use gto refer to the total number of groups.,"We go use""g"" to talk about di total number of groups.",Computer science
"for our dataset, there are three drugs, so there are g3 groups.","Di group of related numbers or data wey belong together, na three drugs, so na g3 groups",Computer science
"next, we'll use nto refer to the total sample size: there area total of n18 people in our dataset.",We go use nto to talk about di total sample size: na total of n18 pipo for awa group of related numbers or data wey belong together.,Computer science
"similarly, let's use nkto denote the number of people in the k-th group.",Dem use nkto denote di number of pipo for di k-th group,Computer science
"in our fake clinical trial, the sample size is nk6 for all three groups. 1finally, we'll use yto denote the outcome variable: in our case, yrefers to mood change.","We go use yto denote di outcome variable: for our case, yrefer to mood change",Computer science
"speci cally, we'll use yikto refer to the mood change experienced by the i-th member ofthe k-th group.",We go use yikto to talk about di mood change wey di i-th member of di k-th group.,Computer science
"similarly, we'll use yto be the average mood change, taken across all 18 people in the experiment, and ykto refer to the average mood change experienced by the 6 people in group k. excellent.","We go use yto be di average mood change, taken across all 18 pipo for di experiment, and ykto to talk about di average mood change wey dey take across all 18 pipo for group k. excellent.",Computer science
"now that we've got our notation sorted out, we can start writing down formulas.","Di notation sort out, we fit start write down formulas.",Computer science
the sample variance of yis de ned as follows: varpyq1 ng k1nk i1,Di sample variance of y dey defined as: Var(y)=1 (N-g) Σ (y{ik} - ȳ k)2.,Computer science
it becomes more important when you start doing more complicated anovas.,E dey important wen you start do more complicated anovas.,Computer science
"the only dierence is that this time around i've got two summations here: i'm summing over groups(i. e, values fork) and over the people within the groups(i. e, values for i).","I dey summin over groups(i. e, values fork) and over di pipo wey dey inside di groups(i. e, values for i)and over di pipo wey dey within di groups(i. e, values for i).",Computer science
"this is purely a cosmetic detail: if i'd instead used the notation ypto refer to the value ofthe outcome variable for person pin the sample, then i'd only have a single summation.","If i use di notation ypto to talk about di value of di outcome variable for person pin di sample, then i only get single summation.",Computer science
"the only reason that we have a double summation here is that i've classi ed people into groups, and then assigned numbers to people within groups.","Di only reason wey we get double summation here na say i dey classi ed pipo into groups, and then assigned numbers to pipo within groups.",Computer science
a concrete example might be useful here.,Real example fit dey useful here.,Computer science
"let's consider this table, in which we have a total of n5 people sorted into g2 groups.","We dey consider dis table, wey we get total of n5 pipo sort into g2 groups",Computer science
"arbitrarily, let's say that the\cool"" people are group 1, and the \uncool"" people are group 2, and it turns out that we have three cool people( n13) and two uncool people (n22).","Dem tok say di\cool pipo dey group 1, and di \uncool pipo dey group 2, and e turnout say we get three cool pipo ( n13) and two uncool pipo (n22)",Computer science
name person group group num.,Na name person group,Computer science
index in group grumpiness p k iy ikoryp ann 1 cool 11 20 ben 2 cool 12 55 cat 3 cool 13 21 dan 4 uncool 21 91 egg 5 uncool 22 22 notice that i've constructed two dierent labelling schemes here.,"Index for group grumpiness: Ann(p=1, k=1, i=1) =20, Ben (2,1,2)=55, Cat (3,1,3)=21, Dan (4,2,1)=91, Egg (5,2,2)=22. Notice sey I don build two different labelling schemes here.",Computer science
"we have a\person"" variable p, so it would be perfectly sensible to refer to ypas the grumpiness ofthe p-th person in the sample.","We get""person"" variable p, so e go make sense to talk about yp as di grumpiness of dip-th person for di sample.",Computer science
"for instance, the table shows that dan is the four so we'd say p4.",Di table show say dan na di four so we go say p4,Computer science
"so, when talking about the grumpiness yof this\dan"" person, whoever he might be, we could refer to his grumpiness by saying that yp91, for person p4 that is.","We go tok say yp91, for person p4 wey dey, we goto talk about hin grumpiness by say yp91, for person p4 wey dey.",Computer science
"however, that's not the only way we could refer to dan.",Di only way we goto talk about dan,Computer science
"as an alternative we could note that dan belongs to the \uncool"" group( k2), and is in fact the rst person listed in the uncool group (i1).","We go note say dan belongs to di \uncool"" group( k2), and dey for true di rst person wey dey list for di uncool group (i1).",Computer science
"so it's equally valid to refer to dan's grumpiness by saying that yik91, wherek2 and i1.","So e equally correct to talk about Dan grumpiness as y{ik} =91, where k=2 andi=1.",Computer science
"in other words, each person pcorresponds to a unique ikcombination, and so the formula that i gave above is actually identical to our original formula for the variance, which would be varpyq1 nn p1","Di formula wey i give above dey identical to awa original formula for di variance, and so di formula wey i give above dey identical to awa original formula for di variance, wey go be varpyq1 nn p1",Computer science
most ofthe time we would just use the simpler ypnotation: the equation using ypis clearly the simpler ofthe two.,Di equation wey use ypis clearly di simpler of di two.,Computer science
"however, when doing an anova it's important to keep track of which participants belong in which groups, and we need to use the yiknotation to do this.","Di anova dey important to keep track of which participants belong for which groups, and we need use di yiknotation to do dis",Computer science
"this is very simple: instead of averaging the squared deviations, which is what we do when calculating the variance, we just add them up.","not dat one averaging di squared deviations wey we dey when we dey calculating di variance, we just add dem up.",Computer science
so the formula for the total sum of squares is almost identical to the formula for the variance: sstotg k1nk i1,So di formula for total adding all the squared gaps to measure total error(SS tot)be: SS tot= Σ k Σ i (y{ik} - ȳ)^2.,Computer science
one very nice thing about the total sum of squares is that we can break it up into two dierent kinds of variation.,One very nice thing about di total adding all the squared gaps to measure total error na say we fit break am up into two dierent kinds of variation.,Computer science
"on the left, the arrows show the dierences in the group means; on the right, the arrows highlight the variability within each group.","Di arrows show di dierences for di group means; on di right, di arrows highlight di variability within each group.",Computer science
"within-group sum of squares, in which we look to see how dierent each individual person is from their own group mean: sswg k1nk i1",We look to see how dia individual person dey from dia own group mean: sswg k1nk i1nk,Computer science
"in our example, ykwould be the average mood change experienced by those people given the k-th drug.","Di example, yk go be di average mood change experienced by those pipo wey give di k-th drug.",Computer science
"so, instead of comparing individuals to the average of all people in the experiment, we're only comparing them to those people in the the same group.","We only compare individuals to di average of all pipo for di experiment, we only compare dem to those pipo for di same group.",Computer science
"as a consequence, you'd expect the value of ss wto be smaller than the total sum of squares, because it's completely ignoring any group dierences {that is, the fact that the drugs(if they work)will have dierent eects on people's moods.","as result, you expect di value of ss wto be smaller than di total adding all the squared gaps to measure total error, because di fact say di drugs(if dem work)go get animalt eect on pipo's moods.",Computer science
"next, we can de ne a third notion of variation which captures only the dierences between groups.",We fit dey third notion of variation wey captur only di dierences between groups.,Computer science
we do this by looking at the dierences between the group means ykand grand mean y.,We do dis one by looking at di differences between group means (ȳ k)and grand mean (ȳ).,Computer science
"in order to quantify the extent of this variation, what we do is calculate the between-group sum of squares: ssbg k1nk i1",Di variation we dey calculate di between-group adding all the squared gaps to measure total error: ssbg k1nk i1nk i1,Computer science
"okay, so what have we found out?","We get okay, so we fit to know?",Computer science
"we've discovered that the total variability associated with the outcome variable(ss tot)can be mathematically carved up into the sum of he variation due to the dierences in the sample means for the dierent groups""(ss b)plus ll the rest ofthe variation""(ss w).","We discover say di total variability wey dey associated wit di outcome variable(ss tot)don be mathematically carved up into di sum of hin variation due to di dierences for di sample means for di dierent groups""(ss b)plus ll di rest of di variation""(ss w).",Computer science
how does that help mend out whether the groups have dierent population means?,How does dat help mend out whether di groups don dey dierent population means?,Computer science
"hold on a second. now that i think about it, this is exactly what we were looking for.","I think about dis, dis na exactly wey we dey look for",Computer science
"if the null hypothesis-430- is true, then you'd expect all the sample means to be pretty similar to eachother, right?","Di null idea-430- na true, then you expect all di sample means to be similar to each oda, right?",Computer science
"and that would imply that you'd expect ss bto be really small, or atleast you'd expect it to be alot smaller than the he variation associated with everything else"", ss w. hm.","Di suppose imply say you expect ss bto be small, or atleast you expect ss bto be smaller than di hin variation wey dey associated wit all else"", ss w. hm.",Computer science
"in order to convert this into a workable hypothesis test, there's a little bit of \ ddling around""needed.","To turn dis one into hypothesis test wey fit work, small ""fiddling around""dey needed.",Computer science
what i'll do is rst show you what we do to calculate our test statistic{ which is called an fratio {and then try to give you a feel for whywe do it this way.,I go do na rst to show you what we do to calculate our test statistic{ wey dey call fratio {and then try to give you feel for why we do am dis way.,Computer science
"in order to convert our ss values into an f-ratio, the rst thing we need to calculate is the degrees of freedom associated with the ss band sswvalues.",Di rst thing we need to calculate na di degree of freedom wey dey associated wit diss band sswvalues.,Computer science
"as usual, the degrees of freedom corresponds to the number of unique\data points""that contribute to a particular calculation, minus the number of\constraints"" that they need to satisfy.","Di degree of freedom correspond to di number of unique\data points"" wey dey contribute to particular calculation, minus di number of\constraints"" wey dem need satisfy.",Computer science
"for the within-groups variability, what we're calculating is the variation ofthe individual observations( ndata points)around the group means( gconstraints).","For within-groups variability, wetin we dey calculate na di variation of individual observations(N data points)around di group means(g constraints).",Computer science
"in contrast, for the between groups variability, we're interested in the variation ofthe group means( gdata points)around the grand mean(1 constraint).",We dey interest for di variation of di group means( gdata points)around di grand mean(1 constraint).,Computer science
"therefore, the degrees of freedom here are: dfbg1 dfwng okay, that seems simple enough.","Di degree of freedom here dey: dfbg1 dfwng okay, wey dey simple enough",Computer science
"what we do next is convert our summed squares value into a\mean squares""value, which we do by dividing by the degrees of freedom: msbssb dfb mswssw dfw finally, we calculate the f-ratio by dividing the between-groups ms by the within-groups ms: fmsb msw at avery general level, the intuition behind the fstatistic is straightforward: bigger values of fmeans that the between-groups variation is large, relative to the within-groups variation.","Di intuition wey dey behind di fstatistic dey straightforward: msbssb dfb mswssw dfw finally, we dey calculate di f-ratio by dividing di between-groups ms by di within-groups",Computer science
"as a consequence, the larger the value off, the more evidence we have against the null hypothesis.","Di larger di value off, di more evidence we get against di null idea.",Computer science
but how large does fhave to bein order to actually rejecth0?,Na how large does fhave to be for order to actually rejecth0?,Computer science
"in order to understand this, you need a slightly deeper understanding of what anova is and what the mean squares values actually are.","For order to understand dis, you need a slightly deeper understanding of what anova dey and what di mean square value dey actually dey.",Computer science
"in order to complete our hypothesis test, we need to know the sampling distribution for fif the null hypothesis is true.",We need know di sampling distribution for fif di null idea dey true.,Computer science
"not surprisingly, the sampling distribution for the fstatistic under the null hypothesis is an fdistribution.",Di sampling distribution for di fstatistic under di null idea na fdistribution.,Computer science
"the formulas for all quantities(except the p-value, which has avery ugly formula and would be nightmarishly hard to calculate without a computer)are shown.","Di formulas for all quantities(except dip-value, wey dey very ugly formula and go be nightmarishly hard to calculate without computer)dey show.",Computer science
df sum of squares mean squares f-statistic p-value between groups dfbg1 ssbg k1nkpykyq2msbssb dfbfmsb msw[complicated] within groups dfwngsswg k1nk i1pyikykq2mswssw dfw- -.,"how many things you fit adjust inside a system(df), adding all the squared gaps to measure total error(SS), mean squares(MS), F-statistic, p-value. Between groups: df b=g-1, SS b = Σ nk (ȳ k- ȳ)^2, MS b=SS b df b, F= MS b MS w. Within groups: df w=N-g, SS w=Σ (y{ik} - ȳ k)^2, MS w=SS w df w.",Computer science
"how they are calculated, is shown in table 14.1.",For table 141.,Computer science
"i'll remedy that now, though you probably won't like me for doing so.","I go remedy say now, though you go like me for do so.",Computer science
"if you recall, our null hypothesis was that all ofthe group means are identical to one another.",Di null idea na say all of di group means dey identical to one another,Computer science
"if so, then a natural way to think about the outcome variable yikis to describe individual scores in terms of a single population mean, plus the deviation from that population mean.","If so, den natural way to think about outcome variable y{ik} nato describe individual scores as single population mean (μ) plus deviation from dat population mean.",Computer science
this deviation is usually denoted ikand is traditionally called the error orresidual associated with that observation.,Di deviation dey denoted Ikand dey traditionally call di error orresidual associated wit dat observation.,Computer science
"be careful though: just like we saw with the word \signi cant"", the word\error"" has a technical meaning in statistics that isn't quite the same as its everyday english de nition.","Di word \signi cant"", di word\error"" don dey technical meaning for statistics wey dey quite di same as its everyday english dey nition.",Computer science
"in everyday language,\error"" implies a mistake of some kind; in statistics, it doesn't(or atleast, not necessarily).","For statistics,\error"" implies mistake of some kind; for statistics, e no fit(or atleast, no necessarily).",Computer science
"with that in mind, the word esidual"" is a better term than the word\error"".","Di word esidual"" dey better term than di word\error"".",Computer science
"in statistics, both words mean\leftover variability"": that is,\stu"" that the model can't explain.","For statistics, both words mean\leftover variability"" wey dey, \stu"" wey di model no explain.",Computer science
"in any case, here's what the null hypothesis looks like when we write it as a statistical model: yik",Di null idea look like wen we write am as statistical model,Computer science
the only dierence between the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis is that we allow each group to have a dierent population mean.,Di only dierence between di null idea and di other idea na say we allow each group to get di dierent population mean.,Computer science
"so, if we letkdenote the population mean for the k-th group in our experiment, then the statistical model corresponding to h1is: yikk","So, if we make μ k stand for di population mean for di k-th group for our experiment, den di statistical model wey match H1 na: y{ik} = μ k+ε {ik}.",Computer science
the between-groups mean square ms bis also an estimator; but what it estimates is the error variance plus a quantity that depends on the true dierences among the group means.,Di between-groups mean square ms bis also an estimator; but what dem estimate na di error variance plus quantity wey depend on di true dierences among di group means.,Computer science
"if we call this quantity q, then we can see that the f-statistic is basically2 f^q","Di f-statistic dey basically2 f^q, then we see say di f-statistic dey basically2 f^q",Computer science
"hays,1994, ch.","For 1994, ch.",Computer science
"therefore, at a bare minimum thefvalue must be larger than 1 to have any chance of rejecting the null hypothesis.",Di bare minimum difvalue must be larger than 1 to get any chance of reject di null idea.,Computer science
note that this doesn't mean that it's impossible to get an f-value less than 1.,Di note say dis no mean say e no fit get f-value less than 1.,Computer science
"what it means is that, if the null hypothesis is true the sampling distribution ofthe fratio has a mean of 1, 3and so we need to see f-values larger than 1 in order to safely reject the null.","Di null idea dey true di sampling distribution of di fratio don mean of 1, 3and so we need to see f-values larger than 1 for order to safely reject di null.",Computer science
"to be a bit more precise about the sampling distribution, notice that if the null hypothesis is true, both msband msware estimators ofthe variance ofthe residuals ik.","Di null idea dey true, both msband msware estimators of di variance of di residuals Ik.",Computer science
"and since the fdistribution is(again, by de nition) what you get when you take the ratio between two things that are 2distributed. we have our sampling distribution.","Di fdistribution dey(again, by de nition) we get di ratio between two things wey dey 2distributed",Computer science
"obviously, i'm glossing over a whole lot of stu when i say this, but in broad terms, this really is where our sampling distribution comes from.","I dey to passover a whole lot of stu wen i say dis, but in broad terms, dis really dey where awa sampling distribution kom from.",Computer science
"the descriptive statistics that we calculated at the beginning tell us our group means: an average mood gain of 0. 45 for the placebo,0. 72 for anxifree, and 1. 48 for joyzepam.","A average mood gain of 0. 45 for di placebo,0. 72 for joyzepam, and 1. 48 for joyzepam.",Computer science
"with that in mind, let's party like it's 18994and start doing some pencil and paper calculations.","With dat one for mind, make we party like e be 1899 and start to do pencil-and-paper calculations.",Computer science
"i'll only do this for the rst 5 observations, because it's not bloody 1899 and i'm very lazy.","I go only do dis for di rst 5 observations, because e no dey bloody 1899 andi dey very lazy",Computer science
"let's start by calculating ss w, the within-group sums of squares.","Na let start by calculating ss w, di within-group adding all the squared gaps to measure total error.",Computer science
"first, let's draw up a nice table to help us with our calculations. group outcome kyik placebo 0. 5 placebo 0. 3 placebo 0. 1 anxifree 0. 6 anxifree 0. 4 at this stage, the only thing i've included in the table is the raw data itself: that is, the grouping variable(i. e, drug) and outcome variable(i. e.","Di only thing wey dey include for di table na di grouping variable(i. e, drug) and outcome variable(i. e, drug) and outcome variable(i. e.",Computer science
mood. gain) for each person.,Di mood. gain) for every person,Computer science
note that the outcome variable here corresponds to the yikvalue in our equation previously.,Di outcome variable here correspond to di yikvalue for awa equation previously.,Computer science
"the next step in the calculation is to write down, for each person in the study, the corresponding group mean; that is, yk.","Di next step for di calculation dey write down, for each person for di study, di corresponding group mean; say na, yk.",Computer science
"this is slightly repetitive, but not particularly dicult since we already calculated those group means when doing our descriptive 2in a later versions i'm intending to expand on this.","Di dey slightly repetitive, but no particularly dicult since we dey already calculated those group means wen we dey do dia descriptive 2in later version wey dey suppose expand on dis.",Computer science
"that is, we want to subtract yikyk.","Dat nato say, we wan to subtract: y{ik} - ȳ k.",Computer science
"after we've done that, we need to square everything.",We need square all.,Computer science
"when we do that, here's what we get:.",Di's wetin we get:.,Computer science
group outcome group mean dev.,"Group, outcome, group mean, deviation.",Computer science
from group mean squared deviation kyikyk yikyk pyikykq2 placebo 0. 5 0. 450. 05 0. 0025 placebo 0. 3 0. 45-0. 150. 0225 placebo 0. 1 0. 45-0. 350. 1225 anxifree 0. 6 0. 72-0. 120. 0136 anxifree 0. 4 0. 72-0. 320. 1003 the last step is equally straightforward.,Di last step dey straightforward.,Computer science
"in order to calculate the within-group sum of squares, we just add up the squared deviations across all observations: ssw0: 0025","To calculate within-group adding all the squared gaps to measure total error, we just add up di squared deviations for all observations: SS w= 0.0025.",Computer science
"we could continue with the pencil and paper calculations if we wanted to, but it's pretty tedious.","We go continue wit di pencil and paper calculation if we waned to, but e dey pretty tedious.",Computer science
"alternatively, it's not too hard to get rto do it.",E no too hard to get rto do am,Computer science
"however, i strongly suggest that{ if you're like me and tend to nd that the mere sight of this code makes you want to look away and see if there's any beer left in the fridge or a game of footy on the telly{ you take a moment and look closely at these commands one at a time.",I strongly suggest say if you dey like me and tend to nd say di mere sight of dis code make you wan look away and see if any dey beer wey dey inside di fridge or game of footy on di telly,Computer science
every single one of these commands is something you've seen before somewhere else in the book.,Di commands dey something you see before somewhere else for di book.,Computer science
"there's nothing novel about them(though i'll have to admit that thetapply() function takes awhile to get a handle on), so if you're not quite sure how these commands work, this might be a good time to try playing around with them yourself, to try to get a sense of what's happening.","If you no dey sure how dem work, dis might be good time to try playing around wit dem yourself, to try to get sense of what dey happen.",Computer science
"but if i'd typed sum(squared. devs[1: 5] )instead, it would have given the same answer that i got earlier.","If i type sum(squared. devs[1: 5] ) forstead, e go give di same answer wey i get earlier",Computer science
"now that we've calculated the within groups variation, ss w, it's time to turn our attention to the between-group sum of squares, ss b.","We dey calculat di within group variation, ss w, na time to turn awa attention to di between-group adding all the squared gaps to measure total error, ss b.",Computer science
the calculations for this case are very similar.,Di calculations for dis case dey similar,Computer science
"the main dierence is that, instead of calculating the dierences between an observation yikand a group mean yk for all ofthe observations, we calculate the dierences between the group means ykand the grand mean y(in this case 0. 88)for all ofthe groups. group group mean grand mean deviation squared deviations k yky ykypykyq2 placebo 0. 450. 88-0. 430. 18 anxifree 0. 720. 88-0. 160. 03 joyzepam 1. 480. 88 0. 600. 36 however, for the between group calculations we need to multiply each of these squared deviations by nk, the number of observations in the group.","Di main dierence na say, not dat one calculating di dierences between di group means ykan di grand mean y(in dis case 0. 88)for all of di group, group mean grand mean yk for all of di observations, we dey calculate di dierences between di group mean yk for all of di observations, we dey calculate di dierences between di group mean yk for all of di observations.",Computer science
we do this because every observation in the group(all nk of them)is associated with a between group dierence.,We do dis because every observation for di group(all nk of dem) dey associated wit between group dierence.,Computer science
"so if there are six people in the placebo group, and the placebo group mean diers from the grand mean by 0. 19, then the total between group variation associated with these six people is 6 0:161: 14.","Di total between group variation wey dey associated wit dis six pipo wey dey placebo group, and di placebo group mean di grand mean by 0",Computer science
"so we have to extend our little table of calculations. group. squared deviations sample size weighted squared dev k. pykyq2nk nkpykyq2 placebo. 0. 18 6 1.11 anxifree.0. 03 6 0. 16 joyzepam.0. 36 6 2. 18 and so now our between group sum of squares is obtained by summing these\weighted squared deviations""over all three groups in the study: ssb1: 11","So we need to extend our small table. Group, squared deviations( (ȳ k- ȳ)^2 ), sample size(n k), weighted squared dev(n k*(ȳ k- ȳ)^2). Placebo: 0.18, 6, 1.11. Anxifree: 0.03, 6, 0.16. Joyzepam: 0.36, 6, 2.18. So now our between-group adding all the squared gaps to measure total error(SS b)na sum of dis weighted squared deviations for all three groups: SS b=1.11 + 0.16 + 2.18 = 3.45.",Computer science
"there area few tiny dierences, but that's only because the hand-calculated versions have some small errors caused by the fact that i rounded all my numbers to 2 decimal places at each step in the calculations, whereas ronly does it at the end(obviously, rs version is more accurate).","Di hand-calculated version don get some small errors wey dey caused by di fact say i rounded all my numbers to 2 decimal place for each step for di calculation, whereas ronly does am for di end(obviously, ronly does am for di end)",Computer science
"now that we've calculated our sums of squares values, ss band ssw, the rest ofthe anova is pretty painless.",Di rest of di anova dey painless.,Computer science
the next step is to calculate the degrees of freedom.,Di next step dey to calculate di degree of freedom,Computer science
"since we have g3 groups and n18 observations in total, our degrees of freedom can be calculated by simple subtraction: dfbg12 dfwng15 next, since we've now calculated the values for the sums of squares and the degrees of freedom, for both the within-groups variability and the between-groups variability, we can obtain the mean square values by dividing one by the other: msbssb dfb3: 45 21:73 mswssw dfw1: 39 150:09 we're almost done.","dfbg12 dfwng15 next, since we don calculat di value for di sum of square and di degree of freedom, for both di within-groups variability and di between-groups variability, we fit obtain di mean square values by dividing one by di oda.",Computer science
"the mean square values can be used to calculate the f-value, which is the test statistic that we're interested in.","Di mean square values go use to calculate di f-value, wey dey di test statistic wey we dey interest for.",Computer science
we do this by dividing the between-groups ms value by the and within-groups ms value.,We do dis by dividing di between-groups MS value by di within-groups MS value.,Computer science
fmsb msw1: 730: 0918: 6 woohooo!,Na 6 woohooo!,Computer science
"this is terribly exciting, yes?","Dis dey terribly exciting, no?",Computer science
"now that we have our test statistic, the last step is to nd out whether the test itself gives us a signi cant result.","Na now say we get our test statistic, di last step nato nd out whether di test wey dey give us signi cant result",Computer science
but in practice it's just easier to directly calculate the p-value.,Di practice dey just easier to directly calculate dip-value but for practice na just easier to directly calculate dip-value,Computer science
"however, since we have access tor, i'll use the pf()function to do it instead.","We don access tor, i go use di pf()function to do am instead.",Computer science
"now, remember that i explained earlier that the f-test is always one sided?",I explain earlier say di f-test dey one sided?,Computer science
and that we only reject the null hypothesis for very large f-values?,We only accept di null idea for very large f-values?,Computer science
that means we're only interested in the upper tail of thef-distribution.,We dey only interest for di upper tail of dif-distribution,Computer science
"so, unless we're being extremely conservative about our type i error rate, we're pretty much guaranteed to reject the null hypothesis.","We dey extremely conservative about our type i error rate, we go guarantee to reject di null idea.",Computer science
"at this point, we're basically done.","Di point, we dey suppose done",Computer science
"having completed our calculations, it's traditional to organise all these numbers into an anova table like the one in table 14.1.",Di traditional to organise all dis numbers into anova table like di one for table 14.,Computer science
"for our clinical trial data, the anova table would look like this: df sum of squares mean squares f-statistic p-value between groups 2 3. 451. 73 18. 68: 67105 within groups 151. 390. 09 - -these days, you'll probably never have much reason to want to construct one of these tables yourself, but you will nd that almost all statistical software( rincluded) tends to organise the output of an anova into a table like this, so it's a good idea to get used to reading them.","Di days, you go probably never get much reason to wan to construct one of dis table yourself, but you go nd say almost all software for statistics( rincluded) go organise di output of anova into table like dis, so e go nd say almost all software for statistics( rincluded) go organise di output of anova into table like dis.",Computer science
"however, although the software will output a full anova table, there's almost never a good reason to include the whole table in your write up.","Di software go output full anova table, no dey good reason to include di whole table for your write up.",Computer science
a pretty standard way of reporting this result would be to write something like this: one-way anova showed a signi cant eect of drug on mood gain( fp2; 15q18: 6; p: 001).,"Di standard way to report dis result nato write something like:""One-way ANOVA showed significant effect of drug on mood gain (F(2,15) = 18.6, p<.001).""",Computer science
so much work for one short sentence.,So much work just for one short sentence.,Computer science
"there's quite alot of calculations that we needed to do along the way, and it would be tedious to have to do this over and over again everytime you wanted to do an anova.","Di pipo dey quite alot of calculation wey we need to do along di way, and e go be tedious to get to do dis many times everytime you need to do an anova.",Computer science
one possible solution to the problem would be to take all these calculations and turn them into some rfunctions yourself.,One possible solution to di problem go be to take all dis calculations and turn dem into some rfunctions yourself.,Computer science
"you'd still have to do alot of typing, but atleast you'd only have to do it the one time: once you've created the functions, you can reuse them over and over again.","once you create di functions, you fit reuse dem many times.",Computer science
"however, writing your own functions is alot of work, so this is kind of a last resort.","For however, writing your own functions dey alot of work, so dis dey kind of last resort",Computer science
"as we've seen in a few places previously, the formula argument is what you use to specify the outcome variable and the grouping variable, and the data argument is what you use to specify the data frame that stores these variables.","Di formula argument na what you use to specify di outcome variable and di grouping variable, and di data argument na what you use to specify di one kind of table wey dey store dis variables.",Computer science
"in the second command, i dropped the argument names, which is okay in this case because formula is the rst argument to the aov() function, and data is the second one.","I dropped di names for di function, wey dey okay for dis case because formula dey di rst argument to di aov() function, and data dey di second one.",Computer science
"regardless of how i specify the anova, i can assign the output ofthe aov() function to a variable, like this for example:> my. anova <- aov( mood. gain~ drug, clin. trial) this is almost always a good thing to do, because there's lotsof useful things that we can do with the my. anova variable.","No matter how I specify di ANOVA, I fit assign di output of aov() function to variable, like dis:> my. anova <- aov(mood. gain ~drug, clin. trial). Dis one na almost always good thing to do, because plenty useful things wey we fit do with di my. anova variable dey.",Computer science
"so let's assume that it's this last command that i used to specify the anova that i'm trying to run, and as a consequence i have this my. anova variable sitting in my workspace, waiting for me to do something with it.14. 3. 2 understanding what the aov() function produces now that we've seen how to use the aov() function to create my. anova we'd better have a look at what this variable actually is.","Di last command wey i use to use di aov() function to create my. anova wey dey try to run, and as result i get di anova wey dey try to run, and as result i get di anova wey dey try to run.",Computer science
"the rst thing to do is to check to see what class of variable we've created, since it's kind of interesting in this case.","Di rst thing to do na check to see what class of variable wey we create, since e kind of interesting for dis case.",Computer science
"when we do that.> class(my. anova )[1] ""aov"" ""lm"". we discover that my. anova actually has twoclasses!",We discover say my. anova no get twoclasses,Computer science
"the rst class tells us that it's an aov(analysis of variance)object, but the second tells us that it's alsoanlm(linear model)object.","Di rst class tell us say na aov(analysis of variance)object, but di second tell us say na alsoanlm(linear model)object",Computer science
"for now, i want to note that what we've created is an aovobject, and to also make the point that aovobjects are actually rather complicated beasts.","I wan note say we dey create na aovobject, and make di point say aovobjects dey complicated beasts.",Computer science
"what this means is that it's generally a good idea to create a variable like my. anova that stores the output ofthe aov() function. because later on, you can use my. anova as an input to lots of other functions: those other functions can pull out bits and pieces from the aovobject, and calculate various other things that you might need.","E dey generally good idea to create a variable like my. anova as input to lots of oda functions: those oda functions fit pull out bits and pieces from di aovobject, and calculate various oda things wey you need.",Computer science
the simplest thing you can do with an aovobject is to print()it out.,Di simplest thing you fit do wit aovobject nato print()am out,Computer science
"of freedom 2 15 residual standard error:0. 30459 estimated effects maybe unbalanced speci cially, it prints out a reminder ofthe command that you used when you called aov() in the rst place, shows you the sums of squares values, the degrees of freedom, and a couple of other quantities that we're not really interested in right now.","Dem to write for screen reminder of di command wey you use wen you call aov() for di rst place, to show you di sum of square values, di degree of freedom, and a couple of oda quantities wey we dey interest for right now.",Computer science
"notice, however, that rdoesn't use the names etween-group"" and\within-group"".","Di notice, however, say r no use di name between-group""and \within-group",Computer science
"instead, it tries to assign more meaningful names: in our particular example, the between groups variance corresponds to the eect that the drug has on the outcome variable; and the within groups variance is corresponds to the\leftover"" variability, so it calls that the residuals.","Di between groups variance correspond to di eect say di drug don on outcome variable; and di within groups variance dey correspond to di\leftover"" variability, so e call say di residuals.",Computer science
where's the f-value?,Di f-value?,Computer science
"these are the most important numbers in our hypothesis test, but the print()function doesn't provide them.","Dis dey di most important numbers for our hypothesis test, but di print()function no provide dem",Computer science
"to get those numbers, we need to use a dierent function.",We need use di dierent function.,Computer science
"we get the sums of squares, the degrees of freedom, the mean squares, the f-statistic, and the p-value itself.","We get di sums of squares, how many things you fit adjust inside a system, mean squares, F-statistic, and dip-value itself.",Computer science
the only things that are even slightly dierent is that some ofthe row and column names area bit dierent.,Di only things wey dey even slightly animalt na say some of di row and column name dey a bit animalt.,Computer science
"for a one way analysis of variance they're identical to eachother, so for the moment i'll just explain 2.","I fit just explain 2, so for di moment i fit just explain 2.",Computer science
the de nition of 2is actually really simple: 2ssb sstot that's all it is.,Di de nition of 2is actually simple: 2ssb sstot wey dey all dey,Computer science
"so when i look at the anova table above, i see that ss b3: 45 and ss tot3: 45","Di anova table above, i see say ss b3: 45 and ss to3: 45 and ss to3: 45 and ss to3",Computer science
thus we get an 2value of 23:45 4: 840: 71 the interpretation of 2is equally straightforward: it refers to the proportion ofthe variability in the outcome variable( mood. gain) that can be explained in terms ofthe predictor( drug).,Di interpretation of 2is equally straightforward: e to talk about di proportion of di variability for outcome variable( mood. gain) wey dey explain for terms of di predictor( drug).,Computer science
"a value of 20 means that there is no relationship at all between the two, whereas a value of 21 means that the relationship is perfect.","Na value of 20 means say no relationship for all between di two, wia value of 21 means say di relationship dey perfect",Computer science
"better yet, the 2value is very closely related to a squared correlation(i. e, r2).","Di 2value dey closely related to squared correlation(i. e, r2).",Computer science
"so, if you're trying to gure out whether a particular value of 2is big or small, it's sometimes useful to remember that c ssb sstot can be interpreted as if it referred to the magnitude of a pearson correlation.","If you dey try to gure out whether a particular value of 2is big or small, e dey useful to remember say c ssb sstot go interpret as if e referred to di magnitude of pearson correlation.",Computer science
"so in our drugs example, the2value of. 71 corresponds to an value of?",Di2value of. 71 correspond to value of?,Computer science
"if we think about this as being equivalent to a correlation of about. 84, we'd conclude that the relationship between drug and mood. gain is strong.",We conclude say di how two things dey related drug and mood. gain dey strong,Computer science
the core packages in rdon't include any functions for calculating 2.,Di core packages for R no include any functions to calculate η2.,Computer science
"however, it's pretty straightforward to calculate it directly from the numbers in the anova table.",E dey straightforward to calculate am directly from di numbers for di anova table.,Computer science
"for now, the only argument you need to care about is x, which should be the aovobject corresponding to your anova.","Di only argument you need care about na x, wey go be di aovobject wey dey corresponding to your anova.",Computer science
"when we do this, what we get as output is this:-440- > etasquared( x=my. anova )eta. sq eta. sq. part drug 0.",-440-> andsquared( x=my. anova )and. sq. part drug 0.,Computer science
the output here shows two dierent numbers.,Di output here show two different numbers.,Computer science
"the rst one corresponds to the 2statistic, precisely as described above.","Di first one na di η2 statistic, exactly as we describe am above.",Computer science
"the second one refers to\partial 2"", which is a somewhat dierent measure of eect size that i'll describe later.","Di second one to talk about\partial 2"", wey be somewhat dierent measure of eect size wey i dey describe later.",Computer science
"for the simple anova that we've just run, they're the same number.","Di simple anova wey we just run, dem dey di same number.",Computer science
"but this won't always be true once we start running more complicated anovas. 714. 5 multiple comparisons and post hoc tests anytime you run an anova with more than two groups, and you end up with a signi cant eect, the rst thing you'll probably want to ask is which groups are actually dierent from one another.","For 714. 5 multiple comparisons and post hoc tests anytime you run an anova wit more than two groups, and you end up wit signi cant eect, di rst thing wey dey probably wan to ask say groups dey actually dey animal from one another.",Computer science
"in our drugs example, our null hypothesis was that all three drugs(placebo, anxifree and joyzepam) have the exact same eect on mood.","Di null idea na say all three drugs(placebo, anxifree and joyzepam) get di exact same eect on mood.",Computer science
"but if you think about it, the null hypothesis is actually claiming three dierent things all at once here.","If you think about di null idea, di null idea dey claiming three dierent things all for once here",Computer science
"so, now that we've rejected our null hypothesis, we're thinking that atleast one of those things isn't true.","We dey reject awa di null idea, we dey think say atleast one of those things no dey true",Computer science
but which ones?,But which ones?,Computer science
"all three of these propositions are of interest: you certainly want to know if your new drug joyzepam is better than a placebo, and it would be nice to know how well it stacks up against an existing commercial alternative(i. e, anxifree).","Di proposition dey of interest: you certainly wan to know if your new drug joyzepam dey better than placebo, and e go nice to know how well e stack up against existing commercial alternative(i. e, anxifree).",Computer science
"it would even be useful to check the performance of anxifree against the placebo: even if anxifree has already been extensively tested against placebos by other researchers, it can still be very useful to check that your study is producing similar results to earlier work.","Di performance of anxifree against placebo by oda researchers, e fit still be useful to check di performance of anxifree against placebo.",Computer science
"when we characterise the null hypothesis in terms of these three distinct propositions, it becomes clear that there are eight possible\states ofthe world""that we need to distinguish between: possibility: ispa?","We dey characterise di null idea for terms of dis three distinct propositions, e dey clear say na eight possible states of di world""we need to distinguish between: possibility: ispa?",Computer science
as of this writing{ lsrpackage version 0. 5{there is atleast one known bug in the code.,As of dis writing{ lsrpackage version 0. 5{na least one known bug for di code.,Computer science
"in some cases atleast, it doesn't work(and can give very silly answers)when you set the weights on the observations to something other than uniform.",E no work(and fit give very silly answers)wen you set di weights on di observation to something oda than uniform.,Computer science
"that doesn't matter at all for this book, since those kinds of analyses are well beyond the scope, but i haven't had a chance to revisit the package in along time; it would probably be wise to be very cautious with the use of this function in any context other than very simple introductory analyses.","I no get chance to revisit di package for longtime, since those kinds of analyses dey well beyond di scope, but i no get chance to revisit di package for longtime; e go probably be wise to revisit di package for longtime; e go probably be wise to revisit di package for longtime; e go probably be wise to revisit di package for longtime; e go probably be wise to revisit di package for longtime; e go probably be wise to",Computer science
thanks to emil kirkegaard for nding the bug!,Eil kirkegaard for nding di bug,Computer science
"the next question to ask is, which ofthe other seven possibilities dowe think is right?","Di next question wey we ask na, which of di oda seven possibilities wey we think dey right?",Computer science
"when faced with this situation, its usually helps to look at the data.",Di situation usually help to make we look di data.,Computer science
"for instance, if we look at the plots in figure 14.1, it's tempting to conclude that joyzepam is better than the placebo and better than anxifree, but there's no real dierence between anxifree and the placebo.","If we make we look di plot for figure 14.1, e dey tempting to conclude say joyzepam dey better than di placebo and better than anxifree, but nano real dierence between anxifree and di placebo.",Computer science
"however, if we want to get a clearer answer about this, it might help to run some tests.","If we wan to get clear answer about dis, e go help to run some tests.",Computer science
"given that we've got three separate pairs of means(placebo versus anxifree, placebo versus joyzepam, and anxifree versus joyzepam) to compare, what we could do is run three separate t-tests and see what happens.","Di given say we get three separate pairs of means(placebo versus anxifree, placebo versus joyzepam, and anxifree versus joyzepam) to compare, what we fit do dey run three separate t-tests and see what we go do.",Computer science
there's a couple of ways that we could do this.,Di couple of ways we go do dis,Computer science
"regardless of which version we do, rwill print out the results ofthe t-test, though i haven't included that output here.","Diversion wey we do, rwill to show di results of di t-test, though i don include dat output here",Computer science
"if we goon to do this for all possible pairs of variables, we can look to see which(if any)pairs of groups are signi cantly dierent to eachother.","As we goon to do dis for all possible pairs of variables, we fit look to see which(if any dey)pairs of groups dey signi cantly dey animal to each oda.",Computer science
"this\lots oft-tests idea""isn't a bad strategy, though as we'll see later on there are some problems with it.","Di\lots oft-test idea""no dey bad strategy, though as we go see later on na some problems wit am.",Computer science
"however, for the moment our bigger problem is that it's a pain to have to type in such along command over and over again: for instance, if your experiment has 10 groups, then you have to run 45t-tests.","For di moment wey awa bigger problem dey say e dey pain to type in such long command many times: for example, if your experiment don get 10 groups, then you go run 45t-tests.",Computer science
that's way too much typing.,E dey way too much typing.,Computer science
"to help keep the typing to a minimum, rprovides a function called pairwise. t. test()that automatically runs all ofthe t-tests for you.",t. test() wey automatically run all of di t-tests for you.,Computer science
"there are three arguments that you need to specify, the outcome variable x, the group variable g, and the p. adjust. method argument, which djusts"" the p-value in one way or another.","Di three tins wey you give wey you need to specify, di outcome variable x, di group variable g, and dip. adjust. method argument, wey djust dip-value for one way or another.",Computer science
"i'll explain p-value adjustment in a moment, but for now we can just set p. adjust. method= ""none""since we're not doing any adjustments.","I go explain p-value adjustment for moment, but for now we fit just set p. adjust. method= ""none""since we no do any adjustments",Computer science
"to that end, i've included a posthocpairwiset() function in the lsrpackage that lets you do this.",I dey include posthocpairwiset() function for di lsrpackage wey dey allow you do dis,Computer science
"the idea behind this function is that you can just input the aovobject itself, 8and then get the pairwise tests as an output.","Di idea wey dey behind dis function na say you fit just input di aovobject itself, 8and then get di pairwise tests as output",Computer science
"as ofthe current writing, posthocpairwiset() is actually just a simple way of calling pairwise. t. test()function, but you should be aware that i intend to make some changes to it later on.","Di current writing, posthocpairwiset() na just simple way of calling pairwise. t. test()function, but you go aware say i go make some change to am later on.",Computer science
"to see why, let's suppose you've run your anova and stored the results in my. anova, and you're happy using the holm correction(the default method in pairwise. t. test(), which i'll explain this in a moment).","Di suppose see why, make we suppose run your anova and store di results for my. anova, and you dey happy using di holm correction(the default method for pairwise. t. test(), wey i go explain dis for moment).",Computer science
"in that case, all you have to do is type this:> posthocpairwiset( my. anova ) andrwill output the test results.","Di case, all you go get to do na type dis:> posthocpairwiset( my. anova) andrwill output di test results.",Computer science
"much more convenient, i think.","Much more convenient, I think.",Computer science
"the concern is that when running these analyses, what we're doing is going on a\ shing expedition"": we're running lots and lots of tests without much theoretical guidance, in the hope that some of them come up signi cant.","We dey run lots and lots of tests without much theoretical guidance, for di hope say some of dem kom up signi cant.",Computer science
"this kind of theory-free search for group dierences is referred to as post hoc analysis(\post hoc""being latin for fter this"").9 it's okay to run post hoc analyses, but alot of care is required.","Dis kind of to find group differences wey no get theory, dem dey call am post hoc analysis(""post hoc""na Latin for""after dis""). E dey okay to run post hoc analyses, but plenty care dey needed.",Computer science
"imagine what would have happened if my anova involved 10 dierent groups, and i had decided to run 45\post hoc""t-tests to try to nd out which ones were signi cantly dierent from eachother, you'd expect 2 or 3 of them to come up signi cant by chance alone.","I don decide to run 45\post hoc""t-tests to try to nd out wich ones wey dey signi cantly dierent from each oda, you expect 2 or 3 of dem to kom up signi cant by chance alone.",Computer science
"in those circumstances you're not really running\post hoc""analyses at all: you're making\planned comparisons"".","Di circumstances you no dey run\post hoc""analysis for all: you dey make comparisons",Computer science
"an adjustment of this form, which is usually(but not always)applied because one is doing post hoc analysis, is often referred to as a correction for multiple comparisons, though it is sometimes referred to as\simultaneous inference"".","Di form wey dey usually(but no always)apply because one dey do post hoc analysis, dey often dem dey call correction for multiple comparisons, though e dey often dem dey call correction for multiple comparisons, though e dey sometimes dem dey call correction for multiple comparisons, though e dey sometimes dem dey call correction for multiple comparisons, though e dey sometimes dem dey call correction for multiple comparisons.",Computer science
"in any case, there are quite a few dierent ways of doing this adjustment.",E dey quite few dierent ways of do dis adjustment.,Computer science
"suppose that my post hoc analysis consists of mseparate tests, and i want to ensure that the total probability of making anytype i errors at all is at most. 10if so, then the bonferroni correction just says\multiply all your raw p-values bym"".","Di bonferroni correction just tok say my post hoc analysis dey consist of mseparate tests, and i wan to ensure say di total probability of making anytype i errors for all dey at most. 10if so, then di bonferroni correction just tok say\multiply all your raw p-values bym",Computer science
"if we let pdenote the original p-value, and letp1 jbe the corrected value, then the bonferroni correction tells that: p1mp and therefore, if you're using the bonferroni correction, you would reject the null hypothesis if p1.","Di bonferroni correction tell say: p1mp and therefore, if you use di bonferroni correction, you go reject di null idea if p1",Computer science
the logic behind this correction is very straightforward.,Di logic wey dey behind dis correction dey straightforward,Computer science
"we're doing mdierent tests; so if we arrange it so that each test has a type i error rate of at most{m, then the total type i error rate across these tests cannot be larger than.","If we arrange am so say each test get type i error rate of at most{m, then di total type i error rate wey dey across dis tests no be larger than.",Computer science
"that's pretty simple, so much so that in the original paper, the author writes: the method given here is so simple and so general that i am sure it must have been used before this.",Di method wey dey given here dey simple and so general wey dey suppose use before dis.,Computer science
"what i've described here is an approach for controlling amily wise type i error rate"".",Di approach wey i described here na approach for controlling Amily wise type i error rate,Computer science
"however, there are other post hoc tests seek to control the alse discovery rate"", which is a somewhat dierent thing.","Di post hoc tests wey dey seek to control di ase discovery rate"", wey dey somewhat dierent thing.",Computer science
this can be handy sometimes.,Dis fit be handy sometimes,Computer science
"one method that is often used instead is the holm correction (holm, 1979).","Di one method wey dey often use forstead dey di holm correction (holm, 1979).",Computer science
the idea behind the holm correction is to pretend that you're doing the tests sequentially; starting with the smallest(raw)p-value and moving onto the largest one.,Di idea wey dey behind di holm correction nato pretend say you dey do di tests sequentially; start wit di smallest(raw)p-value and move onto di largest one,Computer science
"for the j-th largest ofthe p-values, the adjustment is either p1 jjpj (i. e, the biggest p-value remains unchanged, the second biggest p-value is doubled, the third biggest p-value is tripled, and soon), or p1 jp1 j","Di adjustment dey either p1 jjpj (i. e, di biggest p-value dey double, di second biggest p-value dey triple, and soon), or p1 jp1 j",Computer science
"this might sound a little confusing, so let's go through it a little more slowly.","Dis one fit sound small confusing, so make we go through am small more slowly.",Computer science
here's what the holm correction does.,Dis na wetin Holm correction dey do.,Computer science
"first, you sort all of your p-values in order, from smallest to largest.","First, you sort all your p-values from smallest to biggest.",Computer science
"for the smallest p-value all you do is multiply it by m, and you're done.","Di smallest p-value all you do dey multiply am by m, and you dey done.",Computer science
"however, for all the other ones it's a two-stage process.",For all di oda ones dey two-stage process,Computer science
"for instance, when you move to the second smallest pvalue, you rst multiply it by m1.","for example, when you move to di second smallest p-value, you first multiply am by m-1.",Computer science
"if this produces a number that is bigger than the adjusted p-value that you got last time, then you keep it.","Di number wey dey bigger than di adjusted p-value wey you go get last time, then you keep am",Computer science
"but if it's smaller than the last one, then you copy the last p-value.","If e smaller than di last one, then you copy di last p-value",Computer science
"to illustrate how this works, consider the table below, which shows the calculations of a holm correction for a collection of ve p-values: rawprankj pjholmp. 001 5. 005. 005. 005 4. 020. 020. 019 3. 057. 057. 022 2. 044. 057.103 1. 103. 103 hopefully that makes things clear.","Di table below, wey show di calculation of holm correction for collection of ve p-values: rawprankj pjholmp. 001 5. 005. 005 4. 020. 020. 019 3. 057.103 1. 103 hopefully say make things clear",Computer science
"although it's a little harder to calculate, the holm correction has some very nice properties: it's more powerful than bonferroni (i. e, it has a lower type ii error rate), but { counterintuitive as it might seem{ it has the same type i error rate.","Di holm correction don dey very nice properties: e dey more powerful than bonferroni (i. e, e don get lower type ii error rate), but e dey counterintuitive as e might seem{e get di same type i error rate",Computer science
"as a consequence, in practice there's never any reason to use the simpler bonferroni correction, since it is always outperformed by the slightly more elaborate holm correction.","Di practice no dey any reason to use di simple bonferroni correction, since e dey always outperform di slightly more elaborate holm correction.",Computer science
"because of this, the holm correction is the default one used by pairwise. t. test()and posthocpairwiset().",Di holm correction dey di default one wey pairwise. t. test()and posthocpairwiset(),Computer science
"in contrast, the smallest p-value (joyzepam versus placebo)has been multiplied by three.",Di smallest p-value (joyzepam versus placebo)don multiplied by three.,Computer science
we found no evidence that anxifree performed better than the placebo( p:15).,We find no evidence say anxifree perform better than di placebo( p:15).,Computer science
"or, if you don't like the idea of reporting exact p-values, then you'd change those numbers top: 01, p: 001 andp: 05 respectively.","Or if you no like di idea of reporting exact p-values, den you go change those numbers top<.01, p<.001, and p<.05 respectively.",Computer science
"either way, the key thing is that you indicate that you used holm's correction to adjust the p-values.",Di key thing na say you indicate say you use holm's correction to adjust dip-values,Computer science
"and ofcourse, i'm assuming that elsewhere in the write up you've included the relevant descriptive statistics(i. e, the group means and standard deviations), since these p-values on their own aren't terribly informative.","I dey assum say elsewhere for di write up you dey include di relevant numbers wey describe(i. e, di group mean and standard deviations), since dis p-values wey dem dey standard deviations, since dis p-values wey dem dey howe dey spread, since dis p-values for dia own no dey terribly informative.",Computer science
"there are three key assumptions that you need to be aware of: normality, homogeneity of variance and independence.","Di three key assumption wey you need to know: normality, homogeneity of variance and independence",Computer science
upto this point we've been mostly interested in whether our data are best described in terms of a single grand mean(the null hypothesis)or in terms of dierent groupspeci c means(the alternative hypothesis).,We dey mostly interest for whether awa data dey best described for terms of single grand mean(di null idea)or for terms of di dierent groupspeci c means(the di other idea).,Computer science
"this makes sense, of course: that's actually the important research question!","Di important research question wey dey important, of course: na actually di important research question",Computer science
"however, all of our testing procedures have{ implicitly{ relied on a speci c assumption about the residuals, ik, namely that iknormalp0; 2q none ofthe maths works properly without this bit.","Di testing procedures don implicitly relied on speci c assumption about di residuals, Ik, namely say iknormalp0; 2q none of di maths work properly without dis bit.",Computer science
"or, to be precise, you can still do all the calculations, and you'll end up with an f-statistic, but you have no guarantee that this f-statistic actually measures what you think it's measuring, and so any conclusions that you might draw on the basis ofthe ftest might be wrong.","Di f-statistic actually measure what you think, and so any conclusion wey you go draw on di basis of di ftest go wrong.",Computer science
"so, how do we check whether this assumption about the residuals is accurate?",How do we check whether dis assumption about di residuals dey accurate?,Computer science
"well, as i indicated above, there are three distinct claims buried in this one statement, and we'll consider them separately.","I dey tok above, na three distinct claims wey we dey buri for dis one statement, and we go consider dem separately.",Computer science
the residuals are assumed to be normally distributed.,Di residuals dey assumed to be normally distributed,Computer science
"notice that we've only got the one value for the population standard deviation(i. e,), rather than allowing each group to have it's own value(i. e, k).","Notice sey we only get one value for di spread for all di pipo (σ), not dat one allowing each group to get im own value (σ k).",Computer science
this is referred to as the homogeneity of variance(sometimes called homoscedasticity) assumption.,Dis one dem dey to talk about as homogeneity of variance assumption (wey dem sometimes call homoscedasticity).,Computer science
anova assumes that the population standard deviation is the same for all groups.,Di spread for all di pipo dey di same for all groups.,Computer science
the independence assumption is a little trickier.,Di independence assumption dey little trickier,Computer science
"what it basically means is that, knowing one residual tells you nothing about any other residual.",But know one residual tells you nothing about any oda residual.,Computer science
"all ofthe ikvalues are assumed to have been generated without any egard for""or elationship to""any ofthe other ones.","Di Ikvalues dey assumed to get any egard for""or elationship to""any of di oda ones.",Computer science
"there's not an obvious or simple way to test for this, but there are some situations that are clear violations of this: for instance, if you have a repeated-measures design, where each participant in your study appears in more than one condition, then independence doesn't hold; there's a special relationship between some observations. namely those that correspond to the same person!","for example, if you go get one kind of experiment wey dem dey measure di same pipo many times design, wen each participant for your study appear for more than one condition, then independence no hold; namely those wey dey correspond to di same person",Computer science
"when that happens, you need to use something like repeated measures anova.","When dat one happen, you need to use something like one kind of experiment wey dem dey measure di same pipo many times ANOVA.",Computer science
one question that people often want to know the answer to is the extent to which you can trust the results of an anova if the assumptions are violated.,One question wey pipo often wan to know di answer to be di extent to which you go trust di results of anova if di assumptions dey violated.,Computer science
"or, to use the technical language, how robust is anova to violations ofthe assumptions.","Di technical language, how robust dey anova to violations of di assumptions",Computer science
due to deadline constraints i don't have the time to discuss this topic.,I no get time to discuss dis topic.,Computer science
this is a topic i'll cover in some detail in a later version ofthe book.,E dey topic wey dey cover for some detail for later version of di book.,Computer science
"the most commonly used test for this that i've seen in the literature is the levene test (levene, 1960), and the closely related brown-forsythe test(brown & forsythe, 1974), both of which i'll describe here.","Di most common test for dis wey i see for di literature na di levene test (levene, 1960), and di closely related brown-forsythe test(brown & forsythe, 1974), both of which i go describe here.",Computer science
"alternatively, you could use the bartlett test, which is implemented in rvia the bartlett. test()function, but i'll leave it as an exercise for the reader to go check that one out if you're interested.","I go use di bartlett test, wey dey implement for rvia di bartlett test()function, but i go check say one out if you dey interested.",Computer science
levene's test is shockingly simple.,Na shockingly simple.,Computer science
suppose we have our outcome variable yik.,Na suppose we get our outcome variable yik.,Computer science
"all we do is de ne anew variable, which i'll call zik, corresponding to the absolute deviation from the group mean: zikyikyk okay, what good does this do us?","All we do nato define new variable wey I go call z{ik}, wey be di absolute deviation from di group mean: z{ik} =y{ik} - ȳ k. Okay, wetin dis one help us do?",Computer science
"well, let's take a moment to think about what zikactually is, and what we're trying to test.","Dem take moment to think about what zikactually dey, and how we dey try test.",Computer science
the value of zikis a measure of how the i-th observation in the k-th group deviates from its group mean.,Di value of z{ik} na measure of how di i-th observation for di k-th group dey deviate from its group mean.,Computer science
"and our null hypothesis is that all groups have the same variance; that is, the same overall deviations from the group means!","Di null idea na say all groups get di same variance; dat na, di same overall deviation from di group means!",Computer science
"so, the null hypothesis in a levene's test is that the population means of zare identical for all groups.",Di null idea for a levene test na say di population means of zare identical for all groups.,Computer science
so what we need now is a statistical test ofthe null hypothesis that all group means are identical.,We need now na statistical test of di null idea wey all group means dey identical,Computer science
where have we seen that before?,We dey see dat before?,Computer science
"oh right, that's what anova is. and so all that the levene's test does is run an anova on the new variable zik.",Di levene test don run anova on di new variable zik.,Computer science
what about the brown-forsythe test?,Di brown-forsy di test?,Computer science
does that do anything particularly dierent?,Di suppose do anything particularly dierent?,Computer science
"the only change from the levene's test is that it constructs the transformed variable zin a slightly dierent way, using deviations from the group medians rather than deviations from the group means.","Di only change from di levene's test na say e construct di transformed variable zin a slightly dierent way, using deviation from di group medians no be deviation from di group means.",Computer science
"that is, for the brown-forsythe test, zik|yikmediankpyq| -447-where median kpyqis the median for group k. regardless of whether you're doing the standard levene test or the brown-forsythe test, the test statistic{ which is sometimes denoted f, but sometimes written asw{ is calculated in exactly the same way that the f-statistic for the regular anova is calculated, just using a zikrather than yik.","For di standard levene test or di brown-forsythe test, zik|yikmediankpyq| -447- wia median kpyqis di median for group k. regardless of whether you dey do di standard levene test or di brown-forsythe test, di test statistic wey denoted f, but sometimes written asw{ dey calculated for exactly di same way say di f-statistic for di regular anova dey calculated, just using zikrather than yik",Computer science
"with that in mind, let's just move on and look at how to run the test inr.","For mind, let just move on and make we look how to run di test forr",Computer science
"obviously, since the levene test is just an anova, it would be easy enough to manually create the transformed variable zikand then use the aov() function to run an anova on that.","Di levene test dey just anova, na easy to manually create di transformed variable zikand then use di aov() function to run an anova on dat.",Computer science
"however, that's the tedious way to do it.",Di tedious way to do am,Computer science
"a better way to do run your levene's test is to use the levenetest() function, which is in the carpackage.","Di better way to do run your levene test na use di levenetest() function, wey dey for carpackage.",Computer science
"as usual, we rst load the package> library(car )and now that we have, we can run our levene test.","We rst load di package> library(car) and now dat we get, we fit run our levene test.",Computer science
"the main argument that you need to specify is y, but you can do this in lots of dierent ways.","Di name wey you give wey you need to specify nay, but you fit do dis for lots of dierent ways.",Computer science
probably the simplest way to do it is actually input the original aovobject.,Di simple way to do am dey input di original aovobject,Computer science
"remember, although rreports the test statistic as an f-value, it could equally be called w, in which case you'd just write w2; 151:47.","Remember, even though R reports di test statistic as F-value, e fit equally be called W, for which case you go just write W(2,15) = 1.47.",Computer science
"also, note the part ofthe output that says center= median.",Di part of di output wey says center= median.,Computer science
"that's telling you that, by default, the levenetest() function actually does the brown-forsythe test.","For default, di levenetest() function actually does di brown-forsythe test.",Computer science
"firstly, as mentioned above, there are other ways of calling the levenetest() function.",Di ways wey dey call di levenetest() function,Computer science
"although the vast majority of situations that call for a levene test involve checking the assumptions of an anova (in which case you probably have a variable like my. anova lying around), sometimes you might nd yourself wanting to specify the variables directly.","Di most part of situations wey call for levene test dey involve check di assumptions of anova (in which case you probably get a variable like my. anova lying around), sometimes you go nd you wan to specify di variables directly.",Computer science
"nevertheless, it's nice to know that you could do it this way if you wanted to.",E dey nice to know say you go do am dis way if you waned to.,Computer science
"and for those of you who do try it, i think it helps to demystify the test a little bit when you can see{ with your own eyes{ the way in which levene's test relates to anova.",I think e help demystify di test a little bit wen you go see{ wit your own eyes{ di way wey di levene test relates to anova.,Computer science
"however, in real life we aren't always that lucky.",Di for real life we no dey always say lucky.,Computer science
how do we save our anova when the homogeneity of variance assumption is violated?,How do we save awa anova wen di homogeneity of variance assumption dey violated?,Computer science
"if you recall from our discussion oft-tests, we've seen this problem before.",We don see dis problem before.,Computer science
"the student t-test assumes equal variances, so the solution was to use the welch t-test, which does not.","Di solution dey use di wench t-test, wey no dey use di wench t-test, so di solution dey use di wench t-test, wey no dey.",Computer science
"in fact, welch (1951)also showed how we can solve this problem for anova too(the welch one-way test).",wench (1951)show how we fit solve dis problem for anova too(the wench one-way test).,Computer science
it's implemented in rusing the oneway. test()function.,Di test()function.,Computer science
the arguments that we'll need for our example are: formula.,Di arguments wey we need for our example dey: formula.,Computer science
"this is the model formula, which (as usual)needs to specify the outcome variable on the left hand side and the grouping variable on the right hand side: i. e, something like outcome~ group.","Di model formula wey (as normal)need to specify di outcome variable on di left hand side and di grouping variable on di right side: i. e, something like outcome~ group",Computer science
species the data frame containing the variables.,Di one kind of table wey dey containing di variables,Computer science
if this is false(the default)a welch one-way test is run.,Di default)one-way test dey run.,Computer science
if it is true then it just runs a regular anova.,Di regular anova just run regular anova.,Computer science
"the function also has a subset argument that lets you analyse only some ofthe observations and ana. action argument that tells it how to handle missing data, but these aren't necessary for our purposes.","Di function also don get subset argument wey dey tell am how to handle missing data, but e no dey necessary for awa purpose.",Computer science
"in other words, the welch test has reduced the within-groups degrees of freedom from 15 to 9. 49, and the f-value has increased from 18. 6 to 26. 32.","Di wench test don reduce di within-groups degree of freedom from 15 to 9. 49, and di f-value don reduce from 18. 6 to 26. 32. 32.",Computer science
"the only thing we really need to know how to do is pull out the residuals (i. e, theikvalues) so that we can draw our qq plot and run our shapiro-wilk test.","Di only thing we need know how to do dey pull out di residuals (i. e, diikvalues) so we fit draw awa shapiro-wilk test.",Computer science
"first, let's extract the residuals.","Di first, let extract di residuals",Computer science
rprovides a function called residuals() that will do this for us.,Dem rprovides a function wey dey call residuals() wey go do dis for us.,Computer science
"if we pass our my. anova to this function, it will return the residuals.",E go return di residuals.,Computer science
"so let's do that:> my. anova. residuals <- residuals( object= my. anova ) #extract the residuals we can print them out too, though it's not exactly an edifying experience.","Di anova. residuals <- residuals( object= my. anova) #extract di residuals wey we fit to show too, though e no dey exactly edifying experience.",Computer science
"in fact, given that i'm on the verge of putting myself to sleep just typing this, it might be a good idea to skip that step.","For fact, given say i dey on di verge of putting myself to sleep just typing dis, e go be good idea to skip dat step.",Computer science
"when you've got three or more groups, you can use the kruskal-wallis rank sum test (kruskal &wallis, 1952).","When you go get three or more groups, you fit use di Kruskal-Wallis rank sum test (Kruskal &Wallis, 1952).",Computer science
so that's the test we'll talk about next.,Di test wey we go talk about next,Computer science
"in anova, we started with yik, the value ofthe outcome variable for the ith person in the kth group.","We start wit yik, di value of di outcome variable for di ith person for di kth group.",Computer science
"for the kruskal-wallis test, what we'll do is rank order all of these yikvalues, and conduct our analysis on the ranked data.","We go rank order all of dis yikvalues, and conduct awa analysis on di ranked data.",Computer science
so let's letrikrefer to the ranking given to the ith member ofthe kth group.,Na let's letrikrefer to di ranking wey dem give to di ith member of di kth group.,Computer science
"now, let's calculate rk, the average rank given to observations in the kth group: rk1 nk irik and let's also calculate r, the grand mean rank: r1 ni krik now that we've done this, we can calculate the squared deviations from the grand mean rank r.","Dem calculate rk, di average rank wey we dey give to observations for di kth group: rk1 nk irik and let calculate di number multiply by itself from di grand mean rank r.",Computer science
"when we do this for the individual scores{ i. e, if we calculate prikrq2{ what we have is a onparametric"" measure of how far the ik-th observation deviates from the grand mean rank.","I. e, if we dey calculate prikrq2{ we dey onparametric measure of how far di Ik-th observation deviates from di grand mean rank.",Computer science
"when we calculate the squared deviation ofthe group means from the grand means{ i. e, if we calculate prkrq2{ then what we have is a nonparametric measure of how much the group deviates from the grand mean rank.",we dey calculate di number multiply by itself of di group means from di grand mean rank.,Computer science
"with-451- this in mind, let's follow the same logic that we did with anova, and de ne our ranked sums of squares measures in much the same way that we did earlier.","Dem follow di same logic wey we dey wit anova, and dey rank sum of square measures for much di same way we dey earlier.",Computer science
"first, we have our otal ranked sums of squares"": rsstot k iprikrq2 and we can de ne the etween groups ranked sums of squares""like this: rssb k iprkrq2 knkprkrq2 so, if the null hypothesis is true and there are no true group dierences at all, you'd expect the between group rank sums rss bto be very small, much smaller than the total rank sums rss tot.","rssb k iprkrq2 knkprkrq2 so, if di null idea dey true and we go expect di between group rank sums rss bto be small, much smaller than di total rank sums rss to.",Computer science
"qualitatively this is very much the same as what we found when we went about constructing the anova f-statistic; but for technical reasons the kruskal-wallis test statistic, usually denoted k, is constructed in a slightly dierent way: kpn1qrssb rsstot and, if the null hypothesis is true, then the sampling distribution of kisapproximately chi-square with g1 degrees of freedom(where gis the number of groups).","For technical reasons di kruskal-wallis test statistic, usually denoted k, na di sampling distribution of kisapproximately chi-square wit g1 degree of freedom(where gis di number of groups).",Computer science
"the larger the value of k, the less consistent the data are with null hypothesis, so this is a one-sided test: we reject h0whenkis suciently large.","Di bigger di value of K, di less di data agree with di null idea, so dis na one-sided test: we reject H0 when K dey sufficiently large.",Computer science
"at a conceptual level, this is the right way to think about how the test works.",Di right way to think about how di test works,Computer science
"however, from a purely mathematical perspective it's needlessly complicated.",Di mathematical perspective dey needlessly complicated.,Computer science
it's probably best to think of kthe way i described it earlier. as an analogue of anova based on ranks.,I dey probably best to think of kthe way i described am earlier,Computer science
but keep in mind that the test statistic that gets calculated ends up with a rather dierent look to it than the one we used for our original anova.,Di test statistic wey get calculated end up wit a rather dierent look to am than di one we use for awa original anova.,Computer science
"but wait, there's more!","But wait, na more!",Computer science
"dear lord, why is there always more?","Di dear lord, why dey always more?",Computer science
the story i've told so far is only actually true when there are no ties in the raw data.,Di story wey i tell so far na only true wen no dey ties for di first numbers.,Computer science
"that is, if there are no two observations that have exactly the same value.","Di two numbers wey dey, if no two numbers wey dey, if no two numbers wey dey exactly di same value.",Computer science
"if there areties, then we have to introduce a correction factor to these calculations.",We go introduce correction factor to dis calculations.,Computer science
at this point i'm assuming that even the most diligent reader has stopped caring(or atleast formed the opinion that the tie-correction factor is something that doesn't require their immediate attention).,I dey assum say even di most diligent reader don stop caring(or atleast form di opinion say di tie-correction factor no require dia immediate attention).,Computer science
"so i'll very quickly tell you how it's calculated, and omit the tedious details about whyit's done this way.","I fit fast tell you howe calculated, and omit di tedious details about why e dey done dis way",Computer science
"suppose we construct a frequency table for the raw data, and let fjbe the number of observations that have thej-th unique value.","Di suppose we construct a list of how many for di first numbers, and let fjbe di number of observation wey dey get unique value.",Computer science
"since this corresponds to a mood. gain of 0. 3, this table is telling us that two people's mood increased by 0. 3.","Di table dey tell us say two pipo's mood dey reduce by 0. 3, dis table dey tell us say two pipo's mood dey reduce by 0",Computer science
"more to the point, note that we can say that f[3]has a value of 2.",We go tok say f[3]don get value of 2.,Computer science
"or, in the mathematical notation i introduced above, this is telling us that f32.","Di way wey math dey write wey dey introduced above, dis dey telling us say f32.",Computer science
"so, now that we know this, the tie correction factor (tcf) is: tcf1 jfj3fj n3n the tie-corrected value ofthe kruskal-wallis statistic obtained by dividing the value of kby this quantity: it is this tie-corrected version that rcalculates.",Di tie correction factor (tcf) dey: tcf1 jfj3fj n3n di tie-corrected value of di kruskal-wallis statistic wey dey divide di value of kby di quantity,Computer science
"and at long last, we're actually nished with the theory ofthe kruskal-wallis test.",Di theory of di kruskal-wallis test.,Computer science
i'm sure you're all terribly relieved that i've cured you ofthe existential anxiety that naturally arises when you realise that you don't know how to calculate the tie-correction factor for the kruskal-wallis test.,I dey sure say you no know how to calculate di tie-correction factor for di kruskal-wallis test.,Computer science
"the function is pretty exible, and allows you to input your data in a few dierent ways.","Di function dey pretty exible, and allow you to input your data for few dierent ways.",Computer science
"most ofthe time you'll have data like the clin. trial dataset, in which you have your outcome variable mood. gain, and a grouping variable drug.","Di trial group of related numbers or data wey belong together, wey you go get your outcome variable mood. gain, and grouping variable drug",Computer science
"however, sometimes it can be useful to specify xas a list.","For however, sometimes e go useful to specify xas list",Computer science
what i mean is this.,I mean na dis,Computer science
"suppose you actually had data as three separate variables, placebo, anxifree and joyzepam.","Na suppose you go get data as three separate variables, placebo, anxifree and joyzepam.",Computer science
"if that's the format that your data are in, then it's convenient to know that you can bundle all three together as a list:> mood. gain<- list(placebo, joyzepam, anxifree ) > kruskal. test(x= mood. gain) and again, this would give you exactly the same results as the command we tried originally.",Dis go give you exactly di same results as di command wey we tried originally.,Computer science
"it's something that alot of people nd kind of surprising, but it's worth knowing about: an anova with two groups is identical to the student t-test.",Di anova wit two groups dey identical to di student t-test.,Computer science
"it's not just that they are similar, but they are actually equivalent in every meaningful way.","E no just say dem dey similar, but dem dey actually equivalent for every meaningful way",Computer science
"suppose that, instead of running an anova on our mood. gain~ drug model, let's instead do it using therapy as the predictor.","Di drug model, make we suppose say, not dat one run an anova on awa mood. gain therapy as di predictor.",Computer science
"in any case, it's irrelevant to our current goals: our interest here is in the f-statistic, which isfp1; 16q1: 71, and the p-value, which is.21.","Di interest here dey for di f-statistic, wey deyfp1; 16q1: 71, and dip-value, wey dey. 21. 21.",Computer science
"since we only have two groups, i didn't actually need to resort to an anova, i could have just decided to run a student t-test.","I no get two groups, i no need to resort to anova, i go get just decide to run student t-test.",Computer science
but what about the test statistic?,But wetin about di test statistic?,Computer science
"having run at-test instead of an anova, we get a somewhat dierent answer, namely tp16q 1: 3068.","After we run t-test not dat one ANOVA, we get different answer: t(16)= 1.3068.",Computer science
"however, there is a fairly straightforward relationship here.",E dey fairly straightforward relationship here,Computer science
if we square the t-statistic> 1. 3068 ^2[1] 1. 7077 we get thef-statistic from before.,We get dif-statistic from before.,Computer science
"most obviously, i haven't yet discussed any analog ofthe paired samples t-test for more than two groups.",I don discuss any analog of di paired samples t-test for more than two groups.,Computer science
"there is away of doing this, known as repeated measures anova, which will appear in a later version of this book.","Di way wey dey do dis, known as repeat measures anova, wey go appear for later version of dis book.",Computer science
"it's not a good book for beginners, but it's an excellent book for more advanced readers who are interested in understanding the mathematics behind anova.","Na good book for beginners, but na good book for more advanced readers wey dey interest for understanding di mathematics behind anova.",Computer science
"since the basic ideas in regression are closely tied to correlation, we'll return to the parenthood.","Di basic ideas for regression dey close to correlation, we go return to di parenthood.",Computer science
rdata le that we were using to illustrate how correlations work.,We dey use to illustrate how correlation work,Computer science
"recall that, in this dataset, we were trying to nd out why dan is so very grumpy all the time, and our working hypothesis was that i'm not getting enough sleep.","Di group of related numbers or data wey belong together, we dey try to nd out why dan dey grumpy all di time, and awa work hypothesis na say i no get sleep",Computer science
"we drew some scatterplots to help us examine the relationship between the amount of sleep i get, and my grumpiness the following day.",We draw some scatterplots to help us check di how two things dey related how much sleep I get and my grumpiness di next day.,Computer science
"the actual scatterplot that we draw is the one shown in figure 15.1, and as we saw previously this corresponds to a correlation of r:90, but what we nd ourselves secretly imagining is something that looks closer to figure 15. 2a.","Di actual scatterplot wey we draw na di one wey we dey show for figure 15.1, and as we saw previously dis correspond to correlation of r:90, but we nd awaselves secretly imagining na something wey we dey closer to figure 15. 2a.",Computer science
"that is, we mentally draw a straight line through the middle ofthe data.",We mentally draw straight line through di middle of di data.,Computer science
"in statistics, this line that we're drawing is called aregression line.",Di line wey we dey drawing dey call aregression line,Computer science
notice that{ since we're not idiots{ the regression line goes through the middle ofthe data.,Di regression line go through di middle of di data.,Computer science
we don't nd ourselves imagining anything like the rather silly plot shown in figure 15. 2b.,Di rather silly plot show for figure 15. 2b.,Computer science
"this is not highly surprising: the line that i've drawn in figure 15. 2b doesn't\ t""the data very well, so it doesn't make alot of sense to propose it as away of summarising the data, right?","Di line wey i draw for figure 15. 2b no fit\ t""di data well, so e no make alot of sense to propose am as way of summarising di data, right?",Computer science
"this is avery simple observation to make, but it turns out to be very powerful when we start trying to wrap just a little bit of maths around it.","Di very simple observation wey dey make, but e turnout to be very powerful wen we start try to wrap just a little bit of math around am",Computer science
"to do so, let's start with a refresher of some highschool maths.",Dem start wit refresher of some di math wey you learn for secondary school.,Computer science
the formula for a straight line is usually written like this: ymx,Di formula for straight line dey usually written like dis: ymx,Computer science
"the two variables are xandy, and we have two coecients, mandc.","Di two variables dey xandy, and we get two coecients, mandc",Computer science
"the coecient mrepresents the slope ofthe line, and the coecient crepresents they-intercept ofthe line.","Di coecient mrepresent di slope of di line, and di coecient crepresent diy-intercept of di line.",Computer science
"digging further back into our decaying memories of highschool (sorry, for some of us highschool was along time ago), we remember that the intercept is interpreted ashe value of ythat you get when x0"".","For some of us highschool na longtime ago), we remember say di intercept dey interpret as hin value of ythat you go get when x0",Computer science
"similarly, a slope of mmeans that if you increase the x-value by 1 unit, then they-value goes up by munits; a negative slope means that they-value would go down rather than up.","Di slope of mmeans say if you increase dix-value by 1 unit, then diy-value go down for munits; negative slope means say diy-value go down no be up.",Computer science
"ah yes, it's all coming back tome now.",E dey all kom back tome now,Computer science
"now that we've remembered that, it should come as no surprise to discover that we use the exact same formula to describe a regression line.","We remember say, na no surprise to discover say we use di exact same formula to describe a regression line",Computer science
if yis the outcome variable(the dv)and xis the predictor -457-5 678 940 50 60 70 80 90 my sleep(hours)my grumpiness (0100)figure 15.1: scatterplot showing grumpiness as a function of hours slept.,Di scatterplot show grumpiness as function of hours sleep.,Computer science
"variable(the iv), then the formula that describes our regression is written like this: ^yib1xi",Di formula wey dey describe awa regression dey write like dis:,Computer science
"looks like the same formula, but there's some extra frilly bits in this version.","Dem look like di same formula, but na some extra frilly bits for dis version.",Computer science
let's make sure we understand them.,We make sure we understand dem,Computer science
"firstly, notice that i've written xiandyirather than just plain old xandy.","First, notice sey I write Xi and Yi not dat one just plain old X andY.",Computer science
this is because we want to remember that we're dealing with actual data.,We wan to remember say we dey dealing wit actual data,Computer science
"in this equation, xiis the value of predictor variable for the ith observation(i. e, the number of hours of sleep that i got on day iof my little study), and yiis the corresponding value ofthe outcome variable(i. e, my grumpiness on that day).","Di equation, xiis di value of predictor variable for di ith observation(i. e, di number of hours of sleep wey i get on day iof my little study), and yiis di corresponding value of di outcome variable(i. e, my grumpiness on dat day).",Computer science
"and although i haven't said so explicitly in the equation, what we're assuming is that this formula works for all observations in the dataset (i. e, for all i).","I don tok say dis formula works for all observations for di group of related numbers or data wey belong together(i. e, for all i).",Computer science
"secondly, notice that i wrote ^yiand notyi.","Di secondly, notice say i write ^yiand notyi",Computer science
"this is because we want to make the distinction between the actual data yi, and the estimate^yi(i. e,","Dem dey because we wan make di distinction between di actual data yi, and di estimate^yi(i. e.",Computer science
the prediction that our regression line is making).,Di prediction say awa regression line dey make).,Computer science
"thirdly, i changed the letters used to describe the coecients from mand ctob1andb0.",I change di letters wey dem use to describe di coecients from mand ctob1andb0,Computer science
that's just the way that statisticians like to refer to the coecients in a regression model.,Di way wey statisticians like to talk about di coecients for regression model.,Computer science
"i've no idea why they chose b, but that's what they did.","I no idea why dem choose b, but dat's what dem do.",Computer science
"in any case b0always refers to the intercept term, andb1refers to the slope.","For any case b0always to talk about di intercept term, andb1refer to di slope",Computer science
"next, i can't help but notice that{ regardless of whether we're talking about the good regression line or the bad one{ the data don't fall perfectly on the line.",I no help but notice say we dey talk about di good regression line or di bad one{ di data don fall perfectly on di line.,Computer science
"or, to say it another way, the data yiare not identical to the predictions ofthe regression model^yi.",Di data no dey identical to di prediction of di regression model^yi,Computer science
"since statisticians love to attach letters, names and numbers to everything, let's refer to the dierence between the model prediction and that actual data point as a residual, and we'll refer to it as i. 1written using mathematics, the residuals are de ned as: iyi^yi which in turn means that we can write down the complete linear regression model as: yib1xi","Di residuals dey residual as: iyi^yi wey for turn means say we fit write down di complete linear regression model as: yib1xi wey dey residual, and we goto talk about di dierence between di model prediction and dat actual data point as residual, and we goto talk about am as i.",Computer science
it's traditional to use ioreito denote a residual.,E dey traditional to use ε i or ei to stand for residual.,Computer science
"not surprisingly, the line goes through the middle ofthe data.",Di line go through di middle of di data.,Computer science
"in contrast, panel b shows the same data, but with avery poor choice of regression line drawn over the top.","For contrast, panel B show di same data, but with very poor choice of regression line wey dem draw on top.",Computer science
"when the regression line is good, our residuals (the lengths ofthe solid black lines)all look pretty small, as shown in figure 15. 3a, but when the regression line is a bad one, the residuals area lot larger, as you can see from looking at figure 15. 3b.","Di regression line dey good, awa residuals ( di length of di solid di black line)dey small, as you fit see from figure 15. 3b.",Computer science
"maybe what we\want"" in a regression model is small residuals.",Di regression model dey small residuals,Computer science
"yes, that does seem to make sense.",Di suppose make sense.,Computer science
"in fact, i think i'll go so far as to say that the est tting"" regression line is the one that has the smallest residuals.","I think i go so far as to say di est tting"" regression line dey di one wey dey smallest residuals",Computer science
"or, better yet, since statisticians seem to like to take squares of everything why not say that.",Di statisticians dey like to take squares of all why no say,Computer science
"the estimated regression coecients, ^b0and^b1are those that minimise the sum ofthe squared residuals, which we could either write as ipyi^yiq2or as ii2.","Di estimated regression coecients, ^b0and^b1are those wey minimise di sum of di squared residuals, wey we go write as ipyi^yiq2or as ii2.",Computer science
"yes, yes that sounds even better.",Di sounds even better,Computer science
"and since i've indented it like that, it probably means that this is the right answer.",E probably mean say dis na di right answer.,Computer science
"and since this is the right answer, it's probably worth making a note ofthe fact that our regression coecients are estimates(we're trying to guess the parameters that describe a population!","Di right answer, e dey worth make note of di fact say awa regression coecients dey estimate(we dey try to guess di parameters wey dey describe a population",Computer science
"finally, i should also note that{ since there's actually more than one way to estimate a regression model{ the more technical name for this estimation process is ordinary least squares (ols) regression.",I go note say since e dey actually more than one way to estimate regression model{ di more technical name for dis estimation process dey ordinary least square (ols) regression,Computer science
"at this point, we now have a concrete de nition for what counts as our est""choice of regression coecients, ^b0and^b1.","We now don get concrete de nition for wetin we dey count as we dey choice of regression coecients, ^b0and^b1.",Computer science
"the natural question to ask next is, if our optimal regression coecients are those that minimise the sum squared residuals, how do we ndthese wonderful numbers?","Di natural question wey we ask next na, if awa optimal regression coecients dey those wey minimise di sum squared residuals, how do we nd dis wonderful numbers?",Computer science
the residuals are much smaller for the good regression line.,Di residuals dey smaller for di good regression line.,Computer science
"again, this is no surprise given that the good line is the one that goes right through the middle ofthe data.",E no surprise given say di good line dey di one wey go right through di middle of di data.,Computer science
"to this question is complicated, and it doesn't help you understand the logic of regression. 2as a result, this time i'm going to let you o the hook.","Di time, dis time i go let you o di hook.",Computer science
"instead of showing you how to do it the long and tedious way rst, and then evealing"" the wonderful shortcut that rprovides you with, let's cut straight to the chase. and use the lm()function (short for\linear model"")to do all the heavy lifting.","not dat one showing you di long and boring way first, and den""revealing"" di wonderful shortcut wey R give you, make we go straight to di point. and use lm()function (short for""linear model"")to do all di hard work.",Computer science
"lm, the help les will reveal that there area lot of arguments that you can specify, and most of them won't make alot of sense to you.","Di help wey dey reveal say na lot of argument wey you fit specify, and most of dem no make sense to you.",Computer science
"at this stage however, there's really only two of them that you care about, and as it turns out you've seen them before: formula.","Di stage however, na only two of dem wey you care about, and as e turnout you see dem before: formula.",Computer science
a formula that species the regression model.,Di formula wey dey speci e di regression model,Computer science
"for the simple linear regression models that we've talked about so far, in which you have a single predictor variable aswell as an intercept term, this formula is ofthe form outcome~ predictor.","Di formula dey of di simple linear regression model wey we talk about so far, for which you go get single predictor variable aswell as intercept term, dis formula dey of di form outcome~ predictor.",Computer science
"however, more complicated formulas are allowed, and we'll discuss them later.",We go discuss dem later.,Computer science
"but on theo chance that someone reading this is a proper kung fu master of linear algebra(and to be fair, i always have a few of these people in my intro stats class), it willhelp you to know that the solution to the estimation problem turns out to be ^bpx1xq1x1y, where^bis a vector containing the estimated regression coecients, xis the\design matrix""that contains the predictor variables(plus an additional column containing all ones; strictly xis a matrix ofthe regressors, but i haven't discussed the distinction yet), and yis a vector containing the outcome variable.","I go know say di solution to di estimation problem turnout to be ^bpx1xq1x1y, where^bis a vector wey dey contains di predictor variables(plus additional column wey dey containing all ones; strictly, i go know say di solution to di estimation problem turnout to be ^bpx1xq1x1y, wey be di estimated regression coecients, xis di\design matrix"" wey contains di predictor variables(plus additional column",Computer science
"for everyone else, this isn't exactly helpful, and can be downright scary.","Dino dey helpful, and no dey scary.",Computer science
"if you can follow the maths in them, great.","Di maths for dem, great.",Computer science
"if not, ignore it.",We dey ignore am,Computer science
the data frame containing the variables.,Di one kind of table wey dey containing di variables,Computer science
"because this technical information is used by other functions, it's generally a good idea to create a variable that stores the results of your regression.","Di technical information dey used by oda functions, e generally good idea to create a variable wey dey store di results of your regression.",Computer science
it's always a good idea to remember which one is which!,E dey always good idea to remember which one dey which,Computer science
"anyway, what this does is create an \ lmobject"" (i. e, a variable whose class is""lm"") called regression.1.","Di suppose create\ lmobject"" (i. e, a variable wey dey class dey ""lm"")call regression",Computer science
there's two separate pieces of information here.,Two separate pieces of information dey here.,Computer science
"firstly, ris politely reminding us what the command was that we used to specify the model in the rst place, which can be helpful.","Di command na say we use to specify di model for di rst place, we fit to help.",Computer science
"more importantly from our perspective, however, is the second part, in which rgives us the intercept ^b0125: 96 and the slope ^b18: 94.","Di second part, wey rgive us di intercept ^b0125: 96 and di slope ^b18: 94.",Computer science
"in other words, the besttting regression line that i plotted in figure 15.2 has this formula: ^yi8: 94xi",Di besttting regression line wey i plot for figure 15.2 get di formula: ^yi8: 94xi8,Computer science
"let's start with^b1, the slope.","Na let start wit^b1, di slope.",Computer science
"if we remember the de nition ofthe slope, a regression coecient of ^b18: 94 means that if i increase xiby 1, then i'm decreasing yiby 8. 94.","Dem tok say if we remember di de nition of di slope, regression coecient of ^b18: 94 mean say if we remember di de nition of di slope, a regression coecient of ^b18: 94 mean say if we remember di de nition of di slope, regression coecient of ^b18: 94 mean say if we remember di de nition of di slope, regression coecient of ^b18: 94 mean say if we remember di de nition of di slope,",Computer science
"that is, each additional hour of sleep that i gain will improve my mood, reducing my grumpiness by 8. 94 grumpiness points.","Di additional hour of sleep wey i gain go improve my mood, reducing my grumpiness by 8. 94 grumpiness points.",Computer science
what about the intercept?,Di intercept?,Computer science
"well, since ^b0corresponds to he expected value of yiwhenxiequals 0"", it's pretty straightforward.","Na since ^b0correspond to hin expected value of yiwhenxiequal 0"", e dey straightforward.",Computer science
"it implies that if i get zero hours of sleep( xi0) then my grumpiness will go o the scale, to an insane value of (yi125: 96).","E mean sey if I get zero hours of sleep(X i=0), den my grumpiness go off di scale, to crazy value of (Ŷ i= 125.96).",Computer science
"best to be avoided, i think.","Best to avoid dat one, I think.",Computer science
"in fact, up to this point, every statistical tool that we've talked about has assumed that your analysis uses one predictor variable and one outcome variable.",Di statistical tool wey we talk about dey assum say your analysis use one predictor variable and one outcome variable.,Computer science
"however, in many(perhaps most)research projects you actually have multiple predictors that you want to examine.",For many(perhaps most)research projects you go get multiple predictors wey you wan to examine.,Computer science
"if so, it would be nice to be able to extend the linear regression-461- framework to be able to include multiple predictors.",Na nice to extend di linear regression-461-framework to be able to include multiple predictors.,Computer science
perhaps some kind of multiple regression model would bein order?,Di kind of multiple regression model go be for order?,Computer science
multiple regression is conceptually very simple.,E dey conceptually simple,Computer science
all we do is add more terms to our regression equation.,Di all we do dey add more terms to our regression equation.,Computer science
let's suppose that we've got two variables that we're interested in; perhaps we want to use both dan. sleep and baby. sleep to predict the dan. grump variable.,Dem suppose say we get two variables wey we dey interest for; perhaps we go use both dan. sleep and baby. sleep to predict di dan. grump variable.,Computer science
"as before, we let yirefer to my grumpiness on the i-th day.","as before, make Yi stand for my grumpiness for di i-th day.",Computer science
but now we have two xvariables: the rst corresponding to the amount of sleep i got and the second corresponding to the amount of sleep my son got.,Di rst corresponding to di amount of sleep i get and di second corresponding to di amount of sleep i get and di second corresponding to di amount of sleep my son get,Computer science
"so we'll let xi1refer to the hours i slept on thei-th day, and xi2refers to the hours that the baby slept on that day.","We go let xi1refer to di hours wey dey sleep on dii-th day, and xi2refer to di hours wey di baby slept on dat day.",Computer science
"if so, then we can write our regression model like this: yib2xi2",Di regression model like dis: yib2xi2,Computer science
"in this model, we now have three coecients that need to be estimated: b0is the intercept, b1is the coecient associated with my sleep, and b2is the coecient associated with my son's sleep.","B0is di intercept, b1is di coecient associated wit my sleep, and b2is di coecient associated wit my son's sleep",Computer science
"however, although the number of coecients that need to be estimated has changed, the basic idea of how the estimation works is unchanged: our estimated coecients ^b0,^b1and^b2are those that minimise the sum squared residuals.","Di number of coecients wey need to estimated don change, di basic idea of how di estimation works dey unchanged: awa estimated coecients ^b0,^b1and^b2are those wey dey minimise di sum squared residuals.",Computer science
"for example, if we want to use both dan. sleep and baby. sleep as predictors in our attempt to explain why i'm so grumpy, then the formula we need is this: dan. grump ~dan. sleep+ baby. sleep notice that, just like last time, i haven't explicitly included any reference to the intercept term in this formula; only the two predictor variables and the outcome.","for example, if we need use both dan. sleep and baby. sleep as predictors for awa attempt to explain why i dey grumpy, then di formula wey we need be dis: dan. grump, dan. sleep and baby. sleep notice say, same as before, i don include any reference to di intercept term for dis formula; only di two predictor variables and di outcome.",Computer science
"by default, the lm()function assumes that the model should include an intercept(though you can get rid of it if you want).",Di lm()function assum say di model go include intercept(though you goto remove am if you wan).,Computer science
"however, the coecient for baby. sleep is very small, suggesting that it doesn't really matter how much sleep my son gets; not really.","Di coecient for baby dey small, suggest say e no matter how much sleep my son get; no really.",Computer science
what matters as far as my grumpiness goes is how much sleep iget.,As my grumpiness go dey how much sleep iget,Computer science
"to get a sense of what this multiple regression model looks like, figure 15. 4 shows a 3d plot that plots all three variables, along with the regression model itself.","Di multiple regression model look like, figure 15. 4 show 3d plot wey dey plot all three variables, along wit di regression model itself.",Computer science
"there are two predictors in the model, dan. sleep and baby. sleep; the outcome variable is dan. grump.",Di outcome variable dey dan. grump and baby. sleep; di outcome variable dey dan. grump,Computer science
"together, these three variables form a 3d space: each observation(blue dots)is a point in this space.",Di three variables form 3d space: each observation(blue dots) dey point for dis space,Computer science
"in much the same way that a simple linear regression model forms a line in 2d space, this multiple regression model forms a plane in 3d space.","Di simple linear regression model form line for 2d space, dis multiple regression model form plane for 3d space, dis multiple regression model form plane for 3d space.",Computer science
"when we estimate the regression coecients, what we're trying to do is nd a plane that is as close to all the blue dots as possible.","We estimate di regression coecients, we dey try to do na plane wey dey close to all di blue dots as possible.",Computer science
"(this plot was drawn using the scatter3d() function in the carpackage, and it looked much nicer before it got butchered by the image conversion process that i used to get it into the book pdf)-463- 15. 3. 2 formula for the general case the equation that i gave above shows you what a multiple regression model looks like when you include two predictors.","Di plot dey draw using di scatter3d() function for di carpackage, and e look like when you include two predictors.",Computer science
"not surprisingly, then, if you want more than two predictors all you have to do is add more xterms and more bcoecients.",If you wan more than two predictors all you don do dey add more xterms and more bcoecients.,Computer science
"in other words, if you have kpredictor variables in the model then the regression equation looks like this: yik k1bkxik","Di regression equation look like dis: yik k1bkxik, if you go get kpredictor variables for di model then di regression equation look like dis",Computer science
"the problem is, we don't yet know if this regression model is any good.",We no know if dis regression model dey any good,Computer science
"for example, the regression.1 model claims that every hour of sleep will improve my mood by quite alot, but it might just be rubbish.","Di model claim say every hour of sleep go improve my mood by quite alot, but e might just be rubbish.",Computer science
"remember, the regression model only produces a prediction ^yiabout what my mood is like: my actual mood is yi.",Di regression model only produce prediction ^yiabout what my mood dey like: my actual mood dey yi,Computer science
"if these two are very close, then the regression model has done a good job.",Di regression model don done good job.,Computer science
"if they are very dierent, then it has done a bad job.",E don done bad job.,Computer science
"firstly, we've got the sum ofthe squared residuals: ssres ipyi^yiq2 which we would hope to be pretty small.",We get di sum of di squared residuals: ssres ipyi^yiq2 wey we go hope to be small.,Computer science
"for the simple model that uses only a single predictor, regression.1, we would do the following:> y. pred <--8. 94*x+ 125. 97 okay, now that we've got a variable which stores the regression model predictions for how grumpy i will be on any given day, let's calculate our sum of squared residuals.","For di simple model wey dey use only single predictor, regression.",Computer science
a big number that doesn't mean very much.,Di big number wey dey mean very much,Computer science
"still, let's forge boldly onwards anyway, and calculate the total sum of squares aswell.","Na still, let forge boldly onwards anyway, and calculate di total adding all the squared gaps to measure total error aswell.",Computer science
"well, it's a much bigger number than the last one, so this does suggest that our regression model was making good predictions.",Dem suggest say awa regression model dey make good predictions,Computer science
but it's not very interpretable.,E no dey interpretable but e no dey interpretable but e no dey interpretable,Computer science
perhaps we can x this.,We fit x dis,Computer science
what we'd like to do is to convert these two fairly meaningless numbers into one number.,We dey like to do nato convert dis two fairly meaningless numbers into one number,Computer science
"a nice, interpretable number, which for no particular reason we'll call r2.","Di nice, interpretable number, wey for no particular reason we go call r2",Computer science
what we would like is for the value of r2to be equal to 1 if the regression model makes no errors in predicting the data.,Di value of r2to be equal to 1 if di regression model make no errors for predicting di data.,Computer science
"in other words, if it turns out that the residual errors are zero{ that is, if ss res0 {then we expectr21.","If e turnout say di residual errors dey zero{ na, if ss res0 {then we expectr21.",Computer science
"similarly, if the model is completely useless, we would like r2to be equal to 0.","Di model dey completely useless, we go like r2to be equal to 0",Computer science
"what do i mean by\useless""?","Wetin I mean by""useless""?",Computer science
"tempting as it is demand that the regression model move out ofthe house, cut its hair and get a real job, i'm probably going to have to pick a more practical de nition: in this case, all i mean is that the residual sum of squares is no smaller than the total sum of squares, ss ressstot.","Di case, all i mean say di residual adding all the squared gaps to measure total error no smaller than di total adding all the squared gaps to measure total error, ss ressstot.",Computer science
"wait, why don't we do exactly that?","We dey wait, why we don do exactly dat?",Computer science
"so in this case, the fact that we have obtained r2: 816 means that the predictor( my. sleep) explains 81. 6%of the variance in the outcome( my. grump ).",Di fact say we get r2: 816 means say di predictor( my sleep) explain 81. 6%of di variance for di outcome( my grump ).,Computer science
"naturally, you don't actually need to type in all these commands yourself if you want to obtain the r2value for your regression model.","Naturally, you no really need to type all these commands yourself if you wan to get R2 value for your regression model.",Computer science
"however, let's put that to one side for the moment.","For di moment, let put dat to one side for di moment.",Computer science
there's another property of r2 that i want to point out.,Di property of r2 wey i wan to show,Computer science
"previously, we used the symbol rto denote a pearson correlation.",We use di symbol rto denote pearson correlation,Computer science
might there be some relationship between the value ofthe correlation coecient rand the r2value from linear regression?,Fit get somehow two things dey related di value of correlation coefficient rand di R2 value from linear regression?,Computer science
ofcourse there is: the squared correlation r2is identical to the r2value for a linear regression with only a single predictor.,Ofcourse dey: di squared correlation r2 na exactly di R2 value for linear regression wey get only one predictor.,Computer science
"in other words, running a pearson correlation is more or less equivalent to running a linear regression model that uses only one predictor variable.","For oda words, running pearson correlation dey more or less equivalent to running a linear regression model wey use only one predictor variable.",Computer science
"in practice everyone just calls it \r-squared"".","Dem call am \r-squared"".",Computer science
"it's quite common for people to report a slightly dierent measure of model performance, known as djusted r2"".","E dey common for pipo to report slightly dierent measure of model performance, wey dey known as djusted r2",Computer science
the motivation behind calculating the adjusted r2value is the observation that adding more predictors into the model will always call ther2value to increase(or atleast not decrease).,Di motivation wey dey behind calculating di adjusted r2value na di observation say adding more predictors into di model go call dir2value to increase(or atleast no decrease).,Computer science
"the adjusted r2value introduces a slight change to the calculation, as follows.","Di adjusted R2 value bring small change to di calculation, like dis.",Computer science
"for a regression model with kpredictors, t to a dataset containing n observations, the adjusted r2is: adj.",Di adjusted r2is:,Computer science
r21ssres sstotn1 nk1 this adjustment is an attempt to take the degrees of freedom into account.,Di adjustment dey an attempt to take di degree of freedom into account,Computer science
"the big advantage ofthe adjustedr2value is that when you add more predictors to the model, the adjusted r2value will only increase if the new variables improve the model performance more than you'd expect by chance.","Di big advantage of di adjusted r2value na say when you add more predictors to di model, di adjusted r2value go only increase if di new variables improve di model performance more than you expect by chance.",Computer science
the big disadvantage is that the adjusted r2value can't be interpreted in the elegant way that r2can.,Di big disadvantage na say di adjusted r2value no dey interpreted for di elegant way wey r2can.,Computer science
"r2has a simple interpretation as the proportion of variance in the outcome variable that is explained by the regression model; to my knowledge, no equivalent interpretation exists for adjusted r2.","R2 get simple meaning as di proportion of variance for outcome variable wey di regression model explain; to my knowledge, no similar meaning dey for adjusted R2.",Computer science
"an obvious question then, is whether you should report r2or adjusted r2.",E dey whether you go report r2or adjust r2,Computer science
this is probably a matter of personal preference.,Dis dey probably matter of personal preference,Computer science
"if you care more about interpretability, then r2is better.","If you care more about interpretability, e dey better",Computer science
"if you care more about correcting for bias, then adjusted r2is probably better.","If you care more about fixing bias, den adjusted R2 probably better.",Computer science
"speaking just for myself, i prefer r2: my feeling is that it's more important to be able to interpret your measure of model performance.",My feeling dey say e dey important to interpret your measure of model performance.,Computer science
the next thing we need to talk about is hypothesis tests.,Di next thing we need to talk about na hypothesis tests.,Computer science
there are two dierent (but related)kinds of hypothesis tests that we need to talk about: those in which we test whether the regression model as a whole is performing signi cantly better than a null model; and those in which we test whether a particular regression coecient is signi cantly dierent from zero.,Na two dierent (but related)kinds of hypothesis tests wey we need to talk about: those wey we test whether di regression model as a whole dey perform signi cantly better than null model; and those wey we test whether di regression model as a whole dey perform signi cantly better than null model; and those wey we test whether a particular regression coecient na signi cantly animal from zero.,Computer science
"at this point, you're probably groaning internally, thinking that i'm going to introduce a whole new collection of tests.","Di point, you dey groaning internally, thinking say i go introduce whole new collection of tests.",Computer science
"you're probably sick of hypothesis tests by now, and don't want to learn any new ones.","You probably tired of hypothesis tests by now, and you no wan learn any new ones.",Computer science
"the rst hypothesis test you might want to try is one in which the null hypothesis that there is no relationship between the predictors and the outcome, and the alternative hypothesis is that the data are distributed in exactly the way that the regression model predicts.","Di rst hypothesis test wey dey try na one for which di null idea say no how two things dey related di predictors and di outcome, and di other idea na say di data dey distributed for exactly di way wey di regression model predict.",Computer science
"formally, our ull model""corresponds to the fairly trivial egression"" model in which we include 0 predictors, and only include the intercept term b0 h0: yib0","Di ull model""correspond to di fairly trivial egression"" model wey we include 0 predictors, and only include di intercept term b0 h0",Computer science
"the trick is to understand that just like we did with anova, it's possible to divide up the total variance ss totinto the sum ofthe residual variance ssresand the regression model variance ss mod.","Di trick dey understand say just like we dey wit anova, e possible to divide up di total variance ss to di sum of di residual variance ssresand di regression model variance ss mod.",Computer science
"msmodssmod dfmod msresssres dfres so, how many degrees of freedom do we have?",How many things you fit adjust inside a system do we get?,Computer science
"as you might expect, the dfassociated with the model is closely tied to the number of predictors that we've included.",Di dfassociated wit di model dey closely tied to di number of predictors wey we dey include.,Computer science
"in fact, it turns out that dfmodk.",E turnout say dfmodk,Computer science
"for the residuals, the total degrees of freedom is dfresnk1.",Di total degree of freedom dey dfresnk1.,Computer science
"now that we've got our mean square values, you're probably going to be entirely unsurprised (possibly even bored)to discover that we can calculate an f-statistic like this: fmsmod msres and the degrees of freedom associated with this are kandnk1.",Di degree of freedom wey dey associated wit dis dey kandnk1.,Computer science
large fvalues indicate that the null hypothesis is performing poorly in comparison to the alternative hypothesis.,Di null idea dey perform poorly for compare to di other idea.,Computer science
"and since we already did some tedious\do it the long way""calculations back then, i won't waste your time repeating them.","Di already don do some tedious\do it di long way""calculation back then, i go waste your time repeat dem",Computer science
"in a moment i'll show you how to do the test in rthe easy way, but rst, let's have a look at the tests for the individual regression coecients.","I goto show you how to do di test for easy way, but first, let go make we look di tests for di individual regression coecients.",Computer science
"this is important: if your regression model doesn't produce a signi cant result for thef-test then you probably don't have avery good regression model(or, quite possibly, you don't have very good data).","If your regression model no produce signi cant result for dif-test, you probably don get good data",Computer science
"however, while failing this test is a pretty strong indicator that the model has problems, passing the test(i. e, rejecting the null)doesn't imply that the model is good!","Di test dey strong indicator say di model no get problems, pass di test(i. e, reject di null)no imply say di model dey good",Computer science
"why is that, you might be wondering?","Di why dey say, you go wonder?",Computer science
"given that these two variables are absolutely on the same scale(they're both measured in\hours slept""), i nd this suspicious.","Di suspicious wey dey given say dis two variables dey on di same scale(they dey measure for\hours slept""), i nd dis suspicious",Computer science
"in fact, i'm beginning to suspect that it's really only the amount of sleep that iget that matters in order to predict my grumpiness.",I begin to suspect say e only di amount of sleep wey i get say matters for order to predict my grumpiness.,Computer science
"once again, we can reuse a hypothesis test that we discussed earlier, this time the t-test.","We go reuse a hypothesis test wey we discuss earlier, dis time di t-test.",Computer science
"the test that we're interested has a null hypothesis that the true regression coecient is zero( b0), which is to be tested against the alternative hypothesis that it isn't( b0).","Di test wey we dey interested don get di null idea say di true regression coecient dey zero( b0), wey dey tested against di other idea say di true regression coecient no dey zero( b0).",Computer science
that is: h0: b0 h1: b0 how can we test this?,Na: h0: b0 h1: b0 how we test dis?,Computer science
"well, if the central limit theorem is kind to us, we might be able to guess that the sampling distribution of^b, the estimated regression coecient, is a normal distribution with mean centred onb.","If di central limit diorem dey kind to us, we go suppose guess say di sampling distribution of^b, di estimated regression coecient, dey di bell way wit mean centre onb.",Computer science
"what that would mean is that if the null hypothesis were true, then the sampling distribution of ^bhas mean zero and unknown standard deviation.","Wetin dat one go mean na sey if di null idea dey true, den di sampling distribution of\hat{b} go get mean zero and unknown howe dey spread.",Computer science
"assuming that we can come up with a good estimate for the standard error ofthe regression coecient, sep^bq, then we're in luck.","We dey suppose kom up wit good estimate for di standard error of di regression coecient, sep^bq, then we dey luck.",Computer science
"so let's de ne at-statistic like this, t^b sep^bq i'll skip over the reasons why, but our degrees of freedom in this case are dfnk1.","So let's dene at-statistic like dis, t^b sep^bq i go skip over di reasons why, but awa degree of freedom for dis case dey dfnk1.",Computer science
"in fact, the formula is somewhat ugly, and not terribly helpful to look at. 4for our purposes it's sucient to point out that the standard error ofthe estimated regression coecient depends on both the predictor and outcome variables, and is somewhat sensitive to violations ofthe homogeneity of variance assumption(discussed shortly).","Di purpose dey sucient to show say di standard error of di estimated regression coecient depend on both di predictor and outcome variables, and dey somewhat sensitive to violations of di homogeneity of variance assumption(discuss shortly).",Computer science
"assuming that you have a two-sided alternative(i. e, you don't really care if b0 orb 0), then it's the extreme values oft(i. e,","Di extreme values oft(i. e, you no dey care if b0 orb 0), then e dey di extreme values oft(i. e.",Computer science
alot less than zero or alot greater than zero)that suggest that you should reject the null hypothesis.,E suggest say you go reject di null idea.,Computer science
"since i've been using regression.2 as my example, let's do that:> summary(regression. 2)the output that this command produces is pretty dense, but we've already discussed everything of interest in it, so what i'll do is go through it line by line.","Di output wey dis command produce dey very dense, but we dey already discuss all of interest for am, so we go through am line by line.",Computer science
"the rst line reminds us of what the actual regression model is: call: lm(formula= dan. grump ~dan. sleep+ baby. sleep, data =parenthood) 4for advanced readers only.","Dem call: lm(formula= dan. grump ~dan. sleep, data =parenthood) 4for advanced readers only.",Computer science
the vector of residuals is yx^b.,Di vector of residuals dey yx^b,Computer science
"forkpredictors plus the intercept, the estimated residual variance is ^ 21{pnk1q.",Di residual variance dey^ 21{pnk1q,Computer science
"the estimated covariance matrix ofthe coecients is ^ 2px1xq1, the main diagonal of which is sep^bq, our estimated standard errors.","Di estimated covariance matrix of di coecients dey^ 2px1xq1, di main diagonal of which dey sep^bq, di main diagonal of which dey sep^bq, wey dey estimated standard errors.",Computer science
"the next part provides a quick summary ofthe residuals (i. e, the ivalues), residuals: min 1q median 3q max-11. 0345 -2. 2198 -0. 4016 2. 6775 11. 7496 which can be convenient as a quick and dirty check that the model is okay.","Di next part give small summary of residuals (di ei values): Residuals: Min= -11.0345, 1Q = -2.2198, Median= -0.4016, 3Q = 2.6775, Max= 11.7496. Dis one fit dey useful as quick and dirty check sey di model dey okay.",Computer science
"remember, we did assume that these residuals were normally distributed, with mean 0.","We don assume say dis residuals dey normally distributed, wit mean 0",Computer science
"in particular it's worth quickly checking to see if the median is close to zero, and to see if the rst quartile is about the same size as the third quartile.","Di worth quickly check to see if di median dey close to zero, and to see if di rst quartile dey about di same size as di third quartile",Computer science
"if they look badly o, there's a good chance that the assumptions of regression are violated.",E dey good chance say di assumption of regression dey violated,Computer science
"these ones look pretty nice tome, so let's move onto the interesting stu.","Dis ones look fine tome, so make we move onto di interesting stuff.",Computer science
the next part ofthe routput looks at the coecients ofthe regression model: coefficients: estimate std.,"Di next part of di R output make we look di coefficients of di regression model: Coefficients: Estimate, Std. Error, t value, Pr(>t).",Computer science
"the rst row is the intercept term, and the later ones look at each ofthe predictors.","Di rst row dey di intercept term, and di later ones make we look each of di predictors.",Computer science
the columns give you all ofthe relevant information.,Di columns give you all di important information.,Computer science
"the rst column is the actual estimate of b(e. g,",Di rst column dey di actual estimate of b(e. g.,Computer science
the second column is the standard error estimate^ b.,Di second up-down dey di standard error estimate,Computer science
"the third column gives you thet-statistic, and it's worth noticing that in this table t^b{sep^bqevery time.","Di third up-down give you dit-statistic, and e worth noticing say for dis table t^b{sep^bqevery time.",Computer science
"finally, the fourth column gives you the actual pvalue for each of these tests. 5the only thing that the table itself doesn't list is the degrees of freedom used in the t-test, which is always nk1 and is listed immediately below, in this line: residual standard error:4. 354 on 97 degrees of freedom the value of df97 is equal to nk1, so that's what we use for our t-tests.","Di fourth column give you di actual pvalue for di t-test, wey dey always nk1 and dey list immediately below, for dis line: residual standard error:4. 354 on 97 how many things you fit adjust inside a system wey dey use for awa t-test.",Computer science
"however, when we look backup at the t-tests for each ofthe individual coecients, we have pretty strong evidence that the baby. sleep variable has no signi cant eect; all the work is being done by the dan. sleep variable.","We dey look backup for di t-tests for each of di individual coecients, we get strong evidence say di baby. sleep variable no fit eect; all di work dey done by di dan. sleep variable.",Computer science
"taken together, these results suggest that regression.2 is actually the wrong model for the data: you'd probably be better o dropping the baby. sleep predictor entirely.",Di results suggest say regression.,Computer science
"in other words, the regression.1 model that we started with is the better model.",Di model wey we start wit na di better model,Computer science
these are standard one-sample t-tests with a two-sided alternative.,Dem dey standard one-sample t-test wit two-sided alternative.,Computer science
"if you want to make corrections for multiple tests, you need to do that yourself.","If you wan make corrections for multiple tests, you need to do dat one yourself.",Computer science
what this means is that the hypothesis tests that i just described in a regression context can also be applied to correlation coecients.,Di hypothesis tests wey i described for regression context don also apply to correlation coecients.,Computer science
"now let's compare this to the output of a dierent function, which goes by the name of cor. test().","Dem compare dis to di output of di dierent function, wey go by di name of cor. test().",Computer science
"as you might expect, this function runs a hypothesis test to see if the observed correlation between two variables is signi cantly dierent from 0.",Di function run a hypothesis test to see if di observed correlation between two variables dey signi cantly diat from 0.,Computer science
"looks like it's exactly the same test, doesn't it?","E look like di same test, doesn't e?",Computer science
and that's exactly-470- what it is.,E dey exactly-470- wey dey.,Computer science
the test for the signi cance of a correlation is identical to the ttest that we run on a coecient in a regression model.,Di test for di signi cance of correlation dey identical to di ttest wey we run on coecient for regression model.,Computer science
"however, thecor() function isn't restricted to computing a single correlation: you can use it to compute allpairwise correlations among the variables in your dataset.",Dicor() function no dey restrict to computing single correlations wey dey among di variables for your group of related numbers or data wey belong together.,Computer science
this leads people to the natural question: can the cor. test()function do the same thing?,Dis one make pipo ask natural question: di cor. test() function fit do di same thing?,Computer science
can we use cor. test()to run hypothesis tests for all possible parwise correlations among the variables in a data frame?,We fit use cor. test() to run hypothesis tests for all possible pairwise correlations among di variables for one kind of table?,Computer science
"the answer is no, and there's avery good reason for this.","Di answer no, and na very good reason for dis",Computer science
testing a single correlation is ne: if you've got some reason to be asking\is a related to b?,If you go get some reason to be asking\is related to b?,Computer science
""", then you should absolutely run a test to see if there's a signi cant correlation.",Di test go see if signi cant correlation,Computer science
"but if you've got variables a, b, c, d and e and you're thinking about testing the correlations among all possible pairs of these, a statistician would want to ask: what's your hypothesis?","If you go get variables a, b, c, d and e, you go think about testing di correlation among all possible pairs of dis, a statistician go wan ask: what's your hypothesis? but if you go get variables a, b, c, d and e and you go think about testing di correlation among all possible pairs of dis, a statistician go ask: what's your hypothesis?",Computer science
"if you're in the position of wanting to test all possible pairs of variables, then you're pretty clearly on a shing expedition, hunting around in search of signi cant eects when you don't actually have a clear research hypothesis in mind.","Di position of waning to test all possible pairs of variables, then you go get clear research hypothesis for mind.",Computer science
"this is dangerous, and the authors of cor. test()obviously felt that they didn't want to support that kind of behaviour.",Di authors of cor. test() tok say dem no fit support dat kind of behaviour.,Computer science
"when running post hoc tests, we didn't have any speci c comparisons in mind, so what we did was apply a correction(e. g, bonferroni, holm, etc)in order to avoid the possibility of an in ated type i error rate.","When we dey run post hoc tests, we no get specific comparisons for mind, so wetin we do nato apply correction(e. g, Bonferroni, Holm, etc)so dat we go avoid possibility of inflated Type I error rate.",Computer science
"from this perspective, it's okay to run hypothesis tests on all your pairwise correlations, but you must treat them as post hoc analyses, and if so you need to apply a correction for multiple comparisons.","From dis perspective, e dey okay to run hypothesis tests for all your pairwise correlations, but you must treat dem as post hoc analyses, and if so, you need to apply correction for multiple comparisons.",Computer science
that's what the correlate()function in the lsrpackage does.,Di correlate()function for di lsrpackage does.,Computer science
but you can get it to output the results of all the pairwise tests aswell by specifying test=true.,But you fit get am to output di results of all di pairwise tests aswell by specifying test=true,Computer science
first it prints out the correlation matrix.,E to write for screen di correlation matrix,Computer science
"second it prints out a matrix of p-values, using the holm method6to correct for multiple comparisons.","Second, e print matrix of p-values, using di Holm method to correct for multiple comparisons.",Computer science
"finally, it prints out a matrix indicating the sample size(number of pairwise complete cases)that contributed to each correlation.",E to write for screen matrix wey dey indicating di sample size(number of pairwise complete case) wey contribute to each correlation.,Computer science
so there you have it.,As you go get am,Computer science
"if you really desperately want to do pairwise hypothesis tests on your correlations, thecorrelate() function will let you do it.",Dicorrelate() function go let you do am.,Computer science
"but please, please be careful.",E dey careful,Computer science
"for some reason, the moment people see those little signi cance stars appear, they feel compelled to throw away all common sense and assume that the results must correspond to something real that requires an explanation.","For some reason, di moment pipo see those little signi cance stars appear, dem feel compelled to throw away all common sense and assume say di result must correspond to something real wey dey require explanation.",Computer science
"in most such cases, my experience has been that the right answer is\it's a type i error"".","Di experience don been say di right answer na\it's type i error"".",Computer science
"the rst thing to talk about is calculating con dence intervals for the coecients; after that, i'll discuss the somewhat murky question of how to determine which of predictor is most important.","I go discuss di somewhat murky question of how to determine con dence intervals for di coecients; after dat, i go discuss di somewhat murky question of how to determine which of predictor dey important.",Computer science
"given this, it's quite useful to be able to report con dence intervals that capture our uncertainty about the true value of b.",E dey useful to report con dence intervals wey dey capture awa uncertainty about di true value of b.,Computer science
"this is especially useful when the research question focuses heavily on an attempt to nd out how strongly variable x is related to variable y, since in those situations the interest is primarily in the regression weight b.","Di research question focus heavily on di attempt to nd out how strongly variable x dey related to variable y, since for dis situation di interest dey primarily for di regression weight b.",Computer science
"for instance, if it's a 95%con dence interval that we want, then the critical value is the 97. 5th quantile of a tdistribution with nk1 degrees of freedom.",Di critical value dey di 97. 5th quantile of tdistribution wit nk1 degree of freedom.,Computer science
"in other words, this is basically the same approach to calculating con dence intervals that we've used throughout.",E dey basically di same approach to calculating con dence intervals wey we use throughout.,Computer science
to do this inrwe can use the confint() function.,Di confint() function go use di confint() function,Computer science
there arguments to this function are object.,Di arguments to dis function dey object.,Computer science
the regression model( lmobject) for which con dence intervals are required.,Di regression model( lmobject) wey con dence intervals dey required.,Computer science
a vector indicating which coecients we should calculate intervals for.,Di vector wey dey indicating wich coecients we go calculate intervals for.,Computer science
this can be either a vector of numbers or(more usefully) a character vector containing variable names.,Di can be either one group of numbers or(more usefully) character vector wey dey containing dem name wey dey represent figure wey fit change for kompyuta program,Computer science
"by default, all coecients are included, so usually you don't bother specifying this argument.","Di argument dey default, all coecients dey included, so usually you no dey bother specifying dis argument.",Computer science
a number indicating the con dence level that should be used.,Di con dence level wey suppose use,Computer science
"as is usually the case, the default value is 0. 95, so you wouldn't usually need to specify this argument.","Di normal number dey 0. 95, so you no need to specify dis argument.",Computer science
"so, suppose i want 99%con dence intervals for the coecients in the regression.2 model.","Di model, suppose i wan 99%con dence intervals for di coecients for di regression",Computer science
the rationale behind standardised coecients goes like this.,Di rationale wey standardised coecients go like dis.,Computer science
"in alot of situations, your variables are on fundamentally dierent scales.",Di variables dey on fundamentally dierent scales.,Computer science
"suppose, for example, my regression model aims to predict people's iq scores, using their educational attainment(number of years of education)and their income as predictors.","suppose for example, my regression model dey try to predict pipo IQ scores, using dia educational attainment(how many years dem go school)and dia income as predictors.",Computer science
"obviously, educational attainment and income are not on the same scales: the number of years of schooling can only vary by 10s of years, whereas income would vary by 10, 000s of dollars(or more).","Obviously, educational attainment and income no dey di same scale: number of years for school fit only change by tens of years, but income fit change by tens of thousands of dollars(or more).",Computer science
"the units of measurement have a big in uence on the regression coecients: the b coecients only make sense when interpreted in light ofthe units, both ofthe predictor variables and the outcome variable.","Di b coecients only make sense wen interpret for light of di unit, both of di predictor variables and di outcome variable.",Computer science
this makes it very dicult to compare the coecients of dierent predictors.,Dis one make am very hard to compare di coefficients of different predictors.,Computer science
yet there are situations where you really do want to make comparisons between dierent coecients.,Di situation wey you go wan make comparisons between dierent coecients.,Computer science
"speci cally, you might want some kind of standard measure of which predictors have the strongest relationship to the outcome.",Di standard measure of which predictors don get strong relationship to di outcome.,Computer science
this is what standardised coecients aim to do.,Dina what standardised coecients aim to do.,Computer science
"the basic idea is quite simple: the standardised coecients are the coecients that you would have obtained if you'd converted all the variables to z-scores before running the regression. 7the idea here 7strictly, you standardise all the regressors: that is, every hing"" that has a regression coecient associated with it in the model.","Di idea here 7strictly, you standardise all di coecients na di coecients wey you fit get if you convert all di variables to Z-scores before running di regression.",Computer science
"for the regression models that i've talked about so far, each predictor variable maps onto exactly one regressor, and vice versa.","I dey talk about so far, each predictor variable maps onto exactly one regressor, and vice versa.",Computer science
"but for now, we don't need to care too much about this distinction.","We no need care too much about dis distinction but for now, we no need care too much about dis distinction.",Computer science
"regardless of what the original variables were, a value of 1 means that an increase in the predictor of 1 standard deviation will produce a corresponding 1 standard deviation increase in the outcome variable.","Di original variables dey regardless of what di original variables dey, value of 1 mean say di increase for di predictor of 1 howe dey spread go produce corresponding 1 howe dey spread increase for di outcome variable.",Computer science
"therefore, if variable a has a larger absolute value of than variable b, it is deemed to have a stronger relationship with the outcome.","If variable a get larger di distance wey number dey from zero for number line, no matter whether e be positive or negative, we dey call am absolute value, but for pidgin, we fit say 'distance from zero', or 'how far number reach from zero' of than variable b, e dey deemed to get strong relationship wit di outcome.",Computer science
"or atleast that's the idea: it's worth being a little cautious here, since this does rely very heavily on the assumption that 1 standard deviation change""is fundamentally the same kind of thing for all variables.","E dey worth being cautious here, since dis don rely very heavily on di assumption say 1 howe dey spread change""dey fundamentally di same kind of thing for all variables.",Computer science
it's not always obvious that this is true.,E no always obvious say dis dey true,Computer science
"leaving aside the interpretation issues, let's look at how it's calculated.","Di interpretation issues, let make we look howe dey calculated",Computer science
"what you could do is standardise all the variables yourself and then run a regression, but there's a much simpler way to do it.","Di simple way wey you go do na standardise all di variables yourself and then run a regression, but na much simple way to do am",Computer science
"as it turns out, the coecient for a predictor xand outcome yhas avery simple formula, namely xbxx y wherexis the standard deviation ofthe predictor, and yis the standard deviation ofthe outcome variabley.","As e turnout, di coefficient for predictor X and outcome Y get very simple formula: b* x=bx* (σ x σ y), where σ x na di howe dey spread of di predictor, and σ y na di howe dey spread of di outcome variable Y.",Computer science
this makes matters alot simpler.,Di make matters alot simpler,Computer science
"to make things even simpler, the lsrpackage includes a function standardcoefs() that computes the coecients.",Di lsrpackage includes function standardcoefs() wey compute di coecients.,Computer science
"however, this is a perfect example of a situation where it would probably make sense to use the original coecients brather than the standardised coecients.",Di perfect example of a situation wey dem go make sense to use di original coecients brather than di standardised coecients.,Computer science
"after all, my sleep and the baby's sleep are already on the same scale: number of hours slept.",Di sleep and di baby sleep dey already on di same scale: number of hours sleep,Computer science
why complicate matters by converting these to z-scores?,Why we go complicate matters by converting dis ones to Z-scores?,Computer science
"like half the models in statistics, standard linear regression relies on an assumption of normality.","Like half of di models for statistics, standard linear regression rely on assumption of bell shape.",Computer science
"speci cally, it assumes that the residuals are normally distributed.",E assume say di residuals dey normally distributed.,Computer science
"it's actually okay if the predictors xand the outcome yare non-normal, so long as the residuals are normal.","Di predictors xand di outcome no-normal, so long as di residuals dey normal.",Computer science
a pretty fundamental assumption ofthe linear regression model is that relationship betweenxandyactually be linear!,Di fundamental assumption of di linear regression model na say relationship betweenxandy actually be linear!,Computer science
"regardless of whether it's a simple regression or a multiple regression, we assume that the relatiships involved are linear.",We assume say di relatiships wey dey involved dey linear,Computer science
homogeneity of variance.,Homogeneity of variance.,Computer science
"strictly speaking, the regression model assumes that each residual iis generated from a normal distribution with mean 0, and (more importantly for the current purposes)with a standard deviation that is the same for every single residual.","Di regression model assum say each residual iis generate from di bell way wit mean 0, and (more importantly for di current purpose)wit howe dey spread wey dey di same for every single residual.",Computer science
"in practice, it's impossible to test the assumption that every residual is identically distributed.",Di impossible to test di assumption say every residual dey identically distributed,Computer science
"instead, what we care about is that the standard deviation ofthe residual is the same for all values of^y, and(if we're being especially paranoid)all values of every predictor xin the model.","We care about na say di howe dey spread of di residual dey di same for all values of^y, and(if we dey especially paranoid)all values of every predictor wen di model.",Computer science
"the idea here is that, is a multiple regression model, you don't want your predictors to be too strongly correlated with eachother.","Di idea here na say, na multiple regression model, you don wan your predictors to be too strongly correlated wit each oda.",Computer science
"this isn't echnically"" an assumption ofthe regression model, but in practice it's required.","Dis no dey echnically"" an assumption of di regression model, but for real life e dey required",Computer science
"predictors that are too strongly correlated with eachother (referred to as \collinearity"") can cause problems when evaluating the model.","Di predictors wey dey too strongly correlated wit each oda(dem dey call \collinearity"") don cause problems wey evaluate di model.",Computer science
"this is really just a\catch all""assumption, to the eect that here's nothing else funny going on in the residuals"".","Dis na just a catch all""assumption, to di eect say here no dey funny going on for di residuals",Computer science
"if there is something weird(e. g, the residuals all depend heavily on some other unmeasured variable)going on, it might screw things up.","E. g, di residuals all depend heavily on some oda unmeasured variable)going on, e go screw things up.",Computer science
"no ad"" outliers.","Nano ad"" outliers.",Computer science
"again, not actually a technical assumption ofthe model(or rather, it's sort of implied by all the others), but there is an implicit assumption that your regression model isn't being too strongly in uenced by one or two anomalous data points; since this raises questions about the adequacy ofthe model, and the trustworthiness ofthe data in some cases.","But no actually technical assumption of di model(or rather, e dey sort of implied by all di odas), but e dey implicit assumption say your regression model no dey too strongly for uenced by one or two anomalous data points; since dis rais questions about di adequacy of di model, and di trustworthiness of di data for some cases.",Computer science
"it's easy to get lost in all the details of checking this thing or that thing, and it's quite exhausting to try to remember what all the dierent things are.","E dey easy to get lost for all di details of checkin dis thing or dat thing, and e dey quite exhausting to try to remember what all di dierent things dey.",Computer science
"this has the very nasty side eect that alot of people get frustrated when trying to learn allthe tools, so instead they decide not to do anymodel checking.","Di very nasty side eect say alot of pipo get frustrated wen dey try learn all di tools, so instead dem decide no do anymodel checking.",Computer science
this is a bit of a worry!,Dina bit of a worry,Computer science
"it doesn't cover the full space of things you could do, but it's still much more detailed than what i see alot of people doing in practice; and i don't usually cover all of this in my intro stats class myself.",I no cover all of dis for my intro stats class myself; and i no cover all of dis for my intro stats class myself.,Computer science
"however, i do think it's important that you get a sense of what tools are at your disposal, so i'll try to introduce a bunch of them here.","I go think e important say you go get sense of what tools dey for your disposal, so i go try to introduce bunch of dem here.",Computer science
"the car package is notable for providing some excellent tools for regression diagnostics, and the book itself talks about them in an admirably clear fashion.","Di car package dey notable for providing some excellent tools for regression diagnostics, and di book dey talk about dem for admirably clear fashion.",Computer science
the ordinary residual is just the dierence between the tted value ^yiand the observed value yi.,Di ordinary residual dey just di dierence between di tted value ^yiand di observed value yi.,Computer science
"i've been using the notation ito refer to the i-th ordinary residual, and by gum i'm going to stick to it.","I dey use di notation ito to talk about di i-th ordinary residual, and by gum i goto hold onto am",Computer science
"with this in mind, we have the very simple equation iyi^yi this is ofcourse what we saw earlier, and unless i speci cally refer to some other kind of residual, this is the one i'm talking about.","We get di simple equationiyi^yi dis dey ofcourse wey we saw earlier, and unless i speci cally to talk about some oda kind of residual, dis na di one wey we dey tok about.",Computer science
so there's nothing new here: i just wanted to repeat myself.,So nothing new dey here: I just wan repeat myself.,Computer science
"in any case, you can get rto output a vector of ordinary residuals, you can use a command like this:> residuals( object= regression.2) one drawback to using ordinary residuals is that they're always on a dierent scale, depending on what the outcome variable is and how good the regression model is.","One drawback to use ordinary residuals na say dem dey always on a dierent scale, based on how di outcome variable dey and how good di regression model dey.",Computer science
"that is, unless you've decided to run a regression model without an intercept term, the ordinary residuals will have mean 0; but the variance is dierent for every regression.","Na, unless you decide to run regression model without intercept term, di ordinary residuals go mean 0 but di variance dey dierent for every regression.",Computer science
"in alot of contexts, especially where you're only interested in the pattern ofthe residuals and not their actual values, it's convenient to estimate the standardised residuals, which are normalised in such away as to have standard deviation 1.",E dey convenient to estimate di standardised residuals wey dey normalised for such away as to get howe dey spread 1.,Computer science
the way we calculate these is to divide the ordinary residual by an estimate ofthe (population)standard deviation of these residuals.,Di way we dey calculate dis dey divide di ordinary residual by estimate of di(population) howe dey spread of dis residuals.,Computer science
"for technical reasons, mumble mumble, the formula for this is:1 ii^? 1hi where^in this context is the estimated population standard deviation ofthe ordinary residuals, and hi is the\hat value""of the ith observation.","For technical reasons, mumble, di formula for dis na:1 ii wia di estimated di spread for all di pipo of di ordinary residuals, and hi na di\hat value""of di ith observation.",Computer science
"for now, it's enough to interpret the standardised residuals as if we'd converted the ordinary residuals to z-scores.",Di standardised residuals as if we convert di ordinary residuals to Z-scores.,Computer science
"in fact, that is more or less the truth, it's just that we're being a bit fancier.","Di truth dey more or less di truth, na just say we dey being fancier",Computer science
"to get the standardised residuals, the command you want is this:> rstandard( model= regression.2) note that this function uses a dierent name for the input argument, but it's still just a linear regression object that the function wants to take as its input here.","Di function dey use di dierent name for di input argument, but e still just a linear regression object wey di function wan to take as im input here.",Computer science
"the third kind of residuals are studentised residuals (also called \jackknifed residuals"") and they're even fancier than standardised residuals.","Di third kind of residuals dey studentised residuals (also called \jackknifed residuals"") and dem even fancier than standardised residuals.",Computer science
"again, the idea is to take the ordinary residual and divide it by some quantity in order to estimate some standardised notion ofthe residual, but the formula for doing the calculations this time is subtly dierent: ii ^piq? 1hi notice that our estimate ofthe standard deviation here is written^ piq.",Di idea dey take di ordinary residual and divide am by some quantity for order to estimate some standardised notion of di residual.,Computer science
"what this corresponds to is the estimate ofthe residual standard deviation that you would have obtained, if you just deleted the ith observation from the dataset.","Di estimate of di residual howe dey spread wey you go get, if you just deleted di ith observation from di group of related numbers or data wey belong together.",Computer science
"this sounds like the sort of thing that would be a nightmare to calculate, since it seems to be saying that you have to run nnew regression models(even a modern computer might grumble a bit at that, especially if you've got a large dataset).","Dis sounds like di sort of thing wey dey nightmare to calculate, since e seem say you go run nnew regression models(especially if you go get large group of related numbers or data wey belong together).",Computer science
"fortunately, some terribly clever person has shown that this standard deviation estimate is actually given by the following equation: ^piq^d nk11 i2 nk2 isn't that a pip?",Dem show say di howe dey spread estimate dey given by di following equation: ^piq^d nk11 i2 nk2 na pipo,Computer science
"anyway, the command that you would use if you wanted to pull out the studentised residuals for our regression model is 8or have no hope, as the case maybe.","Di command wey you use if you fit pull out di studentised residuals for our regression model dey 8or no hope, as di case maybe.",Computer science
"the dotted lines plot the regression line that would have been estimated without the anomalous observation included, and the corresponding residual(i. e, the studentised residual).","Di dotted line plot di regression line wey go dey estimated without di anomalous observation included, and di corresponding residual(i. e, di studentised residual).",Computer science
the solid line shows the regression line with the anomalous observation included.,Di one line wey no cut show di regression line wit di anomalous observation included.,Computer science
"the outlier hasan unusual value on the outcome(y axis location)but not the predictor(x axis location), and lies along way from the regression line.","Di outlier get unusual value for di outcome(Y-axis location)but not for di predictor(X-axis location), and e dey far from di regression line.",Computer science
"that is, the residuals(), rstandard() and rstudent() functions are all useful to know about, but most ofthe time the various functions that run the diagnostics will take care of these calculations for you.","Di residuals(), rstandard() and rstudent() functions dey all e good to know about, but most of di time di various functions wey run di diagnostics go take care of dis calculations for you.",Computer science
"even so, it's always nice to know how to actually get hold of these things yourself in case you ever need to do something non-standard.",Di always nice to know how to get hold of dis things yourself for case you no need to do something non-standard.,Computer science
"in the context of linear regression, there are three conceptually distinct ways in which an observation might be called nomalous"".","Di context of linear regression, na three conceptually distinct ways wey dem dey call nomalous"".",Computer science
"all three are interesting, but they have rather dierent implications for your analysis.","Di three dey interesting, but dem don dey rather dierent implications for your analysis.",Computer science
the rst kind of unusual observation is an outlier.,Di rst kind of unusual observation na outlier.,Computer science
the de nition of an outlier (in this context)is an observation that is very dierent from what the regression model predicts.,Di de nition of outlier (in dis context)na observation wey dey very dierent from what di regression model predict.,Computer science
an example is shown in figure 15. 5.,Di example dey show for figure 15.,Computer science
"in practice, we operationalise this concept by saying that an outlier is an observation that-477- predictoroutcomehigh leveragefigure 15. 6: an illustration of high leverage points.","For practice, we define dis concept by saying sey outlier na observation wey. Figure 15.6: example of high leverage points.",Computer science
"the anomalous observation in this case is unusual both in terms ofthe predictor(x axis)and the outcome(y axis), but this unusualness is highly consistent with the pattern of correlations that exists among the other observations; as a consequence, the observation falls very close to the regression line and does not distort it.","Di anomalous observation for dis case dey unusual both for terms of di predictor(x axis)and di outcome(y axis), but dis unusualness dey highly consistent wit di pattern of correlation wey exist among di oda observations; as result, di observation dey close to di regression line and no dey distort am.",Computer science
"has avery large studentised residual, i. outliers are interesting: a big outlier might correspond to junk data{ e. g, the variables might have been entered incorrectly, or some other defect maybe detectable.","Di big outlier go correspond to junk data{ e. g, di variables go dey enter incorrectly, or some oda defect go detectable.",Computer science
note that you shouldn't throw an observation away just because it's an outlier.,Di note say you no go throw an observation away just because e dey outlier.,Computer science
"but the fact that it's an outlier is often a cue to look more closely at that case, and try to nd out why it's so dierent.","Di fact say e dey outlier dey often a cue to look more closely for dat case, and try to nd out why e so dierent.",Computer science
the second way in which an observation can be unusual is if it has high leverage: this happens when the observation is very dierent from all the other observations.,Di second way wey di observation go dey unusual na if e get high leverage: dis happen when di observation no be unusual na if e get high leverage,Computer science
"this doesn't necessarily have to correspond to a large residual: if the observation happens to be unusual on all variables in precisely the same way, it can actually lie very close to the regression line.","If di observation dey unusual on all variables for precisely di same way, e fit lie very close to di regression line.",Computer science
an example of this is shown in figure 15. 6.,Di example of dis dey show for figure 15. 6.6.,Computer science
"the leverage of an observation is operationalised in terms of its hat value, usually written hi.","Di leverage of an observation dey operationalised for terms of its hat value, usually written hin.",Computer science
"the formula for the hat value is rather complicated9but its interpretation is not: hiis a measure ofthe extent to which thei-th observation is\in control""of where the regression line ends up going.","Hins measure of di extent wey dii-th observation dey\in control""of where di regression line end up going",Computer science
"the name comes from the fact that this is the matrix that\puts a hat on y"".","Di name kom from di fact say dis na di matrix wey dey put hat on y"".",Computer science
the hat value of thei-th observation is the i-th diagonal element of this matrix(so technically i should be writing it as hiirather than hi).,Di hat value of dii-th observation na di i-th diagonal element of dis matrix(so technically i go write am as hinrather than hin).,Computer science
"oh, and in case you care, here's how it's calculated: hxpx1xq1x1.",E dey calculated: hxpx1xq1x1.,Computer science
"pretty, isn't it?","E no dey pretty, e no dey",Computer science
"in this case, the anomalous observation is highly unusual on the predictor variable(x axis), and falls along way from the regression line.","Di anomalous observation dey highly unusual on di predictor variable(x axis), and falls long way from di regression line.",Computer science
"as a consequence, the regression line is highly distorted, even though(in this case)the anomalous observation is entirely typical in terms ofthe outcome variable(y axis).","Di regression line dey highly distorted, even though(in dis case)di anomalous observation dey entirely typical for terms of di outcome variable(y axis).",Computer science
average; and note that the sum ofthe hat values is constrained to be equal to k,Dem note say di sum of di hat value dey constrained to be equal to k,Computer science
"high leverage points are also worth looking at in more detail, but they're much less likely to be a cause for concern unless they are also outliers.","Di high leverage points dey also worth looking for more detail, but dem no dey likely to because for concern unless dem dey outliers.",Computer science
"this brings us to our third measure of unusualness, the in uence of an observation.",Dis one bring us to our third measure of unusualness: di influence of one observation.,Computer science
a high in uence observation is an outlier that has high leverage.,Di high for uence observation na outlier wey get high leverage.,Computer science
"that is, it is an observation that is very dierent to all the other ones in some respect, and also lies along way from the regression line.","Di observation wey dey, na very dierent to all di oda ones for some respect, and also lies long way from di regression line.",Computer science
this is illustrated in figure 15. 7.,E dey illustrate for figure 15. 7.7.,Computer science
"notice the contrast to the previous two gures: outliers don't move the regression line much, and neither do high leverage points.","Notice di difference from di two previous figures: outliers no move di regression line plenty, and high leverage points sef no move am plenty.",Computer science
but something that is an outlier and has high leverage. that has a big eect on the regression line.,But something wey dey outlier and dey high leverage na big eect on di regression line,Computer science
that's why we call these points high in uence; and it's why they're the biggest worry.,Na why we call these points high for uence; and na why dem dey di biggest worry.,Computer science
"we operationalise in uence in terms of a measure known as cook's distance, di i2 k","We operationalise for uence for terms of measure wey dey known as cook distance, di i2 k2 k",Computer science
"in other words, in order to have a large cook's distance, an observation must be a fairly substantial outlier andhave high leverage.","For other words, to get big Cook's distance, observation must be substantial outlier and get high leverage.",Computer science
"in a stunning turn of events, you can obtain these values using the following command:> cooks. distance(model =regression. 2)-479- as a rough guide, cook's distance greater than 1 is often considered large(that's what i typically use as a quick and dirty rule), though a quick scan ofthe internet and a few papers suggests that 4 {nhas also been suggested as a possible rule of thumb.","As rough guide, cooks. distance(model =regression. 2)-479- as rough guide, cook's distance pass, as in one thing pass anoda, for example, if u get 10 naira and v get 5 naira, u pass v1 dey consider large(that's wey i typically use as quick and dirty rule), though a quick scan of di internet and a few paper suggest say 4 {n dey suggest say 4 {n dey suggest as possible rule of thumb.",Computer science
"as hinted above, you don't usually need to make use of these functions, since you can have rautomatically draw the critical plots. 10for the regression.2 model, these are the plots showing cook's distance(figure 15. 8)and the more detailed breakdown showing the scatter plot ofthe studentised residual against leverage(figure 15. 9).","Di model, di plot wey dey show cook distance(figure 15.8) and di more detailed breakdown show di scatter plot of di studentised residual against leverage(figure 15.9).",Computer science
"to draw these, we can use the plot()function.",We go use di plot()function,Computer science
"when the main argument xto this function is a linear model object, it will draw one of six dierent plots, each of which is quite useful for doing regression diagnostics.","Di name wey you give xto dis function dey linear model object, e go draw one of six dierent plots, each of which dey useful for doing regression diagnostics.",Computer science
you specify which one you want using the which argument(a number between 1 and 6).,Dem specify which one you wan use di which argument(a number between 1 and 6).,Computer science
if you don't do this then rwill draw all six.,If you don do dis then rwill draw all six,Computer science
"as always, there's no hard and fast rules.",Nano hard and fast rules.,Computer science
probably the rst thing to do is to try running the regression with that point excluded and see what happens to the model performance and to the regression coecients.,Di rst thing to do nato try run di regression wit dat point excluded and see what happen to di model performance and to di regression coecients.,Computer science
"if they really are substantially dierent, it's time to start digging into your dataset and your notes that you no doubt were scribbling as your ran your study; try to gure out whythe point is so dierent.",Di time to start digging into your group of related numbers or data wey belong together and your notes say you without question dey scribbling as your ran your study; try to gure out why di point dey so dierent.,Computer science
"if you start to become convinced that this one data point is badly distorting your results, you might consider excluding it, but that's less than ideal unless you have a solid explanation for why this particular case is qualitatively dierent from the others and therefore deserves to be handled separately.11 to give an example, let's delete the observation from day 64, the observation with the largest cook's distance for the regression.2 model.","If you start to believe sey dis one data point dey spoil your results well, you fit think to remove am, but dat one no ideal unless you go get strong explanation why dis particular case dey different from di others and so e deserve to dey handled separately. for example, make we delete di observation from day 64, wey get di biggest Cook's distance for regression model.",Computer science
"in other words, we really don't have any problem as far as anomalous data are concerned.",We no get any problem as for anomalous data dey concerned.,Computer science
"in this case, we assume that the residuals are normally distributed.",We assume say di residuals dey normally distributed.,Computer science
"firstly, i rmly 10though special mention should be made ofthe influenceindexplot() and influenceplot() functions in the carpackage.","First, I strongly think sey special mention suppose make for di influenceIndexPlot() and influencePlot() functions for di car package.",Computer science
these produce somewhat more detailed pictures than the default plots that i've shown here.,E produce somewhat more detailed pictures than di default plots wey i show here,Computer science
there's also an outliertest() function that tests to see if any ofthe studentised residuals are signi cantly larger than would be expected by chance.,Di outliertest() function wey test to see if any dey of di studentised residuals dey signi cantly larger than expected by chance.,Computer science
numbercook's distance lm(dan. grump ~dan. sleep+ baby. sleep)cook's distance 64 85 27figure 15. 8: cook's distance for every observation.,"Number, Cook's distance for lm(dan. grump ~ dan. sleep + baby. sleep). Figure 15.8: Cook's distance for every observation.",Computer science
this is one ofthe standard regression plots produced by the plot()function when the input is a linear regression object.,Di standard regression plot wey dey produce by di plot()function wen di input dey linear regression object.,Computer science
it is obtained by setting which=4.,E dey obtained by setting which=4.,Computer science
it is obtained by setting which=5.,E dey obtained by setting which=5.,Computer science
"these residuals look very close to being normally distributed, much moreso than is typically seen with real data.","Di residuals look close to being normally distributed, much moreso than dey typically seen wit real data.",Computer science
"this shouldn't surprise you. they aren't real data, and they aren't real residuals!","Dem no surprise you, dem no dey real data, and dem no dey real residuals",Computer science
it is obtained by setting which=2.,E dey obtained by setting wich=2,Computer science
believe that it never hurts to draw an old fashioned histogram.,E no dey hurt to draw old fashioned hintogram,Computer science
"as a third measure, we might also want to draw a qq-plot using theqqnorm() function.",We go also wan to draw qq-plot using diqqnorm() function.,Computer science
"the qq plot is an excellent one to draw, and so you might not be surprised to discover that it's one ofthe regression plots that we can produce using the plot()function: >plot( x=regression. 2, which =2)#figure 15. 11 the output is shown in figure 15. 11, showing the standardised residuals plotted as a function of their theoretical quantiles according to the regression model.","Di output dey show for figure 15. 11, show di standardised residuals wey we fit produce based on dia theoretical quantiles according to di regression model",Computer science
the fact that the output appends the model speci cation to the picture is nice.,Di fact say di output append di model speci cation to di picture dey nice.,Computer science
a straight line is what we're hoping to see here.,Di straight line dey we go see here,Computer science
"this looks pretty good, suggesting that there's nothing grossly wrong, but there could be hidden subtle issues.","Di look good, suggest say nothing grossly wrong, but e go hide subtle issues.",Computer science
there's a few dierent things that you might want to doin order to check this.,Di few dierent things wey you go wan to do for order to check dis,Computer science
"firstly, it never hurts to just plot the relationship between the tted values ^yiand the observed values yifor the outcome variable, as illustrated in figure 15. 12.","E no dey hurt to just plot di how two things dey related di tted values ^yiand di observed values yifor di outcome variable, as dey illustrated for figure 15.",Computer science
to draw this we could use the fitted. values()function to extract the ^yivalues in much the same way that we used the residuals() function to extract the i values.,Di values()function to extract di ^yivalues for much di same way we use di residuals() function to extract di i values,Computer science
"if this plot looks approximately linear, then we're probably not doing too badly(though that's not to say that there aren't problems).","Di plot dey approximately linear, then we dey probably no do too badly(though say e no do too badly).",Computer science
"however, if you can see big departures from linearity here, then it strongly suggests that you need to make some changes.","If you fit see big departure from linearity here, then e strongly suggest say you need make some change.",Computer science
"in any case, in order to get a more detailed picture it's often more informative to look at the relationship between the tted values and the residuals themselves.",Di relationship wey dey between di tted value and di residuals themselves.,Computer science
"again, we could draw this plot using low-484- 50 60 70 8010 505 10 fitted valuesresiduals lm(dan. grump ~dan. sleep+ baby. sleep)residuals vs fitted 78 8136figure 15. 13: plot ofthe tted values against the residuals for regression.2, with a line showing the relationship between the two.","Again, we fit draw dis plot using. Figure 15.13: Plot of fitted values against residuals for regression, with line wey show di how two things dey related di two.",Computer science
"if this is horizontal and straight, then we can feel reasonably con dent that the verage residual""for all\ tted values""is more or less the same.","We go feel reasonably con dent say di verage residual""for all\ tted values""dey more or less di same.",Computer science
it is obtained by setting which=1.,E dey obtained by setting which=1.,Computer science
"level commands, but there's an easier way.",Di easier way.,Computer science
"just plot()the regression model, and select which=1:> plot(x= regression.2, which= 1) #figure 15. 13 the output is shown in figure 15. 13.",Di output dey show for figure 15. 13 di output dey show for figure 15. 13.,Computer science
"as you can see, not only does it draw the scatterplot showing the tted value against the residuals, it also plots a line through the data that shows the relationship between the two.","As you see, no only does e draw di scatterplot show di value against di residuals, e also plot line through di data wey dey show di how two things dey related di two",Computer science
"ideally, this should be a straight, perfectly horizontal line.","Ideally, dis one suppose to be straight, perfectly horizontal line.",Computer science
"there's some hint of curvature here, but it's not clear whether or not we be concerned.",E no clear whether or no we dey concerned.,Computer science
a somewhat more advanced version ofthe same plot is produced by the residualplots() function in thecarpackage.,Di residualplots() function for dicarpackage.,Computer science
"this function not only draws plots comparing the tted values to the residuals, it does so for each individual predictor.","Di function no only draw plots comparing di tted value to di residuals, e go so for each individual predictor.",Computer science
the command is > residualplots( model= regression.2)# figure 15. 14 and the resulting plots are shown in figure 15. 14.,Di command dey> residualplots( model= regression.2) #figure 15. 14 and di resulting plots dey show for figure 15. 14 and di resulting plots dey show for figure 15. 14 and di resulting plots dey show for figure 15. 14.,Computer science
note that this function also reports the results of a bunch of curvature tests.,Di function also report di results of bunch of curvature tests.,Computer science
"for a predictor variable xin some regression model, this test is equivalent to adding anew predictor to the model corresponding to x2, and running the t-test on the bcoecient associated with this new predictor.","Di test dey equivalent to add new predictor to di model wey dey x2, and run di t-test on di bcoecient associated wit dis new predictor.",Computer science
"if it comes up signi cant, it implies that there is some nonlinear relationship between the variable and the residuals.",E implies say e dey some nonlinear how two things dey related di variable and di residuals.,Computer science
"for what it's worth, here's what you get for the regression.2 model:-485- 5 678 910 05 10 dan. sleeppearson residuals 468 10 1210 05 10 baby. sleeppearson residuals 50 60 70 8010 05 10 fitted valuespearson residualsfigure 15. 14: plot ofthe tted values against the residuals for regression.2, along with similar plots for the two predictors individually.","For wetin e worth, dis na wetin you go get for regression model: Figure 15.14: Plot of fitted values against residuals, plus similar plots for di two predictors separately.",Computer science
this plot is produced by the residualplots() function in the car package.,Di plot dey produce by di residualplots() function for di car package.,Computer science
"note that it refers to the residuals as\pearson residuals"", but in this context these are the same as ordinary residuals.","Dem note say dem to talk about di residuals as\pearson residuals"", but for dis context e dey di same as ordinary residuals.",Computer science
"test stat pr(>|t|)dan. sleep 2. 160 0. 033 baby. sleep-0. 545 0. 587 tukey test 2. 162 0. 031 the third line here is the tukey test, which is basically the same test, except that instead of squaring one ofthe predictors and adding it to the model, you square the tted-value.","Di second line here dey di tukey test, wey dey basically di same test, except say not dat one squaring one of di predictors and add am to di model, you square di tted-value.",Computer science
"in any case, the fact that the curvature tests have come up signi cant is hinting that the curvature that we can see in figures 15. 13 and 15. 14 is genuine; 12although it still bears remembering that the pattern in figure 15. 12 is pretty damn straight: in other words the deviations from linearity are pretty small, and probably not worth worrying about.",Di fact say di curvature tests don kom up signi cant dey hint say di curvature wey we dey see for figure 15. 13 and 15. 14 dey genuine; 12although e still bear remember say di curvature wey we fit see for figure 15. 13 and 15. 14 dey genuine; 12although e still bear remember say di curvature wey we fit see for figure 15. 13 and 15. 14 dey genuine; 12although e still bear remember say di curvature wey we fit see for figure 15. 13 and 15. 14 no dey,Computer science
it's an actual nonlinearity in the relationship between dan. sleep and dan. grump.,Di relationship wey dey between dan. sleep and dan. grump.,Computer science
"the box-cox function is a fairly simple one, but it's very widely used fpx; qx1 for all values of except0.","Di box-cox function dey fairly simple one, but e dey widely use fpx; qx1 for all values of except0",Computer science
"when0 we just take the natural logarithm (i. e, ln pxq).","When λ= 0, we just take natural logarithm (dat na, ln(x)).",Computer science
you can calculate it using the boxcox() function in the carpackage.,Di boxcox() function for di carpackage.,Computer science
"better yet, if what you're trying to do is convert a data to normal, or as normal as possible, there's the powertransform() function in the car package that can estimate the best value of.",Di powertransform() function for di car package wey fit estimate di best value of.,Computer science
"variable transformation is another topic that deserves a fairly detailed treatment, but (again)due to deadline constraints, it will have to wait until a future version of this book.",Dem go wait until for next one of dis book.,Computer science
"the\default"" plot that rprovides to help with doing this( which=3 when using plot()) shows a plot ofthe square root ofthe size ofthe residuala |i|, as a function ofthe tted value^yi.","Di default""plot wey dey show a plot of di numba wey if you multiply am by itself, e go give you the original numba, we dey call am squa root, but for pidgin, we fit say 'numba wey e be root of anoda numba' of di size of di residuala |i|, as function of di tted value",Computer science
"we can produce the plot using the following command,> plot(x= regression.2, which= 3)and the resulting plot is shown in figure 15. 15.","We fit produce di plot using di command wey go follow,> plot(x= regression.2, wey = 3)and di resulting plot dey show for figure 15. 15.",Computer science
"note that this plot actually uses the standardised residuals (i. e, converted to zscores) rather than the raw ones, but it's immaterial from our point of view.","Note sey dis plot actually use standardised residuals (dat na, convert to Z-scores)not dat one di raw ones, but from our side, e no matter.",Computer science
"what we're looking to see here is a straight, horizontal line running through the middle ofthe plot.","Na straight, horizontal line wey we dey run through di middle of di plot.",Computer science
a slightly more formal approach is to run hypothesis tests.,Small more formal approach nato run hypothesis tests.,Computer science
"the carpackage provides a function called ncvtest() (non-constant variance test) that can be used for this purpose(cook & weisberg, 1983).","Di carpackage provide function wey dey call ncvtest() (non-constant variance test) wey dey use for dis purpose(cook & weisberg, 1983).",Computer science
"so if we run it for our model,> ncvtest( regression.2) non-constant variance score test variance formula:~ fitted. values chisquare = 0. 09317511 df =1p= 0.","So if we run am for our model:> ncvTest(regression.2) Non-constant Variance Score Test, variance formula:~ fitted. values, Chisquare = 0.09317511, df = 1, p= 0.7601.",Computer science
we see that our original impression was right: there's no violations of homogeneity of variance in this data.,Di original impression dey right: no violations of homogeneity of variance for dis data,Computer science
"the main thing to worry about, if homogeneity of variance is violated, is that the standard error estimates associated with the regression coecients are no longer entirely reliable, and so your ttests for the coecients aren't quite right either.","Di main thing to worry about, if homogeneity of variance dey violated, na say di standard error estimates wey dey associated wit di regression coecients no dey entirely reliable, and so your ttests for di coecients no dey quite right either.",Computer science
"a simple x to the problem is to make use of a \heteroscedasticity corrected covariance matrix""when estimating the standard errors.","A simple x to di problem dey to use a \heteroscedasticity correct covariance matrix"" wey dey estimating di standard errors.",Computer science
this plot is used to diagnose violations of homogeneity of variance.,Di plot dey use to diagnose violations of homogeneity of variance.,Computer science
"if the variance is really constant, then the line through the middle should be horizontal and at.",Di line through di middle go be horizontal and at.,Computer science
it is obtained by setting which=3.,E dey obtained by setting which=3.,Computer science
"that only make sense if you understand the maths at a low level14you don't need to understand what this means(not for an introductory class), but it might help to note that there's a hccm() function in thecar() package that does it.","E no need to understand what dis means(not for introductory class), but e go help to note say di hccm() function for dicar() package wey dey do am",Computer science
"better yet, you don't even need to use it.",I no need use am,Computer science
"you can use the coeftest() function in the lmtest package, but you need the carpackage loaded:> coeftest( regression.2, vcov= hccm )t test of coefficients: estimate std.","Di coeftest() function for di lmtest package, but you need di carpackage loaded:",Computer science
"in these estimators, the covariance matrix for bis given bypx1xq1x1xpx1xq1.",Di covariance matrix wey dey given bypx1xq1x1x1xpx1xq1.,Computer science
"see, it's a\sandwich""?","Di sandwich be a sandwich""?",Computer science
"assuming you think that px1xq1read"" and x1x\ lling"", that is.","As you think say px1xq1read"" and x1x\ lling"", na.",Computer science
"which ofcourse everyone does, right?","Di course wey dey, right?",Computer science
"in any case, the usual estimator is what you get when you set ^2i.",Di usual estimator dey what you go get wen you set ^2i,Computer science
"the corrected version that i learned originally uses diagp2 iq(white,1980).","Di correct version wey i learn originally use diagp2 iq(white,1980).",Computer science
"however, the version that fox and weisberg (2011)have implemented as the default in the hccm() function is a tweak on this, proposed by long and ervin (2000).","Diversion wey fox and weisberg (2011)don implement as di default for di hccm() function dey tweak on dis, proposed by long and ervin (2000).",Computer science
"this version uses diagp2 i{p1h2 iqq, wherehiis theith hat value.","Diversion dey use diagp2 i{p1h2 iqq, wherehiis diith hat value.",Computer science
"gosh, regression is fun, isn't it?","Di gosh, regression dey fun, e no dey e?",Computer science
"but if it had been, we might have seen some more substantial dierences.",We go see some more substantial dierences.,Computer science
"there is a variance in ation factor associated with each predictor xkin the model, and the formula for the k-th vif is: vifk1 1r2 pkq wherer2 pkqrefers tor-squared value you would get if you rana regression using xkas the outcome variable, and all the other xvariables as the predictors.","Di formula for di k-th vif dey: vifk1 1r2 pkq wherer2 pkqrefer tor-squared value you go get if you run regression using xkas di outcome variable, and all di oda xvariables as di predictors.",Computer science
the idea here is that r2 pkqis avery good measure ofthe extent to which xkis correlated with all the other variables in the model.,Di idea here na say r2 pkqis very good measure of di extent to wey xkis correlated wit all di oda variables for di model.,Computer science
"better yet, the square root ofthe vif is pretty interpretable: it tells you how much wider the con dence interval for the corresponding coecient bkis, relative to what you would have expected if the predictors are all nice and uncorrelated with one another.","Di numba wey if you multiply am by itself, e go give you the original numba, we dey call am squa root, but for pidgin, we fit say 'numba wey e be root of anoda numba' of di vif dey interpretable: e tell you how much wider di con dence interval for di corresponding coecient bkis, relative to what you go expect if di predictors dey all nice and uncorrelated wit one another.",Computer science
"if you've only got two predictors, the vif values are always going to be the same, as we can see if we use the vif() function( carpackage). > vif( mod= regression.2) dan. sleep baby. sleep 1. 651038 1. 651038 and since the square root of 1. 65 is 1. 28, we see that the correlation between our two predictors isn't causing much of a problem.","Di numba wey if you multiply am by itself, e go give you the original numba, we dey call am squa root, but for pidgin, we fit say 'numba wey e be root of anoda numba' of 1. 65 na 1. 28, we see say di correlation between awa two predictors, di vif values no go be di same, as we fit see if we use di vif() function( carpackage)",Computer science
"to give a sense of how we could end up with a model that has bigger collinearity problems, suppose i were to run a much less interesting regression model, in which i tried to predict the dayon which the data were collected, as a function of all the other variables in the dataset.","Di model wey don get bigger collinearity problems, suppose i go run a much less interesting regression model, wey i try to predict di dayon wey di data collect, based on all di oda variables for di group of related numbers or data wey belong together.",Computer science
"when we run the regression model and look at the vif values, we see that the collinearity is causing alot of uncertainty about the coecients.",We see say di collinearity dey causing lot of uncertainty about di coecients.,Computer science
"that is, if we have a dataset that contains several variables, which ones should we include as predictors, and which ones should we not include?","If we get group of related numbers or data wey belong together wey dey contains several variables, wey dey suppose include as predictors, and we no dey include?",Computer science
"in other words, we have a problem of variable selection.",We get problem of variable selection.,Computer science
"in general, model selection is a complex business, but it's made somewhat simpler if we restrict ourselves to the problem of choosing a subset ofthe variables that ought to be included in the model.","For general, model selection dey complex business, but e make somewhat simple if we restrict awaselves to di problem of choosing subset of di variables wey dey include for di model.",Computer science
"nevertheless, i'm not going to try covering even this reduced topic in alot of detail.",I no go try covering even dis reduced topic for alot of detail,Computer science
"instead, i'll talk about two broad principles that you need to think about; and then discuss one concrete tool that rprovides to help you select a subset of variables to include in your model.",I go talk about two broad principles wey you need think about; and then discuss one concrete tool wey rprovides to help you select subset of variables to include for your model.,Computer science
"firstly, the two principles: it's nice to have an actual substantive basis for your choices.","First, di two principles: e good to get real substantive basis for your choices.",Computer science
"that is, in alot of situations you the researcher have good reasons to pick out a smallish number of possible regression models that are of theoretical interest; these models will have a sensible interpretation in the context of your eld.",Di researcher don get good reason to pick out smallish number of possible regression models wey dey of theoretical interest; dis models go get sensible interpretation for di context of your eld.,Computer science
never discount the importance of this.,Di importance of dis,Computer science
"statistics serves the scienti c process, not the other way around.","Di statistics dey serve di scienti c process, no di oda way around.",Computer science
"to the extent that your choices rely on statistical inference, there is a trade o between simplicity and goodness oft. as you add more predictors to the model, you make it more complex; each predictor adds anew free parameter(i. e, a new regression coecient), and each new parameter increases the model's capacity to bsorb"" random variations.","As your choices dey depend on statistical inference, trade-off dey between simplicity and goodness of fit. As you add more predictors to di model, e dey become more complex; each predictor add new free parameter(new regression coefficient), and each new parameter increase di model ability to""absorb"" random variations.",Computer science
"so the goodness of t(e. g, r2) continues to rise as you add more predictors no matter what.","So goodness of fit(e. g, R2)go continue to rise as you add more predictors, no matter wetin.",Computer science
"if you want your model to be able to generalise well to new observations, you need to avoid throwing in too many variables.","If you wan make your model to generalize well to new observations, you go need to avoid throwing too many variables inside.",Computer science
"this latter principle is often referred to as ockham's razor, and is often summarised in terms ofthe following pithy saying: do not multiply entities beyond necessity.","Di former principle dey often dem dey call ockham razor, and dey often summarise for terms of di following pipo say: no multiply entities beyond necessity.",Computer science
"in this context, it means: don't chuck in a bunch of largely irrelevant predictors just to boost your r2.","For dis context, e mean: no throw plenty irrelevant predictors just to boost your R2.",Computer science
"yeah, the original was better.",Di original dey better,Computer science
"in any case, what we need is an actual mathematical criterion that will implement the qualitative principle behind ockham's razor in the context of selecting a regression model.",We need na actual mathematical criterion wey go implement di qualitative principle behind ockham razor for di context of selecting regression model.,Computer science
as it turns out there are several possibilities.,As e turnout na several possibilities,Computer science
"the one that i'll talk about is the akaike information criterion (aic; akaike, 1974)simply because it's the default one used in the rfunction step().","Di one wey i dey talk about na di Akaike information criterion (aic; akaike, 1974)simply because e dey di default one wey dey use for di rfunction step()",Computer science
in the context of a linear regression model(and ignoring terms that don't depend on the model in anyway!,Di context of linear regression model(and ignoring terms wey don depend on di model for anyway,Computer science
"if we ignore the low level details, it's fairly obvious what the aic does: on the left we have a term that increases as the model predictions get worse; on the right we have a term that increases as the model complexity increases.",For di left we get term wey dey increase as di model predictions get worse; on di right we get term wey dey increase as di model complexity get worse; on di right we get term wey dey increase as di model complexity increase,Computer science
the best model is the one that ts the data well(low residuals; left hand side)using as few predictors as possible(low k; right hand side).,Di best model dey di one wey ts di data well(low residuals; left hand side)using as few predictors as possible(low k; di right side)using as few predictors as possible(low k; di right side).,Computer science
"in short, this is a simple implementation of ockham's razor.",Di simple implementation of ockham razor,Computer science
as a consequence this equation won't correctly describe the aic values that you see in the outputs here.,Di equation no dey correctly describe di aic values wey you see for di output here,Computer science
"however, if you calculate the aic values using my formula for two dierent regression models and take the dierence between them, this will be the same as the dierences between aic values that step()reports.","If you calculate di aic values using my formula for two dierent regression models and take di dierence between dem, dis go be di same as di dierences wey dem step()report.",Computer science
"in practice, this is all you care about: the actual value of an aic statistic isn't very informative, but the dierences between two aic values are useful, since these provide a measure ofthe extent to which one model outperforms another.","Di actual value of di aic statistic no dey informative, but di dierences wey dey between two aic values dey useful, since dem provide measure of di extent wey one model outperform another.",Computer science
in this example i'll keep it simple and use only the basic backward elimination approach.,I go keep am simple and use only di basic backward elimination approach.,Computer science
"that is, start with the complete regression model, including all possible predictors.","Dat nato say, to start with complete regression model, including all possible predictors.",Computer science
"then, at each\step"" we try all possible ways of removing one ofthe variables, and whichever of these is best(in terms of lowest aic value)is accepted.","For each\step"" we try all possible way of removing one of di variables, and whichever of dem dey best(using lowest aic value)dey accept.",Computer science
"this becomes our new regression model; and we then try all possible deletions from the new model, again choosing the option with lowest aic.","Dis one become our new regression model; den we try all possible deletions from di new model, again choosing di option with lowest AIC.",Computer science
this process continues until we end up with a model that has a lower aic value than any ofthe other possible models that you could produce by deleting one of its predictors.,Di process continue until we end up wit model wey don get lower aic value than any of di oda possible model wey you fit produce by deleting one of its predictors.,Computer science
let's see this inaction.,We go see dis for action,Computer science
"first, i need to de ne the model from which the process starts.",I need to dene di model from which di process start.,Computer science
"still, we do need to do it: the object argument to the step()function will be this regression model.",Di object argument to di step()function go be dis regression model.,Computer science
"the output is somewhat lengthy, so i'll go through it slowly.","I go through am slowly, so i go through am slowly",Computer science
"firstly, the output reports the aic value for the current best model: start: aic=299. 08 dan. grump ~dan. sleep+ baby. sleep+ day that's our starting point.",Di output report di aic value for di current best model: start: aic=299. 08 dan. grump ~dan. sleep+ day wey dey awa start point.,Computer science
"since small aic values are good, we want to see if we can get a value smaller than 299. 08 by deleting one of those three predictors.","Since small AIC values dey good, we wan see if we fit get value smaller than 299.08 by deleting one of those three predictors.",Computer science
"so what rdoes is try all three possibilities, calculate the aic values for each one, and then print out a short table with the results: df sum of sq rss aic -baby. sleep 1 0. 1 1837. 2 297. 08 -day 1 1. 6 1838. 7 297. 16<none> 1837. 1 299. 08 -dan. sleep 1 4909. 0 6746. 1 427. 15 to read this table, it helps to note that the text in the left hand column is telling you what changer made to the regression model.",Di table dey help to note say di text for di left hand column dey tell you what changer make.,Computer science
"so the line that reads<none> is the actual model we started with, and you can see on the right hand side that this still corresponds to an aic value of 299. 08(obviously).","Di line wey read<none> dey di actual model wey we start wit, and you go see on di right side say dis still correspond to anoda value of 299. 08(obviously).",Computer science
"the other three rows in the table correspond to the other three models that it looked at: it tried removing thebaby. sleep variable, which is indicated by -baby. sleep, and this produced an aic value of 297. 08.","E tried removing dibaby. sleep variable, wey dey indicated by -baby. sleep, and dis produce am aic value of 297. 08.",Computer science
"that was the best ofthe three moves, so it's at the top ofthe table.","Di best of di three moves, so dey top of di table.",Computer science
"so, this move is accepted, and now we start again.","Di move dey accept, and now we to start again",Computer science
"sordecides to keep that change too, and moves on: step: aic=295. 17 dan. grump ~dan. sleep df sum of sq rss aic <none>1838. 7 295. 17 -dan. sleep 1 8159. 9 9998. 6 462. 50 this time around, there's no further deletions that can actually improve the aic value.","So R decide to keep dat change too, and e move on: Step: AIC = 295.17, dan. grump ~ dan. sleep. Df, Sum of Sq, RSS, AIC. <none>: 1838.7, 295.17. - dan. sleep: 1, 8159.9, 9998.6, 462.50. Dis time around, no further deletions wey fit actually improve di AIC value.",Computer science
"this time around we start with the smallest possible model as our start point, and only consider the possible additions to the model.","Dis time around, we to start with di smallest possible model as our start point, and only consider di possible additions to di model.",Computer science
"however, there's one complication: you also need to tell step()what the largest possible model you're willing to entertain is, using the scope argument.","Di complication: you need tell step()what di largest possible model wey dey willing to entertain na, using di scope argument.",Computer science
"the simplest usage is like this:> null. model<- lm(dan. grump ~ 1, parenthood ) #intercept only.","Di simple usage dey like dis:> null. model<- lm(dan. grump ~ 1, parenthood) #intercept only",Computer science
"in general though, forward and backward selection don't always have to end up in the same place.","For general though, forward and backward selection don always go end up for di same place.",Computer science
"they provide an element of objectivity to your model selection, and that's kind of nice.","Dem provide element of objectivity to your model selection, and dat kind of nice.",Computer science
"unfortunately, they're sometimes used as an excuse for thoughtlessness.",Di excuse wey dey use as excuse for thoughtlessness,Computer science
no longer do you have to think carefully about which predictors to add to the model and what the theoretical basis for their inclusion might be. everything is solved by the magic of aic.,Di magic of aic don solve di magic of aic.,Computer science
"and if we start throwing around phrases like ockham's razor, well, it sounds like everything is wrapped up in a nice neat little package that no-one can argue with.","If we start throwing around phrase like ockham razor, well, e sounds like everything dey wrapped up for nice neat little package wey no-one fit argue wit.",Computer science
"or, perhaps not.","Na, perhaps no.",Computer science
"firstly, there's very little agreement on what counts as an appropriate model selection criterion.","First, pipo no really agree on wetin count as appropriate model selection criterion.",Computer science
"when i was taught backward elimination as an undergraduate, we used f-tests to do it, because that was the default method used by the software.","We use f-tests to do am, bikos dat na di default method wey di software use.",Computer science
"the default in the step()function is aic, and since this is an introductory text that's the only method i've described, but the aic is hardly the word ofthe gods of statistics.","Di default for di step()function dey aic, and since dis dey introductory text wey dem described, but di aic dey hardly di word of di gods of statistics.",Computer science
"it's an approximation, derived under certain assumptions, and it's guaranteed to work only for large samples when those assumptions are met.","Di approximation, dey derived under certain assumptions, and e dey guarantee to work only for large samples wen dem dey met.",Computer science
"alter those assumptions and you get a dierent criterion, like the bic for instance.","Di bic for example, you go get dierent criterion, like di bic for example.",Computer science
take a dierent approach again and you get the nml criterion.,E get di nml criterion.,Computer science
decide that you're a bayesian and you get model selection based on posterior odds ratios.,E decide say you dey bayesian and you go get model selection based on posterior odds ratios.,Computer science
then there area bunch of regression speci c tools that i haven't mentioned.,Di bunch of regression speci c tools wey i don mention,Computer science
"all of these dierent methods have strengths and weaknesses, and some are easier to calculate than others (aic is probably the easiest ofthe lot, which might account for its popularity).","Aic dey probably di easiest of di lot, wey dey easier to calculate than odas (aic dey probably di easiest of di lot, wey go account for its popularity).",Computer science
"almost all of them produce the same answers when the answer is\obvious"" but there's a fair amount of disagreement when the model selection problem becomes hard.",Di model selection problem dey hard but na fair amount of disagreement wey di model selection problem dey hard.,Computer science
what does this mean in practice?,Di mean for practice?,Computer science
"well, you could go and spend several years teaching yourself the theory of model selection, learning all the ins and outs of it; so that you could nally decide on what you personally think the right thing to do is.","Well, you fit go spend several years teaching yourself di theory of model selection, learning all di details; so dat you go finally decide on wetin you personally think na di right thing to do.",Computer science
"speaking as someone who actually did that, i wouldn't recommend it: you'll probably come out the other side even more confused than when you started.",I go recommend say you go kom out di oda side even more confused than wen you start.,Computer science
"a better strategy is to show a bit of common sense. if you're staring at the results of a step()procedure, and the model that makes sense is close to having the smallest aic, but is narrowly defeated by a model that doesn't make any sense. trust your instincts.","If you dey star at di results of step()procedure, and di model wey dey make sense dey close to having di smallest aic, but dey narrowly defeated by model wey no make any sense",Computer science
"statistical model selection is an inexact tool, and as i said at the beginning, interpretability matters.","I tok at di beginning, interpretability matters",Computer science
"you can do this in a few dierent ways, depending on what research question you're trying to answer.","Di research question wey you dey try to answer, based on what research question wey you dey try answer.",Computer science
"suppose we want to know whether or not the amount of sleep that my son got has any relationship to my grumpiness, over and above what we-493- might expect from the amount of sleep that i got.","Di suppose we wan know whether or no di amount of sleep wey my son get don get any relationship to my grumpiness, over and above what we-493- might expect from di amount of sleep wey i get.",Computer science
we also want to make sure that the day on which we took the measurement has no in uence on the relationship.,We also wan make sure say di day wey we take di measurement no dey in uence on di relationship.,Computer science
"that is, we're interested in the relationship between baby. sleep and dan. grump, and from that perspective dan. sleep and dayare nuisance variable orcovariates that we want to control for.","We dey interest for di how two things dey related baby. sleep and dan. grump, and from dat perspective dan. sleep and day dey nuisance variable orcovariates wey we wan control for.",Computer science
"in this situation, what we would like to know is whether dan. grump ~dan. sleep+ day+ baby. sleep(which i'll call model 1, or m1)is a better regression model for these data than dan. grump ~dan. sleep+ day(which i'll call model 0, or m0).","We go like know say dan. grump ~dan. sleep+ day(which i call model 1, or m0) dey better regression model for dis data than dan. grump ~dan. sleep+ day(which i call model 1, or m0).",Computer science
"there are two dierent ways we can compare these two models, one based on a model selection criterion like aic, and the other based on an explicit hypothesis test.","Di two dierent way we fit compare dis two model, one based on model selection criterion like aic, and di oda based on explicit hypothesis test.",Computer science
"however, since the current focus on model comparison, i'll skip this step and go straight to the aic calculations.","Di current focus on model comparison, i go skip dis step and go straight to di aic calculation.",Computer science
"conveniently, the aic() function in rlets you input several regression models, and it will spit out the aic values for each of them:16 > aic( m0, m1 ) df aic m0 4 m1 5 since model 0 has the smaller aic value, it is judged to be the better model for these data.","Di aic() function for rlets you input several regression models, and e go spit out di aic value for each of dem:16 > aic( m0, m1 5 since model 0 get smaller aic value, and e go spit out di aic value for each of dem",Computer science
a somewhat dierent approach to the problem comes out ofthe hypothesis testing framework.,Di problem kom out of di way to check if your idea be true framework.,Computer science
"suppose you have two regression models, where one of them(model 0)contains a subset ofthe predictors from the other one(model 1).","Di suppose you go get two regression models, wey one of dem(model 0)contains subset of di predictors from di oda one(model 1).",Computer science
"that is, model 1 contains all ofthe predictors included in model 0, plus one or more additional predictors.","Di model 1 contains all of di predictors wey dey include for model 1, plus one or more additional predictors.",Computer science
"when this happens we say that model 0 is nested within model 1, or possibly that model 0 is a submodel of model 1.","We tok say model 0 dey within model 1, or possibly say model 0 dey submodel of model 1.",Computer science
regardless ofthe terminology what this means is that we can think of model 0 as a null hypothesis and model 1 as an alternative hypothesis.,"No matter di terminology, wetin dis mean na sey we fit think of model 0 as di null idea and model 1 as di other idea.",Computer science
and in fact we can construct an ftest for this in a fairly straightforward fashion.,We fit construct ftest for dis for fairly straightforward fashion.,Computer science
we cant both models to the data and obtain a residual sum of squares for both models.,We fit t both models to di data and obtain residual adding all the squared gaps to measure total error for both models.,Computer science
i'll denote these as ssp0q resand ssp1q resrespectively.,I go call dis ones SS res^{(0)}and SS res^{(1)}respectively.,Computer science
the superscripting here just indicates which model we're talking about.,Di superscripting here just indicate which model wey we dey talk about,Computer science
"then our fstatistic is fpssp0q resssp1q resq{k pssp1q resq{pnp1q wherenis the number of observations, pis the number of predictors in the full model(not including the intercept), and kis the dierence in the number of parameters between the two models. 17the degrees of freedom here are kandnp1.","Di fstatistic dey fpssp0q resssp1q resq{k pssp1q wherenis di number of observations, pis di number of predictors for di full model(not including di intercept), and kis di dierence for di number of parameters between di two model",Computer science
note that it's often more convenient to think about the dierence 16while i'm on this topic i should point out that there is also a function called bic() which computes the bayesian information criterion (bic) for the models.,I goto show say e dey often more convenient to think about di dierence 16while i dey on dis topic i goto show say e dey also called bic() wey compute di bayesian information criterion (bic) for di model.,Computer science
"so you could type bic(m0, m1)and get avery similar output.","E fit type bic(m0, m1)and get very similar output.",Computer science
"in fact, while i'm not particularly impressed with either aic or bic as model selection methods, if you do nd yourself using one of these two, the empirical evidence suggests that bic is the better criterion ofthe two.",Di empirical evidence suggest say bic dey di better criterion of di two.,Computer science
"in most simulation studies that i've seen, bic does a much better job of selecting the correct model.","Di simulation studies wey i dey seen, bic don a much better job of select di correct model.",Computer science
very brie y: notice that the nested model m0 corresponds to the full model m1 when we constrain some ofthe regression coecients to zero.,Very short: notice sey di nested model M0 dey correspond to di full model M1 when we constrain some of di regression coefficients to zero.,Computer science
it is sometimes useful to construct submodels by placing other kinds of constraints on the regression coecients.,E dey useful to construct submodels by placing oda kind of constraints on di regression coecients.,Computer science
"for instance, maybe two dierent coecients might have to sum to zero, or something like that.","for example, maybe two different coefficients fit get to sum to zero, or something like dat.",Computer science
"you can construct hypothesis tests for those kind of constraints too, but it is somewhat more complicated and the sampling distribution for fcan end up being something known as the non-central fdistribution, which is waaaaay beyond the scope of this book!","Di sampling distribution for fcan end up as di non-central fdistribution, wey dey waaaaay beyond di scope of dis book",Computer science
all i want to do is alert you to this possibility.,E dey alert you to dis possibility.,Computer science
that is: ssssp0q resssp1q res the reason why this his helpful is that we can express ss a measure ofthe extent to which the two models make dierent predictions about the the outcome variable.,ssssp0q resssp1q res di reason wey dis helpful na say we fit express ss a measure of di extent wey di two models make di outcome variable.,Computer science
speci cally: ss i ^yp1q i^yp0q i2 where ^yp0q iis the tted value for yiaccording to model m0and ^yp1q iis the is the tted value for yiaccording to modelm1.,Ss i ^yp1q i^yp0q i2 wey di tted value for yiaccording to model m0and ^yp1q iis di tted value for yiaccording to modelm1.,Computer science
"okay, so that's the hypothesis test that we use to compare two regression models to one another.",Di hypothesis test wey we use to compare two regression models to one another.,Computer science
"now, how do we do it in r?",How do we do am for r?,Computer science
the answer is to use the anova() function.,Di answer dey use di anova() function,Computer science
"that is, rss in this output corresponds toss resin the formula above.",rss for dis output correspond toss resin di formula above.,Computer science
since we have p:05 we retain the null hypothesis( m0).,We get p:05 we retain di null idea( m0),Computer science
"this approach to regression, in which we add all of our covariates into a null model, and then addthe variables of interest into an alternative model, and then compare the two models in hypothesis testing framework, is often referred to as hierarchical regression.","Di approach to regression, wey we add all of awa covariates into null model, and then add di variables of interest into alternative model, and compare di two model for way to check if your idea be true framework, dey often dem dey call hierarchical regression.",Computer science
"for instance, a regression model could be used to predict the number of errors a student makes in a reading comprehension test based on the number of hours they studied for the test, and their score on a standardised iq test.","Di regression model go use to predict di number of errors wey student make for reading comprehension test based on di number of hours wey dem studie for di test, and dia score on standardised iq test.",Computer science
"for instance, suppose we were interested in using the reading comprehension test to measure student achievements in three dierent schools, and we suspect that girls and boys are developing at dierent rates(and so would be expected to have dierent performance on average).","for example, suppose we dey interest for using di reading comprehension test to measure student achievement for three di schools, and we suspect say girls and boys dey develop for di dierent rate(and so e go expect say girls and boys dey develop for di dierent rate.",Computer science
"each student is classi ed in two dierent ways: on the basis of their gender, and on the basis of their school.","For di basis of dia gender, and on di basis of dia school.",Computer science
what we'd like to do is analyse the reading comprehension scores in terms of both of these grouping variables.,We dey like to do na analyse di reading comprehension scores for terms of both of dis grouping variables.,Computer science
the tool for doing so is generically referred to as factorial anova.,Di tool wey dey do so dey generically dem dey call factorial anova.,Computer science
"we didn't nd one, but there's something a bit worrying about trying to run two separate analyses trying to predict the same outcome.",Na something a bit worrying about trying to run two separate analyses try to predict di same outcome.,Computer science
"maybe there actually isan eect of therapy on mood gain, but we couldn't nd it because it was being\hidden"" by the eect of drug?","Di eect of therapy on mood gain, but we no go nd am because e dey being\hidden"" by di eect of drug?",Computer science
"in other words, we're going to want to run a single analysis that includes both drug and therapy as predictors.",We go wan to run single analysis wey include both drug and therapy as predictors.,Computer science
for this analysis each person is cross-classi ed by the drug they were given(a factor with 3 levels)and what therapy they received(a factor with 2 levels).,Di analysis each person dey cross classi ed by di drug wey dem give(a factor wit 3 level)and what therapy dem receive(a factor wit 2 level)and what therapy dem receive(a factor wit 2 level)and what therapy dem receive(a factor wit 2 level).,Computer science
we refer to this as a 32 factorial design.,We to talk about dis one as 3×2 factorial design.,Computer science
"in other words, we have a balanced design.",We get balanced design,Computer science
"the story for unbalanced designs is quite tedious, so we'll put it to one side for the moment.","Di story for unbalanced designs dey quite tedious, so we go put am to one side for di moment.",Computer science
"like one-way anova, factorial anova is a tool for testing certain types of hypotheses about population means.","Like one-way ANOVA, factorial ANOVA na tool for testing certain types of hypotheses about population means.",Computer science
so a sensible place to start would be to be explicit about what our hypotheses actually are.,So sensible place to start nato dey clear about wetin our hypotheses really be.,Computer science
"however, before we can even get to that point, it's really useful to have some clean and simple notation to describe the population means.","However, before we even reach dat point, e really useful to get clean and simple notation to describe di population means.",Computer science
"because ofthe fact that observations are cross-classi ed in terms of two dierent factors, there are quite alot of dierent means that one might be interested.","Di fact say observations dey cross-classi ed for terms of two dierent factors, e dey quite alot of dierent means say one go interest.",Computer science
"to see this, let's start by thinking about all the dierent sample means that we can calculate for this kind of design.",Dem start by thinking about all di dierent sample means say we fit calculate for dis kind of design.,Computer science
"firstly, there's the obvious idea that we might be interested in this table of group means:> aggregate(mood. gain~ drug+ therapy, clin. trial, mean )drug therapy mood. gain 1 placebo no. therapy 0. 300000 2 anxifree no. therapy 0. 400000 3 joyzepam no. therapy 1. 466667 4 placebo cbt 0. 600000 5 anxifree cbt 1. 033333 6 joyzepam cbt 1. 500000 now, this output shows a cross-tabulation ofthe group means for all possible combinations ofthe two factors(e. g, people who received the placebo and no therapy, people who received the placebo while getting cbt, etc).","Di idea wey we dey interest for dis table of group means:> aggregate(mood. gain~ drug+ therapy, clin. trial, mean )drug therapy mood. gain 1 placebo no. therapy 0. 300000 2 joyzepam no. therapy 1. 466667 4 placebo cbt 0. 600000 5 anxifree cbt 1. 033333 6 joyzepam cbt 1. 500000",Computer science
"however, we can also construct tables that ignore one ofthe two factors.",We fit also construct table wey dey ignore one of di two factors,Computer science
"that gives us output that looks like this:> aggregate(mood. gain~ drug, clin. trial, mean )drug mood. gain 1 placebo 0.","Dat give us output wey look like dis:> aggregate(mood. gain ~drug, clin. trial, mean)drug mood. gain 1 placebo 0.30 2 anxifree 0.72 3 joyzepam 1.48.",Computer science
"that is, we might also be interested in calculating the average mood gain across all 18 participants, regardless of what drug or psychological therapy they were given:> mean( clin. trial$mood. gain) [1]0. 88333 -498-at this point we have 12 dierent sample means to keep track of!","We dey interested for calculating di average mood gain across all 18 participants, regardless of what drug or psychological therapy wey dem give.",Computer science
"it is helpful to organise all these numbers into a single table, which would look like this: no therapy cbt total placebo 0. 300. 600. 45 anxifree 0. 401. 03 0. 72 joyzepam 1. 471. 501. 48 total 0. 721. 04 0. 88 now, each of these dierent means is ofcourse a sample statistic: it's a quantity that pertains to the speci c observations that we've made during our study.","E dey helpful to arrange all these numbers into one table, wey go look like dis: No therapy, CBT, Total. Placebo: 0.30, 0.60, 0.45. Anxifree: 0.40, 1.03, 0.72. Joyzepam: 1.47, 1.50, 1.48. Total: 0.72, 1.04, 0.88. Now, each of these different means na di number from di small group: na quantity wey relate to di specific observations wey we make for our study.",Computer science
"what we want to make inferences about are the corresponding population parameters: that is, the true means as they exist within some broader population.","Na, di true means as dem exist within some wideer population",Computer science
"those population means can also be organised into a similar table, but we'll need a little mathematical notation to do so.","Those population means sef fit organize into similar table, but we go need small di way wey math dey write to do am.",Computer science
"as usual, i'll use the symbol to denote a population mean.",I go use di symbol to denote population mean.,Computer science
"however, because there are lots of dierent means, i'll need to use subscripts to distinguish between them.",I need use subscripts to distinguish between dem,Computer science
here's how the notation works.,Di notation works,Computer science
"our table is de ned in terms of two factors: each row corresponds to a dierent level of factor a(in this case drug), and each column corresponds to a dierent level of factor b(in this case therapy).","Di table dey dened for terms of two factors: each row correspond to a dierent level of factor a(in dis case drug), and each column correspond to a dierent level of factor b(in dis case therapy), and each column correspond to a dierent level of factor b(in dis case therapy).",Computer science
"if we let rdenote the number of rows in the table, and cdenote the number of columns, we can refer to this as an rcfactorial anova.",We goto talk about dis as rcfactorial anova.,Computer science
in this case r3 andc2.,Di case r3 andc2.,Computer science
"we'll use lowercase letters to refer to speci crows and columns, so rcrefers to the population mean associated with therth level of factor a(i. e.","We go use small letters to talk about specific rows and columns, so μ {rc}stand for di population mean wey associate with dir-th level of factor A(row number r)and di c-th level of factor B(which up-down place c).",Computer science
"row number r)and thecth level of factor b(column number c). 1so the population means are now written like this: no therapy cbt total placebo 1112 anxifree 2122 joyzepam 3132 total okay, what about the remaining entries?","So di population means now write like dis: No therapy, CBT, Total. Placebo: μ {11}, μ {12}, μ {1.}. Anxifree: μ {21}, μ {22}, μ {2.}. Joyzepam: μ {31}, μ {32}, μ {3.}. Total: μ {.1}, μ {.2}, μ {.}. Okay, wetin about di remaining entries?",Computer science
"for instance, how should we describe the average mood gain across the entire(hypothetical) population of people who might be given joyzepam in an experiment like this, regardless of whether they were in cbt?","We describe di average mood gain across di entire(hypothetical) population of pipo wey dey give joyzepam for experiment like dis, regardless of whether dem dey for cbt?",Computer science
"we use the\dot"" notation to express this.","We use di""dot"" notation to express dis one.",Computer science
"in the case of joyzepam, notice that we're talking about the mean associated with the third row in the table.","Di case of joyzepam, notice say we dey talk about di mean wey dey associated wit di second line for di table.",Computer science
"that is, we're averaging across two cell means(i. e, 31and32).","We dey averaging across two cell means(i. e, 31and32)",Computer science
"the result of this averaging is referred to as a marginal mean, and would be denoted 3: in this case.","Di result of dis averaging dey dem dey call marginal mean, and e go denot 3 for dis case.",Computer science
"the marginal mean for cbt corresponds to the population mean associated with the second column in the table, so we use the notation: 2to describe it.",We use di notation: 2to describe am,Computer science
the grand mean is denoted:: because it is the mean obtained by averaging (marginalising2) over both.,Di grand mean dey denoted: because di mean wey dey averaging (marginalising2) over both,Computer science
"so our full table of population means can be written down like this: no therapy cbt total placebo 11121: anxifree 21222: joyzepam 31323: total: 1:2:: 1the nice thing about the subscript notation is that generalises nicely: if our experiment had involved a third factor, then we could just add a third subscript.","Di nice thing about di one kind notation wey dem dey use mark number or symbol for sequence, dem go write am for down, sote e go dey show say na part of list or set e be na say generalises nicely: if awa experiment don involve third factor, then we go add third subscript.",Computer science
"in principle, the notation extends to as many factors as you might care to include, but in this book we'll rarely consider analyses involving more than two factors, and never more than three.","Di notation extend to as many factors as you go care to include, but for dis book wey dey rarely consider analyses wey dey involving more than two factors, and never more than three.",Computer science
"however, in a balanced design, all of our cell frequencies are equal by de nition, so the two are equivalent.","For balanced design, all of awa cell frequencies dey equal by de nition, so di two dey equivalent.",Computer science
"we'll discuss unbalanced designs later, and when we do so you'll see that all of our calculations become a real headache.","We go discuss unbalanced designs later, and when we do am, you go see sey all our calculations go become real headache.",Computer science
but let's ignore this for now.,"for now, let's ignore dis for now",Computer science
"let's suppose that the goal is to nd out two things: rstly, does the choice of drug have any eect on mood, and secondly, does cbt have any eect on mood?","Di goal dey to nd out two things: rstly, does di choice of drug get any eect on mood, and secondly, does cbt get any eect on mood?",Computer science
consider the rst test.,Dem consider di rst test,Computer science
"if drug has no eect, then we would expect all ofthe row means to be identical, right?","We go expect all of di row means to be identical, right?",Computer science
so that's our null hypothesis.,Di null idea dey awa di null idea.,Computer science
"on the other hand, if the drug does matter then we should expect these row means to be dierent.",If di drug does matter then we go expect dis row means to be dierent.,Computer science
"formally, we write down our null and alternative hypotheses in terms ofthe equality of marginal means: null hypothesis, h0: row means are the same, i. e,1: 2:3: alternative hypothesis, h1: atleast one row mean is dierent.",We write down awa null and other ideas for terms of di equality of marginal means,Computer science
"back then i used the notation pto refer to the mean mood gain for the placebo group, with aandjcorresponding to the group means for the two drugs, and the null hypothesis was paj.","I use di notation pto to talk about di mean mood gain for di placebo group, wit aandjcorresponding to di group means for two drugs, and di null idea na paj.",Computer science
"so we're actually talking about the same hypothesis: it's just that the more complicated anova requires more careful notation due to the presence of multiple grouping variables, so we're now referring to this hypothesis as 1:2: 3:.","E just say di more complicated anova don require more careful notation due to di presence of many ways to group, so we dey actually referring to dis hypothesis as 1:2: 3:",Computer science
"however, as we'll see shortly, although the hypothesis is identical, the test of that hypothesis is subtly dierent due to the fact that we're now acknowledging the existence ofthe second grouping variable.","As we see shortly, di hypothesis dey identical, di test of dat hypothesis dey subtly dierent due to di fact say we dey acknowledge di existence of di second grouping variable.",Computer science
"speaking ofthe other grouping variable, you won't be surprised to discover that our second hypothesis test is formulated the same way.","Di oda grouping variable, you go surprise to discover say awa second hypothesis test dey formulate di same way.",Computer science
"you're expecting to see references to sums of squares(ss), mean squares(ms), degrees of freedom(df), and nally an f-statistic that we can convert into ap-value, right?","Dem expect to see references to adding all the squared gaps to measure total error(ss), mean squares(ms), degree of freedom(df), and nally an f-statistic wey we fit convert into ap-value, right?",Computer science
"well, you're absolutely and completely right.",E dey absolutely and completely right,Computer science
so much so that i'm going to depart from my usual approach.,So much so sey I go leave my normal approach.,Computer science
"throughout this book, i've generally taken the approach of describing the logic(and to an extent the mathematics)that underpins a particular analysis rst; and only then introducing thercommands that you'd use to produce the analysis.",I dey take di approach of describing di logic(and to an extent di mathematics) wey underpins particular analysis rst; and only den introducing dircommands wey you use to produce di analysis.,Computer science
"this time i'm going to do it the other way around, and show you the rcommands rst.","I go do am di oda way around, and to show you di rcommands rst.",Computer science
"if the data you're trying to analyse correspond to a balanced factorial design, then running your analysis of variance is easy.","Di data wey dey try to analyse correspond to balanced factorial design, then run your analysis of variance easy.",Computer science
"to start with, suppose i'm also curious to nd out if therapy has a relationship to mood. gain.","I dey curious to start wit, suppose i dey curious to find if therapy don get relationship to mood. gain.",Computer science
"it also calculates a mean square value(ms), and f-statistic and ap-value.","E also calculate mean square value(MS), and F-statistic and p-value.",Computer science
"there is also a row corresponding to the therapy factor, and a row corresponding to the residuals (i. e, the within groups variation).","Row wey match di therapy factor dey, and row wey match di residuals (dat na, di within-groups variation).",Computer science
"not only are all ofthe individual quantities pretty familiar, the relationships between these dierent quantities has remained unchanged: just like we saw with the original one-way anova, note that the mean square value is calculated by dividing ss by the corresponding df.","Di original one-way anova, note say di mean square value dey calculated by dividing ss by di corresponding df.",Computer science
"that is, it's still true that msss df regardless of whether we're talking about drug, therapy or the residuals.","E still true say msss df regardless of whether we dey talk about drug, therapy or di residuals.",Computer science
"to see this, let's not worry about how the sums of squares values are calculated: instead, let's take it on faith that rhas calculated the ss values correctly, and try to verify that all the rest ofthe numbers make sense.","Forstead, let take am on faith say rhas calculat diss value correctly, and try to verify say all di rest of di numbers make sense.",Computer science
"first, note that for the drug factor, we divide 3:45 by 2, and end up with a mean square value of 1:73.","First, note sey for di drug factor, we divide 3.45 by 2, and we end up with mean square value of 1.73.",Computer science
"for the therapy factor, there's only 1 degree of freedom, so our calculations are even simpler: dividing 0:47 (the ss value)by 1 gives us an answer of 0:47 (the ms value).",Di calculation dey simpler: dividing 0:47 (the ss value)by 1 give us answer of 0:47 (the ms value)by 1 give us answer of 0:47 (the ms value).,Computer science
"turning to the fstatistics and the pvalues, notice that we have two of each: one corresponding to thedrug factor and the other corresponding to the therapy factor.","Di fstatistics and di pvalues, notice say we get two of each: one corresponding to di drug factor and di oda corresponding to di therapy factor.",Computer science
"regardless of which one we're talking about, the fstatistic is calculated by dividing the mean square value associated with the factor by the mean square value associated with the residuals.",Di fstatistic dey calculated by dividing di mean square value wey dey associated wit di factor by di mean square value wey dey associated wit di residuals.,Computer science
"if we use\a"" as shorthand notation to refer to the rst factor(factor a; in this case drug)and \r""as shorthand notation to refer to the residuals, then the f statistic associated with factor a is denoted fa, and is calculated as follows: famsa msr and an equivalent formula exists for factor b(i. e, therapy ).","Dem use\a"" as shorthand notation to talk about di rst factor(factor a; for dis case drug)and \r""as shorthand notation to talk about di rst factor(factor a; for dis case drug)and \r""as shorthand notation to talk about di residuals, then di f statistic wey dey associated wit factor b(i. e, therapy ).",Computer science
"note that this use of\r"" to refer to residuals is a bit awkward, since we also used the letter r to refer to the number of rows in the table, but i'm only going to use\r"" to mean residuals in the context of ss rand msr, so hopefully this shouldn't be confusing.","Di use of\r"" to talk about residuals na bit awkward, since we also use di letter r to talk about residuals for di context of ss rand msr, so hopefully dis go confuse.",Computer science
"anyway, to apply this formula to the drugs factor, we take the mean square of 1:73 and divide it by the residual mean square value of 0:07, which gives us an f-statistic of 26:15.","Anyway, to apply dis formula to di drugs factor, we take di mean square of 1.73 and divide am by di residual mean square value of 0.07, wey give us F-statistic of 26.15.",Computer science
the corresponding calculation for the therapy variable would be to divide 0:47 by 0:07 which gives 7:08 as thef-statistic.,Di corresponding calculation for di therapy variable go be to divide 0:47 by 0:07 wey give 7:08 as dif-statistic,Computer science
"not surprisingly, of course, these are the same values that rhas reported in the anova table above.",Di same values wey rhas report for di anova table above.,Computer science
"once again, there is nothing new here: for each of our two factors, what we're trying to do is test the null hypothesis that there is no relationship between the factor and the outcome variable(i'll be a bit more precise about this later on).","For each of our two factors, we dey try to test di null idea say no how two things dey related di factor and di outcome variable(i'll be small more clear about dis later on).",Computer science
"to that end, we've (apparently)followed a similar strategy that we did in the one way anova, and have calculated an f-statistic for each of these hypotheses.","We dey follow similar strategy wey we do for di one way anova, and get calculated f-statistic for each of dis hypotheses.",Computer science
"to convert these to pvalues, all we need to do is note that the that the sampling distribution for the fstatistic under the null hypothesis(that the factor in question is irrelevant)is an fdistribution: and that two degrees of freedom values are those corresponding to the factor, and those corresponding to the residuals.","Di sampling distribution for di fstatistic under di null idea(that di factor for question dey irrelevant)na fdistribution: and say two how many things you fit adjust inside a system values dey corresponding to di factor, and those corresponding to di residuals.",Computer science
for the drug factor we're talking about anfdistribution with 2 and 14 degrees of freedom(i'll discuss degrees of freedom in more detail later).,Di drug factor wey dey talk about anfdistribution wit 2 and 14 how many things you fit adjust inside a system(i go discuss degree of freedom for more detail later).,Computer science
"in contrast, for the therapy factor sampling distribution is fwith 1 and 14 degrees of freedom.",For di therapy factor sampling distribution dey fwith 1 and 14 degree of freedom.,Computer science
"at this point, i hope you can see that the anova table for this more complicated analysis corresponding to model.2 should be read in much the same way as the anova table for the simpler analysis formodel. 1.","At dis point, I hope you see sey di ANOVA table for dis more complicated analysis wey match model.2, suppose to read similarly to di ANOVA table for di simpler analysis for model.1.",Computer science
"or, to use the more technically correct terminology, we would say that there are two main eects of drug and therapy.","We go say, to use di more technically correct terminology, we go say na two main eects of drug and therapy.",Computer science
"at the moment, it probably seems a bit redundant to refer to these as\main"" eects: but it actually does make sense.","Di moment probably seem a bit redundant to talk about dis as\main"" eects",Computer science
"later on, we're going to want to talk about the possibility of\interactions"" between the two factors, and so we generally make a distinction between main eects and interaction eects.","Later, we go wan talk about di possibility of""interactions"" between di two factors, and so we generally dey make distinction between main effects and interaction effects.",Computer science
the only dierence is the formula argument to the aov() function.,Di only dierence na di formula argument to di aov() function,Computer science
"secondly, i wanted to show you what the anova table looks like in this case, so that you can see from the outset that the basic logic and structure behind factorial anova is the same as that which underpins one way anova.","I waned to show you what di anova table look like for dis case, so say you fit see from di outset say di basic logic and structure wey dey behind factorial anova dey di same as dat wey underpins one way anova.",Computer science
try to hold onto that feeling.,Try to hold onto dat feeling.,Computer science
"it's genuinely true, insofar as factorial anova is built in more or less the same way as the simpler oneway anova model.",As factorial anova dey build for more or less di same way as di simpler oneway anova model.,Computer science
it's just that this feeling of familiarity starts to evaporate once you start digging into the details.,E just be sey dis feeling of familiarity dey start to disappear once you start to dig into di details.,Computer science
"traditionally, this comforting sensation is replaced by an urge to murder the the authors of statistics textbooks.",Di comforting sensation dey replace by urge to murder di authors of statistics textbooks.,Computer science
"okay, let's start looking at some of those details.","Na okay, let start looking at some of di details",Computer science
nor does it tell you explicitly how to calculate degrees of freedom( dfvalues) though that's a simple thing by comparison.,Dem tell you explicitly how to calculate degree of freedom( dfvalues) wey dey simple thing by comparison.,Computer science
"let's assume for now that we have only two predictor variables, factor a and factor b.","Make we assume for now sey we get only two predictor variables, Factor A and Factor B.",Computer science
"if we useyto refer to the outcome variable, then we would use yrcito refer to the outcome associated with thei-th member of group rc(i. e.","If we use Y to stand for outcome variable, den we go use Y {rci} to stand for outcome wey associate with di i-th member of group rc(dat na, level row r for Factor A and level column c for Factor B).",Computer science
level/row rfor factor a and level/column cfor factor b).,Level row r for Factor A and level column c for Factor B.,Computer science
"thus, if we use yto refer to a sample mean, we can use the same notation as before to refer to group means, marginal means and grand means: that is, yrcis the sample mean associated with the rth level of factor a and thecth level of factor b, yr: would be the marginal mean for the rth level of factor a, y: cwould be the marginal mean for the cth level of factor b, and y:: is the grand mean.","So, if we use Ȳ to stand for di average number, we fit use di same notation as before to stand for group means, marginal means, and grand mean: dat na, Ȳ {rc}na di average number for r-th level of A and c-th level of B, Ȳ {r.}na marginal mean for r-th level of A, Ȳ {. c}na marginal mean for c-th level of B, and Ȳ {.}na grand mean.",Computer science
"in other words, our sample-502- means can be organised into the same table as the population means.",Di sample-502- means go organised into di same table as di population means.,Computer science
"for our clinical trial data, that table looks like this: no therapy cbt total placebo y11y12y1: anxifree y21y22y2: joyzepam y31y32y3: total y: 1y: 2y:: and if we look at the sample means that i showed earlier, we have y110: 30, y120: 60 etc.","For our clinical trial data, dat table look like dis: No therapy, CBT, Total. Placebo: Ȳ {11}, Ȳ {12}, Ȳ {1.}. Anxifree: Ȳ {21}, Ȳ {22}, Ȳ {2.}. Joyzepam: Ȳ {31}, Ȳ {32}, Ȳ {3.}. Total: Ȳ {.1}, Ȳ {.2}, Ȳ {.}. And if we make we look di sample means wey I show earlier, we get Ȳ {11}=0.30, Ȳ {12}=0.60, etc.",Computer science
"in our clinical trial example, the drugs factor has 3 levels and the therapy factor has 2 levels, and so what we're trying to run is a 32 factorial anova.","Di drugs factor don 3 level and di therapy factor don 2 level, and so what we dey try to run na 32 factorial anova.",Computer science
"however, we'll be a little more general and say that factor a(the row factor)has rlevels and factor b(the column factor)has clevels, and so what we're runnning here is anrcfactorial anova.","We go be a little more general and say factor a(di row factor)don rlevels and factor b(di column factor)don clevels, and so we dey runnning here dey anrcfactorial anova.",Computer science
"now that we've got our notation straight, we can compute the sum of squares values for each ofthe two factors in a relatively familiar way.",We go compute di sum of square values for each of di two factors for relatively familiar way.,Computer science
"for factor a, our between group sum of squares is calculated by assessing the extent to which the(row) marginal means y1:, y2: etc, are dierent from the grand mean y::.","Di between group adding all the squared gaps to measure total error dey calculated by assess di extent to which di(row) marginal means y1:, y2",Computer science
we do this in the same way that we did for one-way anova: calculate the sum of squared dierence between the yi: values and they:: values.,We do dis one di same way we do for one-way ANOVA: calculate sum of squared differences between di Ȳ {i.}values and di Ȳ {.}values.,Computer science
"speci cally, if there are npeople in each group, then we calculate this: ssapncqr r1","we dey calculate dis: ssapncqr r1, if npipo for each group, then we dey calculate dis: ssapncqr r1",Computer science
"the reason for this last part is that there are multiple cells in our design that have level ron factor a: in fact, there are cof them, one corresponding to each possible level of factor b!","Di reason for dis last part na say na multiple cells for awa design wey don level ron factor a: for true, e dey cof dem, one corresponding to each possible level of factor b",Computer science
"for instance, in our toy example, there are twodierent cells in the design corresponding to the anxifree drug: one for people with no. therapy, and one for the cbtgroup.","for example, for our small example, two different cells dey for di design wey match anxifree drug: one for pipo with no therapy, and one for CBT group.",Computer science
"not only that, within each of these cells there are n observations.","Di cells no only say, within each of dis cell no dey observe.",Computer science
"so, if we want to convert our ss value into a quantity that calculates the between-groups sum of squares on a\per observation""basis, we have to multiply by by nc.","If we wan convert awa ss value into quantity wey dey calculate di between-groups adding all the squared gaps to measure total error on a\per observation""basis, we get to multiply by nc.",Computer science
"the formula for factor b is ofcourse the same thing, just with some subscripts shued around: ssbpnrqc c1","Di formula for factor b dey ofcourse di same thing, just wit some subscripts shued around: ssbpnrqc c1",Computer science
"first, notice that we calculated all the marginal means(i. e, row marginal means yr: and column marginal means y: c)earlier using aggregate(), and we also calculated the grand mean.","First, notice sey we dey calculate all di marginal means(row marginal means Ȳ {r.}and column marginal means Ȳ {. c})earlier using aggregate(), and we also calculate di grand mean.",Computer science
"there area total of n3 people in each group, and c2 dierent types of therapy.","Di total of n3 pipo for each group, and c2 dierent type of therapy.",Computer science
"or, to put it another way, there are 326 people who received any particular drug.","Di 326 pipo wey receive any particular drug, na 326 pipo wey receive any particular drug",Computer science
we can repeat the same kind of calculation for the eect of therapy.,We fit repeat di same kind of calculation for di eect of therapy.,Computer science
"again there are n3 people in each group, but since there are r3 dierent drugs, this time around we note that there are 3 39 people who received cbt, and an additional 9 people who received the placebo.","Di time around we note say na 3 39 pipo wey receive cbt, and additional 9 pipo wey receive di placebo.",Computer science
so that's how you calculate the ss values for the two main eects.,Diss values for di two main eects.,Computer science
"however, it's not a good idea to think of them as between-groups ss values anymore, just because we have two dierent grouping variables and it's easy to get confused.","E no dey good idea to think of dem as between-groups ss value anymore, just because we get two dierent grouping variables and e dey easy to get confused.",Computer science
"in order to construct an ftest, however, we also need to calculate the within-groups sum of squares.","To build an F-test, however, we also need to calculate di within-groups adding all the squared gaps to measure total error.",Computer science
"what i mean by that is we can start by calculating the total sum of squares, which i'll label ss t. the formula for this is pretty much the same as it was for one-way anova: we take the dierence between each observation yrciand the grand mean y::, square the dierences, and add them all up sstr r1c c1n i1","We take di dierence between each observation yrciand di grand mean y::, square di dierences, and add dem all up sstr r1c c1n i1n i1",Computer science
"in the rst two summations, we're summing across all levels of factor a(i. e, over all possible rows rin our table), across all levels of factor b(i. e, all possible columns c).","Di rst two summations, we dey summin across all level of factor a(i. e, over all possible columns c)across all levels of factor b(i. e, all possible columns c).",Computer science
"eachrccombination corresponds to a single group, and each group containsnpeople: so we have to sum across all those people(i. e, all ivalues) too.","So we don sum across all those pipo (i. e, all ivalues) too.",Computer science
"in other words, all we're doing here is summing across all observations in the dataset (i. e, all possible rcicombinations).","All we dey do here dey summing all observations for di group of related numbers or data wey belong together(i. e, all possible rcicombinations).",Computer science
"at this point, we know the total variability ofthe outcome variable ss t, and we know how much of that variability can be attributed to factor a(ss a)and how much of it can be attributed to factor b (ssb).","We know di total variability of di outcome variable ss t, and we know how much of dat variability go attribut to factor a(ss a)and how much of dat variability go attribut to factor b (ssb).",Computer science
the residual sum of squares is thus de ned to be the variability in ythat can't be attributed to either of our two factors.,Di residual adding all the squared gaps to measure total error dey reduce to be di variability for ythat no dey attributed to either of our two factors.,Computer science
in other words: ssrsstpssa,Di ssrsstpssa,Computer science
"the whole point of calling it a residual is that it's the leftover variation, and the formula above makes that clear.","Di whole point of call am residual na say e dey di leftover variation, and di formula above make dat clear.",Computer science
"in any case, it's probably worth taking a moment to check that we can calculate ss rusing this formula, and verify that we do obtain the same answer that rproduces in its anova table.","E probably worth taking moment to check say we fit calculate ss rusing dis formula, and verify say we go obtain di same answer wey dey rproduce for its anova table.",Computer science
the calculations are pretty straightforward.,Di calculations dey straightforward.,Computer science
the degrees of freedom are calculated in much the same way as for one-way anova.,Di degree of freedom dey calculated for much di same way as for one-way anova.,Computer science
"for any given factor, the degrees of freedom is equal to the number of levels minus 1(i. e, r1 for the row variable, factor a, and c1 for the column variable, factor b).","For any factor, how many things you fit adjust inside a system na number of levels minus 1(dat na, r-1 for row variable Factor A, and c-1 for column variable Factor B).",Computer science
"so, for the drugs factor we obtain df2, and for the therapy factor we obtain df1.","For di drugs factor wey dey obtain df2, and for di therapy factor we dey obtain df1.",Computer science
"so, for the drugs factor, we observe 3 separate group means, but these are constrained by 1 grand mean; and therefore the degrees of freedom is 2.","So, for drugs factor, we observe 3 separate group means, but dem dey constrained by 1 grand mean; so di how many things you fit adjust inside a system na 2.",Computer science
"for the residuals, the logic is similar, but not quite the same.","Di logic dey similar, but no quite di same.",Computer science
the total number of observations in our experiment is 18.,Di total number of observations for awa experiment dey 18.,Computer science
"the constraints correspond to the 1 grand mean, the 2 additional group means that the drug factor introduces, and the 1 additional group mean that the the therapy factor introduces, and so our degrees of freedom is 14.","Di constraints correspond to di 1 grand mean, di 2 additional group mean say di drug factor introduces, and di 1 additional group mean say di drug factor introduces, and di 1 additional group mean say di drug factor introduces, and di 1 additional group mean say di therapy factor introduces, and di 1 additional group mean say di therapy factor introduces, and di 1 additional group mean say di therapy factor introduces, and di 1 additional group mean say di therapy factor introduces, and di 1 additional group mean say di therapy factor introduces,",Computer science
"as a formula, this is n1pr1qpc1q, which simpli es to nrc","Di formula na n1pr1qpc1q, wey simpli as a formula, dis dey n1pr1qpc1q, wey simpli as a formula, dis dey n1pr1qpc1q, wey simpli am to nrc",Computer science
"looking even more carefully at the anova tables, we can see that the sum of squares associated with the factors are identical in the two dierent analyses(3. 45 for drug and 0. 92 for therapy), as are the degrees of freedom(2 for drug,1 fortherapy ).","We fit see say di adding all the squared gaps to measure total error wey dey associated wit di factors dey identical for di two dierent analyses(3. 45 for drug and 0. 92 for therapy), as dem dey di degree of freedom(2 for drug,1 fortherapy ).",Computer science
but they don't give the same answers!,Dem don give di same answer but dem don give di same answer but dem don give di same answer,Computer science
"however, when we look at the main eect of therapy within the context ofthe two-way anova, we do get a signi cant eect (p: 019).","We go make we look di main eect of therapy wey dey inside di context of di comparison test with two main factors, we go get signi cant eect (p: 019).",Computer science
the two analyses are clearly not the same.,Di two analyses dey clearly no di same,Computer science
the answer lies in understanding how the residuals are calculated.,Di answer lies in understanding how di residuals dey calculated,Computer science
recall that the whole idea behind an f-test is to compare the variability that can be attributed to a particular factor with the variability that cannot be accounted for(the residuals).,Di whole idea wey dey behind f-test dey compare di variability wey dey attributed to particular factor wit di variability wey no dey account for( di residuals).,Computer science
"if you run a one-way anova for therapy, and therefore ignore the eect of drug, the anova will end up dumping all ofthe drug-induced variability into the residuals!","If you run one-way ANOVA for therapy, and so you ignore di effect of drug, di ANOVA go end up dumping all di drug-induced variability into di residuals!",Computer science
"this has the eect of making the data look more noisy than they really are, and the eect of therapy which is correctly found to be signi cant in the two-way anova now becomes non-signi cant.","Di eect of make di data look more noisy than dem really dey, and di eect of therapy wey dey correctly found to be signi cant for comparison test with two main factors now become non-signi cant.",Computer science
"if we ignore something that actually matters(e. g, drug) when trying to assess the contribution of something else(e. g, therapy )then our analysis will be distorted.","We dey ignore something wey actually matter(e. g, drug) wen we dey try assess di contribution of something else(e. g, therapy) then awa analysis go distorte.",Computer science
"ofcourse, it's perfectly okay to ignore variables that are genuinely irrelevant to the phenomenon of interest: if we had recorded the colour ofthe walls, and that turned out to be non-signi cant in a three-way anova (i. e.","If we record di colour of di walls, and we turnout to be non-signi cant for three-way anova (i. e.",Computer science
"mood. gain~ drug+ therapy+ wall. colour), it would be perfectly okay to disregard it and just report the simpler two-way anova that doesn't include this irrelevant factor.",E go dey perfectly okay to disregard am and just report di simple comparison test with two main factors wey no include dis irrelevant factor.,Computer science
what you shouldn't do is drop variables that actually make a dierence!,Di reason wey you go do na drop variables wey actually make di dierence!,Computer science
the anova model that we've been talking about so far covers a range of dierent patterns that we might observe in our data.,Di anova model wey we dey talk about so far covers range of dierent patterns wey we go observe for awa data.,Computer science
"for instance, in a two-way anova design, there are four possibilities:(a) only factor a matters,(b) only factor b matters,(c) both a and b matter, and (d)neither a nor b matters.","for example, for comparison test with two main factors design, four possibilities dey:(a) only Factor A matter,(b) only Factor B matter,(c) both A and B matter, and (d)neither A nor B matter.",Computer science
an example of each of these four possibilities is plotted in figure 16.1.,Di example of each of dis four possibilities dey plot for figure 16.,Computer science
"however, they are not the whole story, and the anova model that we have been talking about upto this point is not sucient to fully account for a table of group means.",Di anova model wey we dey talk about upto dis point no dey sucient to fully account for table of group means.,Computer science
"well, so far we have the ability to talk about the idea that drugs can in uence mood, and therapy can in uence mood, but no way of talking about the possibility of an interaction between the two.","So far we get di ability to talk about di idea say drugs fit in uence mood, and therapy fit in uence mood, but no way we dey talk about di possibility of interaction between di two",Computer science
"an interaction between a and b is said to occur whenever the eect of factor a is dierent, depending on which level of factor b we're talking about.","Di interaction wey between a and b dey tok about, based on which level of factor wey we dey talking about.",Computer science
several examples of an interaction eect with the context of a22 anova are shown in figure 16.2.,Di several examples of interaction eect wit di context of 2 anova dey show for figure 16.,Computer science
"to give a more concrete example, suppose that the operation of anxifree and joyzepam is governed quite dierent physiological mechanisms, and one consequence of this is that while joyzepam has more or less the same eect on mood regardless of whether one is in therapy, anxifree is actually much more eective when administered in conjunction with cbt.","Di operation of anxifree and joyzepam dey govern quite dierent physiological mechanisms, and one consequence of dis na say while joyzepam dey govern quite di same eect on mood regardless of whether one dey in therapy, anxifree dey actually much more ective wen one dey administered for conjunction wit cbt.",Computer science
"to get some idea of whether an interaction is actually happening here, it helps to plot the various group means.","E help to get some idea of whether interaction dey happen here, e help to plot di various group means.",Computer science
"there are quite a few dierent ways draw these plots in r. one easy way is to use the interaction. plot()function, but this function won't draw error bars for you.","Di easy way dey use di interaction. plot()function, but dis function don draw error bars for you.",Computer science
a fairly simple function that will include error bars for you is the lineplot.,A fairly simple function wey go include error bars for you dey lineplot,Computer science
our main concern relates to the fact that the two lines aren't parallel.,Di main concern relates to di fact say di two lines no dey parallel,Computer science
"in panel(a) we see a main eect of factor a, and no eect of factor b.","For panel(a), we see main effect of Factor A, and no effect of Factor B.",Computer science
panel(b) shows a main eect of factor b but no eect of factor a.,Dem show main eect of factor b but no eect of factor a.,Computer science
panel(c) shows main eects of both factor a and factor b.,Dem show main eects of both factor a and factor b.,Computer science
"finally, panel (d)shows no eect of either factor.","Finally, panel (d)show no effect of any factor.",Computer science
"however, when anxifree is administered, the eect of cbt is larger than the placebo(middle).","Di anxifree dey administered, di eect of cbt dey small than di placebo(middle).",Computer science
"is this eect real, or is this just random variation due to chance?","Di eect real, or na di just random variation because of luck?",Computer science
"our original anova cannot answer this question, because we make no allowances for the idea that interactions even exist!","Our original ANOVA no fit answer dis question, because we no make any allowance for di idea sey interactions even dey exist!",Computer science
"what that means for our rformulas is that we'll write down models like mood. gain~ drug+ therapy+ drug: therapy so although there are only two factors involved in our model(i. e, drug and therapy), there are three distinct terms(i. e, drug, therapy and drug: therapy).","Di only two factors wey dey involved for our model(i. e, drug and therapy), na three distinct terms(i. e, drug, therapy and drug",Computer science
"that is, in addition to the main eects of drug and therapy, we have anew component to the model, which is our interaction term drug: therapy.","Di model wey dey, for addition to di main eects of drug and therapy, we get new component to di model, wey dey awa interaction term drug: therapy.",Computer science
"intuitively, the idea behind an interaction eect is fairly simple: it just means that the eect of factor a is dierent, depending on which level of factor b we're talking about.","Di idea wey dey behind interaction eect dey simple: e just mean say di eect of factor a dey dierent, based on which level of factor wey we dey talking about.",Computer science
but what does that actually mean in terms of our data?,Di data suppose mean for terms of awa data?,Computer science
so it's not entirely straightforward to translate this qualitative idea into something mathematical that a statistician can work with.,E no dey straightforward to translate dis qualitative idea into something mathematical wey a statistician fit work wit.,Computer science
"as a consequence, the way that the idea of an interaction eect is formalised in terms of null and alternative hypotheses is slightly dicult, and i'm guessing that alot of readers of this book probably won't be all that interested.","Di way say di idea of interaction eect dey formalised for terms of null and other ideas dey slightly dicult, and di way say di idea of interaction eect dey formalised for terms of null and other ideas dey slightly dicult, and di way say di idea of interaction eect dey formalised for terms of null and other ideas dey slightly dicult, di way say di idea of interaction eect dey formalised for terms of null and other ideas de",Computer science
"even so, i'll try to give the basic idea here.",I go try give di basic idea here,Computer science
"to start with, we need to be a little more explicit about our main eects.","To start, we need to dey small more clear about our main effects.",Computer science
consider the main eect of factor a(drug in our running example).,Di main eect of factor a(drug for awa running example).,Computer science
we originally formulated this in terms ofthe null hypothesis that the two marginal means r: are all equal to eachother.,We originally formulate dis for terms of di null idea say di two marginal means r: dey all equal to each oda,Computer science
"obviously, if all of these are equal to eachother, then they must also be equal to the grand mean:: aswell, right?","Aswell, if all of dis dey equal to each oda, then dem must also be equal to di grand mean",Computer science
so what we can do is de ne the eect of factor a at level rto be equal to the dierence between the marginal mean r: and the grand mean::.,Di eect of factor a for level rto be equal to di dierence between di marginal mean r: and di grand mean,Computer science
"let's denote this eect by r, and note that rr::: now, by de nition all ofthe rvalues must sum to zero, for the same reason that the average ofthe marginal means r: must be the grand mean::.","For di same reason say di average of di marginal means r: must sum to zero, for di same reason say di average of di marginal means r: must be di grand mean",Computer science
"we can similarly de ne the eect of factor b at level i to be the dierence between the column marginal mean: cand the grand mean:: c: c:: and once again, these cvalues must sum to zero.",We fit similarly dey di eect of factor b for level i to be di dierence between di column marginal mean: cand di grand mean,Computer science
the reason that statisticians sometimes like to talk about the main eects in terms of these rand cvalues is that it allows them to be precise about what it means to say that there is no interaction eect.,Di reason say statisticians sometimes like to talk about di main eects for terms of dis rand cvalues na say e dey allow dem to be precise about what dem means say e no dey interaction eect,Computer science
"if there is no interaction at all, then these rand c values will perfectly describe the group means rc.",Di rand c values go perfectly describe di group means rc,Computer science
"speci cally, it means that rc::",Di means say rc:,Computer science
"and that's our null hypothesis, right there.","And dat na our di null idea, right there.",Computer science
the alternative hypothesis is that rc::,Di other idea na say rc:,Computer science
"however, statisticians often like to write this slightly dierently.",Di statisticians dey like to write dis slightly dierently.,Computer science
"they'll usually de ne the speci c interaction associated with group rcto be some number, awkwardly -509-0. 0 0. 5 1. 0 1. 5 2. 0 drugmood gain placebo anxifree joyzepam cbt no. therapfigure 16. 3: an interaction plot for the group means in the clinical trial data.",Dirapfigure 16. 3: interaction plot for di group means for di clinical trial data.,Computer science
the command to produce it is included in the main text.,Di command to produce am dey included for di main text.,Computer science
you'll notice that the legend doesn't quite t properly.,Di legend no dey quite properly.,Computer science
you can x this by playing around with the x. leg andy. leg arguments: type?,Di type?,Computer science
ci for details.,See details for confidence intervals.,Computer science
"referred to as p qrc, and then they will say that the alternative hypothesis is that rc::","Di other idea na say p qrc, and then dem go say di other idea na say rc",Computer science
"ofcourse, all of those formulas refer to population parameters rather than sample statistics, so we don't actually know what they are.","For course, all of those formulas to talk about population parameters no be di numbers from di sample, so we no know what dem dey",Computer science
"however, we can estimate them by using sample means in place of population means.",We fit estimate dem by using sample means for place of population means.,Computer science
"so for factor a, a good way to estimate the main eect at level ras the dierence between the sample marginal mean yrcand the sample grand mean y::.","So for Factor A, good way to estimate di main effect at level r na di difference between di sample marginal mean Ȳ {r.}and di sample grand mean Ȳ {.}.",Computer science
so what's the analog of this for interaction terms?,Di analog of dis for interaction terms?,Computer science
"now that we have a formula for calculating ss a: b, it's important to recognise that the interaction term is part ofthe model(of course), so the total sum of squares associated with the model, ss mis now equal to the sum ofthe three relevant ss values, ss a","B, e important to recognise say di interaction term dey part of di model(of course), so di total adding all the squared gaps to measure total error wey dey associated wit di model, ss mis now equal to di sum of di three relevant ss values, ss a",Computer science
"the residual sum of squares ss r is still de ned as the leftover variation, namely ss tssm, but now that we have the interaction term this becomes ssrsstpssa","Di residual adding all the squared gaps to measure total error ss r dey dened as di leftover variation, namely ss tssm, but now say we get di interaction term dis become ssrsstpssa, but now say we get di interaction term dis become ssrsstpssa, but now say we get di interaction term dis become ssrsstpssa, but now say we get di interaction term dis become ssrsstpssa, but now say we",Computer science
"to start with, let's think about the anova model as a whole.","To start, make we think about di ANOVA model as a whole.",Computer science
"once we include interaction eects in the model, we're allowing every single group has a unique mean, rc.","Na once we include interaction eect for di model, we dey allow every single group get unique mean, rc",Computer science
"for anrcfactorial anova, this means that there are rcquantities of interest in the model, and only the one constraint: all ofthe group means need to average out to the grand mean.","Di means say na rcquantities of interest for di model, and only di one constraint: all of di group means need to kalkulate di middle number wey represent all di odas, make dem no dey scatter to di grand mean.",Computer science
so the model as a whole needs to have prcq1 degrees of freedom.,So di model as a whole need to get(p*r*c - 1)how many things you fit adjust inside a system.,Computer science
"but the main eect of factor a has r1 degrees of freedom, and the main eect of factor b has c1 degrees of freedom.","Di main eect of factor a don r1 degree of freedom, and di main eect of factor b don c1 degree of freedom, and di main eect of factor b don c1 degree of freedom.",Computer science
which means that the degrees of freedom associated with the interaction is dfa: b prc1qpr1qpc1q rcrc,Wey mean sey di how many things you fit adjust inside a system wey associate with di interaction na df {A: B} =(r-1)*(c-1).,Computer science
what about the residual degrees of freedom?,Di residual degree of freedom?,Computer science
"because we've added interaction terms, which absorb some degrees of freedom, there are fewer residual degrees of freedom leftover.","We add interaction terms, wey dey absorb some degree of freedom, na fewer residual how many things you fit adjust inside a system wey dey leftover.",Computer science
"speci cally, note that if-511- the model with interaction has a total of prcq1, and there are nobservations in your dataset that are constrained to satisfy 1 grand mean, your residual degrees of freedom now become nprcq1","If-511- di model wit interaction don get total of prcq1, and di nobservations for your group of related numbers or data wey belong together wey dey constrained to satisfy 1 grand mean, your residual degree of freedom now become nprcq1, and di residual degree of freedom now become nprcq1",Computer science
"returning to our running example ofthe clinical trial, in addition to the main eect terms of drug and therapy, we include the interaction term drug: therapy.","We include di main eect terms of drug and therapy, we include di interaction term drug: therapy.",Computer science
"so the rcommand to create the anova model now looks like this:> model.3 <- aov( mood. gain~ drug+ therapy+ drug: therapy, clin. trial) however, rallows a convenient shorthand.","So di R command to create di ANOVA model now look like dis:> model.3<- aov(mood. gain ~drug +therapy + drug: therapy, clin. trial). However, R get convenient shorthand: model.3<- aov(mood. gain ~drug*therapy, clin. trial).",Computer science
"instead of typing out all three terms, you can shorten the right hand side ofthe formula to drug*therapy.",Di right side of di formula to drug*therapy.,Computer science
the*operator inside the formula is taken to indicate that you want both main eects and the interaction.,Di*operator inside di formula dey take to indicate say you wan both main eects and di interaction.,Computer science
"firstly, there's the same issue that we had with one-way anova, which is that if you obtain a signi cant main eect of(say) drug, it doesn't tell you anything about which drugs are dierent to one another.","Di same issue wey we get wit one-way anova, we dey say if you obtain signi cant main eect of(say) drug, e no tell you anything about which drugs dey dierent to one another.",Computer science
"to nd that out, you need to run additional analyses.","To find dat out, you need to run additional analyses.",Computer science
the same is true for interaction eects: knowing that there's a signi cant interaction doesn't tell you anything about what kind of interaction exists.,Di same dey true for interaction eects: know say signi no fit interaction no tell you any about what kind of interaction exist,Computer science
"again, you'll need to run additional analyses.","Again, you go need run additional analyses.",Computer science
"secondly, there's avery peculiar interpretation issue that arises when you obtain a signi cant interaction eect but no corresponding main eect.",Di very peculiar interpretation issue wey dey arise wen you obtain signi cant interaction eect but no corresponding main eect,Computer science
this happens sometimes.,Dis don happen sometimes.,Computer science
"for instance, in the crossover interaction shown in figure 16. 2a, this is exactly what you'd nd: in this case, neither ofthe main eects would be signi cant, but the interaction eect would be.","for example, for di crossover interaction show for figure 16. 2a, dis na exactly what you dey nd: for dis case, neither of di main eects go signi cant, but di interaction eect go be.",Computer science
"this is a dicult situation to interpret, and people often get a bit confused about it.","Dis dey di dicult situation wey dey interpret, and pipo often get a bit confused about dis.",Computer science
the general advice that statisticians like to give in this situation is that you shouldn't pay much attention to the main eects when an interaction is present.,Di general advice wey statisticians like to give for dis situation na say you no pay much attention to di main eects wen interaction dey present.,Computer science
"the reason they say this is that, although the tests ofthe main eects are perfectly valid from a mathematical point of view, when there is a signi cant interaction eect the main eects rarely test interesting hypotheses.","Di reason wey dem tok say, although di tests of di main eect dey perfectly valid from mathematical point of view, wia signi cant interaction eect di main eect rarely test interesting hypotheses.",Computer science
"but if you have a signi cant interaction eect, then you know that the groups that comprise the marginal mean aren't homogeneous, so it's not really obvious why you would even care about those marginal means.","If you go get signi cant interaction eect, then you know say di groups wey dey involve di marginal mean no dey homogeneous, so e no really obvious why you go dey care about di marginal mean.",Computer science
"again, let's stick with a clinical example.",Dem stick wit clinical example.,Computer science
"suppose that we had a22 design comparing two dierent treatments for phobias (e. g, systematic desensitisation vs ooding), and two dierent anxiety reducing drugs(e. g, anxifree vs joyzepam).","Suppose sey we get 2×2 design wey dey compare two different treatments for phobias (e. g, systematic desensitization vs flooding), and two different anxiety-reducing drugs(e. g, Anxifree vs Joyzepam).",Computer science
"now suppose what we found was that anxifree had no eect when desensitisation was the treatment, and joyzepam had no eect when ooding was the treatment.","We find say anxifree don no eect when desensitisation dey di treatment, and joyzepam don no eect when ooding dey di treatment.",Computer science
but both were pretty eective for the other treatment.,Di oda treatment dey pretty ective for di oda treatment.,Computer science
"this is a classic crossover interaction, and what we'd nd when running the anova is that there is no main eect of drug, but a signi cant interaction.","E dey a classic crossover interaction, and we dey nd when running di anova na say no main eect of drug, but signi cant interaction.",Computer science
"now, what does it actually mean to say that there's no main eect?",Di suppose mean say no main eect?,Computer science
"wel, it means that, if we average over the two dierent psychological treatments, then the average eect of anxifree and joyzepam is the same.","Di means say, if we average over di two dierent psychological treatments, then di average eect of anxifree and joyzepam dey di same.",Computer science
but why would anyone care about that?,Na why anyone care about dat? but why anyone care about dat?,Computer science
"when treating someone for phobias, it is never the case that a person can be treated using an verage"" of ooding and desensitisation: that doesn't make alot of sense.","Di case wey a person dey treat someone for phobias, e no be di case say a person dey treated using verage"" of ooding and desensitisation wey no make alot of sense.",Computer science
you either get one or the other.,As you go get one or di oda.,Computer science
"for one treatment, one drug is eective; and for the other treatment, the other drug is eective.","Di oda treatment, one drug dey ective; and for di oda treatment, di oda drug dey ective; and for di oda treatment, di oda drug dey ective; and for di oda treatment, di oda drug dey ective; and for di oda treatment, di oda drug dey ective; and for di oda treatment, di oda drug dey ective; and for di oda treatment, di oda drug dey ective; and for di oda",Computer science
the interaction is the important thing; the main eect is kind of irrelevant.,Di main eect dey kind of irrelevant; di main eect dey kind of irrelevant; di main eect dey kind of irrelevant.,Computer science
"this sort of thing happens alot: the main eect are tests of marginal means, and when an interaction is present we often nd ourselves not being terribly interested in marginal means, because they imply averaging over things that the interaction tells us shouldn't be averaged!","Di main eect dey tests of marginal means, and wen a interaction dey present we often nd awaselves no dey interest for marginal means, because dem imply averaging over things wey di interaction tell us no dey average.",Computer science
"ofcourse, it's not always the case that a main eect is meaningless when an interaction is present.",E no always di case say main eect dey meaningless wen interaction dey present,Computer science
"often you can get a big main eect and avery small interaction, in which case you can still say things like\drug a is generally more eective than drug b""(because there was a big eect of drug), but you'd need to modify it a bit by adding that he dierence in eectiveness was dierent for dierent psychological treatments"".","Di case you fit get big main eect and very small interaction, but you need to modify am a bit by adding say hin dierence for eectiveness na dierent psychological treatments",Computer science
"in any case, the main point here is that whenever you get a signi cant interaction you should stop and think about what the main eect actually means in this context.",Di main point here na say whenever you go get signi cant interaction you go stop and think about what di main eect actually means for dis context.,Computer science
don't automatically assume that the main eect is interesting.,Di main eect dey interesting,Computer science
"the main thing you will probably want to calculate is the eect size for each term in your model, but you may also want to rto give you some estimates for the group means and associated con dence intervals.","Di main thing you go probably wan to calculate na di eect size for each term for your model, but you go also wan to give you some estimate for di group means and associated con dence intervals.",Computer science
"speci cally, we can use 2(eta-squared)as simple way to measure how big the overall eect is for any particular term.",We go use 2(eta-squared)as simple way to measure how big di overall eect dey for any particular term.,Computer science
"as before, 2is de ned by dividing the sum of squares associated with that term by the total sum of squares.","as before, 2is dey dened by dividing di adding all the squared gaps to measure total error wey dey associated wit dat term by di total adding all the squared gaps to measure total error.",Computer science
"for instance, to determine the size ofthe main eect of factor a, we would use the following formula 2 assa sst as before, this can be interpreted in much the same way as r2in regression. 4it tells you the proportion of variance in the outcome variable that can be accounted for by the main eect of factor a.","for example, to determine di size of di main eect of factor a, we go use di following formula 2 assa sst as before, we go use di following formula 2 assa sst as before, we go use di following formula 2 assa sst as before, e go interpret di proportion of variance for di outcome variable wey dey account for di main eect of factor a.",Computer science
sorry: we clearly don't have enough letters in the alphabet.,We clearly don get enough letters for di alphabet,Computer science
"however, i've tried pretty hard to be clear on which thing r is referring to in each case.",I dey try pretty hard to clear on which thing r dey to talk about for each case.,Computer science
"moreover, the sum of all the 2values, taken across all the terms in the model, will sum to the the total r2for the anova model.","Di sum of all di 2values wey dey take across all di terms for di model, go sum to di total r2for di anova model.",Computer science
"if, for instance, the anova model ts perfectly(i. e, there is no within-groups variability at all!","for example, di anova model t perfectly(i. e, na no within-groups variability for all!",Computer science
"ofcourse, that rarely if ever happens in real life.",We dey rarely if ever happen for real life.,Computer science
"however, when doing a factorial anova, there is a second measure of eect size that people like to report, known as partial 2.","Di however, wen dey do factorial anova, na second measure of eect size wey pipo like to report, na second measure of eect size wey dem like report, known as partial 2.",Computer science
"the idea behind partial 2(which is sometimes denoted p2or2 p)is that, when measuring the eect size for a particular term(say, the main eect of factor a), you want to deliberately ignore the other eects in the model(e. g, the main eect of factor b).","Di idea wey dey behind partial 2(which denot p2or2 p)na say, wen measuring di eect size for a particular term(say, di main eect of factor b), you wan to deliberately ignore di oda eects for di model(e. g, di main eect of factor b).",Computer science
"that is, you would pretend that the eect of all these other terms is zero, and then calculate what the 2value would have been.","I go pretend say di eect of all these terms dey zero, and then calculate what di 2value would be.",Computer science
this is actually pretty easy to calculate.,Dis dey easy to calculate.,Computer science
all you have to do is remove the sum of squares associated with the other terms from the denominator.,Di adding all the squared gaps to measure total error wey dey associated wit di oda terms from di denominator.,Computer science
"in other words, if you want the partial 2for the main eect of factor a, the denominator is just the sum ofthe ss values for factor a and the residuals: partial2 assa ssa","If you wan di partial 2for di main eect of factor a, di denominator dey just di sum of diss value for factor a and di residuals",Computer science
"and once again you get a number between 0 and 1, where 0 represents no eect.","Dem get number between 0 and 1, wey 0 represent no eect",Computer science
"however, it's slightly trickier to interpret what a large partial 2value means.",E dey trickier to interpret what large partial 2value means.,Computer science
"in particular, you can't actually compare the partial 2values across terms!","Di partial 2values wey dey across terms, you no fit compare di partial 2values across terms",Computer science
"suppose, for instance, there is no within-groups variability at all: if so, ss r0.","suppose for example, sey no within-groups variability at all: if so, SS R=0.",Computer science
what that means is that every term has a partial 2value of 1.,Di means na say every term get partial 2value of 1.,Computer science
"but that doesn't mean that all terms in your model are equally important, or indeed that they are equally large.","Dem no mean say all terms for your model dey important, or indeed say dem dey equally important, or indeed say dem dey equally large",Computer science
all it mean is that all terms in your model have eect sizes that are large relative to the residual variation.,Dem mean say all terms for your model don eect sizes wey dey large relative to di residual variation.,Computer science
it is not comparable across terms.,E no dey comparable across terms,Computer science
"to see what i mean by this, it's useful to see a concrete example.","Di useful to see wetin I mean by dis, e dey useful to see one real example.",Computer science
"once again, we'll use the etasquared() function from the lsrpackage.",We go use di etasquared() function from di lsrpackage.,Computer science
"as before, we input the aovobject for which we want the 2calculations performed, and routputs a matrix showing the eect sizes for each term in the model.","We input di aovobject for wey we wan di 2calculations perform, and routput matrix show di eect sizes for each term for di model.",Computer science
"first, let's have a look at the eect sizes for the original anova without the interaction term:> etasquared( model.2) eta. sq partial. eta. sq drug 0. 712762 0. 78883 therapy 0. 096434 0. 33573 looking at the 2values rst, we see that drug accounts for 71. 3%of the variance(i. e.",We see say drug accounts for 71. 3%of di variance(i. e.,Computer science
"this leaves a total of 19.1% ofthe variation unaccounted for(i. e, the residuals constitute 19.1% ofthe variation in the outcome).","E, di residuals constitute 19.1% of di variation for di outcome).",Computer science
"overall, this implies that we have avery large eect5ofdrug and a modest eect of therapy.",Di implies say we get large eect5ofdrug and modest eect of therapy.,Computer science
now let's look at the partial 2values.,Dem make we look di partial 2values,Computer science
"because the eect of therapy isn't all that large, controlling for it doesn't make much of a dierence, so the partial 2fordrug doesn't increase very much, and we obtain a value of p20: 789).","Di eect of therapy no dey big, controlling for am no make much of dierence, so di partial 2fordrug no dey increase very much, so di partial 2fordrug no dey increase very much, and we obtain value of p20: 789).",Computer science
"in contrast, because the eect of drug was very large, controlling for it makes a big dierence, and so when we calculate the partial 2fortherapy you can see that it rises to p20: 336.","Di eect of drug dey large, controlling for am make big dierence, and so when we dey calculate di partial 2fortherapy wey dey reach p20",Computer science
"the question that we have to ask ourselves is, what does these partial 2values actually mean?","Di question wey we get to ask awaselves na, what does dis partial 2values mean?",Computer science
the way i generally interpret the partial 2for the main eect of factor a is to interpret it as a statement about a hypothetical experiment in which only factor a was being varied.,Di way i generally interpret di partial 2for di main eect of factor a nato interpret am as statement about a hypothetical experiment wey only factor a dey varied.,Computer science
"so, even though inthisexperiment we varied both a and b, we can easily imagine an experiment in which only factor a was varied: the partial 2statistic tells you how much ofthe variance in the outcome variable you would expect to see accounted for in that experiment.","Di partial 2statistic tell you how much of di variance for di outcome variable wey dey varied, we fit imagine experiment wey only factor a dey varied: di partial 2statistic tell you how much of di variance for di outcome variable wey dey depend for dat experiment.",Computer science
"however, it should be noted that this interpretation{ like many things associated with main eects {doesn't make alot of sense when there is a large and signi cant interaction eect.",Di interpretation{ like many things wey dey associated wit main eects { no make alot of sense wen e dey large and signi cant interaction eect,Computer science
"as you can see, the 2values for the main eects don't change, but the partial 2values do:> etasquared( model.3) eta. sq partial. eta. sq drug 0. 712762 0. 84091 therapy 0. 096434 0. 41696 drug: therapy 0. 055957 0. 29327 16. 3. 2 estimated group means in many situations you will nd yourself wanting to report estimates of all the group means based on the results of your anova, aswell as con dence intervals associated with them.","Di estimate group means for many situations you go report estimate of all di group means based on di results of your anova, aswell as con dence interval",Computer science
you can use the effect()function in the effects package to do this(don't forget to install the package if you don't have it already!).,Dem go use di effect()function for di effects package to do dis(don't forget to install di package if you no get am already!).,Computer science
"if the anova that you have run is a saturated model(i. e, contains all possible main eects and all possible interaction eects) then the estimates ofthe group means are actually identical to the sample means, though the con dence intervals will use a pooled estimate ofthe standard errors, rather than use a separate one for each group.","I. e, contains all possible main eects and all possible interaction eects) then di estimate of di group means go use pooled estimate of di standard errors, even if di con dence intervals go use pooled estimate of di standard errors, even if di con dence intervals go use pooled estimate of di standard errors, even if di con dence intervals go use pooled estimate of di standard errors.",Computer science
"to illustrate this, let's apply the effect()function to our saturated model(i. e, model. 3)for the clinical trial data.","E. e, model. 3)for di clinical trial data.",Computer science
"one useful thing that we can do using the eect variable eff, however, is extract the con dence intervals using the summary()function: >summary(eff) drug*therapy effect therapy drug no. therapy cbt placebo 0. 300000 0. 600000 anxifree 0. 400000 1. 033333 joyzepam 1. 466667 1. 500000 lower 95 percent confidence limits therapy drug no. therapy cbt placebo 0. 006481093 0.","One useful thing wey we fit do using di effect variable""eff"", nato extract di confidence intervals using di way to see small tins:> summary(eff)drug*therapy effect. Then e show lower 95%confidence limits.",Computer science
anxifree 0. 106481093 0.,"Anxifree: 0.106481093, etc.",Computer science
joyzepam 1. 173147759 -upper 95 percent confidence limits therapy drug no. therapy cbt placebo 0.,Joyzepam: 1.173147759. Upper 95%confidence limits.,Computer science
"joyzepam in this output, we see that the estimated mean mood gain for the placebo group with no therapy was 0. 300, with a 95%con dence interval from 0. 006 to 0. 594.","We see say di mean mood gain for di placebo group wit no therapy na 0. 300, wit 95%con dence interval from 0. 006 to 0. 594.",Computer science
"note that these are not the same con dence intervals that you would get if you calculated them separately for each group, because ofthe fact that the anova model assumes homogeneity of variance and therefore uses a pooled estimate ofthe standard deviation.","Note sey dis ones no be di same confidence intervals wey you go get if you calculate dem separately for each group, because ANOVA model dey assume homogeneity of variance and so e dey use pooled estimate of di howe dey spread.",Computer science
"when the model doesn't contain the interaction term, then the estimated group means will be dierent from the sample means.","Di model no contain di interaction term, then di estimated group means go dey di sample means.",Computer science
"instead of reporting the sample mean, the effect()function will calculate the value ofthe group means that would be expected on the basis ofthe marginal means(i. e, assuming no interaction).","Di effect()function go calculate di value of di group means wey dey expected on di basis of di marginal means(i. e, assumin no interaction).",Computer science
"using the notation we developed earlier, the estimate reported for rc, the mean for level r on the(row) factor a and level con the(column) factor b would be::","Di estimate wey we develop for rc, di mean for level r on di(row) factor a and level con di(column) factor b go be",Computer science
"the command to obtain these estimates is actually identical to the last one, except that we use model.2.","Di command to obtain estimates dey identical to di last one, except say we use model",Computer science
"this is rbeing polite, and letting you know that the estimates it is constructing are based on the assumption that no interactions exist.","Dis dey rbeing polite, and letting you know say di estimate wey dey constructin dey based on di assumption say no interaction exist",Computer science
"it kind of makes sense that it would do this: when we use""drug*therapy"" as our input, we're telling rthat we want it to output the estimated group means(rather than marginal means), but the actual input""drug*therapy"" might mean that you want interactions included or you might not.","Di input wey we use""drug*therapy"" as awa input, we dey tell r say we wan to output di estimated group means(no be marginal means), but di actual input""drug*therapy"" might mean say you wan interactions included or you no.",Computer science
"there's no actual ambiguity here, because the model itself either does or doesn't have interactions, but the authors ofthe function thought it sensible to include a warning just to make sure that you've speci ed the actual model you care about.",But di authors of di function think e sensible to include warning just to make sure say you dey speci ed di actual model you care about.,Computer science
"but, assuming that we genuinely don't believe that there are any interactions, model. 2 is the right model to use, so we can ignore this warning. 6in any case, when we inspect the output, we get the following table of estimated group means:> eff drug*therapy effect therapy drug no. therapy cbt placebo 0.","But, assuming sey we truly no believe sey any interactions dey, model.2 na di right model to use, so we fit ignore dis warning. Anyway, when we inspect di output, we get dis table of estimated group means.",Computer science
"joyzepam as before, we can obtain con dence intervals using the following command:> summary(eff )but the output looks pretty much the same as last time, and this book is already way too long, so i won't include it here.","Di summary(eff )but di output look pretty much di same as last time, and dis book dey already way too long, so i no fit include am here",Computer science
the rst two are things we can test for.,Di rst two na things we fit test for.,Computer science
the third is something that you need to assess yourself by asking if there are any special relationships between dierent observations.,Di third na something wey you need to assess yourself by asking if e dey special relationships between dierent observations.,Computer science
"additionally, if you aren't using a saturated model(e. g, if you've omitted the interaction terms)then you're also assuming that the omitted terms aren't important.","If you no use a saturated model(e. g, if you dey omitted di interaction terms)then you dey assum say di omitted terms dey important.",Computer science
"ofcourse, you can check this last one by running an anova with the omitted terms included and see if they're signi cant, so that's pretty easy.","Di last one, you fit check dis last one by running an anova wit di omitted terms wey dem include and see if dem signi cant, so e dey pretty easy.",Computer science
what about homogeneity of variance and normality ofthe residuals?,Na what about homogeneity of variance and normality of di residuals?,Computer science
"as it turns out, these are pretty easy to check: it's no dierent to the checks we did for a one-way anova.",E dey easy to check: nano dierent to di check wey we do for one-way anova.,Computer science
"once again, you can use the levenetest() function in the carpackage to do this.",Di levenetest() function for di carpackage to do dis.,Computer science
"this function expects that you have a saturated model(i. e, included all ofthe relevant terms), because the test is primarily concerned with the withingroup variance, and it doesn't really make alot of sense to calculate this anyway other than with respect to the full model.","Di function expect say you go get saturated model(i. e, include all of di relevant terms), because di test dey primarily concerned wit di withingroup variance, and e no make alot of sense to calculate dis anyway oda than wit respect to di full model.",Computer science
"instead, if you want to run the levene test, you need to specify a saturated model.","Instead, if you wan run Levene's test, you need to specify a saturated model.",Computer science
"that shouldn't happen, because this actually is a fully crossed model.",Di actually dey fully crossed model,Computer science
"however, there's a quirky shortcut in the way that the levenetest() function checks whether your model is fully crossed that means that it doesn't recognise this as a fully crossed model.","Di Quirky shortcut for di way wey di levenetest() function check whether your model dey fully crossed, means say e no recognise dis as fully crossed model",Computer science
"essentially what the function is doing is checking that you used*(which ensures that the model is fully crossed), and not+or: in your model formula.","Di function dey doin dey check say you use*( wey ensure say di model dey fully cross), and no+or: for your model formula.",Computer science
"so if you've manually typed out all ofthe relevant terms for a fully crossed model, the levenetest() function doesn't detect it.","So if you manually type out all di relevant terms for fully crossed model, di leveneTest() function no detect am.",Computer science
"first, we use the residuals() function to extract the residuals from the model itself, and then we can examine those residuals in a few dierent ways.","We use di residuals() function to extract di residuals from di model wey deyself, and then we fit examine those residuals for few dierent way.",Computer science
"it's generally a good idea to examine them graphically, by drawing histograms (i. e, hist() function)and qq plots(i. e, qqnorm() function.","Na generally good idea to examine dem graphically, by drawing histograms (hist() function)and QQ plots (qqnorm() function).",Computer science
"if you want a formal test for the normality ofthe residuals, then we can run the shapiro-wilk test(i. e, shapiro. test()).","If you wan formal test for normality of residuals, den we fit run di Shapiro-Wilk test (shapiro. test()).",Computer science
"in the context of anova, i've been referring to the f-test as away of testing whether a particular term in the model(e. g, main eect of factor a)is signi cant.","I dey to talk about di f-test as way of testing whether a particular term for di model(e. g, main eect of factor a)dey signi cant.",Computer science
"this interpretation is perfectly valid, but it's not necessarily the most useful way to think about the test.","Di interpretation dey perfectly valid, but e no necessarily di most useful way to think about di test",Computer science
"in fact, it's actually a fairly limiting way of thinking about what the f-test does.",Di f-test dey actually fairly limiting way of thinking about what di f-test does.,Computer science
suppose i want to see if there are anyeects of any kind that involve therapy.,Di suppose see if anyeects of any kind wey deyinvolve therapy,Computer science
i'm not fussy: i don't care if it's a main eect or an interaction eect. 8one thing i could do is look at the output for model.3 earlier: in this model we did see a main eect of therapy( p: 013) but we did not see an interaction eect ( p:125).,For dis model we don see main eect of therapy( p: 013) but we no see interaction eect,Computer science
"that's kind of telling us what we want to know, but it's not quite the same thing.","Na kind of telling us what we wan know, but nano quite di same thing.",Computer science
what we really want is a single test that jointly checks the main eect of therapy and the interaction eect.,Na single test wey jointly check di main eect of therapy and di interaction eect.,Computer science
"given the way that i've been describing the anova f-test upto this point, you'd be tempted to think that this isn't possible.","Di way wey i dey describing di anova f-test upto dis point, you go tempt to think say dis no dey possible.",Computer science
perhaps something of that sort is possible with anova?,Di sort dey possible wit anova?,Computer science
"and ofcourse, the answer here is yes.",Di answer here dey yes.,Computer science
"the thing that you really need to understand is that the f-test, as it is used in both anova and regression, is really a comparison of twostatistical models.","Di thing wey you need understand na say di f-test, as e dey use for both anova and regression, na comparison of twostatistical models.",Computer science
"one of these models is the full model(alternative hypothesis), and the other model is a simpler model that is missing one or more ofthe terms that the full model includes(null hypothesis).","One of dis model dey di full model(di other idea), and di oda model dey simpler model wey dey missing one or more of di terms wey di full model includes(di null idea).",Computer science
the null model cannot contain any terms that are not in the full model.,Di null model no contain any terms wey dey for di full model,Computer science
"in the example i gave above, the full model is model.3, and it contains a main eect for therapy, a main eect for drug, and the drug by therapy interaction term.","Di full model dey model.3, and di main eect for therapy, main eect for drug, and di drug by therapy interaction term.",Computer science
the null model would be model.1 since it contains only the main eect of drug.,Di null model go be model.1 since di main eect of drug,Computer science
"we'll say that our full model can be written as an r formula that contains several dierent terms, say y~a+b+c+d.","We go say awa full model fit be written as r formula wey contains several dierent terms, say y~a+b+c+d",Computer science
"our null model only contains some subset of these terms, say y~a+b.","Our null model only contain some subset of these terms, like y~a+b.",Computer science
"some of these terms might be main eect terms, others might be interaction terms.","Some of these terms fit be main effect terms, others fit be interaction terms.",Computer science
it really doesn't matter.,E no dey matter,Computer science
"the only thing that matters here is that we want to treat some of these terms as the\starting point""(i. e.","Di only thing wey matters here na say we wan treat some of dis terms as di beginning point""(i. e.",Computer science
"the terms in the null model, aand b), and we want to see if including the other terms(i. e, cand d)leads to a signi cant improvement in model performance, over and above what could be achieved by a model that includes only aand b.","Di terms for di null model, aand b)lead to signi cant improvement for model performance, over and above what fit achieve by model wey include only aand b.",Computer science
"in essence, we have null and alternative hypotheses that look like this: hypothesis correct model?",We get null and other ideas wey dey look like dis: hypothesis correct model?,Computer science
rformula for correct model null m0 y~a+b alternative m1 y~a+b+c+dis there away of making this comparison directly?,"R formula for correct model: null M0: y~a+b, alternative M1: y~a+b+c+ d. But is there away to make dis comparison directly?",Computer science
"to answer this, let's go back to fundamentals.",Dem to go back to fundamentals.,Computer science
what we want to do is gure out how to talk about the ss value that is associated with thedierence between two models.,We wan to do na gure out how to talk about diss value wey dey associated wit didierence between two models.,Computer science
it's actually not all that hard to do.,Di actually no dey hard to do.,Computer science
"however, it's kind of useful to rearrange this equation slightly, and say that the ss value associated with a model is de ned like this. ssmsstssr now, in our scenario, we have two models: the null model (m0) and the full model(m1): ssm0sstssr0 ssm1sstssr1 next, let's think about what it is we actually care about here.","Di scenario, we get two model: di null model (m0) and di full model(m1): ssm1sstssr1 next, make we think about what we dey care about here",Computer science
what we're interested in is the dierence between the full model and the null model.,We dey interest for na di dierence between di full model and di null model.,Computer science
"so, if we want to preserve the idea that what we're doing is an nalysis ofthe variance"" (anova) in the outcome variable, what we should do is de ne the ss associated with the dierence to be equal to the dierence in the ss: ssssm1ssm0 p sstssr1qpsstssr0q ssr0ssr1 now that we have our degrees of freedom, we can calculate mean squares and fvalues in the usual way.","If we wan to preserve di idea say we dey nalysis of divariance"" (anova) for di outcome variable, we fit calculate mean squares and fvalues for di outcome variable, we fit calculate mean squares and fvalues for di usual way, we fit calculate mean squares and fvalues for di usual way.",Computer science
"speci cally, we're interested in the mean square for the dierence between models, and the mean square for the residuals associated with the fullmodel (m1), which are given by msss df -519- msr1ssr1 dfr1 finally, taking the ratio of these two gives us our fstatistic: fms msr1 16. 5. 2 running the test in r at this point, it may help to go back to our concrete example.","E dey interest for di mean square for di dierence between models, and di mean square for di residuals wey dey associated wit di fullmodel (m1), wey dey given by msss df -519- msr1ssr1 dfr1 finally, taking di ratio of dis two give us awa fstatistic: fms msr1 16. 5. 2 to go back to awa one real example.",Computer science
"the null model here is model.1, which stipulates that there is a main eect of drug, but no other eects exist.","Di null model wey stipulates say na main eect of drug, but no oda eect exist.",Computer science
we expressed this via the model formula mood. gain~ drug.,We express dis one using di model formula mood. gain ~drug.,Computer science
"the alternative model here is model.3, which stipulates that there is a main eect of drug, a main eect of therapy, andan interaction.","Di alternative model here dey model.3, wey stipulates say na main eect of drug, a main eect of therapy, andan interaction.",Computer science
"if we express this in the\long"" format, this model corresponds to the formula mood. gain~ drug+ therapy+ drug: therapy, though we often express this using the*shorthand.","We often express dis for di\long"" format, dis model correspond to di formula mood",Computer science
"the key thing here is that if we compare model.1 tomodel. 3, we're lumping the main eect of therapy and the interaction term together.",We dey lumping di main eect of therapy and di interaction term together.,Computer science
"running this test in ris straightforward: we just input both models to the anova() function, and it will run the exact f-test that i outlined above.","We just input both models to di anova() function, and e go run di exact f-test wey i outline above.",Computer science
"firstly, if you go back and look at the anova tables that we printed out for model.1 and model.3 you can reassure yourself that the rss values printed in this table really do correspond to the residual sum of squares associated with these two models.","For firstly, if you go back and make we look di anova table wey we to print for model.1 and model.3 you fit reassure you say di rss values wey we to print for model.1 and model.3 make you go back and make we look di anova table wey we to print for model.1 and model.3 you fit reassure you say di rss values wey we to print for model.1 and model.3 if you go back and make we look di anova table wey we to print for model.1 and model",Computer science
"so let's type them in as variables:> ss. res. null<- 1. 392> ss. res. full<- 0. 653 now, following the procedure that i described above, we will say that the etween model""sum of squares, is the dierence between these two residual sum of squares values.","Di procedure wey i described above, we go say di between model""adding all the squared gaps to measure total error, dey di dierence between di two residual adding all the squared gaps to measure total error values.",Computer science
"so, if we do the subtraction, we discover that the sum of squares associated with those terms that appear in the full model but not the null model is:> ss. diff<- ss. res. null- ss. res. full> ss. diff[1] 0. 739 right.","If we do di subtraction, we discover say di adding all the squared gaps to measure total error wey dey associated wit di full model but no di null model dey:",Computer science
"next, as always we need to convert these ss values into ms(mean square)values, which we do by dividing by the degrees of freedom.","di normal way we need convert dis values into ms(mean square)values, wey we do by dividing by di degree of freedom.",Computer science
"the degrees of freedom associated with the full-model residuals hasn't changed from our original anova for model.3: it's the total sample size n, minus the total number of groupsgthat are relevant to the model.","Di total sample size n, minus di total number of groups wey dey relevant to di model.",Computer science
"we have 18 people in the trial and 6 possible groups(i. e,2 therapies3 drugs), so the degrees of freedom here is 12.","We get 18 pipo for di trial and 6 possible groups(i. e,2 therapies3 drugs), so di degree of freedom here dey 12.",Computer science
the degrees of freedom for the null model are calculated similarly.,Di degree of freedom for di null model dey calculat similarly.,Computer science
"the only dierence here is that there are only 3 relevant groups(i. e,3 drugs), so -520-the degrees of freedom here is 15.","Di only dierence here dey say na only 3 relevant groups(i. e,3 drugs), so -520-di degree of freedom here dey 15.",Computer science
"and, because the degrees of freedom associated with the dierence is equal to the dierence in the two degrees of freedom, we arrive at the conclusion that we have 15 123 degrees of freedom.","Di conclusion say we get 15 123 how many things you fit adjust inside a system wey dey associated wit di dierence for two how many things you fit adjust inside a system, we arrive at di conclusion say we get 15 123 how many things you fit adjust inside a system.",Computer science
"on the surface of it, you wouldn't think that this is true: after all, the way that i've described them so far suggests that anova is primarily concerned with testing for group dierences, and regression is primarily concerned with understanding the correlations between variables.","As all, di way wey i described dem so far suggest say anova dey primarily concerned wit testing for group dierences, and regression dey primarily concerned wit understanding di how two things dey connect.",Computer science
"and as far as it goes, that's perfectly true.",E dey perfectly true.,Computer science
"but when you look under the hood, so to speak, the underlying mechanics of anova and regression are awfully similar.","Di underlying mechanics of anova and regression dey awfully similar but wen you look under di hood, so to speak, di underlying mechanics of anova and regression dey awfully similar",Computer science
"in fact, if you think about it, you've already seen evidence of this.","If you think about am, you go get already seen evidence of dis",Computer science
"anova and regression both rely heavily on sums of squares(ss), both make use of ftests, and soon.","ANOVA and regression both rely heavily on sums of squares(SS), both dey use F-tests, and soon.",Computer science
the reason for this is that anova and regression are both kinds of linear models.,Di reason for dis na say anova and regression dey both kind of linear models.,Computer science
"in the case of regression, this is kind of obvious.","For regression case, dis one kind of obvious.",Computer science
"the regression equation that we use to de ne the relationship between predictors and outcomes isthe equation for a straight line, so it's quite obviously a linear model.","Di regression equation wey we use to dene di how two things dey related predictors and outcomes na equation for straight line, so e dey quite obviously linear model.",Computer science
"and if that wasn't a big enough clue, the simple fact that the command to run a regression is lm()is kind of a hint too.",Di simple fact say di command to run a regression na lm()na kind of hint too.,Computer science
when we use an rformula like outcome~ predictor1 + predictor2 what we're really working with is the somewhat uglier linear model: ypb1x1p,We use rformula like outcome~ predictor1 + predictor2 wey we dey work wit na di somewhat uglier linear model: ypb1x1p,Computer science
"if we ignore the residuals pand just focus on the regression line itself, we get the following formula: ^ypb1x1p",We get di following formula: ^ypb1x1p,Computer science
the thing that isn't immediately obvious is that we can write anova as a linear model aswell.,Di thing wey dey immediately obvious na say we fit write anova as linear model aswell.,Computer science
"however, it's actually pretty straightforward to do this.",E dey actually straightforward to do dis,Computer science
let's start with a really simple example: rewriting a22 factorial anova as a linear model.,Make we to start with really simple example: rewriting 2×2 factorial ANOVA as linear model.,Computer science
"there are two predictor variables of interest: whether or not the student turned upto lectures(the attend variable), and whether or not the student actually read the textbook(the reading variable).","Di predictor variables wey dey interest: whether or no di student turn upto lectures(the attend variable), and whether or no di student actually read di textbook(the reading variable).",Computer science
"we'll say that attend=1 if the student attended class, and attend=0 if they did not.","We go say attend=1 if di student attend class, and attend=0 if dem no dey.",Computer science
"similarly, we'll say that reading=1 if the student read the textbook, and reading=0 if they did not.","We go say reading=1 if di student read di textbook, and reading=0 if dem no dey.",Computer science
"okay, so far that's simple enough.","Di simple enough, so far na simple enough.",Computer science
the next thing we need to do is to wrap some maths around this(sorry!).,Di next thing we need to do nato wrap some maths around dis(sorry!).,Computer science
"for the purposes of this example, let ypdenote the grade of thep-th student in the class.","Di example, let ypdenote di grade of dip-th student for di class.",Computer science
"this extended notation was really handy for describing how the ss values are calculated, but it's a pain in the current context, so i'll switch notation here.","Di extended notation dey handy for describing how diss value dey calculated, but e dey pain for di current context, so i go switch notation here.",Computer science
"now, the ypnotation is visually simpler than yrci, but it has the shortcoming that it doesn't actually keep track ofthe group memberships!","Di ypnotation dey visually simpler than yrci, but na di shortcoming say e no fit keep track of di group memberships",Computer science
"that is, if i told you that y0; 0; 335, you'd immediately know that we're talking about a student(the 3rd such student, in fact)who didn't attend the lectures(i. e, attend =0)and didn't read the textbook(i. e.","Di student(the 3rd such student, for true)we no dey attend di lectures(i. e, attend =0)and no dey read di textbook(i. e.",Computer science
"reading=0 ), and who ended up failing the class( grade= 35).","Di class( grade= 35), and wey dey fail di class( grade= 35).",Computer science
but if i tell you that yp35 all you know is that the p-th student didn't get a good grade.,If i tell you say yp35 all you know na say dip-th student no get good grade but if i tell you say dip-th student no get good grade,Computer science
we've lost some key information here.,We don lost some key information here,Computer science
"ofcourse, it doesn't take alot of thought to gure out how to x this: what we'll do instead is introduce two new variables x1pandx2pthat keep track of this information.",We no take alot of thought to gure out how to x dis information,Computer science
"in the case of our hypothetical student, we know that x1p0 (i. e, attend=0) andx2p0 (i. e, reading=0 ).","For di case of our hypothetical student, we know sey X {1p} =0(attend = 0)and X {2p} =0(reading =0).",Computer science
"so the data might look like this: person, pgrade, ypattendance, x1preading, x2p 1 90 112 87 113 75 014 60 105 35 006 50 007 65 108 70 01 this isn't anything particularly special, of course: it's exactly the format in which we expect to see our data!","So di data fit look like dis: person p, grade Y p, attendance X {1p}, reading X {2p}. 1: 90,1,1; 2:87,1,1; 3:75,0,1; 4:60,1,0; 5:35,0,0; 6:50,0,0; 7:65,1,0; 8:70,0,1. Dis one nothing special, of course: na exactly di format wey we expect to see our data!",Computer science
"in other words, if your data have been stored as a data frame in rthen you're probably expecting to see something that looks like the rtfm. 1 data frame:> rtfm. 1 grade attend reading 1 90 112 87 113 75 014 60 105 35 006 50 007 65 108 70 01 well, sort of.","For other words, if your data don store as one kind of table for R, den you probably expect to see something wey look like rtfm.1 one kind of table: grade, attend, reading. Well, sort of.",Computer science
"earlier on in the book i emphasised the importance of converting nominal scale variables such as attend and reading to factors, rather than encoding them as numeric variables.","Earlier for di book, I emphasize di importance of converting names wey no need order like attend and reading to factors, not dat one encoding dem as numeric variables.",Computer science
"in any case, we can use the xtabs() function to con rm that this dataset corresponds to a balanced design> xtabs( ~attend +reading, rtfm. 2)reading attend no yes no 22 yes 22 for each possible combination ofthe attend and reading variables, we have exactly two students.","We fit use di xtabs() function to con rm say dis group of related numbers or data wey belong together correspond to balanced design> xtabs( ~attend and reading, rtfm. 2)reading attend no 2 for each possible combination of di attend and reading variables, we get exactly two students.",Computer science
"if we're interested in calculating the mean grade for each of these cells, we can use the aggregate()function: >aggregate( grade~ attend+ reading, rtfm. 2, mean )attend reading grade 1 no no 42. 52 yes no 62. 53 no yes 72. 54 yes yes 88. 5 looking at this table, one gets the strong impression that reading the text and attending the class both matter alot.","Di table, one get di strong impression say reading di text and attend di class both matter alot",Computer science
"we now have our data expressed in terms of three numeric variables: the continuous variable y, and the two binary variables x1andx2.","We now get our data expressed as three numeric variables: di continuous variable Y, and di two binary variables X1 and X2.",Computer science
what i want to you to recognise is that our 22 factorial anova is exactly equivalent to the regression model ypb1x1p,I wan to recognise na say awa 2 factorial anova dey exactly equivalent to di regression model ypb1x1p,Computer science
"the only dierence is that x1andx2are now binary variables(i. e, values can only be 0 or 1), whereas in a regression analysis we expect that x1andx2will be continuous.","We expect say x1andx2 dey now binary variables(i. e, values no be 0 or 1), whereas for regression analysis we expect say x1andx2will be continuous.",Computer science
there's a couple of ways i could try to convince you of this.,Di couple of way wey i go convince you of dis,Computer science
"one possibility would be to do a lengthy mathematical exercise, proving that the two are identical.","one way wey e fit be go be to do lengthy mathematical exercise, proving say di two dey identical",Computer science
"however, i'm going to go out on a limb and guess that most ofthe readership of this book will nd that to be annoying rather than helpful.",I go out on limb and guess say most of di readership of dis book go dey annoying no be helpful.,Computer science
"instead, i'll explain the basic ideas, and then rely on rto show that that anova analyses and regression analyses aren't just similar, they're identical-523- for all intents and purposes. 9let's start by running this as an anova.","I go explain di basic ideas, and then rely on rto show say anova analyses and regression analyses no dey similar, dem dey identical-523- for all intents and purposes.",Computer science
"to do this, we'll use the rtfm. 2 data frame, since that's the one in which i did the proper thing of coding attend and reading as factors, and i'll use the aov() function to do the analysis.","Di one wey i do di proper thing of coding attend and reading as factors, and i go use di aov() function to do di analysis.",Computer science
let's make a note of those p-values and those f statistics.,Make we note those p-values and those F statistics.,Computer science
"in the rtfm. 1 dataset, we have encoded attend and reading as if they were numeric predictors.",We don encoded attend and reading as if dem dey numeric predictors.,Computer science
"in this case, this is perfectly acceptable.",Di case dey perfectly acceptable,Computer science
there really is a sense in which a student who turns upto class(i. e.,Di sense wey student wey turn upto class(i. e.,Computer science
"attend=1) has in fact done\more attendance""than a student who does not(i. e.","Di student wey no dey done\more attendance""than student wey no dey(i. e.",Computer science
attend=0 ).,Di attend=0 ).,Computer science
so it's not at all unreasonable to include it as a predictor in a regression model.,E no dey unreasonable to include am as predictor for regression model so e no dey unreasonable to include am as predictor for regression model.,Computer science
"it's a little unusual, because the predictor only takes on two possible values, but it doesn't violate any ofthe assumptions of linear regression.","Di predictor only take on two possible values, but e no violate any of di assumption of linear regression.",Computer science
and it's easy to interpret.,E easy to interpret and e easy to interpret,Computer science
"if the regression coecient for attend is greater than 0, it means that students that attend lectures get higher grades; if it's less than zero, then students attending lectures get lower grades.","Di regression coecient for attend dey pass, as in one thing pass anoda, for example, if u get 10 naira and v get 5 naira, u pass v 0, means say students wey dey attend lectures get higher grades; if dey less than zero, then students wey dey attend lecture get lower grades.",Computer science
the same is true for our reading variable.,Di same dey true for our reading variable,Computer science
wait a second. why is this true?,Di true?,Computer science
"it's something that is intuitively obvious to everyone who has taken a few stats classes and is comfortable with the maths, but it isn't clear to everyone else at rst pass.","E dey something wey dey intuitively obvious to all wey dey take few stats class and dey comfortable wit di maths, but e no clear to all else for rst pass.",Computer science
"to see why this is true, it helps to look closely at a few speci c students.","To see why dis true, e help to look closely at few specific students.",Computer science
let's start by considering the 6th and 7th students in our dataset (i. e.,"Make we start by considering di 6th and 7th students for our group of related numbers or data wey belong together(i. e, student 6 and student 7).",Computer science
"neither one has read the textbook, so in both cases we can set reading=0.","Na either one don read di textbook, so for both case we fit set reading=0",Computer science
"or, to say the same thing in our mathematical notation, we observex2; 60 andx2; 70.","Or to say di same thing for our di way wey math dey write, we observe X {2,6} =0 and X {2,7} = 0.",Computer science
"however, student number 7 did turn upto lectures(i. e, attend =1, x1; 71)whereas student number 6 did not(i. e, attend =0, x1; 60).","Di student number 7 don turn upto lectures(i. e, attend =1, x1; 60) wia student number 6 no(i. e, attend =0, x1; 60).",Computer science
now let's look at what happens when we insert these numbers into the general formula for our regression line.,Na now let make we look how we insert dia numbers into di general formula for our regression line.,Computer science
"for student number 6, the regression predicts that ^y6b1x1; 6",Di regression predict say ^y6b1x1; 6b1x1; 6,Computer science
what about student 7?,For student 7?,Computer science
"this time, when we insert the numbers into the formula for the regression 9this is cheating in some respects: because anova and regression are provably the same thing, ris lazy: if you read the help documentation closely, you'll notice that the aov() function is actually just the lm()function in disguise!","If you read di papers wey dey help closely, we go notice say di anova and regression dey provably di same thing, e dey lazy: if you read di papers wey dey help closely, you go notice say di anova and regression dey cheat for some respects: because anova and regression dey cheat for some respects: because anova and regression dey cheat for some respects: because anova and regression dey cheat for some respects: because anova and regression dey cheat for some respects: because",Computer science
"but we shan't let such things get in the way of our story, shall we?","But we no go let such things block our story, abi?",Computer science
"so, ifb1is greater than zero, we're expecting that the students who turn upto lectures will get higher grades than those students who don't.",We dey expect say di students wey turn upto lectures go get higher grades than those students wey don do.,Computer science
"if this coecient is negative, we're expecting the opposite: students who turn up at class end up performing much worse.",We expect di opposite: students wey turn up for class end up perform much worse,Computer science
"in fact, we can push this a little bit further.",We fit push dis a little bit further,Computer science
"what about student number 1, who turned upto class(x1; 11)andread the textbook( x2; 11)?","For student number 1, wey turn upto class(x1; 11)andread di textbook( x2; 11)?",Computer science
"if we plug these numbers into the regression, we get ^y1b1x1; 1","If we put these numbers into di regression, we get Ŷ1 = b0 + b1X {1,1} + b2X {2,1} = b0 +b1*1 +b2*1 = b0 + b1 +b2.",Computer science
"and at this point, you won't beat all suprised to learn that the regression model predicts that student 3, who read the book but didn't attend lectures, will obtain a grade of b2","Di point, you no beat all suprised to learn say di regression model predict say student 3, wey read di book but no dey attend lectures, go obtain grade of b2",Computer science
"instead, what i'll do is show you the following table of expected grades: read textbook?","Instead, wetin I go do nato show you dis table of expected grades: Read textbook?",Computer science
no yes attended?,Nano e dey attend?,Computer science
"similarly, b1represents the boost that you're expected to get if you come to class, and b2represents the boost that comes from reading the textbook.","Di similarly, b1represent di boost wey you go get if you kom class, and b2represent di boost wey you go get if you kom class, and b2represent di boost wey dem dey from reading di textbook.",Computer science
"in fact, if this were an anova you might very well want to characterise b1as the main eect of attendance, and b2as the main eect of reading!","If dis dey an anova you go very well wan characterise b1as di main eect of attendance, and b2as di main eect of reading",Computer science
"in fact, for a simple 22 anova that's exactly how it plays out.",Di simple 2 anova wey dey exactly how dey play out,Computer science
"okay, now that we're really starting to see why anova and regression are basically the same thing, let's actually run our regression using the rtfm. 1 data and the lm()function to convince ourselves that this is really true.","We dey start to see why anova and regression na di same thing, let's actually run awa regression using di rtfm. 1 data and di lm()function to convince awaselves say dis dey true.",Computer science
"however, the summary()function does produce alot of output, which is why i've used the blah blah blah text to hide the unnecessary parts ofthe output.","Di way to see small tins don produce alot of output, wey dey why i use di and soon text to hide di unnecessary parts of di output.",Computer science
"but in fact, you can use the coef() function to do the same job.",Di coef() function go do di same job,Computer science
if you the command coef( summary(regression. model))you'll get exactly the same output that i've shown above(minus the blah blah blah).,Di command coef( summary(regression. model)you go get exactly di same output wey i show above(minus di and soon,Computer science
compare and contrast this to the output of coef( regression. model).,Compare dis one to di output of coef(regression. model).,Computer science
"firstly, notice that the intercept term is 43. 5, which is close to the\group"" mean of 42. 5 observed for those two students who didn't read the text or attend class.","Di intercept term dey 43. 5, wey dey close to di\group"" mean of 42. 5 observe for di two students wey no read di text or attend class.",Computer science
"moreover, it's identical to the predicted group mean that we pulled out of our anova using the effects()function!",Di predicted group mean say we pull out of awa anova using di effects()function,Computer science
"secondly, notice that we have the regression coecient of b118: 0 for the attendance variable, suggesting that those students that attended class scored 18%higher than those who didn't.","Di secondly, notice say we get di regression coecient of b118: 0 for di attendance variable, suggest say those students wey dey attend class score 18%higher than those wey no dey.",Computer science
so our expectation would be that those students who turned upto class but didn't read the textbook would obtain a grade of b0,Di expectation go be say those students wey turn upto class but no read di textbook go obtain grade of b0,Computer science
"again, this is similar to the observed group mean of 62. 5, and identical to the expected group mean that we pulled from our anova.","Dem similar to di observed group mean of 62. 5, and identical to di expected group mean wey we pull from awa anova.",Computer science
you can verify for yourself that the same thing happens when we look at the students that read the textbook.,Di same thing happen wen we make we look di students wey read di textbook.,Computer science
"actually, we can push a little further in establishing the equivalence of our anova and our regression.",We fit push a little further for establish di equivalence of awa anova and our regression.,Computer science
look at the p-values associated with the attend variable and the reading variable in the regression output.,Dip-values wey dey associated wit di attend variable and di reading variable for di regression output.,Computer science
they're identical to the ones we encountered earlier when running the anova.,Di ones wey dey encounter earlier wen run di anova.,Computer science
"this might seem a little surprising, since the test used when running our regression model calculates at-statistic and the anova calculates an f-statistic.",Di test wey dey run awa regression model dey calculat t-statistic and di anova calculate f-statistic,Computer science
for the attend variable we get a tvalue of 4. 648.,"For di attend variable, we get t-value of 4.648.",Computer science
"if we square this number we end up with 21. 604, which is identical to the corresponding fstatistic in our anova.",E dey identical to di corresponding fstatistic for awa anova.,Computer science
"finally, one last thing you should know.",One last thing you go know.,Computer science
"because runderstands the fact that anova and regression are both examples of linear models, it lets you extract the classic anova table from your regression model using the anova() function.","because runderstand di fact say anova and regression dey both examples of linear model, e fit extract di classic anova table from your regression model using di anova() function.",Computer science
so there's one last thing i should show you.,Na one last thing i goto show you,Computer science
what happens if i use the data from rtfm. 2 to run the regression?,Dem run di regression?,Computer science
"in rtfm. 2, we coded the attend and reading variables as factors rather than as numeric variables.","For rtfm.2, we code attend and reading variables as factors not dat one numeric variables.",Computer science
does this matter?,Di matter?,Computer science
it turns out that it doesn't.,E turnout say e no dey.,Computer science
you can probably guess what this means.,I go probably guess what dis means,Computer science
"when rrefers to readingyes it's trying to indicate that it is assuming that\yes = 1""and o=0"".","E try to indicate say\yes = 1""and o=0",Computer science
this is important.,Dis dey important,Computer science
"suppose we wanted to say that\yes = 0""and o=1"".","Suppose we wan say sey ""yes= 0""and ""no= 1"".",Computer science
"we could still run this as a regression model, but now all of our coecients will goin the opposite direction, because the eect of readingno would be referring to the consequences of notreading the textbook.","We go still run dis as regression model, but now all of awa coecients go for di opposite direction, because di eect of readingno goto talk about di consequences of notreading di textbook",Computer science
"to show you how this works, we can use the relevel() function in rto change which level ofthe reading variable is set to"".","We go use di relevel() function for rto change which level of di reading variable dey set to """,Computer science
"first, let's getrto print out the reading factor as it currently stands:> rtfm. 2$reading[1] yes yes yes no no no no yes levels: no yes notice that order in which rprints out the levels iso"" and then\yes"".","Di rtfm. 2$reading[1] no notice say order wey rprints out di level dey o""and then\yes",Computer science
"this means that rwill now treat\yes"" as the eference"" level(sometimes called the baseline level)when you include it in an anova.","Di means say rwill now treat\yes"" as di eference level(sometimes call di baseline level)wen you include am for anova.",Computer science
"most obviously, the attendno and readingno eects are both negative, though they're the same magnitude as before: if you don't read the textbook, for instance, you should expect your grade to drop by 28%relative to someone who did.","If you don read di textbook, for example, you go expect your grade to drop by 28%relative to someone wey dey do",Computer science
the t-statistics have reversed sign too.,Di t-statistics don revers sign too.,Computer science
"thep-values remain the same, of course.","Dip-values remain di same, of course.",Computer science
the intercept has changed too.,Di intercept don change too.,Computer science
"in our original regression, the baseline corresponded to a student who didn't attend class and didn't read the textbook, so we got a-527- value of 43. 5 as the expected baseline grade.","Di baseline correspond to student wey no attend class and no read di textbook, so we get-527 value of 43. 5 as di expected baseline grade.",Computer science
"however, now that we've recoded our variables, the baseline corresponds to a student who has read the textbook and did attend class, and for that student we would expect a grade of 89. 5.","We don recoded awa variables, di baseline correspond to a student wey read di textbook and don attend class, and for dat student we go expect grade of 89. 5.5.",Computer science
"and it's pretty easy to see how this generalises to a2 22 anova or a2 222 anova. it's the same thing, really: you just add anew binary variable for each of your factors.",And e pretty easy to see how dis one generalizes to 2×2×2 ANOVA or 2×2×2×2 ANOVA. na di same thing: you just add new binary variable for each of your factors.,Computer science
where it begins to get trickier is when we consider factors that have more than two levels.,We consider factors wey dey more than two level.,Computer science
how can we convert the three-level drug factor into a numerical form that is appropriate for a regression?,How we convert di three-level drug factor into numerical form wey dey appropriate for regression?,Computer science
"the answer to this question is pretty simple, actually.","Di answer to dis question dey simple, actually",Computer science
all we have to do is realise that a three-level factor can be redescribed as twobinary variables.,Di all we get to do dey realise say three level factor go dey redescribed as twobinary variables.,Computer science
"suppose, for instance, i were to create anew binary variable called druganxifree.","for example, i dey create new binary variable wey dem call druganxifree.",Computer science
"whenever the drug variable is equal to ""anxifree"" we set druganxifree =1.","Whenever di drug variable equal to ""anxifree"", we set drugAnxifree = 1.",Computer science
"otherwise, we set druganxifree =0.","Otherwise, we set drugAnxifree = 0.",Computer science
"this variable sets up a contrast, in this case between anxifree and the other two drugs.","Dis variable setup contrast, for dis case between Anxifree and di other two drugs.",Computer science
"by itself, of course, the druganxifree contrast isn't enough to fully capture all ofthe information in our drug variable.",Di druganxifree contrast no dey enough to fully capture all of di information for awa drug variable.,Computer science
"we need a second contrast, one that allows us to distinguish between joyzepam and the placebo.","We need second contrast, one wey enable us to distinguish between joyzepam and placebo.",Computer science
"to do this, we can create a second binary contrast, called drugjoyzepam, which equals 1 if the drug is joyzepam, and 0 if it is not.","We go create second binary contrast, wey dey called drugjoyzepam, wey equal 1 if di drug dey joyzepam, and 0 if dem no dey no.",Computer science
"taken together, these two contrasts allows us to perfectly discriminate between all three possible drugs.","Together, these two contrasts allow us to perfectly distinguish between all three possible drugs.",Computer science
"the table below illustrates this: drug druganxifree drugjoyzepam ""placebo""00 ""anxifree"" 10 ""joyzepam"" 01 if the drug administered to a patient is a placebo, then both ofthe two contrast variables will equal 0.","Di table below dey illustrate dis: drug druganxifree drugjoyzepam ""placebo""0 ""anxifree"" 10 if di drug administered to patient dey placebo, then both of di two contrast variables go equal 0.",Computer science
"if the drug is anxifree, then the druganxifree variable will equal 1, and drugjoyzepam will be 0.","Di druganxifree variable go equal 1, and drugjoyzepam go be 0.",Computer science
"the reverse is true for joyzepam: drugjoyzepam is 1, and druganxifree is 0.","Di reverse dey true for joyzepam: drugjoyzepam na 1, and druganxifree na 0",Computer science
creating contrast variables manually is not too dicult to do using basic rcommands.,Di basic rcommands no too dicult to do using basic rcommands,Computer science
the as. numeric() function just converts true to 1 and false to 0.,Di as. numeric() function just convert TRUE to 1 and FALSE to 0.,Computer science
"obviously, this command creates the druganxifree variable inside the workspace.",Di command create di druganxifree variable inside di workspace.,Computer science
"however, it's kind of tedious to do this over and over again for every single contrast that you want to create.",E kind of tedious to do dis many times for every single contrast wey you wan create.,Computer science
"to make it a little easier, the lsrpackage contains a simple function called expandfactors() that will convert every factor in a data frame into a set of contrast variables. 11we can use it to create anew data frame, clin. trial.2 11advanced users may want to look into the model. matrix()function, which produces similar output.",Di lsrpackage contains simple function called expandfactors() wey go convert every factor for one kind of table into set of contrast variables.,Computer science
"alternatively, you can use a command like contr. treatment(3)[clin. trial$drug,].","Alternatively, you fit use command like contr. treatment(3)[clin. trial$drug,].",Computer science
i'll talk about the contr. treatment()function later.,I go talk about di contr. treatment() function later.,Computer science
"we have now recoded our three-level factor in terms of two binary variables, and we've already seen that anova and regression behave the same way for binary variables.","We don recoded awa three level factor for terms of two binary variables, and we don see say anova and regression behave di same way for binary variables.",Computer science
"once again, the thing that we want to demonstrate is that our original 32 factorial anova is equivalent to a regression model applied to the contrast variables.",Di thing wey we wan to demonstrate na say awa original 32 factorial anova dey equivalent to regression model wey we use to di contrast variables.,Computer science
"that's the exact same anova that we ran earlier, except for the fact that i've arbitrarily decided to rename the output variable as drug. anova for some stupid reason.12 next, let's run a regression, using druganxifree, drugjoyzepam and therapycbt as the predictors.","Dat na di exact same ANOVA wey we run earlier, except sey I arbitrarily decide to rename di wetin come out after process don finish as drug. anova for some stupid reason. Next, make we run regression, using drugAnxifree, drugJoyzepam, and therapyCBT as di predictors.",Computer science
error t value pr(>|t|)(intercept) 0. 289 0. 121 2. 380. 032 * 12future versions of this book will try to be a bit more consistent with the naming scheme for variables.,Na 12future version of dis book go try to dey consistent wit di naming scheme for variables,Computer science
one ofthe many problems with having to write a lengthy text very quickly to meet a teaching deadline is that you lose some internal consistency.,One of di many problems wit having write lengthy text fast to meet teaching deadline na say you lose somehow inside parts agree.,Computer science
this isn't the same output that we got last time.,Di same output wey we get last time,Computer science
"not surprisingly, the regression output prints out the results for each ofthe three predictors separately, just like it did every other time we used lm().","Di regression output to write for screen di results for each of di three predictors separately, just like e don do every oda time we use lm().",Computer science
"on the one hand, we can see that the p-value for the therapycbt variable is exactly the same as the one for thetherapy factor in our original anova, so we can be reassured that the regression model is doing the same thing as the anova did.","We go see say dip-value for di therapycbt variable dey exactly di same as di one for ditherapy factor for awa original anova, so we go reassure say di regression model dey do di same thing as di anova do.",Computer science
"on the other hand, this regression model is testing the druganxifree contrast and the drugjoyzepam contrast separately, as if they were two completely unrelated variables.","Di regression model dey test di druganxifree contrast and di drugjoyzepam contrast separately, as if dem dey two completely unrelated variables.",Computer science
"it's not surprising ofcourse, because the poor lm()function has no way of knowing that drugjoyzepam and druganxifree are actually the two dierent contrasts that we used to encode our three-level drug factor.",Di poor lm()function don no know say drugjoyzepam and druganxifree dey actually di two dierent contrast wey we use to encode awa three level drug factor.,Computer science
"as far as it knows, drugjoyzepam and druganxifree are no more related to one another than drugjoyzepam and therapycbt.","Dem know, drugjoyzepam and druganxifree no dey related to one another than drugjoyzepam and therapycbt.",Computer science
"however, you andi know better.",Di andI know better,Computer science
at this stage we're not at all interested in determining whether these two contrasts are individually signi cant.,We no dey interested for determining whether dis two contrasts dey individually signi cant.,Computer science
"we just want to know if there's an\overall"" eect of drug.","We just wan to know if e dey\overall"" eect of drug",Computer science
"that is, what wewantrto do is to run some kind of\omnibus"" test, one in which the two\drug-related"" contrasts are lumped together for the purpose ofthe test.","Wewan to run some kind of\omnibus"" test, one wey di two\drug-related"" contrasts dey lump together for di purpose of di test.",Computer science
"our f-statistic is 26.1, the degrees of freedom are 2 and 14, and the p-value is 0: 000019.","Di degree of freedom na 2 and 14, and dip-value na 0: 000019.",Computer science
the numbers are identical to the ones we obtained for the main eect of drug in our original anova.,Di numbers dey identical to di ones we get for di main eect of drug for awa original anova.,Computer science
"once again, we see that anova and regression are essentially the same: they are both linear models, and the underlying statistical machinery for anova is identical to the machinery used in regression.","We see say anova and regression dey essentially di same: dem dey both linear models, and di underlying statistical machinery for anova dey identical to di machinery wey dey use for regression.",Computer science
the importance of this fact should not be understated.,Di importance of dis fact no dey understand.,Computer science
"at long last, i can nally give a de nition of degrees of freedom that i am happy with.",I fit give de nition of degree of freedom wey i dey happy wit.,Computer science
degrees of freedom are de ned in terms ofthe number of parameters that have to be estimated in a model.,Di degree of freedom dey estimated for model.,Computer science
"for a regression model or an anova, the number of parameters corresponds to the number of regression coecients (i. e.","For regression model or ANOVA, di number of parameters dey match di number of regression coefficients(i. e, b-values), including di intercept.",Computer science
"b-values), including the intercept.","(b-values), including di intercept.",Computer science
"keeping in mind that any f-test is always a comparison between two models, the rst dfis the dierence in the number of parameters.","Di f-test dey always comparison between two models, di rst dfis di dierence for di number of parameters.",Computer science
"for example, model comparison above, the null model( mood. gain~ therapycbt )has two parameters: there's one regression coecient for the therapycbt variable, and a second one for the intercept.","Di model comparison above, di null model( mood. gain~ therapycbt) don two parameters: one regression coecient for di therapycbt variable, and di second one for di intercept.",Computer science
"the alternative model(mood. gain~ druganxifree + drugjoyzepam + therapycbt )has four parameters: one regression coecient for each ofthe three contrasts, and one more for the intercept.","Di alternative model (mood. gain ~ drugAnxifree + drugJoyzepam + therapyCBT) get four parameters: one regression coefficient for each of di three contrasts, and one more for di intercept.",Computer science
so the degrees of freedom associated with thedierence between these two models is df1422.,Di degree of freedom wey dey associated wit didierence between dis two model dey df1422.,Computer science
"for instance, you might be thinking of thef-test that appears at the very bottom ofthe regression output.","for example, you go think of dif-test wey appear for di very bottom of di regression output",Computer science
"however, that is still a comparison between two models.",Dem still comparison between two model.,Computer science
"the null model is the trivial model that only includes an intercept, which is written as outcome~1 inr, and the alternative model is the full regression model.","Di null model dey di trivial model wey only include intercept, wey dey written as outcome~1 inr, and di alternative model dey di full regression model",Computer science
"the null model in this case contains 1 regression coecient, for the intercept term.","Di null model for dis case contain 1 regression coefficient, for di intercept term.",Computer science
the alternative model contains k,Di alternative model contain k+1 parameters.,Computer science
so the dfvalue that you see in this f test is equal to df1k,Di dfvalue wey you see for dis f test dey equal to df1k so di dfvalue wey you see for dis f test dey equal to df1k so di dfvalue wey you see for dis f test dey equal to df1k so di dfvalue wey you see for dis f test dey equal to df1k so di dfvalue wey you see for dis f test dey equal to df1k so di dfvalue wey you see for dis f test dey equal to,Computer science
what about the second dfvalue that appears in the f-test?,Di second dfvalue wey appear for di f-test?,Computer science
this always refers to the degrees of freedom associated with the residuals.,Di always to talk about di degree of freedom wey dey associated wit di residuals.,Computer science
"it is possible to think of this in terms of parameters too, but in a slightly counterintuitive way.","E dey possible to think of dis for terms of parameters too, but in a slightly counterintuitive way.",Computer science
"think of it like this: suppose that the total number of observations across the study as a whole isn. if you wanted to perfectly describe each of these nvalues, you need to do so using, well. nnumbers.","Di total number of observations wey dey across di study as a whole dey n. if you need to perfectly describe each of dis nvalues, you need to do so using, well.",Computer science
"when you build a regression model, what you're really doing is specifying some ofthe numbers need to perfectly describe the data.","For when you build regression model, wey you dey really do dey specifying some of di numbers need to perfectly describe di data.",Computer science
"if your model has kpredictors and an intercept, then you've speci ed k","Di model don get kpredictors and an intercept, then you dey speci ed kpredictors and an intercept, then you dey speci ed kpredictors and an intercept, then you dey speci ed k",Computer science
"so, without bothering to gure out exactly howthis would be done, how many more numbers do you think are going to be needed to transform ak","For so, without bothering to gure out exactly how dis go do, how many more numbers do you think dey need to transform ak",Computer science
if you found yourself thinking thatpk,If you find yourself thinking saypk,Computer science
"that's exactly right: in principle you can imagine an absurdly complicated regression model that includes a parameter for every single data point, and it would ofcourse provide a perfect description ofthe data.","In principle you fit imagine an absurdly complicated regression model wey include parameter for every single data point, and e go ofcourse provide perfect description of di data.",Computer science
"this model would contain nparameters in total, but we're interested in the dierence between the number of parameters required to describe this full model(i. e.","Di model go contain nparameters for total, but we dey interest for di dierence between di number of parameters wey dey need to describe dis full model(i. e.",Computer science
"n)and the number of parameters used by the simpler regression model that you're actually interested in(i. e, k","Di number of parameters wey you dey use by di simpler regression model wey you dey interest for(i. e, k) and di number of parameters wey you dey use for(i. e, k",Computer science
"in the example i gave above, there are n18 observations in the dataset, and k","Di example wey i give above, na n18 observations for di group of related numbers or data wey belong together, and k18.",Computer science
"in the previous example, i used the aov() function to run an anova using the clin. trial data which codes drug variable as a single factor.",I use di aov() function to run anova using di clin. trial data wey codes drug variable as single factor.,Computer science
"however, it's also possible to use the lm()function on the the original data.",E dey possible to use di lm()function on di original data,Computer science
"that is, you could use a command like this:> drug. lm<- lm(mood. gain~ drug+ therapy, clin. trial) the fact that drug is a three-level factor does not matter.","Di fact say drug dey lm<- lm(mood. gain~ drug+ therapy, clin. trial)di fact say drug dey three level factor no matter",Computer science
"as long as the drug variable has been declared to be a factor, rwill automatically translate it into two binary contrast variables, and will perform the appropriate analysis.","as long as di drug variable don declare to be factor, rwill automatically translate am into two binary contrast variables, and go perform di appropriate analysis.",Computer science
"in fact, the aov() function doesn't actually do very much ofthe work when you run an anova using it: internally, rjust passes all the hard work straight to lm().","For fact, di aov() function no dey do very much of di work wen you run an anova using am: internally, rjust pass all di hard work straight to lm().",Computer science
"however, i want to emphasise again that it is critical that your factor variables are declared as such.",I wan to emphasise again say di factor variables dey declared because of dat.,Computer science
"if drug were declared to be a numeric variable, then rwould be happy to treat it as one.",E go dey happy to treat am as one.,Computer science
"after all, it might be that drug refers to the number of drugs that one has taken in the past, or something that is genuinely numeric.","Di might be say drug to talk about di number of drugs wey one don take for di past, or something wey dey genuinely numeric.",Computer science
rwon't second guess you here.,R no go second-guess you here.,Computer science
it assumes your factors are factors and your numbers are numbers.,Di factors dey factors and your numbers dey numbers.,Computer science
"don't make the mistake of encoding your factors as numbers, or rwill run the wrong analysis.","No make di mistake of encoding your factors as numbers, or R go run di wrong analysis.",Computer science
this is nota aw in r: it is your responsibility as the analyst to make sure you're specifying the right model for your data.,Di responsibility as di analyst to make sure you dey specify di right model for your data,Computer science
software really can't be trusted with this sort of thing.,Di sort of thing dey trust wit dis sort of thing.,Computer science
"okay, warnings aside, it's actually kind of neat to run your anova using the lm()function in the-531- way i did above.",E dey kind of neat to run your anova using di lm()function for di-531 way i dey above.,Computer science
"because you've called the lm()function, the summary() thatrpulls out is formatted like a regression.","Di lm()function, di summary() wey dey pull out dey formatted like regression.",Computer science
"to save space i won't show you the output here, but you can easily verify this by typing> summary(drug. lm )however, because the drug and therapy variables were both factors, the anova() function actually knows which contrasts to group together for the purposes of running the f-tests, so you can extract the classic anova table.","Di drug and therapy variables dey both factors, di anova() function actually know which contrast to group together for di purpose of running di f-tests, so you fit extract di classic anova table.",Computer science
"however, this behaviour ofthe anova() function only occurs when the predictor variables are factors.",Di behaviour of di anova() function only occur wen di predictor variables dey factor.,Computer science
"if we try a command like anova( drug. regression), the output will continue to treate druganxifree and drugjoyzepam as if they were two distinct binary factors.",Di output go continue to treat druganxifree and drugjoyzepam as if dem dey two distinct binary factors.,Computer science
"this is because in the drug. regression model we included all the contrasts as aw""variables, so rhad no idea which ones belonged together.","Di drug. regression model wey we include all di contrast as aw""variables, so rhad no idea which ones belong together.",Computer science
"however, when we ran the drug. lm model, we gave rthe original factor variables, so it does know which contrasts go together.","We give lm model, we give rthe original factor variables, so e no know which contrast go together.",Computer science
the behaviour ofthe anova() function re ects that.,Di behaviour of di anova() function reflect dat one.,Computer science
"in the method i showed you, we specify a set of binary variables, in which de ne a table like this one: drug druganxifree drugjoyzepam ""placebo""00 ""anxifree"" 10 ""joyzepam"" 01 each row in the table corresponds to one ofthe factor levels, and each column corresponds to one ofthe contrasts.","Di method wey dey to show you, we specify set of binary variables, wey dey like dis one: drug druganxifree drugjoyzepam ""placebo""0 ""anxifree"" 10 ""joyzepam"" 01 each column dey correspond to one of di name for di group, and each column dey correspond to one of di contrasts.",Computer science
"this table, which always has one more row than columns, has a special name: it is called a contrast matrix.","Di table, wey dey always get one more row than columns, na special name: e dey call contrast matrix",Computer science
"however, there are lots of dierent ways to specify a contrast matrix.","However, plenty different ways dey to specify contrast matrix.",Computer science
"if not, you can getaway with skimming it, because the choice of contrasts doesn't matter much for balanced designs.","If not, you fit just skim am, because choice of contrasts no matter much for balanced designs.",Computer science
the name for these kinds of contrast is treatment contrasts.,Di name for dis kinds of contrast dey treatment contrast,Computer science
the name re ects the fact that these contrasts are quite natural and sensible when one ofthe categories in your factor really is special because it actually does represent a baseline.,Di name re ect di fact say dis contrasts dey quite natural and sensible when one of di categories for your factor really dey special because e dey represent baseline.,Computer science
"that makes sense in our clinical trial example: the placebo condition corresponds to the situation where you don't give people any real drugs, and so it's special.","Di placebo condition correspond to di situation wey you don give pipo any real drugs, and so dey special.",Computer science
"the other two conditions are de ned in relation to the placebo: in one case you replace the placebo with anxifree, and in the other case your replace it with joyzepam.","For one case you replace di placebo wit anxifree, and for di oda case you replace di placebo wit joyzepam",Computer science
"for example, the table shown above is a matrix of treatment contrasts for a factor that has 3 levels.",Di table show above dey matrix of treatment contrast for a factor wey get 3 level.,Computer science
but suppose i want a matrix of treatment contrasts for a factor with 5 levels?,but suppose I wan matrix of treatment contrasts for factor with 5 levels?,Computer science
"the contr. treatment()function will do this:> contr. treatment(n=5 ) 2 3 4 5 1 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 3 0 1 0 0 4 0 0 1 0 5 0 001 notice that, by default, the rst level ofthe factor is always treated as the baseline category(i. e, it's the one that has all zeros, and doesn't have an explicit contrast associated with it).","Di contr. treatment() function go do dis:> contr. treatment(n=5). Notice sey as e be, di first level of di factor dey dem take am as baseline category(dat na, e get all zeros, and no explicit contrast associate with am).",Computer science
see the help documentation for more details.,Check di papers wey dey help for more details.,Computer science
"in other situations, however, no such baseline category exists, and it may make more sense to compare each group to the mean ofthe other groups.","Nano such baseline category exist, and e go make more sense to compare each group to di mean of di oda groups.",Computer science
"this is where helmert contrasts, generated by the contr. helmert() function, can be useful.","E dey wia helmert contrast, generate by di contr. helmert() function, fit be useful.",Computer science
"the idea behind helmert contrasts is to compare each group to the mean ofthe \previous""ones.","Di idea behind helmert contrasts dey to compare each group to di mean of di\previous"" ones.",Computer science
"that is, the rst contrast represents the dierence between group 2 and group 1, the second contrast represents the dierence between group 3 and the mean of groups 1 and 2, and soon.","Dat nato say, di first contrast stand for di difference between group 2 and group 1, di second contrast stand for di difference between group 3 and di mean of groups 1 and 2, and soon.",Computer science
"this has the consequence that, when we interpret the anova as a regression, the intercept term corresponds to the grand mean:: qif we are using helmert contrasts.","Di consequence say, wen we interpret di anova as regression, di intercept term correspond to di grand mean:: qif we dey use helmert contrast.",Computer science
compare this to treatment 13the lsrpackage contains a more general function called permutelevels() that can shue them in anyway you like.,Di lsrpackage contains more general function wey dey call permutelevels() wey fit shue dem for anyway you like.,Computer science
this property can be very useful in some situations.,Di property dey very useful for some situation.,Computer science
"when interpreting these contrasts, the thing to recognise is that each of these contrasts is a pairwise comparison between group 5 and one ofthe other four groups.",Di thing to recognise na say each of dis contrasts dey pairwise comparison between group 5 and one of di oda four groups.,Computer science
"speci cally, contrast 1 corresponds to a\group 1 minus group 5""comparison, contrast 2 corresponds to a\group 2 minus group 5""comparison, and soon.","Di speci cally, contrast 1 correspond to a\group 1 plus group 5""comparison, contrast 2 correspond to a\group 2 plus group 5""comparison, contrast 2 correspond to a\group 2 plus group 5""comparison, contrast 2 correspond to a\group 2 plus group 5""comparison, contrast 2 correspond to a\group 2 plus group 5""comparison, contrast 2 correspond to a\group 2 plus group 5""comparison, contrast 2 correspond to a\group 2 plus group 5""comparison, contrast 2 correspond",Computer science
"it has to be, otherwise rwouldn't be able to run anovas properly!","Dem no be able to run anovas properly, odawise r go run anovas properly",Computer science
"if you don't specify one explictly, or rwill implicitly specify one for you.","If you no specify one, R go implicitly specify one for you.",Computer science
"when i created the clin. trial data, i didn't specify any contrast matrix for either ofthe factors.",I no specify any contrast matrix for either of di factors.,Computer science
"you can see this by using the attr() function to print out the\contrasts"" attribute ofthe factors.","Di attr() function to show di\contrasts"" attribute of di factors.",Computer science
"for example:> attr( clin. trial$drug,""contrasts"" )null the null output here means that ris telling you that the drug factor doesn't have any attribute called\contrasts"" for which it has any data.","Di attr( clin. trial$drug,""contrasts"" )null di null output here mean say di drug factor no get any attribute wey dey call\contrasts"" for which di drug factor no get any data.",Computer science
there is no contrast matrix stored anywhere explicitly for this factor.,Nano contrast matrix store anywhere explicitly for dis factor.,Computer science
"how did rknow to setup treatment contrasts, even though i never actually told it anything about what contrasts i wanted?",I never tell am anything about what contrast wey i waned?,Computer science
"the answer is that rhas a hidden list of default\options"" that it looks upto resolve situations like this.","Di answer na say rhas a hidden list of default\options"" wey dem look upto resolve situations like dis.",Computer science
"you can print out all ofthe options by typing options()at the command prompt, but it's not avery -534- enlightening read.",Di place wey you type command no dey very-534- enlightening read,Computer science
"there area lot of options, and we're only interested in contrasts right now.",We no dey interest for contrast right now.,Computer science
the key thing is that the options()function also allows you to reset these defaults(though only for the current session: they'll revert to the original settings once you closer).,Di key thing na say di options()function also allow you to reset defaults(though only for di current session: dem go revert to di original settings once you closer).,Computer science
"in general, if you're changing the default settings for something in r, it's a good idea to reset them to their original values once you're done.","If you change di default settings for something for r, e dey good idea to reset dem to dia original value once you dey done.",Computer science
"however, suppose that all you really want to do is change the contrasts associated with a single factor, and leave the defaults as they are.","Di suppose say all you go do dey change di contrasts wey dey associated wit single factor, and leave di default as dem dey.",Computer science
"to do this, what you need to do is speci cally assign the contrast matrix as an ttribute' ofthe factor.",Di factor need to do na speci cally assign di contrast matrix as ttribute' of di factor.,Computer science
this is easy to do via the contrasts()function.,Dis dey easy to do via di contrasts()function,Computer science
"for instance, suppose i wanted to use sum to zero contrasts for the drug factor, but keep the default treatment contrasts for everything else.","suppose use sum to zero contrast for di drug factor, but keep di default treatment contrast for all else.",Computer science
"you can check that we have actually made a speci c change to the factor itself by checking to see if it now hasan attribute, using the command attr( clin. trial$drug,""contrasts"" ).","You fit check sey we actually make specific change to di factor itself by checking if e now get attribute, using di command attr(clin. trial$drug, ""contrasts"").",Computer science
"this will print out the same output shown above, because the contrast has in fact been attached to the drug factor, and does not rely on the defaults.","Dis goto show di same output show above, because di contrast don attach to di drug factor, and no dey rely on di defaults.",Computer science
"if you want to wipe the attribute and revert the defaults, use a command like this:> contrasts( clin. trial$drug) <-null 16. 7. 6 setting the contrasts for a single analysis one last way of changing contrasts.","If you wan wipe di attribute and return to defaults, use command like dis:> contrasts(clin. trial$drug) <-NULL. One last way to change contrasts.",Computer science
you might nd yourself wanting to change the contrasts only for one speci c analysis.,We go nd you wan to change di contrast only for one speci c analysis,Computer science
"that's allowed too, because the aov() and lm()functions have a contrasts argument that you can use.","Di aov() and lm()function don get contrast argument wey you fit use, because di aov() and lm()function don get contrast argument wey you fit use",Computer science
"if i had omitted the part ofthe command that speci ed the contrasts argument, you'd be looking at treatment contrasts here because it would have reverted to whatever values the contrasts()function prints out for each ofthe factors.","If i don omitted di part of di command wey dey speci ed di contrast argument, you go make we look treatment contrasts here because e go reverted to whatever values di contrasts()function wey dey to show for each of di factors.",Computer science
"rallows lists to contain functions, which is really neat for advanced purposes, but not something that matters for this book.","Di book dey rallows lists to contain functions, wey dey really neat for advanced purposes, but no something wey matters for dis book.",Computer science
"let's suppose you've done your anova, and it turns out that you obtained some signi cant eects.","She dey suppose say you dey done your anova, and e turnout say you go get some signi cant eect.",Computer science
"because ofthe fact that the f-tests are\omnibus"" tests that only really test the null hypothesis that there are no dierences among groups, obtaining a signi cant eect doesn't tell you which groups are dierent to which other ones.","Di fact say di f-tests dey \omnibus""tests wey only really test di null idea say e no be dierences wey dey among groups, obtaining signi cant eect no tell you which groups dey dierent to which oda ones.",Computer science
"there are actually quite alot of dierent methods for performing multiple comparisons in the statistics literature (hsu, 1996), and it would be beyond the scope of an introductory text like this one to discuss all of them in any detail.","Na actually quite alot of dierent methods wey dey perform multiple comparisons for di statistics literature (hsu, 1996), and na beyond di scope of an introductory text like dis one to discuss all of dem for any detail.",Computer science
"that being said, there's one tool that i do want to draw your attention to, namely tukey's \honestly signi cant dierence"", or tukey's hsd for short.","Dat being said, one tool wey I wan draw your attention to na Tukey's ""Honestly Significant Difference"", or Tukey's HSD for short.",Computer science
"for once, i'll spare you the formulas, and just stick to the qualitative ideas.","I go spare you di formulas, and just to hold onto di qualitative ideas.",Computer science
"the basic idea in tukey's hsd is to examine all relevant pairwise comparisons between groups, and it's only really appropriate to use tukey's hsd if it is pairwise dierences that you're interested in. 15for instance, in model.2, where we speci ed a main eect for drug and a main eect of therapy, we would be interested in the following four comparisons: the dierence in mood gain for people given anxifree versus people given the placebo.","Di basic idea for tukey's hsd dey to examine all relevant pairwise comparisons wey dey between groups, and e only really appropriate to use tukey's hsd if e dey pairwise dierences wey you dey interest for. 15for instance, for model.2, we dey suppose examine all relevant pairwise comparisons wey dey between groups, and e only really appropriate to use tukey's hsd if e dey pairwise dierences we",Computer science
the dierence in mood gain for people given joyzepam versus people given the placebo.,Di dierence for mood gain for pipo given joyzepam versus pipo given placebo.,Computer science
the dierence in mood gain for people given anxifree versus people given joyzepam.,Di difference for mood gain for pipo wey dem give Anxifree versus pipo wey dem give Joyzepam.,Computer science
the dierence in mood gain for people treated with cbt and people given no therapy.,Di dierence for mood gain for pipo treated wit cbt and pipo give no therapy.,Computer science
"for anyone of these comparisons, we're interested in the true dierence between(population) group means.",We dey interest for di true dierence between(population) group means.,Computer science
tukey's hsd constructs simultaneous con dence intervals for all four of these comparisons.,Tukey's HSD build simultaneous confidence intervals for all four of these comparisons.,Computer science
"what we mean by 95%\simultaneous"" con dence interval is that there is a 95%probability that allof these con dence intervals contain the relevant true value.","We mean by 95%\simultaneous"" con dence interval na say 95%probability say all of dis con dence intervals contain di relevant true value.",Computer science
"moreover, we can use these con dence intervals to calculate an adjusted pvalue for any speci c comparison.",We go use dis con dence intervals to calculate pvalue for any speci c comparison.,Computer science
the tukeyhsd() function in ris pretty easy to use: you simply input the model that you want to run the post hoc tests for.,Di tukeyhsd() function for ris pretty easy to use: you simply input di model wey you wan run di post hoc tests for.,Computer science
"however, in most cases you probably are interested in pairwise group dierences, so tukey's hsd is a pretty useful thing to know about.","For most cases you dey interest for pairwise group dierences, so tukey hsd dey useful thing to know about.",Computer science
the output here is(i hope)pretty straightforward.,Di output here(I hope)dey e dey clear.,Computer science
"the rst comparison, for example, is the anxifree versus placebo dierence, and the rst part ofthe output indicates that the observed dierence in group means is:27.","Di rst comparison, for example, na di anxifree versus placebo dierence, and di rst part of di output indicate say di observed dierence for group means na:27.",Computer science
the next two numbers indicate that the 95%(simultaneous) con dence interval for this comparison runs from: 12 to:65.,Di next two numbers show sey di 95%(simultaneous) di place where di true number fit dey for dis comparison from to 0.12 to 0.65.,Computer science
"because the con dence interval for the dierence includes 0, we cannot reject the null hypothesis that the two group means are identical, and so we're not all that surprised to see that the adjusted p-value is:21.","Di con dence interval for di dierence includes 0, we no reject di null idea say di two group means dey identical, and so we no reject di null idea say di two group means dey identical, and so we no reject di null idea say di two group means dey identical, and so we no reject di null idea say di two group means dey identical, and so we no reject di null idea say di two group means dey identical, and so we no reject di",Computer science
"in contrast, if you look at the next line, we see that the observed dierence between joyzepam and the placebo is 1. 03, and the 95%con dence interval runs from: 64 to 1:42.","If you make we look di next line, we see say di observed dierence between joyzepam and di placebo dey 1. 03, and di 95%con dence interval from to: 64 to 1:42.",Computer science
"because the interval excludes 0, we see that the result is signi cant pp: 001q.",We see say di result dey signi cant pp: 001q,Computer science
what about the situation where your model includes interaction terms?,Di situation wey your model include interaction terms?,Computer science
"for instance, inmodel. 3 we allowed for the possibility that there is an interaction between drug and therapy.","We allow for di possibility say drug and therapy dey involve for example, inmodel. 3 we allow for di possibility say drug and therapy",Computer science
"if that's the case, the number of pairwise comparisons that we need to consider starts to increase.",Di number of pairwise comparison wey we need to consider start to increase.,Computer science
"as before, we need to consider the three comparisons that are relevant to the main eect of drug and the one comparison that is relevant to the main eect of therapy.",We need consider di three comparison wey dey relevant to di main eect of drug and di one comparison wey dey relevant to di main eect of therapy.,Computer science
"but, if we want to consider the possibility of a signi cant interaction(and try to nd the group dierences that underpin that signi cant interaction), we need to include comparisons such as the following: the dierence in mood gain for people given anxifree and treated with cbt, versus people given the placebo and treated with cbt the dierence in mood gain for people given anxifree and given no therapy, versus people given the placebo and given no therapy.","Di dierence for mood gain for pipo wey given anxifree and treated wit cbt, versus pipo wey give placebo and given no therapy, versus pipo wey give placebo and given no therapy.",Computer science
etc there are quite alot of these comparisons that you need to consider.,Di comparison wey you need to consider.,Computer science
"so, when we run the tukeyhsd() command for model.3 we see that it has made a lotof pairwise comparisons(19 in total).",Di takeyhsd() command for model.3 we see say e don make lot of pairwise comparison(19 for total).,Computer science
"for instance, in our drugs example above, maybe you thought that the drugs would all have dierent eects on mood(i. e, you hypothesised a main eect of drug), but you didn't have any speci c hypothesis about how they would be dierent, nor did you have any real idea about which pairwise comparisons would be worth looking at.","Di drug example above, maybe you think say di drugs go all get dierent eects on mood(i. e, you dey hypothesise a main eect of drug), but you no get any real idea about how dem go be dierent, nor do you go get any real idea about which pairwise comparison wey dey worth looking at.",Computer science
"if that is the case, then you really have to resort to something like tukey's hsd to do your pairwise comparisons.","If dat be di case, den you really need to resort to something like Tukey's HSD to do your pairwise comparisons.",Computer science
"the situation is rather dierent, however, if you genuinely did have real, speci c hypotheses about which comparisons are of interest, and you never ever have any intention to look at any other comparisons besides the ones that you speci ed ahead of time.","If you genuinely don get real, speci c hypotheses about which comparisons dey of interest, and you never get any intention to make we look any oda comparisons besides di ones wey you dey ahead of time.",Computer science
"when this is true, and if you honestly and rigourously stick to your noble intentions to not run any other comparisons(even when the data look like they're showing you deliciously signi cant eects for stu you didn't have a hypothesis test for), then it doesn't really make alot of sense to run something like tukey's hsd, because it makes corrections for a whole bunch of comparisons that you never cared about and never had any intention of looking at.",If you honestly and rigourously to hold onto your noble intentions to no run any oda comparisons(even when di data look like dem to show you deliciously signi no fit eect for stu you no get any intention to run any oda comparisons(even when di data look like dem to show you deliciously signi no fit eect for stu you no fit get any intention of.,Computer science
"under those circumstances, you can safely run a(limited) number of hypothesis tests without making an adjustment for multiple testing.","Under those circumstances, you fit safely run(limited) number of hypothesis tests without making adjustment for multiple testing.",Computer science
"this situation is known as the method of planned comparisons, and it is sometimes used in clinical trials.","Di situation dey known as di method of planned comparisons, and e dey use for clinical trials.",Computer science
"in a later version of this book, i would like to talk alot more about planned comparisons.",I go like to talk more about planned comparisons.,Computer science
"it's been one ofthe standard tools used to analyse experimental data for many decades, and you'll nd that you can't read more than two or three-539- papers in psychology without running into an anova in there somewhere.","Di standard tools wey dey use analyse experimental data for many decades, and you go nd say you no read more than two or three-539- paper for psychology without running into anova for there somewhere.",Computer science
"however, there's one huge dierence between the anovas that you'll see in alot of real scienti c articles and the anova that i've just described: in real life, we're rarely lucky enough to have perfectly balanced designs.","Di huge dierence wey dey between di anovas wey you see for alot of real scienti c articles and di anova wey i just described: for real life, we dey rarely lucky enough to have perfectly balanced designs",Computer science
"for one reason or another, it's typical to end up with more observations in some cells than in others.","For one reason or another, e dey typical to end up wit more observations for some cell than for odas.",Computer science
"or, to put it another way, we have an unbalanced design.",We get unbalanced design.,Computer science
"unbalanced designs need to be treated with alot more care than balanced designs, and the statistical theory that underpins them is alot messier.",Di statistical theory wey dey underpin dem dey alot messier.,Computer science
"it might be a consequence of this messiness, or it might be a shortage of time, but my experience has been that undergraduate research methods classes in psychology have a nasty tendency to ignore this issue completely.","Di experience don been say undergraduate ways to do research class for psychology don dey nasty tendency to ignore dis issue completely, but my experience don be say undergraduate ways to do research class for psychology don nasty tendency to ignore dis issue completely.",Computer science
alot of stats textbooks tend to gloss over it too.,Plenty stats textbooks sef dey to passover am.,Computer science
"the net result of this, i think, is that alot of active researchers in the eld don't actually know that there's several dierent ypes"" of unbalanced anovas, and they produce quite dierent answers.","Di net result of dis, i think, na say alot of active researchers for di eld don know say e dey several dierent ypes"" of unbalanced anovas, and dem produce quite dierent answers.",Computer science
"in fact, reading the psychological literature, i'm kind of amazed at the fact that most people who report the results of an unbalanced factorial anova don't actually give you enough details to reproduce the analysis: i secretly suspect that most people don't even realise that their statistical software package is making a whole lot of substantive data analysis decisions on their behalf.",I kind of amazed at di fact say most pipo wey report di results of one kind of experiment wey no balance anova don actually give you enough details to reproduce di analysis.,Computer science
"it's actually a little terrifying, when you think about it.","E dey actually a little terrifying, wen you think about am",Computer science
"so, if you want to avoid handing control of your data analysis to stupid software, read on.16. 10.1 the coee data as usual, it will help us to work with some data.","Di coee data as normal, e go help us to work wit some data",Computer science
rdata le contains a hypothetical dataset (the coffee data frame)that produces an unbalanced 32 anova.,Di rdata le contains hypothetical group of related numbers or data wey belong together(the coffee one kind of table) wey produce unbalanced 32 anova.,Computer science
"suppose we were interested in nding out whether or not the tendency of people to babble when they have too much coee is purely an eect ofthe coee itself, or whether there's some eect ofthe milk and sugar that people add to the coee.","We dey interested for nding out whether or not di tendency of pipo to babble wen dem get too much coee dey purely eect of di coee, or whether dem don add some eect of di milk and sugar wey dem add to di coee.",Computer science
"suppose we took 18 people, and gave them some coee to drink.","We suppose take 18 pipo, and give dem some coee to drink",Computer science
"the amount of coee / caeine was held constant, and we varied whether or not milk was added: so milk is a binary factor with two levels,""yes"" and""no"".","So milk dey binary factor wit two level,""yes"" and""no"".",Computer science
we also varied the kind of sugar involved.,We also dey vari di kind of sugar wey dey involved,Computer science
"the coee might contain""real"" sugar, or it might contain""fake"" sugar(i. e, arti cial sweetener), or it might contain""none"" at all, so the sugar variable is a three level factor.","Di coee might contain""real"" sugar, or e might contain""fake"" sugar(i. e, articial sweetener), or e might contain""none"" for all, so di sugar variable dey three level factor.",Computer science
"our outcome variable is a continuous variable that presumably refers to some psychologically sensible measure ofthe extent to which someone is abbling"".",Di outcome variable dey continuous variable wey presumably to talk about some psychologically sensitive measure of di extent wey someone dey abbling,Computer science
the details don't really matter for our purpose.,Di details don matter for awa purpose,Computer science
"to get a sense of what the data look like, we use the some()function in thecarpackage.",We use di some()function for dicarpackage.,Computer science
"across groups, this standard deviation varies from. 14 to.71, which is fairly small relative to the dierences in group means. 16so far, it's looking like a straightforward factorial anova, just like we did earlier.","Di howe dey spread varies from. 14 to.71, wey dey fairly small relative to di dierences for group means. 16so far, dis howe dey spread varies from. 14 to.71, wey dey fairly small relative to di dierences for group means. 16so far, dis howe dey spread varies from. 14 to.71, wey dey fairly small relative to di dierences for group means. 16so far, dis howe dey spread varies from. 14 to.71, wey",Computer science
"the problem arises when we check to see how many observations we have in each group:> xtabs( ~milk +sugar, coffee) sugar milk none fake real yes 323 no 244 this violates one of our original assumptions, namely that the number of people in each group is the same.","E violate one of our original assumptions, namely say di number of pipo wey dey for each group dey di same.",Computer science
we haven't really discussed how to handle this situation.,We don really discuss how to handle dis situation,Computer science
"in fact, it turns out that there are three fundamentally dierent ways17in which you might want to run an anova in an unbalanced design.",E turnout say three fundamentally dierent ways17in wey you go fit run anova for unbalanced design.,Computer science
"however, when your design is unbalanced they don't give the same answers.",Di design dey unbalanced dem don give di same answer,Computer science
"furthermore, they are not all equally appropriate to every situation: some methods will be more appropriate to your situation than others.",Dem no dey all equally appropriate to every situation: some methods go be more appropriate to your situation than odas,Computer science
"given all this, it's important to understand what the dierent types of anova are and how they dier from one another.",E important to understand how di dierent type of anova dey and how dem dey dier from one another.,Computer science
the rst kind of anova is conventionally referred to as type i sum of squares.,Di first kind of ANOVA dem dey conventionally call Type I adding all the squared gaps to measure total error.,Computer science
i'm sure you can guess what they other two are called.,I dey sure you fit guess what dem oda two dey call,Computer science
"the\sum of squares""part ofthe name was introduced by the sas statistical software package, and has become standard nomenclature, but it's a bit misleading in some ways.","Di\adding all the squared gaps to measure total error""part of di name dey introduced by di sas software for statistics package, and dey become standard nomenclature, but e dey misleading for some ways.",Computer science
"the degrees of freedom don't change, the ms values are still de ned as ss divided by df, etc.","Di degree of freedom don change, di ms values no dey change, di ms values no dey change as ss divided by df, etc.",Computer science
"however, what the terminology gets wrong is that it hides the reason whythe ss values are dierent from one another.",Di terminology get wrong na say dem hide di reason why diss value dey dierent from one another.,Computer science
"to that end, it's alot more helpful to think ofthe three dierent kinds of anova as three dierent hypothesis testing strategies.",E dey alot more helpful to think of di three di kinds of anova as three di way to check if your idea be true strategies.,Computer science
"these dierent strategies lead to dierent ss values, to be sure, but it's 16this discrepancy in standard deviations might(and should)make you wonder if we have a violation ofthe homogeneity of variance assumption.","These different strategies lead to different SS values, to be sure, but dis difference for standard deviations fit(and suppose)make you wonder if we get violation of homogeneity of variance assumption.",Computer science
i'll leave it as an exercise for the reader to check this using the levenetest() function.,I go leave am as exercise for di reader to check di levenetest() function.,Computer science
anovas can vary in other ways besides the ones i've discussed in this book.,Di ones wey dey discuss for dis book,Computer science
"for instance, i've completely ignored the dierence between xed-eect models, in which the levels of a factor are\ xed"" by the experimenter or the world, and random-eect models, in which the levels are random samples from a larger population of possible levels(this book only covers xed-eect models).","I dey completely ignor di dierence between xed-eect models, wey di levels of a factor dey\ xed"" by di experimenter or di world, and random-eect models, wey di levels dey random samples from larger population of possible levels( dis book only cover xed-eect models).",Computer science
"don't make the mistake of thinking that this book{ or any other one{ will tell you\everything you need to know""about statistics, any more than a single book could possibly tell you everything you need to know about psychology, physics or philosophy.","Di mistake of thinking say dis book{ or any oda one{ fit tell you everything you need know about statistics, any more than single book fit tell you everything you need know about psychology, physics or philosophy.",Computer science
life is too complicated for that to ever be true.,Di life dey too complicate for dat life to ever be true,Computer science
"this isn't a cause for despair, though.","Dis no because for despair, though.",Computer science
most researchers get by with a basic working knowledge of anova that doesn't go any further than this book does.,Di researchers get by wit basic work knowledge of anova wey no go any further than dis book does.,Computer science
"so when you're looking at an anova table, it helps to remember that each of those f-tests corresponds to apairof models that are being compared.",E help to remember say each of di f-tests correspond to apairof models wey dey compare.,Computer science
"ofcourse, this leads naturally to the question of which pair of models is being compared.",Di lead naturally to di question of which pair of model dey compare.,Computer science
"this is the fundamental dierence between anova types i, ii and iii: each one corresponds to a dierent way of choosing the model pairs for the tests.","Di fundamental dierence wey dey between anova type i, ii and iii: each one correspond to di dierent way of choosing di model pair for di tests.",Computer science
"consider the coee data, for instance.","Consider di coffee data, for example.",Computer science
"suppose we want to run the full 32 factorial anova, including interaction terms.","Suppose we wan run di full 3×2 factorial ANOVA, including interaction terms.",Computer science
"the full model, as we've discussed earlier, is expressed by the rformula babble ~sugar +milk +sugar: milk, though we often shorten it by using the sugar* milk notation.","Di full model, as we discuss earlier, dey expressed by di rformula babble ~sugar +milk +sugar: milk, though we often shorten am by using di sugar* milk notation.",Computer science
"the type i strategy builds this model up sequentially, starting from the simplest possible model and gradually adding terms.","Di Type I strategy build dis model up step by step, starting from di simplest possible model and gradually adding terms.",Computer science
the simplest possible model for the data would be one in which neither milk nor sugar is assumed to have any eect on babbling.,Di simplest possible model for di data go be one wey neither milk nor sugar dey assumed to have any eect on babbling,Computer science
"the only term that would be included in such a model is the intercept, and in rformula notation we would write it as babble ~1.","Di only term wey dey include for such model dey di intercept, and for rformula notation we go write am as babble",Computer science
this is our initial null hypothesis.,E dey our initial di null idea.,Computer science
the next simplest model for the data would be one in which only one ofthe two main eects is included.,Di next simplest model for di data go be one wey only one of di two main eects dey included.,Computer science
"in the coee data, there are two dierent possible choices here, because we could choose to add milk rst or to add sugar rst (pardon the pun).",We go choose to add milk rst or to add sugar rst (pardon di pun).,Computer science
"the order actually turns out to matter, as we'll see later, but for now let's just make a choice arbitrarily, and pick sugar.","Di order actually matter, as we go see later, but for now make we just choose anyhow, and pick sugar.",Computer science
"so the second model in our sequence of models is babble ~sugar, and it forms the alternative hypothesis for our rst test.","Di second model for awa sequence of model dey babble ~sugar, and e form di other idea for awa rst test",Computer science
we now have our rst hypothesis test: null model: babble ~1 alternative model: babble ~sugar this comparison forms our hypothesis test ofthe main eect of sugar.,Di comparison form our rst hypothesis test: null model: babble ~sugar dis comparison form our hypothesis test of di main eect of sugar,Computer science
"the next step in our model building exercise it to add the other main eect term, so the next model in our sequence is babble ~sugar +milk.","Di next step for our model building exercise dey add di oda main eect term, so di next model for our sequence dey babble ~sugar +milk",Computer science
the second hypothesis test is then formed by comparing the following pair of models: null model: babble ~sugar alternative model: babble ~sugar +milk this comparison forms our hypothesis test ofthe main eect of milk.,Di second hypothesis test don form di second hypothesis test of di main eect of milk.,Computer science
"in one sense, this approach is very elegant: the alternative hypothesis from the rst test forms the null hypothesis for the second one.",Di approach dey elegant: di other idea from di rst test form di null idea for di second one,Computer science
it is in this sense that the type i method is strictly sequential.,Di type i method dey strictly sequential.,Computer science
every test builds directly on the results ofthe last one.,Di last one build directly on di results of di last one.,Computer science
"however, in another sense it's very inelegant, because there's a strong asymmetry between the two tests.","Di sense dey very inelegant, because e dey strong symmetry between di two tests.",Computer science
"the test ofthe main eect of sugar(the rst test)completely ignores milk, whereas the test ofthe main eect of milk(the second test)does take sugar into account.","Di test of main effect of sugar(di first test)completely ignore milk, whereas di test of main effect of milk(di second test)take sugar into account.",Computer science
we just type in the same commands that we always did.,We just type for di same command wey we always do.,Computer science
sugar: milk 2 5. 9439 2. 97193 11. 2769 0. 001754 ** residuals 123. 1625 0. 26354 --- signif.,"Sugar: Milk: Df=2, Sum Sq=5.9439, Mean Sq=2.97193, F=11.2769, p=0.001754 **. Residuals: Df=12, Sum Sq=3.1625, Mean Sq=0.26354.",Computer science
"next, let's see if we can replicate the analysis using tools that we're a little more familiar with.",Dem see if we fit replicate di analysis using tools wey we dey familiar wit.,Computer science
"similarly, we can use the commands anova(mod. 2, mod. 3)and anova(mod. 3, mod. 4)and to run the second and third hypothesis tests.","Similarly, we fit use di commands anova(mod.2, mod.3)and anova(mod.3, mod.4)to run di second and third hypothesis tests.",Computer science
"yet, in many situations the researcher has no reason to prefer one ordering over another.",Di researcher no go prefer one ordering over another.,Computer science
this is presumably the case for our milk and sugar problem.,Dis dey presumably di case for our milk and sugar problem,Computer science
"should we add milk rst, or sugar rst?","We suppose add milk first, or sugar first?",Computer science
it feels exactly as arbitrary as a data analysis question as it does as a coee-making question.,E feel exactly as arbitrary as to study numbers question as e go as coee-making question as e go as coee-making question as e go as coee-making question.,Computer science
"there may in fact be some people with rm opinions about ordering, but it's hard to imagine a principled answer to the question.","E hard to imagine some pipo wit rm opinions about order, but e hard to imagine principled answer to di question.",Computer science
"yet, look what happens when we change the ordering: 18the one thing that might seem a little opaque to some people is why the residual degrees of freedom in this output look dierent from one another(i. e, ranging from 12 to 17)whereas in the original one the residual degrees of freedom is xed at 12.","Di one thing wey dey suppose seem a little opaque to some pipo dey why di residual degree of freedom for dis output look dey e, rang from 12 to 17)whereas for di original one di residual degree of freedom dey xed for 12 to 17",Computer science
"it's the residual degrees of freedom in the full model(i. e, the last one)that matters here.","Di residual degree of freedom for di full model(i. e, di last one) wey matters here.",Computer science
"among other things, the eect of milk has become signi cant(though one should avoid drawing any strong conclusions about this, as i've mentioned previously).","Di eect of milk don become signi cant(though one go avoid drawing any strong conclusions about dis, as i mention previously).",Computer science
which of these two anovas should one report?,Di two anovas na one report?,Computer science
it's not immediately obvious.,E no immediately obvious,Computer science
"when you look at the hypothesis tests that are used to de ne the\ rst"" main eect and the\second"" one, it's clear that they're qualitatively dierent from one another.","Di hypothesis tests wey dey use to dene di rst"" main eect and di\second"" one, na clear say dem dey qualitatively dierent from one another.",Computer science
"in our initial example, we saw that the test for the main eect of sugar completely ignores milk, whereas the test ofthe main eect of milk does take sugar into account.","For our first example, we see sey di test for main effect of sugar completely ignore milk, whereas di test for main effect of milk take sugar into account.",Computer science
"as such, the type i testing strategy really does treat the rst main eect as if it had a kind of theoretical primacy over the second one.",Di type i testing strategy go treat di rst main eect as if e get kind of theoretical primacy over di second one.,Computer science
in my experience there is very rarely if ever any theoretically primacy of this kind that would justify treating any two main eects asymmetrically.,Di experience dey rarely if ever any theoretically primacy of dis kind wey go justify treat any two main eects asymmetrically.,Computer science
"the consequence of all this is that type i tests are very rarely of much interest, and so we should move onto discuss type ii tests and type iii tests.","Di consequence of all dis na say type i tests dey rarely of much interest, and so we go move onto discuss type ii tests and type iii tests.",Computer science
"however, for the sake of completeness{ on theo chance that you ever nd yourself needing to run type i tests{ i'll comment brie y on how rdetermines the ordering of terms in a type i test.",For di sake of completeness{ on di sake of completeness{ for di sake of completeness{ on di o chance say you ever need to run type i tests{i go comment brie y on how rdetermine di ordering of terms for type i test.,Computer science
"the key principle in type i sum of squares is that the hypothesis testing be sequential, with terms added one at a time.","Di key principle for type i adding all the squared gaps to measure total error na say di way to check if your idea be true be sequential, wit terms added one for time.",Computer science
"however, it does also imply that main eects be added rst (e. g, factors a, b, cetc), followed by rst order interaction terms(e. g, terms like a: band b: c), then second order interactions(e. g, a: b: c)and soon.","Di suppose also imply say main eect dey add rst (e. g, factors like a, b, c), follow second order interaction terms(e. g, terms like a: band b: c), follow second order interaction(e. g, terms like a: band b: c)and soon.",Computer science
"within each lock""you can specify whatever order you like.",We fit specify anything order you like,Computer science
"however, changing the order of terms across blocks has no eect.",Di order of terms wey dey across blocks no dey eect,Computer science
rwould still enter the terms in the same order as last time.,Dem still enter di terms for di same order as last time.,Computer science
"if for some reason you really, really need an interaction term to be entered rst, then you have to do it the long way, creating each model manually using a separate lm()command and then using a command like anova(mod. 1, mod. 2, mod. 3, mod. 4)to force rto enter them in the order that you want.","Di long way, create each model manually using separate lm()command and then using command like anova(mod. 1, mod. 2, mod. 3, mod. 4)to force rto enter dem for di order wey you wan.",Computer science
"however, i think it's actually a bit more natural to discuss type-544- iii tests(which are simple)before talking about type ii tests(which are trickier).",I think e dey natural to discuss type-544-iii tests(which dey simple)before talking about type ii tests(which dey trickier) before talking about type ii tests(which dey trickier).,Computer science
"the basic idea behind type iii tests is extremely simple: regardless of which term you're trying to evaluate, run the f-test in which the alternative hypothesis corresponds to the full anova model as speci ed by the user, and the null model just deletes that one term that you're testing.","Di basic idea wey dey behind type iii tests dey extremely simple: regardless of which term you dey evaluate, run di f-test for which di other idea correspond to di full anova model as speci ed by di user, and di null model just delete dat one term wey you dey test.",Computer science
"once again, we test the full model against a null model that removes the sugar: milk interaction term, like so: null model: babble ~sugar +milk alternative model: babble ~sugar +milk +sugar: milk the basic idea generalises to higher order anovas.","We test di full model wey dey against null model wey remove di sugar: milk interaction term, like so: null model: babble ~sugar +milk alternative model: babble ~sugar +milk alternative model: null model wey remove di sugar: milk di basic idea generalises to higher order anovas.",Computer science
"for instance, suppose that we were trying to run an anova with three factors, a, band c, and we wanted to consider all possible main eects and all possible interactions, including the three way interaction a: b: c.","for example, suppose sey we dey try to run ANOVA with three factors, A, B, and C, and we wan to consider all possible main effects and all possible interactions, including di three-way interaction A: B: C.",Computer science
the table below shows you what the type iii tests look like for this situation: term being tested is null model is outcome~.,Di table below to show you what di type iii tests look like for dis situation: term wey dem dey test na null model dey outcome,Computer science
"in all cases, the alternative hypothesis corresponds to the full model, which contains three main eect terms(e. g.","Di other idea correspond to di full model, wey contains three main eect terms(e. g.",Computer science
"a), three rst order interactions(e. g.","Three first-order interactions(e. g, A: B).",Computer science
"a: b)and one second order interaction(i. e, a: b: c ).",And one second-order interaction (A: B: C).,Computer science
the null model always contains 6 of thes 7 terms: and the missing one is the one whose signi cance we're trying to test.,Di null model always contains 6 of di 7 terms: and di missing one dey di one wey dey signi wey we dey try test.,Computer science
"at rst pass, type iii tests seem like a nice idea.","At first look, Type III tests seem like nice idea.",Computer science
"firstly, we've removed the asymmetry that caused us to have problems when running type i tests.",We remove di symmetry wey dey caus us to get problems when running type i tests.,Computer science
"and because we're now treating all terms the same way, the results ofthe hypothesis tests do not depend on the order in which we specify them.","We dey treat all terms di same way, di results of di hypothesis tests no depend on di order wey we specify dem.",Computer science
this is de nitely a good thing.,Dis dey de nitely good thing,Computer science
"however, there is a big problem when interpreting the results ofthe tests, especially for main eect terms.","Di big problem wey dey interpret di results of di tests, especially for main eect terms",Computer science
consider the coee data.,Dem consider di coee data,Computer science
suppose it turns out that the main eect of milk is not signi cant according to the type iii tests.,Di main eect of milk no signi cant according to di type iii tests.,Computer science
what this is telling us is that babble ~sugar +sugar: milk is a better model for the data than the full model.,We dey tell us na say babble ~sugar +sugar: milk dey better model for di data than di full model.,Computer science
but what does that even mean?,But wetin dat one even mean?,Computer science
"if the interaction term sugar: milk was also non-signi cant, we'd be tempted to conclude that the data are telling us that the only thing that matters is sugar.",Di data dey tell us say di only thing wey matters na sugar,Computer science
"but suppose we have a signi cant interaction term, but a non-signi cant main eect of milk.","but suppose we get significant interaction term, but non-significant main effect of milk.",Computer science
"in this case, are we to assume that there really is an \eect of sugar"", an \interaction between milk and sugar"", but no \eect of milk""?","Di case, na we to assume say there really dey a \eect of sugar"", an interaction between milk and sugar"", but no eect of milk""?",Computer science
that seems crazy.,E dey crazy.,Computer science
the right answer simply must be that it's meaningless19to talk about the main eect if the interaction is signi cant.,Di right answer simply must be say e dey meaningless19to talk about di main eect if di interaction dey signi cant,Computer science
"in general, this seems to be what most statisticians advise us to do, and i think that's the right advice.","Di right advice wey most statisticians advise us to do, and i think say na di right advice.",Computer science
"but if it really 19or, at the very least, rarely of interest.","But if e really. or at di very least, rarely of interest.",Computer science
"when characterised in this fashion, the null hypotheses really don't make much sense at all.",Di null hypotheses don make much sense for all.,Computer science
"later on, we'll see that type iii tests can be redeemed in some contexts, but i'd better show you how to actually compute a type iii anova rst.","We go see say type iii tests dey redeemed for some contexts, but i goto show you how to compute type iii anova rst.",Computer science
the anova() function in rdoes not directly support type ii tests or type iii tests.,Di anova() function for r no directly support type ii tests or type iii tests.,Computer science
"technically, you cando it by creating the various models that form the null and alternative hypotheses for each test, and then using anova() to compare the models to one another.","Di technically, you cando am by create di different model wey form di null and other ideas for each test, and then use anova() to compare di model to one another.",Computer science
if you want type ii or type iii tests you need to use the anova() function in the carpackage.,Di anova() function for di carpackage.,Computer science
"it's pretty easy to use, since there's a type argument that you specify.","E dey easy to use, since there's di way wey you want draw wey you specify.",Computer science
"the important point here is that this is just a regular anova table, and we can see that our type iii tests are signi cant for all terms, even the intercept.","Di important point here na say dis dey regular anova table, and we go see say awa type iii tests dey signi cant for all terms, even di intercept.",Computer science
"except, as usual, it's not that simple.","as normal, e no dey simple",Computer science
"the results that i presented in the anova table above are based on the rdefault, which is treatment contrasts; and as we'll see later, this is usually avery poor choice if you want to run type iii tests.","Di results wey i present for di anova table above dey based on di rdefault, wey dey treatment contrast; and as we go see later, dis dey usually poor choice if you wan run type iii tests.",Computer science
there's actually even an argument in the etasquared() function called anova.,Di argument for di etasquared() function wey dey call anova.,Computer science
"by default, anova=false and the function just prints out the eect sizes.",Di function just to write for screen di eect sizes,Computer science
"however, if you set anova=true it will spit out the full anova table aswell.",If you set anova=true e go spit out di full anova table aswell.,Computer science
"this works for types i, ii and iii.","Dis one works for Types I, II, and III.",Computer science
just set the types argument to select which type of test you want.,"Just set di""type"" argument to choose which type of test you wan.",Computer science
sugar: milk 5. 94 211. 2769 0. 001754 ** residuals 3. 16 12--- signif.,"Sugar: Milk: 5.94, 2, 11.2769, 0.001754 **. Residuals: 3.16, 12.",Computer science
"in the case of milk in particular, the p-value has changed from. 002 to.07.",Dip-value don change from. 002 to.07.,Computer science
"this is a pretty substantial dierence, and hopefully it gives you a sense of how important it is that you take care when using type iii tests.","E dey pretty substantial dierence, and hopefully e give you sense of how important e dey say you take care wen using type iii tests.",Computer science
"okay, so if the p-values that come out of type iii analyses are so sensitive to the choice of contrasts, does that mean that type iii tests are essentially arbitrary and not to be trusted?","Dip-values wey kom out of type iii analyses dey so sensitive to di choice of contrasts, e mean say type iii tests dey essentially arbitrary and no dey trusted?",Computer science
"to some extent that's true, and when we turn to a discussion of type ii tests we'll see that type ii analyses avoid this arbitrariness entirely, but i think that's too strong a conclusion.","Na when we turn to discussion of type ii tests we go see say type ii tests avoid dis arbitrariness entirely, but i think say na too strong conclusion.",Computer science
"firstly, it's important to recognise that some choices of contrasts will always produce the same answers.",Di important to recognise say some choice of contrasts go produce di same answer.,Computer science
"of particular importance is the fact that if the columns of our contrast matrix are all constrained to sum to zero, then the type iii analysis will always give the same answers.","Di fact say if di columns of awa contrast matrix dey all constrained to sum to zero, then di type iii analysis go give di same answer.",Computer science
this means that you'll get the same answers if you use contr.,Di means say you go get di same answer if you use contr,Computer science
"helmert or contr. sum orcontr. poly, but dierent answers for contr. treatment orcontr.","Di dierent answer for contr. treatment orcontr. poly, but dierent answer for contr. treatment orcontr. poly, but dierent answer for contr. treatment orcontr.",Computer science
"however, both have some-547- serious aws: type i tests are dependent on the order in which you enter the terms, and type iii tests are dependent on how you code up your contrasts.","Dem don dey depend on di order wey you enter di terms, and type i tests dey depend on how you code up your contrasts.",Computer science
"because of these aws, neither one is easy to interpret.","Di aws, neither one dey easy to interpret",Computer science
"type ii tests area little harder to describe, but they avoid both of these problems, and as a result they area little easier to interpret.","Di type ii tests dey a little hard to describe, but dem avoid both of dis problems, and as result dem dey easier to interpret.",Computer science
"type ii tests are broadly similar to type iii tests: start with a ull"" model, and test a particular term by deleting it from that model.","Di type ii tests dey similar to type ii tests: start wit ull"" model, and test particular term by deleting am from dat model.",Computer science
"however, type ii tests are based on the marginality principle which states that you should not omit a lower order term from your model if there are any higher order ones that depend on it.",Di type ii tests dey based on di marginality principle wey states say you no go omit lower order term from your model if any dey higher order ones wey depend on am.,Computer science
"so, for instance, if your model contains the interaction a: b(a 2nd order term), then it really ought to contain the main eects aand b(1st order terms).","So for example, if your model contain interaction A: B (second-order term), den e suppose to contain di main effects A and B(first-order terms).",Computer science
"similarly, if it contains a three way interaction term a: b: c, then the model must also include the main eects a, band cas well as the simpler interactions a: b, a: cand b: c. type iii tests routinely violate the marginality principle.","Similarly, if e contain three-way interaction term A: B: C, den di model must also include di main effects A, B, and C, plus di simpler interactions A: B, A: C, and B: C. Type III tests regularly violate di marginality principle.",Computer science
"for instance, consider the test ofthe main eect of ain the context of a three-way anova that includes all possible interaction terms.","for example, consider di test of di main eect of ain di context of three-way anova wey include all possible interaction terms",Computer science
"this, according to the type ii tests, is not a good choice of null hypothesis.","Di type ii tests, no dey good choice of di null idea.",Computer science
"what we should do instead, if we want to test the null hypothesis that ais not relevant to our outcome, is to specify the null hypothesis that is the most complicated model that does not rely on ain any form, even as an interaction.","If we wan to test di null idea wey no dey relevant to awa outcome, na to specify di null idea wey no dey relevant to awa outcome, na to specify di null idea wey no dey relevant to awa outcome, na to specify di null idea wey no dey relevant to awa outcome, na to specify di null idea wey no dey relevant to awa outcome, na to specify di null idea wey no dey relevant to",Computer science
the alternative hypothesis corresponds to this null model plus a main eect term of a.,Di other idea match dis null model plus main effect term of A.,Computer science
"if original anova model doesn't contain an interaction term for b: c, then obviously it won't appear in either the null or the alternative.","Di original anova model no contain interaction term for b: c, then obviously e no dey appear for either di null or di alternative.",Computer science
"but that's true for types i, ii and iii.","But dat one true for Types I, II, and III.",Computer science
"they never include any terms that you didn't include, but they make dierent choices about how to construct tests for the ones that you did include.","Dem no include any terms wey you dey include, but dem make di dierent choices about how to construct tests for di ones wey you dey include, but dem make di dierent choices about how to construct tests for di ones wey you dey include.",Computer science
sugar: milk 5. 9439 211. 2769 0. 001754 ** residuals 3. 1625 12--- signif.,"Sugar: Milk: 5.9439, 2, 11.2769, 0.001754 **. Residuals: 3.1625, 12.",Computer science
"they don't depend on the order in which you specify factors(unlike type i), and they don't depend on the contrasts that you use to specify your factors(unlike type iii).","Di order wey you specify factors(unlike type i), and dem don depend on di order wey you specify factors(unlike type i), and dem don depend on di contrast wey you use to specify your factors(unlike type i), and dem don depend on di contrast wey you use to specify your factors(unlike type iii).",Computer science
"and although opinions may dier on this last point, and it will de nitely depend on what you're trying to do with your data, i do think that the hypothesis tests that they specify are more likely to correspond to something that you actually care about.",I do think say di hypothesis tests wey dem dey specify dey more likely to correspond to something wey you actually care about.,Computer science
"as a consequence, i nd that it's usually easier to interpret the results of a type ii test than the results of a type i or type iii test.",I nd say e dey easier to interpret di results of type ii test than di results of a type i or type iii test.,Computer science
"for this reason, my tentative advice is that, if you can't think of any obvious model comparisons that directly map onto your research questions but you still want to run an anova in an unbalanced design, type ii tests are probably a better choice than type i or type iii.22 16. 10. 6 eect sizes(and non-additive sums of squares)the etasquared() function in the lsrpackage computes 2and partial 2values for unbalanced designs and for dierent types of tests.","Di tentative advice na say, if you no think of any obvious model comparison wey directly map onto your research questions but you still wan run an anova for unbalanced design, type ii tests dey better choice than type i or type iii.22 16. 10. 6 eect sizes(and non additive sums of squares)di etasquared() function for di lsrpackage compute 2 and partial 2values for unbalanced design and for dierent type of tests.",Computer science
it's pretty straightforward.,E dey clear,Computer science
"all you have to do is indicate which type of tests you're doing, 22i nd it amusing to note that the default in ris type i and the default in spss is type iii(with helmert contrasts).",Di default for ris type i and di default for spss dey type iii(with helmert contrast).,Computer science
neither of these appeals tome all that much.,Di appeals tome all dat much.,Computer science
"relatedly, i nd it depressing that almost nobody in the psychological literature ever bothers to report which type of tests they ran, much less the order of variables(for type i)or the contrasts used(for type iii).","I nd depressing say almost nobodi for di psychological literature ever bothers to report which type of tests wey dem run, much less di order of variables(for type i)or di contrast wey dey use(for type iii).",Computer science
often they don't report what software they used either.,Dem don report what software dem use either.,Computer science
"the only way i can ever make any sense of what people typically report is to try to guess from auxiliary cues which software they were using, and to assume that they never changed the default settings.","Di only way i fit make any sense of what pipo typically report nato try to guess from auxiliary cues wey dem use, and to assume say dem no change di default settings.",Computer science
"please don't do this. now that you know about these issues, make sure you indicate what software you used, and if you're reporting anova results for unbalanced data, then specify what type of tests you ran, specify order information if you've done type i tests and specify contrasts if you've done type iii tests.","for now say you know about dis issues, make sure you indicate what software you use, and if you dey reporting anova results for unbalanced data, make sure you indicate what type of tests wey you dey done type i tests and if you dey done type i tests, specify order information if you dey done type i tests.",Computer science
"or, even better, do hypotheses tests that correspond to things you really care about, and then report those!","Di hypotheses tests wey dey correspond to things you really care about, and then report those",Computer science
milk 0. 07019886 0.,Na 07019886 0,Computer science
sugar: milk 0. 43640732 0.,Di 43640732 0,Computer science
"and out pops the 2and partial 2values, as requested.","Di 2and partial 2values, as request.",Computer science
"however, when you've got an unbalanced design, there's a bit of extra complexity involved.","Di however, wen you go get unbalanced design, e dey bit of extra complexity involved.",Computer science
"and, on top of that, the whole idea behind 2is that{ because you're dividing one ofthe ss terms by the total ss value{ is that an 2value can be interpreted as the proportion of variance accounted for by a particular term.","Di whole idea wey dey behind 2is say, because you dey divide one of diss terms by di total ss value, na say di proportion of variance account for by particular term.",Computer science
now take a look at the output above.,Na now take make we look di output above,Computer science
"because i've included the 2value associated with the residuals (i. e, proportion of variance in the outcome attributed to the residuals, rather than to one ofthe eects), you'd expect all the 2values to sum to 1.","I dey include di 2value wey dey associated wit di residuals (i. e, proportion of variance for di outcome attributed to di residuals, no be to one of di eects), you expect all di 2values to add to one.",Computer science
"because, the whole idea here was that the variance in the outcome variable can be divided up into the variability attributable to the model, and the variability in the residuals.","Di whole idea here na say di variance for outcome variable go divide up into di variability attributable to di model, and di variability for di residuals.",Computer science
"and yet when we add up the 2values for our model.> sum(es[,""eta. sq""]) [1]0.",We add up di 2values for awa model,Computer science
we discover that for type ii and type iii tests they generally don't sum to 1.,We discover say for type ii and type iii tests dem generally don add to one.,Computer science
"some ofthe variability has gone\missing"".",Na some of di variability don go missing,Computer science
"it's not being attributed to the model, and it's not being attributed to the residuals either.","Di model no dey attributed to di model, and e no dey attributed to di residuals either.",Computer science
what's going on here?,We dey goon here?,Computer science
"before giving you the answer, i want to push this idea a little further.","Before I give you di answer, I wan push dis idea small more.",Computer science
"from a mathematical perspective, it's easy enough to see that the missing variance is a consequence ofthe fact that in types ii and iii, the individual ss values are not obliged to the total sum of squares, and will only do so if you have balanced data.","E easy to see say di missing variance dey consequence of di fact say for types ii and iii, di individual ss values no dey obliged to di total adding all the squared gaps to measure total error, and go only do so if you don balance data.",Computer science
"i'll explain why this happens and what it means in a second, but rst let's verify that this is the case using the anova table.","I go explain why dis happen and what e means for second, but first let verify say dis dey di case wey dey use di anova table.",Computer science
"okay, time to explain what's happened.","Okay, time to explain wetin don happen.",Computer science
"the reason why this happens is that, when you have unbalanced designs, your factors become correlated with one another, and it becomes dicult to tell the dierence between the eect of factor a and the eect of factor b.","Di reason wey dis happen na say, wen you go get unbalanced designs, your factors dey correlated wit one another, and e dey dicult to tell di dierence between di eect of factor a and di eect of factor b",Computer science
"in the extreme case, suppose that we'd run a 22 design in which the number of participants in each group had been as follows: sugar no sugar milk 100 0 no milk 0 100 here we have a spectacularly unbalanced design:100 people have milk and sugar,100 people have no milk and no sugar, and that's all.","Di extreme case, suppose say we run 22 design for which di number of participants for each group dey as follow: sugar no sugar milk 100 0 no milk 0 100 here we get a spectacularly unbalanced design:100 pipo don get milk and sugar,100 pipo don no milk and sugar, and dat dey all.",Computer science
"there are 0 people with milk and no sugar, and 0 people with sugar but no milk.","E dey 0 pipo wit milk and no sugar, and 0 pipo wit sugar but no milk",Computer science
"now suppose that, when we collected the data, it turned out there is a large(and statistically signi cant) dierence between the\milk and sugar""group and theo-milk and no-sugar""group.","We suppose say, wen we collect di data, e turnout di large(and statistically signi cant) dierence between di\milk and sugar""group and dio-milk and no-sugar""group and dio-milk and no-sugar""group.",Computer science
is this a main eect of sugar?,Dis one na main effect of sugar?,Computer science
a main eect of milk?,Main effect of milk?,Computer science
or an interaction?,Di interaction or an interaction?,Computer science
"it's impossible to tell, because the presence of sugar has a perfect association with the presence of milk.",Di presence of sugar don perfect association wit di presence of milk,Computer science
"now suppose the design had been a little more balanced: sugar no sugar milk 100 5 no milk 5 100 this time around, it's technically possible to distinguish between the eect of milk and the eect of sugar, because we have a few people that have one but not the other.","Sugar no sugar milk 100 5 no milk 5 100 dis time around, e dey technically possible to distinguish between di eect of milk and di eect of sugar, bikos we no get one but no di oda.",Computer science
"however, it will still be pretty dicult to do so, because the association between sugar and milk is still extremely strong, and there are so few observations in two ofthe groups.","Di association between sugar and milk dey still strong, and di association between sugar and milk dey still strong, and na so few observations for two of di groups.",Computer science
"again, we're very likely to bein the situation where we know that the predictor variables(milk and sugar)are related to the outcome (babbling), but we don't know if the nature of that relationship is a main eect of one predictor, or the other predictor or the interaction.","We dey likely to be for di situation wey we know say di predictor variables(milk and sugar)dey related to di outcome (babbling), but we no know if di nature of dat relationship dey main eect of one predictor or di interaction.",Computer science
this uncertainty is the reason for the missing variance.,Di uncertainty dey di reason for di missing variance,Computer science
"the\missing"" variance corresponds to variation in the outcome variable that is clearly attributable to the predictors, but we don't know which ofthe eects in the model is responsible.","Di\missing"" variance correspond to variation for outcome variable wey dey clearly attributable to di predictors, but we no know which of di eects wey dey responsible.",Computer science
"when you calculate type i sum of squares, no variance ever goes missing: the sequentiual nature of type i sum of squares means that the anova automatically attributes this variance to whichever eects are entered rst.",Di sequentiual nature of type i adding all the squared gaps to measure total error mean say di anova automatically attributes dis variance to whichever eects dey enter rst.,Computer science
"however, the type ii and type iii tests are more conservative.",Di type ii and type iii tests dey more conservative.,Computer science
"variance that cannot be clearly attributed to a speci c eect doesn't get attributed to any of them, and it goes missing.","Di variance wey no be clearly attributed to a speci c eect no get attributed to any of dem, and e no dey missing.",Computer science
"endings, alternatives and prospects-553- 17.","Endings, alternatives, and prospects.",Computer science
"bayesian statistics in our reasonings concerning matter of fact, there are all imaginable degrees of assurance, from the highest certainty to the lowest species of moral evidence.","Di bayesian statistics for awa reasonings concern matter of fact, na all imaginable degree of assurance, from di highest certainty to di lowest species of moral evidence.",Computer science
"a wise man, therefore, proportions his belief to the evidence.","Di wise man, therefore, proportion hin belief to di evidence.",Computer science
i'm not alone in doing this.,I no alone for doing dis,Computer science
"in fact, almost every textbook given to undergraduate psychology students presents the opinions ofthe frequentist statistician as thetheory of inferential statistics, the one true way to do things.","Di textbook wey dey give undergraduate psychology students present di opinion of di frequentist statistician as ditheory of inferential statistics, di one true way to do things.",Computer science
"the frequentist view of statistics dominated the academic eld of statistics for most ofthe 20th century, and this dominance is even more extreme among applied scientists.","Di frequentist view of statistics dominate di academic field of statistics for most of di 20th century, and dis dominance dey even more extreme for applied scientists.",Computer science
it was and is current practice among psychologists to use frequentist methods.,E be current practice among psychologists to use frequentist methods.,Computer science
"because frequentist methods are ubiquitous in scienti c papers, every student of statistics needs to understand those methods, otherwise they will be unable to make sense of what those papers are saying!","Di frequentist methods dey ubiquitous for scienti c paper, evri student of statistics need to understand those methods, odawise dem go make sense of what those paper dey say.",Computer science
"unfortunately{ in my opinion atleast {the current practice in psychology is often misguided, and the reliance on frequentist methods is partly to blame.","Di current practice for psychology dey misguided, and di reliance on frequentist methods dey partly to blame",Computer science
"when i observe the data d, i have to revise those beliefs.","Di data d, i go revise those beliefs",Computer science
"if the data are consistent with a hypothesis, my belief in that hypothesis is strengthened.",Di belief for say hypothesis dey strengthened.,Computer science
"if the data inconsistent with the hypothesis, my belief in that hypothesis is weakened.",Di belief for say hypothesis dey weakened.,Computer science
consider the following reasoning problem: i'm carrying an umbrella.,I dey carry umbrella,Computer science
do you think it will rain?,Di rain go rain?,Computer science
"in this problem, i have presented you with a single piece of data( di'm carrying the umbrella), and i'm asking you to tell me your beliefs about whether it's raining.","I don present you wit single piece of data( di'm carry di umbrella), and i ask you to tell me your beliefs about whether im rain",Computer science
"you have two possible hypotheses, h: either it rains today or it does not.","E don get two possible hypotheses, h: either e rain today or e no dey.",Computer science
how should you solve this problem?,How dey solve dis problem?,Computer science
"this is important: if you want to be honest about how your beliefs have been revised in the light of new evidence, then you must say something about what you believed before those data appeared!","Dis one important: if you wan to dey honest about how your beliefs don change because of new evidence, den you must talk something about wetin you believe before those data show face!",Computer science
"so, what might you believe about whether it will rain today?",Di might you believe about whether im rain today?,Computer science
"you probably know that i live in australia, and that much of australia is hot and dry.","Di probably know say i live for australia, and say much of australia dey hot and dry",Computer science
"and in fact you're right: the city of adelaide where i live has a mediterranean climate, very similar to southern california, southern europe or northern africa.","And for fact you dey right: di city of Adelaide wey I live get Mediterranean climate, wey resemble Southern California, Southern Europe, or Northern Africa.",Computer science
"i'm writing this in january, and so you can assume it's the middle of summer.","I dey write dis for january, and so you fit assume di middle of summer",Computer science
"in fact, you might have decided to take a quick look on wikipedia2and discovered that adelaide gets an average of 4. 4 days of rain across the 31 days of january.",E go decide to take quick look on wikipedia2and discover say adelaide get average of 4. 4 days of rain across di 31 days of january.,Computer science
"without knowing anything else, you might conclude that the probability of january rain in adelaide is about 15%, and the probability of a dry day is 85%.","Di probability of january rain for adelaide dey about 15%, and di probability of dry day dey 85%",Computer science
"if this is really what you believe about adelaide rainfall(and now that i've told it to you, i'm betting that this really iswhat you believe)then what i have written here is your prior distribution, writtenpphq: hypothesis degree of belief rainy day 0. 15 dry day 0. 85 17.1. 2 likelihoods: theories about the data to solve the reasoning problem, you need a theory about my behaviour.","If dis one really be wetin you believe about Adelaide rainfall(and now sey I don tell you, I dey bet sey dis really be wetin you believe), den wetin I write here na your prior distribution, P(H): rainy day= 0.15, dry day= 0.85. Likelihoods: theories about di data. To solve di reasoning problem, you need theory about my behaviour.",Computer science
when does dan carry an umbrella?,Na when carry umbrella?,Computer science
"you might guess that i'm not a complete idiot, 3and i try to carry umbrellas only on rainy days.","Di might guess say i no dey complete idiot, 3and i try to carry umbrella only for rainy days",Computer science
"on the other hand, you also know that i have young kids, and you wouldn't be all that surprised to know that i'm pretty forgetful about this sort of thing.","I also know say i don get young kids, and you no be all wey surprise to know say i dey forgetful about dis sort of thing.",Computer science
let's suppose that on rainy days i remember my umbrella about 30%of the time(i really am awful at this).,I suppose say on rainy days i remember my umbrella about 30%of di time(i really dey awful for dis).,Computer science
but let's say that on dry days i'm only about 5%likely to be carrying an umbrella.,Dem tok say on dry days i only about 5%likely to be carry umbrella,Computer science
"so you might write out a little table like this: data hypothesis umbrella no umbrella rainy day 0. 300. 70 dry day 0. 05 0. 95 it's important to remember that each cell in this table describes your beliefs about what data dwill be observed, given the truth of a particular hypothesis h. this\conditional probability""is written 2 ofadelaide 3it's a leap of faith, i know, but let's run with it okay?","So you fit write small table like dis: Data, Hypothesis: Umbrella, No Umbrella. Rainy day: 0.30, 0.70. Dry day: 0.05, 0.95. E important to remember sey each cell for dis table describe your beliefs about wetin data""d"" go show, given sey particular hypothesis H dey true. Dis""conditional probability""dem write as P(dH).",Computer science
"in bayesian statistics, this is referred to as likelihood of datadgiven hypothesis h. 417. 1. 3 the joint probability of data and hypothesis at this point, all the elements are in place.","Di joint probability of data and hypothesis for dis point, all di elements dey in place.",Computer science
"having written down the priors and the likelihood, you have all the information you need to do bayesian reasoning.",Di information wey you need to do bayesian reasoning.,Computer science
"the question now becomes, howdo we use this information?",Howdo we use dis information?,Computer science
"as it turns out, there's avery simple equation that we can use here, but it's important that you understand why we use it, so i'm going to try to build it up from more basic ideas.","Di very simple equation wey we fit use here, but e important say you understand why we use am, so i go try build am up from more basic ideas.",Computer science
let's start out with one ofthe rules of probability theory.,We go start out wit one of di rules of di study of chance.,Computer science
the rule in question is the one that talks about the probability that twothings are true.,Di rule for question na di one wey talks about di probability say twothings dey true,Computer science
"in our example, you might want to calculate the probability that today is rainy(i. e, hypothesis his true)and i'm carrying an umbrella(i. e, data dis observed).","Di example, you go wan to calculate di probability say today dey rainy(i. e, hypothesis hin true)and i'm carry umbrella(i. e, data dis observed).",Computer science
"the joint probability ofthe hypothesis and the data is written ppd; hq, and you can calculate it by multiplying the prior pphqby the likelihood ppd|hq.","Di joint probability of di hypothesis and di data dey written ppd; hq, and you fit calculate am by multiply di prior pphqby di likelihood ppd",Computer science
"mathematically, we say that: ppd; hqppd|hqpphq so, what is the probability that today is a rainy day andi remember to carry an umbrella?","We tok say: ppd; hqppd|hqpphq so, what dey di probability say today dey rainy day andi remember tocarry umbrella?",Computer science
"as we discussed earlier, the prior tells us that the probability of a rainy day is 15%, and the likelihood tells us that the probability of me remembering my umbrella on a rainy day is 30%.","Di prior tells us say di probability of me remember my umbrella on rainy day na 30%, and di likelihood tell us say di probability of me remember my umbrella on rainy day na 30%.",Computer science
"so the probability that both of these things are true is calculated by multiplying the two: pprainy; umbrellaq ppumbrella|rainyqpprainyq 0:300: 150: 045 in other words, before being told anything about what actually happened, you think that there is a 4.5% probability that today will be a rainy day and that i will remember an umbrella.",Dem think say di 4.5% probability say today go be rainy day and say i go remember umbrella,Computer science
"however, there are ofcourse four possible things that could happen, right?","E dey ofcourse four possible things wey could happen, right?",Computer science
so let's repeat the exercise for all four.,So make we repeat di exercise for all four.,Computer science
"if we do that, we end up with the following table: umbrella no-umbrella rainy 0. 045 0. 105 dry 0. 0425 0. 8075 this table captures all the information about which ofthe four possibilities are likely.","If we do dat, we end up with dis table: Umbrella, No-Umbrella. Rainy: 0.045, 0.105. Dry: 0.0425, 0.8075. Dis table capture all di information about which of di four possibilities dey likely.",Computer science
"to really get the full picture, though, it helps to add the row totals and column totals.",Di full picture help to add di total for one line and column totals.,Computer science
that gives us this table: umbrella no-umbrella total rainy 0. 0450 0. 1050 0. 15 dry 0. 0425 0. 8075 0. 85 total 0. 0875 0. 9125 1 4um.,"Dat give us dis table: Umbrella, No-Umbrella, Total. Rainy: 0.0450, 0.1050, 0.15. Dry: 0.0425, 0.8075, 0.85. Total: 0.0875, 0.9125, 1.",Computer science
"the problem is that the word\likelihood"" has avery speci c meaning in frequentist statistics, and it's not quite the same as what it means in bayesian statistics.","Di problem dey say di word\likelihood"" don very speci c meaning for frequentist statistics, and e no dey quite di same as what dem means for bayesian statistics.",Computer science
"as far as i can tell, bayesians didn't originally have any agreed upon name for the likelihood, and so it became common practice for people to use the frequentist terminology.","as for i fit tell, bayesians no get any agree upon name for di likelihood, and so e dey common practice for pipo to use di frequentist terminology.",Computer science
"this wouldn't have been a problem, except for the fact that the way that bayesians use the word turns out to be quite dierent to the way frequentists do.","E no be problem, except for di fact say di way wey bayesians use di word turnout to be quite dierent to di way frequentists do.",Computer science
"this isn't the place for yet another lengthy history lesson, but to put it crudely: when a bayesian says\ alikelihood function""they're usually referring one ofthe rows ofthe table.","Di Bayesian tok say\ Alikelihood function""dem dey refer one of di rows of di table.",Computer science
"when a frequentist says the same thing, they're referring to the same table, but to them\ alikelihood function""almost always refers to one ofthe columns.","Di frequentist tok say di same thing, dem dey to talk about di same table, but to dem\ Alikelihood function""always to talk about one of di columns.",Computer science
"this distinction matters in some contexts, but it's not important for our purposes.","Dis difference matter for some contexts, but e no important for our purposes.",Computer science
"first, notice that the row sums aren't telling us anything new at all.",Dem notice say di row sums no dey tell us any new for all.,Computer science
"for example, the rst row tells us that if we ignore all this umbrella business, the chance that today will be a rainy day is 15%.","Di rst row tell us say if we ignore all dis umbrella business, di chance say today go be rainy day dey 15%.",Computer science
"that's not surprising, of course: that's our prior.","E no dey surprising, of course: dat's our prior.",Computer science
"the important thing isn't the number itself: rather, the important thing is that it gives us some con dence that our calculations are sensible!",Di important thing dey say e give us some con dence say awa calculations dey sensible,Computer science
"now take a look at the column sums, and notice that they tell us something that we haven't explicitly stated yet.","Na now take make we look di column sums, and notice say dem tell us something wey we no dey explicitly state yet.",Computer science
"in the same way that the row sums tell us the probability of rain, the column sums tell us the probability of me carrying an umbrella.","Di column sum tell us di probability of rain, di column sum tell us di probability of me carry umbrella",Computer science
"speci cally, the rst column tells us that on average(i. e, ignoring whether it's a rainy day or not), the probability of me carrying an umbrella is 8. 75%.","Di rst column tell us say for average(i. e, ignoring whether e dey rainy day or no), di probability of me carry umbrella dey 8. 75%",Computer science
"finally, notice that when we sum across all four logically-possible events, everything adds upto 1.","Finally, notice sey when we add all four logically-possible events, everything add upto 1.",Computer science
"in other words, what we have written down is a proper probability distribution de ned overall possible combinations of data and hypothesis.",We don write down na proper formula wey show how likely different results be wey dey ned overall di ways wey dem fit mix of data and hypothesis.,Computer science
"in the rainy day problem, the data corresponds to the observation that i door do not have an umbrella.",Di data correspond to di observation say i door no get umbrella,Computer science
"so we'll let d1refer to the possibility that you observe me carrying an umbrella, and d2refers to you observing me not carrying one.","We go let d1refer to di possibility say you observe me carry umbrella, and d2refer to you observing me no carry one",Computer science
"similarly, h1is your hypothesis that today is rainy, and h2is the hypothesis that it is not.","Di hypothesis wey dey rainy, and h2is di hypothesis wey dey no rainy, and h2is di hypothesis wey dey no",Computer science
it's now time to consider what happens to our beliefs when we are actually given the data.,E now time to consider what we dey happen to awa beliefs wen we dey give di data.,Computer science
"in the rainy day problem, you are told that i really amcarrying an umbrella.","Di rainy day problem, you dey tell say i really amcarry umbrella",Computer science
"this is something of a surprising event: according to our table, the probability of me carrying an umbrella is only 8. 75%.","Dis na something of surprising event: according to our table, di probability of me carry umbrella only 8. 75%",Computer science
"but that makes sense, right?","Dem make sense, right?",Computer science
"a guy carrying an umbrella on a summer day in a hot dry city is pretty unusual, and so you really weren't expecting that.","Di guy wey dey carry umbrella on summer day for hot dry city dey pretty unusual, and so you dey expect say.",Computer science
"nevertheless, the problem tells you that it is true.",Di problem tell you say e dey true,Computer science
"no matter how unlikely you thought it was, you must now adjust your beliefs to accommodate the fact that you now know that i have an umbrella. 5to re ect this new knowledge, our revised table must have the following numbers: 5if we were being a bit more sophisticated, we could extend the example to accommodate the possibility that i'm lying about the umbrella.","Di revised table must get di following numbers: 5if we dey sophisticated, we go extend di example to accommodate di possibility wey i dey lying about di umbrella.",Computer science
"but let's keep things simple, shall we?","But make we keep things simple, abi?",Computer science
"also, you know for a fact that i am carrying an umbrella, so the column sum on the left must be 1 to correctly describe the fact that ppumbrellaq1.",Di column sum on di left must be 1 to correctly describe di fact say ppumbrellaq1.,Computer science
what two numbers should we putin the empty cells?,Di two numbers wey we put for di empty cells?,Computer science
"again, let's not worry about the maths, and instead think about our intuitions.","Dem no worry about di maths, and instead think about awa intuitions",Computer science
"when we wrote out our table the rst time, it turned out that those two cells had almost identical numbers, right?","We write out our table di rst time, e turnout say two cells don almost identical numbers, right?",Computer science
"we worked out that the joint probability of ain and umbrella""was 4.5%, and the joint probability of\dry and umbrella""was 4. 25%.","We workout say di joint probability of ain and umbrella""na 4.5%, and di joint probability of\dry and umbrella""na 4. 25%, and di joint probability of\dry and umbrella""na 4. 25%.",Computer science
"in other words, before i told you that i amin fact carrying an umbrella, you'd have said that these two events were almost identical in probability, yes?","Di two events dey almost identical for probability, no?",Computer science
but notice that bothof these possibilities are consistent with the fact that i actually am carrying an umbrella.,Dem notice say both of dis possibilities dey consistent wit di fact say i no fitcarry umbrella,Computer science
"from the perspective of these two possibilities, very little has changed.","For di perspective of dis two possibilities, very little don change",Computer science
"so what we expect to see in our nal table is some numbers that preserve the fact that ain and umbrella""is slightly more plausible than\dry and umbrella"", while still ensuring that numbers in the table add up.","We expect to see for our nal table na some numbers wey dey preserve di fact say ain and umbrella"" dey more plausible than\dry and umbrella"", while still ensuring say numbers for di table add up.",Computer science
"something like this, perhaps?",Forhaps?,Computer science
"umbrella no-umbrella rainy 0. 514 0 dry 0. 486 0 total 10 what this table is telling you is that, after being told that i'm carrying an umbrella, you believe that there's a 51. 4%chance that today will be a rainy day, and a 48. 6%chance that it won't.","Di table dey tell you say, after being tell say umbrella no dey carry umbrella, you believe say na 51. 4%chance say today go be rainy day, and 48. 6%chance wey dey win.",Computer science
that's the answer to our problem!,Di answer to awa problem,Computer science
the posterior probability of rainpph|dqgiven that i am carrying an umbrella is 51. 4%how did i calculate these numbers?,Di posterior probability of rainpph|dqgiven say i am carry umbrella na 51.4% how i calculate dis numbers?,Computer science
you can probably guess.,We go probably guess.,Computer science
"to workout that there was a 0. 514 probability of\rain"", all i did was take the 0. 045 probability of\rain and umbrella""and divide it by the 0. 0875 chance of\umbrella"".","I don take di 0. 514 probability of\rain and umbrella""and divide am by di 0. 0875 chance of\umbrella"".",Computer science
"this produces a table that satis es our need to have everything sum to 1, and our need not to interfere with the relative plausibility ofthe two events that are actually consistent with the data.","Di table wey dey produce table wey dey satis as awa need to get everything add to one, and awa need no to interfere wit di relative plausibility of di two events wey dey consistent wit di data.",Computer science
"to say the same thing using fancy statistical jargon, what i've done here is divide the joint probability ofthe hypothesis and the data ppd; hqby the marginal probability ofthe data ppdq, and this is what gives us the posterior probability ofthe hypothesis given that we know the data have been observed.","Di same thing wey i dey done here dey divide di joint probability of di hypothesis and di data ppd; hqby di marginal probability of di data ppd, and dis na what we dey give us di posterior probability of di data ppd; hqby di marginal probability of di data ppd; hqby di marginal probability of di data ppd.",Computer science
"in real life, the things we actually know how to write down are the priors and the likelihood, so let's substitute those back into the equation.","Di things wey we know how to write down dey di prior and di likelihood, so let substitute those back into di equation.",Computer science
"if you multiply both sides ofthe equation by ppdq, then you get ppdqpph|dqppd; hq, which is the rule for how joint probabilities are calculated.",Di rule for how joint probabilities dey calculated,Computer science
"so i'm not actually introducing any ew""rules here, i'm just using the same rule in a dierent way.","I no actually introducin any ew""rules here, i just use di same rule for di dierent way.",Computer science
"it describes how a learner starts out with prior beliefs about the plausibility of dierent hypotheses, and tells you how those beliefs should be revised in the face of data.","E describe how learner start out wit prior beliefs about di plausibility of dierent hypotheses, and tell you how those beliefs go revised for di face of data.",Computer science
"in the bayesian paradigm, all statistical inference ows from this one simple rule.","Di bayesian paradigm, all statistical inference wey dey from dis one simple rule.",Computer science
"in contrast, the bayesian approach to hypothesis testing is incredibly simple.",Di bayesian approach to way to check if your idea be true dey simple.,Computer science
let's pick a setting that is closely analogous to the orthodox scenario.,We go pick setting wey dey closely analogous to di orthodox scenario.,Computer science
"there are two hypotheses that we want to compare, a null hypothesis h0and an alternative hypothesis h1.","Di two hypotheses wey we wan compare, di null idea h0and di other idea h1.",Computer science
prior to running the experiment we have some beliefs pphqabout which hypotheses are true.,We get some beliefs pphqabout which hypotheses dey true,Computer science
we run an experiment and obtain data d. unlike frequentist statistics bayesian statistics does allow to talk about the probability that the null hypothesis is true.,Di frequentist statistics bayesian statistics don allow to talk about di probability say di null idea dey true,Computer science
"better yet, it allows us to calculate the posterior probability ofthe null hypothesis, using bayes' rule: pph0|dqppd|h0qpph0q ppdq this formula tells us exactly how much belief we should have in the null hypothesis after having observed the datad.",Pph0|dqppd|h0qpph0q ppdq dis formula tells us exactly how much belief we go get for di null idea afta having observe di data.,Computer science
"similarly, we can workout how much belief to place in the alternative hypothesis using essentially the same equation.",We fit workout how much belief to place for di other idea using essentially di same equation.,Computer science
"instead, we tend to talkin terms ofthe posterior odds ratio.",We go talk for terms of di posterior odds ratio.,Computer science
think of it like betting.,Dem think of am like betting,Computer science
"suppose, for instance, the posterior probability ofthe null hypothesis is 25%, and the posterior probability ofthe alternative is 75%.","Di posterior probability of di null idea dey 25%, and di posterior probability of di alternative dey 75%.",Computer science
"the alternative hypothesis is three times as probable as the null, so we say that the odds are 3: 1 in favour ofthe alternative.","Di other idea dey three times as probable as di null, so we say di odds dey 3: 1 for favour of di alternative.",Computer science
"mathematically, all we have to do to calculate the posterior odds is divide one posterior probability by the other: pph1|dq pph0|dq0: 750: 253 7obviously, this is a highly simpli ed story.",E dey highly simpli ed story.,Computer science
all the complexity of real life bayesian hypothesis testing comes down to how you calculate the likelihood ppd|hqwhen the hypothesis his a complex and vague thing.,Di complexity of for real life bayesian way to check if your idea be true kom down to how you calculate di likelihood ppd|hqwhen di hypothesis hin complex and vague thing.,Computer science
"i'm not going to talk about those complexities in this book, but i do want to highlight that although this simple story is true as far as it goes, real life is messier than i'm able to cover in an introductory stats textbook.","I no go talk about dis complexities for dis book, but i go wan highlight say although dis simple story dey true as fore go, for real life dey messier than i fit cover for introductory stats textbook",Computer science
there are three dierent terms here that you should know.,Di three dierent terms wey you need know.,Computer science
"on the left hand side, we have the posterior odds, which tells you what you believe about the relative plausibilty ofthe null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis after seeing the data.","Di posterior odds, we tell you what you believe about di relative plausibilty of di null idea and di other idea before seeing di data.",Computer science
"on the right hand side, we have the prior odds, which indicates what you thought before seeing the data.","We get di prior odds, we dey indicate what you thought before seeing di data.",Computer science
"in the middle, we have the bayes factor, which describes the amount of evidence provided by the data: pph1|dq pph0|dqppd|h1q ppd|h0qpph1q pph0q ooo posterior odds bayes factor prior odds the bayes factor(sometimes abbreviated as bf)has a special place in the bayesian hypothesis testing, because it serves a similar role to the p-value in orthodox hypothesis testing: it quanti es the strength of evidence provided by the data, and as such it is the bayes factor that people tend to report when running a bayesian hypothesis test.",Di bayes factor wey dey describe di amount of evidence wey dey provided by di data: pph1|dq pph0|dqppd|h1q ppd|h0qpph1q pph0q o posterior odds bayes factor(sometimes abbreviated as bf)don describe dip-value for orthodox way to check if your idea be true.,Computer science
the reason for reporting bayes factors rather than posterior odds is that dierent researchers will have dierent priors.,Di reason wey dey reporting bayes factors no be posterior odds dey say dierent researchers go get dia priors.,Computer science
"some people might have a strong bias to believe the null hypothesis is true, others might have a strong bias to believe it is false.","Some pipo go get strong bias to believe di null idea na true, oda pipo go get strong bias to believe di null idea na true, oda pipo go get strong bias to believe am false.",Computer science
"because of this, the polite thing for an applied researcher to do is report the bayes factor.",Di polite thing for apply researcher to do dey report di bayes factor,Computer science
"that way, anyone reading the paper can multiply the bayes factor by their own personal prior odds, and they can workout for themselves what the posterior odds would be.","Di way, anyone reading di paper fit multiply di bayes factor by dia own personal prior odds, and dem fit workout for themselves what di posterior odds go be.",Computer science
"in any case, by convention we like to pretend that we give equal consideration to both the null hypothesis and the alternative, in which case the prior odds equals 1, and the posterior odds becomes the same as the bayes factor.","Di convention we like to pretend say we give equal consideration to both di null idea and di alternative, in which case di prior odds equal 1, and di posterior odds become di same as di bayes factor.",Computer science
"if you run an experiment and you compute a bayes factor of 4, it means that the evidence provided by your data corresponds to betting odds of 4: 1 in favour ofthe alternative.","If you run experiment and you compute bayes factor of 4, e mean say di evidence wey dey provided by your data correspond to betting odds of 4: 1 for favour of di alternative.",Computer science
"however, there have been some attempts to quantify the standards of evidence that would be considered meaningful in a scienti c context.",Na some attempts to quantify di standards of evidence wey dey consider meaningful for a scienti c context.,Computer science
the two most widely used are from jereys (1961)and kass and raftery (1995).,Di two most widely used dey from jereys (1961)and kass and raftery (1995).,Computer science
"ofthe two, i tend to prefer the kass and raftery (1995)table because it's a bit more conservative.",I tend to prefer di kass and raftery (1995)table bikos e dey conservative.,Computer science
"so here it is: bayes factor interpretation 1-3 negligible evidence 3-20 positive evidence 20 -150 strong evidence 150 very strong evidence and to be perfectly honest, i think that even the kass and raftery standards are being a bit charitable.","Bayes factor interpretation 1-3 negligible evidence 3-20 positive evidence 20 -150 strong evidence 200 very strong evidence and to be perfectly honest, i think say even di kass and raftery standards dey very charitable.",Computer science
"if it were upto me, i'd have called the\positive evidence""category \weak evidence"".","I don call di negative evidence""category \weak evidence"".",Computer science
"tome, anything in the range 3: 1 to 20:1 is\weak"" or\modest"" evidence at best.","Di range 3: 1 to 20:1 dey weak""or modest""evidence for best.",Computer science
"but there are no hard and fast rules here: what counts as strong or weak evidence depends entirely on how conservative you are, and upon the standards that your community insists upon before it is willing to label a nding as rue"".","We dey count as strong or weak evidence depend entirely on how conservative you dey, and upon di standards wey your community insist upon before dey willing to label nding as rue",Computer science
"in any case, note that all the numbers listed above make sense if the bayes factor is greater than 1(i. e, the evidence favours the alternative hypothesis).","Dem note say all di numbers wey dey listed above make sense if di bayes factor dey pass, as in one thing pass anoda, for example, if u get 10 naira and v get 5 naira, u pass v1(i. e, di evidence favour di other idea).",Computer science
"however, one big practical advantage ofthe -561- bayesian approach relative to the orthodox approach is that it also allows you to quantify evidence for the null.",One big practical advantage of di-561- bayesian approach wey dey relative to di orthodox approach dey say e also allow you to quantify evidence for di null,Computer science
"when that happens, the bayes factor will be less than 1.",Di bayes factor go be less than 1.,Computer science
"you can choose to report a bayes factor less than 1, but to be honest i nd it confusing.","Dem go choose to report bayes factor less than 1, but to be true i nd e confusing.",Computer science
"for example, suppose that the likelihood ofthe data under the null hypothesis ppd|h0qis equal to 0. 2, and the corresponding likelihood ppd|h0qunder the alternative hypothesis is 0.1.","Di likelihood of di data under di null idea ppd|h0qis equal to 0. 2, and di corresponding likelihood ppd|h0qunder di other idea dey 0.",Computer science
"using the equations given above, bayes factor here would be: bfppd|h1q ppd|h0q0: 1 0:20: 5 read literally, this result tells is that the evidence in favour ofthe alternative is 0. 5 to 1.",Di result tells say di evidence for favour of di alternative dey 0. 5 to 1,Computer science
"tome, it makes alot more sense to turn the equation\upside down"", and report the amount op evidence in favour ofthe null.","Tome, e make plenty more sense to turn di equation""upside down"", and report di amount of evidence for di null idea.",Computer science
"in other words, what we calculate is this: bf1ppd|h0q ppd|h1q0: 2 0:12 and what we would report is a bayes factor of 2: 1 in favour ofthe null.",Dem calculate say bf1ppd|h1q0: 2 0:12 and we go report na bayes factor of 2: 1 for favour of di null,Computer science
"much easier to understand, and you can interpret this using the table above.","For di table above, you fit interpret dis using di table above.",Computer science
upto this point i've focused exclusively on the logic underpinning bayesian statistics.,I focus exclusively on di logic underpinning bayesian statistics.,Computer science
"we've talked about the idea of\probability as a degree of belief"", and what it implies about how a rational agent should reason about the world.","We don talk about di idea of""probability as how much you believe"", and wetin e mean about how rational person suppose reason about di world.",Computer science
the question that you have to answer for yourself is this: how do you want to do your statistics?,Di question wey you must answer for yourself na dis: how you wan to do your statistics?,Computer science
"do you want to bean orthodox statistician, relying on sampling distributions andp-values to guide your decisions?","You wan be orthodox statistician, wey dey rely on sampling distributions and p-values to guide your decisions?",Computer science
"or do you want to be a bayesian, relying on bayes factors and the rules for rational belief revision?","Or you wan be Bayesian, wey dey rely on Bayes factors and di rules for rational belief revision?",Computer science
"and to be perfectly honest, i can't answer this question for you.",I no answer dis question for you.,Computer science
ultimately it depends on what you think is right.,E depend on what you think dey right,Computer science
"it's your call, and your call alone.","E dey your call, and your call alone",Computer science
"that being said, i can talk a little about why iprefer the bayesian approach.",I fit talk a little about why i prefer di bayesian approach.,Computer science
"within the bayesian framework, it is perfectly sensible and allowable to refer to he probability that a hypothesis is true"".",E dey e good to talk and allowable to talk about hin probability say hypothesis dey true,Computer science
you can even try to calculate this probability.,We go even try to calculate dis probability.,Computer science
"ultimately, isn't that what you want your statistical tests to tell you?",Di statistical tests dey tell you?,Computer science
"to an actual human being, this would seem to be the whole point of doing statistics: to determine what is true and what isn't.",Di whole point of do statistics: to determine what dey true and what deyn't.,Computer science
"anytime that you aren't exactly sure about what the truth is, you should use the language of probability theory to say things like here is an 80%chance that theory a is true, but a 20%chance that theory b is true instead"".","We go use di words of chance study to say things like here na 80%chance say theory a dey true, but 20%chance say theory b dey true forstead",Computer science
"this seems so obvious to a human, yet it is explicitly forbidden within the orthodox framework.","E dey so obvious to human, yet e dey explicitly forbidden within di orthodox framework.",Computer science
"to a frequentist, such statements area nonsense because he theory is true""is not a repeatable event.","Di statement dey nonsense because hin theory dey true""no dey repeatable event.",Computer science
rich morey and colleagues had the idea rst.,Di idea rst.,Computer science
i'm shamelessly stealing it because it's such an awesome pull quote to use in this context andi refuse to miss any opportunity to quote the princess bride.,I dey shamelessly tiff am because e dey such amazing pull quote to use for dis context andi refuse to miss any opportunity to quote di princess bride,Computer science
there's a reason why almost every textbook on statstics is forced to repeat that warning.,Di reason why almost every textbook on statstics dey force to repeat say warning.,Computer science
it's because people desperately want that to be the correct interpretation.,E dey because pipo desperately wan say to be di correct interpretation,Computer science
"frequentist dogma notwithstanding, a lifetime of experience of teaching undergraduates and of doing data analysis on a daily basis suggests tome that most actual humans thing that he probability that the hypothesis is true""is not only meaningful, it's the thing we care most about.","Di lifetime of experience of teaching undergraduates and of do to study numbers on daily basis suggest say most actual humans thing say hin probability say di hypothesis dey true""no only meaningful, na di thing wey we care most about.",Computer science
it's such an appealing idea that even trained statisticians fall prey to the mistake of trying to interpret ap-value this way.,Di idea wey even train statisticians fall prey to di mistake of try interpret p-value dis way.,Computer science
"for example, here is a quote from an ocial newspoll report in 2013, explaining how to interpret their (frequentist) data analysis:9 throughout the report, where relevant, statistically signi cant changes have been noted.","Di quote from ocial newspoll report for 2013, explain how to interpret dia (frequentist) to study numbers:9 throughout di report, wey relevant, statistically signi cant change.",Computer science
all signi cance tests have been based on the 95 percent level of con dence.,Di all signi cance tests don based on di 95 percent level of con dence.,Computer science
"this means that if a change is noted as being statistically signi cant, there is a 95 percent probability that a real change has occurred, and is not simply due to chance variation.","Di means say if change dey not as statistically signi cant, na 95 percent probability say real change don occur, and no dey because of luck variation.",Computer science
(emphasis added)nope!,Emphasis add),Computer science
that's notwhatp: 05 means.,Di means.,Computer science
that's notwhat 95%con dence means to a frequentist statistician.,Dat no be wetin 95%confidence mean to frequentist statistician.,Computer science
"orthodox methods cannot tell you that here is a 95%chance that a real change has occurred"", because this is not the kind of event to which frequentist probabilities maybe assigned.","Di orthodox methods no tell you say here dey 95%chance say a real change don occur, because dis no be di kind of event wey frequentist probabilities dey assigned.",Computer science
"to an ideological frequentist, this sentence should be meaningless.",Di sentence go dey meaningless.,Computer science
"even if you're a more pragmatic frequentist, it's still the wrong de nition of ap-value.","If you dey more pragmatic frequentist, na still di wrong de nition of p-value",Computer science
it is simply not an allowed or correct thing to say if you want to rely on orthodox statistical tools.,E simply no be allowed or correct thing to say if you wan to rely on orthodox statistical tools.,Computer science
"on the other hand, let's suppose you area bayesian.","For di oda hand, make we suppose you dey bayesian",Computer science
"although the bolded passage is the wrong de nition of ap-value, it's pretty much exactly what a bayesian means when they say that the posterior probability ofthe alternative hypothesis is greater than 95%.","Di bold passage dey di wrong de nition of p-value, e dey pretty much exactly what bayesian means wen dem say di posterior probability of di other idea dey pass, as in one thing pass anoda, for example, if u get 10 naira and v get 5 naira, u pass v 95%.",Computer science
and here's the thing.,Di thing wey dey di thing,Computer science
"if the bayesian posterior is actually thing you want to report, why are you even trying to use orthodox methods?","Di bayesian posterior dey actually thing you wan report, why na you even try use orthodox methods?",Computer science
"if you want to make bayesian claims, all you have to do is be a bayesian and use bayesian tools.","If you wan make bayesian claims, all you go do na be bayesian and use bayesian tools.",Computer science
"speaking for myself, i found this to be a the most liberating thing about switching to the bayesian view.",I find dis to be di most liberating thing about switching to di bayesian view.,Computer science
"once you've made the jump, you no longer have to wrap your head around counterinuitive de nitions ofp-values.","Once you don make di jump, you no longer need to wrap your head around confusing definitions of p-values.",Computer science
you don't have to bother remembering why you can't say that you're 95%con dent that the true mean lies within some interval.,You no need to bother remembering why you no fit say sey you 95%confident sey di true mean dey inside some interval.,Computer science
"all you have to do is be honest about what you believed before you ran the study, and then report what you learned from doing it.","Di all you go get to do na be honest about what you believe before you ran di study, and then report what you learn from do am",Computer science
"sounds nice, doesn't it?","Di sounds nice, doesn't dey?",Computer science
"tome, this is the big promise ofthe bayesian approach: you do the analysis you really want to do, and express what you really believe the data are telling you.","Di big promise of di bayesian approach: you do di analysis you go do, and express what you believe di data dey tell you.",Computer science
we shall not often be astray if we draw a conventional line at. 05 and consider that[smaller values of p]indicate a real discrepancy.,Di smaller value of p]indicate real discrepancy.,Computer science
"if anyone has ever been entitled to express an opinion about the intended function ofp-values, it's fisher.","As anyone dey entitled to express opinion about di intended function ofp-values, na fisher",Computer science
"in this passage, taken from his classic guide statistical methods for research workers, he's pretty clear about what it means to reject a null hypothesis atp: 05.","Di passage, wey dey take from hin classic guide statistical methods for research workers, hin pretty clear about what e means to reject di null idea for p:05.",Computer science
"in his opinion, if we takep: 05 to mean there is real eect"", then\we shall not often be astray"".","Di opinion, if we takep: 05 to mean say e dey real eect"", then\we no go astray",Computer science
"in essence, thep: 05 convention is assumed to represent a fairly stringent evidentiary standard.",Dip: 05 convention dey assumed to represent fairly stringent evidentiary standard,Computer science
"well, how true is that?",How true na dat?,Computer science
"one way to approach this question is to try to convert p-values to bayes factors, and see how the two compare.","Di one way to approach dis question na try to convert p-values to bayes factors, and see how di two compare.",Computer science
"it's not an easy thing to do because ap-value is a fundamentally dierent kind of calculation to a bayes factor, and they don't measure the same thing.","Dip-value dey fundamentally dierent kind of calculation to a bayes factor, and dem don measure di same thing.",Computer science
"however, there have been some attempts to workout the relationship between the two, and it's somewhat surprising.","Na some attempts to workout di how two things dey related di two, and na somewhat surprising.",Computer science
"for example, johnson (2013)presents a pretty compelling case that(for t-tests atleast) the p:05 threshold corresponds roughly to a bayes factor of somewhere between 3: 1 and 5: 1 in favour ofthe alternative.","for example, Johnson (2013)present pretty strong case sey (fort-tests atleast) dip<.05 threshold roughly match Bayes factor of for somewhere for between 3:1 and 5:1 for di other idea.",Computer science
"if that's right, then fisher's claim is a bit of a stretch.",Di fisher's claim dey a bit of stretch.,Computer science
"let's suppose that the null hypothesis is true about half the time(i. e, the prior probability of h0is 0. 5), and we use those numbers to workout the posterior probability ofthe null hypothesis given that it has been rejected atp: 05.","We use those numbers to workout di posterior probability of di null idea wey dey true about half di time(i. e, di prior probability of h0is 0. 5), and we use those numbers to workout di posterior probability of h0is 0. 5).",Computer science
"using the data from johnson(2013), we see that if you reject the null atp: 05, you'll be correct about 80%of the time.","We see say if you reject di null for p:05, you go correct about 80%of di time.",Computer science
"the fact remains that, quite contrary to fisher's claim, if you reject atp: 05 you shall quite often go astray.","Di fact remain sey, contrary to Fisher claim, if you reject atp<.05, you go often make mistake.",Computer science
what ar e some ofthe main factors that influence weight gain in people? 1106 24 critical thinking questions access f or free at opens tax. org 43. some low-fat or non-fat foods contain a large amount of sugar to replace the fat content ofthe food.,1106 24 critical thinking questions access f or free for open tax. org 43. some low-fat or non-fat foods contain large amount of sug am to replace e di fat content of di food,Biology
inner vation is the same in both males and females. 1114 25 the urinary system access f or free at opens tax. org bladder the urinary bladder collects urine from both ur eters (figure 25. 4 ).,1114 25 di urinary system access f or free for open tax.,Biology
"a change in ones ystem ma y affect al l others ystems in the body, with mild to devastating effects.","A change for ones ystem ma y affect al l oda systems for di bodi, wit mild to dey effect",Biology
"a little more than one-half of blood calcium is bound to proteins, leaving ther est in its ioniz ed form.","A little more than one-half of blood calcium dey bound to proteins, lea ving di rest for its ioniz ed form.",Biology
"second, ar apid flow would r emo ve too much na+and ur ea, des troying the osmolar gradient that is necessary for ther ecovery of solut es and water.","Ar apid flow go r emo ve too much na+and ur ea, des troying di osmolar gradient wey dey necessary for di recovery of solut es and water.",Biology
a radiator can warm ar oom via radiant heat.,a radiator fit warm a room via radiant heat,Biology
"as tructur e called the acr osome covers most ofthe head ofthe sperm cell as a""cap"" that is filled with l ysosomal enzymes important f or preparing sperm to par ticipat e in fertilization.","As tructur e called di acr osome covers most of di head of di sperm cell as a""cap"" wey dey filled wit l ysosomal enzymes important f or preparing sperm to par ticipat e for fertilization.",Biology
"a thick fluid, cal led f ollicular fluid, that has formed between the granulosa cells also begins to collect into one large pool, orantrum.","A thick fluid, cal led f ollicular fluid, wey dey formed betw una di granulosa cells also begin collect into one large pool, orantrum.",Biology
a. carbohydrates b. fadh 2 c. triglycerides d. nadh 14. which molecules can enter the k rebs cycle?,A. carbohydrates b. fadh 2 c. triglycerides d. nadh 14. wey molecules fit enter di k rebs cycle?,Biology
"a. they cannot move easily in the bloods tream because they are fat based, while the blood is water based b. they are too small to move by themselves c. the ch ylomicr ons contain enzymes they need for anabolism d. they cannot fit across the intestinal membr ane13. which molecule pr oduc es the most atp?","a. dey no fit move easily in di bloodstream bcos dem be fat based, while di blood na water based b. dem dey too small to move by themselves c. the ch ylomicr ons contain enzymes wey dem need for anabolism d. dem no fit across di intestinal membr ane13. which molecule dey produce di most atp?",Biology
a. fats b. vegetables c. lean meats d. fruits 29. which ofthe following is stored in the body?,a. fats b. vegetables c. lean meats d. fruits 29. which of di following dey stored for di body?,Biology
a. lactic acid fermentation b. the k rebs cycle c. the electron tr anspor t chain d. glycolysis 8. aerobic cellular r espir ation r esul ts in the production of these tw o products.,a. lactic acid fermentation b. di krebs cycle c. di electron transport chain d. glycolysis 8. aerobic cellular respiration dey result in di production of dis two products.,Biology
a. sodium b. potassium c. chloride d. bicarbonat e20. which tw o ions ar e most affected by aldos terone?,A. sodium b. potassium c. chloride d. bicarbonat e20. wey dey affect by aldosterone?,Biology
a. stimulated b. inhibit ed25 review questions 1151 6. which part ofthe urinary system is notcomplet ely retroperit oneal?,A. stimulate b. stimulate b. inhibit ed25 review questions 1151 6. which part of di urinary system no dey completely retroperit oneal?,Biology
a. thiamine b. phosphor ous c. folic acid d. vitamin c critical thinking questions 30. describe ho w metabolism can be altered.,"a. thiamine b. phosphorus c. folic acid d. vitamin c kritikal tinin be say make we dey examine tori and ideas well, sabi wetin dey happen, and use am take make sense decision questions 30. tok how metabolism fit dey altered.",Biology
a. vitamin d b. vitamin c c. vitamin b 12 d. niacin 28. consuming which type of food will help the most with weight loss?,a. vitamin d b. vitamin c. vitamin b 12 d. niacin 28. consuming Di type of food wey fit help di most wit weight loss?,Biology
"ac etyl coa enters the k rebs cycle by combining with af our-carbon molecule, oxaloac etat e, to form the six-carbon molecule citr ate, or citric acid, at the same timer eleasing the c oenzyme a molecule.","acetyl coa go enter di krebs cycle by combining with four-carbon molecule, oxaloacetate, to form di sx-carbon molecule citrate, or citric acid, at di same time e go release di coenxyme a molecule",Biology
"after several days of starvation, k etone bodies become the major source of fuel f or the heart and other organs.","after several days of starvation, ketone bodies go become di major source of fuel for di heart and oda organs",Biology
"aldolase then breaks down this fruct ose-1-6-bisphosphat e into tw o three-carbon molecules, glyceraldeh yde-3-phosphat e and dih ydroxyacetone phosphate. the triosephosphat e isomer ase enzyme then converts dih ydroxyacetone phosphate int oa second glyceraldeh yde-3-phosphat e molecule.","aldolase go breakdown dis fructose-1-6-biphosphate to two three-carbon molecules, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate. Di triosephosphate isomerase enzyme go kan convert dihydroxyacetone phosphate to a second glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate molecule.",Biology
"al l other solut es, such as ions, amino acids, vitamins, and wastes, are filtered to create a fil trate composition very similar to plasma.","all oda solutes, such as ions, amino acids, vitamins and wastes dey filtered to create a filtrate composition wey dey very similar to plasma.",Biology
"together, all of these enzymes break c omple x proteins into smaller individual amino acids( figure 24. 17), which ar e then tr anspor ted across the intestinal muc osa to be used to create ne w proteins, or to be converted into fats or acetyl coa and used in the k rebs cycle.","All of dis enzymes break c omple x proteins fort o smaller individual amino acids( figure 24. 17), wey dey use to create ne w proteins, or to be converted into fats or acetyl coa and use for di k rebs cycle.",Biology
"along the way, each citr ate molecule will produce one atp, one f adh 2, and three nadh.","along di way, each of di citrate molecule go produce one atp, one fadh2 and three nadh",Biology
also embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane is an amazing protein pore complex cal ledatp s ynthase.,also wey e dey embedded for di inner mitochondrial membrane na amazing protein pore complex wey dem dey call atp synthase.,Biology
"although the body cans ynthesiz e proteins from amino acids, food is an important source of those amino acids, especially because humans cannot s ynthesiz e all ofthe 20 amino acids used to build proteins.24. 4p rotein metabolism 1081 the digestion of proteins begins in the stomach.","although di body fit synthesize proteins from amino acids, food na important source of those amino acids, especially bcos sey human no fit synthesize all of di 20 amino acids wey dey used to build proteins.24. 4 protein metabolism 1081 di digestion of proteins dey begin from di stomach",Biology
"although most ofthe intake comes through the digestive tract, about 230 ml(8 ounces) per da y is g ener ated metabolical ly, in the last steps of aerobic r espir ation.","although most of di intake kom through di digestive tract, about 230 ml(8 ornc es)per da y dey g ener ated metabolical ly, for di last step of aerobic r espir ation.",Biology
amino acids(in bold)can enter the cycle through more than one pathway. 24. 4p rotein metabolism 1085 figure 24. 20 catabolic and anabolic p athwaysnutrients follow ac omple x pathway from ing estion through anabolism and catabolism to energy production.,amino acids(in bold)fit enter di cycle thru more than one pathway.24. 4 protein metabolism 1085 figure 24. 20 catabolic and anabolic pathway nutrients dey follow a complex pathway from ingestion thru anabolism and catabolism to energy production.,Biology
"anabolic reactions build bone, muscle mass, and ne w proteins, fats, and nucleic acids.","anabolic reactions dey build bone, muscle mass and new proteins, fats and nucleic acids.",Biology
"thus, aldos terone causes an increase in blood sodium levels and blood volume.","As, aldos terone cause increase for blood sodium levels and blood volume.",Biology
"as ar esul t, blood glucose levels begin to rise.","as result, blood glucose level go begin to rise",Biology
"as a rule, people under estimate the number of calories ingested and o verestimat e the amount they burn through exercise.","As a rule, pipo underestimate e di number of calories wey dey ested and o verestimat e di amount di y burn through exercise.",Biology
"as an aside, late in the menstrual cycle, progesterone has a modest influence on water retention.","As aside, late for di menstrual cycle, progesterone don dey influence e on water retention.",Biology
"as is the case with other subs tanc es, drugs ma y be both filtered and r eabsorbed passively along ac oncentr ation gradient.","As dey di case wit oda subs tanc es, drugs ma y be both filtered and r eabsorbed passively along c oncentr ation gradient.",Biology
"as blood glucose levels rise, the pancreas releases insulin to stimulate the uptake of glucose by hepat ocyt es in the liver, muscle cells/fibers, and adipocyt es(fat cells), and to promote its conversion to glycogen.","as di blood glucose level dey rise, di pancreas go release insulin to stimulate di uptake of glucose by hepatocytesin di liver, muscle cells fibers, and adipocytes (fat cells), and to promote its conversion to glycogen",Biology
"as the chyme enters the small intestine, it mixes with bicarbonat e and digestive enzymes.","as di chyme enters di small intestine, e go mix with bicarbonate and di digestive enzymes",Biology
"if the eg g is not f ertilized, it will simply degr adeeither in the uterine tube or in the uterus, where it ma y be shed with the next menstrual period.","As di eg g no f ertilize, e fit l simply degr adeeither for di uterine tube or for di uterus, where dey shed wit dine xt menstrual period.",Biology
"anabolic reactions, or bios ynthetic reactions, synthesiz e larger molecules from smaller c onstituentparts, using a tp as the energy source for these reactions.","As di energy source for dis reactions, using tp as di energy source for dis reactions.",Biology
"as the forming urine enters the ascending loop, major adjustments will be made to the concentration of solut es to create what y ou perceive as urine.","As di forming urine enters di ascending loop, major adjustments wey dey make to di concentrat ation of solut as urine.",Biology
"as the glomerular fil trate progresses through the nephr on, these capil lary networks recover most ofthe solut es and water, and return them to the circulation.","As di glomerular fil trate progress through di nephr on, dis capil lary networks recover most of di solut es and water, and return dem to di circulation.",Biology
"as the gr anulosa cells divide, the f ollicles no w cal ledsecondar y follicles (see figure 27. 12 )increase in diameter, adding a ne w outer layer of connective tissue, blood vessels, and theca cellscells that work with the gr anulosa cells to produce es trogens.","As di gr anulosa cells divide, di f ollicles no w cal ledsecondar y follicles (check di picture 27. 12)increase for diameter, add a ne w outer layer of connective tin sue, blood vessels, and dica cellscells wey work wit di gr anulosa cells to produce e Estrogens.",Biology
"aldos terone's effect on potassium is the reverse of that of sodium; under its influence, excess potassium is pumped into ther enal fil trate for excretion from the body.","As di influence e, excess potassium dey pump into di renal fil trate for excretion from di bodi",Biology
"as the postabsorp tive state begins, glucose levels drop, and there is ac orresponding drop in insulin levels.","As di postabsorp tive state begin, glucose levels drop, and dire dey corresponding drop for insulin levels.",Biology
"as the pump recovers na+for the body, it is also pumping k+into the forming urine, since the pump moves k+in the opposite direction.","As di pump recovers na+for di bodi, e dey pump k+in di forming urine, since di pump moves k+in di opposite direction.",Biology
"as the terminal step in the electron tr anspor t chain, o xygen is the terminal electron acceptorand creates water inside the mitochondria.24. 2c arboh ydrate metabolism 1067 figure 24. 6 aerobic versus anaer obic r espir ation the process of anaer obic r espir ation converts glucose into tw o lactat e molecules in the absence of oxygen or within er ythr ocyt es that lack mitochondria.","as di terminal step for di electron transportt chain, oxygen na di terminal electron acceptor and creat ewater for inside di mitochondria. 24.2 carbohydrate metabolism 1067 figure 24.6 aerobic versus anaerobic respiration di process of anaerobic respiration go convert glucose to two lactose molecules for di absence of oxygen or erythrocytes wey lack mitochondria",Biology
"thus, by flowing slowly to preserve the count ercurr ent mechanism, as the v asa r ecta descend, na+and ur ea ar e freely able to enter the capil lary, while water freely leaves; as they ascend, na+and ur ea ar e secr eted into the surrounding medul la, while water reent ers and is r emo ved.","As di v asa r ecta descend, na+and ur ea ar e freely able to enter di capil lary, while water freely leaves; as di y ascend, na+and ur ea ar e freely able to enter di capil lary, while water freely leaves; as di y ascend, na+and ur ea ar e freely able to",Biology
"as they are moved along the length ofthe epididymis, the sperm further mature and acquire the ability to move under their o wn power.","As di y dey moved along di length of di epididymis, di sperm fur dir mature and acquire di ability to move under dia o wn power.",Biology
"as this happens, water diffuses from your blood into sweat glands and surrounding skin tissues that have become dehydrated because ofthe osmotic gradient.","As dis happen, water diffuse from y awa blood into sweat glands and surrounding skin tissues wey dey ydrated because of di osmotic gradient.",Biology
hpv infections ar e common in al l people.,As e common for al l pipo.,Biology
"as h ydrostatic pressure in the kidneys increases, the amount of water leaving the capil laries also increases, and more urine fil trate is formed.","As h ydrostatic pressure for di kidneys increases, di amount of water leaving di capil laries also increases, and more urine fil trate dey formed.",Biology
"in addition, as na+is pumped out ofthe cell, ther esul ting electr ochemical gradient attracts ca++into the cell.","As na+is pump out of di cell, di r esul ting electr ochemical gradient for tracts ca++for di cell.",Biology
"as pr eviousl y explained, fat ty acids can be converted into ac etyl coa and processed through the k rebs cycle to make atp.","as previously explained, fatty acids fit dey converted to acetyl coa and processed through di krebs cycle to make atp",Biology
"as starvation continues, and more glucose is needed, gl ycerol from fatty acids can be liberated and used as a source for gluc oneog enesis.","as starvation dey continue, and more glcose dey needed, glycerol from fatty acids fit dey libertaed and used as as source for gluconeogenesis",Biology
"as starvation continues, fatty acids and trigl yceride stores ar e used to create ketones f or the body.","as starvation dey continue, fatty acids and triglyceride stores dey used to create ketones for di bodi",Biology
"as urine is formed, it drains into the cal yces ofthe kidney, which merge to form the funnel-shaped renal pelvis in the hilum of each kidney.","As urine dey formed, e drains into di cal yces wey dey form di funnel-shaped renal pelvis for di hilum of each kidney.",Biology
"as will be discussed as part of lipol ysis, fats can be broken down into glycerol, which can be phosphor ylated to form dihydroxyacetone phosphate or dhap.","As will be discussed as part of lipol ysis, fats fit be phosphor ylated to form dihydroxyacetone phosphate or dhap.",Biology
"one third of this is 10, and when y ou add this to the dias tolic pressure of 80, y ou arrive at a calculated mean arterial pressure of 90 mm hg.","As y dey add dis to di dias tolic prEssure of 80, y dey arrive at a calculated mean arterial prEssure of 90 mm hg.",Biology
"this mechanism works to dilute the fluid ofthe ascending loop ul timat ely to appr oximat ely 50100 mosmol/ l. at the transition from the dct to the collecting duct, about 20 percent ofthe original water is still present and about 10 percent ofthe sodium.",Asct to di c ending loop ul timat ely to approximately 50100 mosmol l. at di transition from di dct to di c ending loop ul timat ely to approximately 50100 mosmol l. at di transition from di dct to di c ending loop ul timat ely to approximately 50100 mosmol l. at di transition from di dct to,Biology
"although it ma y be possible to reverse av asect omy, clinicians consider the pr ocedur e permanent, and advise people to undergo it only if they are certain they no longer wish to have children. 27.1 anatomy and physiology ofthe t esticular r eproduc tive system 1191 interactive link interactive link feature watch this video( omy)to learn about av asect omy.","Asect omy and physiology wey dey f di testicular r eproduc tive system 1191 interactive link interactive link feature watch dis video( omy)to learn about e apun, clinicians consider di pr ocedur e permanent, and advise pipo to reverse av asect omy, clinicians consider di pr ocedur e permanent, and advise pipo to reverse av asect omy, clinicians consider",Biology
"babies exposed to excess phen ylalanine in ut ero ma y present with heart defects, physical and/or intellectual disability, and micr ocephal y.","babies wey dey exposed to excess phenylalanine for utero fit get heart defects, physical and or intellectual disability, and microcephaly.",Biology
"because the glomeruli filter the blood based mostly on particle size, large elements like blood cells, plat elets, antibodies, and albumen ar e excluded.","bcos di glomeruli dey filter di blood based mostly on particle size, large elements like di blood cells, platelets, antibodies, and albumen dey excluded.",Biology
"because stress activates cortisol release, and cortisol slows metabolism, a voiding stress, or at least practicing relaxation techniques, can also help. 24. 3 lipid metabolism 1075 figure 24. 11 trigly ceride broken down int oa monogly ceride a trigl yceride molecule(a) breaks down int oa monogl yceride (b).","bcos, stress dey activate cortisol release, and di cortisol dey slow metabolism, avoid stress, or atleast to dey practicing relaxation techniques, fit also help.24. 3 lipid metabolism 1075 figure 24. 11 triglyceride broken down to a monoglyceride a triglyceride molecule(a) breaks down to a monoglyceride (b).",Biology
"because they are carried in lipids, fat-soluble vitamins can ac cumulat e in the lipids stored in the body.","because dem dey carried in lipds, fat-soluble vitamins fit dey accumulated for di lipids wey dey stored for di bodi",Biology
"because it takes a great deal of energy for aw ater molecule to change from a liquid t o ag as, evapor ating water (in the form of sweat)tak es with it a great deal of energy from the skin.","because e dey take great deal of energy for water molecule to change from liquid to gas, evaporating water(in di form of sweat)dey take am with great deal of energy from di skin.",Biology
"because of this, levels of phen ylalanine rise to toxic levels in the body, which r esul ts in damage to the c entr al nervous system and brain.","because of dis, level of phen ylalanine rise to toxic levels for di bodi, wey dey r esul ts for damage to di c entr al nervous system and brain",Biology
"because one trigl yceride molecule yields three fatty acid molecules with as much as 16 or more carbons in each one, fat molecules yield more energy than carbohydrates and ar e an important source of energy for the human body.","because one triglyceride molecule dey give three fatty acid molecules with plenty wey fit reach like 16 or more carbon for each one, fat molecules dey give more energy than carbohydrates and na important source of energy for di human bodi.",Biology
body's metabolic rate the human body's metabolic rate decreases nearl y2 percent per decade after ag e 30.,bodi metabolic rate. Di human bodi metabolic rate dey decrease nearly 2 percent per decade after age 30,Biology
"most water intake comes through the digestive tract via liquids and food, but r oughl y 10 percent of water available to the body is g ener ated at the end of aerobic r espir ation during cellular metabolism.",But r oughl y 10 percent of water available to di bodi dey generated for di end of aerobic r espir ation during cellular metabolism.,Biology
"scientists ar e unsure at this point, but some evidence has shown that theses tem cells release several growth factors in endocrine and par acrine ways.",But some evidence don shown say diss tem cells release several growth factors for endocrine and par acrine ways.,Biology
"therefore, by the end of this chemical -priming or energy-consuming phase, one glucose molecule is broken down into tw o glyceraldeh yde-3-phosphat e molecules.","By di end of dis chemical-priming or energy-consuming phase, one glucose go breakdown to two glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate molecules.",Biology
"in addition, c ollecting ducts have urea pumps that actively pump ur ea into the int erstitial spaces.",Collecting ducts have urea pumps wey active ely pump ur ea into di int erstitial spaces.,Biology
"calories ar e in almost everything y ou ing est, so when considering calorie intake, beverages must also be consider ed.","calories na almost everything you dey ingest, so wen you dey consider calorie intake, beverages gats dey considered.",Biology
"catabolic reactions break down larger molecules, such as carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins from ingested food, int o their constituent smaller parts.","catabolic reaction go breakdown larger molecules, like carbohydrates, lipids, and protein from food wey dey ingested, into their constituent smaller parts",Biology
"thus, cations, or positively charged ions, and anions, or negatively charged ions, are balanced in fluids.","Cations, or positively charged ions, and anions, or negatively charged ions, and anions, or negatively charged ions, dey balanced for fluids.",Biology
cck stimulates ther elease of pancreatic lipase from the pancreas and s timulat es the c ontr action ofthe g allbladder to releases tored bile salts into the intestine.,cck go stimulates di release of pancreatic lipase from di pancreas and go stimulate di concentration of di gall bladder to release stored bile salts to di intestine,Biology
"certain k ey organs, including the brain, can use only glucose as an energy source; therefore, it is essential that the body maintain a minimum blood glucose c oncentr ation.","certain key organs, wey include di brain, go fit use only glucose as energy source; therefore, e dey essential dat di bodi maintain a minimum blood glucose concentration",Biology
"characteristics ofthe urine change, depending on influences such as water intake, exercise, environmental temper atur e, nutrient intake, and other factors (table 25.1 ).","characteristics of di urine change, based on influences such as water intake, exercise, environmental temperature, nutrient intake and other factors(table 25.1).",Biology
"choosemyplat e. gov provides e xtensiv e online r esour ces for planning a healthy diet and lifestyle, including offering weight management tips and recommendations f or physical activity.","choosemyplat e. gov dey provide extensive online resources to dey plan a healthy diet and lifestyle, including offering weight management tips and recommendation for physical activity.",Biology
"combine an unhealthy diet with unhealthy environmental conditions, such as smoking, and the potential medical complications increase significantly.","combine diet wey dey unhealthy with environment conditions wey dey unhealthy, like smoking, and di potential medical complications dey increase significantly.",Biology
conduction is the transfer of heat by tw o objects that ar e in direct contact with one another.,conduction na di transfer of heat by tw o objects wey dey e for direct contact wit one another.,Biology
convection transfers heat to air or water.,convection dey transfer heat to air or water,Biology
convection can also occur in water.,convection fit also occur for water,Biology
"con versel y, if y ou ing est less than that, the energy stores in your body will be depleted.","conversely, if you ingest les than dat, di energy wey dey store for your bodi go dey depleted",Biology
"dairy products ar e represented b ya drink, but the quantity can be applied to other dairy products as well.","dairy products dey represented by a drink, but di quantity fit dey applied to oda diary products aswell",Biology
"if pressure decreases, fewer action potentials travel to the c entr al nervous system, r esul ting in more sympathetic stimulation-pr oducing v asoc onstriction, which will result in decreased filtration and gfr, and water loss. decreased blood pressure is also sensed by the granular cells in the aff erent ar teriole ofthe jga.",Decreased blood pressure dey sense by di granular cells for di aff erent arteriole of,Biology
still others aid in releasing hormones from endocrine glands.,Dem aid for eleasing hormones from endocrine glands.,Biology
"it also includes the super tracker, aw eb-based application to help y ou analyze your o wn diet and physical activity. 1094 24 metabolism and nutrition access f or free at opens tax. org vitamins vitamins are organic compounds found in foods and area necessary part ofthe biochemical reactions in the body.","Dem also include di super tracker, aw eb-based application to help y ou analyze your o wn diet and physical activity",Biology
some malignancies ma y also r esul t in hyper calc emia.,Dem also r esul t for hyper calc emia.,Biology
they depend on gl ycolysis and lactic acid production f or rapid a tp production.,Dem depend on glycolysis and lactic acid production for rapid atp production.,Biology
describe ho w this leads to malnutrition.,Dem describe ho w dis lead to malnutrition,Biology
"anh is released by the car diom yocyt es when blood pressure increases, causing na+and water loss. adh at high levels causes v asoc onstriction in addition to its action on the collecting ducts to recover mor ewater.","Dem dey eleased by di car diom yocyt dey when blood pr esure increases, causing na+and water loss.",Biology
"they are involved in a number of processes, including mineral and bone metabolism, and cell and tissue growth, and they act as c ofactors f or energy metabolism.","Dem dey involved for number of process, including mineral and bone metabolism, and cell and tissue growth, and dem act as c ofactors f or energy metabolism.",Biology
they are lined with simple squamous epithelium with receptors for adh.,Dem dey lined wit simple squamous epithelium wit receptors for adh.,Biology
they are needed f or the proper function of metabolic pathways in the body.,dem dey needed for di proper function of metabolic pathways in di bodi.,Biology
there are several things that can be done to help prevent g ener al declines in metabolism and to fight back against the cyclic nature of these declines.,Dem dey several things wey dey done to help prevent g ener al declines for metabolism and to fight back against di cyclic nature of dis declines,Biology
"underlying medical conditions that can c ontribut e to edema include c ongestive heart failure, kidney damage and kidney disease, disorders that affect the veins ofthe legs, and cirrhosis and other liver disorders.","Dem don dey underlying medical condition wey dey apun e to edema include c ongestive heart failure, kidney damage and kidney disease, disorders wey dey afta di legs, and cirrhosis and oda liver disorders.",Biology
"if h ydrostatic pressure in the kidneys 1160 26 fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance access f or free at opens tax. org drops t oo low, as can happen in dehydration, the functions ofthe kidneys will be impaired, and less nitr ogenous wastes will be r emo ved from the bloodstream.","Dem drop t oo low, as dey happen for dehydration, di functions of di kidneys 1160 26 fluid, electrolyte, and cid-base balance access f or free for open tax.",Biology
"under aerobic conditions, pyruv ate enters the k rebs cycle, also called the citric acid cycle or tricarbo xylic acid cycle.","Dem enter di k rebs cycle, also called di citric acid cycle or tricarbo xylic acid cycle.",Biology
"to keep up the necessary energy production, y ou would pr oduc e excess co2(and lactic acid if exercising beyond your aerobic threshold).","Dem go keep up di necessary energy production, y or would pr oduc e excess co2(and lactic acid if exercising beyond y awa aerobic threshold).",Biology
"amid al l these necessary functions, proteins also hold the potential to serve as a metabolic fuel source.",Dem hold di potential to serve as metabolic fuel source.,Biology
"classical ly, in the days before glucose could be detected in the blood and urine, clinicians identified diabetes mel litus by the three p s: pol yuria (diur esis), pol ydipsia (increased thirst), and pol yphagia (increased hunger).","Dem identify diabetes mel litus by di three p s: pol yuria (diur esis), pol ydipsia (increased thirst), and pol yphagia (increased hunger).",Biology
"other therapies include elevation ofthe affected part to assist drainage, massage and c ompr ession ofthe areas to move the fluid out ofthe tissues, and decreased salt intake to decrease sodium and water retention.26. 2w ater balance 1163 figure 26. 10 a flo wchar t showing the thirst response the thirst response begins when osmor eceptors detect a decrease in water levels in the blood.","Dem include Elevation of di affected part to assist drainage, massage and c ompr ession of di areas to move di fluid out of di tissues, and decreased salt intake to decrease sodium and water retention.",Biology
"just prior to ovulation, a surge of luteinizing hormone triggers ther esump tion of meiosis in a primary oocyt e. this initiates the transition from primary to sec ondar y oocyt e. however, as y ou can see in figure 27. 11, this cell division does not r esul t in tw o identical cells.",Dem initiate di transition from primari y to sec ondar y oocyt e.,Biology
keep in mind that most follicles don't make it to this point.,Dem to remember say most follicles don make im to dis point.,Biology
"first, let's look at some ofthe s tructur es ofthe female r eproductiv e system.",Dem make we look some of di s tructur es of di female r eproductiv e system.,Biology
water is lost through the skin through e vapor ation from the skin surface without overt sweating and from air expelled from the lungs.,Dem lose t through di skin through e vapor ation from di skin surface without overt sweating and from air expelled from di lungs.,Biology
most body fluids ar e neutral in charge.,Dem most body fluids ar e neutral for charge.,Biology
most filtered subs tanc es ar e reabsorbed.,Dem most filter subs tanc as e reabsorbed.,Biology
ace is not a hormone but it is functionally important in regulating systemic blood pressure and kidney function.,Dem no dey hormone but e dey functionally important for regulating systemic blood pressure and kidney function.,Biology
"in low-pressure states, anh does not seem to have much effect.",Dem no seem to have much effect.,Biology
paired co wper 's glands (bulbour ethr al glands)pr oduc e and secr ete mucus into the ur ethr a to buffer ur ethr al ph during sexual stimulation.,Dem pair co wper 's glands (bulbour ethr al glands)pr oduc e and secrete mucus for di ur ethr al ph during sexual stimulation.,Biology
recall that cells and the medium-to-large proteins cannot pass between the podocyt e processes or through the f enes trations ofthe capil lary endothelial cells.,Dem recall say cells and di medium-to-large protein no fit pass s betw e di podocyt e processor through di f enes trations of di capil lary endothelial cells.,Biology
"recall that progesterone c oncentr ations decline as a result ofthe degradation ofthe corpus lut eum, marking the end ofthe lut eal phase.","Dem recall say progesterone c oncentr ations decline as result of di degradation of di corpus lut eum, marking di end of di lut eal phase.",Biology
"hyper capnia, or abnormally elevated blood levels of co2, occurs in an y situation that impairs r espir atory functions, including pneumonia and c ongestive heart failure. reduced breathing (h ypoventilation) due to drugs such as morphine, barbitur ates, or ethanol(or even just holding one's breath)can also r esul t in hyper capnia. hypocapnia, or abnormally low blood levels of co2, occurs with an y cause of hyper ventilation that drives o ff the co2, such as salicylat e toxicity, elevated room temper atur es, fever, or hysteria.","Dem reduce breathing (h ypoventilation) due to drugs such as morphine, barbiturat ates, or ethanol(or even just holding one's breath)don also r esul t for hyper capnia",Biology
"when blood pressure increases, baroreceptors send more frequent action potentials to the c entr al nervous system, leading to widespread vasodilation.","Dem send more frequent action potentials to di c entr al nervous ystem, leading to widespread vasodilation.",Biology
oxidative phosphor ylation and the electron transport chain the electron tr anspor t chain(et c)uses the nadh and f adh 2produc ed by the k rebs cycle to generate atp.,Dem use di nadh and f adh 2produce by di k rebs cycle to generate atp.,Biology
both mechanisms ma y utilize concentration gr adients maintained by atp pumps.,Dem utilize concentration gr adients wey dey maintain by atp pumps,Biology
department of agriculture developed food guidelines called myplat e to help demonstrate ho w to maintain a healthy lifestyle.,department of agriculture don developed guidelines wey dem call myplate wey fit help demonstrate how to maintain a healthy lifestyle,Biology
"depending on the amounts and types of nutrients ingested, the absorp tive state can linger for up t o 4 hours.","Depemding on di amount and type of nutrients wey dey ingested, di absorptive state fit linger for up t o 4 hours.",Biology
"they represent cell signaling receptors, signaling molecules, structural members, enzymes, intracellular trafficking components, extracellular matrix scaff olds, ion pumps, ion channels, oxygen and c o2transpor ters (hemoglobin).","dey represent cell signalling receptors, signalling molecules, structural members, enzymes, intracellular trafficking components, extracellular matrix scaffolds, ion pumps, ion channels, oxygen and co2 transporters (hemoglobin)",Biology
"the ""heme "" of hemoglobin is converted by the liver into water-soluble forms that can be e xcreted into the bile and indirectly into the urine.","Di ""heme "" of hemoglobin dey converted by di liver into water-soluble forms wey dey xcreted into di bile and indirectly into di urine",Biology
"the newly formed ac etyl coa enters the k rebs cycle and is used to produce atp in the same w ay as acetyl coa derived from p yruv ate.24. 3 lipid metabolism 1077 figure 24. 13 breakdown of fatty acids during fatty acid oxidation, trigl ycerides can be broken down into ac etyl coa molecules and1078 24 metabolism and nutrition access f or free at opens tax. org used f or energy when glucose levels ar e low.","Di 3 lipid metabolism 1077 figure 24. 13 breakdown of fatty acids during fatty acid oxidation, trigl ycerides dey use to produce e atp for di same w ay as acetyl coa derived from p yruv ate.",Biology
the absence of proteins in bowman 's space (the lumen within bowman 's capsule)r esul ts in an osmotic pressure near zero.,Di absence of proteins for bowman capsule(the lumen wey dey inside bowman capsule)r esul ts for osmotic pressure near Zero.,Biology
"the absorp tive state the absorp tive state, or the f ed state, occurs after a meal when your body is dig esting the food and absorbing the nutrients (anabolism exceeds catabolism).","Di absorp tive state di absorp tive state, or di f ed state, occur after meal wen awa body dey digest di food and absorb di nutrients (anabolism exceeds catabolism).",Biology
"the ac compan ying w ebsit e gives clear recommendations regarding quantity and type of each food that y ou should consume each day, as well as identifying which foods belong in each category.",Di ac compan ying w ebsit e give clear recommendations regarding quantity and type of each food wey dey belong for each category.,Biology
the ac etone is r emo ved by exhalation.,Di ac etone dey r emo ved by exhalation,Biology
"if excess acetyl coa is created and o verloads the capacity ofthe k rebs cycle, the ac etyl coa can be used to synthesiz e ketone bodies.",Di ac etyl coa go use to synthesiz e ketone bodies.,Biology
"when ac etyl groups break o ff the fatty acid chains, the ac etyl groups then nonenzymatical ly combine to form k etone bodies, acetoacetic acid, beta -hydroxybutyric acid, and ac etone, all of which increase the acidity ofthe blood.","Di ac etyl groups don combine to form k etone bodies, acetoacetic acid, beta -hydroxybutyric acid, and ac etone, all of which increase di acidity of di blood.",Biology
the ac compan ying graphic (figure 24. 24 ) gives a clear visual with g ener al recommendations f or a healthy and balanced meal.,di accompanying graphic(figure 24. 24)dey give clear visual with general recommendations for healthy and balanced meal.,Biology
the accumulation of these protons in the space between the membranes creates a proton gradient with respect to the mitochondrial matrix.,Di accumulation of dis proton for di space between di membrane dey create proton gradient about di mitochondrial matrix.,Biology
the accumulation of an extra 3500 calories adds one pound of weight.,di accumulation of extra 3500 calories go add one pound of weight,Biology
"acetyl coa availability is significant, because it initiates lipog enesis.","Di acetyl coa availability dey significant, because dem initiate lipog enesis.",Biology
"acetyl coa is used to create lipids, trigl ycerides, steroid hormones, cholesterol, and bile salts.","Di acetyl coa dey use to create lipids, trigl ycerides, steroid hormones, cholesterol, and bile salts.",Biology
"the ac etyl coa is s ystematical ly processed through the cycle and pr oduc es high-energy nadh, f adh 2, and a tp molecules.","Di acetyl coa dey ystematically processed through di cycle and produce high-energy nadh, f adh 2, and atp molecules.",Biology
the ac etyl coa is converted into malon yl coa that is used to synthesiz e fatty acids. figure 24. 16 summarizes the pathways of lipid metabolism. 1080 24 metabolism and nutrition access f or free at opens tax. org figure 24. 16 lipid metabolism lipids ma y follow one of several pathways during metabolism.,di acetyl coa go dey converted ti malonyl coa wey dem dey use to synthesize fatty acids. figure 24.16 go summarize di pathway of lipid metabolism. 1080 24 metabolism and nutriotion dey access for free fpr open tax. org figure 24. 16 lipids metabolism lipids fit follow one of several pathways for metabolism,Biology
"acid-balance balance is measured using the ph scale, as shown in figure 26. 15.","Di acid-balance dey measur using di ph scale, as shown for figure 26. 15",Biology
both acidosis and alk alosis can be caused by either metabolic or r espir atory disorders.,Di acidosis and alk alosis dey caused by metabolic or respiratory disorders.,Biology
both acidosis and alk alosis can be diagnosed using a blood test.,Di acidosis and alk alosis go dey diagnosed using blood test.,Biology
the ac onitase enzyme converts citr ate into isocitr ate.,Di aconitase enzyme go convert citrate to isocitrate.,Biology
the acr osome is oval and somewhat flattened.,Di acr osome dey oval and some wey flattened,Biology
"when blood pressure increases, more action potentials ar e sent to the central nervous system, r esul ting in greater vasodilation, greater gfr, and more water lost in the urine.","Di action potentials ar e send to di central nervous system, r esul ting for greater vasodilation, greater gfr, and more water lost for di urine.",Biology
"the active form of aspirin is its metabolit e, sulfasalicylic acid.","Di active form of aspirin dey metabolit e, sulfasalicylic acid.",Biology
an example would be the active transport of na+out o fac ell and k+into ac ell by the na+/k+pump.,Di active transport of na+out o fac ell and k+into ac ell by dina+ k+pump,Biology
"when this process occurs in the cells ofthe pct, the added benefit is a net loss of ah ydrogen ion(c omple xed to ammonia to form the weak acid nh 4+)in the urine and again ofa bicarbonat e ion(hc o3) in the blood.",Di added benefit na net loss of hydrogen ion(c omple xed to ammonia to form di weak acid nh 4+)for di urine and gain ofa bicarbonat e ion(hc o3) for di blood.,Biology
"in addition, calcium helps to stabilize cell membranes and is essential f or ther elease of neur otransmit ters from neurons and of hormones from endocrine glands.","Di addition, calcium help to stabilize cell membranes and dey e sential f or di release of neur otransmitters from neurons and of hormones from endocrine glands.",Biology
"additionally, caffeine, when consumed in high concentrations, acts as a diur etic.","Di additionally, caffeine, wen c onsum for high concentrat ations, act as di diur etic.",Biology
"adh also causes the epithelial cells that line ther enal collecting tubules to move water channel proteins, cal led aquaporins, from the interior ofthe cells to the apical surface, where these proteins ar e inserted into the cell membrane (figure 26. 12).","Di adh also cause di epithelial cells wey line di renal collecting tubules to move water channel proteins, cal led aquaporins, from di interior of di cells to di pical surface, where dey e inserted into di cell membrane (figure 26. 12).",Biology
adh is also called v asopr essin.,Di adh na also called v asopr essin,Biology
adh is a hormone that helps the body to retain water by increasing water reabsorp tion by the kidneys.,Di adh na hormone wey help di bodi to retain water by increasing water reabsorption by di kidneys.,Biology
"while adh is primarily involved in ther egulation of water recovery, aldos terone regulates na+recovery.","Di adh na primarily involved for di regulation of water recovery, aldos terone regulates na+recovery, aldos terone regulates na+recovery.",Biology
this adjustment can occur within minutes.,Di adjustment fit occur within minutes.,Biology
adjustments in r espir atory and renal functions allow the body to regulate the levels of these ions in the ecf.,Di adjustments for r espir atory and renal functions allow di bodi t regulate di level of dis ions for di ecf.,Biology
"aldos terone, often called the"" salt-retaining hormone,"" is released from the adr enal cortex in response to angiot ensin ii or directly in response to increased plasma k+.",Di adr enal cortex for response to angiot ensin ii or directly for response to increased plasma k+,Biology
a small amount of testosterone is also secr eted by the adr enal glands in both sexes.,Di adr enal glands for both sexes.,Biology
"aerobic r espir ation in the pr esenc e of oxygen, p yruv ate can enter the k rebs cycle where additional energy is extracted as electrons ar e transferred from the p yruv ate to ther eceptors nad+, gdp, and fad, with carbon dioxide being a""waste product"" (figure 24. 6 ).","Di aerobic respiration for di presence of oxygen, pyruvate fit enter di krebs cycle where additional energy dey extracted as electrons dey transferred from di pyruvate to di receptors nad+, gdp, and fad, wit carbon dioxide wey be""waste product""(figure 24.6).",Biology
"the affected individual might e xperienc e weakness, lethar gy, shor tnes s of breath, anemia, widespread edema (swelling), metabolic acidosis, rising potassium levels, heart arrh ythmias, and more. each of these functions is vital to your well-being and survival.","Di affected individual fit experience weakness, lethargy, shortness of breath, anemia, widespread edema (swelling), metabolic acidosis, rising potassium levels, heart arrhythmias, and more. each of dis functions dey vital to your well-being and survival",Biology
"no has the opposite effect, relaxing the aff erent ar teriole at the same time a tp and adenosine ar e stimulating it to contract.","Di afta e effect, relaxing di aff erent ar teriole for di same time a tp and adenosine ar e stimulating am to contract",Biology
aging and the.,Di aging and di,Biology
"once milk is made in the al veoli, s timulat ed m yoepithelial cells that surround the al veoli c ontr act to push the milk to the lactif erous sinuses.","Dial veoli, s timulat ed m Yoepithelial cells say surround dial veoli c ontr act to push di milk to di lactif erous sinuses.",Biology
"when aldos terone decreases, mor e na+remains in the forming urine and more k+is recovered in the circulation.","Di aldos terone decreases, mor e na+remain for di forming urine and more k+remain recover for di circulation.",Biology
"aldos terone is released if blood levels of potassium increase, if blood levels of sodium severely decrease, or if blood pressure decreases.","Di aldos terone dey released if blood levels of potassium decrease, if blood pressure decrease, or if blood pressure decrease, or if blood pressure decrease, or if blood pressure decrease, or if blood pressure decrease, or if blood pressure decrease, or if blood pressure decrease.",Biology
aldos terone is secr eted by the adr enal cortex in response to angiot ensin ii stimulation.,Di aldos terone dey secret by di adr enal cortex for response to angiot ensin ii stimulation.,Biology
"in a negative feedback loop, increased osmolality ofthe ecf (which follows aldos terone-stimulat ed sodium absorption) inhibits ther elease ofthe hormone( figure 26. 13). 26. 3 electrolyte balance 1169 figure 26. 13 the aldos terone feedback loop aldos terone, which is released by the adr enal gland, facilitates reabsorp tion of na+and thus ther eabsorp tion of water.","Di aldos terone feedback loop aldos terone, wey dey released by di adr enal gland, facilitat am reabsorption of na+",Biology
"aldos terone increases ther eabsorp tion of sodium in the distal tubules ofthe nephr ons in the kidneys, and water follows this r eabsorbed sodium back into the blood.","Di aldos terone increase di r eabsorption of sodium for distal tubules of di nephr ons for di kidneys, and water follow dis r eabsorb sodium back for di blood.",Biology
aldos terone increases the amount of na+/k+atpase in the basal membrane ofthe dct and collecting duct.,Di aldos terone increase di amount of na+ k+atpase for di basal membrane of di dct and collecting duct.,Biology
alkalosis is characterized b ya higher-than-normal ph.,Di alkalosis dey characterized by higher-than-normal ph,Biology
"almost 100 percent of glucose, amino acids, and vitamins ar e recovered in the pct.","Di almost 100 percent of glucose, amino acids, and vitamins dey recover for di pct.",Biology
"f or example, when holding a glass of ice water, the heat from your skin will warm the glass and in turn melt the ice. alternatively, on ac old day, you might warm up by wrapping your cold hands around a hot mug of coffee.","Di alternative ely, on ac old day, you go arm up b yw arm up b yw arm up b yw arm up b yw arm up b yw arm up b yw arm up b yw arm up b yw arm up b yw arm up b yw arm up b yw arm up b yw arm up b yw arm up b yw arm up b yw arm up b yw arm up b yw arm up b yw arm up b",Biology
"indeed, the american college of obstetricians and gynec ologis ts recommend that people do not douche, and that they allow the vagina to maintain its normal healthy population of protective microbial flora. ovaries the ovaries are the female g onads (see figure 27. 9 ).","Di American college of obstetricians and gynec ologis t recommend say pipo no douche, and say di y allow di vagina t maintain dia normal healthy population of protective microbial flora.",Biology
"that means that the amine group, nh 2, is r emo ved from amino acids as they are broken down.","Di amine group, nh 2, na r emo ved from amino acids as di y dey broken down.",Biology
amino acid decomposition r esul ts in hydrocarbons and nitr ogenous waste.,Di amino acid decomposition go result in di hydrocarbons and nitrogenous waste.,Biology
"as nh 2from the amino acid is converted into nh 3and pumped into the lumen ofthe pct, na+and hc o3are excreted into the int erstitial fluid ofthe renal pyramid via a sympor t mechanism.","Di amino acid dey converted into nh 3and pump into di lumen of di pct, na+and hc o3are excreted into di int erstitial fluid of di renal pyramid via sympor t mechanism.",Biology
the amino acid glutamine can be deaminat ed by the kidney.,Di amino acid glutamine go deaminat ed by di kidney.,Biology
"when in excess, the amino acids are processed and stored as glucose or k etones.",Di amino acids dey processed and stored as glucose or k etones,Biology
"amino acids can also be used as a source of energy, especially in times of starvation.","Di amino acids fit dey used as a source of energy, especially in di time of starvation",Biology
the amino acids ar e then tr anspor ted into the bloodstream f or dispersal to the liver and cells throughout the body to be used to create ne w proteins.,di amino acids go dey transported to di blood streams for dispersal to di liver and cells throughout di bodi to be used to create new proteins,Biology
"in times of starvation, amino acids can be used as an energy source and processed through the krebs cycle.",Di amino acids go use as energy source and processed through di krebs cycle.,Biology
ammonia(nh 3)is at oxic byproduct of protein metabolism.,Di ammonia(nh 3)na toxic byproduct of protein metabolism.,Biology
ammonia and bicarbonat e are exchanged in a one-to-one ratio.,Di ammonia and bicarbonat e dey exchanged for one-to-one ratio,Biology
"ammonia is extremely toxic, so most of it is very rapidly converted into urea in the liver.","Di ammonia dey extremely toxic, so most of ammonia dey extremely toxic, so most of e dey very rapidly convert into urea for di liver.",Biology
ammonia is processed in the ur ea cycle to produce urea that is eliminated through the kidneys.,Di ammonia dey processed for di ur ea cycle to produce urea wey dey eliminated through di kidneys.,Biology
"while much ofthe r eabsorp tion and secretion occur passively based on c oncentr ation gr adients, the amount of water that is r eabsorbed or lost is tightly regulated.","Di amount of di r eabsorp tion and secretion occur passively based on c oncentr ation gr adients, di amount of water wey dey r eabsorbed or lost dey tightly regulated.",Biology
"when insulin is administered and glucose is taken up by cells, potassium passes through the cell membrane along with glucose, decreasing the amount of potassium in the blood and if, which can cause h yperpolarization ofthe cell membranes of neurons, reducing their responses to stimuli.","Di amount of potassium for di blood and if, wey go cause h yperpolarization of di cell membrane along wit glucose, decreasing di amount of potassium for di blood and if, wey go cause h yperpolarization of di cell membranes of neurons, reduce dia responses to stimuli.",Biology
"osmolarity ranges from 50 to 1200 mil liosmoles, and is ar eflection ofthe amount of water being recovered or lost by renal nephr ons.",Di amount of water wey dey ecovered or lost by renal nephr ons.,Biology
"seminal v esicles as sperm pass through the ampul la ofthe ductus def erens at ejaculation, they mix with fluid from the as sociat ed seminal v esicle (see figure 27. 2 ).","Di ampul la of di ductus def erens for ejaculation, di y mix wit fluid from di as sociat ed seminal v Esicle (check di picture 27. 2 ).",Biology
anaer obic r espir ation occurs in most cells ofthe body when oxygen is limited or mitochondria ar e absent or nonfunctional.,Di anaerobic respiration occurs for di most cells of di bodi wen oxygen dey limited or when mitochondria dey absent or nonfunctional,Biology
"in males, the anatomy is similar, minus the uterus, and with the addition ofthe prostate inferior to the bladder.","Di anatomy dey similar, plus di uterus, and wit di addition of di prostate inferior to di bladder.",Biology
anemia diminishes per formanc e and can be life threatening.,Di anemia diminishes per formac e and fit be life threatening.,Biology
renin angio tensin aldos terone renin is an enzyme that is pr oduc ed by the juxtaglomerular (jg)c ells ofthe aff erent ar teriole at the jga.,Di angio tensin aldos terone renin na enzyme wey dey pr oduc ed by di juxtaglomerular (jg)c ells of di aff erent ar teriole for di jga.,Biology
angiot ensin i is not biologically active until converted to angiot ensin ii b yangio tensin-c onverting enzyme(a ce)from the lungs. angio tensin ii is as ystemic v asoc onstrict or that helps to regulate blood pressure by increasing it.,Di angiot ensin i no dey biologically active e until converted to angiot ensin ii byangio tensin-c onverting enzyme(a ce)from di lungs.,Biology
"angiot ensin ii also s timulat es the adr enal cortex to release the steroid hormone aldos terone, which r esul ts in renal reabsorp tion of na+and its as sociat ed osmotic recovery of water.","Di angiot ensin ii also s timulat am di adr enal cortex to release di steroid hormone aldos terone, wey dey r eul ts for renal reabsorption of na+and its as sociat ed osmotic recovery of water.",Biology
"angiot ensin ii also stimulates aldos terone release from the adr enal cortex, causing the collecting duct to retain na+, which promotes water retention and along er-term rise in blood pressure.","Di angiot ensin ii also stimulate aldos terone release from di adr enal cortex, causing di collecting duct to retain na+, wey promot am water retention and longer-term rise for blood pressure.",Biology
angiot ensin ii is a potent v asoc onstrict or that plays an immediate role in ther egulation of blood pressure.,Di angiot ensin ii dey potent v asoc onstrict or say play an immediate role for di regulation of blood pressure.,Biology
gnrh then s timulat es the anterior pituitar y to secr ete lh into the bloodstream.,Di anterior pituitar y to secre lh into di blood tream.,Biology
antidiur etic hormone (adh) diur etics ar e drugs that can increase water loss by interfering with ther ecap ture of solut es and water from the forming urine.,Di antidiur etic hormone (adh) di antidiur etic hormone (adh) di antidiur etic hormone (adh) di antidiur etic hormone (adh) di antidiur etic hormone (adh) di drugs wey fit increase water loss by interfering wit di recap ture of solut es and water from di forming urine.,Biology
follicles in which the antrum has become large and fully formed ar e consider edtertiary follicles (or antr al follicles).,Di antrum don become large and fully formed ar e consider edtertiary follicles (or antr al follicles).,Biology
"the apical surface is the one facing the lumen or open space of a cavity or tube, in this case, the inside ofthe pct.","Di apical surface dey di one face di lumen or open space of cavity or tube, for dis case, di inside of di pct.",Biology
"as ar esul t, water will move into and out of cells and tissues, depending on ther elativ e concentrations ofthe water and solut es found there. an appr opriat e balance of solut es inside and outside of cells must be maintained to ensure normal function.","Di appr opriat e balance of solut dey inside and outside of cells and tissues, based on di r elativ e concentrat ations of di water and solut dey found dire.",Biology
the ar eola is typically circular and can vary in size from 25 to 100 mm in diameter.,Di ar eola dey typically circular and fit vary for size from 25 to 100mm for diameter,Biology
"the ar eolar region is characterized by small, raised ar eolar glands that secr ete lubricating fluid during lactation to protect the nipple from chafing.","Di ar eolar region dey characterized by small, raised ar eolar glands wey dey secrete lubricating fluid during lactation to protect di nipple from chafing.",Biology
the ar teriolar m yogenic mechanism maintains as teady blood flow by causing ar teriolar smooth muscle to contract when blood pressure increases and causing it to relax when blood pressure decreases.,Di ar teriolar m yogenic mechanism dey maintains teady blood flow by causing ar teriolar smooth muscle to contract when blood pressure dey decrease.,Biology
what happens in tissues when capil lary blood pressure isles s than osmotic pressure? 3. read this article( twater) for an explanation ofthe effect of seawater on humans.,Di article( twater) fore xplanation of di effect of seawater for humans.,Biology
"the ascending loop is imper vious to water but actively recovers na+, reducing fil trate osmolarity to 50100 mosmol/k g. the descending and ascending loop and vasa r ecta form ac ount ercurr ent multiplier system to increase na+concentration in the kidney medul la.","Di ascending loop dey imper vious to water but actively recover na+, reducing fil trate osmolarity to 50100 mosmol k g.",Biology
ascending loop the ascending loop is made of very short thin and longer thick portions.,Di ascending loop dey made of very short thin and longer thick portions.,Biology
the b vitamins play the largest role of any vitamins in metabolism(table 24. 3 and table 24. 4 ).,di b vitamin dey play di largest role of any vitamins in metabolism(table 24. 3 and table 24. 4).,Biology
"from here, the baby can draw milk through the lactif erous ducts by suckling.",Di baby go draw milk through di lactif erous ducts by suckling.,Biology
"note the environment no w created in the int erstitial space: with the""back door exiting ""k+, there is one na+and tw o clions left in the int erstitium surrounding the ascending loop.","Di backdoor exiting ""k+, dire dey one na+and tw o clions left for di int erstitial space: wit di""back door exiting ""k+, dire dey one na+and tw o clions left for di int erstitial space.",Biology
"first, bar oreceptors, blood-pressure receptors in the arch ofthe aor ta and the car otid arteries in the neck, det ect a decrease in blood pressure that results from decreased blood volume.","Di bar oreceptors, blood-prEssure receptors for di arch of di aor ta and di car otid arteries for di neck, det ect decrease for blood prEssure wey dey results from decreased blood volume.",Biology
"its short length, about 4 cm, is less of a barrier to fecal bacteria than the longer male ur ethr a and the best explanation f or the greater incidence of ut i in females.",Di barrier to fecal bacteria than di longer male ur ethr a and di best explanation f or di greater incidence of ut i for females.,Biology
"the basal metabolic rate (bmr) describes the amount of daily energy expended by humans at rest, in a neutr ally temperate environment, while in the pos tabsorp tive state.","di basal metabolic rate (bmr) dey tok di amount of daily energy expended by humans at rest, for neutrally temperate environment, while e dey postabsorptive state",Biology
the basal surface ofthe cell faces the c onnectiv e tissue base to which the cell attaches(basement membrane) or the cell membrane closer to the basement membrane if there is as tratified layer of cells.,Di basal surface of di cell face di c onnectiv e tissue base to wey di cell attach(basement membrane) or di cell membrane closer to di basement membrane if dire dey tratified layer of cells.,Biology
"when comes into contact with a strong acid, such as hcl, the base picks up a second hydrogen ion to form the weak acid and sodium chloride, nacl.","Di base pickup second hydrogen ion to form di weak acid and sodium chloride, nacl.",Biology
germ cell development progresses from the basement membr aneat the perimeter ofthe tubule toward the lumen.,Di basement membr aneat di perimeter of di tubule toward di lumen.,Biology
about 70 percent of all daily energy expenditure comes from the basic functions ofthe organs in the body.,Di basic functions of di organs for di bodi e kom from di basic functions of di organs for di bodi,Biology
this is the basis f or your need to breathe in oxygen.,Di basis f or your need to breathe for oxygen,Biology
"after puberty, it becomes covered in pubic hair.",Di becomes covered for pubic hair.,Biology
beta()-h ydroxybutyr ateis oxidiz ed to ac etoacetat e and nadh is released.,Di beta()-h ydroxybutyr ateis oxidiz ed to ac etoacetat e and nadh dey release.,Biology
"however, the bicarbonat e buffer is the primary buff ering system ofthe if surrounding the cells in tissues throughout the body.",Di bicarbonat e buffer dey di primary buff ering system of di if surrounding di cells for tin sues throughout di bodi.,Biology
the bicarbonat e buffer is the primary buff ering system ofthe if surrounding the cells in tissues throughout the body.,Di bicarbonat e buffer dey di primary buff ering system of di if surrounding di cells for tin sues throughout di bodi.,Biology
"bicarbonat e is the one ion that is not normally excreted in urine; ins tead, it is c onser ved by the kidneys for use in the body's buff ering systems.","Di bicarbonat e dey di one ion wey no normally excreted for urine; ins tead, e dey c onser ved by di kidneys for use for di bodi 's buff ering systems.",Biology
"the bicarbonat e is regulated in the blood by sodium, as ar e the phosphate ions.","Di bicarbonat e dey egulated for di blood by sodium, as ar e di phosphate ions.",Biology
"the bicarbonat e neutr alizes the acidic hcl, and the digestive enzymes break down the proteins into smaller peptides and amino acids.","di bicarbonate go neutralize di acidic hcl, and di digestive enzymes go breakdown di proteins to smaller peptides and amino acids.",Biology
these binding proteins ar e also important f or the movement of calcium inside the cell and aid in e xocyt osis of calcium across the basolat eral membrane.,Di binding proteins ar e also import tant f or di movement of calcium inside di cell and aid fore xocyt osis of calcium inside di cell and aid fore xocyt osis of calcium across di basolateral membrane.,Biology
the bladder is largely retroperit oneal and can hold upto 500600 ml urine.,Di bladder dey largely retroperit oneal and fit hold upto 500600 ml urine.,Biology
"the bladder is a retroperit oneal organ whose"" dome"" dis tends superiorl y when the bladder is filling with urine.","Di bladder dey retroperit oneal organ wey dey"" dome"" dis tend superiorl y wen di bladder dey filling wit urine.",Biology
"when bladder volume reaches about 150 ml, an urge to void is sensed but is easily overridden.","Di bladder volume reaches about 150 ml, urge to void dey sense but na easily overridden.",Biology
"when the blood c oncentr ations of testosterone once again decline, testosterone no longer interacts with ther eceptors to the same degree and gnrh and lh ar e once again secr eted, stimulating more testosterone production.","Di blood concentration of testosterone once again decline, testosterone no longer interacts wit di receptors to di same degree and gnrh and lh ar e once again, testosterone no longer interacts wit di receptors to di same degree and gnrh and lh ar e once again, testosterone no longer interacts wit di r",Biology
"excessive deep and rapid breathing (as in hyper ventilation) rids the blood of co2and r educ es the level of carbonic acid, making the blood t oo alkaline.","Di blood of co2and reduces di level of carbonic acid, make di blood t oo alkaline.",Biology
"the blood ph value, as shown in table 26. 3, indicates whether the blood is in acidosis, the normal range, or alk alosis.","Di blood ph value, as shown for table 26. 3, indicates whether di blood dey in acidosis, di normal range, or alk alosis.",Biology
"blood plasma has high c oncentr ations of sodium, chloride, bicarbonat e, and protein.","Di blood plasma don high concentration of sodium, chloride, bicarbonat e, and protein.",Biology
blood pressure is ar eflection of blood volume and is monitored by bar oreceptors in the aortic arch and car otid sinuses.,Di blood pressure na reflection of blood volume and monitored by bar oreceptors for di aortic arch and car otid sinuses.,Biology
blood pressure often reflects blood volume and is measured by bar oreceptors in the aor ta and car otid sinuses.,Di blood pressure often reflect blood volume and dey measured by bar oreceptors for di aor ta and car otid sinuses.,Biology
"when blood volume decreases due to sweating, from what source is water taken in by the blood?","Di blood volume decrease due to sweating, from what source dey water taken for by di blood?",Biology
"this rate will be higher if a person is more active or has more lean body mass. as y ou age, the bmr g ener ally decreases as the per centag e of less lean muscle mass decreases.",Di bmr g ener ally dey decrease as di per centag e of less lean muscle mass decrease,Biology
"in the body, water moves by osmosis from plasma to the if(and ther everse) and from the if to the icf (and ther everse).","Di bodi, water moves by osmosis from di if(and di reverse) and from di if to di if(and di reverse) and from di if to di icf (and di reverse) and from di if to di icf (and di reverse) and from di if to di icf (and di reverse).",Biology
the body can also gain or lose heat through mechanisms of heat e xchang e. conduction transfers heat from one object to another through physical contact.,"di bodi also fit gain or lose heat thru mechanisms of heat exchange, conduction dey transfers heat from one object to another thru physical object",Biology
"often, the body is able to clear an hpv infection by normal immune responses within 2 years.",Di bodi dey able t clear an hpv infection by normal immune responses within 2 ears.,Biology
"when the body is fed, glucose, fats, and proteins ar e absorbed across the intestinal membrane and enter the bloodstream and lymphatic system to be used immediately for fuel.","Di bodi dey fed, glucose, fats, and proteins ar e absorb across di intestinal membrane and enter di blood tream and lymphatic system to use immediately for fuel.",Biology
the body rids itself of excess h+and raises blood ph.,Di bodi dey rid amself of excess h+and raises blood ph.,Biology
"the body loses heat through the mechanisms of heat e xchang e.24. 6 energy and heat balance 1091 figure 24. 23 hypo thalamus controls thermor egulation the h ypothalamus c ontr ols thermor egulation. 1092 24 metabolism and nutrition access f or free at opens tax. org mechanisms of heat exchange when the environment is not thermoneutr al, the body uses four mechanisms of heat e xchang e to maintain homeos tasis: c onduction, convection, radiation, and e vapor ation.","di bodi loses heat through di mechanisms of heat exchange.24. 6 energy and heat balance 1091 figure 24. 23 hypothalamus dey control thermoregulation. 1092 24 metabolism and nutrition access for free at opens tax. org mechanisms of heat exchange wen di environment no dey thermoneutral, di body dey use four mechanisms of heat exchange to maintain homeostasis: onduction, convection, radiation, and evaporation.",Biology
understanding the ways in which the body maintains these critical balances is k ey to understanding good health.,Di bodi maintain dis critical balances na k ey to understanding di ways wey di bodi maintain dis critical balances na k ey to understanding good health,Biology
ho w does the body meet this constant demand f or energy?,Di bodi meet disc onstant demand f or energy?,Biology
"during this state, the body must rely initially on s toredglycogen.",Di bodi mus rely initially on s toredglycogen.,Biology
"it measures ho w much energy the body needs f or normal, basic, daily activity.","Di bodi need f or normal, basic, daily activity.",Biology
"when the body once again enters the absorp tive state after fasting, fats and proteins ar e digested and used to replenish fat and protein stores, whereas glucose is processed and used first to replenish the gl ycogen stores in the peripheral tissues, then in the liver.","Di bodi once again enters di absorp tive state after fasting, fats and protein stores, whereas glucose dey processed and use first to replenish di gl ycogen store for di peripheral tissues, then for di liver.",Biology
"the body regulates ther espir atory rate by the use of chemor eceptors, which primarily use c o2as a signal.","Di bodi regulates di respiratory rate by di use of chemor eceptors, wey primarily use c o2as signal.",Biology
"surprisingly, aspirin overdose salicylat e toxicity can result in r espir atory alk alosis as the body tries to compensate for initial acidosis.",Di bodi tries to compensate for initial acidosis as di bodi tries t compensate for initial acidosis,Biology
"after af ew days, however, ketone bodies ar e created from fats and serve as the preferential fuel source for the heart and other organs, so that the brain cans till use glucose.","Di bodies dey create from fats and serve as di preferential fuel source for di heart and oda orGans, so say di brain fit use glucose.",Biology
only about 3 percent ofthe body's heat is lost through c onduction.,Di body's heat dey lost through c onduction.,Biology
about 15 percent ofthe body's heat is lost through convection.,Di body's heat dey lose t through convection.,Biology
finding k etones in the urine suggests that the body is using fat as an energy source in preference to glucose.,Di body dey finding k etones for di urine suggest say di bodi dey use fat as energy source for preference to glucose.,Biology
"regulation of h+, bicarbonat e, and ph the acidbase homeos tasis ofthe body is a function of chemical buffers and ph ysiologic buff ering provided by the lungs and kidneys.",Di body dey function of chemical buffers and ph di acidbase homeos tasis of di body dey function of chemical buffers and ph di acidbase homeos tasis of di body dey function of chemical buffers and ph di acidbase homeos tasis of di body dey function of chemical buffers and ph ysiologic buff ering provided by di lungs and kidneys.,Biology
the body uses more energy and g ener ates more heat.,di body dey use more energy and dey generate more heat.,Biology
"if chloride is lost, the body uses bicarbonat e ions in place ofthe lost chloride ions.",Di body use bicarbonat e ions for place of di lost chloride ions.,Biology
"because this is a bond-creating anabolic process, atp is consumed.","Di bond-creating anabolic process, atp dey consumed",Biology
"your brain and kidneys have the highest proportions of water, which c omposes 8085 percent of their masses.","Di brain and kidneys have di highest proportions of water, wey compose 8085 percent of dia masses.",Biology
"lipol ysis is the breakdown of trigl ycerides into glycerol and fatty acids, making them easier f or the body to process.","Di breakdown of trigl ycerides into glycerol and fatty acids, make dem easier f or di bodi to process.",Biology
"the broad ligament is af old of perit oneum that serves as a primary support for the uterus, extending lat erally from both sides ofthe uterus and attaching it to the pelvic wall.","Di broad ligament na fold of perit oneum wey serve as a primary support for di uterus, extend lat erally from both sides of di Uterus and attach am to di pelvic wall.",Biology
"still, all branches eventually lead back to the common ancestor.",Di branch eventually lead back to di common ancestor.,Biology
"the breakdown of fatty acids, cal ledfatty acid o xida tion orbeta ()-o xida tion, begins in the cyt oplasm, where fatty acids ar e converted into fatty acyl coa molecules.","di breakdown of fatty acids, wey dem dey call fatty acid oxidation orbeta()-oxidation, dey start in di cytoplasm, where fatty acids dey converted to fatty acyl coa molecules.",Biology
"breast milk is pr oduc ed by the mammar y glands, which ar e modified sweat glands.","Di breast milk dey pr oduc ed by di mammar y glands, wey dey modified sweat glands",Biology
supporting the breasts ar e multiple bands of connective tissue cal ledsuspensor y ligaments that connect the breast tissue to the dermis ofthe o verlying skin.,Di breasts ar e multiple bands of connective tin sue cal ledsuspensor y ligaments wey connect di breast tissue to di dermis of di o verlying skin.,Biology
this brief alk alosis can be r emedied by rebreathing air that has been e xhaled into a paper bag.,Di brief alk alosis don be emedied by rebreathing air wey dey xhaled into paper bag.,Biology
a buffer is a chemicals ystem that prevents ar adical change in fluid ph by dampening the change in hydrogen ion concentrations in the case of excess acid or base.,Di buffer dey chemicals ystem say prevents ar adical change for fluid ph by dampening di change for hydrogen ion concentratation for di case of excess acid or base.,Biology
a buffer is a subs tanc e that prevents ar adical change in fluid ph by absorbing excess hydrogen or h ydroxyl ions.,Di buffer dey subs tanc e say prevents ar adical change for fluid ph by absorb excess hydrogen or h ydroxyl ions.,Biology
"buffer systems in the body the buffer systems in the human body ar e extremely efficient, and different systems work at different rates.","Di buffer systems for di human body dey extremely efficient, and different systems work for different rates.",Biology
"the buffer systems functioning in blood plasma include plasma proteins, phosphate, and bicarbonat e and carbonic acid buffers.","Di buffer systems wey dey function for blood plasma include plasma proteins, phosphate, and bicarbonat e and carbonic acid buffers.",Biology
"the bulk of semen is pr oduc ed by three critical accessory glands ofthe male r eproductiv e system: the seminal v esicles, the prostate, and the bulbour ethr al glands.",Di bulk of semen dey pr oduc ed by three critical accessory glands of di male r eproductiv e system,Biology
"a relative decrease in blood sodium can occur because of an imbalance of sodium in one ofthe body's other fluid compartments, like if, or from a dilution of sodium due to water retention related to edema or c ongestive heart failure. at the cellular level, hyponatr emia r esul ts in increased entry of water into cells by osmosis, because the concentration of solut es within the cell exceeds the c oncentr ation of solut es in the no w-diluted ecf.","Di c cellular level, hyponatr emia r decrease for blood sodium don dey cur because of di bodi 'soda fluid compartments, like if, or from a di bodi 'soda fluid compartments, like if, or from di bodi 'soda fluid compartments, like if, or from di bodi 'soda fluid compartments, like if, or from a di",Biology
"instead, the cells ar e forced to use fat as their energy source, and fat consumed at such a level pr oduc es excessive ketones as b yproducts.","Di cells ar e force to use fat as dia energy source, and fat consumed for such a level pr oduc as b yproducts.",Biology
"because these cells are diploid (2 n), the y each have ac omplet e copy ofthe person's genetic material, or 46 chromosomes.","Di cells dey diploid (2 n), di y each have c omplet e copy of di person genetic material, or 46 chromosomes.",Biology
"these cells ar e not as active as those in the pct; thus, there are fewer micr ovilli on the apical surface.","Di cells no dey active as those for di pct; thus, dire no dey active as those for di pct; thus, dir e no dey active as those for di pct; thus, dire no dey active as those for di pct; thus, dire no dey fewer micr ovilli on di apical surface",Biology
the cells ofthe pct actively secr ete h+into the forming urine as na+is reabsorbed.,Di cells of di pct actively secrete h+into di forming urine as na+is reabsorbed,Biology
"when s timulat ed by adh, these cells will inser taquaporin channel proteins into their membranes, which as their name suggests, allow water to pass from the duct lumen through the cells and into the int erstitial spaces to be recovered by the v asa r ecta.","Di cells will inser taquaporin channel proteins for dia membranes, wey as dia name suggests, allow water to pass from di duct lumen through di cells and into di int erstitial spaces to recover by di vasa r ecta.",Biology
"in the cells, glucose, a six- carbon sugar, is processed through a sequence of reactions into smaller sugars, and the energy stored inside the molecule is released.","Di cells, glucose, six- carbon sugar, dey processed through sequence of reactions for o smaller sugars, and di energy store inside di molecule dey released.",Biology
"the c entr al strand ofthe flag ellum, the axial filament, is formed from one c entriole inside the maturing sperm cell during the finals tages of spermat ogenesis.","Di c entr al strand of di flag ellum, di axial filament, dey formed from one c entriole inside di maturing sperm cell during di finals tages of spermat ogenesis.",Biology
"prostate gland as shown in figure 27. 2, the c entr ally locat edprostate gland sits anterior to ther ectum at the base ofthe bladder surrounding the pr ostatic ur ethr a(the portion ofthe ur ethr a that runs within the prostate).",Di centrally locat edprostate gland sit anterior to di r ectum for di base of di bladder surrounding di pr ostatic ur ethr a(the portion of di ur ethr a wey dey run within di prostate).,Biology
"these include the c erebrospinal fluid that bathes the brain and spinal cord, lymph, the s ynovial fluid in joints, the pleur al fluid in the pleur al cavities, the pericar dial fluid in the cardiac sac, the perit oneal fluid in the perit oneal cavity, and the aqueous humor ofthe eye.","Di c erebrospinal fluid wey dey bath di brain and spinal cord, lymph, di s ynovial fluid for joints, di pleural fluid for di pleural cavity, and di aqueous humor of di eye.",Biology
"the cervix pr oduc es mucus secr etions that become thin and string y under the influence of highs ystemic plasma estrogen c oncentr ations, and these secr etions can facilitate sperm movement through ther eproductiv e tract.","Di cervix pr oduc es mucus secr etions wey become thin and string y under di influence of highs ystemic plasma wey dey trogen c oncentr ations, and dis secr etions go facilita e sperm movement through di r eproductiv e tract.",Biology
"depending on the body's fluids tatus at an y given time, the collecting ducts can recover none or almost all ofthe water reaching them.",Di collecting ducts go ecover none or almost all of di water reach dem.,Biology
"by varying the amount of water that is recovered, the collecting ducts playa major role in maintaining the body's normal osmolarity.",Di collecting ducts play major role for maintaining di bodi normal osmolarity.,Biology
"the combined pr evalenc e of minimal, moderate, and c omplet e ed is appr oximat ely 40 percent in males at ag e 40, and reaches nearly 70 percent by 70 years of age.","Di combined pr evalenc e of minimal, moderate, and c omplet e ed dey approximately 40 percent for males for ag e 40, and reaches nearly 70 percent by 70 years of age.",Biology
another common disorder involving the prostate is prostate cancer.,Di common disorder for volving di prostate na prostate cancer.,Biology
"ac ommon early symptom of ketoacidosis is deep, rapid breathing as the body at temp ts to drive off co2 and c ompensat e for the acidosis.","Di common early symptom of ketoacidosis dey deep, rapid breathing as di bodi for temp ts to drive off co2 and c ompensat e for di acidosis.",Biology
water will move by osmosis from the side where its c oncentr ation is high(and the concentration of solut e is low) to the side ofthe membrane where its c oncentr ation is lo w(and the c oncentr ation of solut e is high).,Di c oncentr ation of solut e dey high(and di c oncentr ation of solut e dey high)to di side of di membrane where im c oncentr ation dey low(and di c oncentr ation of solut e dey high)to di side of di membrane where im c oncentr ation dey low(and di c oncentr ation of solut e dey high)to di side of di membr,Biology
"once inside these cells, glucose is immediately converted into gluc ose-6-phosphat e. by doing this, ac oncentr ation gradient is established where glucose levels ar e higher in the blood than in the cells.",Di concentration gradient dey tablished where glucose levels ar e higher for di blood than for di cells.,Biology
"as discussed earlier in this chapter, the c oncentr ation of carbonic acid in the blood is dependent on the level of co2 in the body and the amount of co2gas e xhaled through the lungs.",Di concentration of carbonic acid for di blood dey depend on di level of co2 for di bodi and di amount of co2gas e xhaled through di lungs.,Biology
this condition is called shock.,Di condition dey called shock,Biology
"this condition usually occurs when t oo much c o2is exhaled from the lungs, as occurs in hyper ventilation, which is breathing that is deeper or more frequent than normal.","Di condition usually occurs when t oo much c o2is exhaled from di lungs, as occurs for hyper ventilation, wey dey breathing wey dey deeper or more frequent than normal.",Biology
male r eproductiv e system erectile dysfunction (ed)is ac ondition in which a person has difficulty either initiating or maintaining an erection.,Di condition wey a person get difficulty either initiating or maintain an erection,Biology
"functions of testosterone the continued pr esenc e of testosterone is necessary to keep the male r eproductiv e system working pr operl y, anddisor ders ofthe.","Di continued pr esenc e of testosterone dey necessary to keep di male r eproductiv e system working pr operl y, and disorders of di",Biology
sperm enter the head ofthe epididymis and ar e moved along pr edominantl y by the c ontr action of smooth muscles lining the epididymal tubes.,Di c ontr action of smooth muscles wey dey lining di epididymis and ar e moved along pr edominantl y by di c ontr action of smooth muscle wey dey lining di epididymal tube.,Biology
the c ontr ol of this e xchang e is governed principally by tw o hormones aldos terone and angiot ensin ii.,Di c ontr ol of dis e xchang e dey governed principally by tw o hormones aldos terone and angiot ensin ii,Biology
"the convection currents created by the temper atur e changes continue to draw heat away from the body more quickly than the body can r eplac e it, r esul ting in hyper thermia.","Di convection currents created by di temper atur e change continue to draw heat away from di bodi more quickly than di bodi fit r eplac e am, r esul ting for hyper thermia.",Biology
"these c ontr actions occur every 4 t o 8 seconds, and ther esul t is ac oordinat ed movement that sweeps the surface ofthe o vary and the pelvic cavity.","Di c oordinat actions wey dey cure very 4 t o 8 seconds, and di r esul t dey c oordinat ed movement wey sweep di surface of di o vary and di pelvic cavity.",Biology
the core temper atur e is kept around 36. 537. 5c(97. 799. 5f ).,Di core temper atur e dey kept around 36. 537. 5c(97. 799. 5 f).,Biology
"if pregnancy does not occur within 10 to 12 days, the corpus lut eum will stop secr eting progesterone and degrade into the corpus albicans, a nonfunctional "" whitish body"" that will disint egrate in theo vary over a period of several months.","Di corpus lut eum wil stop secreting progesterone and degrade into di corpus albicans, a nonfunctional "" whitish bodi wey dey degrade for di o vary over a period of several months.",Biology
the c otranspor ter moves glucose into the cell against its c oncentr ation gradient as na+moves down the electr ochemical gradient created by the basal membranes na+/k+atpases.,Di c unansporter moves glucose into di cell against its c oncentr ation gradient as na+ k+atpases.,Biology
"when ca++levels ar e low, pth inhibits r eabsorp tion of so that its blood level drops, allowing ca++levels to rise.","Di ca++levels dey low, pth inhibit r eabsorption of so say dia blood level drops, allow ca++levels to rise.",Biology
"the caffeine in coffee and t ea works by promoting v asodilation in the nephr on, which increases gfr.","Di caffeine for coffee and t ea works by promoting v asodilation for di nephr on, wey dey increase gfr.",Biology
"calcium about tw o pounds of calcium in your body ar e bound up in bone, which provides har dnes s to the bone and serves as a mineral reserve for calcium and its salts for ther est ofthe tissues.","Di calcium about tw o pounds wey dey bound up for bone, wey provides har dnes s to di bone and serves as mineral reserve for calcium and its salts for di rest of di tissues.",Biology
"calcium and phosphate are regulated by pth, calcitriol, and calcit onin.","Di calcium and phosphate dey regulated by pth, calcitriol, and calcit onin",Biology
"more than 90 percent ofthe calcium and phosphate that enters the body is inc orpor ated into bones and teeth, with bone serving as a mineral reserve for these ions.","Di calcium and phosphate wey dey enters di bodi dey incorporated into bones and teeth, wit bone serving as mineral reserve for dis ions.",Biology
calcium is absorbed through the intestines under the influence of activated vitamin d.,Di calcium dey absorb through di intestines under di influence of activated vitamin d.,Biology
calcium recovery in the dct is influenced by pth and active vitamin d.,Di calcium recovery for di dct dey influence by pth and active vitamin d.,Biology
"if a mass is detected, the cancer diagnosis is confirmed by biopsy ofthe cells.",Di cancer diagnosis dey confirmed by biopsy of di cells.,Biology
infection with either ofthe cancer-causing variants hpv 16 or hpv 18 has been linked to more than 70 percent of all cervical cancer diagnoses.,Di cancer-causing variants hpv 16 or hpv 18 don link to more than 70 percent of all cervical cancer diagnoses.,Biology
"with 20 times more bicarbonat ethan carbonic acid, this capture system is most efficient at buff ering changes that would make the blood more acidic.",Di capture system dey most efficient for buff ering change say would make di blood more acidic.,Biology
"during late pregnancy, its capacity is r educ ed due to compression by the enlar ging uterus, resulting in increased frequency of urination.","Di capacity dey educ ed due to compression by di enlar ging uterus, resulting for increased frequency of urination.",Biology
"in cases of poorly controlled diabetes mel litus, glucose levels exceed the capacity ofthe tubular glucose s ympor ters, resulting in glucose in the urine.","Di capacity of di tubular glucose s ympor ters, resulting for glucose for di urine.",Biology
"less osmotic pressure pulling water into the capil laries tips the balance towards h ydrostatic pressure, which tends to push it out ofthe capil laries.","Di capil laries tips di balance towards h ydrostatic prEssure, wey tend to push am out of di capil laries.",Biology
pedic els on one podocyt e always int erdigitat e with the pedic els of another podocyt e.(b) this capil lary has three podocyt es wrapped around it.,Di capil lary don get three podocyt e always int erdigitat e wit di pedic los of another podocyt e.,Biology
net r eabsorp tion occurs near the v enous end ofthe capil lary since bc op is greater than chp.,Di capil lary since bc op na greater than chp.,Biology
"this capsule is covered b ya shock-absorbing layer of adipose tissue 25. 3 gross anatomy ofthe kidney 1117 called the renal fa t pad, which in turn is enc ompas sed b yat ough renal fascia.","Di capsule dey covered by shock-absorbing layer of adipose tissue 25. 3 gross anatomy of di kidney 1117 call di renal fa t pad, wey in turn dey enc ompas sed b yt ough renal fascia.",Biology
proximal convoluted tubule (pct) filtered fluid collected by bowman 's capsule enters into the pct.,Di capsule enters for di pct.,Biology
carbon dioxide is pr oduc ed in large amounts in tissues that have a high metabolic rate.,Di carbon dioxide dey pr oduc ed for large amounts for tissues wey have high metabolic rate.,Biology
"this carbon then attaches to another free hs-coa, resulting in tw o ac etyl coa molecules.","Di carbon don attach to another free hs-coa, resulting for tw o ac etyl coa molecules.",Biology
"the carbon within the acetoacetyl coa that is not bonded to the coa then detaches, split ting the molecule in two.","Di carbon wey dey within di acetoacetyl coa wey no bond to di coa goo detach, ego split di molecule for two.",Biology
"the carbon dioxide pr oduc ed can acidif y the blood, leading to diabetic k etoacidosis, a dangerous condition in people with diabetes.","di carbondioxide wey dey produced fit acidify d blood, wey go lead to diabetes ketoacidosis, and na dangerous condition for pipo wey get diabetes",Biology
"in the case of diabetes insipidus, insufficient pituitar y antidiur etic hormone (adh) release or insufficient numbers of adh receptors in the collecting ducts means that t oo few water channels ar e inserted into the cell membranes that line the collecting ducts ofthe kidney.","Di case of diabetes insipidus, insufficient pituitar y antidiur etic hormone (adh) release or insufficient numbers of adh receptors wey line di collecting ducts means say t oo few water channel wey dey line di collecting ducts of di kidney.",Biology
"in the case of urea, about 50 percent is passively reabsorbed by the pct.","Di case of urea, about 50 percent dey pass sively reabsorbed by di pct.",Biology
"in such cases, bicarbonat e ions ar e not c onser ved from the fil trate to the blood, which will also c ontribut e to a ph imbalance and acidosis.","Di cases, bicarbonat e ions no dey c onser ved from di fil trate to di blood, wey l also c ontribut e to di ph imbalance and acidosis.",Biology
"other causes of metabolic acidosis area decrease in thee xcretion of hydrogen ions, which inhibits the c onser vation of bicarbonat e ions, and excessive loss of bicarbonat e ions through the gastrointestinal tract due to diarrhea.","Di cause of metabolic acidosis ar e decrease for di e xcretion of bicarbonat e ions, wey inhibit di c onser vation of bicarbonat e ions, and excessive loss of bicarbonat e ions for di gastrointestinal tract due to diarrhea.",Biology
"cck also travels to the brain, where it can act as a hunger suppr essant.","Di cck also travels to di brain, where dey act as a hunger suppr essant",Biology
a ce is important in raising blood pressure.,Dice dey important for raising blood pressure,Biology
"according to the centers f or disease control and prevention (cdc), pr ostate cancer is the second most common cancer in males.","Di centers f or disease control and prevention (cdc), pr ostate cancer na di second most common cancer for males.",Biology
the cervixis the narrow inferior portion ofthe uterus that projects into the vagina.,Di cervixis di narrow inferior portion of di uterus wey project into di vagina.,Biology
"these changes in secr etions r esul t ina"" dry mouth"" and the sensation of thirst. non-s teroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, estrogen therapies, and some diabetes medications.","Di chang dey for secr etions r eul t for secr etions r eul t for dry mouth and di sensation of thirst. non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, estrogen dir apies, and some diabetes medications.",Biology
"this change is called lut einization (r ecal l that the full name of lh is lut einizing hormone), and it transforms the collapsed f ollicle int oa ne w endocrine structure called the corpus lut eum, a term meaning"" yellowish body"" (see figure 27. 12).","Di change dey called lut einization (r ecal l say di full name of lh dey lut einizing hormone), and e transform di collapsed f ollicle int oa ne w endocrine structure called di corpus lut eum, a term meaning"" yellowish body"" (check di picture 27. 12).",Biology
failure of nervous c ontr ol or the anatomical s tructur es leading toa loss of control of urination results in ac ondition called inc ontinenc e. this chapter will help y ou to understand the anatomy ofthe urinary system and ho w it enables the ph ysiologic functions critical to homeos tasis.,Di chapter will help y or to understand di anatomy of di urinary system and ho w dey enables di ph ysiologic functions critical to homeos tasis e.,Biology
"in this chapter, you will explore ther eproductiv e systems, whose functioning can culminat e in the powerful sound ofa newborn 's first cry.","Di chapter, you go explore di r eproductiv e systems, wey dey functioning fit culminat e for di powerful sound ofa newborn 's first cry.",Biology
"the charged regions of these molecules can bind hydrogen and h ydroxyl ions, and thus function as buffers.","Di charged regions wey dey of these molecules fit bind hydrogen and h ydroxyl ions, and thus function as buffers.",Biology
it takes only seconds f or the chemical buffers in the blood to make adjustments to ph.,Di chemical buffers for di blood to make adjustments to ph.,Biology
"bicarbonat e ions r esul t from a chemical reaction thats tarts with carbon dioxide (co2) and water, two molecules that are produced at the end of aerobic metabolism.","Di chemical reaction wey dey tart wit carbon dioxide (co2) and water, two molecules wey dey produce for di end of aerobic metabolism.",Biology
the chemical reactions that regulate the levels of co2and carbonic acid occur in the lungs when blood travels through the lung 's pulmonary capil laries.,Di chemical reactions wey regulate di levels of co2and carbonic acid wey dey cur for di lungs wen blood travels through di lung pulmonary capil laries.,Biology
"chloride is a major c ontribut or to the osmotic pressure gradient between the icf and ecf, and plays an important role in maintaining proper hydration.","Di chloride dey major c ontribut or to di osmotic pressure gradient betw e di icf and ecf, and play an important role for maintaining proper hydration.",Biology
"once in the circulation, they can either goto the liver or be stored in fat cells (adipocyt es)that comprise adipose (fat)tis sue found throughout the body. 1076 24 metabolism and nutrition access f or free at opens tax. org figure 24. 12 chylomicr ons chylomicr ons contain trigl ycerides, cholesterol molecules, and other apolipopr oteins (protein molecules).","Di chylomicr ons contain trigl ycerides, cholesTerol molecules, and oda apolipopr",Biology
the ch ylomicr ons enable fats and cholesterol to move within the aqueous environment of your l ymphatic and cir culat ory systems.,di chylomicrons dey enable fats and cholesterol to move within di aqueous environment wey dey your lymphatic and circulatory systems,Biology
chylomicr ons leave the ent erocyt es by exocyt osis and enter the l ymphatic system via lact eals in the vil li ofthe intestine.,di chylomicrons go leave di enterocytes by exocytosis and e go enter di lymphatic system via lacteals wey dey di vili of di intestine.,Biology
rebreathing e xhaled air will rapidly bring blood ph down toward normal. 26. 4a cid-base balance 1173 figure 26. 16 respiratory regulation of blood ph ther espir atory system can r educ e blood ph by removing c o2from the blood.,Di cid-base balance 1173 figure 26. 16 respiratory regulation of blood ph di r espir atory system don r educ e blood ph by removing c o2for di blood.,Biology
"diagnosing a cidosis and alk alosis lab tests for ph, c o2partial pressure (pc o2), and hc o3can identify acidosis and alk alosis, indicating whether the imbalance is r espir atory or metabolic, and thee xtent to which c ompensat ory mechanisms ar e working.","Di cidosis and alk alosis lab tests for ph, c o2partial pressure (pc o2), and hc o3can identify acidosis and alk alosis, indicating whether di imbalance dey r espir atory or metabolic, and di extent to wey dey work.",Biology
these cilia beat more strongly in response to the high estrogen c oncentr ations that occur around the time of ovulation.,Di cilia beat more strongly for response to di high estrogen concentration wey occur around di time of ovulation.,Biology
cir cums tanc es that lead to fluid depletion in the body include blood loss and dehydration.,Di cir cums tanc dey wey lead to fluid depletion for di bodi include blood loss and dehydration.,Biology
"because of this, a clinical trial w as started to investigate the ability of sildenafil to promote erections in men suffering from ed.",Di clinical trial wey start to investigate di ability of sildenafil to promote erections for men suffer ering from ed.,Biology
"collecting ducts merge as they descend deeper in the medul la to form about 30 terminal ducts, which empty at a papil la.","Di collecting ducts merge as di y descend deeper for di medul la to form about 30 terminal ducts, wey dey empty at papil la.",Biology
aldos terone s timulat es na+recovery by the collecting duct.,Di collecting duct na+recovery by di collecting duct,Biology
"finally, combination ofthe g amet es(f ertilization) had to occur, followed by implantation and development.","Di combination of di g amet es(f ertilization) don to occur, follow by implantation and development.",Biology
"common causes of metabolic acidosis and blood metabolites cause metabolit e diarrhea bicarbonat e uremia phosphoric, sulfuric, and lactic acids diabetic k etoacidosis increased k etone bodies strenuous exercise lactic acid methanol formic acid* paraldeh yde -hydroxybutyric acid* isopr opanol propionic acid* ethylene gl ycol glycolic acid, and some o xalic and f ormic acids* salicylat e/aspirin sulfasalicylic acid(s sa)*table 26. 2*acid metabolites from ingested chemical.","Di common causes of metabolic acidosis and blood metabolit wey dey cause metabolit e diarrhea bicarbonat e uremia phosphoric, sulfuric, and lactic acids diabetic k etoacidosis increased k etone bodies strenuous exercise lactic acid methanol formic acid",Biology
"compensation mechanisms various c ompensat ory mechanisms exist to maintain blood ph within a narrow range, including buffers, respiration, and renal mechanisms.","Di compensation mechanisms various c ompensat ory mechanisms wey dey xist to maintain blood ph within narrow range, including buffers, respiration, and renal mechanisms.",Biology
composition of body fluids the compositions ofthe tw o components ofthe ecfplasma and ifar e more similar to eachother than either is to the icf (figure 26. 5 ).,Di composition of bodi fluids di compositions of di tw o component of di ecfplasma and ifar e more similar to each oda than either dey to di icf (figure 26. 5 ).,Biology
convection is the transfer of heat to the air surrounding the skin.,Di convection na di transfer of heat to di air surrounding di skin,Biology
"as long as the concentration differs, water will move.","Di concentrat ation differs, water will move.",Biology
each of these conditions can be caused either by metabolic problems related to bicarbonat e levels or by respiratory problems related to carbonic acid and c o2levels.,Di condition dey caused either by metabolic problems wey dey related to bicarbonat e levels or by respiratory problems wey dey related to bicarbonat e level or by respiratory problems wey dey related to bicarbonat e level or by respiratory problems wey dey related to bicarbonat e levels or by respiratory problems wey dey related to bicarbonat e level or by respiratory problems wey dey related to bicarbonat e levels,Biology
activities that can r educ e the effects ofthe condition include appr opriat e exercises to keep the blood and lymph flowing through the affected areas.,Di condition include appr opriat e exercises wey fit r educ e di effects of di condition include appr opriat e exercises to keep di blood and lymph flowing through di affected am,Biology
"the constituent parts of these carbohydrates, fats, and proteins ar e transported across the intestinal wall and enter the bloodstream (sugars and amino acids)or the l ymphatic system (fats).","di constituents parts of dis carbohydrates, fats and proteins dey transported across di intestinal wall and go enter di bloodstream (sugars and amino acids)or di lymphatic system(fats).",Biology
the core temper atur e ofthe body remains steady at around 36. 537. 5c(or 97. 799. 5f ).,di core temperature of di bodi remain steady at around 36.537.5 c(or 97. 7999. 5 f).,Biology
"the corpus spongiosum, which can be felt as ar aised ridge on the erect penis, is a smaller chamber that surrounds the spong y, or penile, urethr a.","Di corpus spongiosum, wey dey felt as raised ridge on di erect penis, na a smaller chamber wey dey surrounds di spong y, or penile, urethr a.",Biology
the cortex is composed ofa tissue frame work called theo varian s troma that forms the bulk ofthe adult ovary.,Di cortex dey composed ofa tissue frame work called di varian s troma wey form di bulk of di adult ovary.,Biology
"interactive link visit this link( w5) to view an int eractiv e tutorial ofthe flow of blood through the kidney. cortex in a dis sect ed kidney, it is easy to identify the cortex; it appears lighter in color c ompar ed to ther est ofthe kidney.","Di cortex for dis sect ed kidney, e dey easy to identify di cortex; e dey lighter for di flow of blood through di kidney.",Biology
"beneath the cortex lies the inner ovarian medul la, the site of blood vessels, lymph vessels, and the nerves ofthe o vary.","Di cortex lies di inner ovarian medul la, di site of blood vessels, lymph vessels, and diner ves of di o vary.",Biology
"this creates a pressure, osmotic pressure, which will exist until the solut e concentration is the same on both sides ofa semipermeable membrane.","Di cr eat a pressure, osmotic pressure, wey go exist until di solut e concentration dey di same on both sides of semipermeable membrane.",Biology
"however, the creation of triglycerides and lipids is an efficient w ay of storing the energy available in carbohydrates.",Di creation of triglycerides and lipids dey efficient w ay of storing di energy available for carbohydrates.,Biology
cycle length is determined by counting the days between the onset of bleeding in tw o subsequent cycles.,Di cycle length dey ermined by counting di days betw wen di onset of bleeding for tw o subsequent cycles,Biology
"in the cyt oplasm, citr ate is converted back into oxaloac etat e and ac etyl coa.","Di cyt oplasm, citrate dey converted back for oxaloac etat e and ac etyl coa.",Biology
"by contracting simul taneousl y, the dar tos and cr emas ter muscles can elevate the testes in cold weather (or water), moving the t estes closer to the body and decreasing the surface area ofthe scrotum to retain heat.","Di dar tos and cr emaster muscles don elevate di testes for cold weather (or water), moving di t estes closer to di bodi and decreasing di surface area of di scrotum to retain heat.",Biology
"distal convoluted tubule (dc t)the dct, like the pct, is very tortuous and formed by simple cuboidal epithelium, but it is shorter than the pct.","Di dct, like di pct, dey tortuous and formed by simple cuboidal epithelium, but e dey shorter than di pct.",Biology
cells ofthe dct also recover ca++from the fil trate.,Di dct also recover ca++from di fil trate.,Biology
recall that the dct is in intimate contact with the aff erent and eff erent ar terioles ofthe glomerulus.,Di dct dey intimate contact wit di aff erent and eff erent ar terioles of di glomerulus.,Biology
"it affects 710 percent of all hospitalized patients, resulting in the deaths of 3540 percent of inpatients.","Di deaths of 3540 percent of inpatients, resulting for di deaths of 3540 percent of inpatients",Biology
this decline in progesterone triggers the shedding ofthe s tratum functionalis ofthe endometrium. 27. 2 anatomy and physiology ofthe ovarian r eproduc tive system 1207 figure 27. 15 hormone levels in ovarian and menstrual cycles the correlation ofthe hormone levels and their effects on the female r eproductiv e system is shown in this timeline ofthe ovarian and menstrual cycles.,Di decline for progesterone trigger di shedding of di hormone levels and dia effects on di female r eproduc tive system 1207 figure 27. 15 hormone levels for ovarian and menstrual cycles di correlation of di hormone levels and dia effects on di female r eproductiv e system dey shown for dis timeline of di endometrium.,Biology
"since many drugs ar e excreted in the urine, a decline in renal function can lead to toxic accumulations.",Di decline for renal function go lead to toxic accumulations.,Biology
"in response to the decrease in glucose, insulin levels also drop.","Di decrease for glucose, insulin levels also drop.",Biology
"dehydration pr oduc es darker, concentrated urine that ma y also possess the slight odor of ammonia.","Di dehydration pr oduc e darker, concentratated urine wey ma y also posse di slight odor of ammonia.",Biology
"however, due to the demands ofthe tissues and organs, blood glucose levels must be maintained in the normal range of 80120 mg/dl.","Di demand of di tissues and orGans, blood glucose levels mus maintain for di normal range of 80120 mg dl.",Biology
the descending and ascending portions ofthe loop ar e highly specialized to enable recovery of much ofthe na+and water that were filtered by the glomerulus.,Di descending and ascending portions of di loop ar e highly specialized to enable recovery of much of dina+and water wey were filter by di glomerulus.,Biology
determination ofthe gfr is one ofthe tools used to assess the kidne y's excretory function.,Di determination of di gfr dey one of di tools use to assess di kidne y's excretory function.,Biology
the detrusor muscle c ontr acts with significant force in they oung.,Di detrusor muscle c ontr act wit significant force for di young.,Biology
it pr oduc es more estrogen than al l ofthe developing f ollicles did together before the negative feedback oc curr ed.,Di developing f ollicles dont ogether before di negative feedback oc curr ed.,Biology
"the clusters can change in size depending on the figure 27. 16 development of cervical cancerin most cases, cells infected with the hpv virus heal on their own.","Di development of cervical cancerin most case, cells dey infected wit di hpv virus heal on dia own.",Biology
"release of no activates a signaling pathway that r esul ts in relaxation ofthe smooth muscles that surround the penile arteries, causing them to dilat e. this dilation increases the amount of blood that can enter the penis and induces the endothelial cells in the penile arterial walls to also secr ete no and perpetuate the v asodilation.",Di dilation increase di amount of blood wey dey enter di penis and induces di endothelial cells wey dey surround di penile arterial walls to dey to dilat e.,Biology
disorders ofthe.,Di disorders of di,Biology
excessive quantities of urine ma y indicate diabetes insipidus or diabetes mel litus.,Di diabetes insipidus or diabetes mel litus.,Biology
diet both what y ou eat and ho w much y ou eat has a dramatic impact on your health.,Di diet both wey y dey eat and ho w much y dey eat na dramatic impact on y awa health,Biology
calcitriol then stimulates the intestines to absorb more ca++from the diet.,Di diet dey stimulate di intestines to absorb more ca++from di diet.,Biology
"they can being ested in the diet, s tored in the adipose tissue ofthe body, or s ynthesiz ed in the liver.","Di diet, s tored for di adipose tissue of di bodi, or s ynthesiz ed for di liver.",Biology
"if energy is exerted shortly after eating, the dietary fats and sugars that were just ingested will be processed and used immediately for energy.","Di dietary fats and sugars say were just ing e dey e just ing, di dietary fats and sugars wey were just ing dem",Biology
"therefore, if the blood pressure is 110/80, the difference between s ystolic and dias tolic pressure is 30.",Di difference betw es ystolic and dias tolic prEssure dey 30.,Biology
the difference is that it r equir es specific membrane receptors or channel proteins f or movement.,Di difference na say e dey equir as specific membrane receptors or channel proteins f or movement.,Biology
"the digestion of carbohydrates begins in the mouth, whereas the digestion of proteins and fats begins in the stomach and small intestine.","Di digestion of carbohydrate dey begin for di mouth, whereas di digestion of proteins and fats dey begin in di stomach and small intestine",Biology
the dissolved subs tanc es in a solution ar e called solut es.,Di dissolved subs tanc dey for solution ar e called solut,Biology
reabsorp tion and secretion in the distal convoluted tubule appr oximat ely 80 percent of filtered water has been recovered by the time the dilute forming urine enters the dct.,Di distal convoluted tubule approximately 80 percent of filter water don recovered by di time di distal convoluted tubule approximately 80 percent of filter water,Biology
"diseases ofthe liver or obs tructions of bile dr ainag e from the liver impar ta dark"" tea""or ""cola""hue to the urine.","Di diseases wey dey f di liver or obs tructions of bile dr ainag e from di liver pipo dey a dark"" tea""or ""cola""hue to di urine.",Biology
"though most hpv infections do not cause disease, the disruption of normal cellular functions in the low-risk forms of hpv can cause the human host to develop genital warts.","Di disruption of normal c cellular functions for di low-risk forms of hpv no cause disease, di disruption of normal c cellular functions for di low-risk forms of hpv don cause di human host to develop genital warts.",Biology
a diur etic is ac ompound that increases urine output and therefore decreases water conservation by the body.,Di diur etic dey compound wey increase urine output and dir efore decrease water conservation by di bodi.,Biology
"everyday connection mapping human history with mitochondrial dna when we talk about human dna, we're usually referring to nuclear dna; that is, the dna c oiled into chromosomal bundles in the nucleus of our cells.",Di dna coil into chromosomal bundles for di nucleus of awa cells.,Biology
"it does so by stimulating the movement of aquaporin proteins into the apical cell membrane of principal cells ofthe collecting ducts to form water channels, allowing the tr ansc ellular movement of water from the lumen ofthe collecting duct into the int erstitial space in the medul la ofthe kidney by osmosis.","Di does so by stimulating di movement of aquaporin proteins into di pical cell membrane of principal cells of di collecting ducts to form water channels, allow di tr ansc cellular movement of water from di lumen of di collecting duct for di int erstitial space for di medul la of di kidney by osmosis.",Biology
"its close association with na+in thee xtracellular environment makes it the dominant anion of this c ompar tment, and its regulation closely mirrors that of na+.","Di dominant anion of disc ompar tment, and di regulation closely mirrors wey of na+.",Biology
"as the ducts descend through the medul la, the osmolarity surrounding them increases (due to the count ercurr ent mechanisms described above).","Di ducts descend through di medul la, di osmolarity surrounding dem increases (due to di c ornt ercurr ent mechanism wey described above).",Biology
"the ductus def erens is a thick, muscular tube that is bundled together inside the scr otum with c onnectiv e tissue, blood vessels, and nerves int oas tructur e called the sperma tic cord(see figure 27. 2 and figure 27. 3 ).","Di ductus def erens dey thin, muscular tube wey dey bundle together inside di scr otum wit c onnectiv e tissue, blood vessels, and nerves int oas tructur e called di sperma tic cord(check di picture 27. 2 and figure 27. 3).",Biology
"from each epididymis, each ductus def erens extends superiorl y into the abdominal cavity through the inguinal canal in the abdominal wall.",Di ductus def erens extend superiorl y for di abdominal cavity through di inguinal canal for di abdominal wall.,Biology
"this is good advice; however, it takes time f or the kidneys to process body fluids and store it in the bladder.","Di e dey good advice; however, na time f or di kidneys to process bodi fluids and store am for di bladder.",Biology
"lipogenesis when glucose levels ar e plentiful, thee xcess acetyl coa g ener ated by glycolysis can be converted into fatty acids, triglycerides, cholesterol, steroids, and bile salts.","Di excess acetyl coa g ener ated by glycolysis dey converted into fatty acids, triglycerides, cholesterol, steroids, and bile salts.",Biology
"if not, the excess glucose is stored as gl ycogen in the liver and muscle cells, or as fat in adipose tissue; excess dietary fat is also stored as trigl ycerides in adipose tissues. depending on the levels ofthe pdc enzyme.","Di excess glucose dey tored as trigl ycerides for di liver and muscle cells, or as fat for adipose tissue.",Biology
these excess ketones will appear in the urine.,Di excess ketones go appear for di urine.,Biology
thee xcess water causes swelling ofthe cells; the swelling of red blood c ellsdecr easing their oxygen-carr ying efficiency and making them potential ly too large to fit through capil laries along with the swelling of neurons in the brain can r esul t in brain damage or even death.,"Di excess water causes welling of di cells; di swelling of red blood c ellsdecr easing dia o oxygen-carrying efficiency and make dem fit through capil laries along wit di swelling of di cells; di swelling of di cells, di swelling of di cells, di swelling of di cells, di swelling of",Biology
"potassium participates in thee xchang e with sodium in ther enal tubules under the influence of aldos terone, which also relies on basolat eral sodium-potassium pumps.","Di e xchang e wit potassium participate for di e xchang e wit sodium for di renal tubules under di influence of aldos terone, wey also relies on basolateral sodium-potassium pumps.",Biology
"passive transport of a molecule orion depends on its ability to pass through the membrane, as well as thee xistence of ac oncentr ation gradient that allows the molecules to diffuse from an area of higher c oncentr ation to an area of lower concentration.","Di existence of a molecule orion depend on di ability to pass through di membrane, as well as di existence of ac oncentr ation gradient say allow di molecules to diffuse from an area of lower concentrat ation.",Biology
"thee xternal f eatur es ofthe breast include a nipple surrounded b ya pigment edareola (figure 27. 17), whose coloration ma y deepen during pregnancy.","Di external f eatur dey of di breast include nipple surrounded by pigment edareola (figure 27. 17), wey dey coloration ma y deepen during pregnancy.",Biology
"since thee xternal urinary sphinct er is v oluntar y skeletal muscle, actions by choliner gic neurons maintain contraction (and thereby continenc e)during filling ofthe bladder.","Di external urinary sphinct er dey v oluntar y skeletal muscle, actions by choliner gic neurons maintain contraction (and dir eby continenc e)during filling of di bladder.",Biology
"each carbon of pyruv ate is converted into co2, which is released as ab yproduct of oxidative (aerobic) r espir ation.","Di each carbon of pyruv ate dey converted fort o co2, wey dey released as byproduct of oxidative (aerobic) r espir ation.",Biology
each ofthe tw o larger lateral chambers is called a corpus cavernosum (plural =c orpor a ca vernosa).,Di each of di tw o larger lateral chambers dey called corpus cavernosum (plural =c orpor a cavernosa).,Biology
"each of these reactions releases a small amount of energy, which is used to pump h+ions across the inner membrane.","Di each of dis reactions releases a small amount of energy, wey dey use to pump h+ions across di inner membrane.",Biology
each of these ne w cells is a sperma tid.,Di each of these ne w cells dey sperma tid.,Biology
"the earlier a modified diet is begun, the less severe the symptoms will be.","Di earlier modified diet dey begun, di less severe di symptoms will be.",Biology
blood plasma is the second part ofthe ecf.,Di ecf.,Biology
extracellular fluid the ecf accounts f or the other one -third ofthe body's water content.,Di ecf account f or di oda one -third of di bodi 's water content.,Biology
both sexual arousal and rem sleep(during which dreaming occurs) can induce an erection.,Di ection wey dreaming occurs don induce erection.,Biology
"edema is almost always caused by an underlying medical condition, by the use of certain therapeutic drugs, by pregnancy, by localized injury, or by anal lergic reaction.","Di edema dey almost always caused by underlying medical condition, by di use of certain dir apeutic drugs, by pregnancy, by localize injury, or by anal lergic reaction.",Biology
"edema is likely if the depression persists for several seconds after the finger is r emo ved (which is called "" pitting"").","Di edema dey likely if di depression persists for several seconds after di finger dey r emo ved (which dey called "" pitting"").",Biology
"in ins tanc es of blood loss or dehydration, it r educ es both gfr and renal blood flow, thereby limiting fluid loss and pr eser ving blood volume.","Di educes both gfr and renal blood flow, dir eby limit fluid loss and pr eser ving blood volume.",Biology
this effect provides one w ay of telling if a person with diabetes is pr operl y controlling the disease.,Di effect provides one w ay of telling if a person wit diabetes dey pr operl y controlling di disease.,Biology
the eff erent ar teriole is the connecting vessel between the glomerulus and the peritubular capil laries and v asa r ecta.,Di eff erent ar teriole na di connecting vessel betw wen di glomerulus and di peritubular capil laries and v asa r ecta.,Biology
"what effect does high altitude have on blood ph, and why?","Di effect wey dey high altitude don high altitude have on blood ph, and why?",Biology
"the electron tr anspor t chain c onsis ts of a series of four enzyme complexes (comple xi complex iv )and tw o coenzymes (ubiquinone and cyt ochr ome c), which act as electron carriers and proton pumps used to transfer h+ions into the space between the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes (figure 24. 8 ).","Di electron tr anspor t chain c onsis ts of series of four enzyme complexes (comple xi complex iv)and tw o coenzymes (ubiquinone and cyt odr ome c), wey act as electron carriers and proton pumps wey dey use to transfer h+ions for di space betw wit ochondrial membranes (figure 24. 8 ).",Biology
"the electrons released from nadh and f adh 2are passed along the chain by each ofthe carriers, which ar e reduced when they receive the electron and o xidiz ed when passing it onto the next carrier.","Di electrons released from nadh and f adh 2are passed along di chain by each of di carriers, wey dey reduce when di y receive di electron and o xidiz ed when di y kom sing am onto dine xt carrier",Biology
"the electrons from f adh 2produc e less atp, because they start at a lower point in the etc (complex ii)c ompar ed to the electrons from nadh (complex i)(see figure 24. 8 ).","Di electrons from fadh 2 dey produce less atp, because dem dey start at a lower point in di etc(complex ii)compared to di electrons from nadh (complex i)(check di picture 24. 8)",Biology
ovulation marks the end ofthe f ollicular phase ofthe ovarian cycle and the start ofthe lut eal phase.,Di end of di f ollicular phase of di varian cycle and di start of di lut eal phase.,Biology
"the end ofthe penis, called the glans penis, has a high c oncentr ation of nerve endings, resulting in very sensitive skin that influences the likelihood of ejaculation (see figure 27. 2 ).","Di end of di penis, cal led di glans penis, get high concentration of nerve endings, resulting for very sensitive skin wey dey influence di likelihood of ejaculation (check di picture 27. 2 ).",Biology
ovulation marks the end ofthe pr oliferative phase as well as the end ofthe f ollicular phase.,Di end of di pr oliferative phase as well as di end of di f ollicular phase.,Biology
"some of these ar e endocrine, acting from a dis tanc e, whereas others ar e par acrine, acting locally.","Di endocrine, acting from dis tanc e, whereas oda ar e par acrine, acting locally.",Biology
they do not typically influence blood pressure in heal thy25. 8 endocrine regulation of kidney function 1139 people.,Di endocrine regulation of kidney function 1139 pipo.,Biology
"moreover, endocrine systems had to secr ete the appr opriat e regulating hormones to induce the production and release of unique male and female g amet es, reproductive cells containing genetic material (one set of 23 chromosomes).","Di endocrine systems don to secre di appr opriat e regulating hormones to induce di production and release of unique male and female g ametes, reproductive cells wey dey containing genetic material (one set of 23 chromosomes).",Biology
"as long as a functional corpus lut eum is present in theo vary, the endometrial lining is pr epar ed for implantation.",Di endometrial lining dey pr epar ed for implantation.,Biology
"the endometrium contains ac onnectiv e tissue lining, the lamina pr opria, which is covered by epithelial tissue that lines the lumen.","Di endometrium contain c onnectiv e tissue lining, di lamina pr opria, wey dey covered by epithelial tin sue wey dey line di lumen.",Biology
"without progesterone, the endometrium thins and, under the influence of prostaglandins, the spiral arteries ofthe endometrium c onstrict and rupture, preventing o xygenat ed blood from reaching the endometrial tissue.","Di endometrium thin and, under di influence of prostaglandins, di spiral arteries of di endometrium thin and, under di influence of prostaglandins, di spiral arteries of di endometrium c onstrict and rupture, prevent o oxygenat ed blood from reaching di endometrial tissue.",Biology
"endothelins ar e elevated in cases of diabetic kidney disease, increasing na+retention and decreasing gfr.","Di endothelins ar e elevated for case of diabetic kidney disease, increasing na+retention and decreasing gfr",Biology
"from this point to the ends ofthe collecting ducts, the fil trate or forming urine is undergoing modification through secretion and r eabsorp tion before true urine is pr oduc ed.","Di ends of di collecting ducts, di fil trate or forming urine dey undergoing modification through secretion and r eabsorption before true urine dey pr oduc ed.",Biology
"a person who repeat edly vomits or who has diarrhea ma y become dehydrated, and infants, because their body mass is solo w, can become dang erousl y dehydrated very quickly. endurance athletes such as dis tanc e runners often become dehydrated during long races.","Di endurance athlet as dis tanc e runners often become dehydrated, and infants, because dia body mass dey solo w, fit become dang erousl y dehydrated for long races.",Biology
"impor tantl y, the energy is stored primarily as fats.",Di energy dey tored primarily as fats.,Biology
the energy released is used to power the cells and systems that make up your body.,Di energy release dey use to power di cells and systems wey make up y awa bodi,Biology
the energy to move glucose comes from the na+/k+atpase that pumps na+out ofthe cell on the basal surface.,Di energy to move glucose comes from dina+ k+atpase wey pump na+out of di cell on di basal surface.,Biology
"the second phase of glycolysis, the energy-yielding phase, creates the energy that is the product of glycolysis.","Di energy-yielding phase, create di energy wey dey di product of glycolysis, di energy wey dey di product of glycolysis.",Biology
"this enlargement does not usually cause problems; however, abnormal growth ofthe prostate, or benign pr ostatic hyperplasia (bph), can cause c onstriction ofthe ur ethr a as it passes through the middle ofthe prostate gland, leading toa number of lower urinary tracts ymp toms, such as a frequent and intense urge to urinat e, aw eak stream, and a sensation that the bladder has not emptied c omplet ely.","Di enlargement no usually cause problems; however, abnormal growth of di prostate, or benign pr ostatic hyperplasia (bph), don cause c onstriction of di ur ethr a as e pass ses through di middle of di prostate gland, leading toa number of lower urinary tracts ymp toms, such as a frequent and intt",Biology
the enolase enzyme then acts upon the 2-phosphogl ycerate molecules to convert them into phosphoenolp yruv ate molecules.,Di enolase enzyme don act upon di 2-phosphogl ycerate molecules to convert dem into phosphoenolp yruv ate molecules to convert dem into phosphoenolp yruv ate molecules,Biology
"when a baby nurses, or draws milk from the breast, the entire areolar region is taken into the mouth.","Di entire nurses, or draws milk from di breast, di entire areolar region dey take en into di mouth",Biology
"an environment is said to be thermoneutr alwhen the body does not expend or release energy to maintain its core temper atur e. for a naked human, this is an ambient air temper atur e of around 84 f.",Di environment tok say to be thermoneutr alwhen di bodi no expend or release energy to maintain dia core temper atur e,Biology
ther eabsorp tion of na+helps to raise and maintain blood pressure over along er term. 1144 25 the urinary system access f or free at opens tax. org figure 25. 23 the enzyme r enin converts the p ro-enzyme angio tensin regulation of osmolarit y blood pressure and osmolarity ar e regulated in a similar fashion.,Di enzyme r enin converts di p ro-enzyme angio tensin regulation of na+help t raise and maintain blood pressure for longer term.,Biology
"this is enzymatical ly catal yzed into co2and water, which diffuse across the apical membrane into the cell.","Di enzymatical ly catalyzed into co2and water, wey diffuse across di apical membrane into di cell",Biology
an important enzyme is used to catal yze this mechanism: carbonic anh ydrase (ca).,Di enzyme dey use to catalyze dis mechanism: carbonic anh ydrase (ca).,Biology
"once released into the small intestine, an enzyme found in the wall ofthe small intestine, cal ledenterokinase, binds to trypsinog en and converts it into its active form, tr ypsin.","Di enzyme found for di wall of dismal l intestine, cal ledenterokinase, bind to trypsinog en and converts am for di active form, tr ypsin.",Biology
"the enzyme phospho fruct okinase -1 then adds one more phosphate to convert fruct ose-6-phosphat e into fruct ose-1-6-bisphosphat e, another six-carbon sugar, using another a tp molecule.","Di enzyme phospho fructokinase-1 go kan add one or more phosphate to convert fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-1-6-biphosphate, wey be another six-carbon sugar, using another atp molecule.",Biology
the enzyme phosphogl ycerate mutase then converts the 3-phosphogl ycerate molecules into 2-phosphogl ycerate.,Di enzyme phosphoglycerate mutase go convert di 3-phosphoglycerate molecules to 2-phosphoglycerate.,Biology
"other jga cells pr oduc e the enzyme r enin, which plays ac entr al role in blood pressure regulation.","Di enzyme r enin, wey play ac entr al role for blood pressure regulation.",Biology
"the enzyme suc cinyl coa deh ydrogenase then converts suc cinyl coa into suc cinat e and forms the high-energy molecule g tp, which transfers its energy to adp to produce atp.","di enzyme succinyl coa dehydrogenase go kan convert succinyl coa to succinate and go form di high-energy molecule gtp, which go transfer its energy to adp to produce atp",Biology
"pyruv ate dehydrogenase is the enzyme that converts pyruv ate into ac etyl coa, the molecule necessary to begin the k rebs cycle to produce atp.","Di enzyme wey converts pyruv ate dehydrogenase dey di enzyme wey converts pyruv ate fort o ac etyl coa, di molecule wey dey e dey produce e atp.",Biology
these enzymes liberate the individual amino acids that ar e then transported via sodium-amino acid tr anspor ters across the intestinal wall into the cell.,Di enzymes liberate di individual amino acids wey ar e then transported via sodium-amino acid transporter across di intestinal wall into di cell.,Biology
"ph regulation recall that enzymes lose their three-dimensional c onformation and, ther efore, their function if the ph is t oo acidic or basic.","Di enzymes lose dia three-dimensional c onformation and, dir efore, dia function if di ph dey t oo acidic or basic.",Biology
"loss of muscle mass is the equivalent of reduced strength, which tends to inhibit seniors from engaging insufficient physical activity.","Di equivalent of reduces trength, wey tend to inhibit seniors from engaging for sufficient physical activity.",Biology
eighty-five percent ofthe er ythr opoietin (epo) pr oduc ed to stimulate red blood cell production is produced in the kidneys.,Di er ythr opoietin (epo) pr oduc ed to stimulate red blood cell production dey produce for di kidneys.,Biology
"although the estrogen in birth control pills does s timulat e some thick ening ofthe endometrial wall, it is r educ ed c ompar ed with a normal cycle and isles s likely to support implantation.","Di estrogen for birth control pills dons timulat e some thick ening of di endometrial wall, e dey likely to support implantation.",Biology
"the et c couples the transfer of electrons between a donor (like nadh) and an electron acceptor (like o2)with the transfer of protons (h+ions) across the inner mitochondrial membrane, enabling the process ofoxida tive phosphor ylation.","Di etc go couple di transfer of electrons between a donor(like nadh) and an electron acceptor (like o2)with di transfer of protons (h+ions) wey dey across di inner mitochondrial membrane, wey go enable the process of oxidative phosphorylation",Biology
evaporation transfers heat as water changes state from a liquid t o ag as.,Di evaporation transfers heat as water chang dey state from a liquid t o ag as.,Biology
"therefore, hyper vitaminosis of water-soluble vitamins rarely occurs, except with an excess of vitamin supplements. everyday connection metabolism and obesity obesity in the united states is epidemic.",Di everyday connection metabolism and obesity for di united stat dey epidemic.,Biology
"everyday connection stem cells and repair of kidney damage stem cells ar e unspecializ ed cells that can r eproduc e themselves via cell division, sometimes after years of inactivity.","Di everyday connection stem cells and repair of kidney damage stem cells wey fit r eproduc e demsel ves via cell division, sometimes after years of inactivity.",Biology
"if less adh is secr eted, fewer aquaporin channels ar e inserted and less water is recovered, r esul ting in dilute urine.","Di ewer aquaporin channel ar e inserted and di water dey recovered, r esul ting for dilute urine.",Biology
excess acetyl coa g ener ated from excess glucose or carbohydrate ing estion can be used f or fatty acidsynthesis or lipog enesis.,Di excess acetyl-CoA generated from di excess glucose or carbohydrate ingestion fit dey used for fatty acid synthesis or lipogenesis.,Biology
any excess is stored for later fasting stages.,Di excess dey tored for later fasting stages.,Biology
extending from the meso varium itself is the suspensor y ligament that contains theo varian blood and lymph vessels.,Di extending from di meso varium wey be di suspensor y ligament wey contain di ovarian blood and lymph vessels.,Biology
"unlike its male count erpar t, the female r eproductiv e system is located primarily inside the pelvic cavity (figure 27. 9 ).",Di female r eproductiv e system dey locat primarily inside di pelvic cavity (figure 27. 9 ).,Biology
"without fsh, the f ollicles do not mature, and without the lh surge, ovulation does not occur.","Di f ollicles no mature, and without di lh surge, ovulation no dey occur.",Biology
a.35: 1 b.4: 1 c.20: 1 d.3: 130. which ofthe following is characterized as metabolic alk alosis?,Di following dey characterized as metabolic alk alosis?,Biology
a. b. c. d. 1182 26 review questions access f or free at opens tax. org 27. which ofthe following is a cause of metabolic acidosis?,Di following na cause of metabolic acidosis?,Biology
a. sodium and potassium b. chloride and bicarbonat e c. calcium and phosphate d. sodium and phosphate 21. which ofthe following is the most important buffer insider ed blood cells?,Di following na di most important buffer insider ed blood cells?,Biology
nephr ons: the functional unit nephr ons tak ea simple fil trate ofthe blood and modify it into urine.,Di functional unit nephr ons tok e simple fil trate of di blood and modif ye for urine,Biology
facilitated diffusion is similar to diffusion in that it moves a subs tanc e down its c oncentr ation gradient.,Di facilitated diffusion dey similar to diffusion for say im moves subs tanc e down im concentration gradient.,Biology
the f adh 2and nadh will enter theo xidativ e phosphor ylation system located in the inner mitochondrial membrane.,Di fadh and nadh go enter di oxidative phosphorylation system wey dey inside di inner mitochonfrial membrane.,Biology
"a failure of urinary continenc e can be embarrassing and inconvenient, but is not life threatening.","Di failure of urinary continenc e fit embarrassing and inconvenient, but no life threatening.",Biology
a failure to synthesiz e vitamin d is one such example.,Di failure to synthesiz e vitamin d na one such example.,Biology
"one example from this family of hormones is atrial natriur etic hormone (anh), a 28-amino acid peptide pr oduc ed by heart atria in response to over-stretching ofthe atrial wall.","Di family of hormones dey atrial natriur etic hormone (anh), a 28-amino acid Peptide pr oduc ed by hear atria for response to over-stretching of di atrial wall.",Biology
"once inside the mitochondrial matrix, the fatty acyl carnitine molecule is converted back into fatty acyl coa and then into ac etyl coa(figure 24. 13).","Di fatty acyl carnitine molecule dey converted back inside di mitochondrial matrix, di fatty acyl carnitine molecule dey converted back into fatty acyl coa and then into ac etyl coa(figure 24. 13).",Biology
"this fatty acyl coa combines with carnitine to create a fatty acyl carnitine molecule, which helps to transport the fatty acid across the mitochondrial membrane.",Di fatty acyl coa combines wit carnitine to create fatty acyl carnitine molecule wey help to transport di fatty acid across di mitochondrial membrane.,Biology
"fat-soluble vitamins a, d, e, and k, are absorbed through the intestinal tract with lipids inch ylomicr ons.","Di fat-soluble vitamins a, d, e, and k, dey absorb through di intestinal tract wit lipids for ch ylomicr ons.",Biology
"in 1998, the fd a approved the drug, marketed as viagra.","Di fd a approved di drug, mark and as viagra.",Biology
"female ur ethra thee xternal ur ethr al orific e is embedded in the anterior vaginal wall inferior to the clit oris, superior to the vaginal opening (intr oitus), and medial to the labia minor a.","Di female ur ethra di external ur ethr al orific e dey embedded for di anterior vaginal wall inferior to di clit oris, superior to di vaginal opening (intr oitus), and medial to di labia minor a.",Biology
"the fifths tage of germ cell formationspermat ozoa, or formed spermis the end r esul t of this process, which occurs in the portion ofthe tubule nearest the lumen.","Di fifths tage of germ cell formationspermat ozoa, or formed spermis di end r eul t of dis process, wey dey curs for di portion of di tubule nearest di lumen.",Biology
"without oxygen, electron flow through the et c ceases. 1070 24 metabolism and nutrition access f or free at opens tax. org figure 24. 8 electron transport chain the electron tr anspor t chain is a series of electron carriers and ion pumps that ar e used to pump h+ions out ofthe inner mitochondrial matrix.",Di figure 24. 8 electron transport chain di electron tr anspor t chain dey series of electron carriers and ion pumps wey dey use to pump h+ions out of di inner mitochondrial matrix.,Biology
"this fil trate is processed and finally gathered by collecting ducts that drain into the minor cal yces, which merge to form major cal yces; the fil trate then proceeds to ther enal pelvis and finally the ur eters.","Di fil trate dey processed and finally gather by collect ducts wey dey drain into di minor cal yces, wey dem dey form major cal yces; di fil trate dey gather ducts wey dey drain into di major cal yces, wey dem dey drain into di major cal yces; di fil trate dey collect ducts wey dey drain into di major cal yces, wey dem dey",Biology
ninety-nine percent of this fil trate is returned to the circulation by reabsorp tion so that only about 12 liters of urine ar e produced per da y(table 25. 4 ).,Di fil trate dey turn to di circulation by reabsorp tion so say only about 12 liters of urine dey produce per da y(table 25. 4 ).,Biology
"overall, filtration is regulated by fenes trations in capil lary endothelial cells, podocyt es with filtration slits, membrane charge, and the basement membrane between capil lary cells.","Di filtration dey egulated by fenes trations for capil lary endothelial cells, podocyt am wit filtration slits, membrane charge, and di basement membrane betw e capil lary cell.",Biology
"bulbour ethral glands the final addition to semen is made by tw obulbour ethr al glands(or co wper 's glands)that release a thick, sal ty fluid that lubricat es the end ofthe ur ethr a and the vagina, and helps to clean urine residues from the penile ur ethr a.","Di final addition to semen dey made by tw obulbour ethr al glands(or co wper 's glands) wey release a thick, sal ty fluid wey lubricat am di end of di ur ethr a and di vagina, and help to clean urine residues from di penile ur ethr a.",Biology
"finally, low bicarbonat e blood levels can r esul t from elevated levels of ketones (common in unmanag ed diabetes mel litus), which bind bicarbonat e in the fil trate and prevent its c onser vation.","Di finally, low bicarbonat e blood levels fit r esul t from Elevated levels of ketones (common for unmanag ed diabetes mel litus), wey bind bicarbonat e for di fil trate and prevent dia c onser vation.",Biology
"pth s timulat es the finals tep in the formation of active vitamin d3 and r educ es phosphate reabsorp tion, r esul ting in higher circulating ca++levels.","Di finals tep for di formation of active vitamin d3 and r educ e phosphate reabsorption, r educ e phosphate reabsorption, r esul ting for higher circulating ca++levels.",Biology
the first priority f or survival is to provide enough glucose or fuel f or the brain.,Di first priority f or survival dey provide enough glucose or fuel f or di brain.,Biology
"the first step of carbohydrate catabolism is gl ycolysis, which pr oduc es pyruv ate, nadh, and atp.","Di first step of carbohydrate catabolism dey gl ycolysis, wey pr oduc dey pyruv ate, nadh, and tp.",Biology
this can lead to ing estion of too many calories per day.,Di fit lead to ing Estion of too many calories per day.,Biology
"depending on the flac cid dimensions ofa penis, it can increase in size slightly or greatly during erection, with the average length of an erect penis measuring appr oximat ely 15 cm.","Di flac cid dimensions wey dey fa penis, e fit increase for size slightly or greatly during erection, wit di verage length of an erect penis measuring appr oximat ely 15 cm.",Biology
extreme dehydration can r esul t in kidney failure. fluid also moves between c ompar tments along an osmotic gradient.,Di fluid also moves betw ec ompar tments along am osmotic gradient.,Biology
extracellular fluid has tw o primary constituents: the fluid component ofthe blood(cal led plasma)and the interstitial fluid(if )that surrounds al l cells not in the blood( figure 26. 3 ).26. 1 body fluids and fluid c ompar tments 1157 figure 26. 3 fluid c ompar tments in the human body the intracellular fluid (icf ) is the fluid within cells.,Di fluid component of di blood(cal led plasma)and di interstitial fluid(if ) na di fluid wey dey inside cells.,Biology
fluid can also move between c ompar tments along an osmotic gradient.,Di fluid fit also move betw ec ompar tments along an osmotic gradient.,Biology
"the fluid from these accessory glands is released after the male becomes sexual ly aroused, and shortly before the 1192 27 ther eproduc tive system access f or free at opens tax. org release ofthe semen.","Di fluid from dis accessory glands dey released after di male becomes sexually aroused, and shortly before di 1192 27 di r eproduc tive system access f or free for open tax.",Biology
"this fluid volume tends to be very stable, because the amount of water in living cells is closely regulated.","Di fluid volume tends to be very stable, bikos di amount of water for living cells dey closely regulated.",Biology
"if y ou have a fluid on both sides ofa barrier, both fluids exert a pressure in opposing directions.","Di fluid wey dey both sides of barrier, both fluids exert a pr esure for opposing directions.",Biology
"if fertilization has oc curr ed, this fluid will nourish the ball of cells no w developing from the zy gote.",Di fluid will nourish di ball of cells no w developing from di zy gote.,Biology
"because these fluids ar e outside of cells, these fluids ar e also consider ed components ofthe ecf c ompar tment.","Di fluids dey outside of cells, dis fluids dey also consider ed components of di ecf c ompar tment.",Biology
"several follicles reach the tertiary stage at the same time, and most of these will undergo atr esia.","Di follicles reach di tertiary stage for di same time, and most of dis will undergo atr esia.",Biology
folliculog enesis begins with f ollicles in ar esting state.,Di folliculog enesis begin wit f ollicles for resting state.,Biology
this function is regulated by the posterior pituitar y hormone adh (v asopr essin).,Di function dey egulated by di posterior pituitar y hormone adh (v asopr essin).,Biology
the function ofthe breasts is to supply milk to an infant in a process called lactation.,Di function of di breasts dey to supply milk to an infant for a process called lactation.,Biology
"kidney function is derived from the actions of about 1. 3 million nephr ons per kidney; these are the"" functional units.""","Di function wey dey derived from di actions of about 1. 3 million nephr ons per kidney; dem dey di ""functional unit units.",Biology
"pth also increases the gastrointestinal absorption of dietary calcium by converting vitamin d int odihydroxyvitamin d (calcitriol), an active form of vitamin d that intestinal epithelial cells require to absorb calcium.","Di gastrointestinal absorption of dietary calcium by convert vitamin d int odihydroxyvitamin d (calcitriol), an active form of vitamin d wey intestinal epithelial cells require e to absorb calcium.",Biology
"con versel y, when gfr decreases, les s na+is in the forming urine, and most will be r eabsorbed before reaching the macula densa, which will result in decreased a tp and adenosine, allowing the aff erent ar teriole to dilat e and increase gfr.","Di gfr decrease, les s na+is for di forming urine, and most go dey eabsorbed before reach di macula densa, allow di aff erent ar teriole to dilat e and increase gfr.",Biology
the gfr is influenced by hydrostatic pressure and c olloid osmotic pressure.,Di gfr dey influence by hydrostatic pressure and c olloid osmotic pressure.,Biology
"however, since measuring inulin clearance is cumbersome in the clinical setting, most often, the gfr is es timat ed by measuring naturally occurring creatinine, apr otein-deriv ed molecule pr oduc ed by muscle metabolism that is not r eabsorbed and only slightly secr eted by the nephr on.","Di gfr dey timat ed by measuring natural ally occurring creatinine, a pr oduc ed molecule pr oduc ed by muscle metabolism wey no r eabsorbed and only slightly secreted by di nephr on.",Biology
gfr can bees timat ed closely by intravenous administration of inulin.,Di gfr fit be timat ed closely by intravenous administration of inulin.,Biology
it is the gfr times the fraction ofthe fil trate that is not r eabsorbed (0. 8 percent).,Di gfr times di fraction of di fil trate wey no dey eabsorbed (0. 8 percent).,Biology
the gl ycerol that is released from triglycerides after lipol ysis directly enters the gl ycolysis pathway as dhap.,Di gl ycerol wey dey released from triglycerides after lipol ysis directly enters di gl ycolysis pathway as dhap,Biology
"the glomeruli create about 200 liters (189 quar ts)of this fil trate every day, yet you e xcrete less than tw o liters of waste you call urine.","di glomeruli dey create about 200 liters(189 quarts) of dis filtrate everiday, yet you dey excrete less than two liters of waste wey you call urine.",Biology
"as blood passes through the glomerulus, 10 to 20 percent ofthe plasma filters between these sie ve-like fingers to be captured by bowman 's capsule and funneled to the pct.","Di glomerulus, 10 to 20 percent of di plasma filters wey dey fit tured by bowman capsule and funneled to di pct.",Biology
lying just outside bowman 's capsule and the glomerulus is the juxtaglomerular apparatus (jga) (figure 25. 13).,Di glomerulus dey di juxtaglomerular apparatus (jga) (figure 25. 13).,Biology
"onl ya 10 mm hg pressure differential across the glomerulus is r equir ed for normal gfr, so very small changes in aff erent arterial pressure significantly increase or decrease gfr.","Di glomerulus dey equir ed for normal gfr, so very small chang dey for aff erent arterial pressure significantly increase or decrease gfr.",Biology
the glomerulus is a high-pressure capil lary bed between aff erent and eff erent ar terioles.,Di glomerulus dey high-prEssure capil lary bed betw e aff erent and eff erent ar terioles.,Biology
the glomerulus has ar elativ ely high pressure inside its capil laries and can sustain this by dilating the aff erent ar teriole while c onstricting the eff erent arteriole.,Di glomerulus don get r elativ ely high pressure inside its capil laries and fit sustain dis by di eff erent arteriole while c onstrict di eff erent arteriole.,Biology
"the glomerulus is the first part ofthe nephr on, which then continues as a highly specialized tubular s tructur e responsible f or creating the final urine composition.","Di glomerulus na di first part of di nephron, wey then continues as highly specialized tubular s tructur e responsible f or creating di final urine composition.",Biology
drugs that ar e structurally small can be filtered by the glomerulus with the fil trate.,Di glomerulus wit di fil trate.,Biology
"a capil lary bed, the glomerulus, filters blood and the fil trate is captured by bowman 's capsule.","Di glomerulus, filters blood and di fil trate dey captured by bowman capsule.",Biology
"sinc ea capil lary bed(the glomerulus) drains into av essel that in turn forms a second capil lary bed, the definition ofa portal system is met.","Di glomerulus) drains into av essel wey dey turn forms second capil lary bed, di definition ofa portal system dey met.",Biology
"from this step, gluc oneog enesis is nearly ther everse of glycolysis.",Di gluc oneog enesis dey nearly di reverse of glycolysis.,Biology
"the liver, which normally absorbs and processes glucose, will not do so after a prolong ed fast. the gluc oneog enesis that has been ongoing in the liver will continue after fasting to replace the gl ycogen stores that were depleted in the liver.","Di gluc oneog enesis wey dey ong oin for di liver, wey normally absorb and processes glucose, will no do so after a prolong ed fast.",Biology
the glucose is released into the bloodstream to serve as a fuel source for cells throughout the body.,Di glucose dey eleased into di bloodstream to serve as fuel source for cells throughout di bodi.,Biology
"normally, all ofthe glucose is recovered, but loss of glucose c ontr ol (diabetes mel litus) ma y result in an osmotic dier esis severe enough to produce severe dehydration and death.","Di glucose dey recovered, but loss of glucose dey recovered, but loss of glucose dey recovered, but loss of glucose dey recovered, but loss of glucose dey recovered, but loss of glucose dey recovered, but loss of glucose dey recovered, but loss of glucose dey",Biology
this glucose is released from the liver to be used by the peripheral tissues and the brain.,Di glucose dey release from di liver to use by di peripheral tissues and di brain,Biology
"because glucose levels ar every low during starvation, gl ycolysis will shut o ff in cells that can use al ternativ e fuels.","Di glucose levels ar every low during starvation, gl ycolysis wil shut o ff for cells wey fit use al ternativ e fuels.",Biology
"gnrh activates the anterior pituitar y to produce lh and fsh, which in turns timulat e leydig cells and ser toli cells, respectively.","Di gnrh activates di anterior pituitar y to produce e lh and fsh, wey in turns timulat e leydig cells and ser toli cells, respectively.",Biology
"gnrh activates the anterior pituitar y to produce lh and fsh, which s timulat e the production of estrogen and progesterone by theo varies.","Di gnrh activates di anterior pituitar y to produce lh and fsh, wey s timulat e di production of estrogen and progesterone by di ovaries.",Biology
"at appr oximat ely ag e 25, it gradual ly begins to enlarge again.",Di gradual ly begin to enlarge again.,Biology
this grouping of an oocyt e and its supporting cells is called a follicle.,Di grouping of an oocyt e and its supporting cells dey called follicle.,Biology
the growth and development of ovarian f ollicles will be described shortly.,Di growth and development of ovarian f ollicles dey described shortly.,Biology
"the guidelines recommend to""mak e half your plate fruits and vegetables.""","di guidelines wey dey recommended nato ""make half your plate fruits and vegetables.""",Biology
"the hydrogen ion is secr eted into the fil trate, where it can become part of new water molecules and be r eabsorbed as such, or removed in the urine.","Di hydrogen ion dey secreted into di fil trate, where fit become part of new water molecules and be r eabsorbed because of dat, or removed for di urine.",Biology
"if this occurs, the hydrogen ions will not be available to combine with bicarbonat e ions and pr oduc e co2.",Di hydrogen ions no bevailable to combine wit bicarbonat e ions and pr oduc e co2.,Biology
"fluid and the cellular wastes in the tissues enter the capil laries at the venule end, where the h ydrostatic pressure isles s than the osmotic pressure in the vessel.","Di h ydrostatic pressure for di tin sues enter di capil laries for di venule end, where di h ydrostatic pressure dey less than di osmotic pressure for di vessel.",Biology
the h ypothalamus in the brain is the master switch that works as a thermostat to regulate the body's core temper atur e(figure 24. 23).,Di h ypothalamus for di brain na di master switch wey works as thermostat to regulate di bodi 'score temper atur e(figure 24. 23).,Biology
"if the temper atur e is t oo high, the h ypothalamus can initiate several processes to lower it.",Di h ypothalamus go initiate several processes to lower am,Biology
"to conserve water, the h ypothalamus ofa dehydrated person also sends signals via the sympathetic nervous system to the saliv ary glands in the mouth.",Di h ypothalamus ofa dehydrated person send signals via di sympathetic nervous system to di saliv ary glands for di mouth.,Biology
"as the h+ions traverse the c omple x, the shaft ofthe c omple x rotates.","Di h+ions traverse di c omple x, di shaft of di c omple x rotat",Biology
"a healthy body maintains plasma osmolality within a narrow range, by employing several mechanisms that regulate both water intake and output.","Di healthy bodi dey maintain plasma osmolality within narrow range, by employing several mechanisms wey regulate both water intake and output.",Biology
"a healthy diet includes most ofthe minerals your body r equir es, so supplements and processed foods can add potential ly toxic levels of minerals.","Di healthy diet includes most of di miner as y awa body r equir as, so supplements and processed foods don add potential ly toxic levels of miner as.",Biology
the heart is ul timat ely signaled to increase its rate and/or strength of contractions to compensate for the lowered blood pressure.,Di heart dey ul timat ely signal to increase its rate and or strength of contraction to compensate for di lo dey blood pressure.,Biology
about 60 percent ofthe heat lost by the body is lost through radiation.,Di heat lost by di bodi dey lost through radiation.,Biology
high c oncentr ations of estrogen that occur around the time of ovulation induce contractions ofthe smooth muscle along the length ofthe uterine tube.,Di high concentration of estrogen wey dey cur around di time of ovulation induce contraction of di smooth muscle along di length of di uterine tube.,Biology
"unf ortunat ely, the high cost of manufacturing the vaccine is currently limiting access to many people worldwide. 1210 27 ther eproduc tive system access f or free at opens tax. org amount of milk in the al veolar lumen.",Di high cost of manufacturing di vaccine dey currently limit access to many pipo worldwide.,Biology
"following a classic negative feedback loop, the high concentrations of estrogen will stimulate the h ypothalamus and pituitar y to reduce the production of gnrh, lh, and fsh.","Di high concentrat ations of estrogen wil stimulate di h ypothalamus and pituitar y to reduce di production of gnrh, lh, and fsh.",Biology
"although sodium and potassium can""leak "" through ""pores"" into and out of cells, respectively, the high levels of potassium and lo w levels of sodium in the icf ar e maintained by sodium-potassium pumps in the cell membranes.",Di high levels of potassium and lo w level of sodium for di icf ar e maintain by sodium-potassium pumps for di cell membranes.,Biology
"high-risk hpv can neutralize p53, keeping the cell in as tate in which fast growth is possible and impairing apop tosis, allowing mutations to ac cumulat e in the cellular dna.","Di high-risk hpv fit neutralize p53, keeping di cell for as tate wey fast growth dey possible and impairing apop tosis, allow mutations to ac cumulat e for di cellular dna.",Biology
"although even these high-risk hpv strains can be cleared from the body over time, infections persist in some individuals.","Di high-risk hpv strains go cleared from di bodi over time, infections persist for some individuals.",Biology
"when the high-risk types of hpv enter ac ell, two viral proteins ar e used to neutralize proteins that the host cells use as checkpoints in the cell cycle.","Di high-risk type of hpv enter ac ell, two viral proteins ar e use to neutralize protein wey di host cells use as checkpoints for di cell cycle.",Biology
"hmg coa is a precursor of cholesterol and is an int ermediat e that is subsequently converted into -hydroxybutyr ate, the primary ketone body in the blood( figure 24. 14).","Di hmg coa na precursor of cholesterol and na int ermediat e wey dey subsequently convert into -hydroxybutyr ate, di primary ketone bodi for di blood( figure 24. 14).",Biology
"ho w can this be if individual ions of sodium and chloride e xactl y balance eachother out, and plasma is electrically neutral?","Di ho w fit be if individual ions of sodium and chloride e xactl y balance each oda out, and plasma dey electrically neutral?",Biology
hormonal mechanisms ar e activated to recover volume while maintaining a normal osmotic environment.,Di hormonal mechanisms dey activated to recover volume while maintain normal osmotic environment.,Biology
this hormone is pr oduc ed in the h ypothalamus and is delivered to the posterior pituitar y for storage and release (figure 26. 11).,Di hormone dey pr oduc ed for di h ypothalamus and delivered to di posterior pituitar y for storage and release (figure 26. 11).,Biology
"in response toa drop in blood glucose c oncentr ation, the hormone glucag on is released from the alpha cells ofthe pancreas.",Di hormone glucag on dey eleased from di beta cells of di pancreas.,Biology
"the hormone increases the activity of osteoblas ts, which r emo ve calcium from the blood and inc orpor ate calcium into the bony matrix.","Di hormone increase di activity of osteoblas ts, wey r emo ve calcium from di blood and inc orpor ate calcium into di bony matrix.",Biology
"just as the hormones pr oduc ed by the gr anulosa and theca cells ofthe o vary""drive"" the f ollicular and lut eal phases ofthe ovarian cycle, they also c ontr ol the three distinct phases ofthe menstrual cycle.","Di hormones pr oduc ed by di gr anulosa and dica cells of di o vary""drive"" di f ollicular and lut eal phases of di ovarian cycle, di y also c ontr ol di three distinct phases of di ovarian cycle.",Biology
"hormones stimulating endothelin release include angiot ensin ii, br adykinin, and epinephrine.","Di hormones wey dey timulating endothelin release include angiot ensin ii, br adykinin, and epinephrine.",Biology
"if this happens, the hpv infection can influence the cells ofthe cervix to develop pr ecanc erous changes.",Di hpv infection don influence di cells of di cervix to develop pr ecanc erous chang,Biology
"an hs-coa molecule is added to ac etoacetat e, forming ac etoacetyl coa.","Di hs-coa molecule dey add to ac etoacetat e, forming ac etoacetyl coa.",Biology
"in the human body, solut es vary in different parts ofthe body, but ma y include proteins including those that tr anspor t lipids, carbohydrates, and, v ery impor tantl y, electr olytes.","Di human bodi, solut e vary for different parts of di bodi, but ma y include proteins including those wey tr anspor t lipids, carbohydrates, and, v ery import tantl y, electr olytes.",Biology
hydrostatic (fluid)pr essure is sufficient to push water through the membrane despite the osmotic pressure working ag ains tit.,Di hydrostatic (fluid)pr Essure dey sufficient to push water through di membrane despite di osmotic prEssure work ag ains tit.,Biology
recall that filtration occurs as pressure forces fluid and solut es through a semipermeable barrier with the solut e movement constrained by particle size. hydrostatic pressure is the pressure produced b ya fluid agains ta surface.,Di hydrostatic pressure dey di pressure produce by fluid agains ta surface.,Biology
"under normal cir cums tanc es, hydrostatic pressure is significantly greater and filtration occurs.",Di hydrostatic pressure dey significantly greater and filtration occurs.,Biology
the hymen is a thin membrane that sometimes partially covers the entrance to the vagina.,Di hymen dey thin membrane wey sometimes partially covers di entrance to di vagina.,Biology
"hyper calc emia, or abnormally high calcium blood levels, is seen in primary hyperpar athyroidism.","Di hypercalc emia, or abnormally high calcium blood levels, dey seen for primary hyperpar athyroidism.",Biology
"hyperkalemia, an elevated potassium blood level, also can impair the function of skeletal muscles, the nervous system, and the heart. hyperk alemia can r esul t from increased dietary intake of potassium.","Di hyperkalemia, an Elevated potassium blood level, also don impair di function of skeletal muscles, di nervous system, and di heart.",Biology
hyperna tremia is an abnormal increase of blood sodium.,Di hyperna tremia na abnormal increase of blood sodium.,Biology
"hypocalc emia, or abnormally low calcium blood levels, is seen in h ypopar athyroidism, which ma y follow the removal ofthe thyroid gland, because the four nodules ofthe par athyroid gland ar e embedded in it.","Di hypocalc emia, or abnormally low calcium blood levels, dey seen for h ypopar athyroidism, wey ma y follow di removal of di thyroid gland, because di f awa nodules of di par athyroid gland dey embedded in am.",Biology
hypokalemia is an abnormally low potassium blood level.,Di hypokalemia na abnormally low potassium blood level.,Biology
"hypona tremia is a lower-than-normal c oncentr ation of sodium, usual ly associated with excess water accumulation in the body, which dilut es the sodium.","Di hypona tremia na lower-than-normal concentration of sodium, usually associated wit excess water accumulation for di bodi, wey di sodium.",Biology
"the icf makes up about 60 percent ofthe total water in the human body, and in an average-size adult male, the icf accounts f or about 25 liters (seven gallons) of fluid( figure 26. 4 ).","Di icf mak dey up about 60 percent of di total water for di human body, and for average-size adult male, di icf accounts f or about 25 liters (seven gallons) of fluid( figure 26. 4 ).",Biology
"gases, nutrients, and waste materials travel between capil laries and cells through the if.",Di if.,Biology
"the if has high c oncentr ations of sodium, chloride, and bicarbonat e, but ar elativ ely lower concentration of protein.","Di if don high concentration of sodium, chloride, and bicarbonat e, but r elativ ely lower concentrat ation of protein",Biology
"role ofthe epididymis from the lumen ofthe seminif erous tubules, the immotile sperm ar e surrounded by testicular fluid and moved to theepididymis (plural = epididymides), ac oiled tube attached to the t estis where newly formed sperm continue to mature (see figure 27. 4 ).","Di immotile sperm for di lumen of di seminif erous tubules, di immotile sperm dey surrounded by testicular fluid and moved to diepididymis (plural = epididymides), ac oiled tube for tached to di t estis where newly formed sperm continue to mature (check di picture 27. 4 ).",Biology
"this includes mitochondria, which contain their o wn dna.","Di includes mitochondria, wey contain dia o wn dna.",Biology
"this increase is detected by osmor eceptors in the h ypothalamus, which s timulat es ther elease of adh from the posterior pituitar y.","Di increase dey detected by osmor eceptors for di h ypothalamus, wey s timulat as di release of adh from di posterior pituitar y.",Biology
"of course, this increase in calories could be offset by increased exercise.",Di increase for calories go be offset by dey eased exercise.,Biology
"if pregnancy occurs, the increase in hormones leads to further development ofthe mammar y tissue and enlargement ofthe breasts.",Di increase for hormones lead to fur dir development of di mammar y tissue and enlargement of di breasts.,Biology
this increase r esul ts in r eabsorp tion of upto 15 percent ofthe water entering the nephr on.,Di increase r eabsorption for r eabsorption of upto 15 percent of di water entering di nephr on,Biology
"acidosis has several symptoms, including headache and confusion, and the individual can become lethar gic and easily fatig ued (figure 26. 18).",Di individual fit become lethar gic and easily fatig ued (figure 26. 18).,Biology
"the ingestion of food and the rise of glucose c oncentr ations in the bloodstream s timulat e pancreatic beta cells to release insulin into the bloodstream, where it initiates the absorption of blood glucose by liver hepat ocyt es, and by adipose and muscle cells.","Di ingestion of food and di rise of glucose concentration for di bloodstream s timulat e pancreatic beta cells to release insulin into di bloodstream, where dey initiate di absorption of glucose concentration for di bloodstream, where dey initiate di absorption of glucose concentration for di bloodstream, where dey initiate di absorption of",Biology
"if the fast is not broken and starvation begins to set in, during the initial days, glucose pr oduc ed from gluc oneog enesis is still used by the brain and organs.","Di initial days, glucose pr oduc ed from gluc oneog enesis dey still use by di brain and organs.",Biology
"at the juncture where the aff erent and eff erent ar terioles enter and leave bowman 's capsule, the initial part ofthe distal convoluted tubule (dct )comes into direct contact with the ar terioles.",Di initial part of di distal convoluted tubule (dct) kom into direct contact wit di arterioles.,Biology
"this inner functional layer provides the proper site of implantation f or the f ertilized egg, andshould fertilization not oc curit is only the stratum functionalis layer ofthe endometrium that sheds during mens truation.","Di inner functional layer provide di proper site of implantation f or di f ertilized egg, and should fertilization no oc curit dey only di stratum functionalis layer of di endometrium wey shed during mens truation.",Biology
the inner muc osa is lined with transitional epithelium (figure 25. 6)and scattered g oblet cells that secr ete protective mucus.,Di inner muc osa dey lined wit transitional epithelium (figure 25. 6)and scatter g oblet cells wey dey secre protective mucus,Biology
the innermos t layer ofthe uterus is called the endometrium.,Di innermos t layer of di uterus dey called di endometrium.,Biology
"meiosis ii then resumes, producing one haploid o vum that, at the instant of fertilization b ya (haploid) sperm, becomes the first diploid cell ofthe ne w offspring(a zy gote).","Di instant of fertilization by haploid o vum wey, for di instant of fertilization by haploid sperm, becomes di first diploid cell of dine w offspring(a zy gote).",Biology
insulin also s timulat es the storage of glucose as gl ycogen in the liver and muscle cells where it can be used f or later energy needs ofthe body.,di insulin dey also stimukate di storage of glucose glycogen for di liver and muscle cells where e fit dey used for later energy needs of di bodi,Biology
the interactions of various aqueous solutions solutions in which water is the sol ventare continuously monitored and adjusted b ya large suite of interconnected feedback systems in your body.,Di interactions of various aqueous solutions wey water dey di sol ventare continuously monitored and adjusted by large suite of interconnected feedback systems for y awa bodi.,Biology
the interior surface is made of transitional cellular epithelium that is s tructur ally suited for the large volume fluctuations ofthe bladder.,Di interior surface dey make transitional cellular epithelium wey dey s tructur ally suit for di large volume fluctuations of di bladder.,Biology
"descending from the internal oblique muscle ofthe abdominal wall are the tw o cremas ter muscles, which cover each t estis lik ea muscular net.","Di internal oblique muscle of di abdominal wall dey di tw o cremas ter muscles, wey cover each t estis like muscular net.",Biology
it r esul ts from an int erpla y of involuntary and v oluntar y actions by the internal and external ur ethr al sphinct ers.,Di int erpla y of involuntary and volutar y actions wey di internal and external ur ethr al sphinct ers.,Biology
the int erstitial fluid(if ) is part ofthe extracellular fluid (ecf ) between the cells.,Di int erstitial fluid(if )dey part of di extracellular fluid (ecf ) betw dia cells.,Biology
interactive link there have never been sufficient kidney donations to provide a kidney to each person needing one.,Di interactive link dire have na sufficient kidney donations to provide kidney to each person need one.,Biology
interactive link watch this animation( ebscy cle) to observe the k rebs cycle.,Di interactive link watch dis animation (krebs cycle)to observe di krebs cycle,Biology
the intracellular fluid (icf )compartment is the system that includes al l fluid enclosed in cells by their plasma membranes. extracellular fluid (ecf )surrounds al l cells in the body.,Di intracellular fluid (icf )compartment dey di system wey dey include al l fluid wey dey open for cells by dia plasma membranes. extracellular fluid (ecf )surrounds al l cells for di bodi.,Biology
the intricate int erpla y between the endocrine system and ther eproductiv e system is shown in figure 27. 8.,Di intricate int erpla y betw wit di endocrine system and di r eproductiv e system dey shown for figure 27. 8.,Biology
"intuitively, you should r ealiz e that minor changes in osmolarity ofthe blood or changes in capil lary blood pressure result in major changes in the amount of filtrate formed at an y given point in time.","Di intuitively, you go r ealiz e say minor changes for osmolarity of di blood or changes for capil lary blood pressure result for major changes for di amount of filtrate formed for di amount of filtrate formed for y given point for time.",Biology
"acids and bases ar e still present, but they hold onto the ions.","Di ion dey still present, but di y hold onto di ions",Biology
these ions enter the body through the digestive tract.,Di ions enter di bodi through di digestive tract.,Biology
the ions in plasma also c ontribut e to the osmotic balanc e1180 26 k ey terms access f or free at opens tax. org that c ontr ols the movement of water between cells and their environment.,Di ions for plasma also c aribot e to di osmotic balanc e1180 26 k ey terms access f or free for open tax.,Biology
the isthmus is the narrow medial end of each uterine tube that is connect ed to the uterus.,Di isthmus dey di narrow medial end of each uterine tube wey dey connect ed to di uterus,Biology
the par acrine signals released in response to changes in flow rate and na+concentration are adenosine triphosphat e(atp) and adenosine. 1122 25 the urinary system access f or free at opens tax. org figure 25. 13 juxtaglomerular apparatus and glomerulus (a)the jga allows specialized cells to monitor the composition ofthe fluid in the dct and adjust the glomerular filtration rate.,Di juxtaglomerular apparatus and glomerulus (a)di jga allows specialized cells to monitor di composition of di fluid for di dct and adjust di glomerular filtration.,Biology
"if the osmolarity ofthe fil trate is t oo high(hyper osmotic), the juxtaglomerular cells will contract, decreasing the glomerular filtration rate (gfr) soles s plasma is filtered, leading to less urine formation and greater retention of fluid.","Di juxtaglomerular cells will contract, decreasing di glomerular filtration rate (gfr) so e dey reach to les urine formation and greater retention of fluid.",Biology
"if the osmolarity ofthe fil trate is t oo low, the juxtaglomerular cells will relax, increasing the gfr and enhancing the loss of water to the urine, causing blood osmolarity to rise.","Di juxtaglomerular cells wil relax, increasing di gfr and enhance di loss of water to di urine, causing blood osmolarity to rise.",Biology
this keeps the brain functioning when glucose is limited.,Di keeps di brain functioning wen glucose dey limited.,Biology
these k etone bodies can serve as a fuel source if glucose levels ar e too lo w in the body.,Di k etone bodies fit serve as fuel source if glucose levels ar e too lo w for di bodi.,Biology
"in addition to atp, the k rebs cycle pr oduc es high-energy fadh 2and nadh molecules, which provide electrons to theo xidativ e phosphor ylation process that g ener ates more highener gy atp molecules.","Di k rebs cycle pr oduc e high-energy fadh 2and nadh molecules, wey provide electrons to di o xidativ e phosphor ylation process say g ener ates more highener gy atp molecules.",Biology
the kidney is able to cope with a wider ange of blood pressures.,Di kidney dey able t cope wit wide range of blood pressures.,Biology
did y ou know that the kidney is important in determining the c oncentr ation of red blood cells?,Di kidney dey important for determining di c oncentr ation of red blood cells?,Biology
"when the kidney is unable to recover sufficient water from the forming urine, the c onsequenc es ma y be severe (lethar gy, confusion, muscle cramps, and finally, death).","Di kidney dey unable to recover sufficient water from di forming urine, di c onsequenc e ma y be severe (lethar gy, confusion, muscle cramps, and finally, death)",Biology
the kidney can function normally under a wider ange of blood pressures due to the aut oregulatory nature of smooth muscle.,Di kidney fit function normally under wide range of blood pressures due to di aut oregulatory nature of smooth muscle.,Biology
a kidney stone or a cancer ofthe urinary system ma y produce sufficient bleeding to manifest as pink or even bright r ed urine.,Di kidney stone or a cancer of di urinary system wey produce sufficient bleeding to manifest as pink or even bright r ed urine.,Biology
each kidney weighs about 125175 g in males and 115155 g in females.,Di kidney weigh about 125175 g for male and 115155 g for females,Biology
urine pr oduc ed by the kidneys accounts for the largest amount of water leaving the body.,Di kidneys account for di largest amount of water leaving di bodi,Biology
the kidneys also can adjust blood volume though mechanisms that draw water out ofthe fil trate and urine.,Di kidneys also go adjust blood volume though mechanism wey draw water out of di fil trate and urine.,Biology
pth also increases the loss of phosphate through the kidneys.,Di kidneys also increase di loss of phosphate through di kidneys.,Biology
the kidneys also must make adjustments in thee vent of ing estion of too much fluid.,Di kidneys also Must make adjustments for di event of too much fluid.,Biology
the kidneys catal yze the final reaction in the synthesis of active vitamin d that in turn helps regulate ca++.,Di kidneys catalyze di final reaction for di s synthesis of active vitamin d wey in turn help regulate ca++,Biology
sympathetic nerves the kidneys are inner vated by the sympathetic neurons ofthe aut onomic nervous system via the c eliac ple xus and splanchnic nerves.,Di kidneys dey inner vated by di sympathetic neurons of di aut onomic nervous system via di celiac ple xus and splanchnic nerves.,Biology
autoregulation the kidneys are very eff ectiv e at regulating ther ate of blood flow over a wider ange of blood pressures.,Di kidneys dey very eff ectiv e for regulating di rate of blood flow over wide range of blood pressures.,Biology
"the kidneys are well vasculariz ed, r eceiving about 25 percent ofthe cardiac output at rest.","Di kidneys dey well vasculariz ed, r eceiving about 25 percent of di cardiac output for r",Biology
"the kidneys can adjust the c oncentr ation ofthe urine to reflect the body's water needs, conser ving water if the body is dehydrated or making urine more dilute to expel excess water when necessary.","Di kidneys don adjust di concentration of di urine to reflect di bodi 's water needs, conser ving water if di bodi dey ydrated or make urine more di pipo e dey di water needs, conser ving water if di bodi dey dehydrated or make urine more di pipo e dey di urine more di urine to reflect di bodi",Biology
it is rapid but has limited capacity in the face of a significant acid chal leng e. the kidneys can rid the body of both acid and base.,Di kidneys don rid di bodi of both acid and base.,Biology
"the kidneys can regulate water levels in the body; the y conserve water if y ou ar e dehydrated, and they can make urine more dilute to expel excess water if necessary.","Di kidneys fit regulate water if y dehydrated, and di y fit make urine more di urine more di bodi; di y fit make urine more di dehydrated, and di y fit make urine more di dehydrated, and di y fit make urine more di dehydrated, and di y fit make urine more di urine",Biology
"second, the kidneys have ar enin-angiot ensin hormonal system that increases the production ofthe active form ofthe hormone angiot ensin ii, which helps s timulat e thirst, but also s timulat es ther elease ofthe hormone aldos terone from the adr enal glands.","Di kidneys have ar enin-angiot ensin hormonal system wey dey ystem wey e dey ystem say e dey s timulat e thirst, but also s timulat as di release of di hormone aldosterone from di adr enal glands.",Biology
"if er ythr ocyt es ar e lost due to severe or prolong ed bleeding, or under pr oduc ed due to disease or severe malnutrition, the kidneys come to ther escue by producing more epo.",Di kidneys kom to di r rescue by produce more epo.,Biology
much ofthe water the kidneys recover from the forming urine follows ther eabsorp tion of na+.,Di kidneys recover from di forming urine follow di r eabsorption of na+.,Biology
"the kidneys share ph regulation with the lungs and plasma buffers, so that proteins can preserve their three-dimensional c onformation and thus their function.","Di kidneys share ph regulation wit di lungs and plasma buffers, so say proteins fit preserve dia three-dimensional c onformation and thus dia function.",Biology
appr oximat ely 20 percent or one liter enters the kidneys to be filtered.,Di kidneys to be filtered.,Biology
"in the face of phosphate depletion, the kidneys usually conserve phosphate, but during starvation, this c onser vation is impaired greatly.","Di kidneys usually conserve phosphate, but during starvation, disc onser vation dey impaired greatly.",Biology
"the kidneys also perform the finals ynthesis step of vitamin d production, converting calcidiol to calcitriol, the active form of vitamin d.","di kidneys also dey perform di final synthesis step of vitamin d production, wey go convert calcidiol to calcitriol, di active form of vitamin d",Biology
the k rebs cycle is also c ommonl y called the citric acid cycle or the tricarbo xylic acid( tca) cycle.,Di krebs cycle dey also commonly called di citric acid cycle or di tricarboxylic acid( tca) cycle.,Biology
"the labia major a(labia =""lips""; major a= ""larger"") ar e folds of hair-covered skin that begin just posterior to the mons pubis.","Di labia major a(labia =""lips""; major a= ""larger"") ar e fold of hair-covered skin wey begin just posterior to di mons pubis.",Biology
"laboratories can no w measure urine osmolarity directly, which is amor e accurate indicator of urinary solut es than specific gravity.","Di laboratories no w measure urine osmolarity directly, wey dey more accurate indicator of urinary solut as specific gravity.",Biology
"her laboratory results areas follows: ph 7. 48, pc o2in the normal range, and total hc o3higher than normal.","Di laboratory results dey as follows: ph 7. 48, pc o2in di normal range, and total hc o3higher than normal",Biology
"the lactic acid produced diffuses into the plasma and is carried to the liver, where it is converted back into pyruv ate or glucose via the cori cycle.","di lactic acid wey dey produced diffuse to di plasma and is carried to di liver, where e dey converted back to pyruvate or glucose via di cori cycle",Biology
these lactif erous ducts each extend to alactif erous sinus that connects toa glandular lobe within the breast itself that contains groups of milk -secr eting cells in clusters cal ledalveoli (see figure 27. 17).,Di lactif erous ducts each extend to alactif erous sinus wey connect to glandular lobe wey dey within di breast itself wey contain groups of milk -secr eting cells for clusters cal ledalveoli (check di picture 27. 17).,Biology
"in(a), the large cell body can be seen at the t op right corner, with branches extending from the cell body.","Di large cell body fit see for di t op right corner, wit branches extending from di cell body",Biology
the larger amount of cyt oplasm contained in the female g amet e is used to supply the developing zy gote with nutrients during the period between fertilization and implantation into the uterus.,Di larger amount of cyt oplasm contained for di female g amet e dey use to supply di developing zy gote wit nutrients during di period betw ef ertilization and implantation for di uterus.,Biology
it plays a larger role in the osmolarity ofthe plasma than any other circulating component ofthe blood.,Di larger role for di osmolarity of di plasma than any oda circulating component of di blood.,Biology
it is this large burst of lh (called the lh surge) that leads to ovulation ofthe dominant f ollicle.,Di large burst of lh (called di lh surge) wey lead to ovulation of di dominant f ollicle.,Biology
large drug molecules such as heparin or those that ar e bound to plasma proteins cannot be filtered and ar e not r eadil y eliminated.,Di large drug molecules such as heparin or those wey dey bound to plasma proteins no fit filtered and e no r eadil y eliminated.,Biology
"because the large tertiary follicles r equir e fsh to grow and survive at this point, this decline in fsh caused by negative feedback leads most of them to die (atr esia).","Di large tertiary follicles r equir e fsh to grow and survive for dis point, dis decline for fsh cause by negative feedback lead most of dem to die (atr esia).",Biology
the last step of glycolysis involves the dephosphor ylation ofthe tw o phosphoenolp yruv ate molecules by pyruv ate kinase to create tw o pyruv ate molecules and tw o atp molecules.,Di last step of glycolysis involves di desphosphorylation of di two phosphoenolpyruvate molecules by pyruvate kinase to create two pyruvate molecules and two atp molecules,Biology
the latter pr oduc es an environmental ph of 1. 53. 5 that denatur es proteins within food.,Di latter pr oduc been vironmental ph of 1. 53. 5 wey denatur am for food.,Biology
"the level of bicarbonat e in the blood is c ontr olled through ther enal system, where bicarbonat e ions in ther enal fil trate are conserved and passed back into the blood.","Di level of bicarbonat e for di blood dey c ontr olled through di renal fil trate, where bicarbonat e ions for di renal fil trate dey conserved and passed back for di blood.",Biology
"external anatomy the left kidney is located at about the t12 to l3 vertebrae, whereas the right is lower due to slight displacement by the liver.","Di left kidney dey located for about di t12 to l3 vertebrae, whereas di right dey lower due to slight displacement by di liver.",Biology
"because the left side ofthe heart is unable to pump out its normal volume of blood, the blood in the pulmonary circulation gets ""backed up,"" starting with the left atrium, then into the pulmonary veins, and then into pulmonary capil laries.","Di left side of di heart dey unable to pump out its normal volume of blood, di blood for di pulmonary circulation gets ""backed up,"" starting wit di left atrium, and then into pulmonary capil laries.",Biology
"in limited studies using mesench ymal stem cells, there have been fewer ins tanc es of kidney damage after surgery, the length of hospitals tays has been r educ ed, and there have been fewer readmis sions after release.","Di length of hospitals tays don dey educ ed, and dire don fewer readmis sions after release.",Biology
output below this level ma y be caused by severe dehydration or renal disease and is termed oliguria.,Di level ma y dey caused by severe dehydration or renal disease and dey termed oliguria.,Biology
blood pressures below this level will impair renal function and causes ystemic disorders that ar e severe enough to threaten survival.,Di level will impair renal function and causes ystemic disorders wey dey threaten survival.,Biology
the lh surge also triggers pr oteases (enzymes that clea ve proteins)to break down s tructur al proteins in theo vary wall on the surface ofthe bulging dominant f ollicle.,Di lh surge also triggers pr oteases (enzymes wey clea ve protein)to break down s tructur al proteins for di surface of di bulging dominant f ollicle.,Biology
"these tw o ac etyl coa molecules ar e then processed through the k rebs cycle to generate energy (figure 24. 15). 24. 3 lipid metabolism 1079 figure 24. 15 ketone oxidation when glucose is limited, k etone bodies can be o xidiz ed to produce ac etyl coa to be used in the k rebs cycle to generate energy.","Di lipid metabolism 1079 figure 24. 15 ketone oxidation wey glucose dey limited, k etone bodies go dey use to produce ac etyl coa to be use for di k rebs cycle to generate energy.",Biology
"lipid metabolism is as sociat ed with carbohydrate metabolism, as products of glucose (such as ac etyl coa)can be converted into lipids. aging and the.","Di lipid metabolism dey socialt ed wit carbohydrate metabolism, as products of glucose (such as ac etyl coa) dey converted into lipids aging and di.",Biology
"department of agriculture (usda) list reasons wh y vitamins and minerals ar e critical toa healthy diet the carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins in the foods y ou eat ar e used f or energy to power molecular, cellular, and organs ystem activities.","Di list reasons wey vitamins and miner as ar e critical to healthy diet di carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins for di foods y or energy to power molecular, cellular, and organs ystem activities.",Biology
"on average, this liter results in the production of about 125 ml/min fil trate produced in males(r ange of 90 to 140 ml/min) and 105 ml/min fil trate produced in females (range of 80 to 125 ml/min).",Di liter results for di production of about 125 ml min fil trate produce for male(range of 90 to 140 ml min)and 105 ml min fil trate produce for females (range of 80 to 125 ml min)and 105 ml min fil trate produce for females (range of 80 to 125 ml min)and 105 ml min fil trate produce for females (range of 80 to 125 ml,Biology
"it occurs primarily in the liver and, toa lesser extent, in the kidney.","Di liver and, toa lesser extent, for di kidney.",Biology
"other causes of edema include damage to blood vessels and/or l ymphatic vessels, or a decrease in osmotic pressure in chronic and severe liver disease, where the liver is unable to manufacture plasma proteins (figure 26. 9 ).","Di liver dey unable to blood vessels and or l ymphatic vessels, or decrease for osmotic pressure for chronic and severe liver disease, where di liver dey unable to manufacture plasma proteins (figure 26. 9 ).",Biology
"from left to right, lm 400, lm 20.","Di lm 400, lm 20.",Biology
"the lo w levels of potassium in blood and csf ar e due to the sodium-potassium pumps in cell membranes, which maintain the normal potassium c oncentr ation gr adients between the icf and ecf.","Di lo w levels of potassium for blood and csf ar e due to di sodium-potassium pumps for cell membranes, wey dey maintain di normal potassium c oncentr ation gr adients betw en di icf and ecf",Biology
"the lobes themselves ar e surrounded by fat tissue, which determines the size ofthe breast; br east size differs between individuals and does not affect the amount of milk pr oduc ed.","Di lobes demsel ves ar e surrounded by fat tissue, wey dey e dey reach di breast; br east size differs betw e individuals and no fit affect di amount of milk pr oduc ed.",Biology
"this location is important in sperm production, which occurs within the testes, and proceeds more efficiently when the t estes ar e kept 2 to 4c below core body temper atur e. the dar tos muscle makes up the subcutaneous muscle layer ofthe scr otum (figure 27. 3 ).","Di location dey important for sperm production, wey dey carry di subcutaneous muscle lay of di scr otum (figure 27. 3 ). di dar tos muscle make up di subcutaneous muscle lay of di scr otum (figure 27. 3 ). di dar tos muscle make up di subcutaneous muscle lay of di scr otum (figure 27. 3 ). di dar tos muscle make up di subcutaneous muscle layer of di scr otum (figure",Biology
"fluid c ompar tments body fluids can be discussed in terms of their specific fluid c ompar tment, a location that is largely separate from another c ompar tment by some form ofa physical barrier.","Di location wey dey largely separate from dia specific fluid c ompar tment, a location wey dey largely separate from one c ompar tment by some form ofa physical barrier.",Biology
"as the loop turns to become the ascending loop, there is an absence of aquaporin channels, so water cannot leave the loop.","Di loop turn to become di ascending loop, dir e dey absence of aquaporin channel, so water no leave di loop.",Biology
solut es and water recovered from these loops ar e returned to the circulation by way ofthe v asa recta.,Di loops dey return to di circulation by way of di v asa recta.,Biology
"the loops of cortical nephr ons do note xtend into ther enal medul la very far, if at all. juxtamedul lary nephr ons have loops that extend variable dis tanc es, some very deep into the medul la.","Di loops of cortical nephr ons no extend into di renal medul la very far, if at all. juxtamedul lary nephr ons no extend into di renal medul la very far, if at all. juxtamedul lary nephr ons no extend for di renal medul la.",Biology
"other causes of metabolic alk alosis include the loss of hydrochloric acid from the stomach through vomiting, potassium depletion due to the use of diur etics f or hypertension, and thee xcessive use of laxativ es.","Di loss of hydrochloric acid from di stomach through vomiting, potassium depletion due to di use of di use of di excessive use of laxativ as.",Biology
"a loss of renal function means a loss of effective vascular volume c ontr ol, leading to hypot ension (low blood pressure) or hyper tension(high blood pressure), which can lead to stroke, hear t attack, and aneurysm formation.","Di loss of renal function mean a loss of effective vascular volume c ontr ol, leading to hypot ension (low blood pressure) or hyper tension(high blood pressure), wey go lead to stroke, hear t attack, and aneurysm formation.",Biology
loss of control of micturition is called inc ontinenc e and r esul ts in v oiding when the bladder contains about 250 ml urine.,Di loss of control of micturition dey called inc ontinenc e and r esul ts for v oiding wen di bladder contain about 250 ml urine.,Biology
"acidbase balance is maintained through actions ofthe lungs and kidneys: the lungs rid the body of h+, whereas the kidneys secr ete or r eabsorb h+and hc o3(table 25. 6 ).","Di lungs dey rid di body of h+, whereas di kidneys secr ete or r eabsorb h+and hc o3(table 25. 6 ).",Biology
"the lungs can rid the body of excess acid very rapidly (seconds to minutes) through the conversion of hc o3into co2, which is then e xhaled.","Di lungs don rid di bodi of excess acid very rapidly (seconds to minutes) through di conversion of hc o3into co2, wey dey then e xhaled.",Biology
"instead of estrogen, the luteiniz ed gr anulosa and theca cells ofthe corpus lut eum begin to produce large amounts ofthe se x steroid hormone progesterone, a hormone that is critical f or the establishment and maint enanc e of pregnancy.","Di luteiniz ed gr anulosa and dica cells of di corpus lut eum begin to produce large amounts of di se x steroid hormone progesterone, hormone wey dey critical f or dies tablishment and maint enanc e of pregnancy.",Biology
"from the lymphatic system, the ch ylomicr ons ar e transported to the cir culat ory system.","Di lymphatic system, di ch ylomicr ons dey transported to di cir culat ory system.",Biology
specialized macula densa cells in this segment ofthe tubule respond to changes in the fluid flow rate and na+concentration.,Di macula densa cells for dis segment of di tubule respond to chang am for di fluid flow rate and na+concentration.,Biology
the magnitude ofthe osmotic gradient is pr opor tional to the difference in the c oncentr ation of solut es on one side ofthe cell membrane to that on the other side.,Di magnitude of di osmotic gradient dey pr opor tional to di difference for di c oncentr ation of solut as on one side of di cell membrane to dat on di oda side,Biology
adh has tw o major effects.,Di major effects.,Biology
"together, these make up the bulk ofthe penis.",Di make up di bulk of di penis.,Biology
"fumar ase then converts fumar ate into malat e, which malat e deh ydrogenase then converts back into oxaloac etat e while reducing nad+to nadh.","Di malat e dey ydrogenase and converts back for o malat e, wey malat e dey ydrogenase and converts back for o oxaloac etat e while reducing nad+to nadh.",Biology
"they are roughly the size of your fist, and the male kidney is typically a bit larger than the female kidney.","Di male kidney dey roughly di size of your fist, and di male kidney dey typically bit larger than di female kidney.",Biology
many changes take place in the different parts ofthe nephr on before urine is created for disposal.,Di many chang am take place for di different parts of di nephr on before urine dey created for disposal.,Biology
many scientists have suggested it be referred to as a hormone rather than a vitamin.,Di many scientists have suggest am as hormone rather than vitamin.,Biology
"in males, the maximum amount of glucose that can be recovered is about 375 mg/min, whereas in females, it is about 300 mg/min.","Di maximum amount of glucose wey dey covered na about 375 mg min, whereas for females, na about 300 mg min, whereas for females, na about 300 mg min",Biology
"some animal products and certain s tarches ar e also high in phen ylalanine, and intake of these foods should be carefully monitored. 24. 5 metabolic states ofthe body 1087 figure 24. 21 summarizes the metabolic processes occurring in the body during the absorp tive state.","Dime tabolic states of di bodi 1087 figure 24. 21 summarize di metabolic products and certain s tarches wey dey high for phen ylalanine, and intake of dis foods go carefully monitored.",Biology
mean arterial blood pressure is calculated by adding 1/3 ofthe difference between the s ystolic and dias tolic pressures to the dias tolic pressure.,Di mean arterial blood pressure dey calculated by adding 1 3 of di difference betw e di s ystolic and dia tolic prEssure to di dia tolic prEssure.,Biology
"ther ole of molecular oxygen, o 2, is as the terminal electron ac ceptor for the etc. this means that once the electrons have passed through the entire etc, they must be passed to another, separate molecule.","Di means say once di electrons have passed through di entire etc, di y must be passed to another molecule.",Biology
"this means that r ed and white blood cells, plat elets, albumins, and other proteins t oo large to pass through the filter remain in the capil lary, creating an average colloid osmotic pressure of 30 mm hg within the capil lary.","Di means say r ed and wit blood cells, plat elets, albumins, and oda proteins t oo large to pass s through di filter remain for di capil lary, create verage colloid osmotic pr ossure of 30 mm hg within di capil lary.",Biology
these measures can help keep energy levels from dropping and curb the urge for increased calorie c onsump tion from excessive snacking.,Di measures don help keep energy level from dropping and curb di urge for increased calorie consumption from excessive snacking.,Biology
propose the mechanism by which asthma c ontribut ed to the lab r esul ts seen.,Di mechanism by wey asthma c ontribut ed to di lab r Esul ts seen.,Biology
"mechanisms of solut e recovery include active transport, simple diffusion, and facilitated diffusion.","Di mechanism wey dey of solut e recovery include active transport, simple diffusion, and facilitated diffusion",Biology
these mechanisms act principally on the kidney.,Di mechanisms act principally on di kidney,Biology
"in some cases of mediated transport, tw o different subs tanc es share the same channel protein port; these mechanisms ar e described by the terms s ympor t and antipor t. sympor t mechanisms move tw o or more subs tanc es in the same direction at the same time, whereas antipor t mechanisms move tw o or more subs tanc es in opposite directions across the cell membrane.",Di mechanisms dey described by di terms s ympor t and antipor t.,Biology
meiosis ofa sec ondar y oocyt e is c omplet ed only if a sperm succeeds in penetrating its barriers.,Di meiosis ofa sec ondar y oocyt e dey c omplet ed only if a sperm succeeds for penetrating its barriers,Biology
this membrane permits very rapid movement of filtrate from capil lary to capsule though pores that ar e only 70 nm in diameter. 25. 4 microscopic anatomy ofthe kidney 1121 figure 25. 11 podoc ytes podocyt es int erdigitat e with s tructur es called pedic els and filter subs tanc es in away similar to fenes trations.,Di membrane don allow very rapid movement of filtrate from capil lary to capsule wits tructur e called pedicels and filter subs tanc am for away similar to fenes trations.,Biology
these membranes have permanent aquaporin channel proteins that allow unr estrict ed movement of water from the descending loop into the surrounding int erstitium as osmolarity increases from about 300 mosmol/k g to about 1200 mosmol/k g in the fil trate.,Di membranes have permanent aquaporin channel proteins wey allow unr estrict ed movement of water from di descending loop into di surrounding int erstitium as osmolarity increase from about 300 mosmol kg for di fil trate.,Biology
"the membr anous ur ethr a passes through the deep muscles ofthe perineum, where it is invested by theo verlying ur ethr al sphinct ers.","Di membr anous ur ethr a passes through di deep muscles of di perineum, where dey invested by di o verlying ur ethr al sphinct ers.",Biology
"the menstrual cycle now that we have discussed the matur ation ofthe c ohor t of tertiary follicles in theo vary, the build-up and then shedding ofthe endometrial lining in the uterus, and the function ofthe uterine tubes and vagina, we can put everything together to talk about the three phases ofthe menstrual cy clethe series of changes in which the uterine lining is shed, r ebuilds, and pr epar es for implantation.","Di menstrual cycle now say we have discus say di maturation of di c ohor t of tertiary follicles for di o vary, di build-up and then shedding of di endometrial lining for di uterus, and di function of di uterine tubes and vagina, we fit put all together to talk about di three phases of di menstrual cycle di series of ee",Biology
"although it averages appr oximat ely five days, the menses phase can last from 2 t o 7 days, or longer.","Di menses phase go lose from 2 t o 7 days, or longer.",Biology
"metabolic acidosis is problematic, as lower-than-normal amounts of bicarbonat e are present in the blood.","Di metabolic acidosis dey problematic, as lower-than-normal amount of bicarbonat e dey present for di blood.",Biology
"metabolic acidosis can also arise from diabetic k etoacidosis, wherein an excess of ketone bodies ar e present in the blood.","Di metabolic acidosis don also arise from diabetic k etoacidosis, where xcess of ketone bodies wey dey present for di blood.",Biology
"an overdose of aspirin causes acidosis due to the acidity of this metabolit e. metabolic acidosis can also r esul t from uremia, which is ther etention of urea and uric acid.",Di metabolic acidosis go also retention of urea and uric acid.,Biology
"metabolic alk alosis is problematic, as elevated ph and excess bicarbonat e are present.","Di metabolic alk alosis dey problematic, as Elevated ph and excess bicarbonat dey present",Biology
"because metabolism relies on reactions that ar e all interconnected, an y disruption might affect multiple organs or even organ systems.","Di metabolism relies on reactions wey dey interconnected, di disruption might affect multiple orGans or even orGan systems.",Biology
"the micturition reflex is active in infants but with maturity, children learn to override ther eflex by asserting external sphinct er control, thereby delaying v oiding (potty training ).","Di micturition reflex dey active for infants but wit maturity, children learn to override di reflex by asserting external sphinct er control, dir eby delaying v oiding (potty training ).",Biology
"the middle layer, or myometrium, is a thick layer of smooth muscle responsible f or uterine c ontr actions.","Di middle layer, or myometrium, dey thin layer of smooth muscle r responsible f or uterine c ontr actions.",Biology
"the middle region ofthe tube, called the ampul la, is where fertilization often occurs.","Di middle region of di tube, called di ampul la, na where fertilization often occurs.",Biology
"mild to moderate symptoms ar e treated with medication, whereas severe enlargement ofthe prostate is treated by surgery in which a portion ofthe prostate tissue is r emo ved.","Di mild to moderate symptoms ar e treated wit medication, whereas severe enlargement of di prostate tin sue dey r emo ved.",Biology
the milk itself exits the breast through the nipple via 15 to 20 lactif erous ducts that open on the surface ofthe nipple.,Di milk itself exit di breast through di nipple via 15 to 20 lactif erous ducts wey open on di surface of di nipple.,Biology
"often in medicine, a mineral dis sociat ed from a salt that carries an electrical charge (an ion)is called an electrolyte.",Di mineral dis sociat ed from a salt wey dey carry electrical charge(an ion)dey called an electrolyte.,Biology
"f ailur e to produce the minimum volume of urine means that metabolic wastes cannot be eff ectiv ely removed from the body, a situation that can impair organ function.","Di minimum volume of urine means say metabolic wastes no be eff ectiv ely removed from di bodi, a situation wey fit impair organ function.",Biology
"a tp pr oduc ed by these mitochondria will power the flag ellum, which extends from the neck and the mid-piece through the tail ofthe sperm, enabling it to move the entire sperm cell.","Di mitochondria will power di flag ellum, wey extend from di neck and di mid-piece through di tail of di sperm, enabling am to move di entire sperm cell.",Biology
"solut e movement between c ompar tments the movement of some solut es between c ompar tments is active, which consumes energy and is an active transport process, whereas the movement of other solut es is passive, which does not r equir e energy.","Di movement be twon c ompar tments, whereas di movement of oda solut wey dey passive, wey no r equir e energy.",Biology
"the movement of glucose and, in certain situations, na+ions, is an example of facilitated diffusion.","Di movement of glucose and, for certain situation, na+ions, na example of facilitated diffusion.",Biology
"thus, the movement of na+and ur ea into the int erstitial spaces by these mechanisms creates the hyper osmotic environment ofthe medul la.",Di movement of na+and ur ea into di int erstitial spaces by dis mechanisms cr eat di hyper osmotic environment of di medul la.,Biology
the movement of na+out ofthe lumen ofthe collecting duct creates a negative charge that pr omot es the movement of clout ofthe lumen into the int erstitial space by a par acellular route across tight junctions.,Di movement of na+out of di lumen into di int erstitial space by par acellular route across tightjunctions.,Biology
"this is a modified, smooth muscle cell lining the afferent ar teriole that can c ontr actor relax in response to atp or adenosine released by the macula densa.","Di modified, smooth muscle cell lining di afferent ar teriole wey fit c ontr actor relax for response to atp or adenosine released by di macula densa.",Biology
"remember that a molecule of carbonic acid is lost for every molecule of co2exhaled, and a molecule of carbonic acid is formed f or every molecule of co2 retained.","Di molecule of carbonic acid dey lost for every molecule of co2exhaled, and molecule of carbonic acid dey lost for every molecule of co2 retained, and molecule of carbonic acid dey formed f or every molecule of co2 retained.",Biology
"in tw o successive steps of oxidative decarbo xylation, tw o molecules of co2and tw o nadh molecules ar e produced when isocitr ate deh ydrogenase converts isocitr ate into the five-carbon -ketoglutar ate, which is then catal yzed and converted into the four-carbon suc cinyl coa by- ketoglutar ate deh ydrogenase.","Di molecules of co2and tw o nadh molecules wey dey catalyzed and converted into di five-carbon suc cinyl coa by- ketoglutar ate, wey dey catal yzed and converted into di five-carbon suc cinyl coa by- ketoglutar ate, wey dey produce awa-carbon suc cinyl coa by- ketoglutar ate, wey dey produce",Biology
"some of these molecules enter and leave cells using facilitated tr anspor t, whereby the molecules move down ac oncentr ation gradient through specific protein channels in the membrane.","Di molecules wey dey enter and leave cells use facilitated tr anspor t, whereby di molecules move down ac oncentr ation gradient through specific protein channel for di membrane.",Biology
"some molecules, like gases, lipids, and water itself(which also utilizes water channels in the membrane called aquaporins), slip fairly easily through the cell membrane; others, including polar molecules like glucose, amino acids, and ions do not.","Di molecules wey dey like gases, lipids, and water itself(we also utilize water channel for di membrane called aquaporins), slip fairly easily through di cell membrane; odas, like gases, lipids, and water channels for di membrane called aquaporins), slip fairly easily through di cell membrane; odas, like gases, lipid",Biology
"digestion begins the moment y ou put food into your mouth, as the food is broken down into its constituent parts to be absorbed through the intestine.","Di moment y dey put food into your mouth, as di food dey broken down into dia constituent parts to be absorb through di intestine.",Biology
"the mons pubis is a pad of fat that is located at the anterior, over the pubic bone.","Di Mons pubis dey pad of fat wey dey locat for di anterior, over di pubic bone.",Biology
more is recovered by in the collecting ducts as needed.,Di more dey recovered by for di collecting ducts as need.,Biology
"more energy is required to break down fats and proteins than carbohydrates; however, all excess calories that ar e ingested will be stored as fat in the body.","Di more energy dey require to break down fats and proteins than carbohydrates; however, all excess calories wey dey e dey tored as fat for di bodi.",Biology
"the more granulosa and theca cells af ollicle has(that is, the larger and more developed it is), the more estrogen it will produce in response to lh stimulation.",Di more granulosa and dica cells f ollicle don produce e for response to lh stimulation.,Biology
"when more na+is reabsorbed, more k+is secr eted; when less na+is reabsorbed (leading to excretion by the kidney), more k+is retained.","Di more na+is reabsorbed (leading to excretion by di kidney), more k+is retained; wen less na+is reabsorbed (leading to excretion by di kidney), more k+is retained.",Biology
"however, the more serious, high-risk infection by certain types of hpv can result in cancer ofthe cervix (figure 27. 16).","Di more serious, high-risk infection by certain type of hpv fit result for cancer of di cervix (figure 27. 16).",Biology
a. true b. false 17. mos t absorption and secretion occurs in this part ofthe nephr on.,Di most absorption and secretion occurs for dis part of di nephr on.,Biology
most ammonia is converted into less-toxic ur ea in the liver and e xcreted in the urine.,Di most ammonia dey converted into less-toxic ur ea for di liver and e xcreted for di urine,Biology
the most common cause of metabolic acidosis is the pr esenc e of organic acids or excessive ketone bodies in the blood.,Di most common cause of metabolic acidosis na di pr esenc e of organic acids or excessive ketone bodies for di blood.,Biology
the most common form is.,Di most common form na.,Biology
it is most common in the soft tissues ofthe extremities.,Di most common for di soft tissues of di extremities.,Biology
"the most common minerals in the body ar e calcium and phosphor ous, both of which ar e stored in the skeleton and necessary for the har dening of bones.","Di most common miner wey dey for di bodi ar e calcium and phosphorous, both of wey dey store for di skeleton and necessary for di har dening of bones.",Biology
the most frequently prescribed anti-hyper tensiv e diur etic is h ydrochlor othiazide.,Di most frequently prescribed anti-hyper tensiv e di most frequently prescribed anti-hyper tensiv e di etic dey h ydrochlor othiazide.,Biology
"in male humans, the most important andr ogen is testosterone.",Di most important andr ogen dey testosterone.,Biology
"most ofthe ammonia pr oduc ed from protein breakdown is converted into urea by the liver, so ammonia is rarely detected in fresh urine.","Di most of di ammonia pr oduc ed from protein breakdown dey converted into urea by di liver, so ammonia dey rarely detected for fresh urine",Biology
most ofthe energy derived from the food is released as heat.,Di most of di energy derived from di food dey eleased as heat,Biology
"most ofthe ions and molecules in the fil trate are needed by the body and must be r eabsorbed farther down the nephr on tubules, resulting in the formation of urine.","Di most of di ions and molecules for di fil trate dey need by di bodi and must be eabsorb farther down di nephr on tubules, resulting for di formation of urine.",Biology
most ofthe r esul ting ammonia is converted into urea by liver hepat ocyt es.,Di most of di r esul ting ammonia dey onverted into urea by liver hepat ocyt,Biology
"most ofthe uterus is myometrial tissue, and the muscle fibers run horizontal ly, vertical ly, and diagonal ly, allowing the powerful contractions that occur during labor and the less powerful c ontr actions(or cramps) that help to expel menstrual blood during aw oman 's period.","Di most of di uterus dey myometrial tissue, and di muscle fibers run horizontal ly, vertical ly, and di muscle fibers run horizontal ly, and di muscle fibers run horizontal ly, vertical ly, and di muscle fibers run di powerful contractions (or cramps) wey help to expel menstrual blood during aw oman 's period.",Biology
"you g et most of your vitamins through your diet, al though some can be formed from the precursors absorbed during digestion.","Di most of your vitamins through y awa diet, al though some fit formed from di precursors absorbed during di digestion.",Biology
"in a healthy person, the most predominant type of vaginal bacteria is from the genus lactobacil lus.",Di most predominant type of vaginal bacteria dey from di genus lactobacil lus,Biology
"the most superficial layer is the ser ous membrane, or perimetrium, which c onsis ts of epithelial tissue that covers thee xterior portion ofthe uterus.","Di most superficial layer dey di ser ous membrane, or perimetrium, wey c onsis ts of epithelial tissue wey cover di exterior portion of di uterus.",Biology
"most water is recovered in the pct, loop of henle, and dct.","Di most water dey covered for di pct, loop of henle, and dct.",Biology
"the most dramatic loss of muscle mass, and consequential decline in metabolic rate, occurs between 50 and 70 years of age.","Di most dramatic loss of muscle mass, and consequential decline in di metabolic rate, dey occur between 50 and 70 years of age.",Biology
"our mother received mtdna from their mother, who g ot it from their mother, and soon.","Di mother received mtdna from dia mother, wey g ot am from dia mother, and soon.",Biology
"your mtdna might have a pattern of mutations that aligns more closely with one branch, andy our neighbor's ma y align with another branch.","Di mtdna might have a pattern of mutation wey align more closely wit one branch, andy awa neighbor's ma y align wit one branch.",Biology
"but what happened to the mtdna of all ofthe other homo sapiens females who were living 200, 000 years ago?","Di mtdna of all of di oda homo sapiens females wey were living 200, 000 years ago?",Biology
the multiplier term is due to the action of solut e pumps that increase (multiply) the c oncentr ations of urea and na+deep in the medul la.,Di multiplier term dey due to di action of solut e pumps wey increase (multiply) di concentration of urea and na+deep for di medul la.,Biology
"as y ou will see, muscle protein can be cataboliz ed and used as fuel in times of starvation.",Di muscle protein dey cataboliz ed and use as fuel for times of starvation.,Biology
"vagina the vagina, shown at the bottom o ffigure 27. 9 and figure 27. 10, is a muscular canal (appr oximat ely 10 cm long) that serves as the entrance to ther eproductiv e tract.",Di muscular canal (appr oximat ely 10 cm long) wey serve as di entrance to di r eproductiv e tract.,Biology
the muscular layer ofthe ur eter consists of longitudinal and circular smooth muscles that create the peris taltic c ontr actions to move the urine into the bladder without the aid of gravity.,Di muscular layer of di ur eter consists of longitudinal and circular smooth muscle wey dey cr eat di peris taltic c ontr actions to move di urine into di bladder without di aid of gravity.,Biology
"by analyzing these mutational relationships, researchers have been able to determine that we canal l trace our ancestry back to one female who lived in africa about 200, 000 years ago. more precisely, that human is our most recent common ancestor through matrilineal descent.","Di mutational relationships, researchers don able to determine say we fit al l trace awa ancestry back to one female wey lived for Africa about 200, 000 years ago. more precisely, say human na our most recent common ancestry back to one female wey lived for Africa about 200, 000 years ago. more precisely,",Biology
arteriole my ogenic mechanism the myogenic mechanism regulating blood flow within the kidney depends upon a characteristic shared by most smooth muscle cells ofthe body.,Di myogenic mechanism wey dey regulating blood flow within di kidney depend upon characteristic shared by most smooth muscle cells of di bodi.,Biology
"this is called obligatory water reabsorp tion, because water is "" obliged"" to follow the na+(figure 25. 18).","Dina called obligatory water reabsorption, because water dey"" obliged"" to follow dina+(figure 25. 18).",Biology
"as in mit osis, dna is replicated in a primary spermat ocyt e, before it undergoes ac ell division called meiosis i.","Dina replicated for mit osis, dna dey replicated for a primary spermat ocyt e, before am undergo cell division called meiosis i.",Biology
"the na+/k+atpase pumps in the basal membrane create an electr ochemical gradient, allowing r eabsorp tion of cl by na+/clsympor ters in the apical membrane.","Dina+ k+atpase pumps for di basal membrane cr eat electr ochemical gradient, allowing r eabsorption of cl by na+ clsymporters for di apical membrane.",Biology
"when aldos terone output increases, mor e na+is recovered from the forming urine and water follows the na+passively.","Di na+passively, more na+is recover from di forming urine and water follow di na+passively.",Biology
"the nadh and f adh 2pass electrons onto the electron tr anspor t chain, which uses the transferred energy to produce atp.","Di nadh and fadh 2pass electrons to di electron transport chain, wey use di transferred energy to produce atp.",Biology
"nadh is a high-energy molecule, like atp, but unlike atp, it is not used as energy currency by the cell.","Di nadh dey high-energy molecule like atp, but unlike atp, e no use as energy currency by di cell.",Biology
"when empty, it resembles c olumnar epithelia, but when stretched, it""transitions"" (hence the name) toa squamous appearance (see figure 25. 4 ).","Di name dey resemble c olumnar epithelia, but when stretched, e""transition"" (hence di name) toa squamous appearance (check di picture 25. 4 ).",Biology
a. glomerulus b. bowman 's capsule c. calyces d. renal papil lae 11. what ar e the names ofthe capil laries following the efferent ar teriole?,Di name of di capil laries follow di efferent arteriole?,Biology
"natriur etic hormones, released primarily from the atria ofthe heart in response to stretching ofthe atrial walls, stimulate na+excretion and thereby decrease blood pressure.","Di natriur etic hormones, release primarily from di atria of di heart for response to stretching of di atrial walls, stimulate na+excretion and dir eby decrease blood pressure.",Biology
"the nearby uterine tube, either left or right, r eceives the oocyt e. unlike sperm, oocyt es lack flag ella, and therefore cannot move on their own.","Di nearby uterine tube, either left or right, r eceive di oocyt e.",Biology
"although lipog enesis occurs in the cyt oplasm, the necessary acetyl coa is created in the mitochondria and cannot be tr anspor ted across the mitochondrial membrane.",Di necessary acetyl coa dey created for di mitochondria and no be tr anspor ted across di mitochondrial membrane.,Biology
"when aldos terone causes ar ecovery of na+in the nephr on, a negative electrical gradient is created that pr omot es the secretion of k+and clinto the lumen.",Di negative electrical gradient dey created say pr omot dey di secretion of k+and clinto di lumen.,Biology
"it pr omot es na+reabsorp tion by the nephr on, promoting ther etention of water.","Di nephr on, promoting di retention of water.",Biology
"nephr ons and vessels ther enal artery first divides into segmental arteries, followed by further branching to form int erlobar arteries that pass through ther enal columns to reach the cortex (figure 25. 9 ).",Di nephr ons and vessels di renal arteries wey pass through di renal columns t reach di cortex (figure 25. 9 ).,Biology
all ofthe renal c orpuscles as well as both the proximal c onvolut ed tubules (pct s)and distal c onvolut ed tubules are found here. some nephr ons have a shor tloop of henle that does not dip beyond the cortex.,Di nephr ons go ve shor tloop of henle wey no fit dey plenti di renal c orpuscles as well as both di proximal c onvolut ed tubules (pct s)and di proximal c onvolut ed tubules dey found here,Biology
"you will discover that different parts ofthe nephr on utilize specific processes to produce urine: filtration, reabsorp tion, and secretion.","Di nephr wey dey utilize specific processes to produce urine: filtration, reabsorp tion, and secretion",Biology
"its net effect is to conserve and increase water levels in the plasma by reducing thee xcretion of sodium, and thus water, from the kidneys.","Di net effect dey to conserve and increase water levels for di plasma by reduce di e xcretion of sodium, and thus water, from di kidneys.",Biology
the net effect is that water is lost from the circulation to int erstitial tissues and cells.,Di net effect na say water dey lost from di circulation to int erstitial tin sues and cells.,Biology
"in accounting f or the total number of atp pr oduc ed per glucose molecule through aerobic r espir ation, it is important to remember the following points: a net of two atp ar e produced through gl ycolysis (four pr oduc ed and tw o consumed during the ener gyconsuming stage).",Di net of two atp ar e produce through gl ycolysis (f awa pr oduc ed and tw o consumed during di ener gyconsuming stage).,Biology
"therefore, the net production of atp during gl ycolysis is zero.",Di net production of atp during gl ycolysis dey zero.,Biology
the net r esul t is ar elativ ely steady flow of blood into the glomerulus and ar elativ ely steady filtration rate in spite of significant systemic blood pressure changes.,Di net r esul t dey ar elativ ely steady flow of blood into di glomerulus and ar elativ ely steady filtration rate for spite of significant systemic blood pressure chang,Biology
the net r esul t of this count ercurr ent multiplier system is to recover both water and na+in the circulation.,Di net r Esul t of disc ornt ercurr ent multiplier system dey recover both water and na+in di circulation.,Biology
the net r esul t of these opposing actions is to keep ther ate of filtration r elativ ely constant.,Di net r esul t of dis opposing actions dey to keep di rate of filtration r elativ ely constant.,Biology
nitrates (no 3)occur normally in the urine.,Di nitrates (no3) occur normally for di urine.,Biology
the nitrogen waste that is liberated in this process is converted to urea in the ur ea acid cycle and eliminated in the urine.,Di nitrogen waste wey dey liberated for dis process dey converted to urea for di ur ea acid cycle and eliminated for di urine,Biology
"the normal, or healthy, bmi range is between 18 and 24. 9k g/m2.","Di normal, or healthy, bmi range dey betw 18 and 24. 9 kg m2.",Biology
"maintaining these normal c oncentr ations of testosterone pr omot es spermat ogenesis, whereas lo w levels of testosterone can lead to infertility.","Di normal concentration of testosterone pr omot em spermat ogenesis, whereas lo w levels of testosterone fit lead to infertility.",Biology
"during the normal hormonal fluctuations in the menstrual cycle, breast tissue responds to changing levels of estrogen and progesterone, which can lead to swelling and breast tenderness in some individuals, especially during the secr etory phase.","Di normal hormonal fluctuations for di menstrual cycle, breast tissue respond to changing levels of estrogen and progesterone, wey go lead to swelling and breast tenderness for some individuals, special ly during di secr etory phase.",Biology
normal micturition is ar esul t of stretch receptors in the bladder wall that transmit nerve impulses to the sacr al region ofthe spinal cord to generate a spinal reflex.,Di normal micturition na r esul t of stretch receptors for di bladder wall wey transmit nerve impulses to di sacral region of di spinal cord to generate a spinal reflex.,Biology
the normal response ofthe respiratory system to elevated ph is to increase the amount of co2in the blood by decreasing ther espir atory rate to conserve co2.,Di normal response of di respiratory system to Elevated ph dey to increase di amount of co2in di blood by decreasing di r espir atory rate to conserve co2.,Biology
the normal range is one to tw o liters per da y(table 25. 2 ).,Di normal range dey one to tw o liters per da y(table 25. 2 ).,Biology
"by ag e 80, the number of affected individuals has jumped to as many as 80 percent.",Di number of affect individuals don jump to as many as 80 percent.,Biology
"by altering the number of aquaporin channels, the volume of water recovered or lost is altered.","Di number of aquaporin channels, di volume of water recovered or lost dey altered.",Biology
"to lose weight, the number of calories burned per da y must exceed the numbering ested.",Di number of calories burned perda y must exceed di numbering dem.,Biology
"in diabetes mel litus, blood glucose levels exceed the number of available sodium-glucose tr anspor ters in the kidney, and glucose appears in the urine.","Di number of sodium glucose transporters wey dey available for di kidney, and glucose dey appear for di urine.",Biology
the nutritional calorie(c) is the24. 7 nutrition and diet 1093 amount of heat it takes to raise 1kg (1000 g)of water by 1 c.,Di nutritional calorie(c) dey di24. 7 nutrition and diet 1093 amount of heat dem take raise 1kg (1000 g)of water by 1 c.,Biology
recall that theo varies ar e the female g onads.,Di ovaries ar e di female g onads.,Biology
"theo varies ar e located within the pelvic cavity, and ar e supported by the meso varium, an extension ofthe perit oneum that connects theo varies to the broad ligament.","Di ovaries ar e locat within di pelvic cavity, and ar e supported by di meso varium, extension of di perit oneum wey connect di ovaries to di broad ligament.",Biology
"in females, theo varies secr ete small amounts of testosterone, although most is converted toes tradiol.","Di ovaries secrete small amounts of testosterone, although most dey converted to e tradiol.",Biology
theo vary comprises an outer covering of cuboidal epithelium called theo varian surface epithelium that is superficial toa dense c onnectiv e tissue covering called the tunica albuginea.,Di o vary comprises outer covering of cuboidal epithelium wey dey superficial to dense c onnectiv e tissue c overin called di tunica albuginea.,Biology
"finally, theo vary itself is attached to the uterus via theo varian ligament.",Di o vary demself dey tached to di uterus via di varian ligament.,Biology
"thus, theo vum can be thought of as a brief, transitional, haploid stage between the diploid oocyt e and diploid zy gote.","Di o vum go think of as brief, transitional, haploid stage betw afta di diploid oocyt e and di diploid zy gote.",Biology
"obesity is defined by the body mass index (bmi), which is a measure of a person's weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared.","Di obesity dey define by di bodi mass index (bmi), wey be measure of a person's weight for kilogram divided by height for meters squared.",Biology
"when this occurs, fewer hydrogen ions in the fil trate par ticipat e in the conversion of bicarbonat e into co2and less bicarbonat e is c onser ved.","Di occurs, fewer hydrogen ions for di fil trate par ticipat e for di conversion of bicarbonat e for di conversion of bicarbonat e for di conversion of bicarbonat e into co2and less bicarbonat e dey c onser ved.",Biology
"the other half is grains and protein, with a slightly higher quantity of grains than protein.","Di oda half dey grains and protein, wit a slightly higher quantity of grains than protein.",Biology
"on the other hand, in people with diabetic kidney disease, endothelin is chr onical ly elevated, r esul ting in sodium retention.","Di oda hand, for pipo wey dey diabetic kidney disease, endothelin dey chr onical ly Elevated, retention for sodium retention.",Biology
"although c ompensat ory mechanisms usually work very well, when one of these mechanisms is not working pr operl y (like kidney failure or r espir atory disease), the y have their limits.","Di ompensat ory mechanisms no dey working pr operl y (like kidney failure or respiratory disease), di y have dia limits.",Biology
"when only the one dominant f ollicle remains in theo vary, it again begins to secr ete estrogen.","Di one dominant f ollicle remains for di o vary, e again begin to secrete e trogen.",Biology
"the one that does not die will continue to grow and develop until ovulation, when it will expel its sec ondar y oocyt e surrounded by several layers of granulosa cells from theo vary.","Di one wey no dey die no dey die fit continue to grow and develop until ovulation, wen e will expel dia sec ondar y oocyt e surrounded by several layers of granulosa cells from di o vary.",Biology
this is the only portal system in which an ar teriole is found between the first and second capil lary beds.,Di only portal system wey di arteriole dey found betw una di first and second capil lary bed.,Biology
"thus, the only pressure moving fluid across the capil lary wall into the lumen of bowman 's space is hydrostatic pressure.",Di only pressure moving fluid across di capil lary wall into di lumen of bowman 's space dey hydrostatic pressure.,Biology
"where the f enes trae (windows) in the glomerular capil laries match the spaces between the podocyt e""fingers,"" the only thing separating the capil lary lumen and the lumen of bowman 's capsule is their shared basement membrane (figure 25. 12).",Di only thing separating di capil lary lumen and di lumen of bowman capsule nadia shared basement membrane (figure 25. 12).,Biology
"as ar esul t of these mechanisms, the oocyt egranulosa cell complex is pulled into the interior ofthe tube.",Di oocyt egranulosa cell complex dey pulled into di interior of di tube,Biology
oogenesis gamet ogenesis in females is cal ledoogenesis.,Di oogenesis gamet ogenesis for females na cal ledoogenesis.,Biology
"(micr ographs provided by ther egents of university of michigan medical school 2012)the open-ended s tructur e ofthe uterine tubes can have significant health consequences if bacteria or other contagions enter through the vagina and move through the uterus, into the tubes, and then into the pelvic cavity.","Di open-ended s tructur e of di uterine tubes don have significant health consequence if bacteria or oda contagions enter through di vagina and move through di vagina and move through di vagina and move through di vagina and move through di uterus, into di tubes, and then into di pelvic cavity.",Biology
the metabolic rate measures the amount of energy used to maintain life. an organism must ing est a sufficient amount of food to maintain its metabolic rate if the organism is to stay alive for very long.,Dior Ganism Must ing dey sufficient amount of food to maintain dia metabolic rate if di organism dey stay alive for very long.,Biology
"pyruv ate, lactat e, and alanine from muscle cells ar e not c onverted1090 24 metabolism and nutrition access f or free at opens tax. org into ac etyl coa and used in the k rebs cycle, but ar e exported to the liver to be used in the synthesis of glucose.","Di org into ac etyl coa and wey dey use for di k rebs cycle, but e dey exported to di liver to be use for di s synthesis of glucose.",Biology
osmor eceptors ar e sensory receptors in the thirst center in the h ypothalamus that monitor the concentration of solut es (osmolality) ofthe blood.,Di osmor eceptors ar e sensory receptors for di thirst center for di h ypothalamus wey monitor di concentrat ation of solut Es (osmolality) of di blood.,Biology
"osmosis is basically the diffusion of water from regions of higher c oncentr ation of water to regions of lower concentration of water, along an osmotic gradient across a semi-permeable membrane.","Di osmosis dey basically di diffusion of water from regions of higher concentration of water to regions of lower concentration of water, along an osmotic gradient across semi-permeable membrane.",Biology
osmosis is the movement of solvent (water) across a membrane that is impermeable toa solut e in the solution.,Di osmosis na di movement of solvent (water) across a membrane wey dey impermeable toa solut e for di solution.,Biology
"since the filtration membrane limits the size of particles crossing the membrane, the osmotic pressure inside the glomerular capil lary is higher than the osmotic pressure in bowman 's capsule.",Di osmotic pressure inside di glomerular capil lary dey higher than di osmotic prEssure inside di glomerular capil lary.,Biology
the outer tunica vaginalis is a ser ous membrane that has both a parietal and a thin visceral layer.,Di outer tunica vaginalis dey ser ous membrane wey dey a ser ous membrane wey get both parietal and thin visceral lay.,Biology
"the outer walls ofthe anterior and posterior vagina ar e formed into longitudinal columns, or ridges, and the superior portion ofthe vagina called the f ornix meets the protruding uterine cervix.","Di outer wall of di anterior and posterior vagina dey form into longitudinal columns, or ridg am, and di superior portion of di vagina call di f ornix meet di protruding uterine cervix.",Biology
"the out ermos t part of bowman 's capsule, the parietal layer, is a simple squamous epithelium.","Di out ermos t part of bowman capsule, di parietal layer, na simple squamous epithelium.",Biology
the ovarian cycle the ovarian cy cleis a set of predictable changes in oocyt es and ovarian f ollicles.,Di ovarian cycle di ovaarian cycle di ovaarian cycle di ovarian cy cleis set of predictable chang dey for oocyt and ovarian f ollicles.,Biology
"the risk of developing cervical cancer is doubled with cigarette smoking. 27. 2 anatomy and physiology ofthe ovarian r eproduc tive system 1209 the breasts whereas the breasts ar e located far from the other female r eproductiv e organs, the y are considered accessory organs ofthe female r eproductiv e system.","Di ovarian r eproduc tive system 1209 di ovarian r eproduc tive system 1209 di breasts whereas di breasts dey locate far from di oda female r eproductiv e organs, di y dey consider accessory organs of di female r eproductiv e system.",Biology
theo ver-stretching occurs in persons with elevated blood pressure or heart failure. it increases gfr through c oncurr ent v asodilation ofthe aff erent ar teriole and v asoc onstriction ofthe eff erent ar teriole.,Di over-stretching occurs for persons wit Elevated blood pressure or heart failure.,Biology
overall survival is dependent on the amount of fat and protein stored in the body.,Di overall survival dey depend on di amount of fat and protein stored for di bodi,Biology
"overweight is defined as a bmi of 25 to 29. 9k g/m2, and obesity is consider ed to be a bmi greater than 30 kg/m2.","Di overweight dey define as bmi of 25 to 29. 9 kg m2, and obesity dey consider ed to be bmi greater than 30 kg m2, and obesity dey consider ed to be bmi greater than 30 kg m2, and obesity dey consider ed to be bmi greater than 30 kg m2, and obesity dey consider ed to be bmi greater than 30 kg",Biology
"figur e27. 1 ovulation following a surge of luteinizing hormone (lh), an oocyt e (immature eg g cell)wil l be released into the uterine tube, where it will then be available to be f ertilized by sperm.","Di ovulation wey dey following surge of luteinizing hormone (lh), an oocyt e (immature eg g cell)wil l be available to be f ertilized by sperm",Biology
"oxaloac etat e and ac etyl coa combine to form citr ate, which can cross the mitochondrial membrane and enter the cyt oplasm.","Di oxaloac etat e and ac etyl coa combine to form citr ate, wey fit cross di mitochondrial membrane and enter di cyt oplasm.",Biology
oxaloac etat e is converted into malat e and then into pyruv ate.,Di oxaloac etat e dey converted for malat e and then into pyruv ate.,Biology
oxaloac etat e is then ready to combine with the next ac etyl coa to start the k rebs cycle again (see figure 24. 7 ).,Di oxaloac etat e dey combine wit dine xt ac etyl coa to start di k rebs cycle again (check di picture 24. 7 ).,Biology
"anaer obic r espir ation when oxygen is limited or absent, p yruv ate enters an anaer obic pathway called fermentation.","Di oxygen dey limit or absent, p yruv ate enters anaer obic pathway called fermentation",Biology
the penis the penis is the male organ of copulation (sexual intercourse).,Di penis di penis na di male orGan of copulation (sexual fort ercourse).,Biology
"people eating atypical western diet, which is very high in nacl, routinely take in 130 to 160 mmol/da y of sodium, but humans r equir e only 1 t o2 mmol/ day.","Di people eating atypical western diet, wey dey very high for nacl, routinely take e for 130 to 160 mmol da y of sodium, but humans r equir e only 1 t o2 mmol day.",Biology
"the p ostabsorp tive state the postabsorp tive state, or the fasting state, occurs when the food has been digested, absorbed, and stored.","Di p ostabsorp tive state di postabsorp tive state, or di fasting state, occur when di food don digested, absorbed, and stored.",Biology
"progesterone is similar in structure to aldos terone and can bind to and w eakl y stimulate aldos terone receptors, providing a similar but diminished response.","Di progesterone dey similar for structure to aldos terone and dey stimulate aldos terone receptors, providing similar but diminished response.",Biology
the pyramids and renal columns taken together c onstitut e the kidney lobes.,Di pyramids and renal columns don en together c onstitut e di kidney lobes.,Biology
"under anaer obic conditions, the p yruv ate can be converted into lactat e to keep glycolysis working.",Di p yruv ate dey converted into lactat e to keep glycolysis working.,Biology
the paired seminal v esicles ar e glands that c ontribut e appr oximat ely 60 percent ofthe semen volume.,Di paired seminal v esicles ar e glands wey c ontribut e approximately 60 percent of di semen volume.,Biology
"the paired testes area crucial component in this process, as they produce both sperm and andr ogens, the hormones that support male reproductive ph ysiolog y.","Di paired testes ar e crucial component for dis process, as di y produce both sperm and andr ogens, di hormones wey support male reproductive ph ysiolog y.",Biology
"secr etin also s timulat es the pancreas to release sodium bicarbonat e. the pancreas releases most ofthe digestive enzymes, including the pr oteases tr ypsin, ch ymotr ypsin, and elas tase, which aid protein digestion.","Di pancreas releases most of di digestive enzymes, including di pr otease tr ypsin, ch ymotr ypsin, and elas tase, wey aid protein digestion.",Biology
the papil lae ar e bundles of collecting ducts that tr anspor t urine made by nephr ons to the calycesof the kidney for excretion.,Di papil lae ar e bundles of collect ducts wey tr anspor t urine make by nephr ons to di calyces of di kidney for excretion.,Biology
"if y ou move to a higher altitude, the partial pressure of oxygen is lower, meaning there isles s pressure to push oxygen across the al veolar membrane and into ther ed blood cell.","Di partial pressure of oxygen dey lower, meaning dire dey less pressure to push o oxygen across dial veolar membrane and into di r ed blood cell.",Biology
the paths of secretion and r eabsorp tion of chloride ions in ther enal system follow the paths of sodium ions.,Di paths of secretion and r eabsorption of chloride ions for di renal system follow di paths of chloride ions for di renal system follow di paths of chloride ions for di renal system follow di paths of chloride ions for di renal system follow di paths of chloride ions for di renal system,Biology
"these patients ar e described as""starving in a sea of plenty,"" because their blood glucose levels ar e high, but none ofthe glucose is transported into the cells.","Di patient dey described as""starving for sea of plenty,"" because dia blood glucose levels ar e high, but none of di glucose dey transported for di cells.",Biology
"the pc o2would again be normal at first, but if compensation has oc curr ed, it would increase as the body at temp ts to reestablish the proper ratios of bicarbonat e and carbonic acid/co2.","Di pc o2 go again normal for first, but if compensation don increase as di bodi for temp ts to reestablish di proper ratios of bicarbonat e and carbonic acid c o2",Biology
"the pc o2 would be normal at first, but if compensation has oc curr ed, it would decrease as the body r eestablishes the proper ratio of bicarbonat e and carbonic acid/co2.","Di pc o2 go normal for first, but if compensation don decrease as di bodi r eestablish di proper ratio of bicarbonat e and carbonic acid c o2 go decrease as di bodi r eestablish di proper ratio of bicarbonat e and carbonic acid c o2",Biology
"the pco2and total hc o3values aid in determining whether the condition is metabolic or r espir atory, and whether the patient has been able to compensate for the problem.","Di pco2and total hc o3values aid for determining whether di condition dey metabolic or respiratory, and whether di patient don able to compensate for di problem.",Biology
"among its targets is the pct, where it s timulat es the h ydroxylation of calcidiol to calcitriol (1, 25-h ydroxycholecalcif erol, the active form of vitamin d).","Di pct, where dey timulat as di h ydroxylation of calcidiol to calcitriol (1, 25-h ydroxylation of calcitriol, di active form of vitamin d).",Biology
"pep is converted back into 2-phosphogl ycerate, which is converted into 3-phosphogl ycerate.","Di pep dey converted back into 2-phosphogl ycerate, wey dey converted back into 3-phosphogl ycerate, wey dey converted into 3-phosphogl ycerate.",Biology
peripheral blood sensors ar e found in the walls ofthe aor ta and car otid arteries.,Di peripheral blood sensors dey found for di walls of di aor ta and car otid arteries.,Biology
the peripheral tissues preferential ly absorb glucose.,di peripheral tissues preferentially dey absorb glucose,Biology
"peritubular capil laries receive the solut es and water, returning them to the circulation.","Di peritubular capil laries receive di solut es and water, return dem to di circulation.",Biology
"if sperm do note xit through the vas, either because the person has had av asect omy or has not ejaculat ed, in what region ofthe t estis do they remain?","Di person no get v asect omy or no exit through di vas, either because di person no get v asect omy or no ejaculat ed, in what region of di t estis do di y remain?",Biology
"on average, a person r equir es 1500 to 2000 calories f or normal daily activity, although routine exercise will increase that amount.","Di person r equir as 1500 to 2000 calories f or normal daily activity, although routine exercise fit l increase dat amount.",Biology
"the person must closely follow as trict diet that is lo w in phen ylalanine to avoids ymp toms and damage. phen ylalanine is found in high c oncentr ations in artificial s weeteners, including aspar tame.",Di person t closely follow trict diet wey dey lo w for phen ylalanine to avoids ymp toms and damage.,Biology
a person who is diabetic and uses insulin can initiate ketoacidosis if a dose of insulin is missed.,Di person wey dey diabetic and uses insulin go initiate ketoacidosis if dose of insulin dey missed.,Biology
"a person who has a blood ph above 7. 45 is consider ed to bein alk alosis, and a ph above 7. 8 is fatal.","Di person wey get blood ph above 7. 45 dey consider ed to be for alk alosis, and a ph above 7. 8 dey fatal.",Biology
"a person who has a blood ph below 7. 35 is consider ed to bein acidosis (actually, ""physiological acidosis,""because blood is not truly acidic until its ph drops below 7), and ac ontinuous blood ph below 7. 0 can be fatal.","Di person wey get blood ph below 7. 35 dey consider ed to bein acidosis (actually, ""physiological acidosis,""because blood no dey truly acidic until dia ph drops below 7), and a continuous blood ph below 7. 0 dey fatal.",Biology
"move the ph away from the optimum f or a specific enzyme andy ou ma y severely hamper its function throughout the body, including hormone binding, central nervous system signaling, or m yocar dial c ontr action.","Di ph away from di optimum f or a specific enzyme andy or ma y dey hamper im function throughout di bodi, including hormone binding, central nervous system signaling, or m yocar dial c ontr action.",Biology
"ph is regulated through buffers, expiration of co2, and e xcretion of acid or base by the kidneys.","Di ph dey egulated through buffers, expiration of co2, and e xcretion of acid or base by di kidneys",Biology
"changes in the ph of csf affect ther espir atory center in the medul la oblong ata, which can directly modulat e breathing rate to bring the ph back into the normal range.","Di ph of csf affect di respiratory center for di medul la oblong ata, wey fit dey modulat e breathing rate to bring di ph back into di normal range.",Biology
"the ph range of urine is 4. 5 to 8. 0, and is affected by diet.","Di ph range of urine na 4. 5 to 8. 0, and dey affected by diet.",Biology
these physical and emotional conditions can lead to int errup tions in the v asodilation pathway and r esul t in an inability to achieve an erection.,Di physical and emotional conditions go lead to interruption pathway and r esul t for di inability to achieve an erection.,Biology
"the ph ysiologic goal is to modify the composition ofthe plasma and, in doing so, produce the waste product urine.","Di ph ysiologic goal dey modify di composition of di plasma and, for do so, produce di waste product urine.",Biology
"this phase ofthe ovarian cycle, when the tertiary follicles ar e growing and secr eting estrogen, is known as the f ollicular phase.","Di phase of di ovarian cycle, wen di tertiary follicles dey growing and secreting estrogen, dey known as di f ollicular phase.",Biology
"menses phase the menses phase ofthe menstrual cycle is the phase during which the lining is shed; that is, the days that the person mens truat es.","Di phase wey di menstrual cycle dey di phase during which di lining dey shed; dat na, di days wey di person mens truat",Biology
"as with the phosphate buffer, aw eak acid or weak base captures the free ions, and a significant change in ph is prevented.","Di phosphate buffer, aw eak acid or weak base captures di free ions, and significant change for ph dey prevent.",Biology
"phosphate is found in phospholipids, such as those that make up the cell membrane, and in atp, nucleotides, and buffers.","Di phosphate dey found for phospholipids, such as those wey make up di cell membrane, and for tp, nucleotides, and buffers.",Biology
"additionally, because phosphate is a major constituent ofthe icf, any significant destruction of cells can r esul t in dumping of phosphate into the ecf.","Di phosphate dey major constituent of di icf, any significant destruction of cells don r esul t for dumping of phosphate into di ecf.",Biology
these food-caused odors ar e harmless. 25.1 physical characteristics of urine 1111 figure 25. 2 urine color urine volume varies consider ably.,Di physical characteristics of urine 1111 figure 25. 2 urine color urine volume dey vary considerably.,Biology
"in the collecting ducts, the apical surfaces of intercalat ed cells have proton pumps that actively secr ete h+into the luminal, forming urine to remove it from the body.","Di pical surfaces of intercalat ed cells have proton pumps wey dey actively secrete h+in di luminal, forming urine to remove im from di bodi.",Biology
"however, people in lower-income countries often do not have access to regular pap smears.",Di pipo for lower-income countries often no have access to regular pap smears,Biology
"in people who have cystic fibrosis, chloride levels in sweat ar e tw o to five times those of normal levels, and analysis of sweat is often used in the diagnosis ofthe disease.","Di pipo wey dey ve cystic fibrosis, chloride levels for sweat ar e tw o to five times wey dey normal level, and analysis of sweat dey use for di diagnosis of di disease.",Biology
people with high blood pressure are sometimes prescribed a ce inhibitors to lower their blood pressure.,Di pipo wit high blood pressure dey sometimes prescribed ce inhibitors to lower dia blood pressure.,Biology
"pulmonary edema is excess fluid in the air sacs ofthe lungs, ac ommon s ymp tom of heart and/or kidney failure. people with pulmonary edema likely will experience difficulty breathing, and they ma y experience chest pain.","Di pipo wit pulmonary edema dey xcess fluid for di air sacs of di lungs, ac ommon s ymp tom of heart and or kidney failure.",Biology
"the lh surge induces many changes in the dominant f ollicle, including stimulating ther esump tion of meiosis ofthe primary oocyt e to a secondary oocyt e. as noted earlier, the polar body that r esul ts from unequal cell division simply degr ades.",Di polar body wey r esul t from unequal cell division simply degr ades.,Biology
the portion ofthe uterus superior to the opening ofthe uterine tubes is called the fundus.,Di portion of di uterus superior to di opening of di uterine tubes dey called di fundus.,Biology
"the pos t-ovulat ory increase in progesterone, which char acterizes the lut eal phase, is k ey for maintaining a thick stratum functionalis.","Di pos t-ovulat ory increase for progesterone, wey char acterizes di lut eal phase, na k ey for maintaining thick stratum functionalis.",Biology
the pos t-ovulat ory phase of progesterone secretion is known as the lut eal phase ofthe ovarian cycle.,Di pos t-ovulat ory phase of progesterone secretion dey known as di lut eal phase of di o variancy cle.,Biology
the positive feedback loop by which more estrogen triggers release of more lh and fsh only occurs at this point in the cycle.,Di positive feedback loop by wey more estrogen triggers release of more lh and fsh only occurs for dis point for di cycle.,Biology
"potassium is e xcreted, both actively and passively, through ther enal tubules, especially the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts.","Di potassium dey xcreted, both actively and passively, through di renal tubules, specially di distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts.",Biology
"in c ontr ast to sodium, potassium has very little effect on osmotic pressure.",Di potassium don very little effect on osmotic pressure.,Biology
the pr eprostatic ur ethr a is very short and inc orpor ated into the bladder wall.,Di pr eprostatic ur ethr a dey very short and incorporated into di bladder wall,Biology
"in turn, the pr esenc e of protein in the urine increases its osmolarity; this holds more water in the fil trate and r esul ts in an increase in urine volume.",Di pr esenc e of protein for di urine increase its osmolarity; dis holds more water for di fil trate and r esul ts for urine volume.,Biology
"as na+is pumped from the forming urine, water is passively recap tured for the circulation; this pr eser vation of vascular volume is critically important f or the maint enanc e of a normal blood pressure.",Di pr eser vation of vascular volume dey critically important f or di maint enanc e of normal blood pressure.,Biology
the pr evalenc e of cervical cancer in the united states is very low because of regular screening exams called pap smears.,Di pr evalenc e of cervical cancer for di united stat dey very low because of regular scr ening exams called pap smears.,Biology
treatment f or diabetic coma is ing estion or injection of sugar; its prevention is the proper daily administration of insulin.,Di prevention na di pr operdail y administration of insulin.,Biology
this prevents the continued breakdown of proteins that serve as carbon sources for gluc oneog enesis.,Di prevents di continued breakdown of proteins wey serve as carbon sources for gluc oneog enesis.,Biology
"as seen in the previous graph, sodium(na+) ions and chloride(cl-) ions ar e concentrated in the ecf ofthe body, whereas potassium (k+)ions ar e concentrated inside cells.","Di previous graph, sodium(na+) ions and chloride(cl-) ions dey concentrat ated inside cells.",Biology
"this pr ocedur e is called av asect omy, and it is an eff ectiv e form of birth control.","Di pr ocedur e dey called v asect omy, and e dey eff ectiv e form of birth control.",Biology
"as y ou might have surmised, this process also works in the opposite direction.",Di process also works for di opposite direction.,Biology
"the process begins with theo varian stem cells, oroogonia (figure 27. 11).","Di process begin wit di varian sTem cells, oroogonia (figure 27. 11).",Biology
lipog enesis begins with ac etyl coa and advances by the subsequent addition of two carbon atoms from another ac etyl coa; this process is repeat ed until fatty acids ar e the appr opriat e length.,Di process dey begin wit ac etyl coa and advances by di subsequent addition of two carbon for oms from another ac etyl coa; dis process dey repeat ed until fatty acids ar e di appr opriat e length.,Biology
this process is unimportant in males due to low levels of circulating progesterone.,Di process dey unimportant for males due to low levels of circulating progesterone.,Biology
"the process is reversed in the pulmonary capil laries tore-form co2, which then can diffuse into the air sacs to be e xhaled into the atmosphere. this process is discussed in detail in the chapter on ther espir atory system.","Di process na reversed for di pulmonary capil laries tore-form co2, wey dey diffuse into di air sacs to be e xhaled for di atmosphere.",Biology
micturition is the process of voiding the urine and involves both in voluntary and voluntary actions.,Di process of void di urine and involves both for voluntary and voluntary actions.,Biology
"this process takes place primarily in the liver during periods of low glucose, that is, under conditions of fasting, starvation, and lo w carbohydrate diets.","Di process take dey place primarily for di liver during periods of low glucose, wey dey under conditions of fasting, starvation, and lo w carbohydrate diets.",Biology
the process that begins with spermat ogonia and concludes with the production of sperm is cal ledsperma togenesis.,Di process wey begin wit spermat ogonia and concludes wit di production of sperm na cal ledsperma togenesis.,Biology
"in conditions of low glucose, such as fasting, starvation, or lo w carbohydrate diets, glucose can be synthesized from lactat e, pyruv ate, glycerol, alanine, or glutamat e. this process, called gluc oneog enesis, is almost ther everse of glycolysis and serves to create glucose molecules f or glucose-dependent organs, such as the brain, when glucose levels fall below normal.","Di process, called gluc oneog enesis, dey almost di reverse of low glucose, such as fasting, starvation, or lo w carbohydrate diets, glucose dey synthesized from lactat e, pyruv ate, glycerol, alanine, or glutamat e.",Biology
"this process, cal ledlipol ysis, takes place in the cyt oplasm.","Di process, cal ledlipol ysis, e dey place for di cyt oplasm",Biology
this processed liquid is stored until ac onvenient time f or excretion.,Di processed liquid dey store until convenient time f or excretion.,Biology
"these processes can be limited by thee xchang e of potassium by ther enal cells, which use a k+-h+exchange mechanism (antipor ter).","Di processes go limit by di e xchang e of potassium by di renal cells, wey use k+-h+exchange mechanism (antiporter).",Biology
"because the processing of amino acids r esul ts in the creation of metabolic int ermediat es, including p yruv ate, acetyl coa, acetoacyl coa, oxaloac etat e, and -ketoglutar ate, amino acids can serve as a source of energy production through the k rebs cycle (figure 24. 19). figure 24. 20 summarizes the pathways of catabolism and anabolism f or carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. 1084 24 metabolism and nutrition access f or free at opens tax. org figure 24. 19 energy from amino acids amino acids can be broken down into precursors f or gl ycolysis or the k rebs cycle.","Di processing of amino acids r eul ts for di creation of metabolic int ermediat e, including p yruv ate, acetyl coa, acetoacyl coa, oxaloac etat e, and -ketoglutar ate, amino acids fit serve as a source of energy production through di k rebs cycle (figure 24. 20). figure 24. 20",Biology
this pr oduc es four haploid daughter cells (spermatids).,Di pr oduc dey four haploid daughter cells (spermatids).,Biology
"under anaer obic conditions, atp production is limited to those g ener ated by glycolysis.",Di production dey limit to those g ener ated by glycolysis,Biology
it induces the production of calcium-binding proteins that tr anspor t ca++into the cell.,Di production of calcium-binding proteins wey tr anspor t ca++in di cell.,Biology
"these projections int erdigitat e to form filtration slits, lea ving small gaps between the digits to form a sie ve.","Di projections int erdigitat e to form filtration slits, lea ving small gap wey dey betw dia digits to form a sie ve.",Biology
a proper c oncentr ation of solut es in the blood is important in maintaining osmotic pressure both in the glomerulus and s ystemical ly.,Di proper c oncentr ation of solut e for di blood dey important for maintain osmotic pressure both for di glomerulus and s ystemical ly.,Biology
"about the size of a walnut, the prostate is formed of both muscular and glandular tissues.",Di prostate dey ormed of both muscular and glandular tin sues.,Biology
the prostate normally doubles in size during puberty.,Di prostate normally double for size during puberty.,Biology
"in order to avoid breaking down the proteins that make up the pancreas and small intestine, pancreatic enzymes ar e released as inactive pr oenzymes that ar e only activated in the small intestine.","Di proteins wey make up di pancreas and small intestine, pancreatic enzymes dey release as inactive pr oenzymes wey dey active for dismal l intestine.",Biology
"in both males and females, the proximal ur ethr a is lined by transitional epithelium, whereas the terminal portion is a nonk eratiniz ed, s tratified squamous epithelium.","Di proximal ur ethr a dey lined by transitional epithelium, whereas di terminal portion na nonk eratiniz ed, s tratified squamous epithelium.",Biology
"pregnant people with pku ar e at a high risk f or exposing the fetus to too much phen ylalanine, which can cross the placenta and affect fetal development.","Di pregnant pipo wit pku ar e for high risk f or exposing di fetus to too much phen ylalanine, wey fit cross di placenta and affect fetal development.",Biology
"gram-negative bacteria metaboliz e nitrate into nitrit e(no 2), and its presence in the urine is indirect e videnc e of infection.",Di presence for di urine dey indirect e videnc e of infection,Biology
"its release is usually stimulated by decreases in blood pressure, and so the preservation of adequate blood pressure is its primary role.",Di preservation of adequate blood pressure na di primary role.,Biology
"these primary oocyt es ar e then arrested in this stage of meiosis i, only to resume it years later, beginning at puberty and continuing until the person is near menopause(the cessation ofa female 's reproductive functions).","Di primary oocyt dey ar e then resume am years later, beginning at puberty and continuing until di person dey near menopause(the cessation of female 's reproductive functions).",Biology
"within the growing sec ondar y follicle, the primary oocyt e no w secr etes a thin ac ellular membrane called the z ona pellucida that will playa critical role in fertilization.",Di primary oocyt e no w secre thin ac ellular membrane called di Z ona pellucida wey fit l play critical role for fertilization.,Biology
"primordial f ollicles have onl ya single flat layer of support cells, cal ledgranulosa cells, that surround the oocyt e, and they cans tay in this resting state for years some until right before menopause.","Di primordial f ollicles have only single flat lay of support cells, cal ledgranulosa cells, wey surround di oocyt e, and di y fit tay for dis resting state for years some until right before menopause.",Biology
still other channels in the principal cells secr ete k+into the collecting duct in direct pr opor tion to ther ecovery of na+.,Di principal cells secr ek+in di cells secr ek+in di collecting duct for direct pr opor tion to di recovery of na+,Biology
intracellular fluid the icf lies within cells and is the principal component ofthe cyt osol/cyt oplasm.,Di principal component of di cyt osol cyt oplasm.,Biology
its principal function is to maintain your body's acidbase balance by being part of buffer systems.,Di principal function dey to maintain y awa bodi 's acidbase balance by being part of buffer systems.,Biology
the principle task ofthe nephr on population is to balance the plasma to homeos tatic set points and e xcrete potential toxins in the urine.,Di principle task of di nephr on population dey to balance di plasma to homeos tatic set points and e xcrete potential toxins for di urine.,Biology
"diur esis, which is the production of urine in excess of normal levels, begins about 30 minutes after drinking a large quantity of fluid.","Di production of urine fore xcess of normal levels, begin about 30 minute as after drink large quantity of fluid.",Biology
"a. tea b. coffee c. alcohol d. milk 26. progesterone can bind to receptors f or which hormone that, when released, activates water retention?","Di progesterone fit bind to receptors f or which hormone wey, wen released, active ates water retention?",Biology
progesterone is asteroid that is s tructur ally similar to aldos terone.,Di progesterone na steroid wey dey s tructur ally similar to aldos terone.,Biology
"progesterone triggers negative feedback at the h ypothalamus and pituitar y, which keeps gnrh, lh, and fsh secr etions low, so none w dominant f ollicles develop at this time.","Di progesterone triggers negative feedback for di h ypothalamus and pituitar y, wey keeps gnrh, lh, and fsh secr etions low, so none w dominant f ollicles develop for dis time.",Biology
"prostaglandins will be secr eted that cause c onstriction ofthe spiral arteries, reducing oxygen supply.","Di prostaglandins wey dey secreted say cause c onstriction of di spiral arteries, reduce o oxygen supply.",Biology
"prostate cancer is detected b ya medical history, a blood test, and a rectal exam that allows physicians to palpat e the prostate and check f or unusual masses.","Di prostate cancer dey detected by medical hintory, blood test, and rectal exam say allows physicians to palpat e di prostate and check f or unusual masses.",Biology
protein buffers in blood plasma and cells nearly all proteins can function as buffers.,Di protein buffers for blood plasma and cells nearly all proteins fit function as buffers.,Biology
active renin is a protein comprised of 304 amino acids that clea ves several amino acids fr omangio tensinog ento produce angio tensin i.,Di protein comprised of 304 amino acids wey clea ves several amino acids wey clea ves several amino acids wey clea ves several amino acids fr omangio tensinog ento produce angio tensin i.,Biology
protein is also used f or growth and repair.,Di protein dey also use f or growth and repair,Biology
these proteins ar e found in al l cells in varying amounts and help regulate water movement across membranes and through cells by creating a pas sageway across the h ydrophobic lipid bila yer membrane.,Di proteins dey found for al l cells for varying amounts and help regulate water movement across membranes and through cells by create pass sageway across di h ydrophobic lipid bikos wey dey di h ydrophobic lipid bikos.,Biology
c. proteins have both positive and negative charges on their surface.,Di proteins na both positive and negative charges on dia surface,Biology
"proteins ar e made up of amino acids, which contain positively charged amino groups and negatively charged carbo xyl groups.","Di proteins wey dey made up of amino acids, wey contain positively charged amino groups and negatively charged carbo xyl groups.",Biology
pth is released from the par athyroid gland in response toa decrease in the c oncentr ation of blood calcium.,Di pth dey eleased from di par athyroid gland for response to decrease for di concentration of blood calcium.,Biology
"when levels ar e adequate or high, les s pth is released and more ca++remains in the forming urine to be lost. phosphate levels move in the opposite direction.",Di pth dey release and more ca++remain for di forming urine to be lost.,Biology
"pulmonary edema can be life threatening, because it c ompr omises g as e xchang e in the lungs, and anyone having s ymp toms should immediately seek medical care. in pulmonary edema r esul ting from heart failure, excessive leakage of water occurs because fluids g et""back ed up""in the pulmonary capil laries ofthe lungs, when the left v entricle ofthe heart is unable to pump sufficient blood into the systemic circulation.","Di pulmonary edema r eul ting from heart failure, excessive leakage of water occurs because fluids g and e xchang e for di lungs, and anyone having s ymp toms wey dey backup for di lungs, and anyone having s ymp toms wey dey backed up",Biology
pyruv ate is ac ommon starting material f or gluc oneog enesis.,Di pyruv ate dey common start material f or gluc oneog enesis.,Biology
these qualities c ontribut e to theo verall small size ofthe sperm(the head is only 5m long).,Di qualities wey dey apun e to di overall small size of di sperm( di head dey only 5m long).,Biology
"the quantity and quality of food that is ingested, dig ested, and absorbed affects the amount of fat that is stored as excess calories.","Di quantity and quality of food wey dey ingested, dig ested, and absorb affects di amount of fat wey dey tored as excess calories",Biology
both the quantity and quality ofthe food y ou eat affect your metabolism and can affect your overall health.,Di quantity and quality wey dey f di food y ou eat affect your metabolism and fit affect y awa overall health,Biology
"""this question will help y ou to understand ho w the urinary system maintains homeos tasis and affects al l the other systems ofthe body and the quality of one's life.",Di question wey l help y ou to understand ho w di urinary system maintain homeos tasis and affects al l di oda system of di bodi and di quality of one life.,Biology
"on a sunny day, ther adiation from the sun warms the skin.",Di radiation from di sun warms di skin,Biology
"ther apid increase in blood volume fills the er ectile chambers, and the increased pressure ofthe filled chambers c ompr esses the thin-walled penile v enules, preventing v enous dr ainag e ofthe penis.","Di rapid increase for blood volume fills di er ectile chambers, and di increased pressure of di filled chambers c ompr esses di thin-walled penile v enules, prevent v enous dr ainag e of di penis.",Biology
"this rate determines how much solut e is retained or discarded, ho w much water is retained or discarded, and ul timat ely, the osmolarity of blood and the blood pressure ofthe body.","Di rate di ermines how much solut e dey retained or discarded, ho w much water dey retained or discarded, and ul timat ely, di osmolarity of blood and di blood pr esure of di bodi.",Biology
"with lo w levels ofthe p yruv ate deh ydrogenase c omple x (pdc), ther ate of cycling through the k rebs cycle is dr amatical ly reduced.",Di rate of cycling through di k rebs cycle dey dr amatical ly reduced.,Biology
"in the v asa r ecta par ticularl y, this rate of flow is important f or tw o additional reasons.",Di rate of flow dey important f or tw o additional reasons.,Biology
ther ate of obesity has been s teadil y rising since the 1980s.,Di rate of obesity don dey s teadil y rising since di 1980s,Biology
"however, ther ate at which e vapor ation occurs depends on r elativ e humidity more sweat evapor ates in lower humidity environments.",Di rate wey e vapor ation occurs depend on r elativ e humidity more sweat evapor ates for lower humidity environments.,Biology
"at the normal ph of 7. 40, the ratio of bicarbonat e to carbonic acid buffer is 20:1.",Di ratio of bicarbonat e to carbonic acid buffer dey 20:1.,Biology
this reaction releases an electron that is then picked up by nad+to create an nadh molecule.,Di reaction release an electron wey dey pickup by nad+to create nadh molecule.,Biology
"in these reactions, an amine group, or ammonium ion, fr om the amino acid is e xchang ed with ak eto group on another molecule.","Di reactions, amine group, or ammonium ion, fr om di amino acid dey xchang ed wit keto group on another molecule.",Biology
r ecal l that an osmotic gradient is pr oduc ed by the difference in c oncentr ation of all solut es on either side ofa semi-permeable membrane.,Di r ecal l say di osmotic gradient dey pr oduc ed by di difference for concentration of all solut em on either side of semi-permeable membrane.,Biology
"while ther eduction in se x steroids is akin to female menopause, there is no clear signsuch as a lack ofa menstrual periodt o denote the initiation of andr opause.","Di reduction for se x steroids dey akin to female menopause, dir e no clear sign as lack ofa menstrual periodt o denote di initiation of andr opause.",Biology
this reflex ma y be pr eser ved even in the face of spinal cord injury that r esul ts in par aplegia or quadriplegia.,Di reflex ma y be pr eser ved even for di face of spinal cord injury wey r esul ts for par aplegia or quadriplegia.,Biology
ther egulation begins in the h ypothalamus.,Di regulation begin for di h ypothalamus.,Biology
your blood25. 7 regulation of renal blood flow 1137 pressure will decrease when y ou ar e relaxed or sleeping.,Di regulation of renal blood flow 1137 pressure wey l decrease wen y dey relaxed or sleep.,Biology
control of testosterone ther egulation of testosterone c oncentr ations throughout the body is critical f or male r eproductiv e function.,Di regulation of testosterone di regulation of testosterone concentrations throughout di bodi na critical f or male r eproductiv e function.,Biology
its release is stimulated by prostaglandins and no from the jga in response to decreased extracellular fluid volume.,Di release dey stimulate by prostaglandins and no from di jga for response to decreased extracellular fluid volume.,Biology
"recall that ther elease of no induces relaxation ofthe smooth muscles that surround the penile arteries, leading to the v asodilation necessary to achieve an erection.","Di release of no induces relaxation of di smooth muscle wey dey surround di penile arteries, leading to di v asodilation necessary to achieve an erection.",Biology
"another 20 percent comes from physical activity, and ther emaining 10 percent is necessary for body thermor egulation or temper atur e control.","Di remaining 20 percent comes from physical activity, and di remaining 10 percent na necessary for bodi thermor egulation or temper atur e control.",Biology
ther enal columns also serve to divide the kidney into 68 lobes and provide a supportive framework f or vessels that enter and exit the cortex.,Di renal columns also serve to divide di kidney into 68 lobes and provide supportive framework f or vessels wey enter and exit di cortex.,Biology
ther enal capacity is large but slow (minutes to hours).,Di renal capacity dey large but slow (minutes to hours).,Biology
"if a person has a hemat ocrit of 45, then ther enal plasma flow is 55 percent.",Di renal plasma flow dey 55 percent.,Biology
"ther enal system can also adjust blood ph through the excretion of hydrogen ions(h+) and the c onser vation of bicarbonat e, but this process takes hours to days to have an effect.","Di renal system don also adjust blood ph through di excretion of hydrogen ions(h+) and di c onser vation of bicarbonat e, but dis process na hours t oda ys to have effect.",Biology
"r enin converts angiot ensinog en into angiot ensin i, and ace pr oduc ed in the lung converts angiot ensin i into biologically active angiot ensin ii (figure 25. 23).","Di r enin converts angiot ensinog en into biologically active angiot ensin i, and ace pr oduc ed for di lung converts angiot ensin i into biologically active angiot ensin i",Biology
"r eproductiv e behavior or medical innovation had to facilitate the transfer of male g amet esthe spermt o the female g amet e, an oocyt e(eg g).","Di r eproductiv e fit facilitate di transfer of male g amet as di spermt o di female g amet e, an oocyt e(eg g).",Biology
"propose the mechanism by which bulimia c ontribut ed to the lab r esul ts seen.26 critical thinking questions 1183 1184 26 critical thinking questions access f or free at opens tax. org intr oduct ionchap ter 27 ther eproductiv e system chapter objective s after studying this chapter, you will be able t o: describe the anatomy ofthe r eproductiv e systems, including their ac cessor y structures explain ther ole of hypothalamic and pituitar y hormones in r eproductiv e function trace the path ofa sperm cell from its initial production through fertilization of an ooc yte explain thee vents in theo vary prior to ovulation describe the development and matur ation ofthe se x organs and the emer genc e of sec ondar y sex characteristics during puberty small, unc oordinat ed, and slick with amniotic fluid, a newborn enc ount ers the world outside of her the womb.","Di r eproductiv e system chapter objective s afta study di chapter, you fit l be able t o: describe di anatomy of di r eproductiv e system wey bulimia c ontribut ed to di lab r Esul ts seen",Biology
respiratory regulation of acid-base balance ther espir atory system c ontribut es to the balance of acids and bases in the body by regulating the blood levels of carbonic acid( figure 26. 16).,Di r espir atory system c ontribut am to di balance of acids and bases for di bodi by regulatin di blood levels of carbonic acid( figure 26. 16).,Biology
"thus, ther espir atory contribution to acid-base balance is usually discussed in terms of co2(rather than of carbonic acid).",Di respiratory contribution to acid-base balance dey usually discussed fort erms of co2(no be of carbonic acid).,Biology
respiratory compensation respiratory compensation f or metabolic acidosis increases ther espir atory rate to drive off co2and r eadjus t the bicarbonat e to carbonic acid ratio to the 20:1 level.,Di respiratory rate to drive off co2and r eadjus t di bicarbonat e to carbonic acid ratio to di 20:1 level.,Biology
ther espir atory tract can adjust the blood ph upward in minutes by exhaling c o2from the body.,Di respiratory tract don adjust di blood ph upward for minutes by exhaling c o2from di bodi.,Biology
"ther esul t is the creation ofa fil trate that does not contain cells or large proteins, and has a slight predominanc e of positively charged subs tanc es.","Di r esul t dey di creation ofa fil trate wey no dey contain cells or large proteins, and no dey slight predominanc e of positively charged subs tanc e.",Biology
"ther esul t is the production of -hydroxybutyr ate, the primary ketone body found in the blood.","Di r esul t dey di production of -hydroxybutyr ate, di primary ketone body found for di blood.",Biology
"ther esul t is an increase in the water permeability of these cells and, thus, a large increase in water passage from the urine through the walls ofthe collecting tubules, leading to more reabsorp tion of water into the bloodstream.","Di r esul t dey increase for di water permeability of di cells and, thus, large increase for water passage from di urine through di walls of di collecting tubules, leading to more reabsorption of water for di blood tream.",Biology
ther esul t of this increased blood flow to the penis and r educ ed blood return from the penis is erection.,Di r esul t of dis increased blood flow to di penis and r educ ed blood return from di penis dey erection.,Biology
"ther esul ting fatty acids ar e oxidiz ed by-oxidation into ac etyl coa, which is used by the k rebs cycle.","Di r esul ting fatty acids ar e oxidiz ed by-oxidation into ac etyl coa, wey dey use by di k rebs cycle.",Biology
"ther esul ting increased h ydrostatic pressure within pulmonary capil laries, as blood is still coming in from the pulmonary arteries, causes fluid to be pushed out of them and into lung tissues.","Di r esul ting increased h ydrostatic pressure within pulmonary capil laries, as blood dey still coming for from di pulmonary capil laries, as blood dey push out of demand into lung tissues.",Biology
"if the oocyt e is successfully fertilized, ther esul ting zy gote will begin to divide into tw o cells, then four, and soon, as it makes its w ay through the uterine tube and into the uterus.","Di r Esul ting zy gote will begin to divide into tw o cells, and soon, as e mak am im w ay through di uterine tube and into di uterus.",Biology
this r esul ts in a decrease in the total amount of energy that is pr oduc ed by the cells ofthe body.,Di r esul ts for dis decrease for di total amount of energy wey dey pr oduc ed by di cells of di bodi.,Biology
(micr ograph provided by ther egents of university of michigan medical school 2012)a second cell type in this apparatus is the juxtaglomerular cell.,Di r ograph provided by di regents of university of michigan medical school 2012)a second cell type for dis apparatus na di juxtaglomerular cell.,Biology
"(micr ograph provided by ther egents of university of michigan medical school 2012)hormonal control ofthe ovarian cycle the process of development that we have just described, fr om primordial f ollicle to early tertiary follicle, tak es appr oximat ely tw o months in humans.","Di r ograph provided by di regents of university of michigan medical school 2012)hormonal control of di ovarian cycle di process of development wey we have just described, fr om primordial f ollicle to early tertiary follicle, e dey approximately tw o months for humans.",Biology
ther ole of na+and ca++homeos tasis has been discussed at length.,Di role of na+and ca++homeos tasis don discussed for length.,Biology
"ther ound ligament attaches to the uterus near the uterine tubes, and extends to the labia major a.","Di round ligament for taches to di Uterine tubes, and extend to di labia major a.",Biology
"increasing the rate and/or depth of respiration (which y ou might feel the""ur ge""to do after holding your breath) allows you to exhale more co2.",Di rate and or depth of respiration ( wey y dey carry y awa breath) allows you to exhale more co2.,Biology
plasma osmolality is thus the ratio of solut es to water in blood plasma.,Di ratio of solut dey to water for blood plasma.,Biology
"recent r esear ch has confirmed that vitamin dr eceptors ar e present in most, if not all, cells ofthe body, reflecting the systemic impor tanc e of vitamin d.","Di recent r esear ch don c onfirme say vitamin dr eceptors ar e present for most, if no all, cells of di bodi, reflect di systemic impor tanc e of vitamin d.",Biology
a recent study suggests that the hpv vaccine has cut ther ates of hpv infection by the four targeted strains at least in half.,Di recent study suggests say di hpv vaccine don cut di rates of hpv infection by di f awa target trains for least for half.,Biology
the recommendation f or daily intak e/consumption of potassium is 4700 mg.,Di recommendation f or daily intake consumption of potassium dey 4700 mg,Biology
"a reduction in spermat ogenesis r esul ting in lowered fertility is also r epor ted, and sexual dysfunction can also be as sociat ed with andr opausal s ymp toms.","Di reduction for spermat ogenesis r epor ted, and sexual dysfunction fit also be socialt ed wit andr opausal s ymp toms.",Biology
"additionally, the regulation of blood pressure is ar ole shared with the heart and blood vessels.",Di regulation of blood pressure na role shared wit di heart and blood vessels.,Biology
"regulation of cl chloride is important in acidbase balance in thee xtracellular space and has other functions, such as in the stomach, where it combines with hydrogen ions in the stomach lumen to form h ydrochloric acid, aiding digestion.",Di regulation of cl chloride dey important for acidbase balance for di extracellular space and e dey aiding digestion.,Biology
"regulation of drugs is by glomerular filtration, tubular secretion, and tubular r eabsorp tion.","Di regulation of drugs dey by glomerular filtration, tubular secretion, and tubular r eabsorption.",Biology
regulation of extracellular k+ potassium is present in a 30-fold greater concentration inside the cell than outside the cell.,Di regulation of extracellular k+ potassium dey present for 30-fold greater concentration inside di cell than outside di cell.,Biology
regulation of extracellular na+sodium has avery strong osmotic effect and attracts water.,Di regulation of extracellular na+sodium don very strong osmotic effect and for tracts water.,Biology
"regulation of sodium and potassium sodium is r eabsorbed from ther enal fil trate, and potassium is e xcreted into the fil trate in ther enal collecting tubule.","Di regulation of sodium and potassium sodium dey eabsorbed from di renal fil trate, and potassium dey e xcreted for di fil trate for di renal collecting tubule.",Biology
regulation of water intake osmolality is ther atio of solut es in a solution t o av olume of solvent in a solution.,Di regulation of water intake osmolality dey di ratio of solut for solution t o av olume of solvent for solution.,Biology
"the renal columns are connective tissue extensions that r adiat e downward from the cortex through the medul la to separate the most characteristic features ofthe medul la, the renal pyramids and renal papil lae.","Di renal columns dey connective tissue extensions wey r adiat e downward from di cortex through di medul la to separate di most characteristic wey r adiat e downward from di cortex through di medul la, di renal pyramids and renal papil lae.",Biology
"renal c orpuscle as discussed earlier, ther enal c orpuscle c onsis ts of a tuft of capil laries called the glomerulus that is largely surrounded by bowman 's (glomerular) capsule.",Di renal c orpuscle c onsis ts of a tuft of capil laries called di glomerulus wey dey largely surrounded by bowman 's (glomerular) capsule.,Biology
"renal failure (loss of epo production)is as sociat ed with anemia, which makes it difficult for the body to cope with increased oxygen demands or to supply oxygen adequately even under normal conditions.","Di renal failure (loss of epo production)dey as sociat ed wit anemia, wey make difficult for di bodi to cope wit increased o oxygen demand or to supply oxygen adequately even under normal conditions.",Biology
"in order to balance the increased acid production, the respiration rate goes upto remove the co2.",Di respiration rate go upto remove di co2.,Biology
"respiratory acidosis is problematic, as excess co2is present in the blood.","Di respiratory acidosis dey problematic, as excess co2is for di blood.",Biology
"respiratory alk alosis is problematic, as c o2deficiency is present in the bloodstream.","Di respiratory alk alosis dey problematic, as c o2deficiency dey present for di blood tream.",Biology
"hence, the respiratory route isles s efficient at c ompensating f or metabolic alk alosis than f or acidosis.",Di respiratory route dey efficient for c ompensating f or metabolic alk alosis than f or acidosis.,Biology
ther est ofthe nephr on c onsis ts of ac ontinuous sophis ticat ed tubule whose proximal end surrounds the glomerulus in an intimate embr acethis is bowman 's capsule.,Di rest of di nephr on c onsis ts of continuous sophisticated tubule wey dey proximal end surrounds di glomerulus for intimate embr acethis na bowman capsule.,Biology
"p enile er ections ar e the result of vasoc ongestion, or eng orgement ofthe tissues because of more arterial blood flowing into the penis than is leaving in the veins.","Di result of vasoc ongestion, or eng orgement of di tissues because of more arterial blood flowing for di penis wey dey leaving for di veins.",Biology
the rise in pressure is sustained by the aldos terone effects initiated by angiot ensin ii; this includes an increase in na+retention and water volume.,Di rise for pressure dey sustained by di aldos terone effects initiated by angiot ensin ii; dis include increase for na+retention and water volume.,Biology
"during ther eproductiv e years, it is a roughly 28-day cycle that can be correlated with, but is not the same as, the menstrual cycle (discussed shortly).","Di roughly 28-day cycle wey dey correlated wit, but no be di same as, di menstrual cycle (discussed shortly).",Biology
the strong ammonia odor y ou ma y detect in bathrooms oral leys is due to the breakdown of urea into ammonia by bacteria in the environment.,Di s between ammonia odor y or ma y detect for bathrooms oral leys dey due to di breakdown of urea into ammonia by bacteria for di environment.,Biology
"in the 1990s, mos t states reported that less than 10 percent of their populations w as obese, and the state with the highest rate reported that only 15 percent of their population w as considered obese.","Di state wit di highest rate reported say only 15 percent of dia population w as obese, and di state wit di highest rate reported say only 15 percent of dia population w as considered obese",Biology
the steps involved in supplying bicarbonat e ions to the system ar e seen in figure 26. 17 and ar e summarized below: step 1: sodium ions ar e reabsorbed from the fil trate in e xchang e for h+by an antipor t mechanism in the apical membranes of cells lining ther enal tubule.,Di steps fore xchang e for h+by antipor t mechanism for di apical membranes of cells wey dey lining di renal tubule.,Biology
"after theses tores have been r eplenished, excess glucose that is absorbed by the liver will be converted into trigl ycerides and fatty acids f or long-term storage.","Di s tori don dey eplenished, excess glucose wey dey absorb by di liver will be converted into trigl ycerides and fatty acids f or long-term storage.",Biology
"as is true f or most cells in the body, the s tructur e of sperm cells speaks to their function.",Di s tructur e of sperm cells speak to dia function.,Biology
the switch to positive feedback which occurs with the elevated estrogen production from the dominant f ollicle then s timulat es the lh surge that will trigger ovulation.,Di switch to positive feedback wey dey curs wit di Elevated Estrogen production from di dominant f ollicle then s timulat as di lh surge wey fit l trigger ovulation.,Biology
"the system is a negative feedback loop because the end products ofthe pathway, testosterone and inhibin, interact with the activity of gnrh to inhibit their o wn production.","Di system dey negative feedback loop because di end products of di pathway, testosterone and inhibin, interact wit di activity of gnrh to inhibit dia o wn production.",Biology
"when y ou eat more glucose or carbohydrates than your body needs, yours ystem uses ac etyl coa to turn thee xcess into fat.",Di system use ac etyl coa to turn di excess into fat.,Biology
"from the intestines, these systems tr anspor t them to the liver, adipose tissue, or muscle cells that will process and use, or store, the energy.","Di systems tr anspor t dem to di liver, adipose tissue, or muscle cells wey fit l process and use, or store, di energy.",Biology
"bicarbonat e(hc o3) is recovered using the same enzyme, carbonic anhydrase (ca), f ound in er ythr ocyt es.","Di same enzyme, carbonic anhydrase (ca), f ound for er ythr ocyt",Biology
"this same enzyme and reaction is used in r ed blood cells in the tr anspor tation of co2, in the stomach to produce hydrochloric acid, and in the pancreas to produce hc o3to buffer acidic ch yme from the stomach.","Di same enzyme and reaction dey use for r ed blood cells for di tr anspor tation of co2, for di stomach to produce hydrochloric acid, and for di pancreas to produce e hydrochloric acid, and for di pancreas to produce e hc o3to buffer acidic ch yme from di stomach.",Biology
the same principle works from the body to the environment.,Di same principle works from di bodi to di environment.,Biology
"when blood pressure increases, smooth muscle cells in the wall ofthe ar teriole ar e stretched and respond by contracting to resist the pressure, resulting in little change in flow. when blood pressure drops, the same smooth muscle cells relax to lower resistance, allowing ac ontinued even flow of blood.","Di same smooth muscle cells for di wall of di arteriole ar e stretched and respond by contracting to resist di prEssure, resulting for little change for flow.",Biology
"tight junctions between these sus tentacular cells create the bloodt estis barrier, which keeps bloodborne subs tanc es from reaching the germ cells and, at the same time, keeps surface antig ens on developing germ cells from escaping into the bloodstream and pr omp ting an autoimmune response.","Di same time, keep surface antig ens on developing germ cells from dey escaping into di bloodstream and pr omp ting an autoimmune response.",Biology
"at the same time that aldos terone causes increased recovery of na+, it also causes greater loss of k+.","Di same time say aldos terone cause increased recovery of na+, e also cause greater loss of k+",Biology
"at the same time that water is freely diffusing out ofthe descending loop through aquaporin channels into the int erstitial spaces ofthe medul la, urea freely diffuses into the lumen ofthe descending loop as it descends deeper into the medul la, much of it to be r eabsorbed from the forming urine when it reaches the collecting duct.","Di same time wey water dey freely diffuse out of di descending loop as dem dec end deeper into di medul la, urea freely diffuse into di lumen of di descending loop as dem dec end deeper into di medul la, urea freely diffuse into di lumen of di descending loop as dem dec end deeper into di medul la, urea",Biology
"scientific research in the 1980s determined that mitochondrial dna w as maternal ly inherited, meaning that y ou can trace your mitochondrial dna directly to your biological mother, her mother, and soon back through your female ancestors.","Di scientific research for di 1980s don ermin say mitochondrial dna w as maternal ly inherit, meaning say y ou fit trace your mitochondrial dna w as maternal ly inherit ectly to your biological mother, her mother, and soon back through y awa female ancestors.",Biology
"the second largest volume is the int erstitial fluid, which surrounds cells that ar e not blood cells.","Di second largest volume dey di int erstitial fluid, wey surrounds cells wey no dey blood cells.",Biology
bicarbonat e bicarbonat e is the second most abundant anion in the blood.,Di second most abundant anion for di blood,Biology
the second priority is the c onser vation of amino acids f or proteins.,Di second priority na di c onser vation of amino acids f or proteins.,Biology
"in addition to its mucus -secr eting cells, the inner muc osa contains ciliat ed cells that beat in the direction ofthe uterus, producing a current that will be critical to move the oocyt e. following o vulation, the sec ondar y oocyt e surrounded b y af ew gr anulosa cells is released into the perit oneal cavity.","Di sec ondar y oocyt e surrounded b y af ew gr anulosa cells, di inner muc osa contains ciliat ed cells wey beat for di direction of di uterus, producing current wey dey critical to move di oocyt e.",Biology
"when the semen r egains its fluids tate, sperm can then pass farther into the female r eproductiv e tract.","Di semen r egains its fluids tate, sperm fit pass far dir into di female r eproductiv e tract.",Biology
"seminal v esicle fluid contains large amounts of fructose, which is used by the sperm mitochondria to generate atp to allow movement through the female r eproductiv e tract.","Di seminal v Esicle fluid contain large amounts of fructose, wey dey use by di sperm mitochondria to generate atp to allow movement through di female r eproductiv e tract.",Biology
"sepsis is also as sociat ed with sexual ly transmitted bacterial infections, especially gonorrhea and chlam ydia.","Di sepsis dey socialt ed wit sexual ly transmitted bacterial infections, specially gonorrhea and chlam ydia.",Biology
interactive link interactive link watch this series o fvideos (e)to look at the movement ofthe oocyt e through theo vary.,Di series o fvideos (e)to make we look di movement of di oocyt e through di o vary.,Biology
several ligaments maintain the position ofthe uterus within the abdominopel vic cavity.,Di several ligaments dey maintain di position of di uterus within di abdominopel vic cavity.,Biology
"severe hyper tonic conditions ma y arise with severe dehydration from lack of water intake, severe vomiting, or unc ontr olled diarrhea.","Di severe hyper tonic conditions wey dey arise wit severe dehydration from lack of water intake, severe vomiting, or unc oda diarrhea.",Biology
the shaft is composed of three c olumn-lik e chambers of erectile tissue that span the length ofthe shaft.,Di shaft dey composed of three c olumn-lik e chambers of erectile tin wey span di length of di shaft.,Biology
the shorter female ur ethr a contributes to the higher incidence of bladder infections in females.,Di shorter female ur ethr don contribut am to di higher incidence of bladder infections for females.,Biology
the significant recovery of solut es from the pct lumen to the int erstitial space creates an osmotic gradient that promotes water recovery.,Di significant recovery of solut em from di pct lumen to di int erstitial space create osmotic gradient wey promot am water recovery.,Biology
this situation is common if y ou ar e exercising strenuousl y over a period of time.,Di situation dey common if y ou ar e exercis strenuousl y over period of time.,Biology
"similar to the situation with h yponatr emia, hypok alemia can occur because of either an absolute reduction of potassium in the body or ar elativ e reduction of potassium in the blood due to ther edis tribution of potassium.","Di situation with yponatr emia, hypok alemia don cur bikos of either absolute reduction of potassium for di bodi or ar elativ e reduction of potassium for di blood due to di r elativ e reduction of potassium for di blood due to di r elativ e reduction of potassium.",Biology
"in such a situation, potassium from the blood ends up in the ecf in abnormally high c oncentr ations.","Di situation, potassium from di blood end up for di ecf for abnormally high concentrations.",Biology
"the six-carbon citr ate molecule is s ystematical ly converted to a five-carbon molecule and then af our-carbon molecule, ending with o xaloac etat e, the beginning ofthe cycle.","Di six-carbon citrate molecule dey systematically converted to a five-carbon molecule and then a four-carbon molecule, ey end with oxaloacetate, the beginning of di cycle.",Biology
"the small intestine also releases digestive hormones, including secr etin and c ck, which s timulat e digestive processes to break down the proteins further.","Dismal l intestine also release digestive hormones, including secr etin and c ck, wey dey timulat e digestive process to break down di proteins further.",Biology
"these smaller peptides are cataboliz ed into their constituent amino acids, which ar e transported across the apical surface ofthe intestinal muc osa in a process that is mediated by sodium-amino acid tr anspor ters.","Dismal ler peptides dey cataboliz ed into dia constituent amino acids, wey dey transported across di pical surface of di intestinal muc osa for process wey dey mediated by sodium-amino acid tr ansporters",Biology
these smal lprimor dial f ollicles are present in newborn females and ar e the prevailing f ollicle type in the adult ovary (figure 27. 12).,Dismal lprimor dial f ollicles dey present for newborn females and ar e di prevailing f ollicle type for di adult ovary (figure 27. 12).,Biology
"when sodium bicarbonat e (nahc o3), comes into contact with a strong acid, such as hcl, carbonic acid(h 2co3), which is aw eak acid, and nacl ar e formed.","Di sodium bicarbonat e (nahc o3), kom into contact wit strong acid, such as hcl, carbonic acid(h 2co3), wey dey weak acid, and nacl ar e form.",Biology
sodium is actively pumped out ofthe pct into the int erstitial spaces between cells and diffuses down its concentration gradient into the peritubular capil lary.,Di sodium dey actively pump out of di pct into di int erstitial spaces betw ec ells and diffuses down dia concentration gradient into di peritubular capil lary,Biology
sodium is actively exchanged fork+using a tp on the basal membrane.,Di sodium dey active ely exchanged fork+using tp on di basal membrane.,Biology
"sodium is freely filtered through the glomerular capil laries ofthe kidneys, and although much ofthe filtered sodium is r eabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule, some remains in the fil trate and urine, and is normally excreted.","Di sodium dey freely filter through di glomerular capil laries of di kidneys, and although much of di fil trate and urine dey normally excreted.",Biology
water follows the sodium due to osmosis.,Di sodium follow di sodium due to osmosis,Biology
"both glucose and na+bind simul taneousl y to the same s ympor t proteins on the apical surface ofthe cell to be tr anspor ted in the same direction, t oward the int erstitial space. sodium moves down its electr ochemical and c oncentr ation gradient into the cell and takes glucose with it.",Di sodium moves down its electr ochemical and c oncentr ation gradient for di cell and dem dey glucose wit am.,Biology
"the sodium can be reused in the tr anspor ter, whereas the amino acids ar e transferred into the bloodstream to be tr anspor ted to the liver and cells throughout the body f or protein synthesis.","Di sodium no be reused for di transporter, whereas di amino acids wey dey transfer into di bloodstream to be tr anspor ted to di liver and cells throughout di bodi f or protein s synthesis.",Biology
"some s ymp toms of alk alosis include c ognitiv e impairment(which can progress to unc onsciousnes s), tingling or numbnes s in thee xtremities, muscle twit ching and spasm, and nausea and vomiting.","Di some s ymp toms of alk alosis include c ognitiv e impairment( wey fit progress to unc onsciousnes s), tingling or numbnes s for di e xtremities, muscle twit ching and spasm, and nausea and vomiting.",Biology
specific gravity is a measure ofthe quantity of solut es per unit volume ofa solution and is traditional ly easier to measure than osmolarity.,Di specific gravity dey measure of di quantity of solut dey per unit volume of solution and dey traditional ly easier to measure than osmolarity.,Biology
"int erestingl y, sperm c ontribut e only dna at fertilization not cyt oplasm.",Di sperm c ontribut e only dna for fertilization no cyt oplasm,Biology
"spermat ogonia divide to produce primary and sec ondar y spermat ocyt es, then spermatids, which finally produce formed sperm.","Di spermat ogonia divide to produce primary and sec ondar y spermat ocyt, then spermatids, wey finally produce e formed sperm.",Biology
spicy foods and green t ea might also be beneficial.,di spicy food and di green tea go also dey beneficial,Biology
"because ofthe spontaneous mutations in mtdna that have oc curr ed over the centuries, researchers can map different ""branches""o ff ofthe ""main trunk"" of our mtdna family tree.","Di spontaneous mutations for mtdna wey have ocurr ed over di centuries, researchers go map different ""branches""o ff of di ""main trunk"" of awa mtdna family tree.",Biology
a. high; lo w; stay the same b. low; lo w; stay the same c. high; high; ar e high d. high; high; ar e low 20. star vation sets in after 3 t o 4 days without food.,Di starvation sets for after 3 t o 4 days without food.,Biology
"interactive link interactive link feature watch this video( to explore the s tructur es ofthe male r eproductiv e system and the path of sperm, which starts in the t estes and ends as the sperm leave the penis through the ur ethr a. where are sperm deposited after they leave the ejaculat ory duct?","Di structure of di male r eproductiv e system and di path of sperm, wey dey tarts for di t estes and ends as di sperm leave di penis through di ur ethr a.",Biology
"""all of these subs tanc es were ""absorbed""in the digestive tract99 percent ofthe water and most ofthe solut es filtered by the nephr on must be r eabsorbed.","Di subs tanc dey were ""absorbed""for di digestive tract99 percent of di water and most of di solut dey filtered by di nephr on must be r eabsorbed",Biology
"in the human body, the subs tanc es that par ticipat e in chemical reactions must remain within narrows ranges of concentration.",Di subs tanc e say par ticipat e for chemical reactions must remain within narrow ranges of concentratation.,Biology
"most commonly, the subs tanc e that absorbs the ion is either aw eak acid, which takes up ah ydroxyl ion(oh-), or aw eak base, which takes up ah ydrogen ion(h+).","Di subs tanc e wey dey absorb di ion dey either aw eak acid, or aw eak base, wey dey up ah ydrogen ion(oh-), or aw eak base, wey dey up ah ydrogen ion(h+).",Biology
"a few ofthe subs tanc es that ar e transported with na+(sympor t mechanism)on the apical membrane include cl, ca++, amino acids, glucose, and.","Di subs tanc e wey dey transported wit na+(sympor t mechanism)on di apical membrane include cl, ca++, amino acids, glucose, and.",Biology
"the successful utilization of this t echnolog y is still several years in the future, but imagine a time when y ou can print a replacement organ or tissue on demand.","Di successful utilization of dis t echnolog y dey still several years for di future, but imagine time wen y dey print replace ement organ or tissue on demand.",Biology
"the superior, anterior portions ofthe labia minor a comet ogether to encir cle the clitoris (or glans clit oris), an organ that originates from the same cells as the glans penis and has abundant nerves that make it important in sexual sensation and orgasm.","Di superior, anterior portions of di labia minor a kom together to encir cle di clitoris (or glans clit oris), an orGan wey dey abundant nerves wey make im important for sexual sensation and gasm.",Biology
on the superior aspect of each kidney is the adr enal gland.,Di superior aspect of each kidney dey di adr enal gland.,Biology
the surge of lh also s timulat es a change in the gr anulosa and theca cells that remain in the f ollicle after the oocyt e has been o vulat ed.,Di surge of lh also s timulat am a change for di gr anulosa and dica cells say remain for di f ollicle after di oocyt e don o vulat ed.,Biology
"the surplus fluid in the int erstitial space that is not returned directly back to the capil laries is drained from tissues by the l ymphatic system, and then re-enters the vascular system at the subcla vian veins.",Di surplus fluid for di int erstitial space no returned directly back to di capil laries dey drained from tissues by di l ymphatic system for di subcla vian veins.,Biology
sympor t channels move na+and cltogether.,Di sympor t channel move na+and cltogether,Biology
insulin also pr omot es the synthesis of protein in muscle.,Di synthesis of protein for muscle.,Biology
synthetic adh is still used occasional ly to stem life-threatening esophag us bleeding in alcoholics.,Di synthetic adh dey still use occasional ly to stem life-threatening Esophagus bleeding for alcoholics.,Biology
"if the temper atur e is higher, for example, when wearing clothes, the body c ompensat es with cooling mechanisms.","Di temper atur e dey higher, for example, wen wearing clothes, di bodi c ompensat e wit cooling mechanisms.",Biology
the term forming urine will be used hereafter to describe the filtrate as it is modified into true urine.,Di term forming urine go use hereafter to describe di filtrate as e dey modified into true urine,Biology
"scrotum the t estes ar e located in a skin-covered, highly pigment ed, muscular sack called the scrotum that extends from the body behind the penis(see figure 27. 2 ).","Di t estes ar elocate for skin-covered, highly pigment ed, muscular sack called di scrotum wey extend from di bodi behind di penis(check di picture 27. 2 ).",Biology
"when c oncentr ations of testosterone in the blood reach a critical threshold, 27.1 anatomy and physiology ofthe t esticular r eproduc tive system 1195 testosterone itself will bind to andr ogen receptors on both the h ypothalamus and the anterior pituitar y, inhibiting the synthesis and secretion of gnrh and lh, r espectiv ely.","Di t esticular r eproduc tive system 1195 testosterone wey fit l bind to andr ogen receptors on both di h ypothalamus and di anterior pituitar y, inhibit di s synthesis and secretion of gnrh and lh, r espectiv ely.",Biology
"sperm counts the total number of sperm a person pr oduc esslo wly decline after ag e 35, and some studies suggest that smoking can lower sperm counts irr espectiv e of age.","Di total number of sperm a person pr oduc esslo wly decline after ag e 35, and some studies suggest say smoking fit lower sperm c ornt irr espectiv e of age.",Biology
"the total number of calories needed by one person is dependent on their body mass, age, height, gender, activity level, and the amount of exercise per day.","Di total number of calories wey one person dey depend on dia bodi mass, age, height, gender, activity level, and di amount of exercise perda y.",Biology
"while at otal of four atps are produced by glycolysis, two are needed to begin gl ycolysis, so there is a net yield of two atp molecules.","Di total of four atps dey produce by glycolysis, two dey need to begin gl ycolysis, so dire dey net yield of two atp molecules.",Biology
teeth also have a high c oncentr ation of calcium within them.,Di teeth also have high concentration of calcium within dem,Biology
"leukocyt e es terase is released by leuk ocyt es; if detected in the urine, it can be taken as indirect e videnc e of a urinary tract infection (ut i).","Di terase dey release by leukocyt e as terase dey release by leukocyt e; if detected for di urine, e fit take en as indirect e videnc e of urinary tract infection (ut i).",Biology
"in male embryos, testosterone is secr eted by leydig cells by these venth week of development, with peak c oncentr ations reached in the second trimester.","Di testosterone dey secret by leydig cells by di seventh week of development, wit peak c oncentr ations reached for di second trimester.",Biology
calcit onin is released from the thyroid gland in response to elevated blood levels of calcium.,Di thyroid gland for response to Elevated blood levels of calcium.,Biology
these can then be tr anspor ted across the intestinal membrane into the bloodstream and then to body tissues.,Di these fit also tr anspor ted across di intestinal membrane into di blood tream and then to bodi tissues.,Biology
"in contrast, the thicker stratum functionalis layer contains the glandular portion ofthe lamina pr opria and the endothelial tissue that lines the uterine lumen.",Di thicker stratum functionalis layer contains di glandular portion of di lamina pr opria and di endothelial tissue wey dey line di uterine lumen.,Biology
the thick portion is lined with simple cuboidal epithelium without a brush border.,Di thick portion dey lined wit simple cuboidal epithelium without brush border,Biology
"thirst mechanisms ar e also activated to promote the c onsump tion of water lost through r espir ation, e vapor ation, or urination.","Di thirst mechanisms dey active to promote di consumption of water lost through r espir ation, e vapor ation, or urination.",Biology
these three features comprise what is known as the filtration membrane.,Di three features dey comprise what dey known as di filtration membrane.,Biology
"the three-carbon p yruv ate molecule g ener ated during gl ycolysis moves from the cyt oplasm into the mitochondrial matrix, where it is converted by the enzyme p yruv ate deh ydrogenase int oa two-carbon acetyl c oenzyme a(ac etyl coa)molecule.","Di three-carbon pyruvate molecule wey dey generated during glycolysis move from di cytoplasm to di mitochondrial matrix, where e dey converted by di enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase to a two-carbon acetyl c oenzyme a (acetyl coa)molecule.",Biology
"when erect, the s tiffnes s ofthe organ allows it to penetrate into the vagina and deposit semen into the female r eproductiv e tract.",Di tiffnes s of dior Gan allows dem to penetrate for di vagina and deposit semen for di female r eproductiv e tract.,Biology
"this is tightly regulated by the hypothalamus in the brain, which senses changes in the core temper atur e and operates lik ea thermostat to increases weating or shivering, or inducing othermechanisms to return the temper atur e to its normal range.","Di tightly regulated by di hypothalamus for di brain, wey sense chang am for di core temper atur e and operates like thermostat to increases weating or shivering, or inducing oda mechanisms to return di temper atur e to dia normal range.",Biology
"a ne w cycle starts appr oximat ely every 16 days, although this timing is not s ynchr onous across the seminif erous tubules.",Di timing no dey s ynchr onous across di seminif erous tubules.,Biology
what happens in the tissue when capil lary blood pressure isles s than osmotic pressure?,Di tin sue wen capil lary blood prEssure dey less than osmotic prEssure?,Biology
"if y ou start an aerobic exercise program, your tissues will need more oxygen to cope, and the kidney will respond with more epo.","Di tin sues go need more oxygen to cope, and di kidney go respond wit more epo.",Biology
sweating deplet es your tissues of water and increases the solut e concentration in those tissues.,Di tin sues of water and increase di solut e concentratation for dia tissues.,Biology
"once theses tores ar e depleted, proteins will be cataboliz ed first from the organs with fast turnover, such as the intestinal lining.","Di tore depleted, proteins go cataboliz ed first from dior Gans wit fast turnover, such as di intestinal lining.",Biology
evaporation is the transfer of heat by thee vapor ation of water.,Di transfer of heat by di evaporation na di transfer of heat by di evaporation of water.,Biology
al l structures involved in the tr anspor t and storage ofthe urine ar e large enough to be visible to the naked eye.,Di tr anspor t and storage of di urine ar e large enough to be visible to di naked eye.,Biology
"this tr anspor t and storage system not only stores the waste, but it protects the tissues from damage due to the wider ange of ph and osmolarity ofthe urine, prevents infection by foreign organisms, and f or the male, provides r eproductiv e functions.","Di tr anspor t and storage system no dey only store di waste, but e dey protect di tin sues fr omdamag e due to di wide range of ph and osmolarity of di urine, prevent infection by foreign organisms, and f or di male, provider eproductiv e functions.",Biology
the tr anspor t of glucose from the lumen ofthe pct to the interstitial space is similar to the w ay it is absorbed by the small intestine.,Di tr anspor t of glucose from di lumen of di pct to di interstitial space dey similar to di w ay dey absorb by dismal l intestine.,Biology
this transamina tion event creates a molecule that is necessary for the k rebs cycle and an ammonium ion that enters into the ur ea cycle to be eliminated.,Di transamination event cr eat molecule wey dey necessary for di k rebs cycle and ammonium ion wey enters into di ur ea cycle to be eliminated.,Biology
"a transient excess of bicarbonat e in the blood can follow ing estion of excessive amounts of bicarbonat e, citr ate, or antacids f or conditions such as stomach acid r eflux known as hear tburn.","Di transient excess of bicarbonat e for di blood don follow ing estion of excessive amounts of bicarbonat e, citr ate, or antacids f or condition such as stomach acid r eflux known as hear tburn.",Biology
"at the same time, the s tratum functionalis ofthe endometrium is thick ening to prepare for a potential implantation.",Di tratum functionalis of di endometrium dey thin ening to prepare for potential implantation.,Biology
it is the s tratum functionalis that grows and thick ens in response to increased levels of estrogen and progesterone.,Di tratum functionalis wey grows and thick ens for response to increased levels of estrogen and progesterone.,Biology
"treatments can include diet modification, vitamin supplementation, and gene therapy; however, damage to the central nervous system usually cannot be reversed.","Di treatments dey include diet modification, vitamin supplementation, and gene dir apy; however, damage to di central nervous system usually no be reversed.",Biology
treatments f or bph at tempt to relieve the pressure on the ur ethr a so that urine can flow more normally.,Di treatments f or bph for tempt to relieve di pressure on di ur ethr a so say urine fit flow more normally.,Biology
"triglycerides and lipids, high-energy molecules, are stored in adipose tissue until they are needed.","Di triglycerides and lipids, high-energy molecules wey dey store for adipose tissue until di y need.",Biology
"once across, the trigl ycerides ar e resynthesiz ed and tr anspor ted to the liver or adipose tissue.",Di triglycerides are resynthesized and transported to di liver or adipose tissue.,Biology
"secr etory phase in addition to prompting the lh surge, high estrogen levels increase the uterine tube c ontr actions that facilitate the pick-up and transfer ofthe o vulat ed oocyt e. high estrogen levels also slightly decrease the acidity ofthe vagina, making it more hospitable to sperm.","Di trogen levels dey slightly decrease di acidity of di vagina, make dem more hospitable to sperm.",Biology
"not only does the tunica albuginea cover the outside ofthe t estis, it also in vaginat es to form sep ta that divide the t estis into 300 to 400 structures called lobules.","Di tunica albuginea cover di outside of di t estis, e also fit form sep ta wey divide di t estis into 300 to 400 structures dey called lobules.",Biology
"beneath the tunica albuginea is the cortex, or outer portion, ofthe organ.","Di tunica albuginea dey di cortex, or outer portion, of dior Gan.",Biology
"beneath the tunica v aginalis is the tunica albuginea, a tough, whit e, dense c onnectiv e tissue layer covering the t estis itself.","Di tunica v aginalis na di tunica albuginea, a tough, wit e, dense c onnectiv e tin sue layer covering di testis itself.",Biology
"effectively, it is a turbine that is powered by the flow of h+ions across the inner membrane down a gradient and into the mitochondrial matrix.",Di turbine wey dey po were by di flow of h+ions across di inner membrane down gradient and into di mitochondrial matrix.,Biology
these tw o hormones ar e critical f or reproductive function in all humans.,Di tw o hormones dey critical f or reproductive function for all humans,Biology
this type of water loss is called insensible water loss because a person is usually unaware of it.,Di type of water loss dey called insensible water loss because a person dey usually unaware of am,Biology
the type of food ingested also affects the body's metabolic rate.,di type of food ingested dey also affect di bodi metabolic rate,Biology
"by 2010, the u. s.",Di u. s.,Biology
unusually large quantities of urine may point to diseases like diabetes mel litus or h ypothalamic tumors that cause diabetes insipidus.,Di unusually large quantities of urine may point to disease like diabetes mel litus or h ypothalamic tumors wey cause diabetes insipidus.,Biology
"aldos terone s timulat es the uptake of na+on the apical cell membrane of cells in the dct and collecting ducts, whereas adh helps to regulate na+concentration indirectly by regulating ther eabsorp tion of water.","Di uptake of na+on di pical cell membrane of cells for di dct and collect ducts, whereas adh help to regulate na+concentration indirectly by regulating di r eabsorption of water.",Biology
upper portions ofthe kidneys are somewhat protected by the eleventh and twelfth ribs( figure 25. 7 ).,Di upper portions of di kidneys dey some wey protected by di Eleventh and twelfth ribs( figure 25. 7 ).,Biology
"in the ur ea cycle, ammonium is combined with co2, resulting in ur ea and water.","Di ur ea cycle, ammonium dey combined wit co2, resulting for ur ea and water",Biology
"prior to the ur ea cycle, ammonium ions ar e produced from the breakdown of amino acids.","Di ur ea cycle, ammonium ions dey produce from di breakdown of amino acids.",Biology
"ur ea, nh 3, creatinine, and some drugs ar e filtered or secr eted as wastes.","Di ur ea, nh 3, creatinine, and some drugs wey dey e filter or secreted as wastes.",Biology
the ur ethr a arises from the trig one area at the base ofthe bladder.,Di ur ethr a arises from di trig one area for di base of di bladder.,Biology
the ur ethr a is the only urologic organ that shows an y significant anat omic difference between males and females; al l other urine tr anspor t structures ar e identical( figure 25. 3 ).,Di ur ethr a dey di only urologic organ wey shows y significant anat omic difference betw e male and females; al l oda urine tr anspor t structures ar e identical( figure 25. 3 ).,Biology
the ur ea cycle processes nitrogen and facilitates its e xcretion from the body. 1082 24 metabolism and nutrition access f or free at opens tax. org urea cycle the urea cy cleis a set of biochemical reactions that pr oduc es ur ea from ammonium ions in order to prevent at oxic level of ammonium in the body.,Di urea cycle di urea cy cleis set of biochemical reactions wey pr oduc ammonium ions for order to prevent at oxic level of ammonium for di bodi.,Biology
"the ur ea is eliminated through the kidneys in the urine( figure 24. 18). 24. 4p rotein metabolism 1083 figure 24. 18 urea cycle nitrogen is tr ansaminat ed, cr eating ammonia and int ermediat es ofthe k rebs cycle.","Di urea cycle nitrogen dey tr ansaminat ed, cr eating ammonia and int ermediat e of di k rebs cycle.",Biology
urea is not only less toxic but is utilized to aid in ther ecovery of water by the loop of henle and collecting ducts.,Di urea no dey only less toxic but dey utilize to aid for di recovery of water by di loop of henle and collecting ducts.,Biology
the ureters ar e retroperit oneal and lead from ther enal pelvis ofthe kidney to the trig one area at the base ofthe bladder.,Di ureters ar e retroperit oneal and lead from di renal pelvis of di kidney to di trig one for di base of di bladder.,Biology
urethra the urethr atranspor ts urine from the bladder to the outside ofthe body f or disposal.,Di urethr atranspor ts urine from di bladder to di outside of di bodi f or disposal.,Biology
urine ph typically varies in a normal range from 4. 5t o1142 25 the urinary system access f or free at opens tax. org 8. 0.,Di urinary system access f or free for open tax. org 8. 0.,Biology
"there have been several studies in animals, but since stem cell therapy is still in its infancy, there have been limited experiments in humans. 25. 10 the urinary system and homeos tasis 1145 acute kidney injury can be caused b ya number of factors, including transplants and other surgeries.","Di urinary system and homeos tasis 1145 acute kidney injury don dey caused by number of factors, including transplants and oda surgeries.",Biology
its appearance in the urine is directly proportional to ther ate at which it is filtered by ther enal c orpuscle.,Di urine dey directly proportional to di rate wey dey filtered by di renal c orpuscle.,Biology
urine is a fluid of variable composition that r equir es specialized s tructur es to remove it from the body safely and efficiently.,Di urine dey fluid of variable composition wey r equir e specialized structures to remove am from di bodi safely and efficiently.,Biology
"excessive urine production is polyuria, which ma y be due to diabetes mel litus or diabetes insipidus.","Di urine production dey polyuria, wey dey due to diabetes mellitus or diabetes insipidus.",Biology
"blood is filtered, 25. 2 gross anatomy of urine t ranspor t 1113 and the fil trate is transformed into urine at ar elativ ely constant rate throughout the day.",Di urine t ranspor t 1113 and di fil trate dey transformed into urine at ar elativ ely constant rate throughout di day.,Biology
"note the use ofthe term "" reabsorbed.","Di use of di term "" reabsorbed",Biology
"if excessive protein is detected in the urine, it usually means that the glomerulus is damaged and is allowing protein to""leak ""int o the fil trate.",Di usually means say di glomerulus dey demag ed and dey lowing protein to di fil trate.,Biology
the uterus and cervix the uterus is the muscular organ that nourishes and supports the growing embryo (see figure 27. 14).,Di uterus and cervix di uterus na di muscular orGan wey nourish and supports di growing embryo(check di picture 27. 14).,Biology
current flowing toward the uterus is g ener ated by coordinated beating ofthe cilia that line the outside and lumen ofthe length ofthe uterine tube.,Di uterus dey generated by coordinated beating of di cilia wey line di outside and lumen of di length of di uterine tube.,Biology
"whereas these vaccines were initially only targeted for females, because hpv is sexual ly transmitted, al l people r equir e vaccination f or this approach to achieve its maximum efficacy.","Di vaccines were initially only target for females, because hpv dey sexually transmitted, al l pipo r equir e vaccination f or dis approach to achieve dia maximum efficacy.",Biology
"the bar tholin 's glands and the lesser v estibular glands (located near the clit oris) secr ete mucus, which keeps the v estibular area moist. the vagina is home toa normal population of microorganisms that help to protect ag ains t infection by pathog enic bacteria, yeast, or other organisms that can enter the vagina.","Di vagina dey home to normal population of microorganisms wey help to protect ag ains t infection by pathog enic bacteria, yeast, or oda organism wey fit enter di vagina.",Biology
"the v asa r ecta recover the solut e and water in the medul la, returning them to the circulation.","Di v asa r ecta recover di solut e and water for di medul la, return dem to di circulation.",Biology
the vaginal opening is located between the opening ofthe ur ethr a and the anus.,Di vaginal opening dey locat betw e di opening of di ur ethr a and di anus.,Biology
various portions ofthe nephr on differ in their capacity to reabsorb water and specific solut es.,Di various portions wey dey f di nephr on differ for dia capacity to reabsorb water and specific solut as.,Biology
its average size is appr oximat ely 5 cm wide b y 7 cm long (appr oximat ely 2 in b y3 in)when af emale is not pregnant.,Di verage size dey appr oximat ely 5 cm wide b y 7 cm long (appr oximat ely 2 for b y3 for)wen female no pregnant,Biology
"in this video, dr. anthony atala discusses a cut ting-edge technique in which a ne w kidney is ""print ed.""","Di video, dr. anthony atala discus dey cut ting-edg technique wey a ne w kidney dey printed",Biology
the virtual absence of urine production is termed anuria.,Di virtual absence of urine production na anuria.,Biology
"in some cases, however, the virus continues to spread and becomes an invasive cancer.",Di virus continues to spread and becomes an for vasive cancer.,Biology
"vitamin ds ynthesis in order f or vitamin d to become active, it must undergo ah ydroxylation reaction in the kidney, that is, an oh group must be added to calcidiol to make calcitriol (1, 25- dihydroxycholecalcif erol).","Di vitamin ds synthesis for order f or vitamin d to become active, im must undergo ah ydroxylation reaction for di kidney, wey dey, an oh gr or vitamin d to become active, im must undergo ah ydroxylation reaction for di kidney, wey be, an oh gr or vitamin d to become active, e",Biology
"voiding is regulated by an in voluntary aut onomic nervous system-c ontr olledinternal urinary sphinct er, consisting of smooth muscle and v oluntar y skeletal muscle that forms the external urinary sphinct erbelo wit.","Di voiding na regulated by voluntary aut onomic nervous system-c ontr olledinternal urinary sphinct er, consisting of smooth muscle and volutar y skeletal muscle wey forms di external urinary sphinct erbelo w am.",Biology
"although the volume of urine varies in response to hydration levels, there is a minimum volume of urine production r equir ed for proper bodily functions.","Di volume of urine varies for response to hydration levels, dir e dey minimum volume of urine production r equir ed for proper bodily functions.",Biology
volumes in adults can range from nearly zero to 500600 ml.,Di volumes for adults don range from nearly zero to 500600 ml.,Biology
voluntary control ofthe external ur ethr al sphinct er is a function ofthe pudendal nerve.,Di voluntary control of di external ur ethr al sphinct er dey function of di pudendal nerve.,Biology
the wall ofthe dct at that point forms a part ofthe jga known as the macula densa.,Di wall of di dct for dat point forms part of di jga known as di macula densa.,Biology
the wall ofthe uterus is made up of three layers.,Di wall of di uterus dey made up of three layers,Biology
the warmed air rises away from the body and is replaced by cooler air that is subsequently heated.,Di warmed air rises away from di bodi and dey replace by cooler air wey dey subsequently heated,Biology
"when a dehydrated person drinks water and r ehydrates, the water is r edis tribut ed by the same gradient, but in the opposite direction, r eplenishing water in al l ofthe tissues.","Di water dey r edis tribut ed by di same gradient, but for di opposite direction, r eplenishing water for al l of di tissues.",Biology
"when the water temper atur e is lower than the body's temper atur e, the body loses heat by warming the water closest to the skin, which moves away to be r eplac ed by cooler water.","Di water temper atur e dey lower than di bodi 's temper atur e, di bodi lose heat by warming di water closet to di skin, wey move away to be cooler water.",Biology
"the water that leaves the body, as e xhaled air, sweat, or urine, is ul timat ely extracted from blood plasma.","Di water wey leaves di bodi, as e xhaled air, sweat, or urine, na ul timat ely extract from blood plasma.",Biology
"about 67 percent ofthe water, na+, and k+entering the nephr on is r eabsorbed in the pct and returned to the circulation.","Di water, na+, and k+enter di nephr on dey r eabsorbed for di pct and returned to di circulation.",Biology
"ext ensiv e damage to proteins in this w ay can r esul t in disruption of normal metabolic processes, serious tissue damage, and ul timat ely death.","Di w ay fit r esul t for disruption of normal metabolic processes, serious tin sue damage, and ul timat ely death.",Biology
another w ay of looking at this is that the quality ofthe urine pr oduc ed is an average over the time it takes to make that urine.,Di w ay of looking at dis na say di quality of di urine pr oduc edna verage over di time wey dey make dat urine.,Biology
"insufficient numbers of water channels (aquaporins) r educ e water absorption, r esul ting in high volumes of very dilute urine.","Di water channel (aquaporins) r educ e water absorption, r educ e water absorption, r educ e water absorption, r educ e water absorption, r educ e water absorption, r educ e water absorption, r educ e water absorption, r educ e water absorption, r educ e water absorption for high volumes of very dilute urine.",Biology
"as it does so, water will follow passively to maintain an isot onic fluid environment inside the capil lary.",Di water fit follow passively to maintain di isot onic fluid inside di capil lary.,Biology
a. plasma proteins b. hemoglobin c. phosphate buffers d. bicarbonat e: carbonic acid buffer 22. which explanation best describes wh y plasma proteins can function as buffers?,Di xplanation best describe wh y plasma proteins fit function as buffers?,Biology
"at that rate, an extra 20 pounds can be gained over the course o fay ear.",Di xtra 20 pounds don be gained over di course o fay ear.,Biology
"instead, these e xtremel y high c oncentr ations of systemic plasma estrogen trigger ar egulatory switch in the anterior pituitar y that responds by secr eting large amounts of lh and fsh into the bloodstream (see figure 27. 13).",Di xtremel y high concentration of systemic plasma e trogen trigger ar egulatory switch for di anterior pituitar y wey respond by secreting large amounts of lh and fsh into di bloodstream (check di picture 27. 13).,Biology
they also find the level of childhood obesity is rising.,Di y also find di level of childhood obesity dey rising,Biology
"they also have additional sec ondar y functions that exert control in three areas: blood pressure (via production o frenin ), red blood cell production(via the hormone epo), and calcium absorption (via conversion of calcidiol into calcitriol, the active form of vitamin d).","Di y also have additional sec ondar y functions wey dey xert control for three areas: blood production (via production o frenin), red blood cell production(via di hormone epo), and calcium absorption(via conversion of calcidiol fort o calcitriol, di active form of vitamin d).",Biology
"they also have a single, nonmotile cilium that responds to ther ate of fluid movement in the tubule.","Di y also have single, nonmotile cilium wey respond to di rate of fluid movement for di tubule.",Biology
"they also include the breakdown of atp, which releases the energy needed f or metabolic processes in al l cells throughout the body.","Di y also include di breakdown of atp, wey release di energy need f or metabolic processes for al l cells throughout di bodi.",Biology
"however, once they cross the membrane, they are recombined to again form trigl yceride molecules.","Di y cross di membrane, di y dey recombined to again form trigl yceride molecules.",Biology
"they are about 1114 cm in length,6 cm wide, and 4 cm thick, and ar e directly covered b ya fibr ous capsule composed of dense, irregular c onnectiv e tissue that helps to hold their shape and protect them.","Di y dey about 1114 cm for length,6 cm wide, and 4 cm thick, and ar e directly covered by fibr ous capsule composed of dense, irregular c onnectiv e tissue wey help to hold dia shape and protect dem",Biology
"they are composed of developing sperm cells surrounding a lumen, the hollow center ofthe tubule, where formed sperm ar e released into the ducts ystem ofthe testis.","Di y dey composed of developing sperm cells surrounding lumen, di hollow center of di tubule, where formed sperm ar e release for di ducts ystem of di testis.",Biology
"when protein-rich foods enter the stomach, they are greeted b ya mixture ofthe enzyme pepsin and h ydrochloric acid (hcl; 0. 5 percent).",Di y dey greet by mixture of di enzyme Pepsin and h ydrochloric acid (hcl; 0. 5 percent).,Biology
they are often prescribed to lower blood pressure.,Di y dey often prescribed to lower blood pressure.,Biology
"paired o vals, they are each about 2 t o3 cm in length, about the size of an almond.","Di y dey pair o vals, di y dey each about 2 t o3 cm for length, about di size of almond.",Biology
they are protected in ther etroperit oneal space by ther enal fat pad and o verlying ribs and muscle.,Di y dey protected for di r etroperit oneal space by di renal fat pad and o verlying ribs and muscle.,Biology
they are recovering both solut es and water at ar ate that pr eser ves the count ercurr ent multiplier system.,Di y dey recover both solut Es and water for ar ate say pr eser ves di c ornt ercurr ent multiplier system.,Biology
they can act within fractions ofa second.,Di y fit act within fraction ofa second,Biology
"they grow and develop in a process called folliculog enesis, which typically leads to ovulation of one f ollicle appr oximat ely every 28 days, along with death to multiple other f ollicles.","Di y grow and develop for a process called folliculog enesis, wey typically lead to ovulation of one f ollicle approximately every 28da ys, along wit death to multiple oda f ollicles.",Biology
minerals cannot be made in the body; the y come from the diet.,Di y kom from di diet.,Biology
"typically they work by providing ac onstant level of both estrogen and progesterone, which negatively feeds back onto the h ypothalamus and pituitar y, thus preventing ther elease of fsh and lh.","Di y work by provide constant level of both Estrogen and progesterone, wey negatively feeds back o di h ypothalamus and pituitar y, thus preventing di release of fsh and lh.",Biology
a filtration membrane is formed by the fused basement membranes of the25 chapter review 1149 podocyt es and the capil lary endothelial cells that they embrace.,Di25 chapter review 1149 podocyt as and di capil lary endothelial cells say di y embrace.,Biology
"al ternativ ely, as the environmental temper atur e increases, the scr otum relax es, mo ving the testes farther from the body core and increasing scr otal surface area, which pr omot es heat loss. external ly, the27. 1 anatomy and physiology ofthe t esticular r eproduc tive system 1187 scrotum has ar aised medial thick ening on the surface called ther aphae.","Di27. 1 anatomy and physiology of di testicular r eproduc tive system 1187 scrotum don relax am, mo ving di testes far dir from di bodi core and increasing scr otal surface area, wey dey heat loss.",Biology
"digestive hormones secr etin and c ck ar e released from the small intestine to aid in digestive processes, and digestive proenzymes ar e released from the pancreas (tr ypsinog en and chymotr ypsinog en).","digestive hormones secretin and cck dey released from di small intestine to aid in digestive processes, and di digestive proenzymes go dey released from di pancreas (trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen)",Biology
"the urinary system, c ontr olled by the nervous system, also stores urine until afigur e25. 1 sewage treatment plant(credit: "" thekirbs ter""/flickr. com) convenient time f or disposal and then provides the anatomical s tructur es to transport this waste liquid to the outside ofthe body.","Dikirbs Ter"" flickr. com)convenient time f or disposal and then provides di anatomical structures to transport dis waste liquid to di outside of di bodi.",Biology
stem cell therapy hasan enormous potential to improve the quality of life or save the lives of people suffering from debilitating or life-threatening diseases.,Dir apy don enormous potential to impr ova di quality of life or save di live of pipo suffer from debilitating or life-threatening disease.,Biology
therapy for edema usually focuses on elimination ofthe cause.,Dir apy for edema usually focus on elimination of di cause.,Biology
"there is also b-type natriur etic peptide (bnp) of 32 amino acids pr oduc ed in the v entricles ofthe heart. it has a 10-fold lower affinity f or its receptor, so its effects ar e less than those of anh.",Dire also b-type natriur etic peptide (bnp) of 32 amino acids pr oduc ed for di v entricles of di heart.,Biology
"when blood volume drops 510 percent, causing a decrease in blood pressure, there is ar apid and significant increase in adh release from the posterior pituitar y. immediate vasoc onstriction to increase blood pressure is the result. adh also causes activation of aquaporin channels in the collecting ducts to affect ther ecovery of water to help restore vascular volume.",Dire dey ar apid and significant increase for adh release from di posterior pituitar y.,Biology
"however, there are additional, equally important functions played by the system.","Dire dey additional, equally important functions wey dey y di system.",Biology
"there are additional trace minerals that ar e still important to the body's functions, but their r equir ed quantities ar e much lower.","Dire dey additional trace miner wey dey additional trace miner wey dey additional trace miner wey dey say dey still import tant to di bodi 's functions, but dia r equir ed quantities dey much lower.",Biology
there are also mesangial cells in the filtration membrane that can c ontr act to help regulate ther ate of filtration ofthe glomerulus.,Dire dey also mesangial cells for di filtration membrane wey go help regulate di rate of filtration of di glomerulus.,Biology
"there is also an opposing force, the osmotic pressure, which is typically higher in the glomerular capil lary.","Dire dey also opposing force, di osmotic pressure, wey dey typically higher for di glomerular capil lary.",Biology
"hyperphospha temia, or abnormally increased levels of phosphat es in the blood, oc curs if there is decreased renal function or in cases of acute lymphocytic leukemia.",Dire dey decreased renal function or for cases of acute lymphocytic leukemia.,Biology
there are disorders in which t oo much protein passes through the filtration slits into the kidney filtrate.,Dire dey disorders for which t oo much protein passes through di filtration slits into di kidney filtrate.,Biology
"there is an increase in total volume of water, which leads to hypertension (high blood pressure).","Dire dey increase fort otal volume of water, wey lead to hypertension (high blood pressure).",Biology
"because there isles s circulating protein, principally albumin, the osmotic pressure ofthe blood falls.","Dire dey les circulating protein, principally albumin, di osmotic pr esure of di blood falls.",Biology
"if there isles s potassium, more hydrogen ions enter the fil trate to be exchanged with sodium and more bicarbonat e is c onser ved.","Dire dey les potassium, more hydrogen ions enter di fil trate to be exchanged wit sodium and more bicarbonat e dey c onser",Biology
"as gfr increases, ther e isles s time f or nacl to be r eabsorbed in the pct, resulting in higher osmolarity in the fil trate.","Dire dey less time f or nacl to be r eabsorbed for di pct, resulting for higher osmolarity for di fil trate.",Biology
"blood volume is important in maintaining sufficient blood pressure, and there are nonr enal mechanisms involved in its pr eser vation, including v asoc onstriction, which can act within seconds ofa drop in pressure.","Dire dey nonr enal mechanism wey dey involved for dia pr Eser vation, including v asoc onstriction, wey go act within seconds ofa drop for prEssure.",Biology
"there are over 100 related viruses in the hpv family, and the characteristics of each strain determine the outcome ofthe infection.","Dire dey over 100 related viruses for di hpv family, and di characteristics of each strain dem ermine di out kom of di infection.",Biology
"there is protein in bones(c ollagen), muscles, and tendons; the hemoglobin that tr anspor ts oxygen; and enzymes that catal yze all biochemical reactions.","Dire dey protein for bones(collagen), muscles, and endons; di hemoglobin wey tr anspor t oxygen; and enzymes wey catalyze all biochemical reactions.",Biology
"there are several different forms of this enzyme, and pde type 5 is the type of pde found in the tissues ofthe penis.","Dire dey several different forms of dis enzyme, and pde type 5 dey di type of pde found for di tissues of di penis.",Biology
"although there are several metabolic sources of acetyl coa, it is most commonly derived from gl ycolysis.","Dire dey several metabolic sources of acetyl coa, e dey most commonly derived from gl ycolysis.",Biology
"in the pct, there is a single layer of simple cuboidal endothelial cells ag ains t the basement membrane.",Dire dey single layer of simple cuboidal endothelial cells ag ains t di basement membrane.,Biology
there are some important differences (figure 24. 10).,Dire dey some important differences (figure 24. 10).,Biology
there are specific carriers that eliminate basic(such as dopamine or histamine) or acidic drugs(such as penicillin or indomethacin).,Dire dey specific carriers wey dey eliminate basic(such as dopamine or histamine) or acidic drugs(such as penicillin or indomethacin) or acidic drugs(such as penicillin or indomethacin) or acidic drugs(such as penicillin or indomethacin).,Biology
"because there are tw o glyceraldeh yde-3-phosphat e molecules, two nadh molecules ar e synthesized during this step.","Dire dey tw o glyceraldeh yde-3-phosphat e molecules, two nadh molecules dey synthesiz during dis tep.",Biology
there should be no blood found in the urine.,Dire no be blood found for di urine,Biology
"if there were no method in place to store excess energy, you would need to eat c onstantl y in order to meet energy demands.","Dire no dey method for place to store excess energy, you need to eat c onstantl y for order to meet energy demand.",Biology
"in diabetes mel litus when there is not enough insulin(type i diabetes mellitus) or because of insulin r esistanc e(type ii diabetes mel litus), there is plenty of glucose, but without the action of insulin, the cells cannot take it up, so it remains in the bloodstream.",Dire no enough insulin(type ii diabetes mellitus) or because of insulin remains for di bloodstream.,Biology
"therefore, the cyt oplasm and al l ofthe cyt oplasmic or ganel les in the developing embryo are of egg-derived origin.","Dir efore, di cyt oplasm and al l of di cyt oplasmic or Ganel les for di developing embryo dey of egg-derived origin.",Biology
"each of these mechanisms relies on the proper ty of heat to flow from a higher c oncentr ation toa lower concentration; therefore, each ofthe mechanisms of heat exchange varies in rate according to the temper atur e and conditions ofthe environment.","Dir efore, each of di mechanisms of heat exchange varies for rate according to di temper atur e and conditions of di environment.",Biology
this allows for glucose to continue moving from the blood to the cells where it is needed.,Dis allow glucose to continue moving from di blood to di cells where dey need.,Biology
the color of urine is determined mostly by the breakdown products of red blood cell destruction (figure 25. 2 ).,Dis colour of urine dey determined mostly by di breakdown products of red blood cell destruction(figure 25. 2),Biology
"this is different from the calorie(c) used in the physical sciences, which is the amount of heat it takes to raise 1 gof water by 1 c.","Dis dey different from di calorie(c) wey dey use for di physical science, wey na di amount of heat wey dey raise 1g of water by 1c.",Biology
this is due to the dual role ofthe male ur ethr a in tr anspor ting both urine and semen.,Dis dey due to di dual role of di male ur ethr a for tr anspor ting both urine and semen.,Biology
this is due to tw o internal aut oregulatory mechanisms that operate without outside influence: them yogenic mechanism and the tubuloglomerular feedback mechanism.,Dis dey due to tw o internal aut oregulatory mechanism wey dey operate without outside influence: di m yogenic mechanism and di tubuloglomerular feedback mechanism.,Biology
this helps to protect the lining ofthe intestine.,dis dey help to protect di lining of di intestine,Biology
"this is important when levels of glucose are very low in the body, as it allows glucose to travel preferential ly to those tissues that r equir e it more. in the next step ofthe first phase of glycolysis, the enzyme gluc ose-6-phosphat e isomer ase converts gluc ose-6-phosphat e into fruct ose-6-phosphat e. like glucose, fructose is also a six carbon-containing sugar.","Dis dey important wen di level of glucose wey dey body don low, as e dey allow glucose travel to di tissue wey need am more. For the next step of di first phase of glycolysis, di enzyme glucose-6-phosphate isomerase go convert glucose-6-phosphate to fructose-6-phosphate, like glucose, fructose na also six carbon-containing sugar",Biology
this is more than just an academic exercise.,Dis dey more than just academic exercise,Biology
"this is useful because most ofthe body's metabolic wastes, such as lactic acid and k etone bodies, are acids.","Dis dey useful because most of di bodi 's metabolic wastes, such as lactic acid and k etone bodies, dey acids.",Biology
"these electrons, o2, and h+ions from the matrix combine to form ne w water molecules.","Dis electrons, o2, and h+ions from di matrix go combine to form new water molecules",Biology
these fatty acids can be transported across the intestinal membrane.,dis fatty acids fit dey transported across di intestinal membrane,Biology
this helps the cell to regulate glycolysis and gluc oneog enesis independently of eachother.,Dis help di cell to regulate glycolysis and gluconeogenesis independently of each oda,Biology
"these include eating br eakfas t, eating small meals fr equentl y, consuming plenty of lean protein, drinking water to remain hydrated, exercising (including strength training ), and getting enough sleep.","Dis include eating breakfast, eating small meals frequently, to dey consume plenty of lean protein, drink water to stay hydrated, to exercise (wey include strength training), and to dey get enough sleep.",Biology
"this is an eff ectiv e pathway of atp production f or short periods of time, ranging from seconds t oaf ew minutes.","Dis na effective pathway of atp production for short periods of time, wey dey range from seconds to a few minutes.",Biology
this occurs between an y tw o objects when their temper atur es differ.,dis occurs between any two objects when their temperatures dey diiferent,Biology
both of these processes prevent the accumulation of mutations in ac ell's genome.,Dis processes prevent di accumulation of mutations for c ell's genome.,Biology
"this process, cal ledlipog enesis, creates lipids (fat)fr om the acetyl coa and takes place in the cyt oplasm of adipocyt es(fat cells) and hepat ocyt es(liv er cells).","dis process, wey dem call lipogenesis, dey create lipids(fat) from di acetyl coa and dey take place for di cytoplasm of adipocytes (fat cells)and hepatocytes(liver cells)",Biology
this reaction is an o xidativ e decarbo xylation reaction.,Dis reaction na oxidative decarboxylation reaction.,Biology
this reaction occurs in the mitochondria of liver cells.,dis reaction occur for di mitochondria of liver cells,Biology
"this r esul ts in a positive-feedback system where ther educ ed physical activity leads to even more muscle loss, further reducing metabolism.","Dis result to positive feedback system where di reduced physical activity dey lead to even more muscle loss, to further reduce di metabolism",Biology
this rotation enables other portions of atp s ynthase to encourage adp and p ito create atp.,Dis rotation dey enable oda portions of atp synthase to dey encourage adp and p ito create atp.,Biology
"in terms of body functioning, six electr olytes are most important: sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonat e, calcium, and phosphate. roles of elec trolytes these six ions aid inner ve excitability, endocrine secretion, membrane permeability, buff ering body fluids, and controlling the movement of fluids between c ompar tments.","Dis six ions aid for nerve excitability, endocrine secretion, membrane permeability, buff ering bodi fluids, and controlling di movement of fluids wey dey fit carry di movement of fluids wey dey pipo, and controlling di movement of fluids betw ec ompar tments.",Biology
"while theses trategies ar e not guaranteed to maintain metabolism, the y do help prevent muscle loss and ma y increase energy levels.","Dis strategies no dey guaranteed to maintain metabolism, di y do help prevent muscle loss and ma y increase energy level.",Biology
these tr anspor ters bind sodium and then bind the amino acid to transport it across the membrane.,dis transsporters go bind sodium and then bind di amino acid to transport am across di membrane,Biology
"these vitamins move easily through bodily fluids, which ar e water based, so they are not stored in the body.","Dis vitamins dey move easily through bodily fluids, wey be water based, so dem no dey store am for bodi",Biology
this yellow pigment is urochr ome.,Dis yellow pigment na urochr ome,Biology
discuss the mechanism cells employ to create a concentration gradient to ensure continual uptake of glucose from the bloodstream.,discuss di mechanism wey cells dey employ to create a concentration gradient to ensure say glucose dey continually take up from di bloodstream.,Biology
disorders ofthe. metabolism: pyruv ate deh ydrogenase complex deficiency and phen ylketonuria pyruv ate deh ydrogenase c omple x deficiency (pdcd) and phen ylketonuria (pku) ar e genetic disorders.,disorders of di. metabolism: pyruvate dehydrogenase complex deficiency and phenylketonuria pyruvate dehydrogenase complex deficiency (pdcd) and phenylketonuria (pku) na genetic disorders.,Biology
"distinct mechanisms ar e in place to facilitate energy storage, and to make stored energy available during times of fasting and starvation.","distinct mechanisms dey in place to facilitate energi storage, and to make di stored energi dey available during times of fasting and starvation.",Biology
"diur esis reaches a peak after about 1 hour, and normal urine production is r eestablished after about 3 hours.","Diur esis reaches peak after about 1 hour, and normal urine production dey r eestablish after about 3 hours, and normal urine production dey r eestablish after about 3 hours",Biology
diuretics and fluid volume adiur etic is ac ompound that increases urine volume.,Diuretics and fluid volume adiur etic dey compound wey dey enhance urine volume.,Biology
"they function to carry these w ater-insoluble molecules from the intestine, through the l ymphatic system, and into the bloodstream, which carries the lipids to adipose tissue f or storage.","Diy function to carry dis w ater-insoluble molecules from di intestine, through di l ymphatic system, and into di bloodstream, wey carry di lipids to adipose tissue f or storage.",Biology
"during an y given day, your metabolism switches between absorp tive and pos tabsorp tive states.","during any given day, your metabolism go switch between absorptive and postabsorptive states",Biology
"during the krebs cycle, high-energy molecules, including atp, nadh, and f adh 2, are created.","During di krebs cycle, high-energy molecules, including tp, nadh, and fadh 2, dey created.",Biology
"blood bicarbonat e levels ar e also typically lower in people who have addison 's disease (chronic adr enal insufficiency), in which aldos terone levels ar e reduced, and in people who have renal damage, such as chronic nephritis.","E also typically lower for pipo wey have addison 's disease (chronic adr enal insufficiency), and for pipo wey have renal damage, such as chronic nephritis.",Biology
"it continues internal ly to make up the scr otal sep tum, aw all that divides the scr otum into tw o compartments, each housing one t estis.","Ec ontinues internal ly to make up di scr otal sep tum, aw all wey divide di scr otal sep tum, aw all wey divide di scr otum for o tw o compartments, each housing one t estis.",Biology
a decrease in the normal levels of plasma proteins r esul ts in a decrease of colloid osmotic pressure (which count erbalanc es the h ydrostatic pressure) in the capil laries.,E decrease for di normal levels of plasma proteins r esul ts for di capil laries.,Biology
describe how excess amino acids ar e processed in the cell.,E describe how excess amino acids dey processed for di cell.,Biology
active transport processes r equir e atp to move some solut es ag ains t their c oncentr ation gr adients between compartments.,E dey active transport process r equir e atp to move some solut e ag ains t dia c oncentr ation gr adients betw e compartments.,Biology
"it is also important in regulating k+, promoting its e xcretion.","E dey also important for regulating k+, promoting its e xcretion.",Biology
"in addition to aging, ed is as sociat ed with diabetes, vascular disease, psychiatric disorders, prostate disorders, the use of some drugs such as certain antidepressants, and problems with the t estes resulting in lo w testosterone c oncentr ations.","E dey as sociat ed wit diabetes, vascular disease, psychiatric disorders, prostate disorders, di use of some drugs such as antidepressants, and problems wit di t estes resulting for lo w testosterone c oncentr ations.",Biology
it is best to think ofthe kidney as ar egulator of plasma makeup rather than simpl ya urine pr oduc er.,e dey best to think of di kidney as regulator of plasma makeup no be simply a urine producer,Biology
drinking water is consider ed v oluntar y.,E dey consider ed v oluntar y,Biology
it is called convoluted due to its t ortuous path.,E dey called convoluted due to its t ortuous path.,Biology
contr actile mesangial cells further perform a role in regulating ther ate at which the blood is filtered.,E dey contr actile mesangial cells fur dir perform role for regulating di rate wey di blood dey filtered.,Biology
"in large part, this is due to the aut oregulatory nature of smooth muscle.",E dey due to di aut oregulatory nature of smooth muscle,Biology
"an elevated respiratory rate leading to hyper ventilation can be due to extreme emotional upset or fear, fever, infections, hypoxia, or abnormally high levels of cat echolamines, such as epinephrine and nor epinephrine.","E dey due to extreme emotional upset or fear, fever, infections, hypoxia, or abnormally high levels of cat echolamines, such as epinephrine and nor epinephrine.",Biology
"errors in metabolism alter the processing of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, and can r esul t in a number of disease states.","E dey errors for metabolism alter di processing of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, and e fit r esul t for a number of disease state.",Biology
this is important because it creates a one-way valve(a physiological sphinct errather than an anatomical sphinct er)that allows urine into the bladder but prevents r eflux of urine from the bladder back into the ur eter.,E dey important because e dey eat one-way valve(a physiological sphinct errather than anatomical sphinct er)say allow urine for di bladder but prevents r eflux of urine from di bladder back into di ur eter.,Biology
"alcohol increases gfr by inhibiting adh release from the posterior pituitar y, resulting in less water recovery by the collecting duct.","E dey inhibit adh release from di posterior pituitar y, resulting for less water recovery by di collecting duct.",Biology
it occurs when the skin comes in contact with ac old or warm object.,e dey occur wen di skin kom in contact wit cold or warm object.,Biology
"an intact h ymen cannot be used as an indication of""virginity ""; even at birth, this is onl ya partial membrane, as menstrual fluid and other secr etions must be able to exit the body, regardless of penile vaginal intercourse.","E dey only partial membrane, as menstrual fluid and oda secr etions wey dey able to exit di bodi, regardless of penile vaginal intercourse.",Biology
"fatty acids ar e oxidiz ed through fatty acid or -oxidation into two-carbon ac etyl coa molecules, which can then enter the k rebs cycle to generate atp.","E dey oxidiz ed through fatty acid or -oxidation into two-carbon ac etyl coa molecules, wey dey enter di k rebs cycle to generate atp.",Biology
"it is also possible that salts in the fil trate, such as sulfat es, phosphat es, or ammonia, will capture hydrogen ions.","E dey possible say salts for di fil trate, such as sulfates, phosphates, or ammonia, wil l capture hydrogen ions.",Biology
it is produced in the lungs but binds to the surfaces of endothelial cells in the aff erent ar terioles and glomerulus.,E dey produce for di lungs but dey bind to di surfaces of endothelial cells for di aff erent ar terioles and glomerulus.,Biology
"like vitamins, minerals can be consumed in toxic quantities(al though it is rare).",E dey r dey.,Biology
"it is r enin that starts a series of reactions, leading to the production ofthe v asoc onstrict or angiot ensin ii and the salt- retaining steroid aldos terone.","E dey r enin say start series of reactions, leading to di production of di v asoc onstrict or angiot ensin ii and di salt- retaining steroid aldos terone.",Biology
it is responsible f or one-half ofthe osmotic pressure gradient that exists between the interior of cells and their surrounding environment.,E dey responsible f or one-half of di osmotic pressure gradient wey exist betw una di interior of cells and dia surrounding environment.,Biology
proper kidney function is essential for ph homeos tasis.,E dey sential for ph homeos tasis.,Biology
"unlike spermat ogonia, however, oog onia form primary oocyt es in the fetal o vary prior to birth.","E dey unlike spermat ogonia, however, oogonia form primary oocyt e for di fetal o vary prior to birth.",Biology
it is very specific and must have an appr opriat ely shaped receptor for the subs tanc e to be tr anspor ted.,E dey very specific and must get appr opriat ely shaped receptor for di subs tanc e to be tr anspor ted.,Biology
"it can also come about from vomiting, diarrhea, or alk alosis.","E fit also come about from vomiting, diarrhea, or alk alosis.",Biology
"it ma y cause developmental defects, muscle spasms, and death.","e fit cause developmental defects, musce spasms, and death",Biology
"it converts the three-carbon p yruv ate int oa 24. 2c arboh ydrate metabolism 1069 two-carbon ac etyl coa molecule, releasing carbon dioxide and transferring tw o electrons that combine with nad+to form nadh.","e go turn the three-carbon pyruvate to 24.2 carbohydrate metabolism 1069 two-carbon acetyl coa molecule, e go kan release carbondioxide nd transfer two elctrons wey combine with nad+ to form nadh.",Biology
these include increasing the circulation ofthe blood to the surface ofthe body to allow for the dis sipation of heat through the skin and initiation of sweating to allow evaporation of water on the skin to cool its surface.,e include increasing di circulation of di blood to di surface of di bodi to allow for di dissipation of heat through di skin and initiation of sweating to allow evaporation of water on di skin to cool its surface.,Biology
interactive link interactive link watch this video( to observe ovulation and its initiation in response to ther elease of fsh and lh from the pituitar y gland.,E link watch dis video( to observe ovulation and its initiation for response to di release of fsh and lh from di pituitar y gland.,Biology
"it is therefore sometimes called pr e-ejaculat e. it is important to note that, in addition to the lubricating proteins, it is possible f or bulbour ethr al fluid to pickup sperm already present in the ur ethr a, and therefore it ma y be able to cause pregnancy.","E no e say, in addition to di lubricating proteins, e dey possible f or bulbour ethr al fluid to pickup sperm already pr e-ejaculat e.",Biology
cells ar e not normally found in the urine.,E no normally found for di urine.,Biology
"as urine passes through the ur eter, it does not passively drain into the bladder but rather is propel led by waves of peris talsis.",E no pass sively drain into di bladder but rather dey propel led by waves of peris talsis.,Biology
athletes ar e often advised to consume water until their urine is clear.,E often advise to consume water until dia urine dey clear,Biology
"even so, it only influences the last 10 percent of water available f or recovery after filtration at the glomerulus, because 90 percent of water is recovered before reaching the collecting ducts.","E only influence di last 10 percent of water available f or recovery after filtration for di glomerulus, because 90 percent of water dey ecovered before reach di collecting ducts.",Biology
"to understand wh y this is so, look more closely at the micr oenvironment on either side ofthe filtration membrane.","E so, look more closely for di micr oenvironment on either side of di filtration membrane.",Biology
minor adjustments in breathing ar e usually sufficient to adjust the ph ofthe blood by changing ho w much c o2is exhaled.,E usually sufficient t oadjus t di ph of di blood by change ho w much c o2is exhaled.,Biology
"in this k etone synthesis reaction, excess acetyl coa is converted int ohydroxymeth ylglutar yl coa (hmg coa).",Excess acetyl coa dey converted int ohydroxymeth ylglutar yl coa (hmg coa),Biology
"proteins ar e not stored for later use, so excess proteins must be converted into glucose or trigl ycerides, and used to supply energy or build energy reserves.","Excess proteins no dey tored for later use, so excess proteins no dey tored for later use, so excess proteins no dey tored for later use, so excess proteins no dey tored for later use, so excess proteins no dey tored for later use, so excess proteins no dey tored for later use, so excess proteins no dey",Biology
"an abnormal loss of sodium from the body can r esul t from several conditions, including excessive sweating, vomiting, or diarrhea; the use of diur etics; excessive production of urine, which can occur in diabetes; and acidosis, either metabolic acidosis or diabetic k etoacidosis.","Excessive sweating, vomiting, or diarrhea; di use of diur etics; excessive production of urine, wey dey use of diur etics; excessive production of urine, wey no dey cur for diabetic k etoacidosis.",Biology
"it e xcretes an alkaline, milky fluid to the passing seminal fluidno w called sementhat is critical to first coagulate and then dec oagulate the semen following ejaculation.","E xcretes alkaline, milky fluid to di pass seminal fluidno w called semen wey dey critical to first coagulate and then dec oagulate di semen following ejaculation.",Biology
aldos terone recall that aldos terone increases thee xcretion of potassium and ther eabsorp tion of sodium in the distal tubule.,E xcretion of potassium and di r eabsorption of sodium for di distal tubule.,Biology
"each 1, 3-bisphosphogl ycerate is subsequently dephosphor ylated (i. e, a phosphate is r emo ved) by phosphogl ycerate kinase into 3-phosphogl ycerate.","each 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate dey subsequently desphosphorylate (i. e, a phosphate dey removed)by phosphoglycerate kinase to 3-phosphoglycerate.",Biology
"each phosphate released in this reaction can convert one molecule of adp into one high-energy atp molecule, resulting in again of two atp molecules.","each phosphate wey dey released for this reaction fit convert one molecule of adp to one high-energy atp molecule, which go result in gain of two atp molecules.",Biology
"early researchers found that in cases of unusually high secretion of adh, the hormone caused v asoc onstriction (v asopr essor activity, hence the name).","Early researchers found sayin case of unusually high secretion of adh, di hormone dey caused v asoc onstriction (v asopr essor activity, hinc e di name).",Biology
"eating t oo much or t oo little can r esul t in serious medical conditions, including cardiovascular disease, cancer, and diabetes.","eating too much or too little fit result to serious medical conditions, wey include cardiovascular disease, cancer and diabetes",Biology
electrons from nadh and f adh 2are transferred through protein c omple xes embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane b ya series of enzymatic reactions.,electron from di nadh and fadh 2 go de transferred through protein complexes wey dey embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane by a series of enzymatic reactions,Biology
"emerging from the hilum is ther enal pelvis, which is formed from the major and minor cal yxes in the kidney.","Emerging from di hilum na di renal pelvis, wey dey formed from di major and minor cal yxes for di kidney.",Biology
"ent erokinase, an enzyme located in the wall ofthe small intestine, activates tr ypsin, which in turn activates ch ymotr ypsin.","enterokinase, Di enzyme wey dey locat for di wall of dismal l intestine, active ates tr ypsin, wey in turn active ates ch ymotr ypsin.",Biology
erythropoiesis epo is a 193-amino acid protein thats timulat es the formation of red blood cells in the bone marrow.,Erythropoiesis epo na 193-amino acid protein wey s timulat as di formation of red blood cells for di bone marrow.,Biology
excess or unutiliz ed energy is1102 24 chapter review access f or free at opens tax. org stored as fat or gl ycogen for later use.,excess or unutilized energy na 1102 24 chapter review access for free at open tax. org dey stored as fat or glycogen for later use.,Biology
excess water-soluble vitamins ar e excreted in the urine.,excess water-soluble vitamins dey excreted for di urine,Biology
falling glucose levels trigger the pancreas to release glucag onto turn o ff glycogen synthesis in the liver and s timulat e24 chapter review 1103 its breakdown into glucose.,falling glucose levels dey trigger di pancreas to release glucagon to turn off glycogen synthesis for di liver and stimulate 24 chapter review 1103 go breakdown to glucose.,Biology
food and metabolism the amount of energy that is needed or ingested per da y is measured in calories.,food and metabolism di amount of energy wey dey needed or ingested per day dey measured in calories,Biology
"the lung enzyme, ace, c onverts angiot ensin i into active angiot ensin ii. 1150 25 chapter review access f or free at opens tax. org angiot ensin ii is an active vasoc onstrict or that increases blood pressure.",For 1150 25 chapter review access f or free for open tax. org angiot ensin ii dey active vasoc onstrict or say increase blood pressure.,Biology
about 15 percent of nephr ons have long loops of henle that extend deep into the medul la and ar e cal ledjuxtamedul lary nephr ons.,For 15 percent of nephr ons have long loop of henle wey extend deep into di medul la and ar e cal ledjuxtamedul lary nephr ons.,Biology
the first three ofthe eight causes of metabolic acidosis listed ar e medical(or unusual physiological) conditions.26. 5 disorders of acid-base balance 1177 strenuous exercise can cause t empor ary metabolic acidosis due to the production of lactic acid.,For 5 disorders of acid-base balance 1177 strenuous exercise don cause t empor ary metabolic acidosis due to di production of lactic acid.,Biology
"the pr esenc e of aquaporin channels in the descending loop allows prodigious25. 6t ubular r eabsorp tion 1135 quantities of water to leave the loop and enter the hyper osmolar int erstitium ofthe pyramid, where it is returned to the circulation by the v asa r ecta.","For 6 tubular r eabsorp tion 1135 quantities of water to leave di loop and enter di hyper osmolar for di descending loop allows prodigious25. 6 tubular r efor di pyramid, where dey return to di circulation by di v asa r ecta.",Biology
"nearly 90 percent of water is recovered before the forming urine reaches the dct, which will recover another 10 percent.","For 90 percent of water dey ecovered before di forming urine reach di dct, wey fit recover another 10 percent.",Biology
"additionally, each da y about the same volume (2500 ml)of water leaves the body by different routes; most of this lost water is r emo ved as urine.","For additionally, each da y about di same volume (2500 ml)of water leaves di bodi by different routes; most of dis lost water dey r emo ved as urine.",Biology
"changes in body composition, including r educ ed lean muscle mass, are mostly responsible f or this decrease.","For bodi composition, including r educ ed lean muscle mass, na mostly responsible f or dis decrease.",Biology
"in both cases, fats tores ar e liberated to generate energy through the k rebs cycle and will generate ketone bodies when t oo much ac etyl coa accumulat es.","for both case, fat wey dem store dey liberated to generate energy thru di krebs cycle and go generate ketone bodies wen plenty acetyl coa accumulates",Biology
"the h ydrostatic pressure of blood is the pressure exerted by blood ag ains t the walls ofthe blood vessels by the pumping action ofthe heart. in capil laries, hydrostatic pressure (also known as capil lary blood pressure) is higher than the opposing"" colloid osmotic pressure"" in blooda ""constant ""pressure primarily produced by circulating albuminat the ar teriolar end ofthe capil lary (figure 26. 7 ).","For capil laries, hydrostatic pressure (also known as capil lary blood pressure) dey higher than di opposing"" colloid osmotic pressure of blood na di pressure wey dey produce by blood ag ains t di walls of di blood vessels by di pumping action of di heart",Biology
"eating t oo much or t oo little food can lead to serious medical issues, including cardiovascular disease, cancer, anorexia, and diabetes, among others.","For cardiovascular disease, cancer, anorexia, and diabetes, among odas.",Biology
"therefore, in comparison to the lumen ofthe loop, the1134 25 the urinary system access f or free at opens tax. org interstitial space is no wa negatively charged environment.","for compare to di lumen of di loop, di1134 25 di urinary system access f or free for open tax.",Biology
"in contrast, calcium and phosphate analysis r equir es ac ollection of urine across a 24-hour period, because the output of these ions can vary considerably over the course ofa day. urine values reflect ther ates of excretion of these ions.","For contrast, calcium and phosphate analysis r equir am ac ollection of urine across a 24-hour period, because di output of these ions don vary considerably over di course ofa day.",Biology
"receptors f or par athyroid hormone (pth) ar e found in dct cells and when bound to pth, induce the insertion of calcium channels on their luminal surface.","For dct cells and wen bound to pth, induce di insertion of calcium channel on dia luminal surface.",Biology
"in the absence of adh, these channels ar e not inserted, r esul ting in thee xcretion of water in the form of dilute urine.","For di absence of adh, dis channel no dey inserted, r esul ting for di e xcretion of water for di form of di form of di urine.",Biology
"during aerobic r espir ation, glucose is o xidiz ed into tw o pyruv ate molecules.","For di aerobic respiration, glucose go oxidize to two pyruvate molecules.",Biology
"at the basal surface ofthe muc osal cells, the sodium and amino acid ar e released.","for di basal surface of di mucosal cells, di sodium and amino acid dey released",Biology
ketones o xidiz e to produce energy for the brain.,"For di brain, di ketones o xidiz e to produce energy for di brain.",Biology
"ketone body oxidation organs that have classical ly been thought to be dependent solely on glucose, such as the brain, can actually use ketones as anal ternativ e energy source.","For di brain, go suppose use ketone bodi oxidation organs wey dey dependent solely on glucose, such as di brain, go suppose use ketone as al ternativ e energy source.",Biology
carbon dioxide is converted into bicarbonat e in the cyt oplasm of red blood cells through the action of an enzyme called carbonic anh ydrase.,For di cyt oplasm of red blood cells through di action of an enzyme wey dey call carbonic anh ydrase.,Biology
fats ingested in the diet ar e digested in the small intestine.,For di diet ar e dig dey e dey in dismal l intestine.,Biology
"this can r esul t in a partial depolarization (excitation) ofthe plasma membrane of skeletal muscle fibers, neurons, and cardiac cells ofthe heart, and can also lead to an inability of cells to repolariz e. for the heart, this means that it won't relax after a contraction, and will effectively ""seize""and stop pumping blood, which is fatal within minutes.","For di heart, dis means say e dey relax after a contraction, and e dey lead to an inability of cells to repolariz e. for di heart, e dey lead to an inability of cells to repolariz e. for di heart, e fit lead to an inability of cells to repolariz e. for di heart, e fit lead to an inability of",Biology
"it can r esul t from water loss from the blood, r esul ting in the hemoc oncentr ation of all blood constituents.",For di hemoc oncentration of all blood constituents.,Biology
"in the kidney, most ofthe ca is located within the cell, but a small amount is bound to the brush border ofthe membrane on the apical surface ofthe cell.","For di kidney, most of di ca dey locat within di cell, but a small amount dey bound to di brush border of di membrane on di apical surface of di cell.",Biology
"in the pancreas, vesicles store trypsin and chymo trypsin astrypsinog enand chymo trypsinog en.","for di pancrease, vesicles go store trypsin astrypsinogen and chymo trypsinog en.",Biology
"that recovery occurs in the pct, loop of henle, dct, and the collecting ducts(table 25. 5 and figure 25. 17).","For di pct, loop of henle, dct, and di collecting ducts(table 25. 5 and figure 25. 17).",Biology
"in the pr esenc e of oxygen, energy is passed, s tepwise, through the electron carriers to collect gradual ly the energy needed to attach a phosphate to adp and pr oduc e atp.","For di pr esenc e of oxygen, energy dey passed, s tepwise, through di electron carriers to collect gradual ly di energy need to attach phosphate to adp and pr oduc e atp",Biology
"in the process of atp production by cells throughout the body, appr oximat ely 60 percent ofthe energy produced is in the form of heat used to maintain body temper atur e. thermor egulation is an example of negative feedback.","For di process of atp production by cells throughout di bodi, approximately 60 percent of di energy produced na for di form of heat use to maintain bodi temper atur e.",Biology
"antipor t, active transport, diffusion, and facilitated diffusion ar e additional mechanisms by which subs tanc es ar e moved from one side ofa membrane to the other.","Fore mo wey dey antipor t, antipor t, active transport, diffusion, and facilitated diffusion ar e additional mechanisms wey dey y wey subs tanc am ar e mo wey dey o di oda.",Biology
"for each molecule of glucose that is processed in gl ycolysis, a net of 36 a tps can be created by aerobic r espir ation.","For each molecule of glucose wey dey processed for gl ycolysis, net of 36 tps go create by aerobic r espir ation",Biology
"for each turn ofthe cycle, three nadh, one a tp (through g tp), and one f adh 2are created.","for each turn of di cycle, three nadh, one atp(through gtp), and one fadh 2 go dey created",Biology
"micturition reflex micturition is a less-often used, but proper term f or urination or v oiding.","For eflex micturition reflex micturition dey a less-often use, but for oper term f or urination or v oiding.",Biology
every infant in the united states and canada is tested at birth to determine whether pku is present.,For every infant for di united states and Canada dey test at birth to determine whether pku dey present.,Biology
"for example, because er ythr ocyt es(red blood cells) lack mitochondria, the y must produce their a tp from anaer obic r espir ation.","for example, because di erythrocytes (red blood cells)lack mitochondria, dey must produce der atp from anaerobic respiration.",Biology
"f or example, the body s ynthesiz es vitamin a from the-car otene in orange vegetables like carrots and sweet potatoes.","for example, di bodi synthesize vitamin a from di -carotene in orange vegetables like carrots and sweet potatoes.",Biology
"take for example, regulation of ph, a function shared with the lungs and the buffers in the blood.","for example, di regulation of ph, a function shared with di lungs and di buffers in di blood.",Biology
"for example, glucose is transferred into cells by glucose tr anspor ters that use facilitated tr anspor t(figure 26. 8 ).","for example, glucose dey transferred into cells by glucose tr anspor ters wey use facilitated tr anspor t(figure 26. 8 ).",Biology
"f or example, if y ou exercise or work outside, and sweat a great deal, your urine will turn darker and pr oduc ea slight odor, even if y ou drink plenty of water.","for example, if you dey exercise or work outside, and you dey sweat wella, your urine go turn darker and go produce small odour, even if you dey drink plenti of water",Biology
"for example, muscles will switch from using glucose to fatty acids as fuel.","for example, muscles go switch to dey use glucose to fatty acids as fuel.",Biology
"oog onia ar e formed during fetal development, and divide via mit osis, much like spermat ogonia in the t estis.","For fetal development, and divide via mit osis, much like spermat ogonia for di testis.",Biology
"in fact, r oughl y 99 percent ofthe f ollicles in theo vary will undergo atr esia, which can occur at an y stage of folliculog enesis. mutations (changes) in mtdna occur spontaneously in a somewhat or ganiz ed pattern at regular intervals inhuman history.","For fact, r oughl y 99 percent of di f ollicles for di o vary will undergo atr esia, wey fit occur at y stage of folliculog enesis.",Biology
"in almost all sexually reproducing species, these tw o haploid cells differ in size; the smaller g amet e is called the male g amet e and the larger one is called the female g amet e. at fertilization, the chromosomes in one male g amet e, cal led a sperm(or spermat ozoon), combine with the chromosomes in one female g amet e, cal led an oocyt e. the function ofthe male, or t esticular, reproductive system(figure 27. 2)is to produce sperm and transfer them to the female r eproductiv e tract.","For fertilization, di chromosomes for one male g amet e, cal led a sperm(or spermat ozoon), combine wit di chromosomes for one female g amet e, cal led a oocyt ozoon.",Biology
"finally, calcitriol (1, 25 dih ydroxyvitamin d, the active form of vitamin d)is very important f or calcium recovery.","For finally, calcitriol (1, 25 dih ydroxyvitamin d, di active form of vitamin d)dey very import tant f or calcium recovery.",Biology
hydrostatic pressure is especially important in governing the movement of water in the nephr ons ofthe kidneys to ensure proper filtering ofthe blood to form urine.,For governing di movement of water for di nephr ons of di kidneys to ensure proper filtering of di blood to form urine.,Biology
"with mild dehydration, plasma osmolarity rises slightly.","For mild dehydration, plasma osmolarity dey slightly",Biology
"normally, only traces of protein ar e found in urine, and when higher amounts ar e found, damage to the glomeruli is the likely basis.","For normally, only traces of protein ar e found for urine, and when higher amounts ar e found, damage to di glomeruli dey di likely basis.",Biology
"as mentioned earlier, these glomerular capil laries filter the blood based on particle size. after passing through ther enal c orpuscle, the capil laries form a second ar teriole, the efferent ar teriole (figure 25. 10).","For pass sing through di renal c orpuscle, di capil laries form second arteriole, di efferent ar teriole (figure 25. 10).",Biology
"for people with a penis, several accessory organs and ducts aid the process of sperm matur ation and tr anspor t the sperm and other seminal components to the penis, which ma y deliver sperm to the female r eproductiv e tract.","For pipo wit a penis, several accessory organs and ducts aid di process of sperm maturation and tr anspor t di sperm and oda seminal component to di penis, wey ma y deliver sperm to di female r eproductiv e tract.",Biology
"during sexual arousal, nitric oxide (no)is released from nerve endings near blood vessels within the c orpor a ca vernosa and spongiosum.","For sexual ar orsal, nitric oxide (no)dey eleased from nerve endings near blood vessels inside di c orpor a ca vernosa and spongiosum.",Biology
"for some people, gender identity is different from biological se x or their se x assigned at birth.","For some pipo, gender identity dey different from biological se x or dia se x assigned at birth.",Biology
"proteins ar e broken down into amino acids, which in turn ar e deaminat ed by having their nitrogen groups r emo ved.","For turn proteins ar e broken down into amino acids, wey deaminat ed by having dia nitrogen groups r emo ved.",Biology
"what mechanism does the body employ to prevent its self-destruction? 38. in type ii diabetes, insulin is pr oduc ed but is nonfunctional.","For type ii diabetes, insulin dey pr oduc ed but dey nonfunctional",Biology
"other subs tanc es, such as ur ea, k+, ammonia(nh 3), creatinine, and some drugs ar e secr eted into the fil trate as waste products.","For ur ea, k+, ammonia(nh 3), creatinine, and some drugs wey dey secret for di fil trate as waste products.",Biology
what about regulating the concentration of solut es in the blood?,For what about regulating di concentrat ation of solut as for di blood?,Biology
"when fertilization does occur, sperm typically meet the eg g while it is still moving through the ampul la.","For when fertilization does occur, sperm typically meet di eg g while im dey still moving through di ampul la.",Biology
"when k etones ar e produced faster than they can be used, the y can be broken down into co2and ac etone.","For when k etones ar e produced faster than di y fit use, di y fit dey broken down into co2and ac etone.",Biology
freely available amino acids ar e used to create proteins.,freely available amino acids dey used to create proteins.,Biology
"gluc oneogenesis gluc oneog enesis is the synthesis of new glucose molecules from p yruv ate, lactat e, glycerol, or the amino acids alanine or glutamine.","gluconeogenesis is di synthesis of new glucose molecules from pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, or di amino acids alanine or glutamine.",Biology
gluc oneog enesis will also begin in the liver to replace the glucose that has been used by the peripheral tissues.,gluconeogenesis go also begin for di liver to replace di glucose wey dey used by di peripheral tissues,Biology
glucose levels in the blood begin to drop as it is absorbed and used by the cells.,glucose level wey dey di blood go begin to drop as e dey absorbed and used by di cells,Biology
"glyceraldeh yde-3-phosphat e deh ydrogenase converts each three-carbon gl yceraldeh yde-3-phosphat e produced during the energy-consuming phase into 1, 3-bisphosphogl ycerate.","glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase go convert each of di three-carbon glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate wey dey produced during di energy-consuming phase to 1,3-bisphospoglycerate.",Biology
gl ycerol and fatty acids follow different pathways.,glycerol and fatty acids dey follow different pathway,Biology
glycogen and triglyceride storage slows.,glycogen and triglyceride storage dey slow,Biology
"hcl in the stomach aids in pr oteolysis, and hormones secr eted by intestinal cells direct the digestive processes.","hcl for di stomach aid in proteolysis, and di hormones secreted by di intestinal cells direct di digestive processes",Biology
"after ing estion of food, fats and proteins ar e processed as described pr eviousl y; ho wever, the glucose processing changes a bit.","He wever, di glucose processing chang dey bit",Biology
"if the cyt osol becomes t oo dilute due to water intake by cells, cell membranes can be damaged, and the cell can burst. hy drostatic pressure is the force exerted b ya fluid ag ains taw all and causes movement of fluid between c ompar tments.","Hin drostatic pressure na di force exerted b ya fluid ag ains taw all and cause movement of fluid betw entak e by cells, cell membranes don burst.",Biology
"recent studies have shown a benefit from andr ogen replacement therapy on the ne w onset of depression in elderly males; ho wever, others tudies caution ag ains t testosterone r eplac ement f or long-term treatment of andr opause s ymp toms, showing that high doses can sharply increase the risk of both heart disease and prostate cancer. 1196 27 ther eproduc tive system access f or free at opens tax. org figure 27. 9 female r eproduc tive system the major organs ofthe female r eproductiv e system ar e located inside the pelvic cavity.","Hin wever, oda studies don show benefit from andr ogen replacement dir apy on dine w onset of andr opause s ymp toms, show say high doses don sharply increase di risk of both heart disease and prostate",Biology
"thus, meiosis r esul ts in separating the chromosome pairs.",Hinosis r eul ts for separating di chromosome pairs,Biology
a. skin e vapor ation and in air from the lungs b. urine c. excessive sweating d. vomiting or diarrhea26 interactive link questions 1181 11. how soon after drinking a large glass of water wil la persons tart increasing their urine output?,How soon after drink large glass of water wey dey evaporation and for air from di lungs b. urine c. excessive sweating d. vomiting or diarrhea26 interactive link questions 1181 11. how soon after drink a large glass of water wey dey increase dia urine output?,Biology
"however, these tw o atp ar e used f or tr anspor ting the nadh pr oduc ed during gl ycolysis from the cyt oplasm into the mitochondria.","however, dis two atp dey used for transporting the nadh wey dey produced during glycolysis from di cytoplasm to di mitochondria",Biology
"however, high c oncentr ations of nitr ogenous byproducts ar e toxic.","however, high concentrations of nitrogenous byproducts dey toxic",Biology
"however, only about tw o atp ar e produced for every oxidiz ed f adh 2.","however, na only about two atp dey produce for every oxidized fadh 2",Biology
recall that cells have tw o surfaces: apical and basal.,I recall say cells no dey tw o surfaces: apical and basal.,Biology
"if amino acids exist in excess, the body has no capacity or mechanism f or theirs torage; thus, they are converted into glucose or k etones, or they are dec omposed.","if amino acid dey exist in ecess, di bodi no get capacity or mechanism for dir storage; thus, dem dey converted to glucose or krtones, or dem dey decomposed.",Biology
"bicarbonat e levels would be normal at first, but if compensation has oc curr ed, the y would increase in an at tempt to reestablish the proper ratio of bicarbonat e and carbonic acid/co2.","If compensation don ecurr ed, di y go increase for tempt to reestablish di proper ratio of bicarbonat e and carbonic acid co2.",Biology
"if the amount of water inside ac ell falls to av alue that is t oo low, the cyt osol becomes t oo concentrated with solut es to carry on normal cellular activities; if t oo much water enters ac ell, the cell ma y burst and be destroyed.","If di amount of water inside cell fall to av alue wey dey t oo low, di cyt osol becomes to concentrate wit solut e to carry on normal cellular activities; if t oo much water enters ac ell, di cell ma y burst and be destroyed.",Biology
"if the kidneys fail, these functions ar e compromised or lost altogether, with devastating effects on homeos tasis.","if di kidneys fail, ds functions dey comprised or lost altogether, with devastating effects on homeostasis.",Biology
"con versel y, if the temper atur e falls below the set core temper atur e, the h ypothalamus can initiate shivering to generate heat.","If di temper atur e falls below di set core temper atur e, di h ypothalamus don initiate shivering to generate heat.",Biology
"if exercise is regular part of one's day, more calories ar e required.","If exercise dey egular part of one's day, more calories dey require ed.",Biology
"if an excess of 200 calories per da y is ingested, one extra pound of body weight will be gained every 18 days.","if excess 200 calories per day dey ingested, one extra pound of bodi weight go dey gained everi 18 days",Biology
"if excess vitamins ar e retained in the lipid stores in the body, hyper vitaminosis can r esul t. water-soluble vitamins, including the eight b vitamins and vitamin c, ar e absorbed with water in the gastrointestinal tract.","if excess vitamins dey retained for di lipids stored in di bodi, hyper vitaminosis fit result water-soluble vitamins wey dey including di eight b vitamins and vitamin c, dey absorb wit water for di gastrointestinal tract.",Biology
"ketogenesis if excessive ac etyl coa is created from theo xidation of fatty acids and the k rebs cycle is overloaded and cannot handle it, the ac etyl coa is diverted to createketone bodies.","If excessive ac etyl coa dey created from di oxidation of fatty acids and di k rebs cycle dey overloaded and no handle am, di ac etyl coa dey diverted to createketone bodies.",Biology
"if gl ycogen stores ar e depleted during fasting, alternative sources, including fatty acids and proteins, can be metaboliz ed and used as fuel.","if glycogen stores dey depleted during fasting, alternative sources, including acids and proteins, fit dey metabolized and used as fuel.",Biology
"ketoacidosis can be severe and, if not detected and treated pr operl y, can lead to diabetic coma, which can be fatal.","If no dey detected and treated pr operl y, go lead to diabetic coma, wey no fit lead to diabetic coma, wey fit lead to diabetic coma, wey no dey fatal.",Biology
"another w ay of saying this is: if plasma osmolarity rises, more water is recovered and urine volume decreases; if plasma osmolarity decreases, les s water is recovered and urine volume increases.","If plasma osmolarity rises, mor e water dey recovered and urine volume decreases; if plasma osmolarity dey decreases, less water dey recovered and urine volume decreases; if plasma osmolarity decreases, les s water dey recovered and urine volume decreases; if plasma osmolarity dey decreases; if plasma osmolarity decreases,",Biology
"for example, if y ou ar e sweating, you will lose water through your skin.","If y ou ar e sweating, you fit lose water through y awa skin.",Biology
"therefore, if y ou use mean arterial pressure for the gbhp in the formula f or calculating nfp, you can determine that as long as mean arterial pressure is above appr oximat ely 60 mm hg, the pressure will be adequate to maintain glomerular filtration.","If y use mean arterial pressure for di gbhp for di formula f or calculating nfp, you fit dey ermine say as long as mean arterial pressure dey above approximately 60 mm hg, di pressure go adequate to maintain glomerular filtration.",Biology
"if y ou ing est more than that, the remainder is stored for later use.","if you ingest more than dat, di remainder go store for later use",Biology
"during meiosis ii each ofthe 23 r eplicat ed chromosomes divides, similar to what happens during mitosis.","Ii each of di 23 r eplicat ed chromosomes divides, similar to wey dey during mitosis.",Biology
"in addition to generating an additional atp, this pathway serves to keep the p yruv ate concentration lo w so gl ycolysis continues, and it o xidiz es nadh into the nad+needed by glycolysis.","for addition to generate additional atp, dis pathway serves to keep di pyruvate concentratation low so di glycolysis go continue, and e dey oxidize nadh to di nad+ needed by glycolysis.",Biology
"in addition, the k rebs cycle supplies the starting materials to process and break down proteins and fats.","In addition, di krebs cycle go supply di starting materials to process and breakdown di proteins and fats",Biology
"in addition, th yroid hormone will stimulate more energy use and heat production by cells throughout the body.","in addition, thyroid hormone go stimulate more energy use and heat production by cells throughout di bodi",Biology
"in this reaction, lactic acid r eplac es oxygen as the final electron ac ceptor.","in dis reaction, lactic acid go replace oxygen as di final electron acceptor",Biology
"in these reactions, pyruv ate can be converted into lactic acid.","in dis reactions, pyruvate fit dey converted to lactic acid.",Biology
"in fact, the breakdown of carbohydrates requires the least amount of energy, whereas the processing of proteins demands the most energy.","for true, di breakdown of carbohydrates dey require di least amount of energy, whereas di processing of proteins dey demand di most energy",Biology
"in g ener al, the amount of calories ingested and the amount of calories burned determines theo verall weight.","for general, di amount of calories wey dey ingested and di amount of calories burned dey determine di overall weight.",Biology
"in gluc oneog enesis (as c ompar ed to glycolysis), the enzyme he xokinase is r eplac ed by gluc ose-6-phosphatase, and the enzyme phospho fruct okinase -1 is r eplac ed by fructose-1, 6-bisphosphatase.","in gluconegenesis (as comapared to glycolysis), Di enzyme he xokinase dey r eplac ed by gluc ose-6-phosphatase, and di enzyme phospho fruct okinase -1 dey r eplac ed by fructose-1, 6-bisphosphatase.",Biology
"in summary, one glucose molecule breaks down into tw o pyruv ate molecules, and creates tw o net a tp molecules 1066 24 metabolism and nutrition access f or free at opens tax. org and tw o nadh molecules by glycolysis.","In summary, One glucose molecule go breakdown to two pyruvate molecules, and creates two net atp molecules 1066 24 metabolism and nutrition access for free for open tax. org and two nadh molecules by glycolysis",Biology
"severe hypo-osmolarity can cause problems like lysis (rupture) of blood cells or widespread edema, which is due toa solut e imbalance. inadequate solut e concentration (such as protein) in the plasma r esul ts in water moving toward an area of greater solut e concentration, in this case, the int erstitial space and cell cyt oplasm.","Inadequate solut e concentration (such as protein) for di plasma r eul ts for water moving toward an area of greater solut e concentrat ation, for dis case, e dey cause problems like lysis (rupture) of blood cells or widespread edema, wey dey due toa solut e imbalance.",Biology
interactive link watch this video( chain)to learn about the electron tr anspor t chain.,interactive link watch dis video(chain) to learn about di electron transport chain,Biology
interactive link watch this video( o)from the howard hughes medical institut e for an introduction to the urinary system.,interactive link watch dis video(o) from di howard hughes medical institutes for an introduction to di urinary systerm.,Biology
"(credit: jane whitney) mild, tr ansient edema ofthe feet and legs ma y be caused by sitting or standing in the same position f or long periods of time, as in the work ofa toll collector or a supermarket cashier.","Jane whitney) mild, tr ansient edema of di feet and legs ma y dey caused by sitting or standing for di same position f or long periods of time, as for di work ofa toll collector or supermarket cashier.",Biology
ketones serve as fuel in times of prolonged starvation or when patients suffer from unc ontr olled diabetes and cannot utilize most ofthe circulating glucose.,ketones dey serve as fuel for time wey be say starvation dey prolonged or wen patients dey suffer from diabetes wey dey no fit control and no fit use most of di circulating glucose,Biology
"krebs c ycle/citric acid c ycle/tricarbo xylic acid cycle the p yruv ate molecules g ener ated during gl ycolysis ar e transported across the mitochondrial membrane into the1068 24 metabolism and nutrition access f or free at opens tax. org inner mitochondrial matrix, where they are metaboliz ed by enzymes in a pathway called the krebs cycle(figure 24. 7 ).","krebs cycle citric acid tricarboxylic acid cycle di pyruvate molecules wey dey generated during glycolysis are transported across di mitochondrial membrane to di 1068 24 metabolism and nutrition access for free at open tax. org inner mitochondrial matrix, where dem dey metabolized by enzymes for pathway wey dem dey call di krebs cycle(figure 24. 7 ).",Biology
"lipid metabolism begins in the intestine where ing estedtrigl ycerides are broken down into smaller chain fatty acids and subsequently int omonogl yceride molecules(see figure 24. 11 b) bypancr eatic lipases, enzymes that break down fats after they are emulsified b ybile salts.","lipid metabolism dey start for di intestine where ing estedtriglycerides go dey broken down to smaller chain fatty acids and dey subsequently to monoglyceride molecules(check di picture 24. 11 b)by pancreatic lipases, enzymes wey breakdown fats after dem dey emulsified by bile salts.",Biology
lipid metabolism entails theo xidation of fatty acids to either g ener ate energy or s ynthesiz e ne w lipids from smaller constituent molecules.,lipid metabolism entail the oxidation of fatty acids to generate energy or synthesize new lipids from smaller constituent molecules,Biology
"lipoly sis to obtain energy from fat, trigl ycerides must first be broken down by hydrolysis into their tw o principal components, fatty acids and gl ycerol.","lipolysis to obtain energy wey dey from fat, trigycerides go first breakdown by hydrolysis to dir two principal components, fatty acids and glycerol.",Biology
metabolic rate the metabolic r ateis the amount of energy consumed minus the amount of energy expended by the body.,metabolic rated metabolic rate na di amount of energy wey de consumed minus di amount of energy expended by di bodi,Biology
"minerals ar e also obtained from the diet, but they are also stored, primarily in skeletal tissues.","minerals dey also obtained from di diet, but dem dey stored, primarily for skeletal tissues.",Biology
"h+and hc o3are secr eted or r eabsorbed as needed to maintain acidbase balance. movement of water from the glomerulus is primarily due to pressure, whereas that of peritubular capil laries and v asa r ecta is due to osmolarity and c oncentr ation gr adients.","movement of water from di glomerulus dey primarily due to pressure, whereas say of peritubular capil laries and v asa r ecta dey due to osmolarity and c oncentr ation gr adients.",Biology
"if the ph and bicarbonat e to carbonic acid ratio ar e changed too dr astical ly, the body ma y not be able to compensate. moreover, extreme changes in ph can denatur e proteins.","moreover, extreme chang dey for ph and bicarbonat e to carbonic acid ratio ar e change too dr astical ly, di body no be able to compensate. moreover, extreme chang dey for ph no denatur e proteins",Biology
"modest amounts of urea, na+, and other ions ar e also recovered here. most ofthe solut es that were filtered in the glomerulus have no w been recovered along with a majority of water, about 82 percent.","most of di solut wey were filter for di glomerulus have no dey covered along wit majority of water, about 82 percent.",Biology
"most minerals ar e ioniz ed, and their ionic forms ar e used in physiological processes throughout the body.","Most mineral dey ionized, and dir ionic form dey used for physiological processes throughout di bodi",Biology
"muscle will be spared to prevent the wasting of muscle tissue; however, these proteins will be used if al ternativ e stores ar e not available.","muscle go dey spared to prevent di wasting of muscle tissue; however, dis proteins go dey used if alternative stores no dey available",Biology
"myplat e cat egorizes food into the s tandar d six food groups: fruits, vegetables, grains, protein foods, dairy, and oils.","myplate dey categorize food into di standard six food groups: fruits, vegetables, grains, protein foods, dairy, and oils.",Biology
"most commonly, the subs tanc e that absorbs the ions is either a weak acid, which takes up h ydroxyl ions, or aw eak base, which takes up hydrogen ions. 26. 4a cid-base balance 1171 figure 26. 15 the ph scale this chart shows where many common subs tanc es fall on the ph scale.","Na acid-base balance 1171 figure 26. 15 di ph scale dis chart shows where many common subs tanc e wey dey absorb di ions dey either weak acid, wey no dey up hydrogen ions, or aw eak base, wey dey up hydrogen ions",Biology
about 10 percent (about 18 l) reaches the collecting ducts.,Na about 10 percent (about 18 l) reach di collecting ducts.,Biology
an absolute loss of sodium ma y be due toa decreased intake ofthe ion coupled with its continual e xcretion in the urine.,Na absolute loss of sodium ma y be due toa decreased intake of di ion couple wit dia continual e xcretion for di urine.,Biology
these subs tanc es cross readily if they are less than 4 nm in size and most pass freely up t o 8 nm in size. an additional factor affecting the ability of subs tanc es to cross this barrier is their electric charge.,Na additional factor affecting di ability of substances to cross dis barrier nadia electric charge.,Biology
all ofthe ions in plasma contribute to the osmotic balance that c ontr ols the movement of water between cells and their environment.,Na all of di ions for plasma contribute to di osmotic balance wey c ontr ols di movement of water betw one cells and dia environment.,Biology
"sperm leave ther ete testes, and the testis itself, through the 15 to 20 eff erent ductules that cross the tunica albuginea.",Na di 15 to 20 eff erent ductules wey dey cross di tunica albuginea.,Biology
"recall that during the f ollicular phase ofthe ovarian cycle, the tertiary follicles ar e growing and secr eting estrogen.","Na during di f ollicular phase of di varian cycle, di tertiary follicles ar e growing and secr e trogen.",Biology
"even when r esol ved, pid can leave scar tissue in the tubes, leading to infertility.","Na even when r esol ved, pid fit leave scar tissue for di tube, leading to infertility.",Biology
"endo thelin endo thelins,21-amino acid peptides, are extremely powerful v asoc onstrict ors.",Na extremely powerful v asoc onstrict ors.,Biology
"fifty percent of cland variable quantities of ca++, mg++, and are also recovered in the pct.","Na fifty percent of cland variable quantities of ca++, mg++, and dey also covered for di pct",Biology
"by also stimulating aldos terone production, it provides along erlasting mechanism to support blood pressure by maintaining vascular volume (water recovery).",Na long erlasting mechanism to support blood pressure by maintaining vascular volume (water recovery).,Biology
"diet can influence ph; meats lower the ph, whereas citrus fruits, vegetables, and dairy products raise the ph.","Na meats lower di ph, whereas citrus fruits, vegetables, and dairy products raise di ph.",Biology
most water and solut es ar e recovered by this second capil lary bed.,Na most water and solut dey recover by dis second capil lary bed.,Biology
net fluid movement will bein the direction ofthe lower pressure.,Na net fluid movement will be for di direction of di lower pressure.,Biology
"pap smears sample cells ofthe cervix, allowing the detection of abnormal cells.","Na pap smear sample cells of di cervix, allow di detection of abnormal cells",Biology
water recovery is also powerfully and directly influenced by the hormone adh.,Na powerfully and directly influence by di hormone adh.,Biology
"some e xper ts also suggest avoiding sugar, which can lead to excess fats torage.","Na some e xper ts also suggest avoidin sugar, wey go lead to excess fats torage.",Biology
such v oluntar y contraction is also used in forceful def ecation and childbirth.,Na such volutar y contraction dey use for forceful def ecation and childbirth,Biology
"when glucose is limited, ketone bodies can be o xidiz ed and used f or fuel.","Na when glucose dey limited, ketone bodies go use f or fuel.",Biology
"a. acetyl coa; f ad, nad b. acetyl coa; f adh 2; nadh c. pyruv ate; nad; f adh 2 d. pyruv ate; oxygen; o xaloac etat e 7. which pathway produces the most atp molecules?","Na. acetyl coa; f ad, nad b. acetyl coa; f adh 2; nadh c. pyruv ate; oxygen; o xaloac etat e 7.",Biology
"three electr olytes ar e more closely regulated than others: na+, ca++, and k+.","Na+, ca++, and k+",Biology
a na+/k+/2clsympor ter in the apical membrane passively allows these ions to enter the cell cyt oplasm from the lumen ofthe loop down ac oncentr ation gradient created by the pump.,Na+k+ 2clsymporter for di apical membrane passively allow dis ions to enter di cell cyt oplasm from di lumen of di loop down c oncentr ation gradient created by di pump.,Biology
"also, note that ana+gradient is created by the na+/k+pump.",Na+gradient dey created by dina+ k+pump.,Biology
"at the same time that na+is actively pumped from the basal side ofthe cell into the int erstitial fluid, clfollows the na+from the lumen into the int erstitial fluid b ya par acellular route between cells through leaky tight junctions.","Na+is actively pump from di basal side of di cell into di int erstitial fluid, cl follow dina+from di lumen into di int erstitial fluid, cl follow dina+from di lumen into di int erstitial fluid, cl follow dina+from di lumen into di int erstitial fluid, cl follow dina+from di lumen into di int erstitial fluid, cl follow dina+from di lumen into di int erstitial fluid b ya par acellular",Biology
"when na+is retained, k+is excreted; when na+is lost, k+is retained.","Na+is lost, k+is retained; wen na+is lost, k+is retained; wen na+is lost, k+is retained; wen na+is lost, k+is retained",Biology
"if na+remains in the forming urine, its osmotic force will cause ac oncurr ent loss of water.","Na+remains for di forming urine, its osmotic force wil cause concurrent loss of water",Biology
nadh and f adh 2then pass electrons through the electron tr anspor t chain in the mitochondria to generate more atp molecules.,nadh and fadh 2 go pass electron through di electron transport chain for di mitochondria to generate more atp molecules.,Biology
net filtration p ressur e (nfp ) nfp determines filtration rates through the kidney.,Nafp ) nfp determines filtration rates through di kidney.,Biology
natriur etic hormones act by inhibiting aldos terone release and therefore inhibiting na+recovery in the collecting ducts.,Natriur etic hormones act by inhibit aldos terone release and dir efore inhibit na+recovery for di collecting ducts,Biology
"natriur etic hormones also inhibit adh release, which ofcourse will result in less water recovery.","Natriur etic hormones also inhibit adh release, wey ofcourse fit l result for less water recovery.",Biology
natriur etic hormones natriur etic hormones ar e peptides thats timulat e the kidneys to excrete sodiuman effect opposite that of aldos terone.,Natriur etic hormones natriur etic hormones dey timulat e di kidneys to excrete sodiuman effect opposite dat of aldos terone.,Biology
"therefore, natriur etic peptides inhibit both na+and water recovery.",Natriur etic pep time dey inhibit both na+and water recovery.,Biology
that is note ven the c omplet e list!,No be even di complete list be dat.,Biology
"on average, a person needs 1500 to 2000 calories per da y to sustain (or carry out) daily activities.","on a average, person dey need 1500 to 2000 calories per day to sustain(to dey carry out)daily activities",Biology
"once theses tores ar e fully depleted, proteins from muscles ar e released and broken down f or glucose synthesis.","once dis stores dey fully depleted, proteins from muscles dey released and broken down for glucose",Biology
"another common s ymp tom is fruity -smelling breath, due to thee xhalation of acetone.","One common s ymp tom dey fruity -smelling breath, due to di e xhalation of acetone.",Biology
"about one in five people detect a dis tinctiv e odor in their urine after consuming asparagus; other foods such as onions, garlic, and fish can impart their o wn ar omas!","One for five pipo dey ect dis tinctiv e odor for dia urine after consuming asparagus; oda foods such as onions, garlic, and fish dey impart dia o wn ar omas",Biology
"the process begins at puberty, after which time sperm ar e produced c onstantl y throughout a male 's life. one production cycle, from spermat ogonia through formed sperm, tak es appr oximat ely 64 days.","One production cycle, from spermat ogonia through formed sperm, dem dey approximately 64 days.",Biology
one quick w ay to check f or subcutaneous edema localized in a limb is to press a finger into the suspected area.,One quick w ay to check f or subcutaneous edema localized for a limb dey press a finger for ea.,Biology
ones ymp tom of ketogenesis is that the patient's breath smells sweet like alcohol.,one symptom of ketogenesis be say di patient breath go smell sweet like alcohol,Biology
"glucag on acts upon the liver cells, where it1088 24 metabolism and nutrition access f or free at opens tax. org inhibits the synthesis of glycogen and s timulat es the breakdown of stored gl ycogen back into glucose.",org inhibit di synthesis of glycogen and s timulat as di breakdown of store gl ycogen back into glucose.,Biology
"first, the p yruv ate is converted into oxaloac etat e. oxaloac etat e then serves as a substrate for the enzyme phosphoenolp yruv ate carbo xykinase (pepck ), which transforms o xaloac etat e into phosphoenolp yruv ate(pep).","oxaloac etat e dey serve as substrate for di enzyme phosphoenolp yruv ate carbo xykinase (pepck), wey transform o xaloac etat e into phosphoenolp yruv ate(pep).",Biology
"oxaloac etat e forms via the action of pyruv ate carbo xylase, whereas the action of pyruv ate deh ydrogenase creates ac etyl coa.","oxaloacetate dey formed via d action of pyruvate carboxylase, whereas di action of pyruvate dehydrogenase dey create acetyl coa.",Biology
"oxidationreduction reactions transfer electrons across molecules by oxidizing one molecule and reducing another, and collecting ther eleased energy to convert piand adp into atp.","oxidation reduction reaction dey transfer electron across molecules by oxidizing one molecule and to dey reduce anoda, and collecting di released energy to convert piand adp to atp",Biology
"metabolic a cidosis: p rimar y bic arbonat e de ficienc y metabolic acidosis occurs when the blood is t oo acidic(ph below 7. 35)due to too little bicarbonat e, ac ondition called primary bicarbonat e deficiency.",P rimar y bic arbonat e dey ficienc y metabolic acidosis occur wen di blood dey t oo acidic(ph below 7.35) due to too little bicarbonat e deficiency.,Biology
"r espir atory acidosis can r esul t from anything that interferes with r espir ation, such as pneumonia, emph ysema, or c ongestive heart failure. respiratory alk alosis: p rimar y carbonic acid/c o2deficienc y respiratory alkalosis occurs when the blood is overly alkaline due toa deficiency in carbonic acid and c o2levels in the blood.",P rimar y carbonic acid c o2deficienc y respiratory alk alosis dey occur wen di blood dey overly alkaline due toa deficiency for carbonic acid and c o2deficienc y respiratory alk alosis wey dey deficiency for carbonic acid and c o2deficienc y deficiency for carbonic acid and c ongestive heart failure.,Biology
"respiratory acidosis: p rimar y carbonic acid/c o2excess respiratory acidosis occurs when the blood is overly acidic due to an excess of carbonic acid, r esul ting from t oo much c o2in the blood.","P rimar y carbonic acid c o2excess respiratory acidosis occur wen di blood dey verly acidic due toe xcess of carbonic acid, r esul ting from t oo much c o2in di blood.",Biology
people afflicted with pku lack sufficient activity ofthe enzyme phen ylalanine h ydroxylase and ar ether efore unable to break down phen ylalanine into tyr osine adequately.,pipo wey dey afflicted with pku dey lack sufficient activity of di enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase and dey unable to breakdown phenylalanine to tyrosine adequately.,Biology
p epsin cuts proteins into smaller pol ypep tides and their constituent amino acids.,pepsin go cut proteins to smaller polypeptides and dir constiruent amino acids.,Biology
"pku affects about 1 in every 15, 000 births in the united states.","pku dey affect about 1 in every 15,000 births in di united states.",Biology
metabolic alk alosis: p rimar y bic arbonat e excess metabolic alkalosis is the opposite of metabolic acidosis.,Primary bic arbonat e excess metabolic alkalosis na di opposite of metabolic acidosis,Biology
processing of carbohydrates requires less energy than processing of proteins.,processing of carbohydrates dey require less energy than processing of proteins,Biology
"in the uterus, progesterone from the corpus lut eum begins the secr etory phase ofthe menstrual cycle, in which the endometrial lining pr epar es for implantation(see figure 27. 15).","progesterone from di corpus lut eum begin di secr etory phase of di menstrual cycle, wey di endometrial lining prepares for implantation(check di picture 27. 15).",Biology
pyruv ate crosses back across the mitochondrial membrane to wait for the next cycle of lipog enesis.,pyruvate go cross back across di mitochondrial membrane to wait for di next cycle of lipogenesis,Biology
this has tw o significant effects: r emo val of nacl while retaining water leads t o ah ypoosomotic fil trate by the time it reaches the dct; pumping nacl into the int erstitial space contributes to the hyper osmotic environment in the kidney medul la.,r emo val of nacl while retaining water lead to di int erstitial space contribut am to di hyper osmotic environment for di kidney medul la.,Biology
radiation transfers heat via infrared radiation.,radiation dey transfer heat via infrared radiation,Biology
radiation is the transfer of heat via infrared waves.,radiation na di transfer of heat via infrared waves,Biology
review questions 1. a monosac charide is formed from a pol ysaccharide in what kind of reaction?,"questions wey dem dey ask to check if person sabi wetin dem don teach am, or to test im knowledge for one particular subject 1. a monosaccharide dey formed from pol ysaccharide for what kind of reaction?",Biology
"similarly, when a person exercises, muscles use a tp faster than oxygen can be delivered to them.","similarly, wen person exercise, muscle dey use atp faster than oxygen can be delivered to dem.",Biology
soho w is water intake regulated by the body?,Soho w dey water intake regulated by di bodi?,Biology
"so, the question can be raised as to wh y the body would create something it has just spent a fair amount of effort to break down?","so, di question go dey raised as to why di bodi go create something wey e just spend fair amount of effort to breakdown?",Biology
"sodium and chloride ions ar e electr olytes in the blood and extracellular tissues, and iron ions ar e critical to the formation of hemoglobin.","sodium and chloride na electrolytes for di blood and extracellular tissues, and iron ions dey critica to di formation of hemoglobinl",Biology
"phosphate buffer phosphat es ar e found in the blood in tw o forms: sodium dih ydrogen phosphate( ), which is aw eak acid, and sodium monoh ydrogen phosphate( ), which is aw eak base.","sodium dih ydrogen phosphate( ), wey dey weak base, and sodium monoh ydrogen phosphate( ), wey dey weak base",Biology
some drugs can be eliminated by carrier proteins that enable secretion ofthe drug into the tubule lumen.,Some drugs go eliminat eby carrier proteins wey enable secretion of di drug into di tubule lumen.,Biology
some ofthe characteristics such as color and odor ar e rough descrip tors of yours tate of hydration.,some of d characteristics like colour and odor na rough description of your state of hydration.,Biology
starvation states happen very rarely in g ener ally well-nourished individuals.,starvation staes dey happen very rarely for generally well-nourished individuals,Biology
"starvation when the body is deprived of nourishment f or an extended period of time, it goes into ""survival mode.""","starvation wen di bodi dey deprived of nourishment for an extended period of time, e goes to""survival mode.""",Biology
"suc cinat e dehydrogenase then converts suc cinat e into fumar ate, forming a molecule of fadh 2.",succinate dehydrogenase go kan convert succinate to fumarate to form a molecule of fadh 2.,Biology
"sweating is the primary means of cooling the body during exercise, whereas at rest, about 20 percent ofthe heat lost by the body occurs through e vapor ation.","sweating na primary means wey di bodi dey take cool itself during exercise, whereas at rest, about 20 percent of di heat lost by di bodi dey occur through evaporation",Biology
"symptoms include delayed neurological development, hyper activity, intellectual disability, seizures, rash, tr emors, and unc ontr olled movements ofthe arms and legs.","symptoms dey include delayed neurological development, hyper activity, intellectual disability, seizures, rash, tremors, and uncontrolled movements of di arms and legs",Biology
"therefore, the body uses k etones to satisfy the energy needs ofthe brain and other glucose-dependent organs, and to maintain proteins in the cells (see figure 24. 2 ).","therefore, di bodi dey use ketone to satisfy di energy needs of di brain and other glucose-dependent organs, and to maintain proteins wey dey di cells(check di picture 24. 2).",Biology
"therefore, glycolysis g ener ates energy for the cell and creates p yruv ate molecules that can be processed further through the aerobic k rebs cycle (also called the citric acid cycle or tricarbo xylic acid cycle); converted into lactic acid or alcohol (in yeast) by fermentation; or used later for the synthesis of glucose through gluc oneog enesis.","therefore, di glycolysis go generate energy for di cell and create pyruvate molecules wey fit dey processes further through di aerobic krebs cycle(wey dem call di citric acid cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle); converted to lactic acid or alcohol (wey dey inside yeast)by fermentation; or used later for disynthesis of glucose through gluconeogenesis.",Biology
"therefore, theses weeteners must be avoided.","Therefore, dis sweetners must dey avoided",Biology
"therefore, for every glucose molecule that enters aerobic r espir ation, a net total of 36 a tps are produced (figure 24. 9 ).","therefore, for every of d glucose molecule wey enter aerobic respiration, a net total of 36 atps dey produced(figure 24. 9)",Biology
"therefore, when glucose levels ar e low, triglycerides can be converted into ac etyl coa molecules and used to generate atp through aerobic r espir ation.","therefore, wen glucose level dey low, triglycerides fit dey converted to acetyl coa molecules and used to generate atp thru aerobic respiration",Biology
producing clear urine ma y take only af ew minutes if y ou ar e drinking alot of water or several hours if y ou ar e working outside and not drinking much.,to dey produce clear urine fit take only few minutes if you dey drink plenti water or several hours if you dey work outside and no dey drink plenti water,Biology
running or jogging one mile burns almost 100 calories.,to dey run or jog one miles dey burn almost 100 calories,Biology
"to help provide guidelines regarding the types and quantities of food that should be eaten every day, the usda has updated their food guidelines from mypyr amid to myplat e. they have put ther ecommended elements ofa healthy meal into the context of a place setting of food.","to help to dey provide guidelines regarding di types and quantities of food dat should be eaten everyday, Di usd don update their food guidelines from mypyramid to myplate. dey don put di recommended elements ofa healthy meal into di context of a place e setting of food.",Biology
"descending loop the majority ofthe descending loop is comprised of simple squamous epithelial cells; to simplify the function ofthe loop, this discussion focuses on these cells.","To simplify di function of di loop, dis discussion focuses on disc ells.",Biology
"to solve this problem, p yruv ate is converted into both oxaloac etat e and ac etyl coa.","to solve dis problem, pyruvate go dey converted to both oxaloacetate and acetyl coa.",Biology
"to start the k rebs cycle, citr ate synthase combines ac etyl coa and o xaloac etat e to form a six-carbon citr ate molecule; coa is subsequently released and can combine with another p yruv ate molecule to begin the cycle again.","to start di krebs cycle, citrate synthase go combine acetyl coa and oxaloacetate to form six-carbon citrate molecule; coa is subsequently released and go fit combine with another pyruvate molecule to begin di cycle again.",Biology
"together, the pancreatic lipases and bile salts break down trigl ycerides into free fatty acids.","togeter, di pancreatic lipases and di bile salts go breakdown triglycerides to free fatty acids.",Biology
describe ho w ketones ar e synthesized.,tok how ketones dey synthesize,Biology
triglycerides yield more than twice the energy per unit mass when c ompar ed to carbohydrates and proteins.,triglycerides dey give more than twice di energy per unit mass wen e dey compared to carbohydrates and proteins,Biology
t rypsin then binds to ch ymotr ypsinog en to convert it into the active ch ymotr ypsin.,trypsin go den bind to chymotrypsinog en to convert am to di active chymotrypsin,Biology
two different enzymes ar e required for these conversions.,two different enzymes dey required for dis conversion,Biology
"t rypsin and chymotr ypsin break down large proteins into smaller peptides, apr ocess cal ledproteolysis.","tyrpsin and chymotrypsin go breakdown large proteins to smaller peptides, process wey dem dey call proteolysisi",Biology
"urine color ma y also be affected by certain foods like beets, berries, and fa va beans.","urine colour fit dey affected by some kain foods like beets. berries, and fava beans.",Biology
vitamin d is also s ynthesiz ed in the skin through e xposur e to sunlight.,vitamin d dey also synthesize for di skin through e xposur e to sunlight.,Biology
vitamins and minerals ar e essential parts ofthe diet.,vitamins and minerals dey essential parts of di diet,Biology
vitamins ar e either fat-soluble or water-soluble.,vitamins fit dey fat-solubble or water-soluble,Biology
"vitamins ar e not stored in the body, so they must be obtained from the diet or synthesized from precursors available in the diet.","vitamins node stored for di bodi, so dey gats dey obtained from di diet or synthesized from precursors wey dey available for di diet",Biology
water is attracted by the high osmotic environment ofthe deep kidney medul la.,Water dey tract by di high osmotic environment of di deep kidney medul la,Biology
"when we refer to""calorie,""we are referring to the nutritional calorie.","We dey to talk about""calorie,""we dey to talk about di nutritional calorie.",Biology
what specialized s tructur es help guide the oocyt e from theo vary into the uterine tube?,We dey specialized s tructur e help guide di oocyt e from di o vary into di uterine tube?,Biology
you will find osmotic pressure exerted by the solut es inside the lumen ofthe capil lary as well as inside of bowman 's capsule.,We fit find osmotic pressure exerted by di solut wey dey inside di lumen of di capil lary as well as inside of bowman capsule.,Biology
the g amet e they produce is called an oocyt e. we'll discuss the production of oocyt es in detail shortly.,We go discuss di production of oocyt e for detail shortly.,Biology
the cilia in the uterine tube pr omot e movement ofthe oocyt e. what would likely occur if the cilia were paralyzed at the time of ovulation?,We go likely occur if di cilia were paralyzed for di time of ovulation?,Biology
we do not often consider that a child's birth is proof ofthe healthy functioning of reproductive systems.,We no often consider say a child's birth dey proof of di healthy function of reproductive systems.,Biology
"when the blood glucose c oncentr ation falls below that certain point, ne w glucose is synthesized by the liver to raise the blood c oncentr ation to normal. 1072 24 metabolism and nutrition access f or free at opens tax. org gluc oneog enesis is not simply ther everse of glycolysis.","Wen di blood glucose concentration fall below dat certain point, new glucose go dey synthesize by di liver to raise di blood concentration to normal. 1072 24 metabolism and nutrition dey get access for free at open tax org gluconegenesis no be simply di reverse of glycolysis.",Biology
"when the food-g astric juice mixture (ch yme) enters the small intestine, the pancreas releases sodium bicarbona teto neutralize the hcl.","wen di food-gastric juice mixture (chyme) enter di small intestine, di pancreas go release sodium bicarbonate to neutralize di hcl",Biology
"when food reaches the small intestine in the form of chyme, a digestive hormone cal ledcholecy stokinin (c ck)is released by intestinal cells in the intestinal muc osa.","wen food reach di small intestines in di form of chyme, digestive hormone wey dem dey call cholecy stokinin (c ck) dey released by intestinal cells for di intestinal mucosa",Biology
"when circulating ca++decreases, pth stimulates ther eabsorp tion of ca++and inhibits reabsorp tion of.","when circulating ca++decrease, pth stimulate di r eabsorption of ca++and inhibit reabsorption of.",Biology
"whereas some r esear chers believe that certain aspects of andr opause ar e difficult to tease apart from aging in general, testosterone r eplac ement is sometimes prescribed to alleviate some s ymp toms.","Whereas some r esear chers wey dey believe say certain aspects of andr opause ar e difficult to tease apart from aging for general, testosterone r eplac ement dey sometimes prescribed to alleviate some s ymp toms.",Biology
which hormones change in response to low glucose levels?,which hormones dey change in response to low glucose levels?,Biology
what other mechanisms ar e in place to regulate the body temper atur e?,which oda mechanisms dey in place to regulate di bodi temperature?,Biology
"within the intestinal cells, these trigl ycerides ar e packaged along with cholesterol molecules in phospholipid v esicles cal ledchylomicr ons(figure 24. 12).","within di intestinal cells, dis triglycerides dey packaged along with dem cholesterol molecules wey dey inside phospholip vesicles wey dem dey call chylomicrons (figure 24.12).",Biology
"y ou commonly fast overnight, but skipping meals during the da y puts your body in the pos tabsorp tive state as well.","you commonly dey fast overnight, but to dey skip meals during d day dey put your bodi for di post absorptive state aswell.",Biology
"your body processes the food y ou eat both to use immediately and, impor tantl y, to store as energy for later demands.","your bodi dey process di food wey you eat to use immediately and importantly, to store as energi for later demands.",Biology
a finder of personal property may claim ownership ofthe property if it is abandoned.,A finder of personal property may claim ownership of di property if am na throw away.,Civic Education
that is where the modern corporation comes in.,na where di modern corporation con show,Civic Education
"it allowed him to bring in other individuals with distinct skills and capabilities, raise money in the early stage of operations by promising shares in the new company, and eventually become very wealthy by selling stock, or securities, in the company.","E allow am bring inside other pipo wey get the skill and dey capable raise money inside di early stage of operations by promising shares inside di new company, plus eventually become well-well wealthy by selling stock, or securities, inside di company.",Civic Education