{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3074&action=history","id":"3074","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":8336,"raw_text_sha256":"e91ee7ffb7cf1a06774d603ec7b34559c7adfb83bfd49de69eea2093ba223abc","raw_text_utf8_bytes":8371,"revision_id":"1367943401","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-06T03:01:59Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1367943401","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"The Androphagi were an ancient Scythian tribe whose existence was recorded by ancient Greco-Roman authors. They were closely related to the Melanchlaeni and the Budini.\nName\nThe name is a Latinisation of the ancient Greek name , which means \"man-eaters.\" This name is a descriptive one based on their reported practice of cannibalism; how they called themselves is unknown.\nLocation\nThe Androphagi lived in the region to the east of the middle Dnieper river, especially in the valley of the Sula and some smaller rivers. Their neighbours were the Neuri to the west and the Scythians proper to the south.\nHistory\nThe Scythians originated in the region of the Volga-Ural steppes of Central Asia, possibly around the 9th century BC. Over the course of the 8th and 7th centuries BC, they migrated into the Caucasian and Caspian Steppes in several waves, becoming the dominant population of the region. The section of the Scythians from whom the Androphagi originated participated in this migration and had established itself in North Caucasus around 800 BC.\n\nBeginning in the later 7th and lasting throughout much of the 6th century BC, the majority of the Scythians migrated from the North Caucasus into the Pontic–Caspian steppe, which became the centre of Scythian power. In the region of Donets-Kramatorsk, the Vorskla and Sula-Donets subgroups of the Scythian culture emerged. Of these, the Donets group corresponded to the Melanchlaeni, the Sula group to the Androphagi, and the Vorskla group to the Budini, with all of these groups remaining independent of the Scythians proper.\n\nWhen the Persian Achaemenid king Darius I attacked the Scythians in 513 BC, the Scythian king Idanthyrsus summoned the kings of the peoples surrounding his kingdom to a meeting to decide how to deal with the Persian invasion. The kings of the Budini, Gelonians, and Sarmatians agreed to support the Scythians against the attack, while the kings of the Agathyrsi, Androphagi, Melanchlaeni, Neuri, and Tauri refused to help.\nSociety and culture\nThe ancient Greek author Herodotus described the Androphagi as wearing Scythian-type clothing, and speaking a \"peculiar language.\" This might have been a Scythian language or dialect different from that of the Pontic Scythians.\n\nThe Androphagi were largely engaged in agriculture and farming, and hunting was of lesser importance among them. Trade relations between them and the ancient Greek colonies on the northern shores of the Black Sea had been established in the 6th century BC. Herodotus described them as savage and lawless, possibly reflecting strained relations with Olbian Greek traders who traversed their territory along a major trade route.\nCannibalism\nAccording to Herodotus, the Androphagi ate human flesh, while the surrounding peoples did not. Evidence supporting this was found in the form of human bones disposed together with cut and broken animal bones in the kitchen refuse of seven earthworks belonging to the Sula group (associated with the Androphagi) and the neighbouring Vorskla group (Budini). Similar evidence of cannibalism was found among the Sauromatians who lived in the Urals, as well as in the Smiela kurgan 15, one of the earliest burials of the Tiasmyn group of the Scythian culture. Hence the practice seems to have been more widespread than Herodotus suggested.\nArchaeology\nThe Androphagi archaeologically belonged to the Scythian culture, and they corresponded to its Sula group, which was the largest Scythian culture group of the eastern European forest steppe zone.\n\nThe Donets, Sula and Vorskla groups of the Scythian culture, respectively corresponding to the Melanchlaeni, Androphagi, and Budini, are sometimes grouped the Zolnichnaya (that is \"Ash-Mounds\") culture because of the presence of several , that is ash mounds containing refuse from kitchens and other sources, near dwellings. The three groups of the Zolnichnaya culture were closely related to each other, with the Vorskla group nevertheless exhibiting enough significant differences from the Sula and Donets groups that the latter two are sometimes grouped together as a Sula-Donets group distinct from the Vorskla group.\nSee also\nCannibalism in Europe\nReferencesSources","text_chars":4208,"text_sha256":"c4371459a328ddddbb3ef67a7d197da64ab4f6d68f8e288ca9701d01c47e8c59","text_utf8_bytes":4210,"title":"Androphagi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androphagi","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"6503b5ed3651cb0818eabb42cbfc3319a6e8f53adb2c3ed322f4c6d12c2764b7"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1879&action=history","id":"1879","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":11360,"raw_text_sha256":"904bb1d220c84fd051297d98771dc93298a5a498d86286163b3992949b7af173","raw_text_utf8_bytes":11407,"revision_id":"1369927443","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-18T01:55:50Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1369927443","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Alfonso Jordan (1103 – 16 April 1148), also spelled Alfons Jordan or Alphonse Jourdain , was the Count of Tripoli (1105–09), Count of Rouergue (1109–48), and Count of Toulouse, Margrave of Provence and Duke of Narbonne (1112–48).\nLife\nAlfonso was the son of Raymond IV of Toulouse by his third wife, Elvira of Castile. He was born in the castle of Mont Pèlerin in Tripoli while his father was on the First Crusade. He was given the name \"Jourdain\" after being baptised in the Jordan River.\nAlfonso's father died when he was two years old and he remained under the guardianship of his cousin, William Jordan, Count of Cerdagne, until he was five. He was then taken to Europe, where his half-brother Bertrand had given him the county of Rouergue. Upon Bertrand's death in 1112, Alfonso succeeded to the county of Toulouse and marquisate of Provence.\n\nIn 1114, Duke William IX of Aquitaine, who claimed Toulouse by right of his wife Philippa, daughter of Count William IV, invaded the county and conquered it. Alfonso recovered a part in 1119, but he was not in full control until 1123. When at last successful, he was excommunicated by Pope Callixtus II for having damaged the abbey of Saint-Gilles and assaulting the monks.\n\nAlfonso next had to fight for his rights in Provence against Count Raymond Berengar III of Barcelona. Not until September 1125 did their war end in \"peace and concord\" (pax et concordia). At this stage, Alfonso was master of the regions lying between the Pyrenees and the Alps, the Auvergne and the sea. His ascendancy was, according to one commentator, an unmixed good to the country, for during a period of fourteen years art and industry flourished.\n\nIn March 1126, Alfonso was at the court of King Alfonso VII of León when he acceded to the throne. According to the Chronica Adefonsi imperatoris, Alfonso and Suero Vermúdez took the city of León from opposition magnates and handed it over to Alfonso VII. Among those who may have accompanied Alfonso on one of his many extended stays in Spain was the troubadour Marcabru.\n\nFile:Denier Narbonne Alphonse Jourdain.jpg|thumb|A denier minted at Narbonne during the minority of Ermengard (1134–43) bearing the obverse inscription DUX ANFOS and on the reverse CIVI NARBON\n\nBy 1132, Alfonso was embroiled in a succession war over the county of Melgueil against Count Berengar Raymond of Provence. This brief conflict was resolved with Alfonso's defeat and Berengar marrying Beatrice, heiress of Melgueil.\n\nAlfonso seized the viscounty of Narbonne in 1134, and ruled it during the minority of Viscountess Ermengarde, only restoring it to her in 1143.\nIn 1141 King Louis VII of France pressed the claim of his wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine, granddaughter of Philippa, even besieging Toulouse, but without result.\nThat same year Alfonso Jordan was again in Spain, making a pilgrimage to Saint James of Compostela, when he proposed a peace between the king of León and García Ramírez of Navarre, which became the basis for subsequent negotiations.\n\nIn 1144, Alfonso again incurred the displeasure of the church by siding with the citizens of Montpellier against their lord.\nIn 1145, Bernard of Clairvaux addressed a letter to him full of concern about a heretic named Henry in the diocese of Toulouse. Bernard even went there to preach against the heresy, an early expression of Catharism. A second time he was excommunicated; but in 1146 he took the cross (i.e., vowed to go on crusade) at a meeting in Vézelay called by Louis VII. In August 1147, he embarked for the near east on the Second Crusade.\nHe lingered on the way in Italy and probably in Constantinople, where he may have met Emperor Manuel I.\n\nAlfonso finally arrived at Acre in 1148. He died at Caesarea, which was followed by accusations of poisoning, levelled against either Eleanor of Aquitaine or Melisende of Jerusalem, who may have wanted to eliminate him as a rival to her brother-in-law Count Raymond II of Tripoli.\n\nAlfonso and Faydiva d'Uzès had:\nRaymond, who succeeded him\nAlfonso II\nFaydiva (died 1154), married to Count Humbert III of Savoy\nAgnes (died 1187)\nLaurentia, who married Count Bernard III of Comminges\n\nHe also had an illegitimate son, Bertrand.\nNotesSources\n156","text_chars":4215,"text_sha256":"5b162e5effa6a27e5fdc5592e2a2d7ebec1c16e3064e94e59c8b279a8311dfc1","text_utf8_bytes":4234,"title":"Alfonso Jordan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_Jordan","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"0bb2cca735879b1e1e0e3cf11254710179e41673d1e5567470527b102c66711b"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1840&action=history","id":"1840","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":31425,"raw_text_sha256":"f60bbff802867718490858cc28d5389a7ac9e6f1a7e4273ea4f1836e3e65a420","raw_text_utf8_bytes":31621,"revision_id":"1367109076","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-01T01:35:00Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1367109076","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Agathocles (, Agathoklḗs; 361–289 BC) was a tyrant of Syracuse from 317 BC and king of much of Sicily from 304 BC until his death. Agathocles began his career as a military officer, and raised his profile as a supporter of the democratic faction in Syracuse against the oligarchy of The Six Hundred. His opponents forced him into exile and he became a mercenary leader. He eventually made his way back to Syracuse and was elected as a general. A few years later, he took control through a coup d'état as tyrant of the city.\n\nAgathocles had led a long, costly war against the Carthaginians, who ruled the western half of Sicily, between 311 and 306 BC. In a military campaign he led the invasion of Carthage's North African heartland in 310 BC. After initial successes he abandoned his army in Africa and returned to Sicily in 307 BC, where he made peace with the Carthaginians and restored the status quo ante bellum. He then assumed the royal title and managed to bring almost the entire Greek portion of Sicily, and part of Calabria, under his control. Agathocles came close to bringing the entirety of Magna Graecia under his control but his attempt to establish a dynasty fell apart as a result of conflict within his family.\nBiography\nAgathocles was a son of Carcinus, who came from Rhegium. Carcinus was expelled from his hometown, so he migrated to Thermae Himeraeae and married a local citizen woman. Thermae, which was located on the north coast of Sicily, belonged to the western part of the island, which was under Carthaginian control. The couple had two sons, Antander and Agathocles. In 343 BC, when Agathocles was around eighteen years old, the family re-settled in Syracuse. Carcinus had answered a call from the commander Timoleon, which had overthrown the tyrannical regime of Dionysius II. Timoleon sought new citizens for the city, which had been depopulated by the civil wars. Thus, Carcinus and Agathocles acquired Syracusan citizenship. According to the sources, Carcinus was a potter and Agathocles followed him in his profession. Modern historians generally argue that he must have been a wealthy man who owned a pottery workshop. In later times, Agathocles frequently advertised his lower class origins and used them as part of his self-presentation as a ruler, since performative modesty and presenting himself as a man of the people would be important parts of his persona.\n\nAgathocles began his military career during Timoleon's rule. He initially served as a soldier and then as an officer. Later, after Timoleon's death in 337 BC, Agathocles participated in an expedition against Acragas and began a relationship with the general, Damas, who promoted him to chiliarch. After Damas' death, Agathocles married his widow. This made him one of the richest men in Syracuse, which gave him a good platform to begin his political ascent.\n\nAfter Timoleon's death, Syracuse descended into the traditional conflict between democrats and oligarchs. The oligarchs had the upper hand and ruled the city as a club, called \"the Six Hundred\". Agathocles' elder brother, Antander, was elected to a generalship, during this period, so he must have had good relationships with members of the ruling circle. Agathocles, on the other hand, spoke in the people's assembly and placed himself on the side of the opposition democrats, but he was unable to overcome their power. After a successful campaign to defend Croton in southern Italy from the Bruttii, he denied an award for bravery which he felt he had earnt. After this, he openly opposed the government and openly accused the leading oligarchs, Sosistratus and Heracleides, of seeking to become tyrants. These accusations were not successful and the two oligarchs solidified their power. Agathocles' situation in Syracuse was then untenable and he declared that he was compelled to leave the city. This does not necessarily mean that he was formally exiled.\nDouble exile\nAgathocles went to southern Italy, where he led the life of a mercenary captain. At the same time, he built up an independent power base, as preparation for a return to Syracuse. His first military effort was a failure, however: he attempted to bring the major city of Croton in Calabria under his control by force, probably in alliance with the local democrats, but he was completely defeated and had to flee with his surviving followers to Tarentum. The Tarentines accepted him into their mercenary forces, but they distrusted him because of his ambition and plots, which led to his dismissal. After this, he gathered together democrats who had been expelled from their cities by local oligarchs. An opportunity appeared at Rhegium, the hometown of Agathocles' father. There, the democrats were in power, but the city was attacked by forces led by the Syracusan oligarchs, who wanted to help the local oligarchs take power by force. Agathocles defeated this Syracusan expeditionary force, which destabilised Sosistratus and Heracleides' position in Syracuse and as a result they were overthrown in a coup. The democrats returned to power and drove the leading oligarchs out of Syracuse. The exiled oligarchs allied themselves with the Carthaginians. These developments allowed Agathocles to return home around 322 BC.\n\nAgathocles distinguished himself in the subsequent battles against the Carthaginians and oligarchs, but did not manage to acquire a leading position in the city. Instead, the Syracusans chose to request a commander from their mother city, Corinth, in accordance with a law established by Timoleon. The Corinthians sent one Acestorides, who organised an amnesty for the oligarchs, made peace with the Carthaginians, and exiled Agathocles. The radical democrats were forced out and a moderate oligarchy was established. Acestorides even attempted to have Agathocles assassinated. Agathocles established a private army, apparently funded from his own assets. He took advantage of the fact that the Syracusans were considered oppressive by other cities in Sicily and successfully presented himself as a supporter of these cities' interests against the Syracusans. He managed to take over Leontini and even led an attack on Syracuse. The situation became so tenuous for the oligarchs in Syracuse that they reached out to the Carthaginians for help.\n\nAgathocles outpaced the oligarchs. He negotiated with the Carthaginian commander in Sicily, Hamilcar, and convinced him to withdraw. Allegedly, they had concluded a personal agreement to support each other in establishing themselves as sole rulers of their respective cities. After the loss of Carthaginian support, Syracuse was isolated. The citizens, who did not really wish to fight for oligarchy, agreed to allow Agathocles to return home. He swore the Syracuse \"great oath\", promising that he would not establish a tyranny. After that, he was elected commander in chief of the Syracusan army in 319/318 BC.\nSeizure of power\nThe position of Agathocles within the city of Syracuse was initially that of a regular military commander, with wide but limited powers. His title was General and Guardian of the Peace . In Syracuse, the surviving oligarchs banded together as \"The Six Hundred\" and continued to oppose him. Agathocles took advantage of the conflicts between the Syracusans and the non-Greek Sicels and between the rich and poor within Syracuse to overcome these opponents. On the pretext of taking military action against external enemies, he was able to gather a powerful force, which was loyal only to him, without raising suspicion.\n\nIn 317 BC, Agathocles used this force to launch a coup. At a meeting that the leading members of the opposition party had been invited to, he had most of the leading men of the oligarchy massacred on the spot. His trumpeters gave the sign for battle and a general slaughter took place in the city, in which the wealthy and their supporters were the main victims. Their houses were plundered. According to Diodorus Siculus's account, over 4,000 people were killed, purely because they belonged to the upper class. More than 6,000 people escaped from the city, even though the gates had been locked. They mostly fled to Agrigentum.\n\nFinally, Agathocles called an assembly of the people, in which he presented himself as a saviour of democracy in the face of the oligarchs and announced that he would retire from his position and return to private life. His followers responded by calling on him to take over the leadership of the state. He responded that he was willing to be general once more, but only if he could hold the role without any colleagues, as General with unlimited power . This was the title that the earlier ruler Dionysius I had used as the legal basis for his tyranny. The people elected him to this position and also entrusted him with a general \"management of the city\" . After this he announced a cancellation of debts and redistribution of the land, two planks of the traditional populist programme.\nMilitary expansion\nAgathocles first occupied himself with the subjugation of hostile cities in the Greek part of Sicily. The centres of opposition to him were Acragas, Gela, and Messina. Many of the Syracusan exiles who had supported the oligarchy were found in these three cities, which joined together in an alliance at the prompting of Acragas. The Acragantines recruited a Spartan prince called Acrotatus to serve as the commander in chief of the alliance, since they were afraid that a Sicilian leader might use the position to establish himself as a tyrant. However, Acrotatus did not prove successful, provoking conflict among his own forces and then fleeing. On the other hand, the Syracusans were unsuccessful in their efforts to seize Messina. Neither side was able to achieve a decisive victory. Since the Carthaginians saw Syracusan expansionism as a threat, they supported Messina. The Carthaginian commander Hamilcar brokered a peace in 314/313 BC, which guaranteed the autonomy of the Greek cities of Sicily (outside the Carthaginian sphere), but gave the Syracusans a position of hegemony over them. The recognition of Syracuse's claim to hegemony was a significant win for Agathocles. In Carthage, Hamilcar faced fierce criticism for making this concession.\n\nAgathocles used the hegemony clause in this treaty to expand his power. The Carthaginians did not have a sufficient force stationed in Sicily to prevent him from doing this. He quickly brought many cities and fortresses under his control. In 313/2 BC, his supporters in Messina overcame the oligarchs, allowing him to take the city without a fight. The city of Tauromenium on the east coast also fell into his hands. He killed all of his oppenents. Finally, he turned against Agrigentum.\nRulership\nWar with Carthage followed. In 311 BC Agathocles was defeated in the Battle of the Himera River and besieged in Syracuse. In 310 BC he made a desperate effort to break through the blockade and attack Carthage. He landed at Cape Bon in August 310 BC, and was able to defeat the Carthaginians for the first time, and establish a camp near Tunis. He then turned east and tried to take over coastal trading cities such as Neapolis and Hadrumetum, and on this occasion concluded an alliance with Ailymas, king of the Libyans according to Diodorus of Sicily, in an attempt to surround and isolate Carthage. After capturing Hadrumetum, Thapsus and other coastal towns, Agathocles turned his attention to central Tunisia. Before or during this campaign, he broke his alliance with Ailymas, whom he pursued and killed, but he kept his Numidian army, including war chariots they built.\n\nIn 309 BCE, Agathocles began trying to sway Ophellas, ruler of Cyrenaica, as he was likely to prove a useful ally in Agathocles' war against the Carthaginians. To gain his allegiance, he promised to cede to Ophellas whatever conquests their combined forces might make in Africa, reserving to himself only the possession of Sicily. Ophellas gathered a powerful army from the homeland of his wife Euthydike (a descendant of Miltiades), Athens, where many citizens felt disgruntled after having lost their voting rights. Despite the natural obstacles that presented themselves on his route, Ophellas succeeded in reaching the Carthaginian territories after a toilsome and perilous march of more than two months. He was received by Agathocles with every demonstration of friendship, and the two armies encamped near each other, but a few days later, Agathocles betrayed his new ally by attacking the camp of the Cyrenaeans and having Ophellas killed. The Cyrenean troops, left without a leader, went over to Agathocles.\n\nAfter several victories, he was finally completely defeated (307 BC) and fled secretly to Sicily. After concluding peace with Carthage in 306 BC, Agathocles styled himself king of Sicily in 304 BC, and established his rule over the Greek cities of the island more firmly than ever. A peace treaty with Carthage left him in control of Sicily east of the Halycus River. Even in his old age, he displayed the same restless energy and is said to have been contemplating a fresh attack on Carthage at the time of his death.\n\nHis last years were plagued by ill health and the attempted usurpation of his throne by his grandson Archagathus, who Diodorus Siculus states had him poisoned; however Justinius and the majority of modern historians assert he died a natural death (presumably from cancer of the jaw). He was a born leader of mercenaries, and he did not shrink from cruelty for the purposes to royal power. Agathocles restored the Syracusan democracy on his deathbed and did not want his grandson to succeed him as king.\nFamily\nAgathocles was married three times. His first wife was the widow of his patron Damas, by whom he had two sons:\nArchagathus, who was murdered by the army in Africa in 307 BC after Agathocles abandoned it. He had one son, also called Archagathus, who was Agathocles' main general and heir in the 290s BC, but became involved in a succession dispute with his younger uncle, also called Agathocles, and was assassinated immediately after his father's death in 289 BC.\nHeracleides, who was murdered with his brother in Africa in 307 BC.\n\nAgathocles' second wife was Alcia, with whom he had two children:\nLanassa, second wife of King Pyrrhus of Epirus and mother of Alexander II of Epirus.\nAgathocles, who was murdered in a succession dispute shortly before his father's death.\n\nAgathocles' third wife was Theoxena, who was the second daughter of Berenice I and her first husband Philip and thus a stepdaughter of Ptolemy I Soter, king of Egypt. She escaped to Egypt with their two children following Agathocles' death in 289 BC:\nArchagathus and Theoxena, who escaped to Egypt in 289 BC. Their descendants included Agathocleia and Agathocles of Egypt, who were Ptolemy IV's chief mistress and chief minister respectively, and dominated Egypt in the first years of Ptolemy V's reign.\nLegacy\nAgathocles was cited as an example \"Of Those Who Have Attained A Principality Through Crimes\" in chapter 8 of Niccolò Machiavelli's treatise on politics, The Prince (1513).\n\nHe was described as behaving as a criminal at every stage of his career. Machiavelli claimed:\n\nMachiavelli goes on to reason that Agathocles' success, in contrast to other criminal tyrants, was due to his ability to commit his crimes quickly and ruthlessly, and states that cruelties are best used when they are done \"at a stroke\" out of the necessity to secure a prince's rule.\n\nThe exact role Agathocles plays in Machiavelli's works is of some debate amongst scholars, with some even asserting that Machiavelli is purposefully being ironic about Agathocles' immorality allegedly hindering his reputation.\nFamily tree of AgathoclesPrimary sources\nDiodorus Siculus Library of History Books 19–21.\nJustin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus Book 22.\nPolyaenus 5.3\nPolybius 9.23\nReferencesBibliography\nFurther reading\nExternal links\nCoinage of Agathocles\nAgathocles- Encyclopædia Britannica\nAgathocles of Syracuse- Ancient History Encyclopedia\n\n|width=25% align=center|Preceded by:oligarchy position previously held by Timoleon in 337 BC\n|width=25% align=center|Tyrant of Syracuse317 BC289 BC\n|width=25% align=center|Succeeded by:Hicetas","text_chars":16255,"text_sha256":"9665a1efe4f7168a8b82205aa3e70dc43866d3a2ec9e8106e160432ed0baf4d5","text_utf8_bytes":16264,"title":"Agathocles of Syracuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agathocles_of_Syracuse","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"150cd9a0ca4c8ba34c2b0625b17fd3b828891492713e4efe7f6c55c8a6e5bcdb"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1788&action=history","id":"1788","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":1679,"raw_text_sha256":"9aa85d88f4ba246c5d90acd83c0523dfcc8914ff1efdc4847773c6615e6ff882","raw_text_utf8_bytes":1679,"revision_id":"1366533203","revision_timestamp":"2026-07-28T15:27:29Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1366533203","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"ABM or Abm may refer to:\nArts and media\nABM (video game), 1980 video game\nAtmospheric Black Metal\nBusinesses and organizations\nBusinesses\nABM Industries, a US facility management provider\nABM Intelligence, a UK software company\nAdvantage Business Media, a US digital marketing and information services company\nAssociated British Maltsters, acquired by Dalgety plc\nNorthern Peninsula Airport in Bamaga, State of Queensland, Australia (IATA airport code ABM)\nOther organizations\nAbahlali baseMjondolo, a movement of South African shack dwellers\nAnglican Board of Mission - Australia, the national mission agency of the Anglican Church of Australia\nAnsar Bait al-Maqdis, an Egyptian jihadist group\nScience and technology\nAdvanced Bit Manipulation, an instruction set extension for x86\nAgaricus blazei Murill, a species of mushroom\nAgent-based model, a computational model for simulating autonomous agents\nAnti-ballistic missile\nAsynchronous Balanced Mode, an HDLC communication mode\nAutomated banking machine, Canadian term for automated teller machine\nOther uses\nAir Battle Manager, a US Air Force rated officer position\nAbanyom language of Nigeria, ISO 639-3 code\nAccount-based marketing, strategic approach to business marketing\nActivity-based management, method of identifying and evaluating activities that a business performs\nAnti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, 1972 arms control treaty between the US and USSR","text_chars":1408,"text_sha256":"c7753eab007b2c62b1a5638a170c38348af24ee25db7417ff09ab7c250667e3c","text_utf8_bytes":1408,"title":"ABM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABM","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"a23e19cffb5b4ebc1cfb37f474c83266a4b1ff966873ca211d51d1f2a0f7c230"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1963&action=history","id":"1963","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":52056,"raw_text_sha256":"843b3b2dca7278a8d1c6f2919cd1526feb0f8c8a957beac4f2afeaf7d3c12f34","raw_text_utf8_bytes":52206,"revision_id":"1364106371","revision_timestamp":"2026-07-14T14:54:43Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1364106371","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"In astronomy, absolute magnitude (') is a measure of the luminosity of a celestial object on an inverse logarithmic astronomical magnitude scale; the more luminous (intrinsically bright) an object, the lower its magnitude number. An object's absolute magnitude is defined to be equal to the apparent magnitude that the object would have if it were viewed from a distance of exactly , without extinction (or dimming) of its light due to absorption by interstellar matter and cosmic dust. By hypothetically placing all objects at a standard reference distance from the observer, their luminosities can be directly compared among each other on a magnitude scale. For Solar System bodies that shine in reflected light, a different definition of absolute magnitude (H) is used, based on a standard reference distance of one astronomical unit.\n\nAbsolute magnitudes of stars generally range from approximately −10 to +20. The absolute magnitudes of galaxies can be much lower (brighter).\n\nThe more luminous an object, the smaller the numerical value of its absolute magnitude. A difference of 5 magnitudes between the absolute magnitudes of two objects corresponds to a ratio of 100 in their luminosities, and a difference of n magnitudes in absolute magnitude corresponds to a luminosity ratio of 100n/5. For example, a star of absolute magnitude MV = 3.0 would be 100 times as luminous as a star of absolute magnitude MV = 8.0 as measured in the V filter band. The Sun has absolute magnitude MV = +4.83. Highly luminous objects can have negative absolute magnitudes: for example, the Milky Way galaxy has an absolute B magnitude of about −20.8.\n\nAs with all astronomical magnitudes, the absolute magnitude can be specified for different wavelength ranges corresponding to specified filter bands or passbands; for stars a commonly quoted absolute magnitude is the absolute visual magnitude, which uses the visual (V) band of the spectrum (in the UBV photometric system). Absolute magnitudes are denoted by a capital M, with a subscript representing the filter band used for measurement, such as MV for absolute magnitude in the V band.\n\nAn object's absolute bolometric magnitude (Mbol) represents its total luminosity over all wavelengths, rather than in a single filter band, as expressed on a logarithmic magnitude scale. To convert from an absolute magnitude in a specific filter band to absolute bolometric magnitude, a bolometric correction (BC) is applied.\nStars and galaxies\nIn stellar and galactic astronomy, the standard distance is 10 parsecs (about 32.616 light-years, 308.57 petameters or 308.57 trillion kilometres). A star at 10 parsecs has a parallax of 0.1″ (100 milliarcseconds). Galaxies (and other extended objects) are much larger than 10 parsecs; their light is radiated over an extended patch of sky, and their overall brightness cannot be directly observed from relatively short distances, but the same convention is used. A galaxy's magnitude is defined by measuring all the light radiated over the entire object, treating that integrated brightness as the brightness of a single point-like or star-like source, and computing the magnitude of that point-like source as it would appear if observed at the standard 10 parsecs distance. Consequently, the absolute magnitude of any object equals the apparent magnitude it would have if it were 10 parsecs away.\n\nSome stars visible to the naked eye have such a low absolute magnitude that they would appear bright enough to outshine the planets and cast shadows if they were at 10 parsecs from the Earth. Examples include Rigel (−7.8), Deneb (−8.4), Naos (−6.2), and Betelgeuse (−5.8). For comparison, Sirius has an absolute magnitude of only 1.4, which is still brighter than the Sun, whose absolute visual magnitude is 4.83. The Sun's absolute bolometric magnitude is set arbitrarily, usually at 4.75.\nAbsolute magnitudes of stars generally range from approximately −10 to +20. The absolute magnitudes of galaxies can be much lower (brighter). For example, the giant elliptical galaxy M87 has an absolute magnitude of −22 (i.e. as bright as about 60,000 stars of magnitude −10). Some active galactic nuclei (quasars like CTA-102) can reach absolute magnitudes in excess of −32, making them the most luminous persistent objects in the observable universe, although these objects can vary in brightness over astronomically short timescales. At the extreme end, the optical afterglow of the gamma ray burst GRB 080319B reached, according to one paper, an absolute r magnitude brighter than −38 for a few tens of seconds.\nApparent magnitude\nThe Greek astronomer Hipparchus established a numerical scale to describe the brightness of each star appearing in the sky. The brightest stars in the sky were assigned an apparent magnitude , and the dimmest stars visible to the naked eye are assigned . The difference between them corresponds to a factor of 100 in brightness. For objects within the immediate neighborhood of the Sun, the absolute magnitude and apparent magnitude from any distance (in parsecs, with 1 pc = 3.2616 light-years) are related by\n\nwhere is the radiant flux measured at distance (in parsecs), the radiant flux measured at distance . Using the common logarithm, the equation can be written as\n\nwhere it is assumed that extinction from gas and dust is negligible. Typical extinction rates within the Milky Way galaxy are 1 to 2 magnitudes per kiloparsec, when dark clouds are taken into account.\n\nFor objects at very large distances (outside the Milky Way) the luminosity distance (distance defined using luminosity measurements) must be used instead of , because the Euclidean approximation is invalid for distant objects. Instead, general relativity must be taken into account. Moreover, the cosmological redshift complicates the relationship between absolute and apparent magnitude, because the radiation observed was shifted into the red range of the spectrum. To compare the magnitudes of very distant objects with those of local objects, a K correction might have to be applied to the magnitudes of the distant objects.\n\nThe absolute magnitude can also be written in terms of the apparent magnitude and stellar parallax :\n\nor using apparent magnitude and distance modulus :\nExamples\nRigel has a visual magnitude of 0.12 and distance of about 860 light-years:\n\nVega has a parallax of 0.129″, and an apparent magnitude of 0.03:\n\nThe Black Eye Galaxy has a visual magnitude of 9.36 and a distance modulus of 31.06:\nBolometric magnitude\nThe absolute bolometric magnitude takes into account electromagnetic radiation at all wavelengths. It includes those unobserved due to instrumental passband, the Earth's atmospheric absorption, and extinction by interstellar dust. It is defined based on the luminosity of the stars. In the case of stars with few observations, it must be computed assuming an effective temperature.\n\nClassically, the difference in bolometric magnitude is related to the luminosity ratio according to:\n\nwhich makes by inversion:\n\nwhere\nis the Sun's luminosity (bolometric luminosity)\nis the star's luminosity (bolometric luminosity)\nis the bolometric magnitude of the Sun\nis the bolometric magnitude of the star.\n\nIn August 2015, the International Astronomical Union passed Resolution B2 defining the zero points of the absolute and apparent bolometric magnitude scales in SI units for power (watts) and irradiance (W/m2), respectively. Although bolometric magnitudes had been used by astronomers for many decades, there had been systematic differences in the absolute magnitude-luminosity scales presented in various astronomical references, and no international standardization. This led to systematic differences in bolometric corrections scales. Combined with incorrect assumed absolute bolometric magnitudes for the Sun, this could lead to systematic errors in estimated stellar luminosities (and other stellar properties, such as radii or ages, which rely on stellar luminosity to be calculated).\n\nResolution B2 defines an absolute bolometric magnitude scale where corresponds to luminosity , with the zero point luminosity set such that the Sun (with nominal luminosity ) corresponds to absolute bolometric magnitude . Placing a radiation source (e.g. star) at the standard distance of 10 parsecs, it follows that the zero point of the apparent bolometric magnitude scale corresponds to irradiance . Using the IAU 2015 scale, the nominal total solar irradiance (\"solar constant\") measured at 1 astronomical unit corresponds to an apparent bolometric magnitude of the Sun of .\n\nFollowing Resolution B2, the relation between a star's absolute bolometric magnitude and its luminosity is no longer directly tied to the Sun's (variable) luminosity:\n\nwhere\nis the star's luminosity (bolometric luminosity) in watts\nis the zero point luminosity\nis the bolometric magnitude of the star\n\nThe new IAU absolute magnitude scale permanently disconnects the scale from the variable Sun. However, on this SI power scale, the nominal solar luminosity corresponds closely to , a value that was commonly adopted by astronomers before the 2015 IAU resolution.\n\nThe luminosity of the star in watts can be calculated as a function of its absolute bolometric magnitude as:\n\nusing the variables as defined previously.\nSolar System bodies\nFor planets and asteroids, a definition of absolute magnitude that is more meaningful for non-stellar objects is used. The absolute magnitude, commonly called , is defined as the apparent magnitude that the object would have if it were one astronomical unit (AU) from both the Sun and the observer, and in conditions of ideal solar opposition (an arrangement that is impossible in practice). Because Solar System bodies are illuminated by the Sun, their brightness varies as a function of illumination conditions, described by the phase angle. This relationship is referred to as the phase curve. The absolute magnitude is the brightness at phase angle zero, an arrangement known as opposition, from a distance of one AU. Newly discovered comets with a weakly active coma can masquerade as an asteroid resulting in unrealistic size estimates as a comet's absolute magnitude (M1) can not be directly compared to an asteroid's absolute magnitude (H).\nApparent magnitude\nThe absolute magnitude can be used to calculate the apparent magnitude of a body. For an object reflecting sunlight, and are connected by the relation\n\nwhere is the phase angle, the angle between the body-Sun and body–observer lines. is the phase integral (the integration of reflected light; a number in the 0 to 1 range).\n\nBy the law of cosines, we have:\n\nDistances:\nis the distance between the body and the observer\nis the distance between the body and the Sun\nis the distance between the observer and the Sun\n, a unit conversion factor, is the constant 1 AU, the average distance between the Earth and the Sun\nApproximations for phase integral\nThe value of depends on the properties of the reflecting surface, in particular on its roughness. In practice, different approximations are used based on the known or assumed properties of the surface. The surfaces of terrestrial planets are generally more difficult to model than those of gaseous planets, the latter of which have smoother visible surfaces.\nPlanets as diffuse spheres\nPlanetary bodies can be approximated reasonably well as ideal diffuse reflecting spheres. Let be the phase angle in degrees, then\n\nA full-phase diffuse sphere reflects two-thirds as much light as a diffuse flat disk of the same diameter. A quarter phase has as much light as full phase .\n\nBy contrast, a diffuse disk reflector model is simply , which isn't realistic, but it does represent the opposition surge for rough surfaces that reflect more uniform light back at low phase angles.\n\nThe definition of the geometric albedo , a measure for the reflectivity of planetary surfaces, is based on the diffuse disk reflector model. The absolute magnitude , diameter (in kilometers) and geometric albedo of a body are related by\nor equivalently,\n\nExample: The Moon's absolute magnitude can be calculated from its diameter and geometric albedo :\n\nCox gives a value close to that .\n\nWe have ,\nAt quarter phase, (according to the diffuse reflector model), this yields an apparent magnitude of The actual value is somewhat lower than that, This is not a good approximation, because the phase curve of the Moon is too complicated for the diffuse reflector model. A more accurate formula is given in the following section.\nMore advanced models\nBecause Solar System bodies are never perfect diffuse reflectors, astronomers use different models to predict apparent magnitudes based on known or assumed properties of the body. For planets, approximations for the correction term in the formula for have been derived empirically, to match observations at different phase angles. The approximations recommended by the Astronomical Almanac are (with in degrees):\n\nHere is the effective inclination of Saturn's rings (their tilt relative to the observer), which as seen from Earth varies between 0° and 27° over the course of one Saturn orbit, and is a small correction term depending on Uranus' sub-Earth and sub-solar latitudes. is the Common Era year. Neptune's absolute magnitude is changing slowly due to seasonal effects as the planet moves along its 165-year orbit around the Sun, and the approximation above is only valid after the year 2000. For some circumstances, like for Venus, no observations are available, and the phase curve is unknown in those cases. The formula for the Moon is only applicable to the near side of the Moon, the portion that is visible from the Earth.\n\nExample 1: On 1 January 2019, Venus was from the Sun, and from Earth, at a phase angle of (near quarter phase). Under full-phase conditions, Venus would have been visible at Accounting for the high phase angle, the correction term above yields an actual apparent magnitude of This is close to the value of predicted by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory.\n\nExample 2: At first quarter phase, the approximation for the Moon gives With that, the apparent magnitude of the Moon is close to the expected value of about . At last quarter, the Moon is about 0.06 mag fainter than at first quarter, because that part of its surface has a lower albedo.\n\nEarth's albedo varies by a factor of 6, from 0.12 in the cloud-free case to 0.76 in the case of altostratus cloud. The absolute magnitude in the table corresponds to an albedo of 0.434. Due to the variability of the weather, Earth's apparent magnitude cannot be predicted as accurately as that of most other planets.\nAsteroids\nIf an object has an atmosphere, it reflects light more or less isotropically in all directions, and its brightness can be modelled as a diffuse reflector. Bodies with no atmosphere, like asteroids or moons, tend to reflect light more strongly to the direction of the incident light, and their brightness increases rapidly as the phase angle approaches . This rapid brightening near opposition is called the opposition effect. Its strength depends on the physical properties of the body's surface, and hence it differs from asteroid to asteroid.\n\nIn 1985, the IAU adopted the semi-empirical -system, based on two parameters and called absolute magnitude and slope, to model the opposition effect for the ephemerides published by the Minor Planet Center.\n\nwhere\nthe phase integral is and\nfor or , , , and .\n\nThis relation is valid for phase angles , and works best when .\n\nThe slope parameter relates to the surge in brightness, typically , when the object is near opposition. It is known accurately only for a small number of asteroids, hence for most asteroids a value of is assumed. In rare cases, can be negative. An example is 101955 Bennu, with .\n\nIn 2012, the -system was officially replaced by an improved system with three parameters , and , which produces more satisfactory results if the opposition effect is very small or restricted to very small phase angles. However, as of 2022, this -system has not been adopted by either the Minor Planet Center nor Jet Propulsion Laboratory.\n\nThe apparent magnitude of asteroids varies as they rotate, on time scales of seconds to weeks depending on their rotation period, by up to or more. In addition, their absolute magnitude can vary with the viewing direction, depending on their axial tilt. In many cases, neither the rotation period nor the axial tilt are known, limiting the predictability. The models presented here do not capture those effects.\nCometary magnitudes\nThe brightness of comets is given separately as total magnitude (, the brightness integrated over the entire visible extent of the coma) and nuclear magnitude (, the brightness of the core region alone). Both are different scales than the magnitude scale used for planets and asteroids, and can not be used for a size comparison with an asteroid's absolute magnitude .\n\nThe activity of comets varies with their distance from the Sun. Their brightness can be approximated as\n\nwhere are the total and nuclear apparent magnitudes of the comet, respectively, are its \"absolute\" total and nuclear magnitudes, and are the body-sun and body-observer distances, is the Astronomical Unit, and are the slope parameters characterising the comet's activity. For , this reduces to the formula for a purely reflecting body (showing no cometary activity).\n\nFor example, the lightcurve of comet C/2011 L4 (PANSTARRS) can be approximated by . On the day of its perihelion passage, 10 March 2013, comet PANSTARRS was from the Sun and from Earth. The total apparent magnitude is predicted to have been at that time. The Minor Planet Center gives a value close to that, .\n\nThe absolute magnitude of any given comet can vary dramatically. It can change as the comet becomes more or less active over time or if it undergoes an outburst. This makes it difficult to use the absolute magnitude for a size estimate. When comet 289P/Blanpain was discovered in 1819, its absolute magnitude was estimated as . It was subsequently lost and was only rediscovered in 2003. At that time, its absolute magnitude had decreased to , and it was realised that the 1819 apparition coincided with an outburst. 289P/Blanpain reached naked eye brightness (5–8 mag) in 1819, even though it is the comet with the smallest nucleus that has ever been physically characterised, and usually doesn't become brighter than 18 mag.\n\nFor some comets that have been observed at heliocentric distances large enough to distinguish between light reflected from the coma, and light from the nucleus itself, an absolute magnitude analogous to that used for asteroids has been calculated, allowing to estimate the sizes of their nuclei.\nMeteors\nFor a meteor, the standard distance for measurement of magnitudes is at an altitude of at the observer's zenith.\nSee also\nAraucaria Project\nHertzsprung–Russell diagram – relates absolute magnitude or luminosity versus spectral color or surface temperature.\nJansky - the preferred unit for radio astronomy – linear in power/unit area\nList of most luminous stars\nPhotographic magnitude\nSurface brightness – the magnitude for extended objects\nZero point (photometry) – the typical calibration point for star flux\nNotesReferencesExternal links\nReference zero-magnitude fluxes\nInternational Astronomical Union\nAbsolute Magnitude of a Star calculator\nThe Magnitude system\nAbout stellar magnitudes\nObtain the magnitude of any star – SIMBAD\nConverting magnitude of minor planets to diameter\nAnother table for converting asteroid magnitude to estimated diameter","text_chars":19625,"text_sha256":"eb18fa639928c4ef50fe96dbd623e9e74e9b744803b75e68a625b71e3221c9df","text_utf8_bytes":19669,"title":"Absolute magnitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_magnitude","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"0fce7d4126dc82d4d7a14ede98aa7dcb97e97372f4ddbbd780dc6d3848de1dd8"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2235&action=history","id":"2235","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":38447,"raw_text_sha256":"32296ff6e8120194c8640c431a2b022e79bdef80606dd7db04e7f3145041f75d","raw_text_utf8_bytes":38835,"revision_id":"1371810875","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-28T16:10:45Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1371810875","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Though an ethnonym for most of its existence, Afghans are now known as the citizens and nationals of Afghanistan. They are composed of various ethnic groups, of which Pashtuns, Tajiks, Hazaras, and Uzbeks are the largest.\n\nThe two main languages spoken among the Afghan people are Dari (a variety of Persian) and Pashto. Historically, the ethnonym \"Afghan\" used to refer to Pashtuns, but later came to refer to all ethnicities in Afghanistan after the 1964 Constitution of Afghanistan proposed by King Mohammad Zahir Shah.\nEtymology\nThe earliest mention of the name Afghan (Abgân) is by Shapur I of the Sassanid Empire during the 3rd century CE, In the 4th century, the word \"Afghans/Afghana\" (αβγανανο) as reference to the Pashtun people is mentioned in the Bactrian documents found in Northern Afghanistan. The word 'Afghan' is of Persian origin and refers to the Pashtun people. Some scholars suggest that the word \"Afghan\" is derived from the words awajan/apajan in Avestan and ava-Han/apa-Han in Sanskrit, which means \"killing, striking, throwing and resisting, or defending.\" Under the Sasanians, and possibly the Parthian Empire, the word was used to refer to men of a certain Persian sect. In the past, several scholars sought a connection with \"horse\", Skt.aśva-, Av.aspa-, i.e. the Aśvaka or Aśvakayana, the name of the Aśvakan or Assakan, the ancient inhabitants of the Hindu Kush region. Some have theorized that the name of the Aśvakan or Assakan has been preserved in that of the modern Pashtun, with the name Afghan being derived from Asvakan.\n\nAs an adjective, the word Afghan also means \"of or relating to Afghanistan or its people, language or culture\". According to the 1964 Constitution of Afghanistan, all Afghans citizens are equal in rights and obligations before the law. The fourth article of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, which was valid until 2021, states that citizens of Afghanistan consist of Pashtun, Tajik, Uzbek, Turkmen, Baloch, Pashayi, Nuristani, Aimaq, Arab, Kyrgyz, Qizilbash, Gurjar, Brahui, and members of other ethnicities. There are political disputes regarding this: there are members of the non-Pashtun ethnicities of Afghanistan that reject the term Afghan being applied to them, and there are Pashtuns in Pakistan that wish to have the term Afghan applied to them.\nUsage as an ethnonym\nThe pre-nation state, historical ethnonym Afghan was used to refer to a member of the Pashtun ethnic group. Due to the changing political nature of the state, the meaning has changed, and the term has shifted to refer to the national identity of people from Afghanistan of all ethnicities.\n\nFrom a more limited, ethnological point of view, \"Afḡhān\" is the term by which the Persian-speakers of Afghanistan (and the non-Pashtō-speaking ethnic groups generally) designate the Pashtūn. The equation Afghans = Pashtūn has been propagated all the more, both in and beyond Afghanistan, because the Pashtūn tribal confederation has maintained its hegemony in the country, numerically and politically.\nVariations\nThe term Afghani refers to the unit of Afghan currency. The term is also often used in the English language (and appears in some dictionaries) for a person or thing related to Afghanistan, although some have expressed the opinion that this usage is incorrect. The reason for this usage might be because the term \"Afghani\" (افغانی) is in fact a valid demonym for Afghans in the overall Persian language, whereas \"Afghan\" is derived from Pashto. Thus, \"Afghan\" is the anglicized form of \"Afghani\" when translating from Dari Persian, but not from Pashto. Another variant is Afghanistani and Afghanese, which has been seldom used in place of Afghan.\nAwghan\nThe terms Awghan and Afghan represent variant forms of the same historical ethnonym. Non-Pashtun citizens of Afghanistan may use Awghan to designate Pashtuns, sometimes as a pejorative.\n\nThe Persian lexical form اوغان (awġān/owġân) is recorded as an alternative form of افغان (afġān/afġân), with the latter also having the dated or archaic meaning “Pashtun.” Thus, Awghan should not be treated as a separate ethnonym from Afghan, but rather as a historical or variant form of the same word.\nEthnicities\nAfghans come from various ethnic backgrounds. The largest ethnic groups are Pashtuns. Historian Clifford Edmund Bosworth defines \"Afghan\" primarily as a historical ethnonym for the Pashtun people. In his scholarly analysis of medieval Islamic sources, such as the 10th-century geography Hudūd al-ʿĀlam, Bosworth notes that the term was originally restricted to specific Pashtun tribes residing in the frontier regions between the Hindu Kush and the Indus River. He maintains a clear distinction between these \"Afghans\" and other ethnic groups residing in the region, such as the Tajiks and Hazaras (sedentary Persian-speakers) and Uzbeks whom he identifies as having separate linguistic and historical origins.\n\nWhile Bosworth acknowledges that the 1964 Constitution of Afghanistan formally standardised \"Afghan\" as a national demonym for all citizens regardless of their ethnicity, his work emphasizes that for most of the region's history, the term remained synonymous with Pashtun identity. Tajiks, Hazaras, and Uzbeks have diverse origins including of Iranic, Turkic or Mongolic ethnolinguistic roots.\nReligions\nThe Afghans are predominantly and traditionally followers of Islam, of whom around 85-90% are of Sunni. Other religious minorities include the Afghan Hindus, Afghan Sikhs, Afghan Jews and Afghan Christians.\nCulture\nHistorically, Afghan culture is centered on Pashtunwali, an ancient, pre-Islamic code of conduct based on core tenets such as hospitality (melmastia), personal and tribal honour (nang), and retributive justice (badal). While oral tradition served as the primary vessel for this culture for centuries, the oldest direct written literary records of Pashtun culture and social values are found in Pashto poetry and prose, such as the 16th-century and later 19th-century works.\n\nBroader Afghan culture, encompassing the diverse ethnic groups within the modern borders, is historically and linguistically linked to the Persian world.\nSee also\nDemographics of Afghanistan\nAfghan (ethnonym)\nName of Afghanistan\nAfghan diaspora\nNotesReferencesSources\nExternal links\nAfghan News","text_chars":6320,"text_sha256":"9c09327337580187fa3ca0eb86d102a2d20e5e9973c496540cbe696242dd6bf9","text_utf8_bytes":6372,"title":"Afghans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghans","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"8009ea2f9528695e6c1b3ccb50bb89977f8d670afcc114c18df9365871440fb2"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=842&action=history","id":"842","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":58532,"raw_text_sha256":"e6dd5d0eddc89e1d7b4f6f5ef460e664814c80990f55376dc8a0f82fc95947e0","raw_text_utf8_bytes":58896,"revision_id":"1370689170","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-22T15:15:46Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1370689170","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"The Aegean Sea is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea between Europe and Asia. It is located between the Balkans and Anatolia, and covers an area of some . In the north, the Aegean is connected to the Marmara Sea, which in turn connects to the Black Sea, by the straits of the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus, respectively. The Aegean Islands are located within the sea and some bound it on its southern periphery, including Crete and Rhodes. The sea reaches a maximum depth of 2,639 m (8,658 ft) to the west of Karpathos. The Thracian Sea and the Sea of Crete are main subdivisions of the Aegean Sea.\n\nThe Aegean Islands can be divided into several island groups, including the Dodecanese, the Cyclades, the Sporades, the Saronic islands and the North Aegean Islands, as well as Crete and its surrounding islands. The Dodecanese, located to the southeast, includes the islands of Rhodes, Kos, and Patmos; the islands of Delos and Naxos are within the Cyclades to the south of the sea. Lesbos is part of the North Aegean Islands. Euboea, the second-largest island in Greece, is located in the Aegean, despite being administered as part of Central Greece. Nine out of twelve of the Administrative regions of Greece border the sea, along with the Turkish provinces of Edirne, Çanakkale, Balıkesir, İzmir, Aydın and Muğla to the east of the sea. Various Turkish islands in the sea are Imbros, Tenedos, Cunda Island, and the Foça Islands.\n\nThe Aegean Sea has been historically important, especially regarding the civilization of Ancient Greece, which inhabited the area around the coast of the Aegean and the Aegean islands. The Aegean islands facilitated contact between the people of the area and between Europe and Asia. Along with the Greeks, Thracians lived along the northern coasts. The Romans conquered the area under the Roman Empire, and later the Byzantine Empire held it against advances by the First Bulgarian Empire. The Fourth Crusade weakened Byzantine control of the area, and it was eventually conquered by the Ottoman Empire, with the exception of Crete, which was a Venetian colony until 1669. The Greek War of Independence allowed a Greek state on the coast of the Aegean from 1829 onwards. The Ottoman Empire held a presence over the sea for over 500 years until it was replaced by modern Turkey.\n\nThe rocks making up the floor of the Aegean are mainly limestone, though often greatly altered by volcanic activity that has convulsed the region in relatively recent geologic times. Of particular interest are the richly colored sediments in the region of the islands of Santorini and Milos, in the south Aegean. Notable cities on the Aegean coastline include Athens, Thessaloniki, Heraklion, Volos, Alexandroupolis and Kavala in Greece, and İzmir and Bodrum in Turkey.\n\nSeveral issues concerning sovereignty within the Aegean Sea are disputed between Greece and Turkey. The Aegean dispute has had a large effect on Greece–Turkey relations since the 1970s. Issues include the delimitation of territorial waters, national airspace, exclusive economic zones, and flight information regions.\nName and etymology\nThe origin of the name Αἰγαῖον πέλαγος (neuter) or Αἰγαῖος πόντος (masculine) has been explained by ancient grammarians through various theories:\n\nFigure-Based Origins\nAegeus, the father of Theseus, who is said to have drowned himself in the sea. According to the story, Aegeus instructed Theseus to raise white sails if he succeeded in killing the Minotaur, when Theseus forgot to do so, Aegeus believed his son had died and leapt into the sea.\nAegaea, an Amazon queen who was said to have perished there.\nAegaeon, a sea deity.\nPoseidon, known by the epithet \"Aigaios\".\nRuler Aigaion. Stephanus of Byzantium wrote that one of the legends is that Karystos was formerly called Aigaia, after the ruler Aigaion, who also lent his name to the Aegean Sea.\nThe Mysian hero Aigaion.\nGiant Briareus, also called Aigaion.\nBriareus, a primeval thalassocrat, also known as Aigaion.\n\nPlace-Based Origins\nAn island called \"Goat island\" (Aἰγῶν). This island was a sacred place dedicated to Poseidon. Legend has it that no one sleeps there because the god himself appears on the island.\nA rock, rather than an island, shaped like a goat, called Aex (αἲξ, \"a goat\"), reputed to have given its name to the sea.\nA place called Aix in the area of Canai, within Aeolia.\nSeveral islands or cities were named Aigai/Aigaia, some authors traced the origin of the sea's name to them, many closely associated with Poseidon.\n\nLinguistic and Interpretive-Based Origins\nFrom αἐί γαῖα, meaning \"because the land is always in sight\".\nFrom αἰγίς, meaning a violent squall, referring to the sea's stormy nature.\nFrom αἶγες (\"goats\"), because the many islands looked like a herd of goats rising from the water.\nBecause its waves resembled goats.\nThe metaphorical use of αἶγες (aiges; \"goats\") for large, violent waves, as noted by the Suda, suggesting a link between the sea's name and its fearsome character.\n\nAncient Greek authors also called it the \"Greek Sea\".\n\nThe sea was known in Latin as Mare Aegaeum while under the control of the Roman Empire. Pliny the Elder write that the Romans used the terms \"Macedonian\" for the northern part near Macedonia and Thrace provinces, and \"Grecian\" for the part near Greece itself.\n\nIn medieval Latin, the Aegean Sea was known as Egeopelagus, a form attested as late as 1419 in Venetian state papers (Ducatus Egeopelagi) and derived from the Greek αἰγαιοπέλαγος / αἰγαῖον πέλαγος. The term Arcipelago also appears, for instance in a treaty on 30 June 1268 between the Venetians and the emperor Michael Palaeologus.\n\nThis term subsequently gave rise to Archipelago , which in many European languages originally referred specifically to the Aegean Sea.\nThe terms Greek Archipelago or Grecian Archipelago were also used. Later, as archipelago came to be used increasingly as a generic term for island-studded seas, the terms Greek Archipelago or Grecian Archipelago continued to be used alongside the ancient name, Aegean Sea.\n\nIn some South Slavic languages, the Aegean is called White Sea (; ; ).\n\nThe Turkish name for the sea is Ege Denizi, which is derived from the Greek name, and Adalar Denizi meaning \"Sea of Islands\". In the past, Turks also referred to it as the \"White Sea\", to differentiate it from the Black Sea.\nGeography\nThe Aegean Sea is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea and covers about in area, measuring about longitudinally and latitudinal. The sea's maximum depth is , located at a point west of Karpathos. The Aegean Islands are found within its waters, with the following islands delimiting the sea on the south, generally from west to east: Kythera, Antikythera, Crete, Kasos, Karpathos and Rhodes. The Anatolian peninsula marks the eastern boundary of the sea, while the Greek mainland marks the west. Several seas are contained within the Aegean Sea; the Thracian Sea is a section of the Aegean located to the north, the Icarian Sea to the east, the Myrtoan Sea to the west, while the Sea of Crete is the southern section.\n\nThe Greek regions that border the sea, in alphabetical order, are Attica, Central Greece, Central Macedonia, Crete, Eastern Macedonia and Thrace, North Aegean, Peloponnese, South Aegean, and Thessaly. The traditional Greek region of Macedonia also borders the sea, to the north.\n\nThe Aegean Islands, which almost all belong to Greece, can be divided into seven groups:\nNortheastern Aegean Islands, which lie in the Thracian Sea\nEast Aegean Islands (Euboea)\nNorthern Sporades\nCyclades\nSaronic Islands (or Argo-Saronic Islands)\nDodecanese (or Southern Sporades)\nCrete\n\nMany of the Aegean islands or island chains, are geographical extensions of the mountains on the mainland. One chain extends across the sea to Chios, another extends across Euboea to Samos, and a third extends across the Peloponnese and Crete to Rhodes, dividing the Aegean from the Mediterranean.\n\nThe bays and gulfs of the Aegean beginning at the South and moving clockwise include on Crete, the Mirabello, Almyros, Souda and Chania bays or gulfs, on the mainland the Myrtoan Sea to the west with the Argolic Gulf, the Saronic Gulf northwestward, the Petalies Gulf which connects with the South Euboic Sea, the Pagasetic Gulf which connects with the North Euboic Sea, the Thermian Gulf northwestward, the Chalkidiki Peninsula including the Cassandra and the Singitic Gulfs, northward the Strymonian Gulf and the Gulf of Kavala and the rest are in Turkey; Saros Gulf, Edremit Gulf, Dikili Gulf, Gulf of Çandarlı, Gulf of İzmir, Gulf of Kuşadası, Gulf of Gökova, Güllük Gulf.\n\nThe Aegean Sea is connected to the Sea of Marmara by the Dardanelles, also known from Classical Antiquity as the Hellespont. The Dardanelles are located to the northeast of the sea. It ultimately connects with the Black Sea through the Bosporus strait, upon which lies the city of Istanbul. The Dardanelles and the Bosporus are known as the Turkish Straits.\nExtent\nAccording to the International Hydrographic Organization, the limits of the Aegean Sea as follows:\nOn the south: A line running from Cape Aspro (28°16′E) in Asia Minor, to Cum Burnù (Capo della Sabbia) the Northeast extreme of the Island of Rhodes, through the island to Cape Prasonisi, the Southwest point thereof, on to Vrontos Point (35°33′N) in Skarpanto [Karpathos], through this island to Castello Point, the South extreme thereof, across to Cape Plaka (East extremity of Crete), through Crete to Agria Grabusa, the Northwest extreme thereof, thence to Cape Apolytares in Antikythera Island, through the island to Psira Rock (off the Northwest point) and across to Cape Trakhili in Kythira Island, through Kythira to the Northwest point (Cape Karavugia) and thence to Cape Santa Maria in the Morea.\nIn the Dardanelles: A line joining Kum Kale (26°11′E) and Cape Helles.\nHydrography\nAegean surface water circulates in a counterclockwise gyre, with hypersaline Mediterranean water moving northward along the west coast of Turkey, before being displaced by less dense Black Sea outflow. The dense Mediterranean water sinks below the Black Sea inflow to a depth of , then flows through the Dardanelles Strait and into the Sea of Marmara at velocities of . The Black Sea outflow moves westward along the northern Aegean Sea, then flows southwards along the east coast of Greece.\n\nThe physical oceanography of the Aegean Sea is controlled mainly by the regional climate, the fresh water discharge from major rivers draining southeastern Europe, and the seasonal variations in the Black Sea surface water outflow through the Dardanelles Strait.\n\nAnalysis of the Aegean during 1991 and 1992 revealed three distinct water masses:\nAegean Sea Surface Water – thick veneer, with summer temperatures of 19–24 °C and winter temperatures ranging from in the north to in the very south.\nAegean Sea Intermediate Water – Aegean Sea Intermediate Water extends from to with temperatures ranging from .\nAegean Sea Bottom Water – occurring at depths below with a very uniform temperature and salinity (3.91–3.92%).\nClimate\nThe climate of the Aegean Sea largely reflects the climate of Greece and Western Turkey, which is to say, predominantly Mediterranean. According to the Köppen climate classification, most of the Aegean is classified as Hot-summer Mediterranean (Csa), with hotter and drier summers along with milder and wetter winters. However, high temperatures during summers are generally not quite as high as those in arid or semiarid climates due to the presence of a large body of water. This is most predominant in the west and east coasts of the Aegean, and within the Aegean islands. In the north of the Aegean Sea, the climate is instead classified as Cold semi-arid (BSk), which feature cooler summers than Hot-summer Mediterranean climates. The Etesian winds are a dominant weather influence in the Aegean Basin.\n\nThe below table lists climate conditions of some major Aegean cities:\nPopulation\nNumerous Greek and Turkish settlements are located along their mainland coast, as well as on towns on the Aegean islands. The largest cities are Athens and Thessaloniki in Greece and İzmir in Turkey. The most populated of the Aegean islands is Crete, followed by Euboea and Rhodes.\nBiogeography and ecology\nProtected areas\nGreece has established several marine protected areas along its coasts. According to the Network of Managers of Marine Protected Areas in the Mediterranean (MedPAN), four Greek MPAs are participating in the Network. These include Alonnisos Marine Park, while the Missolonghi–Aitoliko Lagoons and the island of Zakynthos are not on the Aegean.\nHistory\nAncient history\nThe current coastline dates back to about 4000 BC. Before that time, at the peak of the last ice age (about 18,000 years ago) sea levels everywhere were lower, and there were large well-watered coastal plains instead of much of the northern Aegean. When they were first occupied, the present-day islands including Milos with its important obsidian production were probably still connected to the mainland. The present coastal arrangement appeared around 9,000 years ago, with post-ice age sea levels continuing to rise for another 3,000 years after that.\n\nThe subsequent Bronze Age civilizations of Greece and the Aegean Sea have given rise to the general term Aegean civilization. In ancient times, the sea was the birthplace of two ancient civilizations – the Minoans of Crete and the Mycenaeans of the Peloponnese.\n\nThe Minoan civilization was a Bronze Age civilization on the island of Crete and other Aegean islands, flourishing from around 3000 to 1450 BC before a period of decline, finally ending at around 1100 BC. It represented the first advanced civilization in Europe, leaving behind massive building complexes, tools, stunning artwork, writing systems, and a massive network of trade. The Minoan period saw extensive trade between Crete, Aegean, and Mediterranean settlements, particularly the Near East. The most notable Minoan palace is that of Knossos, followed by that of Phaistos. The Mycenaean Greeks arose on the mainland, becoming the first advanced civilization in mainland Greece, which lasted from approximately 1600 to 1100 BC. It is believed that the site of Mycenae, which sits close to the Aegean coast, was the center of Mycenaean civilization. The Mycenaeans introduced several innovations in the fields of engineering, architecture and military infrastructure, while trade over vast areas of the Mediterranean, including the Aegean, was essential for the Mycenaean economy. Their syllabic script, the Linear B, offers the first written records of the Greek language and their religion already included several deities that can also be found in the Olympic Pantheon. Mycenaean Greece was dominated by a warrior elite society and consisted of a network of palace-centered states that developed rigid hierarchical, political, social and economic systems. At the head of this society was the king, known as wanax.\n\nThe civilization of Mycenaean Greeks perished with the collapse of Bronze Age culture in the eastern Mediterranean, to be followed by the so-called Greek Dark Ages. It is undetermined what cause the collapse of the Mycenaeans. During the Greek Dark Ages, writing in the Linear B script ceased, vital trade links were lost, and towns and villages were abandoned.\nAncient Greece\nThe Archaic period followed the Greek Dark Ages in the 8th century BC. Greece became divided into small self-governing communities, and adopted the Phoenician alphabet, modifying it to create the Greek alphabet. By the 6th century BC several cities had emerged as dominant in Greek affairs: Athens, Sparta, Corinth, and Thebes, of which Athens, Sparta, and Corinth were closest to the Aegean Sea. Each of them had brought the surrounding rural areas and smaller towns under their control, and Athens and Corinth had become major maritime and mercantile powers as well. In the 8th and 7th centuries BC many Greeks migrated to form colonies in Magna Graecia (Southern Italy and Sicily), Asia Minor and further afield. The Aegean Sea was the setting for one of the most pivotal naval engagements in history, when, on 20 September 480 B.C., the Athenian fleet gained a decisive victory over the Persian fleet of the Xerxes II of Persia at the Battle of Salamis. Thus ending any further attempt of western expansion by the Achaemenid Empire.\n\nThe Aegean Sea would later come to be under the control, albeit briefly, of the Kingdom of Macedonia. Philip II and his son Alexander the Great led a series of conquests that led not only to the unification of the Greek mainland and the control of the Aegean Sea under his rule, but also the destruction of the Achaemenid Empire. After Alexander the Great's death, his empire was divided among his generals. Cassander became king of the Hellenistic kingdom of Macedon, which held territory along the western coast of the Aegean, roughly corresponding to modern-day Greece. The Kingdom of Lysimachus had control over the sea's eastern coast. Greece had entered the Hellenistic period.\nRoman rule\nThe Macedonian Wars were a series of conflicts fought by the Roman Republic and its Greek allies in the eastern Mediterranean against several different major Greek kingdoms. They resulted in Roman control or influence over the eastern Mediterranean basin, including the Aegean, in addition to their hegemony in the western Mediterranean after the Punic Wars. During Roman rule, the land around the Aegean Sea fell under the provinces of Achaea, Macedonia, Thracia, Asia and Creta et Cyrenaica (island of Crete).\nMedieval period\nThe fall of the Western Roman Empire allowed its successor state, the Byzantine Empire, to continue Roman control over the Aegean Sea. However, their territory would later be threatened by the early Muslim conquests initiated by Muhammad in the 7th century. Although the Rashidun Caliphate did not manage to obtain land along the coast of the Aegean Sea, its conquest of the Eastern Anatolian peninsula as well as Egypt, the Levant, and North Africa left the Byzantine Empire weakened. The Umayyad Caliphate expanded the territorial gains of the Rashidun Caliphate, conquering much of North Africa, and threatened the Byzantine Empire's control of Western Anatolia, where it meets the Aegean Sea.\n\nDuring the 820s, Crete was conquered by a group of Berbers Andalusians exiles led by Abu Hafs Umar al-Iqritishi, and it became an independent Islamic state. The Byzantine Empire launched a campaign that took most of the island back in 842 and 843 under Theoktistos, but the re-conquest was not completed and was soon reversed. Later attempts by the Byzantine Empire to recover the island were without success. For the approximately 135 years of its existence, the emirate of Crete was one of the major foes of Byzantium. Crete commanded the sea lanes of the Eastern Mediterranean and functioned as a forward base and haven for Muslim corsair fleets that ravaged the Byzantine-controlled shores of the Aegean Sea. Crete returned to Byzantine rule under Nikephoros II Phokas, who launched a huge campaign against the Emirate of Crete in 960 to 961.\n\nMeanwhile, the Bulgarian Empire threatened Byzantine control of Northern Greece and the Aegean coast to the south. Under Presian and his successor Boris I, the Bulgarian Empire managed to obtain a small portion of the northern Aegean coast. Simeon I of Bulgaria led Bulgaria to its greatest territorial expansion, and managed to conqueror much of the northern and western coasts of the Aegean. The Byzantines later regained control. The Second Bulgarian Empire achieved similar success along, again, the northern and western coasts, under Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria.\n\nThe Seljuk Turks, under the Seljuk Empire, invaded the Byzantine Empire in 1068, from which they annexed almost all the territories of Anatolia, including the east coast of the Aegean Sea, during the reign of Alp Arslan, the second Sultan of the Seljuk Empire. After the death of his successor, Malik Shah I, the empire was divided, and Malik Shah was succeeded in Anatolia by Kilij Arslan I, who founded the Sultanate of Rum. The Byzantines yet again recaptured the eastern coast of the Aegean.\n\nAfter Constantinople was occupied by Western European and Venetian forces during the Fourth Crusade, the area around the Aegean Sea was fragmented into multiple entities, including the Latin Empire, the Kingdom of Thessalonica, the Empire of Nicaea, the Principality of Achaea, and the Duchy of Athens. The Venetians created the maritime state of the Duchy of the Archipelago, which included all the Cyclades except Mykonos and Tinos. The Empire of Nicaea, a Byzantine rump state, managed to affect the Recapture of Constantinople from the Latins in 1261 and defeat Epirus. Byzantine successes were not to last; the Ottomans would conquer the area around the Aegean coast, but before their expansion the Byzantine Empire had already been weakened from internal conflict. By the late 14th century, the Byzantine Empire had lost all control of the coast of the Aegean Sea and could only exercise power around their capital, Constantinople. The Ottoman Empire then gained control of all the Aegean coast with the exception of Crete, which was a Venetian colony until 1669.\nModern period\nThe Greek War of Independence allowed a Greek state on the coast of the Aegean from 1829 onward. In the aftermath of the Balkan Wars (1912–1913) Greece expanded northwards along the coast, while Bulgaria gained access in the northernmost section of the sea. The Ottoman Empire held a presence over the sea for over 500 years until its dissolution following World War I, when it was replaced by modern Turkey. After the war, Greece gained control over the area around the northern coast of the Aegean, including the territory held by Bulgaria. By the 1920s, Greece and Turkey had about resumed their present-day borders.\n\nIn the Italo-Turkish War of 1912, Italy captured the Dodecanese islands, and had occupied them since, reneging on the 1919 Venizelos–Tittoni agreement to cede them to Greece. The Greco-Italian War took place from October 1940 to April 1941 as part of the Balkans Campaign of World War II. The Italian war aim was to establish a Greek puppet state, which would permit the Italian annexation of the Sporades and Cyclades islands in the Aegean Sea, to be administered as a part of the Italian Aegean Islands. The German invasion resulted in the Axis occupation of Greece. The German troops evacuated Athens on 12 October 1944, and by the end of the month, they had withdrawn from mainland Greece. Greece was then liberated by Allied troops.\nEconomy and politics\nMany of the islands in the Aegean have safe harbours and bays. In ancient times, navigation through the sea was easier than travelling across the rough terrain of the Greek mainland, and to some extent, the coastal areas of Anatolia. Many of the islands are volcanic, and marble and iron are mined on other islands. The larger islands have some fertile valleys and plains.\n\nOf the main islands in the Aegean Sea, two belong to Turkey – Bozcaada (Tenedos) and Gökçeada (Imbros); the rest belong to Greece. Between the two countries, there are political disputes over several aspects of political control over the Aegean space, including the size of territorial waters, air control and the delimitation of economic rights to the continental shelf. These issues are known as the Aegean dispute.\nTransport\nMultiple ports are located along the Greek and Turkish coasts of the Aegean Sea. The port of Piraeus in Athens is the chief port in Greece, the largest passenger port in Europe and the third largest in the world, servicing about 20 million passengers annually. With a throughput of 1.4 million TEUs, Piraeus is placed among the top ten ports in container traffic in Europe and the top container port in the Eastern Mediterranean. Piraeus is also the commercial hub of Greek shipping. Piraeus bi-annually acts as the focus for a major shipping convention, known as Posidonia, which attracts maritime industry professionals from all over the world. Piraeus is currently Greece's third-busiest port in terms of tons of goods transported, behind Agioi Theodoroi and Thessaloniki.{{verify source|date=August 2019|reason=This ref was deleted (Special:Diff/902179474) by a bug in VisualEditor and later restored by a bot from the original cite at Special:Permalink/901463900 cite #27 – please verify the cite's accuracy and remove this {verify source} template. User:GreenC bot/Job 18}} The central port serves ferry routes to almost every island in the eastern portion of Greece, the island of Crete, the Cyclades, the Dodecanese, and much of the northern and the eastern Aegean Sea, while the western part of the port is used for cargo services.\n\nAs of 2007, the Port of Thessaloniki was the second-largest container port in Greece after the port of Piraeus, making it one of the busiest ports in Greece. In 2007, the Port of Thessaloniki handled 14,373,245 tonnes of cargo and 222,824 TEU's. Paloukia, on the island of Salamis, is a major passenger port.\nFishing\nFish are Greece's second-largest agricultural export, and Greece has Europe's largest fishing fleet. Fish captured include sardines, mackerel, grouper, grey mullets, sea bass, and seabream. There is a considerable difference between fish catches between the pelagic and demersal zones; with respect to pelagic fisheries, the catches from the northern, central and southern Aegean area groupings are dominated, respectively, by anchovy, horse mackerels, and boops. For demersal fisheries, the catches from the northern and southern Aegean area groupings are dominated by grey mullets and pickerel (Spicara smaris) respectively.\n\nThe industry has been impacted by the Great Recession. Overfishing and habitat destruction is also a concern, threatening grouper, and seabream populations, resulting in perhaps a 50% decline of fish catch. To address these concerns, Greek fishermen have been offered a compensation by the government. Although some species are defined as protected or threatened under EU legislation, several illegal species such as the molluscs Pinna nobilis, Charonia tritonis and Lithophaga lithophaga, can be bought in restaurants and fish markets around Greece.\nTourism\nThe Aegean islands within the Aegean Sea are significant tourist destinations. Tourism to the Aegean islands contributes a significant portion of tourism in Greece, especially since the second half of the 20th century. A total of five UNESCO World Heritage sites are located the Aegean Islands; these include the Monastery of Saint John the Theologian and the Cave of the Apocalypse on Patmos, the Pythagoreion and Heraion of Samos in Samos, the Nea Moni of Chios, the island of Delos, and the Medieval City of Rhodes.\n\nGreece is one of the most visited countries in Europe and the world with over 33 million visitors in 2018, and the tourism industry around a quarter of Greece's Gross Domestic Product. The islands of Santorini, Crete, Lesbos, Delos, and Mykonos are common tourist destinations. An estimated 2 million tourists visit Santorini annually. However, concerns relating to overtourism have arisen in recent years, such as issues of inadequate infrastructure and overcrowding. Alongside Greece, Turkey has also been successful in developing resort areas and attracting large number of tourists, contributing to tourism in Turkey. The phrase \"Blue Cruise\" refers to recreational voyages along the Turkish Riviera, including across the Aegean. The ancient city of Troy, a World Heritage Site, is on the Turkish coast of the Aegean.\n\nGreece and Turkey both take part in the Blue Flag beach certification programme of the Foundation for Environmental Education. The certification is awarded for beaches and marinas meeting strict quality standards including environmental protection, water quality, safety and services criteria. As of 2015, the Blue Flag has been awarded to 395 beaches and 9 marinas in Greece. Southern Aegean beaches on the Turkish coast include Muğla, with 102 beaches awarded with the blue flag, along with İzmir and Aydın, who have 49 and 30 beaches awarded respectively.\nSee also\nExclusive economic zone of Greece\nGeography of Turkey\nGeography of Greece\nList of Greek place names\nAegean Boat Report\nBalkanatolia\nNotesReferencesExternal links","text_chars":28475,"text_sha256":"f66fb8ac88872764a0cb2378d0ca19abc2942fab2aea38082128f5d8887528ef","text_utf8_bytes":28630,"title":"Aegean Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegean_Sea","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"001b4fe651a4039a5c702d9bcc1551da6e99ca7d4a02809b4ab7274985dc596b"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2917&action=history","id":"2917","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":27865,"raw_text_sha256":"5556464a7e522e04eeb836591d42d87ab2a188c623d87c930e68ab4a752fa330","raw_text_utf8_bytes":27881,"revision_id":"1364106822","revision_timestamp":"2026-07-14T14:58:15Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1364106822","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Dutch hip-hop or Nederhop (\"Netherhop\") is hip-hop created by Dutch speaking musicians in the Netherlands and Flanders (Belgium). Although the first Dutch rappers in Europe typically wrote in the English language, this began to change when Osdorp Posse gained a big following of fans. They were the first to record and release hip-hop in the Dutch language, perform for big crowds and to achieve chart success with their albums.\n\nIn 1995, the same year Osdorp Posse had a top 20 chart hit with their album Afslag Osdorp, rapper Extince was the first Dutch rap artist to achieve a top 10 hit in the singles charts with Spraakwater.\n\nAfter rapper Def Rhymz was the first to reach the Dutch main chart with number 1 hits such as Doekoe (Sranan Tongo for 'money'; 1999), and Schudden (\"Shake (it)\"/\"Shaking\"; 2001) with a more pop, R&B and dance influenced sound, Dutchlanguage hip-hop has grown into a staple of mainstream pop music in the Netherlands and Flanders in the 21st century.\nHistory1980s\nBetween 1980 and 1985 a few Dutch Hip Hop records had already been released, but in 1986 Dutch rap duo MC Miker G & DJ Sven had a top 10 hit in at least ten countries across Europe with their Holiday Rap, which sampled Madonna's \"Holiday\". It caused notable financial disputes, four years ahead of Vanilla Ice's similar sampling troubles with Ice Ice Baby. That same year Dutch rapper Extince released his first record Rap Around The Clock, and in 1987 he scored a modest hit with The Milkshake Rap.\n\nHowever, in the late 1980s Nederhop (\"Netherhop\") emerged, as artists began to rap in Dutch, such as Def Rhymz, Blonnie B, Alex and the CityCrew, Dynamic Rockers, and the Osdorp Posse. Though there is disagreement about who were the first, the pioneers' work was at first only experimental, except for the Osdorp Posse, a group from Osdorp, a \"hood\" in Amsterdam, who were first to release tracks in Dutch, for instance the single Moordenaar (\"Murderer\") in 1989, marking a beginning milestone of Nederhop. After their frontman, rapper Def P, began by literally translating English raps into Dutch, he started writing original work that still contained peculiar idioms that resulted from his earlier literal rewordings. The result was described by rapper Ali B as highly visual and captivating. Once Extince switched to Dutch in 1994, having rapped in English since 1984, both he and Osdorp Posse became highly influential in Nederhop in the 1990s and beyond.\n\nNotable in the late 1980s were All Star Fresh of King Bee, topping charts with \"Back by Dope Demand\" in early 1990, and Rudeboy of Urban Dance Squad, who, at the time, were arguably more widely known in New York City than in the Netherlands. DJ and Producer All Star Fresh turned professional as early as 1979. After winning the Dutch Mixing Championships (DMC) in 1988, he was invited to the World Mix Championships in the London Royal Hall and won third place among strong competition. He was invited by Dave Funkenklein to enter the lion's den in New York. He made history in the Big Apple of hip-hop by being the first non-American to fly into the finals of the World Supremacy Battle of DJs. He gained the highly respected second place of this prestigious DJ contest. The impression that he made that year resulted in many invitations to perform with artists like Public Enemy, Stetsasonic, Ice T, and Ultra Magnetic MCs.\n\nAll Star Fresh. As performer and producer he is better known as KING BEE. With his second floor filler Back By Dope Demand he achieved one of his biggest hip-hop hits. In the Netherlands, it resulted in a Top 3 position and best Dance Product by The Edison Awards in the Netherlands. (The Edison Awards is an award by the Dutch Music Industry.) This also meant that with this title, he was the first black artist to win this award in the Netherlands. After that, he appeared as a supporting act for Madonna's show in the Netherlands. All Star Fresh kept entering the dance floors. The last titles mentioned were also popular worldwide, selling over 2.4 million copies. He didn't only work within projects like King Bee or Capella, but also was featuring well known production teams like Snap (I Got the Power). This teamwork resulted in the single Lets Get Busy (Clubland Quarts feat Snap King Bee). This record ended up No. 1 in the Billboard Dance Charts (United States). Other productions in this line were Deepzone \"It's Gonna Be All right\", Kellee- my love, Ty Holden- you're my Inspiration and His Royal Freshness- They don't understand.\n1990s\nUrban Dance Squad was a Dutch rap rock band formed after a jam session at a festival in Utrecht in 1986, including rapper/vocalist Rudeboy Remington and DJ DNA (DoNotAsk). The band's music is described as a blend of genres, including hard rock, funk, soul, hip-hop, reggae, jazz, and ska, and is compared with Living Colour, Red Hot Chili Peppers, and Fishbone. They are still known for their hit single Deeper Shade of Soul, which charted at number 21 in the United States on Billboard Hot 100.\n\nIn 1989, Osdorp Posse formed, the first rap act solely in the Dutch language. They started out translating N.W.A songs to Dutch, but soon began writing their own rhymes. Dutch rap was still frowned upon in general. Many hip-hop listeners found it silly to hear raps in a different language than English, and the radio and television didn't want to have anything to do with it at all.\n\nOsdorp Posse overcame this and gained a small crowd of followers. Indie label Djax Records from Eindhoven picked up on this and signed Osdorp Posse to their label. In 1992, they released their debut album Osdorp Stijl, making it the first ever Dutch language hip hop album. Their beats, created by producer Seda on Amiga 500 with Protracker, had a heavy sound and were similar to U.S. old-school hip-hop, while also embracing their own style by making use of samples from metal music. The lyrics were often focused on social criticism, with frontman Def P describing it as hardcore rap. In Deventer, they found their first following, and the first Dutch-language hip-hop scene was born. The first hip-hop groups after Osdorp Posse were Zuid-Oost Posse and Maasstraat Mannen.\n\nDutch rap kept on reaching a bigger crowd, though it still could be considered an underground genre. A year after the debut album of Osdorp Posse, they released 2 more albums, Roffer Dan Ooit and Vlijmscherp. Paving the way like this, many Dutch rap acts popped up. In 1994, a breakthrough took place with the release of compilation record De Posse: Nederhop Groeit (meaning \"Nederhop is growing\"), presenting no less than 7 different new Dutch rap acts on one record. These groups performed all across the Netherlands, gaining an even bigger audience. By 1996, Djax Records released material by Ouderkerk Kaffers, White Wolf, West Klan, Dr. Doom, Spookrijders, Zuid Oost Posse, Klaas Vaak, Cut, Mach, Vuurwerk, Loco-Motief, Lijkenpikkers, Bitchez & Cream, Space Marines, Jesse, Neuk!, and De Uitverkorenen.\n\nThe media still largely boycotted Dutch rap, while often expressing criticism on the harsh lyrics and lo-fi beats. Despite this, Osdorp Posse managed to build a large following of fans by 1995, resulting in nationwide sold-out tours and big spots at Dutch festivals. They performed at the Lowlands Festival in 1995, with their popularity getting completely underestimated by the bookers, causing fans to even climb up lightning rigs and poles of the festival tent to be able to experience the set. In 1997, Osdorp Posse did two shows at the biggest festival of the Netherlands, the Pinkpop Festival. On the main day of the festival, they performed at the main stage for a packed field of fans, resulting in the biggest Dutch rap show of the decade.\n\nBy that year, the band had 2 albums which charted in the Dutch album charts, while still on an indie label and with virtually no airplay on radio and TV. In 1995 Afslag Osdorp, their fourth album, was the first Dutch language rap album to enter the Album Top 100, for a total of 14 weeks and even a ranking in the top 20. A unique achievement, with a peak position in the charts that would only be matched 7 years later by Brainpower.\n\nBy then, the band and Dutch rap in general got taken more seriously as well. After the undeniable success live on stage and in the album charts by Osdorp Posse, the lyrical content was getting cautious praise. By the mid-90's Def P collaborated with renowned and highly esteemed writers like Remco Campert and was often invited to recite his lyrics at poetry rap festivals like the Double Talk Festival at Paradiso.\n\nAt the same time, a shift took place when rapper Extince took rap in the Dutch language to a new commercial level and a different audience in 1995. While Osdorp Posse already had big chart successes with their albums, Extince's Spraakwater became the first single to make the mainstream pop single charts in the country. The song even made the top 10 of the singles charts and got airplay on the radio.\n\nFrom then on, there were two styles dominating the Dutch hip-hop landscape. On one side, the hardcore rap performers like Osdorp Posse, De Uitverkorenen, Casto and West Klan, who focused on the content of their lyrics with social criticism, political subjects and knowledge, on often energetic and rough beats. On the other side, Extince, who was more of a storyteller with a slick flow and a knack for wordplay and metaphoric imagery, on funky and laidback beats.\n\nA mix of these two styles gave birth to the Spookrijders, a three-man hip-hop group founded in 1996. With MCs Stefan and Clyde rapping about their personal lives and life in Amsterdam as a black man, the Spookrijders even gained respect from non-hip-hop musicians and fans. Most people admired the work of producer/DJ Cliff 'the Jazz' Nille after releasing Spookrijders debut album De Echte Shit (\"The Real Shit\"). In 1999, Spookrijders hit the charts twice with the hits \"Klokkenluiders\" and \"Ik ben de man.\" Both these songs appeared on the second album, Klokkenluiders van Amsterdam. After some personal arguments among the three crewmembers, Spookrijders split up in 2003, after releasing a third and final album Hey... Spookies!!\n\nIn 1999, The Postmen released their rap/reggae mix De Bom (\"The Bom\"), a top three hit single. They were active across Europe from 1998 to 2003.\n2000s\nFrom 2000 onward, Dutch language hip-hop grew considerably, both in the number of artists as well as in popularity, both underground and mainstream.\n\nIn the early 2000s, the MC fronted band Relax got much airplay, mainly impressing with their albums. Since 2002, they released four albums, the first three of which made the Dutch album top 40.\n\nDef Rhymz, Spookrijders & Brainpower helped develop the art. Def Rhymz & Brainpower dropped multiple hit records. Described by Ali B. as \"..a white library boy with glasses..\", Brainpower made Dutch rapping accessible to a much greater demographic. With six Top 100 albums, Brainpower is one of the most commercially successful Dutch MC's to date.\n\nBy 2000, about 15 years after their founding, Osdorp Posse still sold-out tours and still had big album chart success. They even scored a surprise hit song when Origineel Amsterdams hit the top 10 of the single charts. By then, Dutch rap fully took over from Dutch artists rapping in English, and Osdorp Posse set up their own label to release Dutch rap artists. The same year, they released their seventh album Kernramp as the first double album in Dutch rap, with the second disc containing up-and-coming Dutch rap artists. In the months following its release alone, 17,000 physical copies were sold, unique for Dutch language rap at the time. Having made a permanent mark on their fanbase, when the album was re-released on vinyl in 2019, it became the best-selling album on vinyl the week of release.\n\nFrom the late 1990s, a flourishing underground scene in the provincial town Zwolle included rappers Blaxtar, Jawat!, and Kubus, and centered around the group Opgezwolle. Formed in 1998 by rappers Sticky Steez and Phreaco Rico, together with DJ Delic, the band Opgezwolle (punning their town's name into \"Swollen\"), was a group making raw hip-hop. They released three successful albums in 2001, 2003, and 2006. Eigen Wereld (\"Own World\"), from 2006, achieved the highest notation of any Dutch-language rap album until then in the Dutch Album Top 100, reaching top 4.\n\nIn the same year, rapper Typhoon, also from Zwolle, and inspired by aforementioned peer Blaxtar, released his philosophical debut album Tussen Licht en Lucht (\"Between Light and Air\"). The successes of the Zwolle rappers' crop boosted other Dutch artists' confidence and inspired them to be proud of their origins – whether local, foreign, or mixed. Rapper Typhoon pointed out that band names of trailblazers like 'Osdorp Posse' and 'Opgezwolle' refer to their origins (Amsterdam Osdorp and Zwolle) for an important reason, and tied this to the shift from rapping in English to Dutch, making it more relatable and resonant with the audience. Instead of hard and angry, some 2000s releases stood out fragile and sensitive, for instance, the single Je moest waarschijnlijk gaan (\"I Guess You Had to Go\"; 2001) by Brainpower, mourned the loss of his best friend; and the raps of Typhoon are called some of the most poetic.\n\nOpgezwolle split up in 2007, but members Rico & Sticks formed a new group: Fakkelbrigade, with Typhoon, Mick 2dope Murray, MC James and beatmaker A.R.T. In 2009, they released the critically acclaimed album Colucci Era.\n\nFrom 2003 through 2006, Lange Frans & Baas B had four top-three hits in the Dutch Top 40, besides three more listings. Zinloos, a sad commentary on senseless violence (\"Zinloos Geweld\"), and their patriotic yet introspective Het Land van .. (\"The Land of..\") gave the duo two number-1 hits, in 2004 and 2005 respectively.\n\nIn the mid-2000s Cilvaringz, Ali B. Jerome XL and Raymzter were also commercially successful. Ali B featured on other artists' tracks, most significantly with Marco Borsato on the song \"Wat zou je doen?\" for the charity War Child. He first achieved solo success with \"Ik ben je zat\", featuring Brace, in 2003. Together with music artist Akon, and Ali's cousin Yes-R, Ali B made an internationally successful remix of Akon's track Ghetto, including additional Dutch lyrics. Yes-R had six Dutch Top 40 hits from 2006 to 2012, including his debut single. Ali B. has sofar had fourteen Top 40 hit singles since 2003, including several top three listings. Jerome XL made a leap to the states in 2006 while recording with many international crews and their members, like Jurassic 5, Dilated Peoples, Juice Crew, and many others. This was a first for Dutch Hip Hop.\n\nIn 2005, De Jeugd van Tegenwoordig (\"Kids These Days\") were successful with Watskeburt?! (\"Wuzhappenin?!\"). Rapper Jawat won the \"Grote Prijs van Nederland\" 2006.\n\nAnother Dutch hip-hop duo is Pete Philly and Perquisite, who are already well known in the Netherlands, Germany, and Japan.\n\nA famous Dutch rapper outside the Netherlands is Salah Edin. His album Nederlands Grootste Nachtmerrie (Biggest Nightmare of the Netherlands) won Best Album Award in 2007 and was fully produced by Dr. Dre's right-hand man Focus... He also shot three of the most expensive music videos in the history of Dutch Hip Hop, and through a management deal with Cilvaringz, performed in 34 countries worldwide.\n2010s\nSocial acceptance of hip-hop in the Netherlands was perhaps epitomized when artist Typhoon performed for the Dutch royal family twice – both in 2013 and in 2016.\n\nIn 2015, a self-titled \"New Wave\" generation of 'social media' (em)powered artists broke through with their eponymous New Wave album, as a temporary collaboration, including Bokoesam, D-Double, Jonna Fraser, Lil' Kleine, Ronnie Flex, and SFB.\n\nSince 2014, rapper group Broederliefde released no less than seven albums, with the \"worst one\" topping at 13 in the charts — their debut album reached number 3, and their last five albums were consecutive top-2s, with three of them topping the chart. Their third album, Hard Work Pays Off (II) (2016), broke an all-time record by staying at number 1 for 14 weeks, beating a 2003 12-week record, held by Dutch A-list singer Frans Bauer. Nine of their singles also charted in the singles Top 40.\n\nIn 2016, the album WOP! by Lil' Kleine was the first hip-hop album to reach number 1 on the Album Top 100. In the same year, Ali B's third album, Een klein beetje geluk (\"ALittle Bit of Happiness\"), proved his best yet, reaching number 7.\n\nStarting in 2016, rapper Sevn Alias released five consecutive top-10 albums, with his second reaching No. 1, and the last three consistently reaching top-2 positions. He is highly productive and is also enjoying extensive success with singles, collaborations, and other track releases.\n2020sConflicts\nThe Dutch hip-hop scene also saw many conflicts between rappers, followed by diss tracks. The following were among the biggest Dutch feuds in hip-hop:\n\nOsdorp Posse vs. Extince, BrainPower vs. Extince, T.H.C vs. Negativ, Kempi vs. Nino, Yukkie B vs. Negativ, T.H.C. vs. Lexxxus, Baas B vs. Kimo, Kempi vs. Mini, Kempi vs. Bloedserieus, Heist Rockah vs. Negativ, and Regga vs. Lexxxus.\n\nThe feud between T.H.C. and Lexxxus resulted in a fistfight at a hip-hop event, when T.H.C. frontman Rocks got into an argument with Lexxxus and then started the fistfight.\nGenres in Dutch hip-hopGangsta\nDutch gangsta hip hop is currently a large scene, together with underground hip-hop. Among the most notable acts and performers are THC, Heinek'n, Keizer, Kempi, Steen, Hef, Crooks, Adonis and Negativ. The rhythms are influenced by the American rap scene, and the lyrics are often about crime, drugs, money, women, and other criminal activities.\nOften coming from Dutch ghettos, lyrics often include themes occurring in these areas.\nDutch gangsta hip-hop mostly comes from the five largest cities: Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Utrecht, and Eindhoven.\nCommercial success\nThe commercial success of Dutch hip-hop is largely made by Brainpower, Yes-R, Ali B, Lange Frans & Baas B, and Extince. For a large part of the Dutch hip-hop community Yes-R, Ali B and Lange Frans & Baas B are sometimes considered fake because they do a lot of work for children's TV stations. Brainpower and Extince however, both enjoy a great respect for bringing up hip-hop in their native Dutch. Other commercial rappers are De Jeugd van Tegenwoordig, and one of the more popular artists in the Netherlands, Partysquad or The Partysquad. They are a 2-man group, having had success with hits such as \"Stuk\" (Broken), and \"Dat is Die Shit\" (That's the shit), with other popular songs in the background, such as \"Non Stop\" ft. Brainpower, \"We Gaan Los\" (we're going crazy {because of highness or drunkenness}) with Kempi, and \"Wat Wil Je Doen\" (What do you want to do?).\nDutch oldskool\nThe Dutch oldskool exists out of three primary artists, LTH, Osdorp Posse, Extince, Sugacane and Duvelduvel. Osdorp Posse make what they call hardcore rap and use beats that have much in common with N.W.A. Their lyrics are about racism, prostitution, police, and other social subjects. Extince uses very different, more funky kind of beats than Osdorp Posse and uses a completely different rapstyle. Duvelduvel is known as a conceptual hip-hop group.\nNotable artists\nNotable Dutch hip-hop artists, listed by locality, include:\nSee also\nEuropean hip-hop\nReferences","text_chars":19510,"text_sha256":"b2264b32a2abd6d9c55426ff1f5c162645115c54c669351edb7acd968ba8bd19","text_utf8_bytes":19516,"title":"Dutch hip-hop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_hip-hop","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"0b12c8590e32cc4cb7d137e8ff1aa6389d5cefd66b685905f344d9e3d389748e"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1349&action=history","id":"1349","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":23861,"raw_text_sha256":"0d041dabb213a3e182bfcef1ed0a4b261891bb018a5b86a0cc186159d819dc32","raw_text_utf8_bytes":23900,"revision_id":"1344474093","revision_timestamp":"2026-03-20T17:50:49Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1344474093","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"The Atanasoff–Berry computer (ABC) was the first automatic electronic digital computer. The device was limited by the technology of the day. The ABC's priority is debated among historians of computer technology, because it was neither programmable, nor Turing-complete. Conventionally, the ABC would be considered the first electronic ALU (arithmetic logic unit) which is integrated into every modern processor's design.\n\nIts unique contribution was to make computing faster by being the first to use vacuum tubes to do arithmetic calculations. Prior to this, slower electro-mechanical methods were used by Konrad Zuse's Z1 computer, and the simultaneously developed Harvard Mark I. The first electronic, programmable, digital machine, the Colossus computer from 1943 to 1945, used similar tube-based technology as ABC.\nOverview\nConceived in 1937, the machine was built by Iowa State College mathematics and physics professor John Vincent Atanasoff with the help of graduate student Clifford Berry. It was designed only to solve systems of linear equations and was successfully tested in 1942. However, its intermediate result storage mechanism, a paper card writer/reader, was not perfected, and when John Vincent Atanasoff left Iowa State College for World War II assignments, work on the machine was discontinued. The ABC pioneered important elements of modern computing, including binary arithmetic and electronic switching elements, but its special-purpose nature and lack of a changeable, stored program distinguish it from modern computers. The computer was designated an IEEE Milestone in 1990.\n\nAtanasoff and Berry's computer work was not widely known until it was rediscovered in the 1960s, amid patent disputes over the first instance of an electronic computer. At that time ENIAC, that had been created by John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert, was considered to be the first computer in the modern sense, but in 1973 a U.S. District Court invalidated the ENIAC patent and concluded that the ENIAC inventors had derived the subject matter of the electronic digital computer from Atanasoff. When, in the mid-1970s, the secrecy surrounding the British World War II development of the Colossus computers that pre-dated ENIAC, was lifted and Colossus was described at a conference in Los Alamos, New Mexico, in June 1976, John Mauchly and Konrad Zuse were reported to have been astonished.\nDesign and construction\nAccording to Atanasoff's account, several key principles of the Atanasoff–Berry computer were conceived in a sudden insight after a long nighttime drive to Rock Island, Illinois, during the winter of 1937–38. The ABC innovations included electronic computation, binary arithmetic, parallel processing, regenerative capacitor memory, and a separation of memory and computing functions. The mechanical and logic design was worked out by Atanasoff over the next year. A grant application to build a proof of concept prototype was submitted in March 1939 to the Agronomy department, which was also interested in speeding up computation for economic and research analysis. $5,000 of further funding to complete the machine came from the nonprofit Research Corporation of New York City.\n\nThe ABC was built by Atanasoff and Berry in the basement of the physics building at Iowa State College from 1939 to 1942. The initial funds were released in September, and the 11-tube prototype was first demonstrated in October 1939. A December demonstration prompted a grant for construction of the full-scale machine. The ABC was built and tested over the next two years. A January 15, 1941, story in the Des Moines Register announced the ABC as \"an electrical computing machine\" with more than 300 vacuum tubes that would \"compute complicated algebraic equations\" (but gave no precise technical description of the computer). The system weighed more than . It contained approximately of wire, 280 dual-triode vacuum tubes, 31 thyratrons, and was about the size of a desk.\n\nIt was not programmable, which distinguishes it from more general machines of the same era, such as Konrad Zuse's 1941 Z3 (or earlier iterations) and the Colossus computers of 1943–1945. Nor did it implement the stored-program architecture, first implemented in the Manchester Baby of 1948, required for fully general-purpose practical computing machines.\n\nThe machine was, however, the first to implement:\nUsing vacuum tubes, rather than wheels, ratchets, mechanical switches, or telephone relays, allowing for greater speed than previous computers\nUsing capacitors for memory, rather than mechanical components, allowing for greater speed and density\n\nThe memory of the Atanasoff–Berry computer was a system called regenerative capacitor memory, which consisted of a pair of drums, each containing 1600 capacitors that rotated on a common shaft once per second. The capacitors on each drum were organized into 32 \"bands\" of 50 (30 active bands and two spares in case a capacitor failed), giving the machine a speed of 30 additions/subtractions per second. Data was represented as 50-bit binary fixed-point numbers. The electronics of the memory and arithmetic units could store and operate on 60 such numbers at a time (3000 bits).\n\nThe alternating current power-line frequency of 60 Hz was the primary clock rate for the lowest-level operations.\n\nThe arithmetic logic functions were fully electronic, implemented with vacuum tubes. The family of logic gates ranged from inverters to two- and three-input gates. The input and output levels and operating voltages were compatible between the different gates. Each gate consisted of one inverting vacuum-tube amplifier, preceded by a resistor divider input network that defined the logical function. The control logic functions, which only needed to operate once per drum rotation and therefore did not require electronic speed, were electromechanical, implemented with relays.\n\nThe ALU operated on only one bit of each number at a time; it kept the carry/borrow bit in a capacitor for use in the next AC cycle.\n\nAlthough the Atanasoff–Berry computer was an important step up from earlier calculating machines, it was not able to run entirely automatically through an entire problem. An operator was needed to operate the control switches to set up its functions, much like the electro-mechanical calculators and unit record equipment of the time. Selection of the operation to be performed, reading, writing, converting to or from binary to decimal, or reducing a set of equations was made by front-panel switches and, in some cases, jumpers.\n\nThere were two forms of input and output: primary user input and output and an intermediate results output and input. The intermediate results storage allowed operation on problems too large to be handled entirely within the electronic memory. (The largest problem that could be solved without the use of the intermediate output and input was two simultaneous equations, a trivial problem.)\n\nIntermediate results were binary, written onto paper sheets by electrostatically modifying the resistance at 1500 locations to represent 30 of the 50-bit numbers (one equation). Each sheet could be written or read in one second. The reliability of the system was limited to about 1 error in 100,000 calculations by these units, primarily attributed to lack of control of the sheets' material characteristics. In retrospect, a solution could have been to add a parity bit to each number as written. This problem was not solved by the time Atanasoff left the university for war-related work.\n\nPrimary user input was decimal, via standard IBM 80-column punched cards, and output was decimal, via a front-panel display.\n\nFile:Display inside of rest stop at mile 100 northbound on I-35 in Iowa, Commemorating the ABC Computer.jpg|thumb|Inside display on I-35 rest stop 100 north of Des Moines honoring the ABC Computer\nFunction\nThe ABC was designed for a specific purpose the solution of systems of simultaneous linear equations. It could handle systems with up to 29 equations, a difficult problem for the time. Problems of this scale were becoming common in physics, the department in which John Atanasoff worked. The machine could be fed two linear equations with up to 29 variables and a constant term and eliminate one of the variables. This process would be repeated manually for each of the equations, which would result in a system of equations with one fewer variable. Then the whole process would be repeated to eliminate another variable.\n\nGeorge W. Snedecor, the head of Iowa State's Statistics Department, was very likely the first user of an electronic digital computer to solve real-world mathematics problems. He submitted many of these problems to Atanasoff.\nPatent dispute\nOn June 26, 1947, J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly were the first to file for patent on a digital computing device (ENIAC), much to the surprise of Atanasoff. The ABC had been examined by John Mauchly in June 1941, and Isaac Auerbach, a former student of Mauchly's, alleged that it influenced his later work on ENIAC, although Mauchly denied this. The ENIAC patent did not issue until 1964, and by 1967 Honeywell sued Sperry Rand in an attempt to break the ENIAC patents, arguing that the ABC constituted prior art. The United States District Court for the District of Minnesota released its judgement on October 19, 1973, finding in Honeywell v. Sperry Rand that the ENIAC patent was a derivative of John Atanasoff's invention.\n\nCampbell-Kelly and Aspray conclude:\n\nThe case was legally resolved on October 19, 1973, when U.S. District Judge Earl R. Larson held the ENIAC patent invalid, ruling that the ENIAC derived many basic ideas from the Atanasoff–Berry computer. Judge Larson explicitly stated:\n\nHerman Goldstine, one of the original developers of ENIAC wrote:\nReplica\nThe original ABC was eventually dismantled in 1948, when the university converted the basement to classrooms, and all of its pieces except for one memory drum were discarded.\n\nIn 1997, a team of researchers led by Delwyn Bluhm and John Gustafson from Ames Laboratory (located on the Iowa State University campus) finished building a working replica of the Atanasoff–Berry computer at a cost of $350,000 (equivalent to $ in ). The replica ABC was on display in the first floor lobby of the Durham Center for Computation and Communication at Iowa State University and was subsequently exhibited at the Computer History Museum.\nSee also\nHistory of computing hardware\nList of vacuum-tube computers\nMikhail Kravchuk\nReferencesBibliography\nExternal links\nThe Birth of the ABC\nReconstruction of the ABC, 1994-1997\nJohn Gustafson, Reconstruction of the Atanasoff-Berry Computer\nThe ENIAC patent trial\nHoneywell v. Sperry Rand Records, 1846-1973, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.\nThe Atanasoff-Berry Computer In Operation (YouTube)","text_chars":10869,"text_sha256":"fcd0678219b8a4ff78cd9c86c749db02ecedcbe33e3a82c87dc273669bba0a7f","text_utf8_bytes":10885,"title":"Atanasoff–Berry computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atanasoff%E2%80%93Berry_computer","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"7adeb08420bd0bf303d24b3e30fc61200dd894881433ce9bdec7538a2ae276fe"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1924&action=history","id":"1924","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":14907,"raw_text_sha256":"ee069c3d5c8e9bd634f5b5336427a1ebd765a1d11263218b1c355ec33c6cafb0","raw_text_utf8_bytes":14938,"revision_id":"1358754405","revision_timestamp":"2026-06-10T18:57:30Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1358754405","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Argo Navis (the Ship Argo), or simply Argo, is one of Ptolemy's 48 constellations, now a grouping of three IAU constellations. It was formerly a single large constellation in the southern sky. The genitive is \"Argus Navis\", abbreviated \"Arg\". John Flamsteed and other early modern astronomers called it Navis (the Ship), genitive \"Navis\", abbreviated \"Nav\".\n\nThe constellation proved to be of unwieldy size, as it was 28% larger than the next largest constellation and had more than 160 easily visible stars. The 1755 catalogue of Nicolas Louis de Lacaille divided it into the three modern constellations that occupy much of the same area: Carina (the keel), Puppis (the poop deck or stern), and Vela (the sails).\n\nArgo derived from the ship Argo in Greek mythology, sailed by Jason and the Argonauts to Colchis in search of the Golden Fleece. Some stars of Puppis and Vela can be seen from Mediterranean latitudes in winter and spring, the ship appearing to skim along the \"river of the Milky Way.\" The precession of the equinoxes has caused the position of the stars from Earth's viewpoint to shift southward. Though most of the constellation was visible in Classical times, the constellation is now not easily visible from most of the northern hemisphere. All the stars of Argo Navis are easily visible from the tropics southward and pass near zenith from southern temperate latitudes. The brightest of these is Canopus (α Carinae), the second-brightest night-time star, now assigned to Carina.\nHistory\nDevelopment of the Greek constellation\nArgo Navis is known from Greek texts, which derived it from Egypt around 1000 BC. Plutarch attributed it to the Egyptian \"Boat of Osiris.\" Some academics theorized a Sumerian origin related to the Epic of Gilgamesh, a hypothesis rejected for lack of evidence that Mesopotamian cultures considered these stars, or any portion of them, to form a boat.\n\nOver time, Argo became identified exclusively with the ancient Greek myth of Jason and the Argonauts. In Ptolemy's Almagest, Argo Navis occupies the portion of the Milky Way between Canis Major and Centaurus, with stars marking such details as the \"little shield\", the \"steering-oar\", the \"mast-holder\", and the \"stern-ornament\", which continued to be reflected in cartographic representations in celestial atlases into the nineteenth century (see below). The ship appeared to rotate about the pole sternwards, so nautically in reverse. Aratus, the Greek poet / historian living in the third century BCE, noted this backward progression writing, \"Argo by the Great Dog's [Canis Major's] tail is drawn; for hers is not a usual course, but backward turned she comes ...\".\nThe constituent modern constellations\nIn modern times, Argo Navis was considered unwieldy due to its enormous size (28% larger than Hydra, the largest modern constellation). In his 1763 star catalogue, Nicolas Louis de Lacaille explained that there were more than a hundred and sixty stars clearly visible to the naked eye in Navis. So he used the set of lowercase and uppercase Latin letters three times on portions of the constellation referred to as \"Argûs in carina\" (Carina, the keel), \"Argûs in puppi\" (Puppis, the poop deck or stern), and \"Argûs in velis\" (Vela, the sails). Lacaille replaced Bayer's designations with new ones that followed stellar magnitudes more closely, but used only a single Greek-letter sequence and described the constellation for those stars as \"Argûs\". Similarly, faint unlettered stars were listed only as in \"Argûs\".\n\nThe final breakup and abolition of Argo Navis was proposed by Sir John Herschel in 1841 and again in 1844. Despite this, the constellation remained in use in parallel with its constituent parts into the 20th century. In 1922, along with the other constellations, it received a three-letter abbreviation: Arg. The breakup and relegation to a former constellation occurred in 1930 when the IAU defined the 88 modern constellations, formally instituting Carina, Puppis, and Vela, and declaring Argo obsolete. Lacaille's designations were kept in the offspring, so Carina has α, β, and ε; Vela has γ and δ; Puppis has ζ; and so on. As a result of this breakup, Argo Navis is the only one of Ptolemy's 48 constellations that is no longer officially recognized as a single constellation.\n\nIn addition, the constellation Pyxis (the mariner's compass) occupies an area near what in antiquity was considered part of Argo's mast. Some recent authors state that the compass was part of the ship, but magnetic compasses were unknown in ancient Greek times. Lacaille considered it a separate constellation representing a modern scientific instrument (like Microscopium and Telescopium), that he created for maps of the stars of the southern hemisphere. Pyxis was listed among his 14 new constellations. In 1844, John Herschel suggested formalizing the mast as a new constellation, Malus, to replace Lacaille's Pyxis, but the idea did not catch on. Similarly, an earlier effort by Edmond Halley to detach the \"cloud of mist\" at the prow of Argo Navis to form a new constellation named (\"the Caroline Oak\") or (\"Charles's Oak\") in honor of the Royal Oak once used by his patron King Charles II was ultimately unsuccessful.\nRepresentations in other cultures\nIn Vedic period astronomy, which drew its zodiac signs and many constellations from the period of the Indo-Greek Kingdom, Indian observers saw the asterism as a boat.\n\nThe Māori had several names for the constellation, including Te Waka-o-Tamarereti (the canoe of Tamarereti), Te Kohi-a-Autahi (an expression meaning \"cold of autumn settling down on land and water\"), and Te Kohi.\nSee also\nAsterism (astronomy)\nList of stars in Argo Navis\nFootnotesReferencesExternal links\nStarry Night Photography : Argo Navis Image\nIan Ridpath's Star Tales – Argo Navis\nWarburg Institute Iconographic Database – Argo (Navis) (medieval and early modern images of Argo Navis)","text_chars":5920,"text_sha256":"548cbdbb71e033f767a380917e32cc78e74c97744982650d826448ecd2da1874","text_utf8_bytes":5937,"title":"Argo Navis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argo_Navis","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"8d1a5efe85acb8c65fcebdc7e76bd42f4d79aa69322362aa1bda0ba5a30ad60b"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2179&action=history","id":"2179","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":21879,"raw_text_sha256":"d82a2e8fbf7e128d6791a384b0d4b078fad40503e935bdea0e5156513bece01f","raw_text_utf8_bytes":21957,"revision_id":"1351021202","revision_timestamp":"2026-04-25T13:19:59Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1351021202","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"An autobiography, sometimes informally called an autobio, is a self-written account of one's own life, providing a personal narrative that reflects on the author's experiences, memories, and insights. This genre allows individuals to share their unique perspectives and stories, offering readers a glimpse into the author's personal journey and the historical or cultural context in which they lived.\n\nThe term \"autobiography\" was first used in 1797, but the practice of writing about one's life dates back to antiquity. Early examples include Saint Augustine's Confessions , which is considered one of the first Western autobiographies. Unlike biographies, which are written by someone else, autobiographies are based on the author's memory and personal interpretation of events, making them inherently subjective. This subjectivity can sometimes lead to inaccuracies or embellishments, as the author may recall events differently or choose to present them in a certain light.\n\nAutobiographies can take various forms, including memoirs, spiritual autobiographies, and fictional autobiographies. Memoirs typically focus on specific memories or themes from the author's life, rather than providing a comprehensive account. Spiritual autobiographies, such as Augustine's Confessions, detail the author's religious journey and spiritual growth. Fictional autobiographies, on the other hand, are novels written in the first person, presenting a fictional character's life as if it were an autobiography.\nDefinition\nThe word \"autobiography\" was first used deprecatingly by William Taylor in 1797 in the English periodical The Monthly Review, when he suggested the word as a hybrid, but condemned it as \"pedantic\". However, its next recorded use was in its present sense, by Robert Southey in 1809. Despite only being named early in the nineteenth century, first-person autobiographical writing originates in antiquity. Roy Pascal differentiates autobiography from the periodic self-reflective mode of journal or diary writing by noting that \"[autobiography] is a review of a life from a particular moment in time, while the diary, however reflective it may be, moves through a series of moments in time\". Autobiography thus takes stock of the autobiographer's life from the moment of composition. While biographers generally rely on a wide variety of documents and viewpoints, autobiography may be based entirely on the writer's memory. The memoir form is closely associated with autobiography but it tends, as Pascal claims, to focus less on the self and more on others during the autobiographer's review of their own life.\n\nAutobiographical works are by nature subjective. The inability—or unwillingness—of the author to accurately recall memories has in certain cases resulted in misleading or incorrect information. Some sociologists and psychologists have noted that autobiography offers the author the ability to recreate history.\nRelated forms\nSpiritual autobiography\nSpiritual autobiography is an account of an author's struggle or journey towards God, followed by conversion a religious conversion, often interrupted by moments of regression. The author re-frames their life as a demonstration of divine intention through encounters with the Divine. The earliest example of a spiritual autobiography is Augustine's Confessions though the tradition has expanded to include other religious traditions in works such as Mohandas Gandhi's An Autobiography and Black Elk's Black Elk Speaks. Deliverance from Error by Al-Ghazali is another example. The spiritual autobiography often serves as an endorsement of the writer's religion.\nMemoirs\nA memoir is slightly different in character from an autobiography. While an autobiography typically focuses on the \"life and times\" of the writer, a memoir has a narrower, more intimate focus on the author's memories, feelings and emotions. Memoirs have often been written by politicians or military leaders as a way to record and publish an account of their public exploits. One early example is that of Julius Caesar's Commentarii de Bello Gallico, also known as Commentaries on the Gallic Wars. In the work, Caesar describes the battles that took place during the nine years that he spent fighting local armies in the Gallic Wars. His second memoir, Commentarii de Bello Civili (or Commentaries on the Civil War) is an account of the events that took place between 49 and 48 BC in the civil war against Gnaeus Pompeius and the Senate.\n\nLeonor López de Córdoba (1362–1420) wrote what is supposed to be the first autobiography in Spanish. The English Civil War (1642–1651) provoked a number of examples of this genre, including works by Sir Edmund Ludlow and Sir John Reresby. French examples from the same period include the memoirs of Cardinal de Retz (1614–1679) and the Duc de Saint-Simon.\nFictional autobiography\nThe term \"fictional autobiography\" signifies novels about a fictional character written as though the character were writing their own autobiography, meaning that the character is the first-person narrator and that the novel addresses both internal and external experiences of the character. Daniel Defoe's Moll Flanders is an early example. Charles Dickens' David Copperfield is another such classic, and J.D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye is a well-known modern example of fictional autobiography. Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre is yet another example of fictional autobiography, as noted on the front page of the original version. The term may also apply to works of fiction purporting to be autobiographies of real characters, e.g., Robert Nye's Memoirs of Lord Byron.\nHistoryThe classical period: Apologia, oration, confession\nIn antiquity such works were typically entitled apologia, purporting to be self-justification rather than self-documentation. The title of John Henry Newman's 1864 Christian confessional work Apologia Pro Vita Sua refers to this tradition.\n\nThe historian Flavius Josephus introduces his autobiography Josephi Vita with self-praise, which is followed by a justification of his actions as a Jewish rebel commander of Galilee.\n\nThe rhetor Libanius (–394) framed his life memoir Oration I (begun in 374) as one of his orations, not of a public kind, but of a literary kind that would not be read aloud in privacy.\n\nAugustine of Hippo (354–430) applied the title Confessions to his autobiographical work, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau used the same title in the 18th century, initiating the chain of confessional and sometimes racy and highly self-critical autobiographies of the Romantic era and beyond. Augustine's was arguably the first Western autobiography ever written, and became an influential model for Christian writers throughout the Middle Ages. It tells of the hedonistic lifestyle Augustine lived for a time within his youth, associating with young men who boasted of their sexual exploits; his following and leaving of the anti-sex and anti-marriage Manichaeism in attempts to seek sexual morality; and his subsequent return to Christianity due to his embracement of Skepticism and the New Academy movement (developing the view that sex is good, and that virginity is better, comparing the former to silver and the latter to gold; Augustine's views subsequently strongly influenced Western theology). Confessions is considered one of the great masterpieces of western literature.\n\nPeter Abelard's 12th-century Historia Calamitatum is in the spirit of Augustine's Confessions, an outstanding autobiographical document of its period.\nEarly autobiographies\nIn the 15th century, Leonor López de Córdoba, a Spanish noblewoman, wrote her Memorias, which may be the first autobiography in Castillian.\n\nZāhir ud-Dīn Mohammad Bābur, who founded the Mughal dynasty of South Asia, kept a journal Bāburnāma (Chagatai/; literally: \"Book of Babur\" or \"Letters of Babur\") which was written between 1493 and 1529.\n\nOne of the first great autobiographies of the Renaissance is that of the sculptor and goldsmith Benvenuto Cellini (1500–1571), written between 1556 and 1558, and entitled by him simply Vita (Italian: Life). He declares at the start: \"No matter what sort he is, everyone who has to his credit what are or really seem great achievements, if he cares for truth and goodness, ought to write the story of his own life in his own hand; but no one should venture on such a splendid undertaking before he is over forty.\" These criteria for autobiography generally persisted until recent times, and most serious autobiographies of the next three hundred years conformed to them.\n\nAnother autobiography of the period is De vita propria, by the Italian mathematician, physician and astrologer Gerolamo Cardano (1574).\n\nOne of the first autobiographies written in an Indian language was Ardhakathānaka, written by Banarasidas, who was a Shrimal Jain businessman and poet of Mughal India. The poetic autobiography Ardhakathānaka (The Half Story), was composed in Braj Bhasa, an early dialect of Hindi linked with the region around Mathura.In his autobiography, he describes his transition from an unruly youth, to a religious realization by the time the work was composed. The work also is notable for many details of life in Mughal times.\n\nThe earliest known autobiography written in English is the Book of Margery Kempe, written in 1438. Following in the earlier tradition of a life story told as an act of Christian witness, the book describes Margery Kempe's pilgrimages to the Holy Land and Rome, her attempts to negotiate a celibate marriage with her husband, and most of all her religious experiences as a Christian mystic. Extracts from the book were published in the early sixteenth century but the whole text was published for the first time only in 1936.\n\nPossibly the first publicly available autobiography written in English was Captain John Smith's autobiography published in 1630 which was regarded by many as not much more than a collection of tall tales told by someone of doubtful veracity. This changed with the publication of Philip Barbour's definitive biography in 1964 which, amongst other things, established independent factual basis for many of Smith's \"tall tales\", many of which could not have been known by Smith at the time of writing unless he was actually present at the events recounted.\n\nOther notable English autobiographies of the 17th century include those of Lord Herbert of Cherbury (1643, published 1764) and John Bunyan (Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners, 1666).\n\nJarena Lee (1783–1864) was the first African American woman to have a published biography in the United States.\n18th and 19th centuries\nFollowing the trend of Romanticism, which greatly emphasized the role and the nature of the individual, and in the footsteps of Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Confessions, a more intimate form of autobiography, exploring the subject's emotions, came into fashion. Stendhal's autobiographical writings of the 1830s, The Life of Henry Brulard and Memoirs of an Egotist, are both avowedly influenced by Rousseau. An English example is William Hazlitt's Liber Amoris (1823), a painful examination of the writer's love-life.\n\nWith the rise of education, cheap newspapers and cheap printing, modern concepts of fame and celebrity began to develop, and the beneficiaries of this were not slow to cash in on this by producing autobiographies. It became the expectation—rather than the exception—that those in the public eye should write about themselves—not only writers such as Charles Dickens (who also incorporated autobiographical elements in his novels) and Anthony Trollope, but also politicians (e.g. Henry Brooks Adams), philosophers (e.g. John Stuart Mill), churchmen such as Cardinal Newman, and entertainers such as P. T. Barnum. Increasingly, in accordance with romantic taste, these accounts also began to deal, amongst other topics, with aspects of childhood and upbringing—far removed from the principles of \"Cellinian\" autobiography.\n20th and 21st centuries\nFrom the 17th century onwards, \"scandalous memoirs\" by supposed libertines, serving a public taste for titillation, have been frequently published. Typically pseudonymous, they were (and are) largely works of fiction written by ghostwriters. So-called \"autobiographies\" of modern professional athletes and media celebrities—and to a lesser extent about politicians—generally written by a ghostwriter, are routinely published. Some celebrities, such as Naomi Campbell, admit to not having read their \"autobiographies\". Some sensationalist autobiographies such as James Frey's A Million Little Pieces have been publicly exposed as having embellished or fictionalized significant details of the authors' lives.\n\nAutobiography has become an increasingly popular and widely accessible form. A Fortunate Life by Albert Facey (1979) has become an Australian literary classic. With the critical and commercial success in the United States of such memoirs as Angela’s Ashes and The Color of Water, more and more people have been encouraged to try their hand at this genre. Maggie Nelson's book The Argonauts is one of the recent autobiographies. Maggie Nelson calls it autotheory—a combination of autobiography and critical theory.\n\nA genre where the \"claim for truth\" overlaps with fictional elements though the work still purports to be autobiographical is autofiction.\nSee also\n:Category:Autobiographies\nAlphabiography\nAutobiographical memory\nI-novel\nJournal therapy\nLetter collection\nList of autobiographies\nReflective writing\nUnreliable narrator\nWriting therapy\nPersonal Archiving\nNotesReferencesBibliography\nExternal links","text_chars":13609,"text_sha256":"e392dcfed7d4d57ec727033b86d9053fe6ffbb288edbd7e08ac9192f2783a228","text_utf8_bytes":13655,"title":"Autobiography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autobiography","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"21eaa7a04680e28121ea8eaeb5c8e44b702f5869b7f2242464ba02e97e077b3d"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2129&action=history","id":"2129","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":55592,"raw_text_sha256":"1914f98a557134e84ef691fcbfb7b5654b6b968cacf9a0777f7a60121ee22494","raw_text_utf8_bytes":55769,"revision_id":"1367574188","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-03T22:35:43Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1367574188","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"The Arizona Diamondbacks (often referred to as the D-backs) are an American professional baseball team based in Phoenix, Arizona. The Diamondbacks compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the National League (NL) West Division. The franchise was established on March 9, 1995 and began play in 1998 as an expansion team. The team plays its home games at Chase Field. Along with the Tampa Bay Rays, the Diamondbacks are one of the newest teams in MLB and are the youngest team to win a World Series, doing so in only their fourth season of existence in 2001.\n\nAfter a fifth-place finish in their inaugural season, the Diamondbacks made several off-season acquisitions, including future Hall of Fame pitcher Randy Johnson, who won four consecutive Cy Young Awards in his first four seasons with the team. In 1999, Arizona won 100 games and their first division championship. In 2001, they won the World Series over the three-time defending champion New York Yankees, becoming the fastest expansion team in MLB history to win the World Series and the first and only men's major professional sports team in Arizona to win a championship. 22 years later they won their second NLCS and returned to the World Series, losing to the Texas Rangers.\n\nFrom 1998 to 2025, the Diamondbacks had an overall record of .\nHistory\nOn March 9, 1995, Phoenix was awarded an expansion franchise to begin play for the season. A $130 million franchise fee was paid to Major League Baseball (MLB). On January 16, 1997, owners of existing MLB teams voted to put the Diamondbacks in the National League. The Diamondbacks' first major league game was played against the Colorado Rockies on March 31, 1998, at Bank One Ballpark. The ballpark was renamed Chase Field in 2005, as a result of Bank One's merger with JPMorgan Chase.\n\nSince their debut, the Diamondbacks have won two Wild Card Series, five NL West division titles, two NL pennants, and the 2001 World Series. They were the fastest expansion franchise in baseball history to win a World Series after defeating the Yankees in Game 7 during the 2001 postseason.\n\nAfter beating the Philadelphia Phillies 4–2 in Game 7 of the 2023 NLCS at Citizens Bank Park in Philadelphia, the Diamondbacks returned to the World Series for the first time since 2001 – against the Texas Rangers on October 27, 2023.\nThey lost the series 4–1, with the clinching Game 5 loss at home in Arizona on November 1, 2023.\nLogos and uniforms1998–2006\nThe Diamondbacks' original colors were purple, black, teal, and copper. Their logo was an italicized block letter \"A\" with a diamond pattern, with the crossbar represented by a snake's tongue. This period saw the Diamondbacks wear several uniform combinations.\n\nAt home, the Diamondbacks wore cream uniforms with purple pinstripes. The primary sleeved uniform, worn from 1998 to 2000, featured the full team name (\"Diamond\" and \"Backs\" stacked together) in front and chest numbers. The alternate sleeveless version contained the \"A\" logo on the right chest and was paired with purple undershirts. Before the 2001 season, the sleeved uniform was changed to feature the \"A\" logo. In all three uniforms, player names were teal with purple trim, and numbers were purple with white with teal trim.\n\nThe Diamondbacks' primary road gray uniform also had purple pinstripes. The first version featured \"Arizona\" in purple with white and teal trim along with black drop shadows, with chest numbers added. Player names were in purple with white trim, and numbers were teal with white and purple trim. In 2001, the uniform became sleeveless with black undershirts, and the lettering scheme was changed to purple with white, copper, and black accents.\n\nThe alternate home purple uniform featured \"Arizona\" in teal with white and copper trim and black drop shadows. The letters were rendered in teal with copper and white trim, but were changed to copper with teal and white trim after only one season. This set was worn until 2002.\n\nThe alternate road black uniform featured the \"A\" logo on the right chest, while letters were purple with white trim and numbers were teal with white and purple trim. A zigzag pattern of teal, copper, and purple was featured on the sleeves. In 2001, the uniform was changed to feature \"Arizona\" in front. The letters became purple with white and copper trim.\n\nThe Diamondbacks initially wore four different cap versions. The primary home cap is all-purple, while the road cap is black with a teal brim. They also wore a cream cap with purple brim and a teal cap with purple brim. All designs featured the primary \"A\" logo. In 1999, the road cap became all-black and contained the alternate \"D-snake\" logo rendered in copper. Also, the teal and cream alternate caps were dropped.\n\nThe left sleeve of all four uniforms contained the snake logo with the full team name until the 2004 season, when it became exclusive to the road black uniform.\n2007–2015\nThe franchise unveiled new uniforms and colors of Sedona red, Sonoran sand, and black on November 8, 2006. The red shade is named for the sandstone canyon at Red Rock State Park near Sedona, while the beige (sand) shade is named for the Sonoran Desert. A sleeve patch was added featuring a lowercase \"d\" and \"b\" configured to look like a snake's head. The team also kept the \"D\" logo, which was slightly altered and put on an all-red cap to be used as their game cap. They kept the \"A\" logo with the new colors applied to it, with a solid black cap used as the alternate cap. Arizona's updated color scheme bore a striking resemblance to the Houston Astros' color scheme (brick red, sand, and black) that the Astros used until 2012, as well as the NHL's Phoenix Coyotes, whose adoption of those colors predated the Diamondbacks by four years.\n\nThe white home uniform featured \"D-Backs\" in red with sand and black trim. The road gray uniform featured \"Arizona\" in red with sand and black trim. Player names were red with black trim while numbers were black with red trim.\n\nThe alternate red uniform contained \"D-Backs\" in sand with red and black trim, with player names in sand with black trim and numbers in black with sand trim.\n\nThere were two versions of the alternate black uniform. One design has the alternate \"A\" logo on the right chest, while the other has \"Arizona\" written in red with black and sand trim. The latter was introduced in 2013 as a tribute to the victims of the Yarnell Hill Fire. On both uniforms, player names were sand with red trim and numbers in red with sand trim.\n2016–2023\nBefore the 2016 season, the Diamondbacks reincorporated teal into its color scheme while keeping Sedona Red, Sonoran Sand, and black. They also unveiled eight different uniform combinations, including two separate home white and away grey uniforms. One major difference between the two sets is that the non-teal uniforms feature a snakeskin pattern on the shoulders, while the teal-trimmed uniforms include a charcoal/grey snakeskin pattern on the back. Arizona also kept the throwback pinstriped sleeveless uniforms from their 2001 championship season for use during Thursday home games.\n\nStarting with the 2020 season, the Diamondbacks made slight redesigns to their uniforms. The snakeskin patterns were removed while the teal-trimmed grey uniforms were retired. The team also reverted to a standard grey uniform after wearing a darker shade on the previous set. Two home white uniforms remain in use: the primary Sedona Red and the alternate teal. They would also wear two black uniforms: one with the primary \"A\" logo on the left chest and the other with \"Los D-Backs\" trimmed in teal. Three cap designs were also unveiled, all with a black base: the primary \"A\" cap, the teal-trimmed \"snake\" cap (paired exclusively on the teal alternates), and the sand-trimmed \"snake\" cap with red brim (paired exclusively on the Sedona Red alternates). The Nike swoosh logo is also placed on the right chest near the shoulder. In 2022, the Diamondbacks introduced a red \"A\" cap with black brim.\n\nIn 2021, the Diamondbacks were one of seven teams to wear Nike \"City Connect\" uniforms. The design is primarily sand and has \"Serpientes\" in black script lettering emblazoned in front. The first \"S\" in \"Serpientes\" was shaped to resemble a rattlesnake. The right sleeve has the flag of Arizona patch recolored to the Diamondbacks' red, sand, and black scheme, and the left sleeve has the \"A\" logo recolored to black and sand. Numerals are in red. The cap is primarily sand with black brim and has the \"A\" logo in black and sand; the regular batting helmet is used with the uniform. Initially, the Diamondbacks wore white pants with this uniform, but has since switched to sand pants.\n\nBefore the 2023 season, the Diamondbacks promoted the alternate white uniform with teal accents to its primary home uniform and retired the previous Sedona Red white uniform. This is due to a new Nike rule that limits teams to four regular uniforms plus the \"City Connect\" uniform.\n2024 to present\nComing off their second World Series appearance in , the Diamondbacks unveiled refreshed uniform designs starting in 2024. Turquoise returned full-time as an accent color on all uniforms along with Sedona red and black, but sand was removed except on the \"City Connect\" uniform. The home uniform is now a cream base with black piping, featuring the \"A\" logo on the left chest. The road grey uniform with black piping featured \"Arizona\" in Sedona red with teal and black outlines. The alternate black uniform with teal piping shared the same features as the home uniform. The alternate Sedona red uniform incorporated the full \"Diamondbacks\" wordmark in black with teal and Sedona red outlines, along with teal numbers trimmed in black on the left chest. All uniforms featured the snake head alternate logo on either sleeve, with the sponsor logo (Avnet since 2023) on the other sleeve. The home cap is Sedona red with black brim and featured the \"A\" logo, and its all-black counterpart is worn with both the home and black alternate uniform. The road cap is black with Sedona red trim and featured the return of the \"D-snake\" logo and is worn with both the road and alternate Sedona red uniform. The all-Sedona red alternate cap shared the same features as the road cap and is worn with the Sedona red uniform.\n\nIn 2025, the Diamondbacks released a second \"City Connect\" uniform, updating the \"Serpientes\" wordmark but recolored to the original purple and teal colors. The uniforms take designs from all their different uniform combinations since they became a franchise in 1998. The jersey pays tribute to the original jersey with the Heritage Pinstripes worn from 1998−2006 as well as its “evolutionary jersey” from 2016−2019 by blending pinstripes with a snakeskin pattern. The jersey still features the word \"Serpientes\" with the \"S\" remaining the same from their previous version of their city connect, with the rest being a new design. The faux sleeves pay tribute to the 2001 World Series-winning team, which featured sleeveless jerseys that had a different colored sleeve. The sleeves also feature the Flag of Arizona on one sleeve, the state outline with a baseball silhouette and the year 1998, the founding year of the club, plus features a light color of teal in the shape of 48, as Arizona is the 48th state in the union. The trim on the sleeve is in teal and was used on the team uniform from 1998−2006, which is in the shape of a Diamondback Rattlesnake skin. The collar features the phrase \"Arizona Born\", pays tribute to the team's home state. The cap is in the original purple and has a teal brim that features the \"S\" Serpientes logo.\nRegular season home attendanceRadio and television\nOn July 18, 2023, a federal bankruptcy court granted Bally Sports' parent company Diamond Sports Group a motion to decline its contract with the Diamondbacks as part of its chapter 11 bankruptcy. As a result, Major League Baseball's local media division assumed production of the Diamondbacks' regional telecasts (maintaining staff such as commentators) and distributed them via local television providers and MLB.tv. As of 2024, these games are branded as DBacks.TV. Games air on the following cable providers and networks:\nCox (Phoenix) (CH. 34)\nCox (Tucson) (CH. 26)\nCox (Las Vegas) (YurView Las Vegas)\nDirecTV/DirecTV Stream (CH. 686)\nCharter (CH. 304 or CH. 444)\nXfinity/Comcast (CH. 1261)\nFuboTV\n\nThe primary television play-by-play voice for the team's first nine seasons of play was Thom Brennaman, who also broadcast baseball and college football games nationally for Fox Television. Brennaman was the TV announcer for the Chicago Cubs and Cincinnati Reds (along with his father Marty Brennaman) before being hired by Diamondbacks founder Jerry Colangelo in 1996, two years before the team would begin play.\n\nIn October 2006, Brennaman left the Diamondbacks to call games with his father for the Reds beginning in 2007, signing a four-year deal.\n\nOn November 1, 2006, the team announced that the TV voice of the Milwaukee Brewers since 2002, Daron Sutton, would be hired as the Diamondbacks primary TV play-by-play voice. Sutton signed a five-year contract with a team option for three more years. Sutton's signature chants included \"let's get some runs\" when the D-backs trail in late innings.\n\nFormer Diamondbacks and Cubs first baseman Mark Grace and knuckleballer Tom Candiotti were the Diamondbacks primary color analysts for the 2006 and 2007 seasons. Former Diamondbacks third baseman Matt Williams also did color commentary on occasion, as did Cardinals and NBC broadcast legend Joe Garagiola, a longtime Phoenix-area resident and father of Joe Garagiola Jr., the first GM of the Diamondbacks.\n\nThe Diamondbacks announced in July 2007 that for the 2008 season, all regionally broadcast Diamondbacks TV games would be shown exclusively on Fox Sports Arizona (subsequently Bally Sports Arizona) and a few could possibly be shown on the national MLB on Fox telecasts. Bally Sports Arizona is seen in 2.8 million households in Arizona and New Mexico. The previous flagship station since the inaugural 1998 season was KTVK (Channel 3), a popular over-the-air independent station (and former longtime ABC affiliate) in Phoenix.\n\nFrom 2009 to 2012, Grace and Sutton were tagged as the main broadcasters of the Diamondbacks with pre-game and postgame shows on Fox Sports Arizona, being hosted by Joe Borowski.\n\nOn June 21, 2012, Sutton was suspended indefinitely amid rumors of insubordination. On August 24, the team announced that Grace had requested an indefinite leave of absence after being arrested for his second DUI in less than two years. Grace was later indicted on four DUI counts.) For the remainder of the 2012 season, Sutton was replaced by Greg Schulte (Jeff Munn replaced Schulte on the radio broadcast) and Grace was replaced by Luis Gonzalez. At the end of the 2012 season, the team announced that neither Sutton nor Grace would return for the 2013 season.\n\nOn October 18, 2012, the team announced that Bob Brenly would return as a broadcaster to replace Grace and that he would be joined by then-ESPN personality Steve Berthiaume.\n\nThe English language flagship radio station is KTAR. Greg Schulte was the regular radio play-by-play voice, a 25-year veteran of sports radio in the Phoenix market, also well known for his previous work on Phoenix Suns, Arizona Cardinals, and Arizona State University (ASU) broadcasts. It was announced in February 2023 that he would be retiring after the 2023 MLB season. He would call games with analyst Tom Candiotti.\n\nJeff Munn served as a backup radio play-by-play announcer until 2016; he served as the regular public address announcer at Chase Field in the early days of the franchise. He previously served as the public address announcer for the Suns in the 1990s at what became Footprint Center. He is also the play-by-play radio voice for ASU women's basketball. Mike Ferrin served in the same role for six years before parting ways with the team, and he was replaced by Chris Garagiola in December 2021.\nSpanish broadcasts\nThe flagship Spanish language radio station is KHOV-FM 105.1 with Oscar Soria, Rodrigo López, and Richard Saenz.\n\nGames were televised in Spanish on KPHE-LP with Oscar Soria and Jerry Romo as the announcers, but this arrangement ended prior to the 2009 season due to the team switching fully to Fox Sports Arizona and the lack of carriage of KPHE-LP on the Cox cable system.\nAchievementsBaseball Hall of FamersFord C. Frick Award recipientsArizona Sports Hall of Fame\nFile:Luis Gonzalez by Gage Skidmore.jpg|thumb|upright|OF Luis Gonzalez (1999–2006)\nArizona Diamondbacks Hall of FameAward winnersCy Young Award\nRandy Johnson – 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002\nBrandon Webb – 2006\nNL Rookie of the Year Award\nCorbin Carroll – 2023\nNL Manager of the Year Award\nBob Melvin – 2007\nKirk Gibson – 2011\nTorey Lovullo – 2017\nHank Aaron Award\nPaul Goldschmidt – 2013\nRoberto Clemente Award\nCurt Schilling – 2001\nAll-time leadersHitting\nGames played: Luis Gonzalez (1999–2006) – 1,194\nAt bats: Luis Gonzalez – 4,488\nHits: Luis Gonzalez – 1,337\nBatting average: Luis Gonzalez – .289\nRuns: Luis Gonzalez – 780\nDoubles: Luis Gonzalez – 310\nTriples: Corbin Carroll – 55\nHome runs: Luis Gonzalez – 224\nRuns batted in: Luis Gonzalez – 774\nOn-base percentage: Paul Goldschmidt* – .398\nWalks: Paul Goldschmidt* – 655\nStrikeouts: Paul Goldschmidt* – 1,059\nSlugging percentage: Paul Goldschmidt* – .532\nStolen bases: Tony Womack – 182\nPitching\nERA: Randy Johnson (1999–2004, 2007–08) – 2.83\nWins: Randy Johnson – 118\nLosses: Randy Johnson/Brandon Webb (2003–10) – 62\nGames: Andrew Chafin* – 380\nSaves: José Valverde – 98\nInnings: Randy Johnson – 1630.1\nStarts: Randy Johnson – 232\nStrikeouts: Randy Johnson – 2,077\nComplete games: Randy Johnson – 38\nShutouts: Randy Johnson – 14\nWHIP: Curt Schilling – 1.04\nAll stats are as of February 8, 2025, from the Arizona Diamondbacks website.\nsignifies active Major League player\nChampionshipsRetired numbers\nNo. 42 was retired throughout Major League Baseball in 1997 to honor Jackie Robinson.\nSeason recordRosterRivalries\nLos Angeles Dodgers\nThe rivalry between the Diamondbacks and the Los Angeles Dodgers has been one of the fiercest divisional matchups for several years. Animosity between the two teams began to escalate during the 2010s in multiple incidents involving either team throwing pitches at one another or instigating into large-scale brawls between both benches. After eliminating the Diamondbacks and clinching the division on September 19, 2013, multiple Dodgers players celebrated the win by jumping into the pool at Chase Field. The two sides met during the 2017 National League Division Series as the Diamondbacks were swept 3–0 by the Dodgers en route to their appearance in the World Series that season. The Dodgers led the series 257–191 with a 3–0 lead in the postseason. After clinching the 2023 NL Wild Card berth and defeating the Milwaukee Brewers in the National League Wild Card Series, the Diamondbacks played the Dodgers again in the 2023 NLDS. There, the Diamondbacks emphatically swept the Dodgers to even the all-time postseason record between the two clubs at 3–3.\nColorado Rockies\nThe Diamondbacks developed an on-and-off rivalry with the Colorado Rockies, often attributed to both teams being the newest in the division. Colorado had joined the NL West in 1993, while the Diamondbacks are the newest team in the league, joining in 1998. The two teams have met twice in the postseason; notably during the 2007 National League Championship Series, which saw the Rockies enter the postseason as a wild card and go on to upset the division champion Diamondbacks in a sweep en route to the franchise's lone World Series appearance. The two teams met again in the 2017 National League Wild Card Game, which Arizona won.\nMinor league affiliations\nThe Arizona Diamondbacks farm system consists of seven minor league affiliates.\nSee also\nList of Arizona Diamondbacks team records\nList of Arizona Diamondbacks broadcasters\nList of managers and ownership of the Arizona Diamondbacks\nReferencesExternal links","text_chars":20163,"text_sha256":"eb250b8131e496ff0dc02c7bde81209464524d41e872d364820ea1dfaea6230f","text_utf8_bytes":20271,"title":"Arizona Diamondbacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arizona_Diamondbacks","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"b7a62ce049957ba60abb1df0fe1ed73a49168316b52c598a8b90171a3d663804"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1988&action=history","id":"1988","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":41525,"raw_text_sha256":"dcdb0bdd72a812a8f0aa947883e2c592d2e37e95bbafd56347a9126071d5aada","raw_text_utf8_bytes":41607,"revision_id":"1371851361","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-28T21:50:33Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1371851361","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Abel Janszoon Tasman (; 160310 October 1659) was a Dutch seafarer and explorer, best known for his voyages of 1642 and 1644 in the service of the Dutch East India Company (VOC). He was the first European to reach New Zealand, which he named Staten Landt. He also discovered and was the eponym of Tasmania.\n\nLikely born in 1602 or 1603 in Lutjegast, Netherlands, Tasman started his career as a merchant seaman and became a skilled navigator. In 1633, he joined the VOC and sailed to Batavia, now Jakarta, Indonesia. He participated in several voyages, including one to Japan. In 1642, Tasman was appointed by the VOC to lead an expedition to explore the uncharted regions of the southern Pacific Ocean. His mission was to discover new trade routes and to establish trade relations with the native inhabitants. After leaving Batavia, Tasman sailed westward to Mauritius, then south to the Roaring Forties, then eastward, and reached the coast of Tasmania, which he named Van Diemen's Land after his patron, Anthony van Diemen. He then sailed northeast, and was the first European to discover the west coast of New Zealand, which he named Staten Landt. It was later renamed Nieuw Zeeland, after the Dutch province of Zeeland, by Joan Blaeu, official Dutch cartographer to the Dutch East India Company.\n\nDespite his achievements, Tasman's expedition was not entirely successful. The encounter with the Māori people on the South Island of New Zealand resulted in a violent confrontation, which left four of Tasman's men dead. He returned to Batavia without having made any significant contact with the native inhabitants or establishing any trade relations. Tasman continued to serve the Dutch East India Company until his death in 1659.\n\nMore than a century later, knowledge from Tasman's expeditions was used by James Cook, leading to exploration and colonization of Australia and New Zealand by the British.\nBiography\nEarly life\nAbel Tasman was likely born in 1602 or 1603 in Lutjegast, a village in the province of Groningen. He married Claesgie Heyndrix, with whom he had a daughter named Claesjen. A proclamation of his second marriage, given in December 1631 at Amsterdam, describes him as a widower and sailor. On 27 December 1631 as a 28-year old seafarer living in Amsterdam, he married 21-year-old Jannetje Tjaers, of Palmstraat in Amsterdam.\nRelocation to the Dutch East Indies\nUneducated, but employed by the Dutch East India Company (VOC), Tasman learned navigation and seamanship on the job. In 1634, he was appointed skipper of the Mocha, and, under the command of Frans Valck, he went on a two-year voyage to the Maluku Islands.\n\nIn 1633, Tasman sailed from Texel in the Netherlands to Batavia (now Jakarta), using the southern Brouwer Route. While based in Batavia, he later joined a voyage to Seram Island, in what is now Indonesia's Maluku Province. The expedition was sent after local traders sold spices to European merchants other than the Dutch. Tasman docked to find wood for repairs and was separated from the other ships; a fight broke out with local villagers and at least two of Tasman's men were killed.\n\nBy August 1637, Tasman had returned to Amsterdam, and in 1638 he signed on for another ten years and took his wife with him to Batavia via a six-month journey. On 25 March 1638, he tried to sell his property in the Jordaan, but the purchase was cancelled.\n\nHe was second-in-command of a 1639 expedition of exploration into the north Pacific under Matthijs Quast. The fleet included the ships Engel and Gracht and reached Fort Zeelandia (Dutch Formosa) and Deshima (an artificial island off Nagasaki, Japan).\nFirst major voyage\nIn August 1642, the Council of the Indies, consisting of Antonie van Diemen, Cornelis van der Lijn, Joan Maetsuycker, Justus Schouten, Salomon Sweers, Cornelis Witsen, and Pieter Boreel in Batavia dispatched Tasman and Franchoijs Jacobszoon Visscher on a voyage of exploration to little-charted areas east of the Cape of Good Hope, west of Staten Land (near the Cape Horn of South America) and south of the Solomon Islands.\n\nOne of the objectives was to obtain knowledge of \"all the totally unknown\" Provinces of Beach. This was a purported yet phantom island said to have plentiful gold, which had appeared on European maps since the 15th century, as a result of an error in some editions of Marco Polo's works. The expedition was to use two small ships, Heemskerck and Zeehaen.\nMauritius\nTasman sailed from Batavia on 14 August 1642 and reached Mauritius 22 days later, on 5 September 1642, according to the captain's journal. On the island there was fresh water, timber for repairs, and the crew could be well fed. Tasman also received assistance from the governor, Adriaan van der Stel.\n\nMauritius was chosen as a turning point because of the prevailing winds. After staying just over four weeks, the two ships, Heemskerck and Zeehaen, left on 8 October and entered the Roaring Forties to make a fast eastward crossing. At the time, no expedition had sailed this far east. Pieter Nuyts had come closest, reaching a similar point about 15 years earlier, in 1626–27.\n\nOn 7 November, nearly a month into the crossing, snow and hail forced the ship's council to change course to the northeast, aiming instead for the Solomon Islands.\nTasmania\nOn 24 November 1642, Tasman reached and sighted the west coast of Tasmania, north of Macquarie Harbour. He named his discovery Van Diemen's Land, after Antonio van Diemen, Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies.\n\nHe tried to work his two ships into Adventure Bay on the east coast of South Bruny Island, but he was blown out to sea by a storm. This area he named Storm Bay. Two days later, on 1 December, Tasman anchored to the north of Cape Frederick Hendrick just north of the Forestier Peninsula. On 2 December, two ship's boats under the command of the Pilot, Major Visscher, rowed through the Marion Narrows into Blackman Bay, and then west to the outflow of Boomer Creek where they gathered some edible \"greens\". Tasman named the bay, Frederick Hendrik Bay, which included the present North Bay, Marion Bay and what is now Blackman Bay. (Tasman's original naming, Frederick Henrick Bay, was mistakenly transferred to its present location by Marion Dufresne in 1772). Tasman formally claimed the land on 3 December 1642.\n\nFor two more days, he continued to follow the east coast northward to see how far it went. When the land veered to the north-west at Eddystone Point, he tried to follow the coast line but his ships were suddenly hit by the Roaring Forties howling through Bass Strait. Tasman was on a mission to find the Southern Continent not more islands, so he abruptly turned away to the east and continued his continent-hunting.\nNew Zealand\nThe expedition endured a rough voyage and in one of his diary entries Tasman claimed that his compass was the only thing that had kept him alive.\n\nOn 13 December 1642 Tasman and his crew became the first Europeans to reach New Zealand when they sighted the north-west coast of the South Island. Tasman named it Staten Landt \"in honour of the States General\" (Dutch parliament). He wrote, \"it is possible that this land joins to the Staten Landt but it is uncertain\", referring to Isla de los Estados, a landmass of the same name at the southern tip of South America, encountered by the Dutch navigator Jacob Le Maire in 1616. However, in 1643 Brouwer's expedition to Valdivia found out that Staaten Landt was separated by sea from the hypothetical Southern Land. Tasman continued: \"We believe that this is the mainland coast of the unknown Southland.\" Tasman thought he had found the western side of the long-imagined Terra Australis that stretched across the Pacific to near the southern tip of South America. On 14 December 1642, Tasman's ships anchored 7 km offshore c. 20km south of Cape Foulwind near Greymouth. The ships were observed by Māori who named a place on this coast Tiropahi (the place were a large sailing ship was seen).\n\nAfter sailing north then east for five days, the expedition anchored about from the coast off what is now Golden Bay. A group of Māori paddled out in a waka (canoe) and attacked some sailors who were rowing between the two Dutch vessels. Four sailors were clubbed to death with patu. As Tasman sailed out of the bay he observed 22 waka near the shore, of which \"eleven swarming with people came off towards us\". The waka approached the Zeehaen, which fired and hit a man in the largest waka holding a small white flag. Canister shot also hit the side of a waka. Archaeologist Ian Barber suggests that local Māori were trying to secure a cultivation field under ritual protection (tapu) where they believed the Dutch were attempting to land. December was at the mid-point of the locally important sweet potato/kūmara (Ipomoea batatas) growing season. Tasman named the area \"Murderers' Bay\".\n\nThe expedition then sailed north, sighting Cook Strait, which separates the north and south islands of New Zealand, and which it mistook for a bight and named \"Zeehaen's Bight\". Two names that the expedition gave to landmarks in the far north of New Zealand still endure: Cape Maria van Diemen and Three Kings Islands. (Kaap Pieter Boreels was renamed Cape Egmont by Captain James Cook 125 years later.)\nReturn voyage\nEn route back to Batavia, Tasman came across the Tongan archipelago on 20 January 1643. While passing the Fiji Islands Tasman's ships came close to being wrecked on the dangerous reefs of the northeastern part of the Fiji group. He charted the eastern tip of Vanua Levu and Cikobia-i-Lau before making his way back into the open sea. The expedition turned north-west towards New Guinea and arrived back in Batavia on 15 June 1643.\nSecond major voyage\nTasman left Batavia on 30 January 1644 on his second voyage with three ships: Limmen, Zeemeeuw and the tender Braek. He followed the south coast of New Guinea eastwards in an attempt to find a passage to the eastern side of New Holland. However, he missed the Torres Strait between New Guinea and Australia and continued his voyage by following the shore of the Gulf of Carpentaria westwards along the north Australian coast. He mapped the north coast of Australia, making observations on New Holland and its people. He arrived back in Batavia about seven months later, in August 1644.\n\nFrom the point of view of the Dutch East India Company, Tasman's explorations were a disappointment: he had neither found a promising area for trade nor a useful new shipping route. Although Tasman was received courteously on his return, the company was upset that Tasman had not fully explored the lands he found, and decided that a more \"persistent explorer\" should be chosen for any future expeditions. For over a century, until the era of James Cook, Tasmania and New Zealand were not visited by Europeans; mainland Australia was visited, but usually only by accident.\nLater life\nOn 2 November 1644, Abel Tasman was appointed a member of the Council of Justice in Batavia. He retired in 1653 at age fifty; at that time he owned 288 acres of land in Batavia and captained a small cargo ship, of which he was a part-owner.\n\nIn April 1657, Tasman wrote his will and testament, describing himself as ill but not bedridden. Tasman died at Batavia on 10 October 1659 at about age 56 and was survived by his second wife and a daughter by his first wife. His property was divided between his wife and his daughter. In his will, he left 25 guilders to the poor of his village, Lutjegast.\n\nAlthough Tasman's pilot, Frans Visscher, published Memoir concerning the discovery of the South land in 1642, Tasman's detailed journal was not published until 1898. Nevertheless, some of his charts and maps were in general circulation and used by subsequent explorers. The journal signed by Abel Tasman of the 1642 voyage is held in the Dutch National Archives at The Hague.\nLegacy\nTasman's ten-month voyage in 1642–43 had significant consequences. By circumnavigating Australia (albeit at a distance) Tasman proved that the small fifth continent was not joined to any larger sixth continent, such as the long-imagined Southern Continent. Further, Tasman's suggestion that New Zealand was the western side of that Southern Continent was seized upon by many European cartographers who, for the next century, depicted New Zealand as the west coast of a Terra Australis rising gradually from the waters around Tierra del Fuego. This theory was eventually disproved when Captain Cook circumnavigated New Zealand in 1769.\n\nMultiple places have been named after Tasman, including:\nThe Australian island and state of Tasmania, renamed after him, formerly Van Diemen's land. It includes features such as:\nThe Tasman Peninsula.\nThe Tasman Bridge.\nThe Tasman Highway.\nThe Tasman Sea.\nIn New Zealand:\nThe Tasman Glacier.\nTasman Lake.\nThe Tasman River.\nMount Tasman.\nThe Abel Tasman National Park.\nTasman Bay.\nThe Tasman District.\nAbel Tasman Monument.\n\nAlso named after Tasman are:\nTasman Pulp and Paper company, a large pulp and paper producer in Kawerau, New Zealand.\nAbel Tasman Drive, in Tākaka.\nThe former passenger/vehicle ferry Abel Tasman.\nThe Able Tasmans – an indie band from Auckland, New Zealand.\nTasman, a layout engine for Internet Explorer.\n6594 Tasman (1987 MM1), a main-belt asteroid.\nTasman Drive in San Jose, California, and its Tasman light rail station, named after the Tasman Sea.\nTasman Road in Claremont, Cape Town, South Africa.\nHMNZS Tasman, shore-based training establishment of the Royal New Zealand Navy at Lyttleton in the South Island.\nHMAS Tasman is a Hunter-class frigate that is expected to enter service with the Royal Australian Navy in the late 2020s.\n\nHis portrait has been on four New Zealand postage stamp issues, on a 1992 5 NZD coin, and on 1963, 1966 and 1985 Australian postage stamps.\n\nIn the Netherlands, many streets are named after him. In Lutjegast, the village where he was born, there is a museum dedicated to his life and travels.\n\nTasman's life was dramatised for radio in Early in the Morning (1946) a play by Ruth Park.\nPortraits and depictions\nA drawing titled Abel Janssen Tasman, Navigateur en Australie is held by the State Library of New South Wales as part of \"a portfolio of 26 ink drawings of 16th and 17th century Dutch admirals, navigators and governor-generals of the VOC\". The portfolio was acquired at an art auction in The Hague in 1862. However, it is unclear if the drawing is of Tasman and its original source is unknown, although it has been said to resemble the work of Dutch engraver Jacobus Houbraken. The drawing has been assessed as having the \"most reliable provenance\" of any depiction of Tasman with \"no strong reason to doubt that the drawing is not genuine\".\n\nIn 1948, the National Library of Australia acquired from Rex Nan Kivell a portrait purporting to depict Tasman with his wife and stepdaughter, which was attributed to Jacob Gerritsz. Cuyp and dated to 1637. In 2018 the painting was exhibited by the Groninger Museum in the Netherlands which identified it as \"the only known portrait of the explorer\". However, the Netherlands Institute for Art History has instead attributed the painting to Dirck van Santvoort and concluded that the painting does not depict Tasman and his family.\n\nThe provenance provided from Nan Kivell for the family portrait has been unable to be verified. Nan Kivell claimed that the portrait was passed down through the Springer family – relatives of Tasman's widow – and was sold at Christie's in 1877. However, Christie's records indicate that the portrait was not owned by the Springer family or associated with Tasman, and was instead sold as \"Portrait of an astronomer\" by \"Anthonie Palamedes\" [sic]. Nan Kivell additionally claimed that the portrait was sold at Christie's a second time in 1941, however no records exist to support this. A survey of portraits of Tasman published in 2019 concluded that the provenance was \"either invented by Rex Nan Kivell or by the unnamed art dealer who sold it to Rex Nan Kivell\", and that the painting \"should therefore not be considered a portrait of Abel Tasman's family\".\n\nOutside of the Nan Kivell painting, another purported portrait of Tasman was \"discovered\" in 1893 and eventually acquired by the Tasmanian government in 1976 for the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery (TMAG). The painting is unsigned and was attributed to Bartholomeus van der Helst at the time of its discovery, but this attribution was disputed by Dutch art historian Cornelis Hofstede de Groot and Alec Martin of Christie's. In 1985, TMAG curator Dan Gregg stated that \"the painter of the life-sized portrait is unknown [...] there is some uncertainty as to whether the portrait is really of Tasman\".\nTasman map\nThe Tasman map is in the collection of the State Library of New South Wales. It is thought to have been drawn by Isaac Gilsemans, or completed under the supervision of Franz Jacobszoon Visscher. The map is also known as the Bonaparte map, as it was once owned by Prince Roland Bonaparte, the great-nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte. The map was completed sometime after 1644 and is based on the original charts drawn during Tasman's first and second voyages. As none of the journals or logs composed during Tasman's second voyage have survived, the Bonaparte map remains an important contemporary artefact of Tasman's voyage to the northern coast of the Australian continent.\n\nThe Tasman map reveals the extent of understanding the Dutch had of the Australian continent at the time. The map includes the western and southern coasts of Australia, accidentally encountered by Dutch voyagers as they journeyed by way of the Cape of Good Hope to the VOC headquarters in Batavia. In addition, the map shows the tracks of Tasman's two voyages. Of his second voyage, the map shows the Banda Islands, the southern coast of New Guinea and much of the northern coast of Australia. However, the land areas adjacent to the Torres Strait are shown unexamined; this is despite Tasman having been given orders by VOC Council at Batavia to explore the possibility of a channel between New Guinea and the Australian continent.\n\nThere is debate as to the origin of the map. It is widely believed that the map was produced in Batavia; however, it has also been argued that the map was produced in Amsterdam. The authorship of the map has also been debated: while the map is commonly attributed to Tasman, it is now thought to have been the result of a collaboration, probably involving Franchoijs Visscher and Isaack Gilsemans, who took part in both of Tasman's voyages. Whether the map was produced in 1644 is also subject to debate, as a VOC company report in December 1644 suggested that at that time no maps showing Tasman's voyages were yet complete.\n\nIn 1943, a mosaic version of the map, composed of coloured brass and marble, was inlaid into the vestibule floor of the Mitchell Library in Sydney. The work was commissioned by the Principal Librarian William Ifould, and completed by the Melocco Brothers of Annandale, who also worked on the ANZAC War Memorial in Hyde Park and the crypt at St Mary's Cathedral, Sydney.\nSee also\nDieppe maps\nWillem Janszoon\nJanszoon voyage of 1605–06\nTheory of Portuguese discovery of Australia\nReferencesSources\nEdward Duyker (ed.) The Discovery of Tasmania: Journal Extracts from the Expeditions of Abel Janszoon Tasman and Marc-Joseph Marion Dufresne 1642 & 1772, St David's Park Publishing/Tasmanian Government Printing Office, Hobart, 1992, pp. 106, .\nMack, Rudiger (2024), First Encounters: The Early Pacific and European Narratives of Abel Tasman's 1642 Voyage. Feilding, New Zealand: Heritage Press.\nExternal links","text_chars":19708,"text_sha256":"c5315f40bc5c41f1d14ed478a4132bdd24ad0328eb858661753b2b94baaa0e5f","text_utf8_bytes":19726,"title":"Abel Tasman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abel_Tasman","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"4f44fe018a58e3fbfa69df02955ce58434b6146797c8aae1afff03a6a9476889"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2140&action=history","id":"2140","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":121866,"raw_text_sha256":"ae46bbcf6a6210554ba5e600135bcfe3d4a89ff59f734e9b5a2d19c3cb321b3b","raw_text_utf8_bytes":122188,"revision_id":"1371934359","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-29T12:42:05Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1371934359","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"The Atlanta Braves are an American professional baseball team based in the Atlanta metropolitan area. The Braves compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the National League (NL) East Division. The club was founded in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1871 as the Boston Red Stockings. The Braves are one of two remaining National League charter franchises that debuted in 1876 and are the oldest continuously operating professional sports franchise in North America. The franchise was known by various names until it adopted the Boston Braves name in 1912.\n\nAfter 82 seasons and one World Series title in Boston, the club moved to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in 1953. With a roster of Hall-of-Fame players such as Hank Aaron, Eddie Mathews, and Warren Spahn, the Milwaukee Braves won the World Series in 1957. Despite the team's success, fan attendance declined. The club's owners moved the team to Atlanta, Georgia, in 1966.\n\nThe Braves did not find much success in Atlanta until 1991. From 1991 to 2005, the Braves were one of the most successful teams in baseball, winning an unprecedented 14 consecutive division titles, making an MLB record eight consecutive National League Championship Series appearances, and producing one of the greatest pitching rotations in the history of baseball including Hall of Famers Greg Maddux, John Smoltz, and Tom Glavine.\n\nThe club has won an MLB record 23 divisional titles, 18 National League pennants, and four World Series championships. The Braves are the only Major League Baseball franchise to have won the World Series in three different home cities. At the end of the 2025 season, the Braves' overall win–loss record is . Since moving to Atlanta in 1966, the Braves have an overall win–loss record of through the end of 2025.\nHistoryBoston (1871–1952)1871–1913\nThe Cincinnati Red Stockings, formed in 1869, were the first openly all-professional baseball team but disbanded after the 1870 season. Manager Harry Wright and players moved to Boston, forming the Boston Red Stockings, a charter team in the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players (NAPBBP). Led by the Wright brothers, Ross Barnes, and Al Spalding, they dominated the National Association, winning four of five championships. The original Boston Red Stockings team and its successors can lay claim to being the oldest continuously playing franchise in American professional sports.\n\nThe club was known as the Boston Red Caps when they played the first National League game in 1876, winning against the Philadelphia Athletics. Despite a weaker roster in the league's first year, they rebounded to secure the 1877 and 1878 pennants. Managed by Frank Selee, they were a dominant force in the 19th century, winning eight pennants. By 1898, the team was known as the Beaneaters and had won 102 games that season, with stars like Hugh Duffy, Tommy McCarthy, and \"Slidin'\" Billy Hamilton.\n\nIn 1901, the American League was introduced, causing many Beaneaters players including stars Duffy and Jimmy Collins to leave for clubs of the rival league. The team struggled, recording only one winning season from 1900 to 1913. In 1907, they temporarily dropped the red color from their stockings due to infection concerns.\n\nThe club underwent various nickname changes until becoming the Braves before the 1912 season. The president of the club, John M. Ward, named the club after the owner, James Gaffney. Gaffney was called one of the \"braves\" of New York City's political machine, Tammany Hall, which used a Native American chief as its symbol.\n1914: Miracle\nIn 1914, the Boston Braves experienced a remarkable turnaround in what would become one of the most memorable seasons in baseball history. Starting with a dismal 4–18 record, the Braves found themselves in last place, trailing the league-leading New York Giants by 15 games after losing a doubleheader to the Brooklyn Robins on July 4. However, the team rebounded with an incredible hot streak, going 41–12 from July 6 to September 5. On August 3, Joseph Lannin, the president of the Red Sox, offered Fenway Park to the Braves free of charge for the remainder of the season as their usual home, the South End Grounds, was too small. On September 7 and 8, they defeated the Giants in two out of three games, propelling them into first place. Despite being in last place as late as July 18, the Braves secured the pennant. They became the only team under the old eight-team league format to achieve this after being in last place on the Fourth of July. They were in last place as late as July 18, but were close to the pack, moving into fourth on July 21 and second place on August 12.\n\nThe Braves entered the 1914 World Series led by captain and National League Most Valuable Player, Johnny Evers. The Boston club was a slight underdog against Connie Mack's Philadelphia A's. However, they swept the Athletics and won the world championship. Inspired by their success, owner Gaffney constructed a modern park, Braves Field, which opened in August 1915. At the time it was the largest park in the majors, boasting 40,000 seats and convenient public transportation access.\n1915–1952\nFrom 1917 to 1933, the Boston Braves struggled. After a series of different owners, a syndicate led by Emil Fuchs and including pitching great and Fuchs' longtime friend Christy Mathewson bought the team in 1923. Mathewson's death in 1925 left Fuchs in control of the team. Despite Fuchs' commitment to success, the team faced challenges overcoming the damage from previous years. It was not until 1933 and 1934, under manager Bill McKechnie, that the Braves became competitive, but the team's improvement in performance did little to help its finances.\n\nIn an effort to boost fan attendance and finances, Fuchs orchestrated a deal with the New York Yankees to acquire Babe Ruth in 1935. Ruth was appointed team vice president with promises of profit shares and managerial prospects. Initially, Ruth seemed to provide a spark on opening day, but his declining skills became evident. Ruth's inability to run and poor fielding led to internal strife, and it became clear that his titles were symbolic. Ruth retired on June 1, 1935, shortly after hitting his last three home runs. The Braves finished the season with a dismal 38–115 record, marking the franchise's worst season.\n\nFuchs lost control of the team in August 1935, leading to a rebranding attempt as the Boston Bees, but it did little to alter the team's fortune. Construction magnate Lou Perini took over, eventually restoring the Braves' name. Despite World War II causing a brief setback, the team, led by pitcher Warren Spahn, enjoyed impressive seasons in 1946 and 1947 under Perini's ownership.\n\nIn 1948, the team won the pennant, behind the pitching of Spahn and Johnny Sain. The remainder of the rotation was so thin that in September, Boston Post writer Gerald Hern wrote the poem \"Pray for Rain\" about the pair:\n\nFirst we'll use Spahn\nthen we'll use Sain\nThen an off day\nfollowed by rain\nBack will come Spahn\nfollowed by Sain\nAnd followed\nwe hope\nby two days of rain.\n\nThe poem reached and found favor with an audience so wide that the poem's sentiment, now usually paraphrased as \"Spahn and Sain and pray for rain\" or \"Spahn and Sain, then pray for rain\", entered the baseball vocabulary.\n\nThe 1948 World Series, which the Braves lost in six games to the Indians, turned out to be the Braves' last hurrah in Boston. On March 13, 1953, Perini announced the club's move to Milwaukee. Perini cited the advent of television and the lack of fan enthusiasm for the Braves in Boston as the key factors in deciding to move the franchise.\nMilwaukee (1953–1965)\nThe Milwaukee Braves' move to Wisconsin for the 1953 season was an immediate success, as they drew a National League-record 1.8 million fans and finished the season second in the league. Manager Charlie Grimm was named NL Manager of the Year.\n\nThroughout the 1950s, the Braves were a National League power. After relocating to Milwaukee in 1953, the Braves were led by future Hall of Famers Warren Spahn and Eddie Matthews, and Hank Aaron. The trio helped establish the team as a dominant National League club, leading Milwaukee to the 1957 World Series championship and another National League pennant in 1958. Driven by sluggers Eddie Mathews and Hank Aaron, the team won two pennants and finished second twice between 1956 and 1959. In 1957, Aaron's MVP season led the Braves to their first pennant in nine years, followed by a World Series victory against the formidable New York Yankees. Despite a strong start in the World Series rematch the following season, the Braves ultimately lost the last three games and the World Series. The 1959 season ended in a tie with the Los Angeles Dodgers, who defeated the Braves in a playoff series. The ensuing years saw fluctuating success, including the Braves finishing fifth in 1963, their first time in the \"second division\".\n\nIn 1962, team owner Louis Perini sold the Braves to a Chicago-based group led by William Bartholomay. Bartholomay intended to move the team to Atlanta in 1965, but legal hurdles kept them in Milwaukee for an extra season.\nAtlanta (1966–present)1966–1974\nThe Braves' relocation from Milwaukee to Atlanta was approved by team ownership on October 21, 1964, by a 12-6 vote. However, legal action in Wisconsin delayed the move, requiring the team to remain in Milwaukee for the 1965 season before relocating to Atlanta in 1966. After National League owners approved the relocation, the Braves signed a 25-year lease to play at Atlanta Stadium beginning with the 1966 season.\n\nAfter arriving in Atlanta in 1966, the Braves found success in 1969, winning the first National League West Division title with the onset of divisional play. In the National League Championship Series the Braves were swept by the \"Miracle Mets\". They posted only two winning seasons between 1970 and 1981. Fans in Atlanta had to be satisfied with the achievements of Hank Aaron, who by the end of the 1973 season, had hit 713 home runs, one short of Babe Ruth's record. On April 4, opening day of the next season, he hit No. 714 in Cincinnati, and on April 8, in front of his home fans and a national television audience, he finally beat Ruth's mark with a home run to left-center field off left-hander Al Downing of the Los Angeles Dodgers. Aaron spent most of his career as a Milwaukee and Atlanta Brave before being traded to the Milwaukee Brewers on November 2, 1974.\nTed Turner and Time Warner era1976–1977: Ted Turner buys the team\nIn 1976, the team was purchased by media magnate Ted Turner, owner of superstation WTBS, as a means to keep the team (and one of his main programming staples) in Atlanta. Turner used the Braves as a major programming draw for his fledgling cable network, making the Braves the first franchise to have a nationwide audience and fan base. WTBS marketed the team as \"The Atlanta Braves: America's Team\", a nickname that still has some currency in certain areas of the country, especially the South. The financially strapped Turner used money already paid to the team for their broadcast rights as a down-payment. Turner quickly gained a reputation as a quirky, hands-on baseball owner. On May 11, 1977, Turner appointed himself manager. However, the MLB passed a rule in the 1950s barring managers from holding a financial stake in their teams, Turner was ordered to relinquish that position after one game (the Braves lost 2–1 to the Pittsburgh Pirates extending their losing streak to 17 games).\n1978–1990\nThe Braves did not enjoy much success between 1978 and 1990. However, in the 1982 season, led by manager Joe Torre, the Braves secured their first divisional title since 1969. The team was led by standout performances from key players such as Dale Murphy, Bob Horner, Chris Chambliss, Phil Niekro, and Gene Garber. The Braves were swept in the NLCS in three games by the Cardinals. Murphy won the National League's Most Valuable Player award in 1982 and 1983.\n1991–2005: 14 consecutive division titles\nFrom 1991 to 2005, the Atlanta Braves enjoyed a remarkable era of success in baseball, marked by a record-setting 14 consecutive division titles, five National League pennants, and a World Series championship in 1995. Bobby Cox returned as manager in 1990, leading the team's turnaround after finishing the previous season with the worst record in baseball. Notable developments included the drafting of Chipper Jones in 1990 and the hiring of general manager John Schuerholz from the Kansas City Royals.\n\nThe Braves' remarkable journey began in 1991, known as the \"Worst to First\" season. Overcoming a shaky start, the Braves bounced back led by young pitchers Tom Glavine and John Smoltz. The team secured the NL pennant in a memorable playoff race, ultimately losing a closely contested World Series to the Minnesota Twins. The following year, the Braves won the NLCS in dramatic fashion against the Pirates but fell short in the World Series against the Toronto Blue Jays.\n\nIn 1993, the Braves strengthened their pitching staff with the addition of Cy Young Award winner Greg Maddux in free agency. Despite posting a franchise-best 104 wins, they lost in the NLCS to the Philadelphia Phillies. The team moved to the Eastern Division in 1994, sparking a heated rivalry with the New York Mets.\n\nThe player's strike cut short the 1994 season just before the division championships, but the Braves rebounded in 1995, defeating the Cleveland Indians to win the World Series. The 1995 championship marked the Braves' first World Series title since relocating to Atlanta and completed a period of sustained success that began with the teams turnarond in 1991. With this World Series victory, the Braves became the first team in Major League Baseball to win world championships in three different cities. The Braves reached the World Series in 1996 and 1999 but were defeated both times by the New York Yankees.\n\nIn 1996, Time Warner acquired Ted Turner's Turner Broadcasting System, including the Braves. Despite their continued success with a ninth consecutive division title in 2000, the Braves faced postseason disappointment, losing in a sweep to the St. Louis Cardinals in the NLDS. The team won division titles from 2002 to 2004, but experienced early exits in the NLDS each year.\nLiberty Media eraLiberty Media buys the team\nIn December 2005, Time Warner put the club up for sale, leading to negotiations with Liberty Media. After over a year of talks, a deal was reached in February 2007 for Liberty Media to acquire the Braves for $450 million, a magazine publishing company, and $980 million in cash. The sale, valued at approximately $1.48 billion, was contingent on approval from 75 percent of MLB owners and Commissioner Bud Selig.\nBobby Cox and Chipper Jones retire\nBobby Cox's final year as manager in 2010 saw the Braves return to the postseason for the first time since 2005. The team secured the NL Wild Card but fell to the San Francisco Giants in the National League Division Series in four closely contested games, marking the conclusion of Bobby Cox's managerial career. The following season, the Braves suffered a historic September collapse to miss the postseason. The club bounced back in 2012 and returned to the postseason in Chipper Jones' final season. The Braves won 94 games in 2012, but that wasn't enough to win the NL East, so they faced the St. Louis Cardinals in the inaugural Wild Card Game. Chipper Jones's last game was a memorable one: the Braves lost the one-game playoff 6–3, but the game would be remembered for a controversial infield fly call that helped end a Braves rally in the 8th inning.\nTruist Park and return to the World Series\nIn 2017, the Atlanta Braves began playing at Truist Park, replacing Turner Field as their home stadium. Following an MLB investigation into international signing rule violations, general manager John Coppolella resigned and faced a baseball ban. Alex Anthopoulos took over as the new general manager. The team's chairman, Terry McGuirk, apologized for the scandal and expressed confidence in Anthopoulos's integrity. A new on-field mascot named Blooper was introduced at a fan event before the 2017 season. Under Anthopoulos, the Braves made the playoffs in six of his first seven seasons. In 2020, the Braves reached the National League Championship Series, but ultimately lost to the Dodgers after leading 3–1.\n\nIn the 2021 season, the Braves won the National League East with an 88–73 record. In the postseason, they quickly defeated the Milwaukee Brewers in the NL Division Series 3–1. The Braves again faced the Dodgers in the 2021 NLCS, and won in six games to take Atlanta's first National League pennant since 1999. The Braves advanced to the World Series. They defeated the Houston Astros in six games to win their fourth World Series title.\nEnd of postseason run and Brian Snitker era\nThe Braves failed to qualify for the postseason in 2025, ending a streak of seven consecutive appearances. After 49 years with the organization, including ten seasons as manager, the team announced that Snitker would step down from his managerial role and transition into an advisory position with the club. In November 2025, the Braves announced that longtime bench coach Walt Weiss would be promoted to manager. Weiss, a former All-Star shortstop also spent part of his playing career in Atlanta.\nLogos and uniforms\nThe Braves logos have evolved over the years, featuring a Native American warrior from 1945 to 1955, followed by a laughing Native American with a mohawk and a feather from 1956 to 1965. The modern logo, introduced in 1987, includes the cursive word \"Braves\" with a tomahawk below it. Uniforms adopted that year evoked their 1950s classic look. For the 2023 season, the Braves had four uniform combinations, including the classic white home and gray road uniforms, a navy blue road jersey for alternate games, and two alternate uniforms for home games: a Friday night red uniform and a City Connect uniform worn on Saturdays, paying tribute to Hank Aaron. The City Connect uniform features \"The A\" across the chest, accompanied by a cap with the \"A\" logo and 1974 uniform colors. The Braves retired the '70s-era City Connects and unveiled a new alternate uniform ahead of the 2026 season. The new jersey is an homage to their cable television-fueled growth in the 1980s. Powder-blue pullovers with a script \"Atlanta\" on the front and a lowercase \"A\" hat reference their contemporary away uniform, while an \"ATL\" wordmark on the left sleeve and printing above the laundry tag are designed similar to the classic TBS SuperStation logo.\nWorld Series championships\nOver the 120 years since the inception of the World Series (119 total World Series played), the Braves franchise has won a total of four World Series Championships. The Braves are the only franchise to have won a World Series in three different cities.\nBallparksFormer parks\nThe Boston Braves played at the South End Grounds from their inception. After a fire destroyed the park in 1894, the club temporarily played at the Congress Street Grounds until the South End Grounds could be rebuilt. During the 1914 season, it became evident that the South End Grounds was too small to accommodate larger crowds, prompting the team to play some games at Fenway Park. To address the need for a larger venue, Braves Field was built in 1915.\n\nBraves Field remained the club's home in Boston until the team relocated to Milwaukee. Milwaukee County Stadium was constructed in 1950 to attract a Major League Baseball team and became the Braves' new home in 1953. The team played there until moving to Atlanta in 1966.\n\nThe city of Atlanta constructed Atlanta–Fulton County Stadium in 1965 after reaching an agreement with the Braves to relocate from Milwaukee. The Braves played at Atlanta–Fulton County Stadium until 1997, when they moved to Turner Field. Originally built as Centennial Olympic Stadium for the 1996 Summer Olympics, the venue was later converted into a ballpark for the Braves. Turner Field served as the Braves' home ballpark through the 2016 season.\nCurrent parksTruist Park\nThe Atlanta Braves home ballpark has been Truist Park since 2017. Truist Park is located approximately 10 miles (16 km) northwest of downtown Atlanta in the unincorporated community of Cumberland, in Cobb County, Georgia. The Braves opened Truist Park on April 14, 2017, with a four-game sweep of the San Diego Padres. The park received positive reviews from critics. Woody Studenmund of the Hardball Times called the park a \"gem\" saying that he was impressed with \"the compact beauty of the stadium and its exciting approach to combining baseball, business and social activities.\" J.J. Cooper of Baseball America praised the \"excellent sight lines for pretty much every seat.\"\nCoolToday Park\nSince 2019, the Braves have played spring training games at CoolToday Park in North Port, Florida. The ballpark opened on March 24, 2019, with the Braves' 4–2 win over the Tampa Bay Rays. The Braves left Champion Stadium, their previous Spring Training home, near Orlando, to reduce travel times and to get closer to other teams' facilities. CoolToday Park also serves as the Braves' year-round rehabilitation facility.\nMajor rivalryNew York Mets\nAlthough their first major confrontation occurred when the Mets swept the Braves in the 1969 National League Championship Series (NLCS), the rivalry did not become especially heated until the 1994 season when division realignment put both the Mets and the Braves in the National League East division.\n\nThe Braves faced the Mets in the 1999 National League Championship Series. The Braves initially took a 3–0 series lead, seemingly on the verge of a sweep, but the Mets rallied in Game 4 and Game 5. Despite the Mets' resilience, the Braves eventually won the series in Game 6 with Andruw Jones securing a dramatic walk-off walk, earning their 5th National League pennant of the 1990s. In 2022, the Braves and Mets both finished with 101 wins. The National League East title and a first-round bye came down to a crucial three-game series at Truist Park from September 30 to October 2. The Mets entered with a slight lead but faltered as the Braves swept the series, clinching the division title and first-round playoff bye.\n\nSince the Mets joined the league in 1962, both teams have won two World Series titles. The Braves have captured six NL pennants, while the Mets have won five. The Braves hold the advantage in the all-time head-to-head record between the two teams at 516–425. However, the Mets have the upper hand in playoff matchups with a 5–4 record.\nNationwide fanbase\nIn addition to having strong fan support in the Metro Atlanta area and the state of Georgia, the Braves have been referred to as \"America's Team\" in reference to the team's games being broadcast nationally on TBS from the 1970s until 2007, giving the team a nationwide fan base.\n\nThe Braves boast heavy support within the Southeastern United States, particularly in states such as Mississippi, Alabama, South Carolina, North Carolina, Tennessee and Florida.\nTomahawk chop\nIn 1991, fans of the Atlanta Braves popularized the \"tomahawk chop\" during games. The use of foam tomahawks faced criticism from Native American groups, who regarded it as demeaning. Despite protests, the Braves' public relations director defended it as a \"proud expression of unification and family.\" The controversy resurfaced in 2019 when Cherokee Nation member and St. Louis Cardinals pitcher Ryan Helsley found the chop insulting, prompting the Braves to modify their in-game experience. During the off-season, discussions ensued with Native American representatives, and amid pressure in 2020 to change their name, the Braves announced ongoing talks about the chop but insisted the team name would remain unchanged.\n\nThe debate over the tomahawk chop continued into 2021. While some Native American leaders, such as Richard Sneed, Principal Chief of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, expressed personal indifference or tolerance, acknowledging it as an acknowledgment of Native American strength, others vehemently opposed it. Sneed emphasized larger issues facing Native American communities and questioned the focus on the chop. The Eastern Cherokee Band of Indians and the Braves initiated efforts to incorporate Cherokee language and culture into the team's activities, stadium, and merchandise, aiming for greater cultural sensitivity despite differing opinions within the Native American community.\nPersonnelManager\nBrian Snitker stepped down as manager of the Braves after the 2025 season. The team named Walt Weiss as his replacement. Weiss had served as a coach with the Braves since 2018, and previously managed the Colorado Rockies from 2013 to 2016.\nActive rosterAchievementsAwards\nBraves players have won seven Most Valuable Player (MVP) awards, with Dale Murphy notably earning the honor in back-to-back years, 1982 and 1983. Five Braves pitchers have received the Cy Young Award, given to the league's best pitcher, including Greg Maddux, who won it three consecutive times in 1993, 1994, and 1995.\n\nTwo Braves managers have been named Manager of the Year, with Bobby Cox winning the award three times, in 1991, 2004, and 2005. Additionally, eight Braves players have been honored with the Rookie of the Year awards.\nTeam recordsRetired numbers\nThe Braves have retired eleven numbers in the history of the franchise. Most recently, Andruw Jones' number 25 was retired in 2023. Other retired numbers include Chipper Jones' number 10, John Smoltz's number 29, Bobby Cox's number 6, Tom Glavine's number 47, and Greg Maddux's number 31. Additionally, the Braves have retired Hank Aaron's number 44, Dale Murphy's number 3, Phil Niekro's number 35, Eddie Mathews' number 41, and Warren Spahn's number 21. Jackie Robinson's number 42 is also retired across all of Major League Baseball, with the exception of Jackie Robinson Day.\n\nSix of the eleven numbers (Cox, Chipper Jones, Andruw Jones, Smoltz, Maddux, and Glavine) were on the Braves at the same time. Of the eleven Braves whose numbers have been retired, all who are eligible for the National Baseball Hall of Fame have been elected, with the exception of Dale Murphy. The color and design of the retired numbers on commemorative markers and other in-stadium signage reflect the primary uniform design at the time the player was on the team.\nBaseball Hall of FamersBraves Hall of FameMinor league affiliates\nThe Atlanta Braves farm system consists of six minor league affiliates.\nRadio and television\nAs of the 2026 season, the Atlanta Braves' regional rights will be held in-house by the team under the banner BravesVision. Games will be distributed via partnerships with television providers in the team's market, as well as via a direct-to-consumer streaming service operated by MLB Local Media. Selected games are carried by a network of Gray Media television stations, led by WPCH-TV (the former WTBS). Gray produces a package of spring training games, and carrying a package of regular season games in simulcast with BravesVision.\n\nBrandon Gaudin serves as the play-by-play announcer and C.J. Nitkowski as lead analyst. Jeff Francoeur and Tom Glavine will also join the broadcast for a few games during the season. Peter Moylan, Nick Green, and John Smoltz also appear in the booth for select games as in-game analysts.\n\nThe radio broadcast team is led by the tandem of play-by-play announcer Ben Ingram and analyst Joe Simpson. Braves games are broadcast across Georgia and seven other states on at least 172 radio affiliates, including flagship station 680 The Fan in Atlanta and stations as far away as Richmond, Virginia; Louisville, Kentucky; and the US Virgin Islands. The games are carried on at least 82 radio stations in Georgia.\nReferencesFootnotesCitationsFurther reading\nExternal links\nAtlanta Braves Team History & Encyclopedia (on Baseball Reference website)\nAtlanta Braves page (on ESPN website)\nMilwaukee Braves (fan-based website)\nThe Boston Braves (on MassHistory.com webpage)","text_chars":28174,"text_sha256":"8d719f5d9fa2abfd5059d036ca695e32be7e14e640b4da982e749a5a123256bf","text_utf8_bytes":28224,"title":"Atlanta Braves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlanta_Braves","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"282aa8f2f59dd5927d6044988f9791cb4e308e3e95be133ee7605878b3d38f8a"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2440&action=history","id":"2440","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":20347,"raw_text_sha256":"364e0410cf7aa2ed4d667e9da321424f3ea814500bf9a67031ae885d21f2d0ee","raw_text_utf8_bytes":20380,"revision_id":"1370767316","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-23T00:26:25Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1370767316","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Albrecht Altdorfer ( – 12 February 1538) was a German painter, engraver and architect of the Renaissance working in Regensburg. Along with Lucas Cranach the Elder and Wolf Huber he is regarded to be the main representative of the Danube School, setting biblical and historical subjects against landscape backgrounds of expressive colours. He is remarkable as one of the first artists to take an interest in landscape as an independent subject. As an artist also making small intricate engravings he is seen to belong to the Nuremberg Little Masters.\nBiography\nAltdorfer was born in Regensburg or Altdorf in the Holy Roman Empire around 1480.\n\nHe acquired an interest in art from his father, Ulrich Altdorfer, who was a painter and miniaturist. At the start of his career, he won public attention by creating small, intimate modestly scaled works in unconventional media and with eccentric subject matter. He settled in the free imperial city of Regensburg, a town located on the Danube River in 1505, eventually becoming the town architect and a town councillor. His first signed works date to , including engravings and drawings such as the Stygmata of St. Francis and St. Jerome. His models were niellos and copper engravings from the workshops of Jacopo de Barbari and Albrecht Dürer.\n\nAround 1511 or earlier, he travelled down the river and south into the Alps, where the scenery moved him so deeply that he became the first landscape painter in the modern sense, making him the leader of the Danube School, a circle that pioneered landscape as an independent genre, in southern Germany. From 1513 he was at the service of Maximilian I in Innsbruck, where he received several commissions from the imperial court. During the turmoil of the Protestant Reformation, he dedicated mostly to architecture; paintings of the period, showing his increasing attention to architecture, include the Nativity of the Virgin.\n\nIn 1529, he executed The Battle of Alexander at Issus for Duke William IV of Bavaria. In the 1520s he returned to Regensburg as a wealthy man, and became a member of the city's council. He was also responsible for the fortifications of Regensburg.\n\nIn that period his works are influenced by artists such as Giorgione and Lucas Cranach, as shown by his Crucifixion. In 1535, he was in Vienna. He died at Regensburg in 1538.\n\nThe remains of Altdorfer's surviving work comprises 55 panels, 120 drawings, 125 woodcuts, 78 engravings, 36 etchings, 24 paintings on parchment, and fragments from a mural for the bathhouse of the Kaiserhof in Regensburg. This production extends at least over the period 1504–1537. He signed and dated each one of his works.\nPainting\nAltdorfer was the pioneer painter of pure landscape, making them the subject of the painting, as well as compositions dominated by their landscape; these comprise much of his oeuvre. He believed that the human figure should not disrupt nature, but rather participate in it or imitate its natural processes. Taking and developing the landscape style of Lucas Cranach the Elder, he shows the hilly landscape of the Danube valley with thick forests of drooping and crumbling firs and larches hung with moss, and often dramatic colouring from a rising or setting sun. His Landscape with Footbridge (National Gallery, London) of 1518–1520 is claimed to be the first pure landscape in oil. In this painting, Altdorfer places a large tree that is cut off by the margins at the center of the landscape, making it the central axis and focus within the piece. Some viewers perceive anthropomorphic stylisation—the tree supposedly exhibiting human qualities such as the drapery of its limbs. He also made many fine finished drawings, mostly landscapes, in pen and watercolour such as the Landscape with the Woodcutter in 1522. The drawing opens at ground level on a clearing surrounding an enormous tree that is placed in the center, dominating the picture. Some see the tree pose and gesticulate as if it was human, splaying its branches out in every corner. Halfway up the tree trunk, hangs a gabled shrine. At the time, a shrine like this might shelter an image of the Crucifixion or the Virgin Mary, but since it is turned away from the viewer, we are not sure what it truly is. At the bottom of the tree, a tiny figure of a seated man, crossed legged, holds a knife and axe, declaring his status in society/occupation.\n\nAlso, he often painted scenes of historical and biblical subjects, set in atmospheric landscapes. His best religious scenes are intense, with their glistening lights and glowing colours sometimes verging on the expressionistic. They often depict moments of intimacy between Christ and his mother, or various saints. His sacral masterpiece and one of the most famous religious works of art of the later Middle Ages is The Legend of St. Sebastian and The Passion of Christ of the so-called Sebastian Altar in St. Florian's Priory (Stift Sankt Florian) near Linz, Upper Austria. When closed the altarpiece displayed the four panels of the legend of St. Sebastian's Martyrdom, while the opened wings displayed the Stations of the Cross. Today the altarpiece is dismantled and the predellas depicting the two final scenes, Entombment and Resurrection were sold to Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna in 1923 and 1930. Both these paintings share a similar formal structure that consists of an open landscape that is seen beyond and through the opening of a dark grotto. The date of completion on the resurrection panel is 1518.\n\nAltdorfer often distorts perspective to subtle effect. His donor figures are often painted completely out of scale with the main scene, as in paintings of the previous centuries. He also painted some portraits; overall his painted oeuvre was not large. In his later works, Altdorfer moved more towards mannerism and began to depict the human form to the conformity of the Italian model, as well as dominate the picture with frank colors.\nPaintings in Munich\nHis rather atypical Battle of Issus (or of Alexander) of 1529 was commissioned by William IV, Duke of Bavaria as part of a series of eight historical battle scenes destined to hang in the Residenz in Munich. Albrecht Altdorfer's depiction of the moment in 333 BCE when Alexander the Great routed Darius III for supremacy in Asia Minor is vast in ambition, sweeping in scope, vivid in imagery, rich in symbols, and obviously heroic—the Iliad of painting, as literary critic Friedrich Schlegel suggested In the painting, a swarming cast of thousands of soldiers surround the central action: Alexander on his white steed, leading two rows of charging cavalrymen, dashes after a fleeing Darius, who looks anxiously over his shoulder from a chariot. The opposing armies are distinguished by the colors of their uniforms: Darius' army in red and Alexander's in blue. The upper half of The Battle of Alexander expands with unreal rapidity into an arcing panorama comprehending vast coiling tracts of globe and sky. The victory also lies on the planar surface; The sun outshone the moon just as the Imperial and allied army successfully repel the Turks.\nBy making the mass number of soldiers blend within the landscape/painting, it shows that he believed that the usage and depiction of landscape was just as significant as a historical event, such as a war. He renounced the office of Mayor of Regensburg to accept the commission. Few of his other paintings resemble this apocalyptic scene of two huge armies dominated by an extravagant landscape seen from a very high viewpoint, which looks south over the whole Mediterranean from modern Turkey to include the island of Cyprus and the mouths of the Nile and the Red Sea (behind the isthmus to the left) on the other side. However his style here is a development of that of a number of miniatures of battle-scenes he had done much earlier for Maximilian I in his illuminated manuscript Triumphal Procession in 1512–14. It is thought to be the earliest painting to show the curvature of the Earth from a great height.\n\nThe Battle is now in the Alte Pinakothek, which has the best collection of Altdorfer's paintings, including also his small St. George and the Dragon (1510), in oil on parchment, where the two figures are tiny and almost submerged in the lush, dense forest that towers over them. Altdorfer seems to exaggerate the measurements of the forest in comparison to the figures: the leaves appear to be larger than the horse, showing the significance of nature and landscape. He also emphasizes line within the work, by displaying the upward growth of the forest with the vertical and diagonal lines of the trunks. There is a small opening of the forest on the lower right hand corner that provides a rest for your eyes. It serves to create depth within the painting and is the only place you can see the characters. The human form is completely absorbed by the thickness of the forest. Fantastic light effects provide a sense of mystery and dissolve the outline of objects. Without the contrast of light, the figures would blend in with its surrounding environment. Altdorfer's figures are invariably the complement of his romantic landscapes; for them he borrowed Albrecht Dürer's inventive iconography, but the panoramic setting is personal and has nothing to do with the fantasy landscapes of the Netherlands A Susanna in the Bath and the Stoning of the Elders (1526) set outside an Italianate skyscraper of a palace shows his interest in architecture. Another small oil on parchment, Danube Landscape with Castle Wörth (c. 1520) is one of the earliest accurate topographical paintings of a particular building in its setting, of a type that was to become a cliché in later centuries.\nPrintmaking\nAltdorfer was a significant printmaker, with numerous engravings and about ninety-three woodcuts. These included some for the Triumphs of Maximilian, where he followed the overall style presumably set by Hans Burgkmair, although he was able to escape somewhat from this in his depictions of the more disorderly baggage-train, still coming through a mountain landscape. However most of his best prints are etchings, many of landscapes; in these he was able most easily to use his drawing style. He was one of the most successful early etchers, and was unusual for his generation of German printmakers in doing no book illustrations. He often combined etching and engraving techniques in a single plate, and produced about 122 intaglio prints altogether. Many of Altdorfer's prints are quite small in size, and he is considered to be of the main members of the group of artists known as the Little Masters. Arthur Mayger Hind considers his graphical work to be somewhat lacking in technical skill but with an \"intimate personal touch\", and notes his characteristic feeling for landscape.\nPublic life\nAs the superintendent of the municipal buildings Altdorfer had overseen the construction of several commercial structures, such as a slaughterhouse and a building for wine storage, possibly even designing them. He was considered to be an outstanding politician of his day. In 1517 he was a member of the \"Ausseren Rates\", the council on external affairs, and in this capacity was involved in the expulsion of the Jews, the destruction of the synagogue and in its place the construction of a church and shrine to the Schöne Maria that occurred in 1519. Altdorfer made etchings of the interior of the synagogue and designed a woodcut of the cult image of the Schöne Maria. In 1529–1530 he was also charged with reinforcing certain city fortifications in response to the Turkish threat.\n\nAlbrecht's brother, Erhard Altdorfer, was also a painter and printmaker in woodcut and engraving, and a pupil of Lucas Cranach the Elder.\nSee also\n8121 Altdorfer, asteroid named after Altdorfer\nDanube school\nEarly Renaissance painting\nList of landscapes by Albrecht Altdorfer\nReferencesFurther reading\nAlte Pinakotek, Munich; (Summary Catalogue -various authors),1986, Edition Lipp,\nChristopher S. Wood, Albrecht Altdorfer and the Origins of Landscape, 1993, Reaktion Books, London,\nChristoph Wagner, Oliver Jehle (eds.), Albrecht Altdorfer. Kunst als zweite Natur, 2012, Schnell & Steiner Verlag, Regensburg (= Regensburger Studien zur Kunstgeschichte, Vol. 17),\nJochen Sander, Stefan Roller, Sabine Haag, Guido Messling (eds.), Fantastische Welten. Albrecht Altdorfer und das Expressive in der Kunst um 1500, 2014, Hirmer, Munich, (exhibition catalogue Städel Museum, Frankfort, November 5, 2014 - February 2015 and Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, March 17 - June 14, 2015)\nExternal links\nWorks by Albrecht Altdofer at the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa\nWorks by Altdorfer at Zeno.org\nAlbrecht Altdorfer in the \"History of Art\"\nAlbrecht Altdorfer Wallpapers\nPage at artcyclopedia.com\nPage at ibiblio.org\nArtvibrations Archive:\nAlbrecht Altdorfer Paintings Gallery (Public Domain Paintings - www.art.onilm.com)\nPrints & People: A Social History of Printed Pictures, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Albrecht Altdorfer (see index)\nObjects related to Albrecht Altdorfer in the Urus : Techniques and Reception of Graphic Art in Central and Eastern Europe (15th–18th centuries) database","text_chars":13285,"text_sha256":"2e0ec1f072f52a6f73cbec20d27bcd9cbbd9faceb0863139bb0dd4c1b33ba54a","text_utf8_bytes":13308,"title":"Albrecht Altdorfer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_Altdorfer","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"6c2a87dbbbe15ef27c2909f83e36a55691736d563a552f776c7dbb15511b1570"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1363&action=history","id":"1363","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":23022,"raw_text_sha256":"8af4c516a734a7f11d53a8c24f2a7ebf3e89e70b2473e6828f3ca789ea74fb4f","raw_text_utf8_bytes":23282,"revision_id":"1371971129","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-29T17:12:03Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1371971129","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"André-Marie Ampère (20 January 177510 June 1836) was a French physicist and mathematician who was one of the founders of the science of classical electromagnetism, which he referred to as electrodynamics. He made also important contributions in chemistry and philosophy. He is also the inventor of numerous applications, such as the solenoid (a term coined by him) and the electrical telegraph. As an autodidact, Ampère was a member of the French Academy of Sciences and professor at the École polytechnique and the Collège de France.\n\nThe SI unit of electric current, the ampere (A), is named after him. His name is also one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower. The term kinematic is the English version of his cinématique, which he constructed from the Greek kinema (\"movement, motion\"), itself derived from kinein (\"to move\").\nBiographyEarly life\nAndré-Marie Ampère was born on 20 January 1775 in Lyon to Jean-Jacques Ampère, a prosperous businessman, and Jeanne Antoinette Desutières-Sarcey Ampère, during the height of the French Enlightenment. He spent his childhood and adolescence at the family property at Poleymieux-au-Mont-d'Or near Lyon, a house that today hosts the Ampère Museum, dedicated to his life and to the history of electricity. Jean-Jacques Ampère, a successful merchant, was an admirer of the philosophy of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, whose theories of education (as outlined in his treatise Émile) were the basis of Ampère's education. Rousseau believed that young boys should avoid formal schooling and pursue instead a \"direct education from nature.\" Ampère's father actualized this ideal by allowing his son to educate himself within the walls of his well-stocked library. French Enlightenment masterpieces such as Georges-Louis Leclerc, comte de Buffon's Histoire naturelle, générale et particulière (begun in 1749) and Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert's Encyclopédie (volumes added between 1751 and 1772) thus became Ampère's schoolmasters. The young Ampère, however, soon resumed his Latin lessons, which enabled him to master the works of Leonhard Euler and Daniel Bernoulli.\nFrench Revolution\nIn addition, Ampère used his access to the latest books to begin teaching himself advanced mathematics at age 12. In later life Ampère claimed that he knew as much about mathematics and science when he was eighteen as ever he knew, but as a polymath, his reading embraced history, travels, poetry, philosophy, and the natural sciences. His mother was a devout Catholic, so Ampère was also initiated into the Catholic faith along with Enlightenment science. The French Revolution (1789–99) that began during his youth was also influential: Ampère's father was called into public service by the new revolutionary government, becoming a local judge (juge de paix) in a small town near Lyon. When the Jacobin faction seized control of the Revolutionary government in 1792, his father Jean-Jacques Ampère resisted the new political tides, and he was guillotined on 24 November 1793, as part of the Jacobin purges of the period.\n\nIn 1796, Ampère met Julie Carron and, in 1799, they were married. Ampère took his first regular job in 1799 as a mathematics teacher, which gave him the financial security to marry Carron and father his first child, Jean-Jacques (named after his father), the next year. (Jean-Jacques Ampère eventually achieved his own fame as a scholar of languages.) Ampère's maturation corresponded with the transition to the Napoleonic regime in France, and the young father and teacher found new opportunities for success within the technocratic structures favoured by the new French First Consul. In 1802, Ampère was appointed a professor of physics and chemistry at the École Centrale in Bourg-en-Bresse, leaving his ailing wife and infant son in Lyon. He used his time in Bourg to research mathematics, producing Considérations sur la théorie mathématique du jeu (1802; \"Considerations on the Mathematical Theory of Games\"), a treatise on mathematical probability that he sent to the Paris Academy of Sciences in 1803.\nTeaching career\nAfter the death of his wife in July 1803, Ampère moved to Paris, where he began a tutoring post at the new École Polytechnique in 1804. Despite his lack of formal qualifications, Ampère was appointed a professor of mathematics at the school in 1809. As well as holding positions at this school until 1828, in 1819 and 1820 Ampère offered courses in philosophy and astronomy, respectively, at the University of Paris, and in 1824 he was elected to the prestigious chair in experimental physics at the Collège de France. In 1814, Ampère was invited to join the class of mathematicians in the new Institut Impérial, the umbrella under which the reformed state Academy of Sciences would sit.\n\nAmpère engaged in a diverse array of scientific inquiries during the years leading up to his election to the academy—writing papers and engaging in topics from mathematics and philosophy to chemistry and astronomy, which was customary among the leading scientific intellectuals of the day. Ampère claimed that \"at eighteen years he found three culminating points in his life, his First Communion, the reading of Antoine Leonard Thomas's \"Eulogy of Descartes\", and the Taking of the Bastille. On the day of his wife's death he wrote two verses from the Psalms, and the prayer, 'O Lord, God of Mercy, unite me in Heaven with those whom you have permitted me to love on earth.' In times of duress he would take refuge in the reading of the Bible and the Fathers of the Church.\"\n\nA lay Catholic, he took for a time into his family the young student Frédéric Ozanam (1813–1853), one of the founders of the Conference of Charity, later known as the Society of Saint Vincent de Paul. Ozanam would much later be beatified by Pope John Paul II in 1998. Through Ampère, Ozanam had contact with leaders of the neo-Catholic movement, such as François-René de Chateaubriand, Jean-Baptiste Henri Lacordaire, and Charles Forbes René de Montalembert.\nWork in electromagnetism\nIn September 1820, Ampère's friend and eventual eulogist François Arago showed the members of the French Academy of Sciences the surprising discovery by Danish physicist Hans Christian Ørsted that a magnetic needle is deflected by an adjacent electric current. Ampère began developing a mathematical and physical theory to understand the relationship between electricity and magnetism. Furthering Ørsted's experimental work, Ampère showed that two parallel wires carrying electric currents attract or repel each other, depending on whether the currents flow in the same or opposite directions, respectively - this laid the foundation of electrodynamics. He also applied mathematics in generalizing physical laws from these experimental results. The most important of these was the principle that came to be called Ampère's law, which states that the mutual action of two lengths of current-carrying wire is proportional to their lengths and to the intensities of their currents. Ampère also applied this same principle to magnetism, showing the harmony between his law and French physicist Charles Augustin de Coulomb's law of electric action. Ampère's devotion to, and skill with, experimental techniques anchored his science within the emerging fields of experimental physics.\n\nAmpère also provided a physical understanding of the electromagnetic relationship, theorizing the existence of an \"electrodynamic molecule\" (the forerunner of the idea of the electron) that served as the component element of both electricity and magnetism. Using this physical explanation of electromagnetic motion, Ampère developed a physical account of electromagnetic phenomena that was both empirically demonstrable and mathematically predictive. Almost 100 years later, in 1915, Albert Einstein together with Wander Johannes de Haas made the proof of the correctness of Ampère's hypothesis through the Einstein–de Haas effect. In 1826, Ampère published his magnum opus, Mémoire sur la théorie mathématique des phénomènes électrodynamiques uniquement déduite de l'experience (Memoir on the Mathematical Theory of Electrodynamic Phenomena, Uniquely Deduced from Experience), the work that coined the name of his new science, electrodynamics, and became known ever after as its founding treatise.\n\nThe Monge–Ampère equation is named after Ampère and Gaspard Monge. Ampère contributed to the treatment of nonlinear partial differential equations in the study of geometry of surfaces in 1820.\n\nIn 1827, Ampère was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society and in 1828, a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Science. Probably the highest recognition came from James Clerk Maxwell, who in his Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism named Ampère \"the Newton of electricity\".\nHonours\n8.10.1825: Member of the Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium.\nLegacy\nAn international convention, signed at the 1881 International Exposition of Electricity, established the ampere as one of the standard units of electrical measurement, in recognition of his contribution to the creation of modern electrical science and along with the coulomb, volt, ohm, watt and farad, which are named, respectively, after Ampère's contemporaries Charles-Augustin de Coulomb of France, Alessandro Volta of Italy, Georg Ohm of Germany, James Watt of Scotland and Michael Faraday of England. Ampère's name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.\n\nMany streets and squares are named after Ampère, as are schools, a Lyon metro station, a graphics processing unit microarchitecture, a mountain on the moon, an asteroid and an electric ferry in Norway.. A town in Brazil, Ampére, in the state of Parana, is named after Ampère.\nWritings\nConsidérations sur la théorie mathématique du jeu, Perisse, Lyon Paris 1802, online lesen im Internet-Archiv\nPartial translations:\nMagie, W.M. (1963). A Source Book in Physics. Harvard: Cambridge MA. pp. 446–460.\n.\nComplete translations:\nNotesReferencesFurther reading\n(EPUB)\nExternal links\nAmpère and the history of electricity – a French-language, edited by CNRS, site with Ampère's correspondence (full text and critical edition with links to manuscripts pictures, more than 1000 letters), an Ampère bibliography, experiments, and 3D simulations\nAmpère Museum – Site of the Ampère museum in Poleymieux-au-Mont-d'or, near Lyon, France\nAmpere's Electrodynamics Includes complete English translation of Theory of Electrodynamic Phenomena\n\"Société des Amis d'André-Marie Ampère\", a French society dedicated to maintain the memory of André-Marie Ampère and in charge of the Ampère Museum.\nCatholic Encyclopedia on André Marie Ampère","text_chars":10696,"text_sha256":"2122cfe6b03d2ebc4117353d3c7b684dbd92a27724ed63ad255dfc8766d1a16b","text_utf8_bytes":10810,"title":"André-Marie Ampère","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Marie_Amp%C3%A8re","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"1f5a9034e1bfa905108d8bdc323ccba33e8ba7fb7a87ce4693322b6ec443e164"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2381&action=history","id":"2381","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":2317,"raw_text_sha256":"e464beb53977dcba07c0dd386bd85a94e800abd646729f84f1172ed25d2d7b8b","raw_text_utf8_bytes":2325,"revision_id":"1328969366","revision_timestamp":"2025-12-22T21:37:30Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1328969366","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Andreas Aagesen (5 August 1826 – 26 October 1879) was a Danish jurist.\nBiography\nAagesen was educated for the law at Christianshavn and Copenhagen, and interrupted his studies in 1848 to take part in the First Schleswig War, in which he served as the leader of a reserve battalion.\n\nIn 1855 Aagesen became a professor of jurisprudence at the University of Copenhagen. In 1870 he was appointed a member of the commission for drawing up a maritime and commercial code, and the navigation law of 1882 is mainly his work. In 1879 he was elected a member of the Landsting (one of two chambers of the Danish Parliament, the Rigsdagen); but it is as a teacher at the university that he won his reputation. Aagesen was Carl Christian Hall's successor as lecturer on Roman law at the university, and in this department his research was epoch-making.\nBibliography\nAmong his numerous juridical works may be mentioned:\nBidrag til Læren om Overdragelse af Ejendomsret, Bemærkinger om Rettigheder over Ting (Copenhagen, 1866, 1871–1872);\nFortegnelse over Retssamlinger, Retslitteratur i Danmark, Norge, Sverige (Copenhagen, 1876).\nNotesReferences\nAttribution\nThis source cites:\nJohan Henrik Deuntzer, Dansk biografisk leksikon, vol. i. (Copenhagen, 1887) (online);\nSamlede Skrifter, edited by F. C. Bornemann (Copenhagen, 1883)\nExternal links\nObituary","text_chars":1337,"text_sha256":"2c2e8046b5cdb4a043cf2ef7223e0a146b3ce62763b63730acefa829b995c93b","text_utf8_bytes":1343,"title":"Andreas Aagesen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Aagesen","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"f9d8247ce6413bea9dd9e0f1a7ae8255b70e68852b1c991a0136f01c1fbb5685"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2622&action=history","id":"2622","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":18901,"raw_text_sha256":"92cb9198f68727212f6e20e970044607517ed2484a5c43af8781e7191a63b655","raw_text_utf8_bytes":19008,"revision_id":"1364051096","revision_timestamp":"2026-07-14T04:59:36Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1364051096","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"The Aedui or Haedui (Gaulish: *Aiduoi, 'the Ardent') were a Gallic people dwelling in central-eastern Gaul, in the country between the Loire and the Saône (modern Burgundy), during the Iron Age and the Roman period. From the middle of the 2nd century BC they were allies of Rome, the first people of inner Gaul to conclude a formal treaty (foedus) with the Republic and, according to Tacitus, the only Gauls to bear the title fratres populi Romani ('brothers of the Roman people'). During the Gallic Wars (58–50 BC) they gave Caesar important if uneven support before briefly joining the revolt of Vercingetorix in 52 BC. Their aristocracy was thereafter rapidly integrated into the Roman order, and under Claudius in 48 AD they were the first Gauls admitted to the Roman Senate. Their principal oppidum, Bibracte on Mont Beuvray, was replaced under Augustus by a new capital, Augustodunum (Autun).\nName\nThey are mentioned as Haedui by Cicero (mid-1st c. BC) and Caesar (mid-1st c. BC), Haeduos by Livy (late 1st c. BC), Aedui by Pliny (mid-1st c. AD), Aidúōn (Αἰδύων) by Ptolemy (2nd c. AD), and as Aídouoi (Aἴδουοι) by Cassius Dio (3rd c. AD).\n\nThe ethnonym Aedui is a Latinized form of Gaulish *Aiduoi (sing. *Aiduos), which means 'the Ardent'. It derives from the Celtic stem *aidu- ('fire, ardour', cf. Old Irish áed 'fire', Welsh aidd 'ardour'), itself from ('firewood', cf. Sanskrit édhas 'bonfire', Latin aedes 'building, temple').\nGeographyTerritory\nThe Aedui held a central position in eastern Gaul, on the watershed dividing the Mediterranean, Atlantic and Channel drainage basins. Their territory was bounded on the west by the Loire (Liger), which separated them from the Bituriges, and on the east by the Saône (Arar), which separated them from the Sequani. To the south lay their clients the Segusiavi and the first foothills of the Massif Central, held by the Arverni, and to the north the edge of the Morvan and the country of their clients the Mandubii. The river ports of Cabillonum (Chalon-sur-Saône) and Matisco (Mâcon) controlled the traffic of the Saône.\n\nThe Saône did not, however, form a stable linear frontier. The river was easily forded and presented no real obstacle. The boundary between Aedui and Sequani was sinuous rather than parallel to its course, with Aeduan enclaves on the eastern bank (notably around Chalon and Verdun) and Sequanian holdings to the west. A weakly occupied zone south of Chalon, on the Bresse side, seems to have formed a kind of march separating the two peoples.\nSettlements\nThree oppida are known from the end of the La Tène period: Vieux-Dun (Dun-les-Places), Le Fou de Verdun (Lavault-de-Frétoy), and Bibracte, which occupied a central position in the Aedian economic system.\nBibracte\nBibracte, the principal oppidum of the Aedui, occupied an isolated hill of the Morvan (Mont Beuvray, culminating at 820 m) at the meeting point of the basins of the Yonne, the Loire, the Seine and the Saône. Occupied and probably fortified since the Neolithic, it reached its height in the 1st century BC before being progressively abandoned towards the end of that century in favour of Augustodunum. The interior was hierarchically arranged, with sanctuaries on the highest points, aristocratic residences and the market on the plateau. The craft quarters were located lower down, near the gates and in the outer suburb between the two lines of rampart.\nAugustodunum\nAugustodunum's earliest urban occupation barely predates the turn of the era. Only a small and unevenly distributed part of the urban area, of the order of one per cent, has been excavated down to the earliest levels as of 2015, so that the picture of the Julio-Claudian town remains very incomplete.\nHistoryBackground\nBefore the Roman conquest the Aedui were one of the major political and military powers of central Gaul, contending for a preeminence with their powerful neighbours, the Sequani, Bituriges and Arverni. Their civitas was an oligarchy in which the conduct of affairs lay with a senate, an assembly probably made up of the representatives of the great families, which had replaced the older assembly of the people in arms, convened only in exceptional cases such as a declaration of war.\n\nCurrent business and the administration of justice lay with an annual magistrate, the vergobret, elected for one year, probably by the senate. The names of several holders are known: Dumnorix (ca. 60 BC), Liscos (58 BC), Valetiacos (53 BC), and Cotos, whose contested election in 52 BC was settled by Caesar in favour of his rival Convictolitavis. A law forbade the supreme magistrate to leave the territory of the civitas. The farming of taxes and tolls was let by auction.\nAlliance with Rome\nThe Aedui concluded an alliance with Rome at an undetermined moment around 150–140 BC. With the Remi they were the traditional allies of Rome in Gaul, and according to Livy they were already allied with the Republic before 121 BC, when Domitius Ahenobarbus invoked the alliance in order to campaign against the Allobroges. In choosing the strongest and most influential people of Celtic Gaul, Rome secured a partner whose territory, controlling directly or through client peoples the confluence of the Rhône and the Saône, much of the upper Saône and the Yonne (and so access to the Seine), occupied a central and strategic position in inner Gaul.\n\nThey were the first people of inner Gaul to contract such an alliance and, according to Tacitus, the only Gauls to bear the title fratres populi Romani. This title was granted at the moment the foedus was concluded and reconfirmed by successive decrees of the Senate. The treaty was a foedus aequum, an equal treaty resting on reciprocal fides between two peoples whose territories were not contiguous. It entailed mutual military assistance together with the right of hospitality (hospitalitas). Caesar called the Aedui consanguineous brothers (fratres consanguinei). The alliance brought lasting Roman influence, as shown by a silver coinage aligned on the denarius and the early introduction of Roman-style architecture at Bibracte, a site that Olivier Buchsenschutz has described as a bridgehead of Roman influence towards the north of Gaul.\nGallic Wars\nIn 61 BC the Aeduan noble Diviciacus appealed to the Roman Senate for help against the Sequani, Arverni and Germani, but in vain. Diviciacus, brother of Dumnorix and a partisan of Rome, had been received at Rome by Cicero, who records that he was a Druid. He became Caesar's trusted intermediary. When the Helvetii resolved to migrate to the country of the Santones across Aeduan territory, the foedus served Caesar as a pretext to intervene in the still unconquered part of Gauls (Gallia comata). At the Aedui's request Caesar intervened in 58 BC against the Germani of Ariovistus, then allied with the Sequani within an Arvernian coalition. Diviciacus guided the Roman legions into Alsace for the decisive battle.\n\nHis brother Dumnorix led the anti-Roman faction. As son-in-law of the Helvetian Orgetorix, he had held the supreme magistracy shortly before 58 BC and had farmed the Aeduan tolls and taxes for several consecutive years. His wealth allowed him to maintain a body of cavalry as a personal guard, and he commanded the Aeduan cavalry furnished to Caesar. His collusion with the Helvetii was treated as treason, and he was spared only through his brother's influence. In 54 BC, at Portus Itius (Boulogne), he refused to embark for Britain and was killed in flight, crying that he was a free man belonging to a free people. During the war the Aedui were divided, supporting the Romans most of the time but also the insurgents during the brief revolt of 52 BC. After Caesar's final victory they kept their laws and their title of fratres populi Romani.\nRoman period\nAs allies, the Aedui were not conquered but received Roman citizenship directly. Their capital was transferred from Bibracte to a new town, Augustodunum (Autun), created ex nihilo on the order of Augustus at the end of the 1st century BC. It lay about twenty kilometres west of Bibracte, on the road laid out under Agrippa. From its creation the city was enclosed by a wall some 6 kilometres long delimiting nearly 200 hectares, a privilege normally reserved for Latin or Roman colonies. It took the name of its founder: Augustodunum ('the town of Augustus'), from the Gaulish suffix -dunum ('town, fortress').\n\nThe legal status of the city is disputed. Pliny lists it among the federated communities (civitates foederatae), but Antony Hostein, treating Pliny's testimony with caution, argues that the civitas held the status of a Latin-right colony from early on, perhaps from its foundation. Excavation suggests that the move was a gradual shift rather than a sudden abandonment: the public buildings and craft quarters were transferred first in the last decade BC. The aristocratic habitat moved later, only a sparse occupation remaining on the old oppidum after about 15 BC.\n\nUnder Claudius, a delegation of Gallic notables (the primores Galliae, designated by the council of the Ara Romae at Lyon) petitioned the emperor and the Senate in 48 AD for the right to pursue a senatorial career at Rome. Claudius supported the request, but the Senate granted access not to the notables of all Three Gauls but to the Aedui alone as old allies The Aedui thus became the first Gauls to obtain the right to sit in the Roman Senate.\nLate Antiquity\nIn 269–270 AD, Augustodunum was besieged for seven months and sacked. The city had declared for the legitimate emperor Claudius II, the Aedui being the first to solicit his help to recover the Gauls against the Gallic emperor Victorinus. Defended by its population, the city fell when the relief it awaited failed to arrive. The repression that followed included the proscription of the city's notables and the confiscation of their property.\n\nThe city was restored under the Tetrarchy and Constantine, and in 312 it was renamed Flavia Aeduorum in honour of Constantine.\nReligion\nFile:Temple_Janus_Autun_35.jpg|thumb|230x230px|Temple of Janus at Autun.\nThe only Druid named among the Aedui is Diviciacus, whom Cicero received at Rome and recorded as a member of the order. At the end of the La Tène period, religious convergences occurred between the Aedui and the neighbouring Lingones and Sequani in the Saône-Doubs area, as evidenced by the similarity in the practices at the sanctuaries of Nuits-Saint-Georges (Aedui), Mirebeau-sur-Bèze (Lingones) and Mandeure (Sequani).\n\nAt Augustodunum, inscriptions attest the cult of the goddess Bibracte, who bears the name of the former oppidum, of Anvallos, and the presence of a temple of Apollo. The Temple of Janus, probably erected second half of the 1st century AD, was located just outside Augustodunum.\nNotesReferencesPrimary sources\nBibliography","text_chars":10837,"text_sha256":"0932e919389e734735395424375a57dae719adab3dd15243a2d3ae1e1ef87b15","text_utf8_bytes":10877,"title":"Aedui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aedui","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"0fb58de730a60559aed2da0b4890cdbe83a77f890fdaf7c227b747fe7b6df7e7"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1728&action=history","id":"1728","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":6571,"raw_text_sha256":"ab100c375be1e87fb48ab18775837e4800e75ed962c30c2f0ae60df45535de02","raw_text_utf8_bytes":6607,"revision_id":"1372625847","revision_timestamp":"2026-09-01T14:35:56Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1372625847","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"In the Book of Exodus, Amram (; ) is the husband of Jochebed and father of Aaron, Moses and Miriam.\nIn the Holy Scriptures\nIn addition to being married to Jochebed, Amram is also described in the Bible as having been related to Jochebed prior to the marriage, although the exact relationship is uncertain; some Greek and Latin manuscripts of the Septuagint state that Jochebed was Amram's father's cousin, and others state that Amram was Jochebed's cousin, but the Masoretic Text states that she was his father's sister. He is praised for his faith in the Epistle to the Hebrews.\n\nTextual scholars attribute the biblical genealogy to the Book of Generations, a hypothetically reconstructed document theorized to originate from a similar group and date to the priestly source. According to critical scholars, the Torah's genealogy for Levi's descendants, is actually an aetiological myth reflecting the fact that there were four different groups among the Levites – the Gershonites, Kohathites, Merarites, and Aaronids; Aaron – the eponymous ancestor of the Aaronids – could not be portrayed as a brother to Gershon, Kohath, and Merari, as the narrative about the birth of Moses (brother of Aaron), which textual scholars attribute to the earlier Elohist source, mentions only that both his parents were Levites (without identifying their names). Critical scholars suspect that the Elohist account offers both matrilineal and patrilineal descent from Levites in order to magnify the religious credentials of Moses.\nFamily treeIn rabbinical and apocryphal literature\nIn the Apocryphal Testament of Levi, it is stated that Amram was born as a grandson of Levi when Levi was 64 years old. The Exodus Rabbah argues that when the Pharaoh instructed midwives to throw male children into the Nile, Amram divorced Jochebed, who was three months pregnant with Moses at the time, arguing that there was no justification for the Israelite men to father children if they were just to be killed; however, the text goes on to state that Miriam, his daughter, chided him for his lack of care for his wife's feelings, persuading him to recant and marry Jochebed again. According to the Talmud, Amram promulgated the laws of marriage and divorce amongst the Jews in Egypt; the Talmud also argues that Amram had extreme longevity, which he used to ensure that doctrines were preserved through several generations.\n\nDespite the legend of his divorce and remarriage, Amram was also held to have been entirely sinless throughout his life and was rewarded for this by his corpse remaining without any signs of decay. The other three ancient Israelites who died without sin, being Benjamin, Jesse and Chileab.\n\nAccording to the Book of Jubilees, Amram was among the Israelites who took the bones of Jacob's sons (excluding those of Joseph) to Canaan for burial in the cave of Machpelah. Most of the Israelites then returned to Egypt but some remained in Canaan. Those who remained included Amram, who only returned somewhere up to forty years later.\n\nOne of the Dead Sea Scrolls (4Q544, Manuscript B) is written from Amram's point of view, and hence has been dubbed the Visions of Amram. The document is dated to the 2nd century BC and, in the form of a vision, briefly discusses dualism and the Watchers:\nReferences","text_chars":3292,"text_sha256":"66c32f1398114978cc8fbe8365e24a792180f02bac63c76e2b37a6224d59184a","text_utf8_bytes":3298,"title":"Amram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amram","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"51a447157c08ea9b065a0fae2fc9f3b48b730dcc4d867ca63818d5778cd5c0dc"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2197&action=history","id":"2197","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":45071,"raw_text_sha256":"aa85f5af42405a68865b5d70018e18f212dc8788ff804f2e382a29afba546d91","raw_text_utf8_bytes":45116,"revision_id":"1370094722","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-19T02:25:58Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1370094722","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"The Amstrad CPC (short for \"Colour Personal Computer\") is a series of 8-bit home computers produced by Amstrad between 1984 and 1990. It was designed to compete in the mid-1980s home computer market dominated by the Commodore 64 and the ZX Spectrum; it successfully established itself primarily in the United Kingdom, France, Spain, the German-speaking parts of Europe, and also Canada.\n\nThe series spawned a total of six distinct models: The CPC 464, CPC 664, and CPC 6128 were highly successful competitors in the European home computer market. The later 464 plus and 6128 plus, intended to prolong the system's lifecycle with hardware updates, were considerably less successful, as was the attempt to repackage the plus hardware into a game console as the GX4000.\n\nThe CPC models' hardware is based on the Zilog Z80A CPU, complemented with either 64 or 128 KB of RAM. Their computer-in-a-keyboard design prominently features an integrated storage device, either a compact cassette deck or 3-inch floppy disk drive. The main units were only sold bundled with either a colour, green-screen or monochrome monitor that doubles as the main unit's power supply. Additionally, a wide range of first and third-party hardware extensions such as external disk drives, printers, and memory extensions, was available.\n\nThe CPC series was pitched against other home computers primarily used to play video games and enjoyed a strong supply of game software. The comparatively low price for a complete computer system with dedicated monitor, its high-resolution monochrome text and graphic capabilities and the possibility to run CP/M software also rendered the system attractive for business users, which was reflected by a wide selection of application software.\n\nDuring its lifetime, the CPC series sold approximately three million units.\nModels\nThe philosophy behind the CPC series was twofold, firstly the concept was of an \"all-in-one\", where the computer, keyboard and its data storage device were combined in a single unit and sold with its own dedicated display monitor. Most home computers at that time such as ZX Spectrum series, Commodore 64, and BBC Micro relied on the use of the domestic television set and a separately connected tape recorder or disk drive. In itself, the all-in-one concept was not new, having been seen before on business-oriented machines and the Commodore PET.\n\nSecondly, Amstrad founder Alan Sugar wanted the machine to resemble a \"real computer, similar to what someone would see being used to check them in at the airport for their holidays\", and for the machine to not look like \"a pregnant calculator\" – in reference presumably to the ZX81 and ZX Spectrum with their low cost, membrane-type keyboards.\n\nFile:Cpc464.computer.750pix.jpg|thumb|Children playing Paperboy on the CPC 464 in 1988\nCPC 464\nThe CPC 464 was one of the most successful computers in Europe and sold more than two million units.\n\nThe CPC 464 featured 64 KB RAM and an internal cassette deck. It was introduced in June 1984 in the UK. Initial suggested retail prices for the CPC 464 were £249.00/DM899.00 with a green screen and £359.00/DM1398.00 with a colour monitor. Following the introduction of the CPC 6128 in late 1985, suggested retail prices for the CPC 464 were cut by £50.00/DM180.00.\n\nIn 1990, the 464 plus replaced the CPC 464 in the model line-up, and production of the CPC 464 was discontinued.\nCPC 664\nThe CPC 664 features 64 KB RAM and an internal 3-inch floppy disk drive. The Basic was also upgraded to Locomotive Basic 1.1. It was introduced on 25 April 1985 in the UK. Initial suggested retail prices for the CPC 664 were £339.00/DM1198.00 with a green screen and £449.00/DM1998.00 with a colour monitor.\n\nAfter the successful release of the CPC 464, consumers were constantly asking for two improvements: more memory and an internal disk drive. For Amstrad, the latter was easier to realise. At the deliberately low-key introduction of the CPC 664, the machine was positioned not only as the lowest-cost disk system but even the lowest-cost CP/M 2.2 machine. In the Amstrad CPC product range the CPC 664 complemented the CPC 464 which was neither discontinued nor reduced in price.\n\nCompared to the CPC 464, the CPC 664's main unit has been significantly redesigned, not only to accommodate the floppy disk drive but also with a redesigned keyboard area. Touted as \"ergonomic\" by Amstrad's promotional material, the keyboard is noticeably tilted to the front with MSX-style cursor keys above the numeric keypad. Compared to the CPC 464's multicoloured keyboard, the CPC 664's keys are kept in a much quieter grey and pale blue colour scheme.\n\nThe back of the CPC 664 main unit features the same connectors as the CPC 464, with the exception of an additional 12V power lead. Unlike the CPC 464's cassette tape drive that could be powered off the main unit's 5V voltage, the CPC 664's floppy disk drive requires an additional 12V voltage. This voltage had to be separately supplied by an updated version of the bundled green screen/colour monitor (GT-65 and CTM-644 respectively).\n\nThe CPC 664 was only produced for approximately six months. In late 1985, when the CPC 6128 was introduced in Europe, Amstrad decided not to keep three models in the line-up, and production of the CPC 664 was discontinued.\nCPC 6128\nThe CPC 6128 features 128 KB RAM and an internal 3-inch floppy disk drive. Aside from various hardware and firmware improvements, one of the CPC 6128's most prominent features is the compatibility with the CP/M+ operating system that rendered it attractive for business uses. Like the CPC 664, the Basic was version 1.1.\n\nThe CPC 6128 was released on 13 June 1985 and initially only sold in the US. Imported and distributed by Indescomp, Inc. of Chicago, it was the first Amstrad product to be sold in the United States, a market that at the time was traditionally hostile towards European computer manufacturers. Two months later, on 15 August 1985, it arrived in Europe and replaced the CPC 664 in the CPC model line-up. Initial suggested retail prices for the CPC 6128 were US$699.00/£299.00/DM1598.00 with a green screen and US$799.00/£399.00/DM2098.00 with a colour monitor.\n\nIn 1990, the 6128plus replaced the CPC 6128 in the model line-up, and production of the CPC 6128 was discontinued.\nThe plus range\nIn 1990, confronted with a changing home computer market, Amstrad decided to refresh the CPC model range by introducing a new range variantly labelled plus or PLUS, 1990, or CPC+ range. The main goals were numerous enhancements to the existing CPC hardware platform, to restyle the casework to provide a contemporary appearance, and to add native support of cartridge media. The new model palette includes three variants, the 464plus and 6128plus computers and the GX4000 video game console. The \"CPC\" abbreviation was dropped from the model names.\n\nThe redesign significantly enhanced the CPC hardware, mainly to rectify its previous shortcomings as a gaming platform. The redesigned video hardware allows for 16 hardware sprites and soft scrolling, with a colour palette extended from a maximum of 16 colours (plus separately definable border) at one time from a choice of 27, increased to a maximum of 31 (16 for background and 15 for hardware sprites) out of 4096. The enhanced sound hardware offers automatic DMA transfer, allowing more complex sound effects with a significantly reduced processor overhead. Other hardware enhancements include the support of analogue joysticks, 8-bit printers, and ROM cartridges up to 4 Mbits.\n\nThe new range of models was intended to be completely backwards compatible with the original CPC models. All plus models though used Locomotive Basic version 1.1. Its enhanced features are only available after a deliberately obscure unlocking mechanism has been triggered, thus preventing existing CPC software from accidentally invoking them.\n\nDespite the significant hardware enhancements, many viewed it as outdated, being based on an 8-bit CPU, and it failed to attract both customers and software producers who were moving towards systems such as the Amiga and Mega Drive which was launched a few short months after the plus range. The plus range was a commercial failure, and production was discontinued shortly after its introduction in 1990.\n464 plus, 6128 plus\nThe 464 plus and 6128 plus models were intended as \"more sophisticated and stylish\" replacements of the CPC 464 and CPC 6128. Based on the redesigned plus hardware platform, they share the same base characteristics as their predecessors: The 464 plus is equipped with 64 KB RAM and a cassette tape drive, the 6128 plus features 128 KB RAM and a 3\" floppy disk drive. Both models share a common case layout with a keyboard taken over from the CPC 6128 model, and the respective mass storage drive inserted in a case breakout.\n\nIn order to simplify the EMC screening process, the edge connectors of the previous models have been replaced with micro-ribbon connectors as previously used on the German Schneider CPC 6128. As a result, a wide range of extensions for the original CPC range are connector-incompatible with the 464 plus and 6128 plus. In addition, the 6128plus does not have a tape socket for an external tape drive.\n\nThe plus range is not equipped with an on-board ROM, and thus the 464 plus and the 6128 plus do not contain a firmware. Instead, Amstrad provided the firmware for both models via the ROM extension facility, contained on the included Burnin' Rubber and Locomotive BASIC cartridge. This resulted in reduced hardware localization cost (only some select key caps and case labels had to be localized) with the added benefit of a rudimentary copy protection mechanism (without a firmware present, the machine itself could not copy a game cartridge's content). As the enhanced V4 firmware's structural differences causes problems with some CPC software directly calling firmware functions by their memory addresses, Amstrad separately sold a cartridge containing the original CPC 6128's V3 firmware.\n\nBoth the 464 plus and the 6128 plus were introduced to the public in September 1990. Initial suggested retail prices were / with a monochrome monitor and / with a colour monitor for the 464 plus, and / with a monochrome monitor and / with a colour monitor for the 6128plus.\nGX4000\nDeveloped as part of the plus range, the GX4000 was Amstrad's short-lived attempt to enter the video game consoles market. Sharing the plus range's enhanced hardware characteristics, it represents the bare minimum variant of the range without a keyboard or support for mass storage devices. It came bundled with 2 paddle controllers and the racing game Burnin' Rubber.\nSpecial models and clonesCPC 472\nDuring the August holidays of 1985, Spain briefly introduced an import tax of 15 000 pesetas on computers containing 64 KB or less of RAM (Royal Decree 1215/1985 and 1558/1985), and a new law (Royal Decree 1250/1985) mandated that all computers sold in Spain must have a Spanish keyboard. To circumvent this, Amstrad's Spanish distributor Indescomp (later to become Amstrad Spain) created and distributed the CPC 472, a modified version of the CPC 464. Its main differences are a small additional daughter board containing a CPC 664 ROM chip and an 8 KB memory chip, and a keyboard with a ñ key (although some of them were temporarily manufactured without the ñ key). The sole purpose of the 8 KB memory chip (which is not electrically connected to the machine, so consequently rendered unusable) is to increase the machine's total memory specs to 72 KB in order to circumvent the import tax. Some months later, Spain joined the European Communities by the Treaty of Accession 1985 and the import tax was suppressed, so Amstrad added the ñ key for the 464 and production of the CPC 472 was discontinued. Despite it’s short lifespan there were actually 2 slightly different versions of the CPC 472 that were produced, although only one of these used Locomotive Basic version 1.1.\nKC compact\nThe (\"\" - which means \"small computer\" - being a rather literal German translation of the English \"microcomputer\") is a clone of the Amstrad CPC built by East Germany's , part of , in October 1989. Although the machine included various substitutes and emulations of an Amstrad CPC's hardware, the machine is largely compatible with Amstrad CPC software. It is equipped with 64 KB of memory and a CPC 6128's firmware customized to the modified hardware, including a copy of Locomotive BASIC 1.1 modified in the startup banner only. The expansion port is a K 1520 bus slot. The KC compact is the last 8-bit computer introduced in East Germany. Due to the German reunification happening at the time of the release, only a very small number of systems were sold. The KC compact can be emulated by free software JKCEMU.\nAleste 520EX\nIn 1993, Omsk, Russia based company Patisonic released the Aleste 520EX, a computer highly compatible with the Amstrad CPC 6128. It could also be switched into an MSX mode. An expansion board named Magic Sound allowed to play Scream Tracker files.\nReception\nYour Computer concluded that the CPC 464 had \"Superior graphics and sound, an excellent Basic coupled with a flexible operating system\" and that Amstrad's target sales of 200,000 by the end of 1984 were realistic.\n\nA BYTE columnist in January 1985 called the CPC 464 \"the closest yet to filling\" his criteria for a useful home computer, including good keyboard, 80-column text, inexpensive disk drive, and support for a mainstream operating system like CP/M.\nHardwareProcessor\nThe entire CPC series is based on the Zilog Z80; a processor, clocked at 4 MHz. In order to avoid the CPU and the video logic simultaneously accessing the shared main memory and causing video corruption (\"snowing\"), CPU memory access is constrained to occur on microsecond boundaries. This effectively pads every machine cycle to four clock cycles, causing a minor loss of processing power and resulting in what Amstrad estimated to be an \"effective clock rate\" of \"approximately 3.3 MHz\".\nMemory\nAmstrad CPCs are equipped with either 64 (CPC 464, CPC 664, 464plus, GX4000) or 128 (CPC 6128, 6128plus) KB of RAM. This base memory can be extended by up to 512 KB using memory expansions sold by third-party manufacturers, and by up to 4096 KB using experimental methods developed by hardware enthusiasts. Because the Z80 processor is only able to directly address 64 KB of memory, additional memory from the 128 KB models and memory expansions is made available using bank switching.\nVideo\nUnderlying a CPC's video output is the unusual pairing of a CRTC (Motorola 6845 or compatible) with a custom-designed gate array to generate a pixel display output. CPC 6128s later in production as well as the models from the plus range integrate both the CRTC and the gate array's functions with the system's ASIC.\n\nThree built-in display resolutions are available: 160×200 pixels with 16 colours (\"Mode 0\", 20 text columns), 320×200 pixels with 4 colours (\"Mode 1\", 40 text columns), and 640×200 pixels with 2 colours (\"Mode 2\", 80 text columns). Increased screen size can be achieved by reprogramming the CRTC.\n\nThe original CPC video hardware supports a colour palette of 27 colours, generated from RGB colour space with each colour component assigned as either off, half on, or on (3 level RGB palette). The plus range extended the palette to 4096 colours, also generated from RGB with 4 bits each for red, green and blue (12-bit RGB).\n\nWith the exception of the GX4000, all CPC models lack an RF television or composite video output and instead shipped with a 6-pin RGB DIN connector, also used by Acorn computers, to connect the supplied Amstrad monitor. This connector delivers a 1v p-p analogue RGB with a 50 Hz composite sync signal that, if wired correctly, can drive a 50 Hz SCART television. External adapters for RF television were available as a first-party hardware accessory.\nAudio\nThe CPC uses the General Instrument AY-3-8912 sound chip, providing three channels, each configurable to generate square waves, white noise or both. A small array of hardware volume envelopes are available.\n\nOutput is provided in mono by a small (4 cm) built-in loudspeaker with volume control, driven by an internal amplifier. Stereo output is provided through a headphones jack.\n\nIt is possible to play back digital sound samples at a resolution of approximately 5-bit by sending a stream of values to the sound chip. This technique is very processor-intensive and hard to combine with any other processing. Examples are the title screens or other non-playable scenes of games like Chase H.Q., Meltdown, and RoboCop. The later Plus models incorporated a DMA engine in order to offload this processing.\nFloppy disk drive\nAmstrad uses Matsushita's 3\" floppy disk drive [ref: CPCWiki], which was compatible with Hitachi's existing 3\" floppy disk format. The chosen drive (built-in for later models) is a single-sided 40-track unit that requires the user to remove and flip the disk to access the other side. Each side has its own independent write-protect switch. The sides are termed \"A\" and \"B\", with each one commonly formatted to 180 KB (in AMSDOS format, comprising 2 KB directory and 178 KB storage) for a total of 360 KB per disk.\n\nThe interface with the drives is an NEC 765 FDC, used for the same purpose in the IBM PC/XT, PC/AT and PS/2 machines. Its features are not fully used in order to cut costs, namely DMA transfers and support for single density disks; they were formatted as double density using modified frequency modulation.\n\nDiscs were shipped in a paper sleeve or a hard plastic case resembling a compact disc \"jewel\" case. The casing is thicker and more rigid than that of 3.5 inch diskettes, and designed to be mailed without any additional packaging. A sliding metal cover to protect the media surface is internal to the casing and latched, unlike the simple external sliding cover of Sony's version. They were significantly more expensive than both 5.25 inch and 3.5 inch alternatives. This, combined with their low nominal capacities and their essentially proprietary nature, led to the format being discontinued shortly after the CPC itself was discontinued.\n\nApart from Amstrad's other 3-inch machines (the PCW and the ZX Spectrum +3), the few other computer systems to use them included the Sega SF-7000 and CP/M systems such as the Tatung Einstein and Osborne machines. They also found use on embedded systems.\n\nThe Shugart-standard interface means that Amstrad CPC machines are able to use standard 3\", 3½\" or 5¼\" drives as their second drive. Programs such as ROMDOS and ParaDOS extend the standard AMSDOS system to provide support for double-sided, 80-track formats, enabling up to 800 KB to be stored on a single disk.\n\nThe 3-inch disks themselves are usually known as \"discs\" on the CPC, following the spelling on the machine's plastic casing and conventional British English spelling.\nExpansion\nThe hardware and firmware was designed to be able to access software provided on external ROMs. Each ROM has to be a 16 KB block and is switched in and out of the memory space shared with the video RAM. The Amstrad firmware is deliberately designed so that new software could be easily accessed from these ROMs. Popular applications were marketed on ROM, particularly word processing and programming utility software (examples are Protext and Brunword of the former, and the MAXAM assembler of the latter type).\n\nSuch extra ROM chips do not plug directly into the CPC itself, but into extra plug-in \"rom boxes\" which contain sockets for the ROM chips and a minimal amount of decoding circuitry for the main machine to be able to switch between them. These boxes were either marketed commercially or could be built by competent hobbyists and they attached to the main expansion port at the back of the machine. Software on ROM loads much faster than from disc or tape and the machine's boot-up sequence was designed to evaluate ROMs it found and optionally hand over control of the machine to them. This allows significant customisation of the functionality of the machine, something that enthusiasts exploited for various purposes. However, the typical users would probably not be aware of this added ROM functionality unless they read the CPC press, as it is not described in the user manual and was hardly ever mentioned in marketing literature. It is, however, documented in the official Amstrad firmware manual.\n\nThe machines also feature a 9-pin Atari joystick port that will either directly take one joystick, or two joysticks by use of a splitter cable.\nPeripheralsRS232 serial adapters\nAmstrad issued two RS-232-C D25 serial interfaces, attached to the expansion connector on the rear of the machine, with a through-connector for the CPC 464 disk drive or other peripherals.\n\nThe original interface came with a Book of Spells for facilitating data transfer between other systems using a proprietary protocol in the device's own ROM, as well as terminal software to connect to British Telecom's Prestel service. A separate version of the ROM was created for the U.S. market due to the use of the commands \"|SUCK\" and \"|BLOW\", which were considered unacceptable there.\n\nSoftware and hardware limitations in this interface led to its replacement with an Amstrad-branded version of a compatible alternative by Pace. Serial interfaces were also available from third-party vendors such as KDS Electronics and Cirkit.\nSoftwareBASIC and operating system\nLike most home computers at the time, the CPC has its OS and a BASIC interpreter built in as ROM. It uses Locomotive BASIC - an improved version of Locomotive Software's Z80 BASIC for the BBC Micro co-processor board. It is particularly notable for providing easy access to the machine's video and audio resources in contrast to the POKE commands required on generic Microsoft implementations. Other unusual features include timed event handling with the AFTER and EVERY commands, and text-based windowing.\nCP/M\nDigital Research's CP/M operating system was supplied with the 664 and 6128 disk-based systems, and the DDI-1 disk expansion unit for the 464. 64k machines shipped with CP/M 2.2 alone, while the 128k machines also include CP/M 3.1. The compact CP/M 2.2 implementation is largely stored on the boot sectors of a 3\" disk in what was called \"System format\"; typing |CPM from Locomotive BASIC would load code from these sectors, making it a popular choice for custom game loading routines. The CP/M 3.1 implementation is largely in a separate file which is in turn loaded from the boot sector.\nMuch public domain CP/M software was made available for the CPC, from word-processors such as VDE to complete bulletin board systems such as ROS.\nOther languages\nAlthough it was possible to obtain compilers for Locomotive BASIC, C and Pascal, the majority of the CPC's software was written in native Z80 assembly language. Popular assemblers were Hisoft's Devpac, Arnor's Maxam, and (in France) DAMS. Disk-based CPC (not Plus) systems shipped with an interpreter for the educational language LOGO, booted from CP/M 2.2 but largely CPC-specific with much code resident in the AMSDOS ROM; 6128 machines also include a CP/M 3.1, non-ROM version. A C compiler was also written and made available for the European market through Tandy Europe, by Micro Business products.\nRoland\nIn an attempt to give the CPC a recognisable mascot, a number of games by Amstrad's in-house software publisher Amsoft have been tagged with the Roland name. However, as the games had not been designed around the Roland character and only had the branding added later, the character design varies immensely, from a spiky-haired blonde teenager (Roland Goes Digging) to a white cube with legs (Roland Goes Square Bashing) or a mutant flea (Roland in the Caves). The only two games with similar gameplay and main character design are Roland in Time and its sequel Roland in Space. The Roland character was named after Roland Perry, one of the lead designers of the original CPC range.\nSchneider Computer Division\nIn order to market its computers in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland where Amstrad did not have any distribution structures, Amstrad entered a partnership with Schneider Rundfunkwerke AG, a German company that - very much like Amstrad itself - was previously only known for value-priced audio products. In 1984, Schneider's Schneider Computer Division daughter company was created specifically for the task, and the complete Amstrad CPC line-up was branded and sold as Schneider CPC.\n\nAlthough they are based on the same hardware, the Schneider CPC models differ from the Amstrad CPC models in several details. Most prominently, the Schneider CPC 464 and CPC 664 keyboards featured grey instead of coloured keys, but still in the original British keyboard layout. To achieve a German \"QWERTZ\" keyboard layout, Schneider marketed a small software program to reassign the keys as well as sticker labels for the keys. In order to conform with stricter German EMC regulations, the complete Schneider CPC line-up is equipped with an internal metal shielding. For the same reason, the Schneider CPC 6128 features micro ribbon type connectors instead of edge connectors. Both the greyscale keyboard and the micro ribbon connectors found their way up into the design of later Amstrad CPC models.\n\nIn 1988, after Schneider refused to market Amstrad's AT-compatible computer line, the cooperation ended. Schneider went on to sell the remaining stock of Schneider CPC models and used their now well-established market position to introduce its own PC designs. With the formation of its German daughter company Amstrad GmbH to distribute its product lines including the CPC 464 and CPC 6128, Amstrad attempted but ultimately failed to establish their own brand in the German-speaking parts of Europe.\nCommunity\nThe Amstrad CPC enjoyed a strong and long lifetime, mainly due to the machines use for businesses as well as gaming. Dedicated programmers continued working on the CPC range, even producing graphical user interface (GUI) operating systems such as SymbOS. Internet sites devoted to the CPC have appeared from around the world featuring forums, news, hardware, software, programming and games. CPC Magazines appeared during the 1980s including publications in countries such as Britain, France, Spain, Germany, Denmark, Australia, and Greece. Titles included the official Amstrad Computer User publication, as well as independent titles like Amstrad Action, Amtix!, Computing with the Amstrad CPC, CPC Attack, Australia's The Amstrad User, France's Amstrad Cent Pour Cent and Amstar. Following the CPC's end of production, Amstrad gave permission for the CPC ROMs to be distributed freely as long as the copyright message is not changed and that it is acknowledged that Amstrad still holds copyright, giving emulator authors the possibility to ship the CPC firmware with their programs.\nInfluence on other Amstrad machines\nAmstrad followed their success with the CPC 464 by launching the Amstrad PCW word-processor range, another Z80-based machine with a 3\" disk drive and software by Locomotive Software. The PCW was originally developed to be partly compatible with an improved version of the CPC (ANT, or Arnold Number Two - the CPC's development codename was Arnold). However, Amstrad decided to focus on the PCW, and the ANT project never came to market.\n\nOn 7 April 1986, Amstrad announced it had bought from Sinclair Research \"...the worldwide rights to sell and manufacture all existing and future Sinclair computers and computer products, together with the Sinclair brand name and those intellectual property rights where they relate to computers and computer-related products.\" which included the ZX Spectrum, for £5 million. This included Sinclair's unsold stock of Sinclair QLs and Spectrums. Amstrad made more than £5 million on selling these surplus machines alone. Amstrad launched two new variants of the Spectrum: the ZX Spectrum +2, based on the ZX Spectrum 128, with a built-in tape drive (like the CPC 464) and, the following year, the ZX Spectrum +3, with a built-in floppy disk drive (similar to the CPC 664 and 6128), taking the 3\" discs that Amstrad CPC machines used.\nProduction TimelineSee also\nAmstrad CPC character set\nAmstrad CP/M Plus character set\nList of Amstrad CPC emulators\nList of Amstrad CPC games\nGX4000\nSymbOS (multitasking operating system)\nNotes and referencesExternal links\nCPC-Wiki (CPC specific Wiki containing further information)\nCPC-Power\nUnofficial Amstrad WWW Resource\nNew OS for the CPC","text_chars":28701,"text_sha256":"77afa77532c01557d2b2008f2f65b9d8bd3c64f5cdf5b0711558755496d4074a","text_utf8_bytes":28722,"title":"Amstrad CPC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amstrad_CPC","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"18f612299d4bb3779b143e738cfc5487ce3f13138307151d3c35a711be949e44"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=316&action=history","id":"316","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":115869,"raw_text_sha256":"9717687732dbdec141525f8dd086c58f93c457896575023fd5c88f761b6fd31e","raw_text_utf8_bytes":115996,"revision_id":"1370558420","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-21T20:52:09Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1370558420","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"The Academy Award for Best Production Design recognizes achievement for art direction in film. The category's original name was Best Art Direction, but was changed to its current name in 2012 for the 85th Academy Awards. This change resulted from the Art Directors' branch of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) being renamed the Designers' branch. Since 1947, the award is shared with the set decorators. It is awarded to the best interior design in a film.\n\nThe films below are listed with their production year (for example, the 2000 Academy Award for Best Art Direction is given to a film from 1999). In the lists below, the winner of the award for each year is shown first, followed by the other nominees in alphabetical order.\nSuperlativesWinners and nominees1920s1930s1940s1950s1960s1970s1980s1990s2000s2010s2020sNotesShortlisted finalists\nFinalists for Best Production Design were selected by branch members, who voted for ten finalists which were screened to determine the five nominees.\nIndividuals with multiple wins\n11 wins\nCedric Gibbons\n8 wins\nEdwin B. Willis\n7 wins\nRichard Day\n6 wins\nThomas Little\nWalter M. Scott\n5 wins\nLyle R. Wheeler\n4 wins\nJohn Box\nSamuel M. Comer\nF. Keogh Gleason\nGeorge James Hopkins\n3 wins\nEdward Carfagno\nStuart Craig\nWilliam S. Darling\nJohn DeCuir\nVernon Dixon\nHans Dreier\nDante Ferretti\nPaul S. Fox\nAlexander Golitzen\nPaul Groesse\nJohn Meehan\nRay Moyer\nFrancesca Lo Schiavo\nJack Martin Smith\n2 wins\nKen Adam\nE. Preston Ames\nHerman A. Blumenthal\nHenry Bumstead\nDonald Graham Burt\nGene Callahan\nRick Carter\nGeorge Davis\nLeslie Dilley\nMichael D. Ford\nGeorge Gaines\nRussell A. Gausman\nNancy Haigh\nHarry Horner\nWilliam A. Horning\nHugh Hunt\nWiard Ihnen\nEmile Kuri\nTerence Marsh\nCatherine Martin\nWilliam Cameron Menzies\nUrie McCleary\nJohn Myhre\nGil Parrondo\nRobert Priestley\nStuart A. Reiss\nNorman Reynolds\nDario Simoni\nRobert Stromberg\nRichard Sylbert\nShane Vieau\nJoseph C. Wright\nPeter Young\nIndividuals with multiple nominations\n39 nominations\nCedric Gibbons\n32 nominations\nEdwin B. Willis\n29 nominations\nLyle R. Wheeler\n26 nominations\nSamuel M. Comer\n23 nominations\nHans Dreier\n21 nominations\nThomas Little\nWalter M. Scott\n20 nominations\nRichard Day\n17 nominations\nGeorge Davis\n15 nominations\nRoland Anderson\n14 nominations\nAlexander Golitzen\n13 nominations\nPaul S. Fox\nHenry Grace\nGeorge James Hopkins\nHugh Hunt\n12 nominations\nRay Moyer\nJoseph C. Wright\n11 nominations\nStuart Craig\nJohn DeCuir\nPaul Groesse\n10 nominations\nEdward Carfagno\n9 nominations\nHoward Bristol\nDante Ferretti\nNancy Haigh\nBoris Leven\nJack Martin Smith\nWalter H. Tyler\n8 nominations\nE. Preston Ames\nWilliam A. Horning\nArthur Krams\nEmile Kuri\nFrancesca Lo Schiavo\nJack Otterson\n7 nominations\nLionel Banks\nEdward G. Boyle\nCarroll Clark\nNathan Crowley\nWilliam S. Darling\nDennis Gassner\nRussell A. Gausman\nF. Keogh Gleason\nSarah Greenwood\nFrank R. McKelvy\nJack D. Moore\nDarrell Silvera\nKatie Spencer\n6 nominations\nJohn Box\nLeland Fuller\nTed Haworth\nWilliam Kiernan\nUrie McCleary\nJohn Myhre\nAnna Pinnock\nRichard Pefferle\nVan Nest Polglase\nStuart A. Reiss\nNorman Reynolds\nRichard Sylbert\n5 nominations\nKen Adam\nJames Basevi\nAlbert Brenner\nCheryl Carasik\nRick Carter\nRobert Clatworthy\nAlbert S. D'Agostino\nLinda DeScenna\nLeslie Dilley\nPerry Ferguson\nHal Gausman\nStephen Goosson\nAnton Grot\nDan Hennah\nJulia Heron\nJoseph Kish\nTambi Larsen\nGrant Major\nMarvin March\nStephenie McMillan\nHans Peters\nDean Tavoularis\n4 nominations\nRobert R. Benton\nRobert F. Boyle\nRaphaël Bretton\nHenry Bumstead\nGene Callahan\nRobert Cartwright\nErnst Fegté\nGary Fettis\nJack Fisk\nMichael D. Ford\nGeorge Gaines\nJohn B. Goodman\nPeter Howitt\nAngelo P. Graham\nVincent Korda\nPeter Lamont\nGarrett Lewis\nTerence Marsh\nCatherine Martin\nArthur Max\nGeorge R. Nelson\nKaren O'Hara\nJeannine Oppewall\nDario Simoni\nEve Stewart\nAdam Stockhausen\nPatrice Vermette\nShane Vieau\nGeorge C. Webb\nBo Welch\nIan Whittaker\n3 nominations\nGene Allen\nLuciana Arrighi\nMel Bourne\nPatrizia von Brandenstein\nJohn Bryan\nW. Stewart Campbell\nClaude E. Carpenter\nEdward Carrere\nWilliam J. Creber\nVernon Dixon\nRandall Duell\nA. Roland Fields\nNorman Garwood\nPiero Gherardi\nStephen B. Grimes\nJay Hart\nRick Heinrichs\nDale Hennesy\nHarry Horner\nJohn Hughes\nWiard Ihnen\nMark-Lee Kirk\nRuby R. Levitt\nSanto Loquasto\nJosie MacAvin\nJohn Victor Mackay\nFred M. MacLean\nJoseph McMillan Johnson\nJohn Meehan\nWilliam Cameron Menzies\nGeorge Milo\nYoshirō Muraki\nCary Odell\nGil Parrondo\nJames W. Payne\nRobert Priestley\nGianni Quaranta\nMaurice Ransford\nGretchen Rau\nCasey Roberts\nCrispian Sallis\nLee Sandales\nHugh Scaife\nElliot Scott\nGordon Sim\nRudolph Sternad\nAlexander Toluboff\nFrank Tuttle\nRobert Usher\nRoy Walker\nIra S. Webb\n2 nominations\nCarl Anderson\nErnest Archer\nFay Babcock\nHannah Beachler\nJudy Becker\nMalcolm C. Bert\nCarl Biddiscombe\nCelia Bobak\nAline Bonetto\nMerideth Boswell\nSimon Bright\nBrigitte Broch\nMalcolm Brown\nDonald Graham Burt\nEugenio Caballero\nAnthony Carlino\nCindy Carr\nMaurice Carter\nDaniel B. Cathcart\nBruno Cesari\nRoger Christian\nHarry Cordwell\nMichael Corenblith\nLionel Couch\nFiona Crombie\nSuzie Davies\nLisa Dean\nRena DeAngelo\nGeorge DeTitta Jr.\nRobert De Vestel\nTamara Deverell\nCarmen Dillon\nRoss Dowd\nRaoul Pene Du Bois\nBeverley Dunn\nGuy Hendrix Dyas\nPeter Ellenshaw\nJim Erickson\nAlice Felton\nWilliam Ferrari\nVictor A. Gangelin\nJess Gonchor\nRobert Gould\nBertram C. Granger\nMaggie Gray\nJohn Graysmark\nGrace Gregory\nDavid Gropman\nPierre Guffroy\nRobert M. Haas\nDavid S. Hall\nHein Heckroth\nAddison Hehr\nWalter Holscher\nFredric Hope\nFrank E. Hughes\nPeter James\nGeorge C. Jenkins\nCarol Joffe\nAlfred Junge\nNathan Juran\nWilliam Kellner\nLilly Kilvert\nRobert W. Laing\nHarry Lange\nAlan Lee\nKathy Lucas\nJohn B. Mansbridge\nTed Marshall\nFlorencia Martin\nSo Matsuyama\nJohn McCarthy Jr.\nJack McConaghy\nPatrick McLoughlin\nMickey S. Michaels\nHarold Michelson\nLorenzo Mongiardino\nMartin Obzina\nJack Okey\nHarry Oliver\nBen Van Os\nArthur Jeph Parker\nJan Pascale\nAnthony D. G. Pratt\nJill Quertier\nNorman Rockett\nJan Roelfs\nPhilip Rosenberg\nBeth Rubino\nThomas E. Sanders\nGeorge Sawley\nFerdinando Scarfiotti\nJohn DuCasse Schulze\nMichael Seirton\nGene Serdena\nPaul Sheriff\nRick Simpson\nTed Smith\nJack Stephens\nEdward Stewart\nRobert Stromberg\nPaul Sylbert\nCharles S. Thompson\nAlexandre Trauner\nWilliam H. Tuntke\nTony Walton\nElven Webb\nCarl Jules Weyl\nAdam Willis\nJoanne Woollard\nJerry Wunderlich\nPeter Young\nEugenio Zanetti\nSee also\nBAFTA Award for Best Production Design\nCritics' Choice Movie Award for Best Production Design\nADG Excellence in Production Design Awards\nList of Academy Award–nominated films\nReferences","text_chars":6557,"text_sha256":"b06e0160aec3793cfbd47db90caea95e57ae624ebcce7dde3be8462e0f2507af","text_utf8_bytes":6562,"title":"Academy Award for Best Production Design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Production_Design","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"a099af3d668fe9a69e7ef5c63c18d09cf7cf0052902a649e1b756d3e95039972"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1748&action=history","id":"1748","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":27020,"raw_text_sha256":"2a8a2fc5e55d0a571d57049125c8da0f8fba2c36e3f1bf1ef47a5fe7989d2dde","raw_text_utf8_bytes":27144,"revision_id":"1365656132","revision_timestamp":"2026-07-23T18:01:26Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1365656132","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Anaximenes of Miletus (; ; ) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher from Miletus in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey). He was the last of the three philosophers of the Milesian School, after Thales and Anaximander. These three are regarded by historians as the first philosophers of the Western world. Little is known of Anaximenes's life and work, as all of his original texts are lost. Historians and philosophers have reconstructed information about Anaximenes by interpreting texts about him by later writers.\n\nAnaximenes is known for his belief that air is the arche, or the basic element of the universe from which all things are created. All three Milesian philosophers were monists who believed in a single foundational source of everything: Anaximenes believed it to be air, while Thales believed it to be water and Anaximander believed it to be apeiron, an undefined infinity. It is generally accepted that Anaximenes was instructed by Anaximander, and many of their philosophical ideas are similar. While Anaximenes was the preeminent Milesian philosopher in Ancient Greece, he is often given lower importance than the others in the modern day.\n\nAnaximenes held that air could change into other forms through either rarefaction or condensation. Condensation would make the air denser, turning it into wind, clouds, water, earth, and finally stone. Rarefaction would make the air less dense as it eventually becomes fire. Anaximenes also developed a model of the Earth, describing it as a flat disc floating atop the air while the Sun and stars are also flat and float alongside it. He described the Sun as revolving around the Earth, causing it to be obscured by higher lands during the night. As one of the Milesian philosophers, Anaximenes was one of the earliest figures to develop science. He influenced many of the Pre-Socratic philosophers that succeeded him, such as Heraclitus, Anaxagoras, Diogenes of Apollonia, and Xenophanes. He also provided early examples of concepts such as natural science, physical change, and scientific writing.\nBiography\nAnaximenes was born . Surviving information about the life of Anaximenes is limited, and it comes primarily from what was preserved by Ancient Greek philosophers, particularly Aristotle and Theophrastus. According to Theophrastus, Anaximenes was the son of Eurystratus, an associate of the philosopher Anaximander, and lived in Miletus. Anaximenes is recorded as becoming a student of Anaximander. Anaximenes was likely also taught Homeric epics, Greek mythology, and Orphism, which may have influenced his philosophy through their portrayal of the classical elements. It is considered likely that he and the other Milesian philosophers were wealthy, allowing them to dedicate time to philosophy.\n\nAnaximenes's apparent instructor, Anaximander, was a Milesian philosopher who proposed that apeiron, an undefined and boundless infinity, is the origin of all things. Anaximenes and Anaximander were two of the three Milesian philosophers, along with Thales. These were all philosophers from Miletus who were the first of the Ionian School. As the earliest known figures to have developed theories regarding the material origin of the world without a divine explanation, they are regarded as the first philosophers in the Western world. According to Diogenes Laertius, Anaximenes lived approximately from 585 to 524 BC. Anaximenes is only known to have written one full text, which may have been a response to Anaximander's text On Nature. It was described by Theophrastus as having a \"simple and economical Ionic style\". Anaximenes died .\nPhilosophyAir as the arche\nWhat is known about Anaximenes's philosophy is what was preserved by later philosophers, particularly Aristotle and Theophrastus. According to their writings, each philosopher of the Milesian School was a material monist who sought to discover the arche , or the one, underlying basis of all things. This is generally understood in the context of a substance, though scholars have argued that this may be anachronistic by imposing the Aristotelian notion of substance theory on earlier philosophy. Anaximenes argued that the arche is air. He described several basic elements that he considered to be manifestations of air, sorting them from least dense to most dense: fire, air, wind, clouds, water, earth, and stones. Philosophers have concluded that Anaximenes seems to have based his conclusions on naturally observable phenomena in the water cycle: the processes of rarefaction and condensation. He proposed that each substance is created by condensation to increase the density of air or by rarefaction to decrease it. The rarefaction process described by Anaximenes is often compared to felting.\n\nTemperature was of particular importance to Anaximenes's philosophy, and he developed an early concept of the connection between temperature and density. He believed that expanded air was thinner and therefore hotter while compressed air was thicker and therefore colder—although modern science has found the opposite to be true. He derived this belief from the fact that one's breath is warm when the mouth is wide while it is cold when the air is compressed through the lips.\n\nAnaximenes further applied his concept of air as the arche to other questions. He believed in the physis, or natural world, rather than the theo, or divine world. Anaximenes considered air to be divine in a sense, but he did not associate it with deities or personification. He presented air as the first cause that propelled living systems, giving no indication that air itself was caused by anything. Anaximenes also likened the soul to air, describing it as something that is driven by breath and wills humans to act as they do. These beliefs draw a connection between the soul and the physical world, as they suggest that they are made of the same material, air. From this, Anaximenes suggested that everything, whether it be an individual soul or the entire world, operates under the same principles in which things are held together and guided by the air. In Ancient Greek, the words for wind and for soul shared a common origin.\n\nAnaximenes's philosophy was centered on a theory of change through ongoing cycles, defined by the movement of air. These cycles consisted of opposite forces interacting with and superseding one another. This is most prominently indicated in the weather and the seasons, which alternate between hot and cold, dry and wet, or light and dark. Anaximenes did not believe that any substance could be created or destroyed, only that it could be changed from one form to another. From this belief, he proposed a model in which the qualitative traits of a substance are determined by quantitative factors.\nCosmology and weather\nAnaximenes believed that the universe was initially made entirely of air and that liquids and solids were then produced from it through condensation. He also used air to explain the nature of the Earth and the surrounding celestial bodies. He believed in a flat Earth that emerged as one of the first things to be condensed from air. This Earth is supported by the pressure of air underneath it to keep it afloat.\n\nAnaximenes considered celestial objects to be those which had separated from the Earth. The philosophers who recorded Anaximenes's ideas disagree as to how he theorized this happened. He may have described them as evaporating or rarifying into fire. He is said to have compared the movement of the Earth, Sun, and stars to leaves floating in the wind, though he is also described as likening the stars to nails embedded in the sky. Some scholars have suggested that Anaximenes may have believed both models by distinguishing between planets and stars, which would make him the first person to do so. While the Sun is described as being a flame, Anaximenes thought it was not composed of rarefied air like the stars, but rather of Earth. According to Pseudo-Plutarch, Anaximenes thought that its burning comes not from its composition, but rather from its rapid motion.\n\nAnaximenes rejected the commonplace idea that the Sun went underneath the Earth, instead saying that it rotated around the Earth. Hippolytus likened it to a hat spinning around a person's head. It's unknown whether this analogy was of Hippolytus's own creation or if it was part of Anaximenes's explanation. This model of the sun's movement has been interpreted in various ways by subsequent philosophers.\n\nAnaximenes also described the causes of other natural phenomena. Like Anaximander, he believed that thunder and lightning occurred when wind emerged after being trapped in a cloud. Earthquakes, he asserted, were the result of alternating drying and wetting of the earth, causing it to undergo a cycle of splitting and swelling. He was the first philosopher to attempt a scientific explanation of rainbows, and the only one to do so until Aristotle. He described them as a reflection of sunlight off of clouds, and he theorized that the various colors were caused by an interaction of light and darkness.\nMilesian context\nAnaximenes's views have been interpreted as reconciling those of his two predecessors, Thales and Anaximander. Air as the arche is a limitless concept, which resembled Anaximander's theory that the arche was the abstract infinite that he called apeiron (, lit. 'unlimited, 'boundless'). At the same time, air as the arche was a defined substance, which resembled the theory of Thales that the arche was water. Anaximenes adopted a similar design of a flat Earth as Thales. Both proposed that the Earth was flat and that it rested on the substance they believed made up all things; Thales described a disc on water, while Anaximenes described a disc on air. His cosmology also did not diverge significantly from the ideas of Anaximander, only changing it so that it reflected his variety of monism.\n\nAnaximenes's philosophy was founded upon that of Anaximander, but tradition holds that he was also critical of his instructor in some areas. Anaximenes also maintained that there must be an empirical explanation for why substances change from one form to another.\n\nAnaximenes and Anaximander were similar in that they are not known to have justified why or how changes in physical things take place the way that they do. Anaximander instead invoked metaphors of justice and retribution to describe change, and he made direct appeals to deities and the divine in support of his beliefs. Anaximenes deviated from Anaximander in both of these ideas.\nLegacy and study\nInfluence on science and philosophy\nAnaximenes was the last of the Milesian philosophers, and Miletus was destroyed by attacking Persian forces in 494 BC. Little of his life is known compared to the other Milesian philosophers, Thales and Anaximander. These three philosophers together began what eventually became science in the Western world. In ancient Greece, the ideas of Anaximenes were well regarded in philosophy, popularized by various philosophers such as Diogenes of Apollonia, and had a greater presence than the ideas of his predecessors. The other Milesian philosophers have since overshadowed him in the study of philosophy. Anaximenes was the first philosopher to give an explanation for substances changing from one state to another through a physical process. He may also have been the first philosopher to write in descriptive prose rather than verse, developing a prototype of scientific writing. Only fragments of Anaximenes's writings have been preserved directly, and it is unknown how much these fragments have diverged from the original texts as they were recorded by subsequent authors. Further details of Anaximenes's life and philosophical views are obscure, as none of his work has been preserved, and he is only known through fragments and interpretations of him made by later writers and polemicists. The Anaximenes crater on the Moon is named in his honor.\n\nEarly medical practice developed ideas similar to Anaximenes, proposing that air was the basis of health in that it both provides life and carries disease. Anaximenes's conception of air has been likened to the atoms and subatomic particles that make up all substances through their quantitative organization. It has also been compared to the breath of life produced by God in the Old Testament. His understanding of physical properties as quantitative differences that applied at individual and universal scales became foundational ideas in the development of natural science. He was the first philosopher to analogize his philosophy in practical terms, comparing the functions of the world to behaviors that can be observed in common activities. In this manner, he was also the first to liken the function of the individual to that of the world. In this case, likening the breath that defines humans to the air that defines the world. His belief that the same properties governed the world at a human scale and a universal scale was eventually proven by Isaac Newton.\nSubsequent interpretation\nSome of Anaximenes's writings are referenced during the Hellenistic period, but no record of those documents currently exists. Philosophers such as Heraclitus, Anaxagoras, and Diogenes of Apollonia were all directly influenced by the work of Anaximenes. Diogenes of Apollonia adapted Anaximenes's ideas to the philosophy of Stoicism. The ideas ridiculed in the Aristophanes play The Clouds originated from the ideas of Anaximander and Anaximenes. Philosophers such as Xenophanes later adopted Anaximenes's model of cosmology. Xenophanes's theory that the arche is earth and water has also been interpreted as a response to Anaximenes.\n\nPlato referenced the concept of air as the cause of thought in the Phaedo, rejecting it with the argument that one's physical state does not determine their fate. In the Timaeus, Plato favorably mentions Anaximenes's theory of matter and its seven states from stone to fire. Aristotle was critical of the ideas of Anaximenes. In his Metaphysics, Aristotle characterized Anaximenes and his predecessors as monists, those who believe that all things are composed of a single substance. This description came to be widely accepted in philosophy. Practitioners of Aristotelian philosophy further considered Anaximenes to be a founder of naturalism. After Aristotle, Theophrastus continued the doxography of the Milesian philosophers and other Ionians. He described Anaximenes as a natural philosopher. Other ancient philosophers who analyzed the work of Anaximenes include Simplicius, Aetius, Hippolytus, and Plutarch.\n\nGeorg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel said that Anaximenes was the first philosopher to transfer the ideas of natural philosophy into the philosophy of consciousness. Werner Heisenberg said that the philosophy of Anaximenes caused a setback in scientific understanding, as it moved analysis away from physical properties themselves. Karl Popper suggested that Anaximenes and Anaximander developed a philosophy of rationalist critique, allowing criticism of one's teacher, that was not revived until the Renaissance.\nReferences\nCitationsSources\nFurther reading\nExternal links\nAnaximenes at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy\nAnaximenes of Miletus Life and Work – Fragments and Testimonies by Giannis Stamatellos","text_chars":15285,"text_sha256":"6c0f780f47de12262bd77a13969fab46a88145c7a59475179f0493bd3e71c134","text_utf8_bytes":15289,"title":"Anaximenes of Miletus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Miletus","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"2f884a751d4a8d74dc12989fb8217916eb437d742c72dd4648784d6a271292c4"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2907&action=history","id":"2907","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":7806,"raw_text_sha256":"a340d78233c9e642a96a78537e0734f84a7b430d27173ad5aa6c3df0d44bff69","raw_text_utf8_bytes":7845,"revision_id":"1340824583","revision_timestamp":"2026-02-27T22:57:50Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1340824583","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Axayacatl (; ; ; meaning \"face of water\"; –1481) was the sixth of the of Tenochtitlan and Emperor of the Aztec Triple Alliance.\nBiographyEarly life and background\nAxayacatl was a son of the princess Atotoztli II and her cousin, prince Tezozomoc. He was a grandson of the Emperors Moctezuma I and Itzcoatl. He was a descendant of the king Cuauhtototzin.\n\nHe was a successor of Moctezuma and his brothers were Emperors Tizoc and Ahuitzotl and his sister was the Queen Chalchiuhnenetzin. He was an uncle of the Emperor Cuauhtémoc and father of Emperors Moctezuma II and Cuitláhuac.\nRise to power\nDuring his youth, his military prowess gained him the favor influential figures such as Nezahualcoyotl and Tlacaelel I, and thus, upon the death of Moctezuma I in 1469, he was chosen to ascend to the throne, much to the displeasure of his two older brothers, Tizoc and Ahuitzotl.\n\nIt is also important that the Great Sun Stone, also known as the Aztec Calendar, was carved under his leadership. An earthquake in Tenochtitlán occurred and destroyed many homes.\nMilitary actions and death\nUsing as a pretext the insulting behavior of a few Tlatelolcan citizens, Axayacatl invaded his neighbor, killed its ruler, Moquihuix, and replaced him with a military governor. The Tlatelolcans lost any voice they had in forming Aztec policy.\n\nAxayacatl largely dedicated his twelve-year reign to consolidating his militaristic repute: he led successful campaigns against the neighboring of Tlatelolco in 1473 (see Battle of Tlatelolco) and the Matlatzinca of the Toluca Valley in 1474, but was finally defeated by the Tarascans of Michoacán in 1476. Despite some subsequent minor triumphs, Axayacatl's defeat at the hands of the Tarascans irreversibly marred his image, as it constituted the only major defeat suffered by the Aztecs up to that moment. In spite of his young age, he fell gravely ill in 1480, dying a mere year later, in 1481, whereupon he was succeeded by his brother Tizoc.\nAxayacatl the poet\nAxayacatl wrote two poems. The first, Ycuic Axayayatzin (English: \"Song of Axayacatl\") is a defense against his brothers and critics; the second, Huehue cuicatl (English: \"Song of the Ancients\") is a lament written after his defeat in Michoacan.\nIn popular culture\nThe Obsidian and Blood series by Aliette de Bodard are set in the last year of the reign of Axayacatl and the first years of the reign of Tizoc, with their youngest brother Ahuitzotl appearing as a primary character.\nNotesSee also\nList of Tenochtitlan rulers\nReferences\nExternal links","text_chars":2540,"text_sha256":"8d4acae5415de2ba647e589aba4e4d453dbc83ff521c263e0474f94a3e2fcf6b","text_utf8_bytes":2546,"title":"Axayacatl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axayacatl","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"4d079c1064f2f1331d47ada8f442e49b5f4786011b8f28a07865edc0319280d9"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=885&action=history","id":"885","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":1960,"raw_text_sha256":"458ca979ed81537a4271ec9cb76736f58039b914c6f564afda3cd6f407116165","raw_text_utf8_bytes":1971,"revision_id":"1270428226","revision_timestamp":"2025-01-19T13:57:53Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1270428226","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Altenberg (German for \"old mountain\" or \"mountain of the old\") may refer to:\nPlacesAustria\nAltenberg, a town in Sankt Andrä-Wördern, Tulln District\nAltenberg bei Linz, in Upper Austria\nAltenberg an der Rax, in Styria\nGermany\nAltenberg (Bergisches Land), an area in Odenthal, North Rhine-Westphalia\nAltenberg Abbey, Cistercian monastery in Altenberg (Bergisches Land)\nAltenberger Dom, sometimes called Altenberg Cathedral, the former church of this Cistercian monastery\nAltenberg (Hohenahr), hill in Hesse\nAltenberg (Limpurg Hills), highest summit in the Limpurg Hills\nAltenberg, Saxony, a town\nAltenberga, a municipality in the Saale-Holzfeld district, Thuringia\nAltenberg Abbey, Solms, a former Premonstratensian nunnery near Wetzlar in Hesse\nZinkfabrik Altenberg, a former zinc factory, now a branch of the LVR Industrial Museum, Oberhausen, North Rhine-Westphalia\nGrube Altenberg, a show mine near Kreuztal, North Rhine-Westphalia\nOther places\nAltenberg, the German name for Vieille Montagne (old mountain in French), a former zinc mine in Kelmis, Moresnet, Belgium\nAltenberg, a district in the city of Bern, Switzerland\nOther uses\nAltenberg Lieder (Five Orchestral Songs), composed by Alban Berg in 1911/12\nAltenberg Publishing (1880–1934), a former Polish publishing house\nAltenberg Trio, a Viennese piano trio\nPeople with the surname\nAlfred Altenberg (1878–1924), Polish bookseller and publisher\nJakob Altenberg (1875–1944), Austrian businessman\nLee Altenberg, theoretical biologist\nPeter Altenberg (1859–1919), nom de plume of Austrian writer and poet Richard Engländer\nSee also\nAltenburg (disambiguation)","text_chars":1612,"text_sha256":"1b190aa59f6c68c5271e386b2093d1740c95814624adf8738a9bccec2a6d233c","text_utf8_bytes":1623,"title":"Altenberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altenberg","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"ca95d0ded06f52b2a41c7d0b3b494d1739d750776835e714648b60e4660fc3fc"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1851&action=history","id":"1851","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":23310,"raw_text_sha256":"df1b251b6985368653511513353bd1e5733c4dad6511765e24d83d64cea7aeca","raw_text_utf8_bytes":23364,"revision_id":"1358403573","revision_timestamp":"2026-06-08T13:24:42Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1358403573","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"In geometry, an antiprism or is a polyhedron composed of two parallel direct copies (not mirror images) of an polygon, connected by an alternating band of triangles. They are represented by the Conway notation .\n\nAntiprisms are a subclass of prismatoids, and are a (degenerate) type of snub polyhedron.\n\nAntiprisms are similar to prisms, except that the bases are twisted relatively to each other, and that the side faces (connecting the bases) are triangles, rather than quadrilaterals.\n\nThe dual polyhedron of an -gonal antiprism is an -gonal trapezohedron.\nHistory\nIn his 1619 book Harmonices Mundi, Johannes Kepler observed the existence of the infinite family of antiprisms. This has conventionally been thought of as the first discovery of these shapes, but they may have been known earlier: an unsigned printing block for the net of a hexagonal antiprism has been attributed to Hieronymus Andreae, who died in 1556.\n\nThe German form of the word \"antiprism\" was used for these shapes in the 19th century; Karl Heinze credits its introduction to . Although the English \"anti-prism\" had been used earlier for an optical prism used to cancel the effects of a primary optical element, the first use of \"antiprism\" in English in its geometric sense appears to be in the early 20th century in the works of H. S. M. Coxeter.\nSpecial cases\nRight antiprism\nFor an antiprism with regular -gon bases, one usually considers the case where these two copies are twisted by an angle of degrees. The axis of a regular polygon is the line perpendicular to the polygon plane and lying in the polygon centre.\n\nFor an antiprism with congruent regular -gon bases, twisted by an angle of degrees, more regularity is obtained if the bases have the same axis: are coaxial; i.e. (for non-coplanar bases): if the line connecting the base centers is perpendicular to the base planes. Then the antiprism is called a right antiprism, and its side faces are isosceles triangles.\n\nThe symmetry group of a right -antiprism is of order known as an antiprismatic symmetry, because it could be obtained by rotation of the bottom half of a prism by in relation to the top half. A concave polyhedron created in this way would have this symmetry group, hence prefix \"anti\" before \"prismatic\". There are two exceptions having groups different than :\nthe regular tetrahedron, which has the larger symmetry group of order , which has three versions of as subgroups;\nthe regular octahedron, which has the larger symmetry group of order , which has four versions of as subgroups.\nIf a right 2- or 3-antiprism is not uniform, then its symmetry group is or as usual.\nThe symmetry group contains inversion if and only if is odd.\n\nThe rotation group is of order , except in the cases of:\nthe regular tetrahedron, which has the larger rotation group of order , which has only one subgroup ;\nthe regular octahedron, which has the larger rotation group of order , which has four versions of as subgroups.\nIf a right 2- or 3-antiprism is not uniform, then its rotation group is or as usual.\nThe right -antiprisms have congruent regular -gon bases and congruent isosceles triangle side faces, thus have the same (dihedral) symmetry group as the uniform -antiprism, for .\n\nCartesian coordinates for the vertices of a right -antiprism (i.e. with regular -gon bases and isosceles triangle side faces, circumradius of the bases equal to 1) are:\nwhere ;\n\nif the -antiprism is uniform (i.e. if the triangles are equilateral), then:\nUniform antiprism\nA uniform -antiprism has two congruent regular -gons as base faces, and equilateral triangles as side faces. As do uniform prisms, the uniform antiprisms form an infinite class of vertex-transitive polyhedra. For , one has the digonal antiprism (degenerate antiprism), which is visually identical to the regular tetrahedron; for , the regular octahedron is a triangular antiprism (non-degenerate antiprism).\n\nThe Schlegel diagrams of these semiregular antiprisms are as follows:\nPropertiesVolume and surface area\nLet be the edge-length of a uniform -gonal antiprism; then the volume is:\n\nand the surface area is:\n\nFurthermore, the volume of a regular right -gonal antiprism with side length of its bases and height is given by:\nDerivation\nThe circumradius of the horizontal circumcircle of the regular -gon at the base is\nThe vertices at the base are at\nthe vertices at the top are at\nVia linear interpolation, points on the outer triangular edges of the antiprism that connect vertices at the bottom with vertices at the top\nare at\nand at\nBy building the sums of the squares of the and coordinates in one of the previous two vectors,\nthe squared circumradius of this section at altitude is\nThe horizontal section at altitude above the base is a -gon (truncated -gon)\nwith sides of length alternating with sides of length .\n(These are derived from the length of the difference of the previous two vectors.)\nIt can be dissected into isoceless triangles of edges and (semiperimeter )\nplus\nisoceless triangles of edges and (semiperimeter ).\nAccording to Heron's formula the areas of these triangles are\nand\nThe area of the section is , and the volume is\nThe volume of a right -gonal prism with the same and is:\n\nwhich is smaller than that of an antiprism.\nGeneralizations\nIn higher dimensions\nFour-dimensional antiprisms can be defined as having two dual polyhedra as parallel opposite faces, so that each three-dimensional face between them comes from two dual parts of the polyhedra: a vertex and a dual polygon, or two dual edges. Every three-dimensional convex polyhedron is combinatorially equivalent to one of the two opposite faces of a four-dimensional antiprism, constructed from its canonical polyhedron and its polar dual. However, there exist four-dimensional polychora that cannot be combined with their duals to form five-dimensional antiprisms.\nSelf-crossing polyhedra\nUniform star antiprisms are named by their star polygon bases, {{math|{p/q},}} and exist in prograde and in retrograde (crossed) solutions. Crossed forms have intersecting vertex figures, and are denoted by \"inverted\" fractions: instead of ; example: (5/3) instead of (5/2).\n\nA right star -antiprism has two congruent coaxial regular convex or star polygon base faces, and isosceles triangle side faces.\n\nAny star antiprism with regular convex or star polygon bases can be made a right star antiprism (by translating and/or twisting one of its bases, if necessary).\n\nFile:Antiprisms.pdf|thumb|All the non-star and star uniform antiprisms up to 15 sides, together with those of a 29-gon (or icosaenneagon). For example, the icosaenneagrammic crossed antiprism with the greatest , such that it can be uniform, has and is depicted at the bottom right corner of the image. For up to the crossed antiprism cannot be uniform.Note: Octagrammic crossed antiprism (8/5) is missing.|500x500pxIn the retrograde forms, but not in the prograde forms, the triangles joining the convex or star bases intersect the axis of rotational symmetry. Thus:\nRetrograde star antiprisms with regular convex polygon bases cannot have all equal edge lengths, and so cannot be uniform. \"Exception\": a retrograde star antiprism with equilateral triangle bases (vertex configuration: 3.3/2.3.3) can be uniform; but then, it has the appearance of an equilateral triangle: it is a degenerate star polyhedron.\nSimilarly, some retrograde star antiprisms with regular star polygon bases cannot have all equal edge lengths, and so cannot be uniform. Example: a retrograde star antiprism with regular star -gon bases (vertex configuration: 3.3.3.7/5) cannot be uniform.\n\nAlso, star antiprism compounds with regular star -gon bases can be constructed if and have common factors. Example: a star (10/4)-antiprism is the compound of two star (5/2)-antiprisms.\n\nThe dual of a antiprism with is a -trapezohedron, and the dual of a antiprism with , i.e. crossed antiprism, is a concave trapezohedron, where \"concave\" refers to 2-dimensional faces of the 3D solid.\nNumber of uniform crossed antiprisms\nIf the notation is used for an antiprism, then for the antiprism is crossed (by definition) and for is not. In this section all antiprisms are assumed to be non-degenerate, i.e. , . Also, the condition ( and are relatively prime) holds, as compounds are excluded from counting. The number of uniform crossed antiprisms for fixed can be determined using simple inequalities. The condition on possible is\nand\n\nExamples:\n= 3: 2 ≤ ≤ 1 – a uniform triangular crossed antiprism does not exist.\n= 5: 3 ≤ ≤ 3 – one antiprism of the type (5/3) can be uniform.\n= 29: 15 ≤ ≤ 19 – there are five possibilities (15 thru 19) shown in the rightmost column, below the (29/1) convex antiprism, on the image above.\n= 15: 8 ≤ ≤ 9 – antiprism with = 8 is a solution, but = 9 must be rejected, as (15,9) = 3 and = . The antiprism (15/9) is a compound of three antiprisms (5/3). Since 9 satisfies the inequalities, the compound can be uniform, and if it is, then its parts must be. Indeed, the antiprism (5/3) can be uniform by example 2.\n\nIn the first column of the following table, the symbols are Schoenflies, Coxeter, and orbifold notation, in this order.\nSee also\nAntiprism graph, graph of an antiprism\nGrand antiprism, a four-dimensional polytope\nSkew polygon, a three-dimensional polygon whose convex hull is an antiprism\nReferencesFurther reading\nChapter 2: Archimedean polyhedra, prisms and antiprisms\nExternal links","text_chars":9439,"text_sha256":"ba884b47cd39b04f517006a1d02f39a7938bb456757e95639a75506cc03df972","text_utf8_bytes":9463,"title":"Antiprism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiprism","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"3429da3c1e3a0904ffe0bfba5bf24552b83a04263c63bf8b401ba132066aa1b6"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2118&action=history","id":"2118","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":38892,"raw_text_sha256":"9fb0b2fc827e9173eae92da1790f8d356dd1a149676af82a0bebad377131e057","raw_text_utf8_bytes":38999,"revision_id":"1361768886","revision_timestamp":"2026-06-29T23:58:53Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1361768886","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"In computer science, an AVL tree (named after inventors Adelson-Velsky and Landis) is a self-balancing binary search tree. In an AVL tree, the heights of the two child subtrees of any node differ by not more than one; if at any time they differ by more than one, rebalancing is done to restore this property. Lookup, insertion, and deletion all take time in both the average and worst cases, where is the number of nodes in the tree prior to the operation. Insertions and deletions may require the tree to be rebalanced by one or more tree rotations.\n\nThe AVL tree is named after its two Soviet inventors, Georgy Adelson-Velsky and Evgenii Landis, who published it in their 1962 paper \"An algorithm for the organization of information\". It is the first self-balancing binary search tree data structure to be invented.\n\nAVL trees are often compared with red–black trees because both support the same set of operations and take time for the basic operations. For lookup-intensive applications, AVL trees are faster than red–black trees because they are more strictly balanced. Similar to red–black trees, AVL trees are height-balanced. Both are, in general, neither weight-balanced nor -balanced for any ; that is, sibling nodes can have hugely differing numbers of descendants.\nDefinitionBalance factor\nIn a binary tree the balance factor of a node X is defined to be the height difference\nof its two child sub-trees rooted by node X.\n\nA binary tree is defined to be an AVL tree if\nholds for every node X in the tree.\n\nA node X with is called \"left-heavy\", one with is called \"right-heavy\", and one with is sometimes simply called \"balanced\".\nProperties\nBalance factors can be kept up-to-date by knowing the previous balance factors and the change in height – it is not necessary to know the absolute height. For holding the AVL balance information, two bits per node are sufficient.\n\nThe height (counted as the maximal number of levels) of an AVL tree with nodes lies in the interval:\nwhere is the golden ratio and\nThis is because an AVL tree of height contains at least nodes where is the Fibonacci sequence with the seed values\nOperations\nRead-only operations of an AVL tree involve carrying out the same actions as would be carried out on an unbalanced binary search tree, but modifications have to observe and restore the height balance of the sub-trees.\nSearching\nSearching for a specific key in an AVL tree can be done the same way as that of any balanced or unbalanced binary search tree. In order for search to work effectively it has to employ a comparison function which establishes a total order (or at least a total preorder) on the set of keys. The number of comparisons required for successful search is limited by the height and for unsuccessful search is very close to , so both are in , where n is the number of nodes in the tree.\nTraversal\nAs a read-only operation the traversal of an AVL tree functions the same way as on any other binary tree. Exploring all nodes of the tree visits each link exactly twice: one downward visit to enter the subtree rooted by that node, another visit upward to leave that node's subtree after having explored it.\n\nOnce a node has been found in an AVL tree, the next or previous node can be accessed in amortized constant time. Some instances of exploring these \"nearby\" nodes require traversing up to links (particularly when navigating from the rightmost leaf of the root's left subtree to the root or from the root to the leftmost leaf of the root's right subtree; in the AVL tree of figure 1, navigating from node P to the next-to-the-right node Q takes 3 steps). Since there are links in any tree, the amortized cost is , or approximately 2.\nInsert\nWhen inserting a node into an AVL tree, you initially follow the same process as inserting into a Binary Search Tree. If the tree is empty, then the node is inserted as the root of the tree. If the tree is not empty, then we go down the root, and recursively go down the tree searching for the location to insert the new node. This traversal is guided by the comparison function. In this case, the node always replaces a NULL reference (left or right) of an external node in the tree i.e., the node is either made a left-child or a right-child of the external node.\n\nAfter this insertion, if a tree becomes unbalanced, only ancestors of the newly inserted node are unbalanced. This is because only those nodes have their sub-trees altered. So it is necessary to check each of the node's ancestors for consistency with the invariants of AVL trees: this is called \"retracing\". This is achieved by considering the balance factor of each node.\n\nSince with a single insertion the height of an AVL subtree cannot increase by more than one, the temporary balance factor of a node after an insertion will be in the range For each node checked, if the temporary balance factor remains in the range from –1 to +1 then only an update of the balance factor and no rotation is necessary. However, if the temporary balance factor is ±2, the subtree rooted at this node is AVL unbalanced, and a rotation is needed. With insertion as the code below shows, the adequate rotation immediately perfectly rebalances the tree.\n\nIn figure 1, by inserting the new node Z as a child of node X the height of that subtree Z increases from 0 to 1.\nInvariant of the retracing loop for an insertion\nThe height of the subtree rooted by Z has increased by 1. It is already in AVL shape.\n\nIn order to update the balance factors of all nodes, first observe that all nodes requiring correction lie from child to parent along the path of the inserted leaf. If the above procedure is applied to nodes along this path, starting from the leaf, then every node in the tree will again have a balance factor of −1, 0, or 1.\n\nThe retracing can stop if the balance factor becomes 0 implying that the height of that subtree remains unchanged.\n\nIf the balance factor becomes ±1 then the height of the subtree increases by one and the retracing needs to continue.\n\nIf the balance factor temporarily becomes ±2, this has to be repaired by an appropriate rotation after which the subtree has the same height as before (and its root the balance factor 0).\n\nThe time required is for lookup, plus a maximum of retracing levels ( on average) on the way back to the root, so the operation can be completed in time.\nDelete\nThe preliminary steps for deleting a node are the same as for a Binary search tree.\nThere, the effective deletion of the subject node or the replacement node decreases the height of the corresponding child tree either from 1 to 0 or from 2 to 1, if that node had a child.\n\nStarting at this subtree, it is necessary to check each of the ancestors for consistency with the invariants of AVL trees. This is called \"retracing\".\n\nSince with a single deletion the height of an AVL subtree cannot decrease by more than one, the temporary balance factor of a node will be in the range from −2 to +2.\nIf the balance factor remains in the range from −1 to +1 it can be adjusted in accord with the AVL rules. If it becomes ±2 then the subtree is unbalanced and needs to be rotated. (Unlike insertion where a rotation always balances the tree, after delete, there may be BF(Z) ≠ 0 (see figures 2 and 3), so that after the appropriate single or double rotation the height of the rebalanced subtree decreases by one meaning that the tree has to be rebalanced again on the next higher level.) The various cases of rotations are described in section Rebalancing.\nInvariant of the retracing loop for a deletion\nThe height of the subtree rooted by N has decreased by 1. It is already in AVL shape.\n\nThe retracing can stop if the balance factor becomes ±1 (it must have been 0) meaning that the height of that subtree remains unchanged.\n\nIf the balance factor becomes 0 (it must have been ±1) then the height of the subtree decreases by one and the retracing needs to continue.\n\nIf the balance factor temporarily becomes ±2, this has to be repaired by an appropriate rotation. It depends on the balance factor of the sibling Z (the higher child tree in figure 2) whether the height of the subtree decreases by one –and the retracing needs to continue– or does not change (if Z has the balance factor 0) and the whole tree is in AVL-shape.\n\nThe time required is for lookup, plus a maximum of retracing levels ( on average) on the way back to the root, so the operation can be completed in time.\nSet operations and bulk operations\nIn addition to the single-element insert, delete and lookup operations, several set operations have been defined on AVL trees: union, intersection and set difference. Then fast bulk operations on insertions or deletions can be implemented based on these set functions. These set operations rely on two helper operations, Split and Join. With the new operations, the implementation of AVL trees can be more efficient and highly-parallelizable.\n\nThe function Join on two AVL trees and and a key will return a tree containing all elements in , as well as . It requires to be greater than all keys in and smaller than all keys in . If the two trees differ by height at most one, Join simply create a new node with left subtree , root and right subtree . Otherwise, suppose that is higher than for more than one (the other case is symmetric). Join follows the right spine of until a node which is balanced with . At this point a new node with left child , root and right child is created to replace c. The new node satisfies the AVL invariant, and its height is one greater than . The increase in height can increase the height of its ancestors, possibly invalidating the AVL invariant of those nodes. This can be fixed either with a double rotation if invalid at the parent or a single left rotation if invalid higher in the tree, in both cases restoring the height for any further ancestor nodes. Join will therefore require at most two rotations. The cost of this function is the difference of the heights between the two input trees.\n\nfunction JoinRightAVL(TL, k, TR)\n(l, k', c) = expose(TL)\nif (Height(c) <= Height(TR)+1)\nT' = Node(c, k, TR)\nif (Height(T') <= Height(l)+1) then return Node(l, k', T')\nelse return rotateLeft(Node(l, k', rotateRight(T')))\nelse\nT' = JoinRightAVL(c, k, TR)\nT = Node(l, k', T')\nif (Height(T') <= Height(l)+1) return T\nelse return rotateLeft(T)\n\nfunction JoinLeftAVL(TL, k, TR)\n/* symmetric to JoinRightAVL */\n\nfunction Join(TL, k, TR)\nif (Height(TL)>Height(TR)+1) return JoinRightAVL(TL, k, TR)\nif (Height(TR)>Height(TL)+1) return JoinLeftAVL(TL, k, TR)\nreturn Node(TL, k, TR)\nHere Height(v) is the height of a subtree (node) . (l,k,r) = expose(v) extracts 's left child , the key of 's root, and the right child . Node(l,k,r) means to create a node of left child , key , and right child .\n\nTo split an AVL tree into two smaller trees, those smaller than key , and those greater than key , first draw a path from the root by inserting into the AVL. After this insertion, all values less than will be found on the left of the path, and all values greater than will be found on the right. By applying Join, all the subtrees on the left side are merged bottom-up using keys on the path as intermediate nodes from bottom to top to form the left tree, and the right part is asymmetric. The cost of Split is , order of the height of the tree.\n\nfunction Split(T, k)\nif (T = nil) return (nil, false, nil)\n(L,m,R) = expose(T)\nif (k = m) return (L, true, R)\nif (km)\n(L',b,R') = Split(R, k)\nreturn (Join(L, m, L'), b, R'))\n\nThe union of two AVL trees and representing sets and , is an AVL that represents .\n\nfunction Union(t1, t2):\nif t1 = nil:\nreturn t2\nif t2 = nil:\nreturn t1\n(t<, b, t>) = Split(t2, t1.root)\nreturn Join(Union(left(t1), t<), t1.root, Union(right(t1), t>))\n\nHere, Split is presumed to return two trees: one holding the keys less its input key, one holding the greater keys. (The algorithm is non-destructive, but an in-place destructive version exists as well.)\n\nThe algorithm for intersection or difference is similar, but requires the Join2 helper routine that is the same as Join but without the middle key. Based on the new functions for union, intersection or difference, either one key or multiple keys can be inserted to or deleted from the AVL tree. Since Split calls Join but does not deal with the balancing criteria of AVL trees directly, such an implementation is usually called the \"join-based\" implementation.\n\nThe complexity of each of union, intersection and difference is for AVL trees of sizes and . More importantly, since the recursive calls to union, intersection or difference are independent of each other, they can be executed in parallel with a parallel depth . When , the join-based implementation has the same computational DAG as single-element insertion and deletion.\nRebalancing\nIf during a modifying operation the height difference between two child subtrees changes, this may, as long as it is < 2, be reflected by an adaption of the balance information at the parent. During insert and delete operations a (temporary) height difference of 2 may arise, which means that the parent subtree has to be \"rebalanced\". The given repair tools are the so-called tree rotations, because they move the keys only \"vertically\", so that the (\"horizontal\") in-order sequence of the keys is fully preserved (which is essential for a binary-search tree).\n\nLet X be the node that has a (temporary) balance factor of −2 or +2. Its left or right subtree was modified. Let Z be the child with the higher subtree (see figures 2 and 3). Note that both children are in AVL shape by induction hypothesis.\n\nIn case of insertion this insertion has happened to one of Z's children in a way that Z's height has increased.\nIn case of deletion this deletion has happened to the sibling t1 of Z in a way so that t1's height being already lower has decreased. (This is the only case where Z's balance factor may also be 0.)\n\nThere are four possible variants of the violation:\n\nAnd the rebalancing is performed differently:\n\nThereby, the situations are denoted as where C (= child direction) and B (= balance) come from the set {{nowrap|{ Left, Right }}} with The balance violation of case is repaired by a simple rotation whereas the case is repaired by a double rotation\n\nThe cost of a rotation, either simple or double, is constant.\nSimple rotation\nFigure 2 shows a Right Right situation. In its upper half, node X has two child trees with a balance factor of +2. Moreover, the inner child t23 of Z (i.e., left child when Z is right child, or right child when Z is left child) is not higher than its sibling t4. This can happen by a height increase of subtree t4 or by a height decrease of subtree t1. In the latter case, also the pale situation where t23 has the same height as t4 may occur.\n\nThe result of the left rotation is shown in the lower half of the figure. Three links (thick edges in figure 2) and two balance factors are to be updated.\n\nAs the figure shows, before an insertion, the leaf layer was at level h+1, temporarily at level h+2 and after the rotation again at level h+1. In case of a deletion, the leaf layer was at level h+2, where it is again, when t23 and t4 were of same height. Otherwise the leaf layer reaches level h+1, so that the height of the rotated tree decreases.\nCode snippet of a simple left rotation\nDouble rotation\nFigure 3 shows a Right Left situation. In its upper third, node X has two child trees with a balance factor of +2. But unlike figure 2, the inner child Y of Z is higher than its sibling t4. This can happen by the insertion of Y itself or a height increase of one of its subtrees t2 or t3 (with the consequence that they are of different height) or by a height decrease of subtree t1. In the latter case, it may also occur that t2 and t3 are of the same height.\n\nThe result of the first, the right, rotation is shown in the middle third of the figure. (With respect to the balance factors, this rotation is not of the same kind as the other AVL single rotations, because the height difference between Y and t4 is only 1.) The result of the final left rotation is shown in the lower third of the figure. Five links (thick edges in figure 3) and three balance factors are to be updated.\n\nAs the figure shows, before an insertion, the leaf layer was at level h+1, temporarily at level h+2 and after the double rotation again at level h+1. In case of a deletion, the leaf layer was at level h+2 and after the double rotation it is at level h+1, so that the height of the rotated tree decreases.\nCode snippet of a right-left double rotation\nComparison to other structures\nBoth AVL trees and red–black (RB) trees are self-balancing binary search trees and they are related mathematically. Indeed, every AVL tree can be colored red–black, but there are RB trees which are not AVL balanced. For maintaining the AVL (or RB) tree's invariants, rotations play an important role. In the worst case, even without rotations, AVL or RB insertions or deletions require inspections and/or updates to AVL balance factors (or RB colors). RB insertions and deletions and AVL insertions require from zero to three tail-recursive rotations and run in amortized time, thus equally constant on average. AVL deletions requiring rotations in the worst case are also on average. RB trees require storing one bit of information (the color) in each node, while AVL trees mostly use two bits for the balance factor, although, when stored at the children, one bit with meaning «lower than sibling» suffices. The bigger difference between the two data structures is their height limit.\n\nFor a tree of size\nan AVL tree's height is at most\nwhere the golden ratio, and .\na RB tree's height is at most\n.\n\nAVL trees are more rigidly balanced than RB trees with an asymptotic relation AVL/RB ≈0.720 of the maximal heights. For insertions and deletions, Ben Pfaff shows in 79 measurements a relation of AVL/RB between 0.677 and 1.077 with median ≈0.947 and geometric mean ≈0.910.\nSee also\nWAVL tree\nWeight-balanced tree\nSplay tree\nScapegoat tree\nB-tree\nT-tree\nList of data structures\nReferencesFurther reading\nDonald Knuth. The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 3: Sorting and Searching, Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. . Pages 458–475 of section 6.2.3: Balanced Trees.\n.\nExternal links","text_chars":18328,"text_sha256":"10351dc9ff197b48eb5623ce86d0bdf89cf155e60c9afaaf08c1744cca30beca","text_utf8_bytes":18373,"title":"AVL tree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AVL_tree","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"751628d0608f9d6f0254a9a5fafd96047ab2b5b32a460b522c94b851e33a1fbf"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=956&action=history","id":"956","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":64895,"raw_text_sha256":"5efbc3c438c1aa62f20fb3c9880cdecb6cb9ffb0d8a5337b47dbda667d0f0d72","raw_text_utf8_bytes":65027,"revision_id":"1364329568","revision_timestamp":"2026-07-15T23:26:47Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1364329568","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Asteraceae is a large family of flowering plants that consists of over 32,000 known species in over 1,900 genera within the order Asterales. The number of species in Asteraceae is rivaled only by the Orchidaceae, and which is the larger family is unclear as the number of extant species in each family is unknown. The Asteraceae were first described in the year 1740 and given the original name Compositae. The family is commonly known as the aster, daisy, composite, or sunflower family.\n\nMost species of Asteraceae are herbaceous plants, and may be annual, biennial, or perennial, but there are also shrubs, vines, and trees. The family has a widespread distribution, from subpolar to tropical regions, in a wide variety of habitats. Most occur in hot desert and cold or hot semi-desert climates, and they are found on every continent but Antarctica. Their common primary characteristic is compound flower heads, technically known as capitula, consisting of sometimes hundreds of tiny individual florets enclosed by a whorl of protective involucral bracts.\n\nThe oldest known fossils are pollen grains from the Late Cretaceous (Campanian to Maastrichtian) of Antarctica, dated to million years ago (mya). It is estimated that the crown group of Asteraceae evolved at least 85.9 mya (Late Cretaceous, Santonian) with a stem node age of 88–89 mya (Late Cretaceous, Coniacian).\n\nAsteraceae is an economically important family, providing food staples, garden plants, and herbal medicines. Species outside of their native ranges can become weedy or invasive.\nDescription\nMembers of the Asteraceae are mostly herbaceous plants, but some shrubs, vines, and trees (such as Lachanodes arborea) do exist. Asteraceae species are generally easy to distinguish from other plants because of their unique inflorescence and other shared characteristics, such as the joined anthers of the stamens. Nonetheless, determining genera and species of some groups, such as Hieracium, is notoriously difficult (see \"damned yellow composite\" for example).\nRoots\nMembers of the family Asteraceae generally produce taproots, but sometimes they possess fibrous root systems. Some species have underground stems in the form of caudices or rhizomes. These can be fleshy or woody, depending on the species.\nStems\nThe stems are herbaceous, aerial, branched, and cylindrical with glandular hairs, usually erect, but can be prostrate to ascending. The stems can contain secretory canals with resin, or latex, which is particularly common among the Cichorioideae.\nLeaves\nLeaves can be alternate, opposite, or whorled. They may be simple, but are often deeply lobed or otherwise incised, often conduplicate or revolute. The margins also can be entire or toothed. Resin or latex can also be present in the leaves.\nInflorescences\nNearly all Asteraceae bear their flowers in dense flower heads called capitula. They are surrounded by involucral bracts, and when viewed from a distance, each capitulum may appear to be a single flower. Enlarged outer (peripheral) flowers in the capitulum may resemble petals, and the involucral bracts may look like a calyx. Notable exceptions include Hecastocleis shockleyi (the only species in the subfamily Hecastocleidoideae) and the species of the genus Corymbium (the only genus in the subfamily Corymbioideae), which have one-flowered bisexual capitulas, Gundelia with one-flowered unisexual capitulas, and Gymnarrhena micrantha with one-flowered female capitulas and few flowered male capitulas.\nFloral heads\nIn plants of the Asteraceae, what appears to be a single \"daisy\"-type flower is actually a composite of several much smaller flowers, known as the capitulum or head. By visually presenting as a single flower, the capitulum attracts pollinators in the same manner that other \"showy\" flowering plants in numerous other, older plant families have evolved to attract pollinators. The previous name for the family, Compositae, reflects the fact that what appears to be a single floral entity is in fact a composite of much smaller flowers.\n\nThe \"petals\" or \"sunrays\" in an \"asteraceous\" head are in fact individual strap-shaped flowers called ray flowers or ray florets, and the \"sun disk\" is made up of smaller, radially symmetric, individual flowers called disc flowers or disc florets. The word aster means \"star\" in Greek, referring to the appearance of most family members as a \"celestial body with rays\".\nThe capitulum, which often appears to be a single flower, is often referred to as a head. In some species, the entire head is able to pivot its floral stem in the course of the day to track the sun (like a \"smart\" solar panel), thus maximizing the reflectivity of the entire floral unit and further attracting flying pollinators.\n\nNearest to the flower stem lie a series of small, usually green, scale-like bracts. These are known as phyllaries; collectively, they form the involucre, which serves to protect the immature head of florets during its development. The individual florets are arranged atop a dome-like structure called the receptacle.\n\nThe individual florets in a head consist, developmentally, of five fused petals (rarely four); instead of sepals, they have threadlike, hairy, or bristly structures, known collectively as a pappus (plural pappi). The pappus surrounds the ovary and can, when mature and attached to a seed, adhere to animal fur or be carried by air currents, aiding in seed dispersal. The whitish, fluffy head of a dandelion, commonly blown on by children, consists of numerous seeds resting on the receptacle, each seed attached to its pappus. The pappi provide a parachute-like structure to help the seed travel from its point of origin to a more hospitable site.\n\nA ray flower is a two - or three-lobed, strap-shaped, individual flower, found in the head of most members of the Asteraceae. The corolla of the ray flower may have two tiny, vestigial teeth, opposite to the three-lobed strap, or tongue, indicating its evolution by fusion from an ancestral, five-part corolla. In some species, the 3:2 arrangement is reversed, with two lobes, and zero or three tiny teeth visible opposite the tongue.\n\nA ligulate flower is a five-lobed, strap-shaped, individual flower found in the heads of certain other asteraceous species. A ligule is the strap-shaped tongue of the corolla of either a ray flower or of a ligulate flower. A disk flower (or disc flower) is a radially symmetric individual flower in the head, which is ringed by the ray flowers when both are present. In some species, ray flowers may be arranged around the disc in irregular symmetry, or with a weakly bilaterally symmetric arrangement.\nVariations\nWhen an Asteraceae flower head has only disc flowers that are bisexual, it is a discoid head. A subtype of discoid heads are radiant heads, which have larger, dilated, and often bilateral outer florets.\n\nDisciform heads include disk florets, which may be male or bisexual, and surrounding florets that may be naked or tubular and female.\n\nA radiate head has disc florets surrounded by an outer portion of ray florets known as a lamina.\n\nA ligulate head has only ligulate florets.\n\nSome other species produce two different head types: staminate (all-male), or pistillate (all-female). In a few unusual species, the \"head\" will consist of one single disc flower; alternatively, a few species will produce both single-flowered female heads, along with multi-flowered male heads, in their \"pollination strategy\".\nFloral structures\nThe distinguishing characteristic of Asteraceae is their inflorescence, a type of specialised, composite flower head or pseudanthium, technically called a calathium or capitulum, that may look superficially like a single flower. The capitulum is a contracted raceme composed of numerous individual sessile flowers, called florets, all sharing the same receptacle.\n\nA set of bracts forms an involucre surrounding the base of the capitulum. These are called \"phyllaries\", or \"involucral bracts\". They may simulate the sepals of the pseudanthium. These are mostly herbaceous but can also be brightly coloured (e.g. Helichrysum) or have a scarious (dry and membranous) texture. The phyllaries can be free or fused, and arranged in one to many rows, overlapping like the tiles of a roof (imbricate) or not (this variation is important in identification of tribes and genera).\n\nEach floret may be subtended by a bract, called a \"palea\" or \"receptacular bract\". These bracts are often called \"chaff\". The presence or absence of these bracts, their distribution on the receptacle, and their size and shape are all important diagnostic characteristics for genera and tribes.\n\nThe florets have five petals fused at the base to form a corolla tube, and they may be either actinomorphic or zygomorphic. Disc florets are usually actinomorphic, with five petal lips on the rim of the corolla tube. The petal lips may be either very short or long, in which case they form deeply lobed petals. The latter is the only kind of floret in the Carduoideae, while the first kind is more widespread. Ray florets are always highly zygomorphic and are characterised by the presence of a ligule, a strap-shaped structure on the edge of the corolla tube consisting of fused petals. In the Asteroideae and other minor subfamilies, these are usually borne only on florets at the circumference of the capitulum and have a 3+2 scheme - above the fused corolla tube, three very long fused petals form the ligule, with the other two petals being inconspicuously small. The Cichorioideae has only ray florets, with a 5+0 scheme - all five petals form the ligule. A 4+1 scheme is found in the Barnadesioideae. The tip of the ligule is often divided into teeth, each one representing a petal. Some marginal florets may have no petals at all (filiform floret).\n\nThe calyx of the florets may be absent, but when present is always modified into a pappus of two or more teeth, scales or bristles, and this is often involved in the dispersion of the seeds. As with the bracts, the nature of the pappus is an important diagnostic feature.\n\nThere are usually four or five stamens. The filaments are fused to the corolla, while the anthers are generally connate (syngenesious anthers), thus forming a sort of tube around the style (theca). They commonly have basal and/or apical appendages. Pollen is released inside the tube and is collected around the growing style, and then, as the style elongates, is pushed out of the tube.\n\nThe pistil consists of two connate carpels. The style has two lobes. Stigmatic tissue may be located in the interior surface or form two lateral lines. The ovary is inferior and has only one ovule, with basal placentation.\nFruits and seeds\nIn members of the Asteraceae, the fruit is achene-like, and is called a cypsela (plural cypselae). Although there are two fused carpels, there is only one locule, and only one seed per fruit is formed. It may sometimes be winged or spiny because the pappus, which is derived from calyx tissue, often remains on the fruit (for example, in dandelion). In some species, however, the pappus falls off (for example, in Helianthus). Cypsela morphology is often used to help determine plant relationships at the genus and species level. The mature seeds usually have little or no endosperm.\nPollen\nThe pollen of composites is typically echinolophate, a morphological term meaning \"with elaborate systems of ridges and spines dispersed around and between the apertures.\"\nMetabolites\nIn Asteraceae, the energy store is generally in the form of inulin rather than starch. They produce iso/chlorogenic acid, sesquiterpene lactones, pentacyclic triterpene alcohols, various alkaloids, acetylenes (cyclic, aromatic, with vinyl end groups), tannins. They have terpenoid essential oils that never contain iridoids.\n\nAsteraceae produce secondary metabolites, such as flavonoids and terpenoids. Some of these molecules can inhibit protozoan parasites such as Plasmodium, Trypanosoma, Leishmania and parasitic intestinal worms, and thus have potential in medicine.\nTaxonomyHistory\nCompositae, the original name for Asteraceae, were first described in 1740 by Dutch botanist Adriaan van Royen. Traditionally, two subfamilies were recognised: Asteroideae (or Tubuliflorae) and Cichorioideae (or Liguliflorae). The latter has been shown to be extensively paraphyletic, and has now been divided into 12 subfamilies, but the former still stands. The study of this family is known as synantherology.\nPhylogeny\nThe phylogenetic tree of subfamilies presented below is based on Panero & Funk (2002) updated in 2014, and now also includes the monotypic Famatinanthoideae.\nThe diamond (♦) denotes a very poorly supported node (<50% bootstrap support), the dot (•) a poorly supported node (<80%).\n\nThe family includes over 32,000 currently accepted species, in over 1,900 genera (list) in 13 subfamilies. The number of species in the family Asteraceae is rivaled only by Orchidaceae. Which is the larger family is unclear, because of the uncertainty about how many extant species each family includes. The four subfamilies Asteroideae, Cichorioideae, Carduoideae and Mutisioideae contain 99% of the species diversity of the whole family (approximately 70%, 14%, 11% and 3% respectively).\n\nBecause of the morphological complexity exhibited by this family, agreeing on generic circumscriptions has often been difficult for taxonomists. As a result, several of these genera have required multiple revisions.\nPaleontology and evolutionary processes\nThe oldest known fossils of members of Asteraceae are pollen grains from the Late Cretaceous of Antarctica, dated to ~76–66 mya (Campanian to Maastrichtian) and assigned to the extant genus Dasyphyllum. Barreda, et al. (2015) estimated that the crown group of Asteraceae evolved at least 85.9 mya (Late Cretaceous, Santonian) with a stem node age of 88–89 mya (Late Cretaceous, Coniacian).\n\nIt is not known whether the precise cause of their great success was the development of the highly specialised capitulum, their ability to store energy as fructans (mainly inulin), which is an advantage in relatively dry zones, or some combination of these and possibly other factors. Heterocarpy, or the ability to produce different fruit morphs, has evolved and is common in Asteraceae. It allows seeds to be dispersed over varying distances, and each is adapted to different environments, increasing chances of survival.\nEtymology and pronunciation\nThe original name Compositae is still valid under the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants.\n\nThe alternative (as it came later) name Asteraceae comes to international scientific vocabulary from Neo-Latin, from Aster, the type genus, + , a standardized suffix for plant family names in modern taxonomy. This genus name comes from the Classical Latin word , \"star\", which came from Ancient Greek , \"star\". It refers to the star-like form of the inflorescence.\n\nThe vernacular name daisy, widely applied to members of this family, is derived from the Old English name of the daisy (Bellis perennis): , meaning \"day's eye\". This is because the petals open at dawn and close at dusk.\nDistribution and habitat\nAsteraceae species have a widespread distribution, from subpolar to tropical regions in a wide variety of habitats. Most occur in hot desert and cold or hot semi-desert climates, and they are found on every continent but Antarctica. They are especially numerous in tropical and subtropical regions (notably Central America, eastern Brazil, the Mediterranean, the Levant, southern Africa, central Asia, and southwestern China). The largest proportion of the species occur in the arid and semi-arid regions of subtropical and lower temperate latitudes. The Asteraceae family comprises 10% of all flowering plant species.\nEcology\nAsteraceae are especially common in open and dry environments. Many members of Asteraceae are pollinated by insects, which explains their value in attracting beneficial insects, but anemophily is also present (e.g. Ambrosia, Artemisia). There are many apomictic species in the family.\n\nSeeds are ordinarily dispersed intact with the fruiting body, the cypsela. Anemochory (wind dispersal) is common, assisted by a hairy pappus. Epizoochory is another common method, in which the dispersal unit, a single cypsela (e.g. Bidens) or entire capitulum (e.g. Arctium) has hooks, spines or some structure to attach to the fur or plumage (or even clothes, as in the photo) of an animal just to fall off later far from its mother plant.\n\nSome members of Asteraceae are economically important as weeds. Notable in the United States are Senecio jacobaea (ragwort), Senecio vulgaris (groundsel), and Taraxacum (dandelion). Some are invasive species in particular regions, often having been introduced by human agency. Examples include various tumbleweeds, Bidens, ragweeds, thistles, and dandelion. Dandelion was introduced into North America by European settlers who used the young leaves as a salad green. A number of species are toxic to grazing animals.\nUses\nAsteraceae is an economically important family, providing products such as cooking oils, leaf vegetables like lettuce, sunflower seeds, artichokes, sweetening agents, coffee substitutes and herbal teas. Several genera are of horticultural importance, including the common marigold (Calendula officinalis), Echinacea (coneflowers), various daisies, fleabane, chrysanthemums, dahlias, zinnias, and heleniums. Asteraceae are important in herbal medicine, including Grindelia, yarrow, and many others.\n\nCommercially important plants in Asteraceae include the food crops Lactuca sativa (lettuce), Cichorium (chicory), Cynara scolymus (globe artichoke), Helianthus annuus (sunflower), Smallanthus sonchifolius (yacón), Carthamus tinctorius (safflower) and Helianthus tuberosus (Jerusalem artichoke).\n\nPlants are used as herbs and in herbal teas and other beverages. Chamomile, for example, comes from two different species: the annual Matricaria chamomilla (German chamomile) and the perennial Chamaemelum nobile (Roman chamomile). Calendula (marigold) is grown commercially for herbal teas and potpourri. Echinacea is used as a medicinal tea. The wormwood genus Artemisia includes absinthe (A. absinthium) and tarragon (A. dracunculus). Winter tarragon (Tagetes lucida), is commonly grown and used as a tarragon substitute in climates where tarragon will not survive.\n\nMany members of the family are grown as ornamental plants for their flowers, and some are important ornamental crops for the cut flower industry. Some examples are Chrysanthemum, Gerbera, Calendula, Dendranthema, Argyranthemum, Dahlia, Tagetes, Zinnia, and many others.\n\nMany species of this family possess medicinal properties and are used as traditional antiparasitic medicine.\n\nMembers of the family are also commonly featured in medical and phytochemical journals because the sesquiterpene lactone compounds contained within them are an important cause of allergic contact dermatitis. Allergy to these compounds is the leading cause of allergic contact dermatitis in florists in the US. Pollen from ragweed Ambrosia is among the main causes of so-called hay fever in the United States.\n\nAsteraceae are also used for some industrial purposes. French Marigold (Tagetes patula) is common in commercial poultry feeds, and its oil is extracted for uses in cola and the cigarette industry. The genera Chrysanthemum, Pulicaria, Tagetes, and Tanacetum contain species with useful insecticidal properties. Parthenium argentatum (guayule) is a source of hypoallergenic latex.\n\nSeveral members of the family are copious nectar producers and are useful for evaluating pollinator populations during their bloom. Centaurea (knapweed), Helianthus annuus (domestic sunflower), and some species of Solidago (goldenrod) are major \"honey plants\" for beekeepers. Solidago produces relatively high protein pollen, which helps honey bees over winter.\nReferencesSee also\nList of Asteraceae genera\nBibliography\nExternal links\nAsteraceae at the Angiosperm Phylogeny Website\nCompositae.org – Compositae Working Group (CWG) and Global Compositae Database (GCD)","text_chars":20186,"text_sha256":"c64be32900826167591e588a86dd5d7a7304c1cff19d54ed72c99491facc80a0","text_utf8_bytes":20199,"title":"Asteraceae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteraceae","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"fcc4be17472510217214c5681dc3a2b570fc3c19d10b287d143e1c4b91ef9945"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1583&action=history","id":"1583","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":42379,"raw_text_sha256":"09406b743f0afea275093b133ec6a46ebaca9cddfe7ab34281148ae10f9b771c","raw_text_utf8_bytes":42492,"revision_id":"1369321292","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-14T07:16:43Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1369321292","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Ealdred (or Aldred; died 11 September 1069) was Abbot of Tavistock, Bishop of Worcester, and Archbishop of York in early medieval England. He was related to a number of other ecclesiastics of the period. After becoming a monk at the monastery at Winchester, he was appointed Abbot of Tavistock Abbey in around 1027. In 1046 he was named to the Bishopric of Worcester. Ealdred, besides his episcopal duties, served Edward the Confessor, the King of England, as a diplomat and as a military leader. He worked to bring one of the king's relatives, Edward the Exile, back to England from Hungary to secure an heir for the childless king.\n\nIn 1058 he undertook a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, the first bishop from England to do so. As administrator of the Diocese of Hereford, he was involved in fighting against the Welsh, suffering two defeats at the hands of raiders before securing a settlement with Gruffydd ap Llywelyn, a Welsh ruler.\n\nIn 1060, Ealdred was elected to the archbishopric of York but had difficulty in obtaining papal approval for his appointment, managing to do so only when he promised not to hold the bishoprics of York and Worcester simultaneously. He helped secure the election of Wulfstan as his successor at Worcester. During his archiepiscopate, he built and embellished churches in his diocese, and worked to improve his clergy by holding a synod which published regulations for the priesthood.\n\nSome sources say that following King Edward the Confessor's death in 1066, it was Ealdred who crowned Harold Godwinson as King of England. Ealdred supported Harold as king, but when Harold was defeated at the Battle of Hastings, Ealdred backed Edgar the Ætheling and then endorsed King William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy and a distant relative of King Edward's. Ealdred crowned King William on Christmas Day in 1066. William never quite trusted Ealdred or the other English leaders, and Ealdred had to accompany William back to Normandy in 1067, but he had returned to York by the time of his death in 1069. Ealdred supported the churches and monasteries in his diocese with gifts and building projects.\nEarly life\nEaldred was probably born in the west of England, and could be related to Lyfing, his predecessor as bishop of Worcester. His family, from Devonshire, may have been well-to-do. Another relative was Wilstan or Wulfstan, who under Ealdred's influence became Abbot of Gloucester. Ealdred was a monk in the cathedral chapter at Winchester Cathedral before becoming abbot of Tavistock Abbey about 1027, an office he held until about 1043. Even after leaving the abbacy of Tavistock, he continued to hold two properties from the abbey until his death. No contemporary documents relating to Ealdred's time as abbot have been discovered.\n\nEaldred was made bishop of Worcester in 1046, a position he held until his resignation in 1062. He may have acted as suffragan, or subordinate bishop, to his predecessor Lyfing before formally assuming the bishopric, as from about 1043 Ealdred witnessed as an episcopus, or bishop, and a charter from 1045 or early 1046 names Sihtric as abbot of Tavistock. Lyfing died on 26 March 1046, and Ealdred became bishop of Worcester shortly after. However, Ealdred did not receive the other two dioceses Lyfing had held, Crediton and Cornwall; King Edward the Confessor (reigned 1043–1066) granted these to Leofric, who combined the two sees at Crediton in 1050.\nBishop and royal advisor\nEaldred was an advisor to King Edward the Confessor and was often involved in the royal government. He was also a military leader, and in 1046 he led an unsuccessful expedition against the Welsh. This was in retaliation for a raid led by the Welsh rulers Gruffydd ap Rhydderch, Rhys ap Rhydderch, and Gruffydd ap Llywelyn. Ealdred's expedition was betrayed by some Welsh soldiers who were serving with the English, and Ealdred was defeated.\n\nIn 1050, Ealdred went to Rome \"on the king's errand\", apparently to secure papal approval to move the seat, or centre, of the bishopric of Crediton to Exeter. It may also have been to secure the release of the king from a vow to go on pilgrimage, if sources from after the Norman Conquest are to be believed. While in Rome, he attended a papal council, along with his fellow English bishop Herman. That same year, as Ealdred was returning to England he met Sweyn, a son of Godwin, Earl of Wessex, and probably absolved Sweyn for having abducted the abbess of Leominster Abbey in 1046. Through Ealdred's intercession, Sweyn was restored to his earldom, which he had lost after abducting the abbess and murdering his cousin Beorn Estrithson. Ealdred helped Sweyn not only because Ealdred was a supporter of Earl Godwin's family but because Sweyn's earldom was close to his bishopric. As recently as 1049 Irish raiders had allied with Gruffydd ap Rhydderch of Gwent in raiding along the River Usk. Ealdred unsuccessfully tried to drive off the raiders, but was again routed by the Welsh. This failure underscored Ealdred's need for a strong earl in the area to protect against raids. Normally, the bishop of Hereford would have led the defence in the absence of an Earl of Hereford, but in 1049 the incumbent, Æthelstan, was blind, so Ealdred took on the role of defender.\nDiplomatic travels\nEarl Godwin's rebellion against the king in 1051 came as a blow to Ealdred, who was a supporter of the earl and his family. Ealdred was present at the royal council at London that banished Godwin's family. Later in 1051, when he was sent to intercept Harold Godwinson and his brothers as they fled England after their father's outlawing, Ealdred \"could not, or would not\" capture the brothers. The banishment of Ealdred's patron came shortly after the death of Ælfric Puttoc, the Archbishop of York. York and Worcester had long had close ties, and the two sees had often been held in plurality, or at the same time. Ealdred probably wanted to become Archbishop of York after Ælfric's death, but his patron's eclipse led to the king appointing Cynesige, a royal chaplain, instead. In September 1052, though, Godwin returned from exile and his family was restored to power. By late 1053 Ealdred was once more in royal favour. At some point, he was alleged to have accompanied Swein on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, but proof is lacking.\n\nIn 1054 King Edward sent Ealdred to Germany to obtain Emperor HenryIII's help in returning Edward the Exile, son of Edmund Ironside, to England. Edmund (reigned 1016) was an elder half-brother of King Edward the Confessor, and Edmund's son Edward was in Hungary with King AndrewI, having left England as an infant after his father's death and the accession of Cnut as King of England. In this mission Ealdred was somewhat successful and obtained insight into the working of the German church during a stay of a year with HermannII, the Archbishop of Cologne. He also was impressed with the buildings he saw, and later incorporated some of the German styles into his own constructions. The main objective of the mission, however, was to secure the return of Edward; but this failed, mainly because HenryIII's relations with the Hungarians were strained, and the emperor was unable or unwilling to help Ealdred. Ealdred was able to discover that Edward was alive, and had a place at the Hungarian court. Although some sources say Ealdred attended the coronation of Emperor HenryIV, this is not possible, as on the date Henry was crowned, Ealdred was in England consecrating an abbot.\n\nEaldred had returned to England by 1055, and brought with him a copy of the Pontificale Romano-Germanicum, a set of liturgies. An extant copy of this work, currently manuscript Cotton Vitellus E xii, has been identified as a copy owned by Ealdred. It appears likely that the Rule of Chrodegang, a continental set of ordinances for the communal life of secular canons, was introduced into England by Ealdred sometime before 1059. Probably he brought it back from Germany, possibly in concert with Harold.\n\nAfter Ealdred's return to England he took charge of the sees of Hereford and Ramsbury. Ealdred also administered Winchcombe Abbey and Gloucester Abbey. The authors of the Handbook of British Chronology Third Edition say he was named bishop of Hereford in 1056, holding the see until he resigned it in 1060, but other sources say he merely administered the see while it was vacant, or that he was bishop of Hereford from 1055 to 1060.\n\nEaldred became involved with the see of Ramsbury after its bishop Herman got into a dispute with King Edward over the movement of the seat of his bishopric to Malmesbury Abbey. Herman wished to move the seat of his see, but Edward refused permission for the move. Ealdred was a close associate of Herman's, and the historian H. R. Loyn called Herman \"something of an alter ego\" to Ealdred. According to the medieval chronicler John of Worcester, Ealdred was given the see of Ramsbury to administer while Herman remained outside England. Herman returned in 1058 and resumed his bishopric. There is no contemporary documentary evidence of Ealdred's administration of Ramsbury.\nWelsh affairs, Jerusalem, and Worcester\nThe king again employed Ealdred as a diplomat in 1056, when he assisted Earls Harold and Leofric in negotiations with the Welsh. Edward sent Ealdred after the death in battle of Bishop Leofgar of Hereford, who had attacked Gruffydd ap Llywelyn after encouragement from the king. However, Leofgar lost the battle and his life, and Edward had to sue for peace. Although details of the negotiations are lacking, Gruffydd ap Llywelyn swore loyalty to King Edward, but the oath may not have had any obligations on Gruffydd's part to Edward. The exact terms of the submission are not known in total, but Gruffydd was not required to assist Edward in war nor attend Edward's court. Ealdred was rewarded with the administration of the see of Hereford, which he held until 1061, and was appointed Archbishop of York. The diocese had suffered a serious raid from the Welsh in 1055, and during his administration, Ealdred continued the rebuilding of the cathedral church as well as securing the cathedral chapter's rights. Ealdred was granted the administration so that the area might have someone with experience with the Welsh in charge.\n\nIn 1058 Ealdred made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, the first English bishop to make the journey. He travelled through Hungary, and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle said that \"he went to Jerusalem in such state as no-one had done before him.\" While in Jerusalem he made a gift of a gold chalice to the church of the Holy Sepulchre. It is possible that the reason Ealdred travelled through Hungary was to arrange the travel of Edward the Exile's family to England. Another possibility is that he wished to search for other possible heirs to King Edward in Hungary. It is not known exactly when Edward the Exile's family returned to England, whether they returned with Edward in 1057, or sometime later, so it is only a possibility that they returned with Ealdred in 1058.\n\nVery little documentary evidence is available from Ealdred's time as Bishop of Worcester. Only five leases that he signed survive, and all date from 1051 to 1053. Two further leases exist in Hemming's Cartulary as copies only. How the diocese of Worcester was administered when Ealdred was abroad is unclear, although it appears Wulfstan, the prior of the cathedral chapter, performed the religious duties in the diocese. On the financial side, the Evesham Chronicle states that Æthelwig, who became abbot of Evesham Abbey in 1058, administered Worcester before he became abbot.\nArchbishop of York\nCynesige, the archbishop of York, died on 22 December 1060, and Ealdred was elected Archbishop of York on Christmas Day, 1060. Although a bishop was promptly appointed to Hereford, none was named to Worcester, and it appears Ealdred intended to retain Worcester along with York, which several of his predecessors had done. There were a few reasons for this, one of which was political, as the kings of England preferred to appoint bishops from the south to the northern bishoprics, hoping to counter the northern tendency towards separatism. Another reason was that York was not a wealthy see, and Worcester was. Holding Worcester along with York allowed the archbishop sufficient revenue to support himself.\n\nIn 1061 Ealdred travelled to Rome to receive the pallium, the symbol of an archbishop's authority. Journeying with him was Tostig, another son of Earl Godwin, who was now earl of Northumbria. William of Malmesbury says that Ealdred, by \"amusing the simplicity of King Edward and alleging the custom of his predecessors, had acquired, more by bribery than by reason, the archbishopric of York while still holding his former see.\" On his arrival in Rome, however, charges of simony, or the buying of ecclesiastical office, and lack of learning were brought against him, and his elevation to York was refused by Pope Nicholas II, who also deposed him from Worcester. The story of Ealdred being deposed comes from the Vita Edwardi, a life of Edward the Confessor, but the Vita Wulfstani, an account of the life of Ealdred's successor at Worcester, Wulfstan, says Nicholas refused the pallium until a promise to find a replacement for Worcester was given by Ealdred. Yet another chronicler, John of Worcester, mentions nothing of any trouble in Rome, and when discussing the appointment of Wulfstan, says Wulfstan was elected freely and unanimously by the clergy and people. John of Worcester also claims that at Wulfstan's consecration, Stigand, the archbishop of Canterbury extracted a promise from Ealdred that neither he nor his successors would lay claim to any jurisdiction over the diocese of Worcester. Given that John of Worcester wrote his chronicle after the eruption of the Canterbury–York supremacy struggle, the story of Ealdred renouncing any claims to Worcester needs to be considered suspect.\n\nFor whatever reason, Ealdred gave up the see of Worcester in 1062, when papal legates arrived in England to hold a council and make sure Ealdred relinquished Worcester. This happened at Easter in 1062. Ealdred was succeeded by Wulfstan, chosen by Ealdred, but John of Worcester relates that Ealdred had a hard time deciding between Wulfstan and Æthelwig. The legates had urged the selection of Wulfstan because of his saintliness. Because the position of Stigand, the archbishop of Canterbury, was irregular, Wulfstan sought and received consecration as a bishop from Ealdred. Normally, Wulfstan would have gone to the archbishop of Canterbury, as the see of Worcester was within Canterbury's province. Although Ealdred gave up the bishopric, the appointment of Wulfstan was one that allowed Ealdred to continue his considerable influence on the see of Worcester. Ealdred retained a number of estates belonging to Worcester. Even after the Norman Conquest, Ealdred still controlled some events in Worcester, and it was Ealdred, not Wulfstan, who opposed Urse d'Abetot's attempt to extend the castle of Worcester into the cathedral after the Norman Conquest.\n\nWhile archbishop, Ealdred built at Beverley, expanding on the building projects begun by his predecessor Cynesige, as well as repairing and expanding other churches in his diocese. He also built refectories for the canons at York and Southwell. He also was the one bishop who published ecclesiastical legislation during Edward the Confessor's reign, attempting to discipline and reform the clergy. He held a synod of his clergy shortly before 1066.\nAfter the death of Edward the Confessor\nJohn of Worcester, a medieval chronicler, said Ealdred crowned King HaroldII in 1066, although the Norman chroniclers mention Stigand as the officiating prelate. Given Ealdred's known support of Godwin's family, John of Worcester is probably correct. Stigand's position as archbishop was canonically suspect, and as earl Harold had not allowed Stigand to consecrate one of the earl's churches, it is unlikely Harold would have allowed Stigand to perform the much more important royal coronation. Arguments for Stigand having performed the coronation, however, rely on the fact that no other English source names the ecclesiastic who performed the ceremony; all Norman sources name Stigand as the presider. In all events, Ealdred and Harold were close, and Ealdred supported Harold's bid to become king. Ealdred perhaps accompanied Harold when the new king went to York and secured the support of the northern magnates shortly after Harold's consecration.\n\nAccording to the medieval chronicler Geoffrey Gaimar, after the Battle of Stamford Bridge Harold entrusted the loot gained from Harald Hardrada to Ealdred. Gaimar asserts that King Harold did this because he had heard of Duke William's landing in England, and needed to rush south to counter it. After the Battle of Hastings, Ealdred joined the group who tried to elevate Edgar the Ætheling, Edward the Exile's son, as king, but eventually he submitted to William the Conqueror at Berkhamsted. John of Worcester says the group supporting Edgar vacillated over what to do while William ravaged the countryside, which led to Ealdred and Edgar's submission to William.\n\nEaldred crowned William king on Christmas Day 1066. An innovation in William's coronation ceremony was that before the actual crowning, Ealdred asked the assembled crowd, in English, if it was their wish that William be crowned king. The Bishop of Coutances then did the same, but in Norman French. In March 1067, William took Ealdred with him when William returned to Normandy, along with the other English leaders Earl Edwin of Mercia, Earl Morcar, Edgar the Ætheling, and Archbishop Stigand. Ealdred at Whitsun 1068 performed the coronation of Matilda, William's wife. The Laudes Regiae, or song commending a ruler, that was performed at Matilda's coronation may have been composed by Ealdred himself for the occasion. In 1069, when the northern thegns rebelled against William and attempted to install Edgar the Ætheling as king, Ealdred continued to support William. He was the only northern leader to support William, however. Ealdred was back at York by 1069. He died there on 11 September 1069, and his body was buried in his episcopal cathedral. He may have taken an active part in trying to calm the rebellions in the north in 1068 and 1069. The medieval chronicler William of Malmesbury records a story that when the new sheriff of Worcester, Urse d'Abetot, encroached on the cemetery of the cathedral chapter for Worcester Cathedral, Ealdred pronounced a rhyming curse on him, saying \"Thou are called Urse. May you have God's curse.\"\nLegacy\nAfter Ealdred's death, one of the restraints on William's treatment of the English was removed. Ealdred was one of a few native Englishmen who William appears to have trusted, and his death led to fewer attempts to integrate Englishmen into the administration, although such efforts did not entirely stop. In 1070, a church council was held at Westminster and a number of bishops were deposed. By 1073 there were only two Englishmen in episcopal sees, and by the time of William's death in 1087 there was only one, WulfstanII of Worcester.\n\nEaldred did much to restore discipline in the monasteries and churches under his authority, and was liberal with gifts to the churches of his diocese. He built the monastic church of St Peter at Gloucester (now Gloucester Cathedral, though nothing of his fabric remains), then part of his diocese of Worcester. He also repaired a large part of Beverley Minster in the diocese of York, adding a presbytery and an unusually splendid painted ceiling covering \"all the upper part of the church from the choir to the tower... intermingled with gold in various ways, and in a wonderful fashion.\" He added a pulpit \"in German style\" of bronze, gold and silver, surmounted by an arch with a rood cross in the same materials; these were examples of the lavish decorations added to important churches in the years before the conquest.\n\nEaldred encouraged Folcard, a monk of Canterbury, to write the Life of Saint John of Beverley. This was part of Ealdred's promotion of the cult of Saint John, who had been canonised only since 1037. Along with the Pontificale, Ealdred may have brought back from Cologne the first manuscript of the Cambridge Songs to enter England, a collection of Latin Goliardic songs which became famous in the Middle Ages. The historian Michael Lapidge suggests that the Laudes Regiae, which are included in Cotton Vitellius Exii, might have been composed by Ealdred, or a member of his household. Another historian, H. J. Cowdrey, argued that the laudes were composed at Winchester. These praise songs are probably the same performed at Matilda's coronation, but might have been used at other court ceremonies before Ealdred's death.\n\nHistorians have seen Ealdred as an \"old-fashioned prince-bishop\". Others say he \"raised the see of York from its former rustic state\". He was known for his generosity and for his diplomatic and administrative abilities. After the Conquest, Ealdred provided a degree of continuity between the pre- and post-Conquest worlds. One modern historian feels it was Ealdred who was behind the compilation of the D version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, and gives a date in the 1050s as its composition. Certainly, Ealdred is one of the leading figures in the work, and it is likely one of his clerks compiled the version.\nNotesCitationsReferences\nFurther reading\nExternal links","text_chars":21544,"text_sha256":"c8c65fe6bf0f9be69c774d68d4be2c76ffe99a5564cb5b41f692d6c64fcbe1fa","text_utf8_bytes":21557,"title":"Ealdred (archbishop of York)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ealdred_%28archbishop_of_York%29","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"7b4da176544a65726a1d7ee7163cd9d4393a977b8ac0fe5d1ca153c0ec527c9d"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2116&action=history","id":"2116","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":55291,"raw_text_sha256":"997719db810516cd9b582b049698216e2a689e5c34bba224aeb2057a676af398","raw_text_utf8_bytes":55333,"revision_id":"1371824661","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-28T18:09:07Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1371824661","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Apple II (stylized as apple ][) is a series of microcomputers manufactured by Apple Computer, Inc. from 1977 to 1993. The original Apple II model, which gave the series its name, was designed by Steve Wozniak and was first sold on June 10, 1977. Its success led to it being followed by the Apple II Plus, Apple IIe, Apple IIc, and Apple IIc Plus, with the 1983 IIe being the most popular. The name is trademarked with square brackets as Apple ][, then, beginning with the IIe, as Apple //.\n\nThe Apple II was a major advancement over its predecessor, the Apple I, in terms of ease of use, features, and expandability. It became one of several recognizable and successful computers throughout the 1980s, although this was mainly limited to the United States. It was aggressively marketed through volume discounts and manufacturing arrangements to educational institutions, which made it the first computer in widespread use in American secondary schools, displacing the early leader Commodore PET. The effort to develop educational and business software for the Apple II, including the 1979 release of the VisiCalc spreadsheet, made the computer especially popular with business users and families.\n\nThe Apple II computers are based on the 6502 8-bit processor and can display text and two resolutions of color graphics. A software-controlled speaker provides one channel of low-fidelity audio. A model with more advanced graphics and sound, and with a 65C816 16-bit processor, the Apple IIGS, was added in 1986. It remained compatible with earlier Apple II models, but the IIGS has more in common with mid-1980s systems like the Atari ST, Amiga, and Acorn Archimedes.\n\nDespite the introduction of the Motorola 68000–based Macintosh in 1984, the Apple II series still reportedly accounted for 85% of the company's hardware sales in the first quarter of fiscal 1985. Apple continued to sell Apple II systems alongside the Macintosh until terminating the IIGS in December 1992 and the IIe in November 1993. The last II-series Apple in production, the IIe card for Macintoshes, was discontinued on October 15, 1993; having been one of the longest running mass-produced home computer series, the total Apple II sales of all of its models during its 16-year production run were about 6 million units (including about 1.25 million Apple IIGS models) with the peak occurring in 1983 when 1 million were sold.\nHardware\nUnlike preceding home microcomputers, the Apple II was sold as a finished consumer appliance rather than as a kit (unassembled or preassembled). Apple marketed the Apple II as a durable product, including a 1981 ad in which an Apple II survived a fire started when a cat belonging to one early user knocked over a lamp.\n\nAll the machines in the series, except the IIc, share similar overall design elements. The plastic case was designed to look more like a home appliance than a piece of electronic equipment, and the case can be opened without the use of tools. All models in the Apple II series have a built-in keyboard, with the exception of the IIGS which has a separate keyboard.\n\nApple IIs have color and high-resolution graphics modes, sound capabilities and a built-in BASIC programming language. The motherboard holds eight expansion slots and an array of random access memory (RAM) sockets that can hold up to 48 kilobytes. Over the course of the Apple II series' life, an enormous amount of first- and third-party hardware was made available to extend the capabilities of the machine. The IIc was designed as a compact, portable unit, not intended to be disassembled, and cannot use most of the expansion hardware sold for the other machines in the series.\nSoftware\nThe original Apple II has the operating system in ROM along with a BASIC variant called Integer BASIC. Apple eventually released Applesoft BASIC, a more advanced variant of the language which users can run instead of Integer BASIC. The Apple II series eventually supported over 1,500 software programs.\n\nWhen the Disk II floppy disk drive was released in 1978, a new operating system, Apple DOS, was commissioned from Shepardson Microsystems and developed by Paul Laughton, adding support for the disk drive. The final version of this software was Apple DOS 3.3.\n\nApple DOS was superseded by ProDOS, which supported a hierarchical file system and larger storage devices. With an optional third-party Z80-based expansion card, the Apple II could boot into the CP/M operating system and run WordStar, dBase II, and other CP/M software. With the release of MousePaint in 1984 and the Apple IIGS in 1986, the platform took on the look of the Macintosh user interface, including a mouse.\n\nMuch commercial Apple II software shipped on self-booting disks and does not use standard DOS disk formats. This discouraged the copying or modifying of the software on the disks, and improved loading speed.\nModels\nApple II\nThe first Apple II computers went on sale on June 10, 1977, with a MOS Technology 6502 (later Synertek) microprocessor running at 1.023 MHz, 4 KB of RAM, an audio cassette interface for loading programs and storing data, and the Integer BASIC programming language built into the ROMs. The video controller displayed 40 columns by 24 lines of monochrome, upper-case–only (the original character set matches ASCII characters 0x20 to 0x5F) text on the screen, with NTSC composite video output suitable for display on a TV monitor, or on a regular TV set by way of a separate RF modulator. The original retail price of the computer was with 4 KB of RAM and with the maximum 48 KB of RAM. To reflect the computer's color graphics capability, the Apple logo on the casing was represented using rainbow stripes, which remained a part of Apple's corporate logo until early 1998. The earliest Apple IIs were assembled in Silicon Valley, and later in Texas; printed circuit boards were manufactured in Ireland and Singapore.\n\nAn external -inch floppy disk drive, the Disk II, attached via a controller card that plugged into one of the computer's expansion slots (usually slot 6), was used for data storage and retrieval to replace cassettes. The Disk II interface, created by Steve Wozniak, was regarded as an engineering masterpiece for its economy of electronic components.\n\nRather than having a dedicated sound-synthesis chip, the Apple II had a toggle circuit that could only emit a click through a built-in speaker; all other sounds (including two, three and, eventually, four-voice music and playback of audio samples and speech synthesis) were generated entirely by software that clicked the speaker at just the right times.\n\nThe Apple II's multiple expansion slots permitted a wide variety of third-party devices, including Apple II peripheral cards such as serial controllers, display controllers, memory boards, hard disks, networking components, and real-time clocks. There were plug-in expansion cards – such as the Z-80 SoftCard – that permitted the Apple to use the Z80 processor and run a multitude of programs developed under the CP/M operating system, including the dBase II database and the WordStar word processor. There was also a third-party 6809 card that would allow OS-9 Level One to be run. Third-party sound cards greatly improved audio capabilities, allowing simple music synthesis and text-to-speech functions. Eventually, Apple II accelerator cards were created to double or quadruple the computer's speed.\n\nRod Holt designed the Apple II's power supply. He employed a switched-mode power supply design, which was far smaller and generated less unwanted heat than the linear power supply some other home computers used.\n\nThe original Apple II was discontinued at the start of 1981; it was superseded by the Apple II+.\nApple II Plus\nThe Apple II Plus, introduced in June 1979, includes the Applesoft BASIC programming language in ROM. This Microsoft-authored dialect of BASIC, previously available as an upgrade, supports floating-point arithmetic, and became the standard BASIC dialect on the Apple II series (though it runs at a noticeably slower speed than Steve Wozniak's Integer BASIC).\n\nExcept for improved graphics and disk-booting support in the ROM, and the removal of the 2k 6502 assembler to make room for the floating point BASIC, the II+ was otherwise identical to the original II. There are small differences in the physical appearance and keyboard. RAM prices fell during 1980–81 and all II Plus machines came with a full 48 KB of memory already installed.\nApple II Europlus and J-Plus\nAfter the success of the first Apple II in the United States, Apple expanded its market to include Europe, the Middle East, Australia and the Far East in 1979, with the Apple II Europlus (Europe, Australia) and the Apple II J-Plus (Japan). In these models, Apple made the necessary hardware, software and firmware changes in order to comply to standards outside of the US.\nApple IIe\nThe Apple II Plus was followed in 1983 by the Apple IIe, a cost-reduced yet more powerful machine using newer chips to reduce the component count and add new features, such as the display of upper and lowercase letters and a standard 64 KB of RAM.\n\nThe IIe RAM is configured as if it were a 48 KB Apple II Plus with a language card. The machine has no slot 0, but instead has an auxiliary slot that can accept a 1 KB memory card to enable the 80-column display. This card contains only RAM; the hardware and firmware for the 80-column display is built into the Apple IIe. An \"extended 80-column card\" with more memory increased the machine's RAM to 128 KB.\n\nThe Apple IIe was the most popular machine in the Apple II series. It is the longest-lived Apple computer of all time; it was manufactured with only minor changes for nearly 11 years. The IIe was the last Apple II model to be sold, and it was discontinued in November 1993. During its lifespan two variations were introduced: the Apple IIe Enhanced (four replacement chips to give it some of the features of the later Apple IIc) and the Apple IIe Platinum (a modernized case color to match other Apple products of the era, along with the addition of a numeric keypad).\n\nSome of the features of the IIe were carried over from the less successful Apple III, including the ProDOS operating system.\nApple IIc\nThe Apple IIc was released in April 1984, billed as a portable Apple II because it could be easily carried due to its size and carrying handle, which could be flipped down to prop the machine up into a typing position. Unlike modern portables, it lacked a built-in display and battery. It was the first of three Apple II models to be made in the Snow White design language, and the only one that used its unique creamy off-white color.\n\nThe Apple IIc was the first Apple II to use the 65C02 low-power variant of the 6502 processor, and featured a built-in 5.25-inch floppy drive and 128 KB RAM, with a built-in disk controller that could control external drives, composite video (NTSC or PAL), serial interfaces for modem and printer, and a port usable by either a joystick or mouse. Unlike previous Apple II models, the IIc had no internal expansion slots at all.\n\nTwo different monochrome LC displays were sold for use with the IIc's video expansion port, although both were short-lived due to high cost and poor legibility. The IIc had an external power supply that converted AC power to 15 V DC, though the IIc itself will accept between 12 V and 17 V DC, allowing third parties to offer battery packs and automobile power adapters that connected in place of the supplied AC adapter.\nApple IIGS\nThe Apple IIGS, released on September 15, 1986, is the penultimate and most advanced model in the Apple II series, and a radical departure from prior models. It uses a 16-bit microprocessor, the 65C816 operating at 2.8 MHz with 24-bit addressing, allowing expansion up to 8 MB of RAM. The graphics are significantly improved, with 4096 colors and new modes with resolutions of 320×200 and 640×400. The audio capabilities are vastly improved, with a built-in music synthesizer that far exceeded any other home computer.\n\nThe Apple IIGS evolved the platform while still maintaining near-complete backward compatibility. Its Mega II chip contains the functional equivalent of an entire Apple IIe computer (sans processor). This, combined with the 65816's ability to execute 65C02 code directly, provides full support for legacy software, while also supporting 16-bit software running under a new OS.\n\nThe OS eventually included a Macintosh-like graphical Finder for managing disks and files and opening documents and applications, along with desk accessories. Later, the IIGS gained the ability to read and write Macintosh disks and, through third-party software, a multitasking Unix-like shell and TrueType font support.\n\nThe GS includes a 32-voice Ensoniq 5503 DOC sample-based sound synthesizer chip with 64 KB dedicated RAM, 256 KB (or later 1.125 MB) of standard RAM, built-in peripheral ports (switchable between IIe-style card slots and IIc-style onboard controllers for disk drives, mouse, RGB video, and serial devices), and built-in AppleTalk networking.\nApple IIc Plus\nThe final Apple II model was the Apple IIc Plus introduced in 1988. It was the same size and shape as the IIc that came before it, but the 5.25-inch floppy drive had been replaced with a -inch drive, the power supply was moved inside the case, and the processor was a fast 4 MHz 65C02 processor that actually ran 8-bit Apple II software faster than the IIGS.\n\nThe IIc Plus also featured a new keyboard layout that matched the Platinum IIe and IIGS. Unlike the IIe IIc and IIGS, the IIc Plus came only in one version (American) and was not officially sold anywhere outside the US. The Apple IIc Plus ceased production in 1990, with its two-year production run being the shortest of all the Apple II computers.\nApple IIe Card\nAlthough not an extension of the Apple II line, in 1990 the Apple IIe Card, an expansion card for the Macintosh LC, was released. Essentially a miniaturized Apple IIe computer on a card (using the Mega II chip from the Apple IIGS), it allowed the Macintosh to run 8-bit Apple IIe software through hardware emulation, with an option to run at roughly double the speed of the original IIe (about 1.8 MHz). However, the video output was emulated in software, and, depending on how much of the screen the currently running program was trying to update in a single frame, performance could be much slower compared to a real IIe. This is due to the fact that writes from the 65C02 on the IIe Card to video memory were caught by the additional hardware on the card, so the video emulation software running on the Macintosh side could process that write and update the video display. But, while the Macintosh was processing video updates, execution of Apple II code would be temporarily halted.\n\nWith a breakout cable which connected to the back of the card, the user could attach up to two UniDisk or Apple 5.25 Drives, up to one UniDisk 3.5 drive, and a DE-9 Apple II joystick. Many of the LC's built-in Macintosh peripherals could also be \"borrowed\" by the card when in Apple II mode, including extra RAM, the Mac's internal 3.5-inch floppy drives, AppleTalk networking, any ProDOS-formatted hard disk partitions, the serial ports, mouse, and real-time clock. The IIe card could not, however, run software intended for the 16-bit Apple IIGS.\nAdvertising, marketing, and packaging\nMike Markkula, a retired Intel marketing manager, provided the early critical funding for Apple Computer. From 1977 to 1981, Apple used the Regis McKenna agency for its advertisements and marketing. In 1981, Chiat-Day acquired Regis McKenna's advertising operations and Apple used Chiat-Day. At Regis McKenna Advertising, the team assigned to launch the Apple II consisted of Rob Janoff, art director, Chip Schafer, copywriter and Bill Kelley, account executive. Janoff came up with the Apple logo with a bite out of it. The design was originally an olive green with matching company logotype all in lowercase. Steve Jobs insisted on promoting the color capability of the Apple II by putting rainbow stripes on the Apple logo. In its letterhead and business card implementation, the rounded \"a\" of the logotype echoed the \"bite\" in the logo. This logo was developed simultaneously with an advertisement and a brochure; the latter being produced for distribution initially at the first West Coast Computer Faire.\n\nSince the original Apple II, Apple has paid high attention to its quality of packaging, partly because of Steve Jobs' personal preferences and opinions on packaging and final product appearance. All of Apple's packaging for the Apple II series looked similar, featuring much clean white space and showing the Apple rainbow logo prominently. For several years up until the late 1980s, Apple used the Motter Tektura font for packaging, until changing to the Apple Garamond font.\n\nApple ran the first advertisement for the Apple II, a two-page spread ad titled \"Introducing Apple II\", in BYTE in July 1977. The first brochure, was entitled \"Simplicity\" and the copy in both the ad and brochure pioneered \"demystifying\" language intended to make the new idea of a home computer more \"personal\". The Apple II introduction ad was later run in the September 1977 issue of Scientific American.\n\nApple later aired eight television commercials for the Apple IIGS, emphasizing its benefits to education and students, along with some print ads.\nClones\nThe Apple II was frequently cloned, both in the United States and abroad, in a similar way to the IBM PC. According to some sources (see below), more than 190 different models of Apple II clones were manufactured. Most could not be legally imported into the United States. Apple sued and sought criminal charges against clone makers in more than a dozen countries.\nData storage\nCassette\nOriginally the Apple II used Compact Cassette tapes for program and data storage. A dedicated tape recorder along the lines of the Commodore Datasette was never produced; Apple recommended using the Panasonic RQ309 in some of its early printed documentation. The uses of common consumer cassette recorders and a standard video monitor or television set (with a third-party RF modulator) made the total cost of owning an Apple II less expensive and helped contribute to the Apple II's success.\n\nCassette storage may have been inexpensive, but it was also slow and unreliable. The Apple II's lack of a disk drive was \"a glaring weakness\" in what was otherwise intended to be a polished, professional product. Recognizing that the II needed a disk drive to be taken seriously, Apple set out to develop a disk drive and a DOS to run it. Wozniak spent the 1977 Christmas holidays designing a disk controller that reduced the number of chips used by a factor of 10 compared to existing controllers. Still lacking a DOS, and with Wozniak inexperienced in operating system design, Jobs approached Shepardson Microsystems with the project. On April 10, 1978, Apple signed a contract for $13,000 with Shepardson to develop the DOS.\n\nEven after disk drives made the cassette tape interfaces obsolete they were still used by enthusiasts as simple one-bit audio input-output ports. Ham radio operators used the cassette input to receive slow scan TV (single frame images). A commercial speech recognition Blackjack program was available, after some user-specific voice training it would recognize simple commands (Hit, stand). Bob Bishop's \"Music Kaleidoscope\" was a simple program that monitored the cassette input port and based on zero-crossings created color patterns on the screen, a predecessor to current audio visualization plug-ins for media players. Music Kaleidoscope was especially popular on projection TV sets in dance halls.\nOS Disk\nApple and many third-party developers made software available on tape at first, but after the Disk II became available in 1978, tape-based Apple II software essentially disappeared from the market. The initial price of the Disk II drive and controller was US$595, although a $100 off coupon was available through the Apple newsletter \"Contact\". The controller could handle two drives and a second drive (without controller) retailed for $495.\n\nThe Disk II single-sided floppy drive used 5.25-inch floppy disks; double-sided disks could be used, one side at a time, by turning them over and notching a hole for the write protect sensor. The first disk operating systems for the were and DOS 3.2, which stored 113.75 KB on each disk, organized into 35 tracks of 13 256-byte sectors each. After about two years, DOS 3.3 was introduced, storing 140 KB thanks to a minor firmware change on the disk controller that allowed it to store 16 sectors per track. (This upgrade was user-installable as two PROMs on older controllers.) After the release of DOS 3.3, the user community discontinued use of except for running legacy software. Programs that required DOS 3.2 were fairly rare; however, as DOS 3.3 was not a major architectural change aside from the number of sectors per track, a program called MUFFIN was provided with DOS 3.3 to allow users to copy files from DOS 3.2 disks to DOS 3.3 disks. It was possible for software developers to create a DOS 3.2 disk which would also boot on a system with firmware.\n\nLater, double-sided drives, with heads to read both sides of the disk, became available from third-party companies. (Apple only produced double-sided 5.25-inch disks for the Lisa 1 computer).\n\nOn a DOS 3.x disk, tracks 0, 1, and most of track 2 were reserved to store the operating system. (It was possible, with a special utility, to reclaim most of this space for data if a disk did not need to be bootable.) A short ROM program on the disk controller had the ability to seek to track zero which it did without regard for the read/write head's current position, resulting in the characteristic \"chattering\" sound of a Disk II boot, which was the read/write head hitting the rubber stop block at the end of the rail – and read and execute code from sector 0. The code contained in there would then pull in the rest of the operating system. DOS stored the disk's directory on track 17, smack in the middle of the 35-track disks, in order to reduce the average seek time to the frequently used directory track. The directory was fixed in size and could hold a maximum of 105 files. Subdirectories were not supported.\n\nMost game publishers did not include DOS on their floppy disks, since they needed the memory it occupied more than its capabilities; instead, they often wrote their own boot loaders and read-only file systems. This also served to discourage \"crackers\" from snooping around in the game's copy-protection code, since the data on the disk was not in files that could be accessed easily.\n\nSome third-party manufacturers produced floppy drives that could write 40 tracks to most 5.25-inch disks, yielding 160 KB of storage per disk, but the format did not catch on widely, and no known commercial software was published on 40-track media. Most drives, even Disk IIs, could write 36 tracks; a two byte modification to DOS to format the extra track was common.\n\nThe Apple Disk II stored 140 KB on single-sided, \"single-density\" floppy disks, but it was very common for Apple II users to extend the capacity of a single-sided floppy disk to 280 KB by cutting out a second write-protect notch on the side of the disk using a \"disk notcher\" or hole puncher and inserting the disk flipped over. Double-sided disks, with notches on both sides, were available at a higher price, but in practice the magnetic coating on the reverse of nominally single-sided disks was usually of good enough quality to be used (both sides were coated in the same way to prevent warping, although only one side was certified for use). Early on, diskette manufacturers routinely warned that this technique would damage the read/write head of the drives or wear out the disk faster, and these warnings were frequently repeated in magazines of the day. In practice, however, this method was an inexpensive way to store twice as much data for no extra cost, and was widely used for commercially released floppies as well.\n\nLater, Apple IIs were able to use 3.5-inch disks with a total capacity of 800 KB and hard disks. did not support these drives natively; third-party software was required, and disks larger than about 400 KB had to be split up into multiple \"virtual disk volumes\".\n\nDOS 3.3 was succeeded by ProDOS, a 1983 descendant of the Apple ///'s SOS. It added support for subdirectories and volumes up to 32 MB in size. ProDOS became the DOS of choice; AppleWorks and other newer programs required it.\nLegacy\nThe Apple II series of computers had an enormous impact on the technology industry and expanded the role of microcomputers in society. Its price was within the reach of many middle-class families, and a partnership with MECC helped make the Apple II popular in schools. By the end of 1980 Apple had already sold over 100,000 Apple IIs, and at the introduction of the IIGS, models in the range had been sold. However, in other markets, the range saw rather more limited adoption, with only 120,000 units selling in the UK over this nine-year period.\n\nThe Apple II's popularity bootstrapped the computer game and educational software markets and began the boom in the word processor and computer printer markets. The hit TV game show’s Tic Tac Dough game board used 9 Apple II’s linked to a master Altair 8800 computer that controlled display and movement of X’s, O’s, categories, bonus game amounts and the Dragon during main and bonus game play. It was the first game show to use a fully computerized game board. The first spreadsheet application, VisiCalc, was initially released for the Apple II, and many businesses bought them just to run VisiCalc. Its success drove IBM in part to create the IBM PC, which many businesses purchased to run spreadsheet and word processing software, at first ported from Apple II versions.\n\nThe Apple II's slots allowed any peripheral card to take control of the bus and directly access memory; this enabled independent card manufacturers to create a wide range of hardware products, allowing users to build powerful low cost systems. Generally competing systems were not as expandable and typically had more restricted and proprietary interfaces. The first Apple II peripheral card was a blank prototyping card intended for electronics enthusiasts to design their own peripherals.\n\nSpecialty peripherals kept the Apple II in use in industry and education environments for many years after Apple Computer stopped supporting the Apple II. Well into the 1990s every clean-room (the super-clean facility where spacecraft are prepared for flight) at the Kennedy Space Center used an Apple II to monitor the environment and air quality. Many planetariums of the time used Apple IIs to control their projectors and other equipment.\n\nThe game port was unusually powerful and could be used for digital and analog input and output. The early manuals included instructions for how to build a circuit with only four commonly available components (one transistor and three resistors) and a software routine to drive a common Teletype Model 33 machine. Don Lancaster used the game port I/O to drive a LaserWriter printer.\nModern use\nEmulators for various Apple II models are available to run Apple II software on macOS, Linux, Windows, homebrew-enabled Nintendo DS and other operating systems. Numerous disk images of Apple II software are available free over the Internet for use with these emulators. AppleWin and MESS are examples of emulators compatible with most Apple II images. The MESS emulator supports recording and playing back of Apple II emulation sessions, as does Home Action Replay Page (a.k.a. HARP).\n\nThere is still a small annual convention, KansasFest, dedicated to the platform.\n\nIn 2017, the band 8 Bit Weapon released the world's first 100% Apple II-based music album entitled, \"Class Apples\". The album featured dance-oriented cover versions of classical music by Bach, Beethoven, and Mozart recorded directly off the Apple II motherboard.\nSee also\nApple Industrial Design Group\nList of publications and periodicals devoted to the Apple II\nApple II peripheral cards\nApple II graphics\nList of Apple II application software\nList of Apple II games\nList of Apple IIGS games\nReferences\nExternal links\nepocalc Apple II clones list\n\"These Pictures Of Apple's First Employees Are Absolutely Wonderful\", contains a photograph taken inside Apple of early employees Chrisann Brennan, Mark Johnson, and Robert Martinengo standing in front of a stack of Apple IIs that they had tested, assembled, and were about to ship (Business Insider, December 26, 2013).","text_chars":28813,"text_sha256":"cdf6d87833eb45b656f6d78efec1f215b04e4503e256862ec1267c2d9d75ebec","text_utf8_bytes":28835,"title":"Apple II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_II","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"3ce745c73414d45d6e768e1e29e1713c670ab30d3786e99d7abe4fefa6f5e9d4"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2139&action=history","id":"2139","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":2733,"raw_text_sha256":"58ef27e284c16a9640687b542b8c85d1ce1a5ceef13b47b84c3c15b4c2dc3f80","raw_text_utf8_bytes":2789,"revision_id":"1368262203","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-08T01:07:52Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1368262203","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"These are lists of animated television series. Animated television series are television programs produced by means of animation. Animated series produced for theaters are not included in this lists; for those, see List of animated short film series. These lists include compilation series of theatrical shorts such as The Bugs Bunny Show since they often feature some new wrap-around animation.\nLists by decade\nList of animated television series of the 1940s and 1950s\nList of animated television series of the 1960s\nList of animated television series of the 1970s\nList of animated television series of the 1980s\nList of animated television series of the 1990s\nList of animated television series of the 2000s\nList of animated television series of the 2010s\nList of animated television series of the 2020s\nOther lists\nList of animated television series created for syndication\nList of animated television series by episode count\nList of children's animated television series\nList of adult animated television series\nList of anime series by episode count\nList of anime franchises by episode count\nList of American animated television series\nList of Canadian animated television series\nList of Chinese animated television series\nList of French animated television series\nList of Indian animated television series\nList of Korean animated series\nList of Philippine animated television series\nList of South African animated television series\nList of Flash animated television series\nList of computer-animated television series\nList of animated series with LGBTQ characters\nSee also\nLists of animated films\nExternal links\n日本のテレビアニメ作品一覧 - Lists of Japanese animated television series on Japanese Wikipedia\nDon Markstein's Toonopedia – Very large index page\n80sCartoons – Nostalgia for those who grew up in the 1980s in the West\nAnime sorted by release date, JP Works DB","text_chars":1862,"text_sha256":"8f7647e50c5b8c2e19236ea17734aef513698aad7c194d6d3bc2a83ebea0239a","text_utf8_bytes":1892,"title":"Lists of animated television series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_animated_television_series","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"d3826629d67d385e57612f92cce70591dfb61fb5af0553f90aebfe767d9d1f7d"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1884&action=history","id":"1884","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":57797,"raw_text_sha256":"655ae849f7263e031ffd3428eece2e9444835e306e9720e5a535981a6cf79d49","raw_text_utf8_bytes":58830,"revision_id":"1372423908","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-31T17:54:37Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1372423908","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"ASCII art is a graphic design technique that uses computers for presentation and consists of pictures pieced together from the 95 printable (from a total of 128) characters defined by the ASCII Standard from 1963 and ASCII compliant character sets with proprietary extended characters (beyond the 128 characters of standard 7-bit ASCII). The term is also loosely used to refer to text-based visual art in general. ASCII art can be created with any text editor, and is often used with free-form languages. Most examples of ASCII art require a fixed-width font (non-proportional fonts, as on a traditional typewriter) such as Courier or Consolas for presentation.\n\nAmong the oldest known examples of ASCII art are the\ncreations by computer-art pioneer Kenneth Knowlton from around 1966, who was working for Bell Labs at the time. \"Studies in Perception I\" by Knowlton and Leon Harmon from 1966 shows some examples of their early ASCII art.\n\nASCII art was invented, in large part, because early printers often lacked graphics ability and thus, characters were used in place of graphic marks. Also, to mark divisions between different print jobs from different users, bulk printers often used ASCII art to print large banner pages, making the division easier to spot so that the results could be more easily separated by a computer operator or clerk. ASCII art was also used in early e-mail when images could not be embedded.\nHistory\nTypewriter art\nSince 1867, typewriters have been used for creating visual art. Typists could find guides in books or magazines with instructions on how to type portraits or other depictions.\nTTY and RTTY\nTTY stands for \"TeleTYpe\" or \"TeleTYpewriter\", and is also known as Teleprinter or Teletype.\nRTTY stands for Radioteletype; character sets such as Baudot code, which predated ASCII (the American Standard Code for Information Interchange), were used. According to a chapter in the \"RTTY Handbook\", text images have been sent via teletypewriter as early as 1923. However, none of the \"old\" RTTY art has been discovered yet. What is known is that text images appeared frequently on radioteletype in the 1960s and the 1970s.\nLine-printer art\nIn the 1960s, Andries van Dam published a representation of an electronic circuit produced on an IBM 1403 line printer. At the same time, Kenneth Knowlton was producing realistic images, also on line printers, by overprinting several characters on top of one another.\nNote that it was not ASCII art in a sense that the 1403 was driven by an EBCDIC-coded platform and the character sets and trains available on the 1403 were derived from EBCDIC rather than ASCII, despite some glyphs commonalities.\nASCII art\nThe widespread usage of ASCII art can be traced to the computer bulletin board systems of the late 1970s and early 1980s. The limitations of computers of that time period necessitated the use of text characters to represent images. Along with ASCII's use in communication, however, it also began to appear in the underground online art groups of the period.\n\nAn ASCII comic is a form of webcomic which uses ASCII text to create images. In place of images in a regular comic, ASCII art is used, with the text or dialog usually placed underneath.\n\nDuring the 1990s, graphical browsing and variable-width fonts became increasingly popular, leading to a decline in ASCII art. Despite this, ASCII art continued to survive through online MUDs, an acronym for \"Multi-User Dungeon\", (which are textual multiplayer role-playing video games), Internet Relay Chat, Email, message boards, and other forms of online communication which commonly employ the needed fixed-width.\n\nASCII art is seen to this day on the CLI app Neofetch, which displays the logo of the OS on which it is invoked.\n\nJoan Stark is an American prolific ASCII artist who was active on Usenet's alt.ascii.art in the mid 1990s. Her involvement in ASCII art has been taken as an example of increased online participation by women.\nANSI\nASCII and more importantly, ANSI were staples of the early technological era; terminal systems relied on coherent presentation using color and control signals standard in the terminal protocols.\n\nOver the years, warez groups began to enter the ASCII art scene. Warez groups usually release .nfo files with their software, cracks or other general software reverse-engineering releases. The ASCII art will usually include the warez group's name and maybe some ASCII borders on the outsides of the release notes, etc.\nUses\nASCII art is used wherever text can be more readily printed or transmitted than graphics, or in some cases, where the transmission of pictures is not possible. This includes typewriters, teleprinters, non-graphic computer terminals, printer separators, in early computer networking (e.g., BBSes), email, and Usenet news messages. ASCII art is also used within the source code of computer programs for representation of company or product logos, and flow control or other diagrams. In some cases, the entire source code of a program is a piece of ASCII art – for instance, an entry to one of the earlier International Obfuscated C Code Contest is a program that adds numbers, but visually looks like a binary adder drawn in logic ports.\n\nSome electronic schematic archives represent the circuits using ASCII art.\n\nExamples of ASCII-style art predating the modern computer era can be found in the June 1939, July 1948 and October 1948 editions of Popular Mechanics.\n\nEarly mainframe games played on terminals frequently used ASCII art to simulate graphics, most notably the roguelike genre using ASCII art to visually represent dungeons and monsters within them. The Kroz series of roguelikes for MS-DOS uses ASCII art. 0verkill is a 2D platform multiplayer shooter game designed entirely in color ASCII art.\n\nMPlayer and VLC media player can display videos as ASCII art through the AAlib library.\n\nMany game walkthrough guides come as part of a basic .txt file; this file often contains the name of the game in ASCII art.\nTypes and styles\nDifferent techniques could be used in ASCII art to obtain different artistic effects.\n\n\"Typewriter-style\" lettering, made from individual letter characters:\nLine art, for creating shapes:\n.--. /\\ ____\n'--' /__\\ (^._.^)~ <(o.o )>\n\nSolid art, for creating filled objects:\n.g@8g. db\n'Y8@P' d88b\n\nShading, using symbols with various intensities for creating gradients or contrasts:\n$#$: \"4b. ':.\n$#$: \"4b. ':.\n\nCombinations of the above, often used as signatures, for example, at the end of an email:\n|\\_/| **************************** (\\_/)\n/ @ @ \\ * \"Purrrfectly pleasant\" * (='.'=)\n( > º < ) * Poppy Prinz * (\")_(\")\n`>>x<<´ * (pprinz@example.com) *\n/ O \\ ****************************\n\nAs-pixel characters use combinations of ░ , █ , ▄, ▀ (Block Elements), and/or ⣿, ⣴, ⢁, etc (Braille ASCII) to make pictures:\n⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⠿⠿⠿⠿⢿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿\n⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣾⣿⣷⣦⣌⠙⢿⣿⣿⣿\n⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣷⡈⢻⣿⣿\n⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣿⣿⠟⠋⣉⠙⢻⣿⣿⣿⣷⠀⣿⣿\n⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣿⣿⡷⢀⣿⣿⣿⡿⠀⣿⣿\n⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣿⣿⡿⠋⣠⣾⣿⣿⠟⢁⣼⣿⣿\n⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣿⣿⡿⠋⣠⣾⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣿⣿⣿⣿\n⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣿⣿⡿⠋⣠⣾⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿\n⣿⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣿⣿⣿⣿⣶⣿⣿⡿⠋⣠⣾⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿\n⣿⣿⠁⣴⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⡿⠋⣠⣾⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿\n⣿⣿⠀⢿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⡿⠋⣠⣾⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿\n⣿⣿⣧⡈⠻⢿⣿⡿⠋⣠⣾⣿⣿⡟⢁⣴⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿\n⣿⣿⣿⣿⣷⣶⣶⣶⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿\nEmoticons\nThe simplest forms of ASCII art are combinations of two or three characters for expressing emotion in text. They are commonly referred to as 'emoticon', 'smilie', or 'smiley'. There is another type of one-line ASCII art that does not require the mental rotation of pictures, which is widely known in Japan as kaomoji (literally \"face characters\".)\n\nMore complex examples use several lines of text to draw large symbols or more complex figures. Hundreds of different text smileys have developed over time, but only a few are generally accepted, used and understood.\nASCII comic\nAn ASCII comic is a form of webcomic.\nThe Adventures of Nerd Boy\n'The Adventures of Nerd Boy', or just 'Nerd Boy', was an ASCII comic, published by Joaquim Gândara between 5 August 2001 and 17 July 2007, and consisting of 600 strips. They were posted to ASCII art newsgroup alt.ascii-art and on the website. Some strips have been translated to Polish and French.\nStyles of the computer underground text art scene\nAtari 400/800 ATASCII\nThe Atari 400/800, which were released in 1979, did not follow the ASCII standard and had their own character set, called ATASCII. The emergence of ATASCII art coincided with the growing popularity of BBS Systems caused by availability of the acoustic couplers that were compatible with the 8-bit home computers. ATASCII text animations are also referred to as \"break animations\" by the Atari sceners.\nC-64 PETSCII\nThe Commodore 64, which was released in 1982, also did not follow the ASCII standard. The C-64 character set is called PETSCII, an extended form of ASCII-1963. As with the Atari's ATASCII art, C-64 fans developed a similar scene that used PETSCII for their creations.\n\"Block ASCII\" / \"High ASCII\" style ASCII art on the IBM PC\nSo-called \"block ASCII\" or \"high ASCII\" uses the extended characters of the 8-bit code page 437, which is a proprietary standard introduced by IBM in 1979 (ANSI Standard x3.16) for the IBM PC DOS and MS-DOS operating systems. \"Block ASCIIs\" were widely used on the PC during the 1990s until the Internet replaced BBSes as the main communication platform. Until then, \"block ASCIIs\" dominated the PC Text Art Scene.\n\nThe first art scene group that focused on the extended character set of the PC in their artwork was called \"Aces of ANSI Art\", or . Some members left in 1990 and formed a group called \"ANSI Creators in Demand\", or ACiD. In that same year the second major underground art scene group \"Insane Creators Enterprise\", or ICE, was founded.\n\nThere is some debate between ASCII and block ASCII artists, with \"Hardcore\" ASCII artists maintaining that block ASCII art is in fact not ASCII art, because it does not use the 128 characters of the original ASCII standard. On the other hand, block ASCII artists argue that if their art uses only characters of the computer's character set, then it is to be called ASCII, regardless if the character set is proprietary or not.\n\nMicrosoft Windows does not support the ANSI Standard x3.16. One can view block ASCIIs with a text editor using the font \"Terminal\", but it will not look exactly as it was intended by the artist. With a special ASCII/ANSI viewer, such as ACiDView for Windows , one can see block ASCII and ANSI files properly. An example that illustrates the difference in appearance is part of this article. Alternatively, one could look at the file using the TYPE command in the command prompt.\n\"Amiga\"/\"Oldskool\" style ASCII art\nIn the art scene one popular ASCII style that used the 7-bit standard ASCII character set was the so-called \"Oldskool\" style. It is also called \"Amiga style\", due to its origin and widespread use on Commodore Amiga computers. The style uses primarily the characters _/\\-+=.<>: and looks more like the outlined drawings of shapes than real pictures. The accompanying image is an example of \"Amiga style\" (also referred to as \"old school\" or \"oldskool\" style) scene ASCII art.\n\nThe Amiga ASCII scene surfaced in 1992, seven years after the introduction of the Commodore Amiga 1000. The Commodore 64 PETSCII scene did not make the transition to the Commodore Amiga as the C64 demo and warez scenes did. Among the first Amiga ASCII art groups were ART, Epsilon Design, Upper Class, Unreal (later known as \"DeZign\"). This means that the text art scene on the Amiga was actually younger than the text art scene on the PC. The Amiga artists also did not call their ASCII art style \"Oldskool\". That term was introduced on the PC; when and by whom is unknown and lost to history.\n\nThe Amiga style ASCII artwork was most often released in the form of a single text file, which included all the artwork (usually requested), with some design parts in between, as opposed to the PC art scene where the art work was released as a ZIP archive with separate text files for each piece. Furthermore, the releases were usually called \"ASCII collections\" and not \"art packs\" like on the IBM PC.\nIn text editors\nThis kind of ASCII art is handmade in a text editor. Popular editors used to make this kind of ASCII art include Windows Notepad, CygnusEditor also known as CED (Amiga), and EditPlus2 (PC).\n\nThe accompanying image shows an Oldskool font example done with the ASCII editor FIGlet on a PC.\nNewskool style ASCII art\n\"Newskool\" is a popular form of ASCII art which capitalizes on character strings like \"$#Xxo\". In spite of its name, the style is not \"new\"; on the contrary, it was very old but fell out of favor and was replaced by \"Oldskool\" and \"Block\" style ASCII art. It was dubbed \"Newskool\" upon its comeback and renewed popularity at the end of the 1990s.\n\nNewskool changed significantly as the result of the introduction of extended proprietary characters. The classic 7-bit standard ASCII characters remain predominant, but the extended characters are often used for \"fine tuning\" and \"tweaking\". The style developed further after the introduction and adaptation of Unicode.\nMethods for generating ASCII art\nWhile some prefer to use a simple text editor to produce ASCII art, specialized programs, such as JavE have been developed that often simulate the features and tools in bitmap image editors. For Block ASCII art and ANSI art the artist almost always uses a special text editor, because to generate the required characters on a standard keyboard, one needs to know the Alt code for each character. For example, + will produce ▓, + will produce ▒, and + will produce ◘.\n\nThe special text editors have sets of special characters assigned to existing keys on the keyboard. Popular editors for MS-DOS, such as TheDraw and ACiDDraw have multiple sets of different special characters mapped to the function keys to make the use of those characters easier for the artist who can switch between individual sets of characters via basic keyboard shortcuts. PabloDraw is one of the very few special ASCII/ANSI art editors developed for Windows.\nImage to text conversion\nOther programs allow one to automatically convert an image to text characters, which is a special case of vector quantization. A method is to sample the image down to grayscale with less than 8-bit precision, and then assign a character for each value. Such ASCII art generators often allow users to choose the intensity and contrast of the generated image.\n\nThree factors limit the fidelity of the conversion, especially of photographs:\ndepth (solutions: reduced line spacing; bold style; block elements; colored background; good shading);\nsharpness (solutions: a longer text, with a smaller font; a greater set of characters; variable width fonts);\nratio (solutions with compatibility issues: font with a square grid; stylized without extra line spacing).\n\nExamples of converted images are given below.\n\nThis is one of the earliest forms of ASCII art, dating back to the early days of the 1960s minicomputers and teletypes. During the 1970s, it was popular in US malls to get a t-shirt with a photograph printed in ASCII art on it from an automated kiosk containing a computer, and London's Science Museum had a similar service to produce printed portraits. With the advent of the web, HTML and CSS, many ASCII conversion programs will now quantize to a full RGB colorspace, enabling colorized ASCII images.\n\nStill images or movies can also be converted to ASCII on various UNIX and UNIX-like systems using the AAlib (black and white) or libcaca (colour) graphics device driver, or the VLC media player or mpv under Windows, Linux or macOS; all of which render the screen using ASCII symbols instead of pixels.\n\nThere are also a number of smartphone applications, such as ASCII cam for Android, that generate ASCII art in real-time using input from the phone's camera. These applications typically allow the ASCII art to be saved as either a text file or as an image made up of ASCII text.\nNon fixed-width ASCII\nMost ASCII art is created using a monospaced font, such as Courier, where all characters are identical in width. Early computers in use when ASCII art came into vogue had monospaced fonts for screen and printer displays. Today, most of the more commonly used fonts in word processors, web browsers and other programs are proportional fonts, such as Helvetica or Times New Roman, where different widths are used for different characters. ASCII art drawn for a fixed width font will usually appear distorted, or even unrecognizable when displayed in a proportional font.\n\nSome ASCII artists have produced art for display in proportional fonts. These ASCIIs, rather than using a purely shade-based correspondence, use characters for slopes and borders and use block shading. These ASCIIs generally offer greater precision and attention to detail than fixed-width ASCIIs for a lower character count, although they are not as universally accessible since they are usually relatively font-specific.\nAnimated ASCII art\nAnimated ASCII art started in 1970 from so-called VT100 animations produced on VT100 terminals. These animations were simply text with cursor movement instructions, deleting and erasing the characters necessary to appear animated. Usually, they represented a long hand-crafted process undertaken by a single person to tell a story.\n\nContemporary web browser revitalized animated ASCII art again. It became possible to display animated ASCII art via JavaScript or Java applets. Static ASCII art pictures are loaded and displayed one after another, creating the animation, very similar to how movie projectors unreel film reel and project the individual pictures on the big screen at movie theaters. A new term was born: \"ASCIImation\" – another name of animated ASCII art. A seminal work in this arena is the Star Wars ASCIImation. More complicated routines in JavaScript generate more elaborate ASCIImations showing effects like Morphing effects, star field emulations, fading effects and calculated images, such as mandelbrot fractal animations.\n\nThere are now many tools and programs that can transform raster images into text symbols; some of these tools can operate on streaming video. For example, the music video for American singer Beck's song \"Black Tambourine\" is made up entirely of ASCII characters that approximate the original footage. VLC, a media player software, can render any video in colored ASCII through the libcaca module.\nOther text-based visual art\nThere are a variety of other types of art using text symbols from character sets other than ASCII and/or some form of color coding. Despite not being pure ASCII, these are still often referred to as \"ASCII art\". The character set portion designed specifically for drawing is known as the line drawing characters or pseudo-graphics.\nANSI art\nThe IBM PC graphics hardware in text mode uses 16 bits per character. It supports a variety of configurations, but in its default mode under DOS they are used to give 256 glyphs from one of the IBM PC code pages (Code page 437 by default), 16 foreground colors, eight background colors, and a flash option. Such art can be loaded into screen memory directly. ANSI.SYS, if loaded, also allows such art to be placed on screen by outputting escape sequences that indicate movements of the screen cursor and color/flash changes. If this method is used then the art becomes known as ANSI art. The IBM PC code pages also include characters intended for simple drawing which often made this art appear much cleaner than that made with more traditional character sets. Plain text files are also seen with these characters, though they have become far less common since Windows GUI text editors (using the Windows ANSI code page) have largely replaced DOS-based ones.\nShift_JIS and Japan\nIn Japan, ASCII art (AA) is mainly known as Shift_JIS art. Shift JIS offers a larger selection of characters than plain ASCII (including characters from Japanese scripts and fullwidth forms of ASCII characters), and may be used for text-based art on Japanese websites.\n\nOften, such artwork is designed to be viewed with the default Japanese font on a platform, such as the proportional MS P Gothic.\nKaomoji\nUsers on ASCII-NET, in which the word ASCII refers to the ASCII Corporation rather than the American Standard Code for Information Interchange, popularised a style of in which the face appears upright rather than rotated.\nUnicode\nUnicode would seem to offer the ultimate flexibility in producing text based art with its huge variety of characters. However, finding a suitable fixed-width font is likely to be difficult if a significant subset of Unicode is desired. (Modern UNIX-style operating systems do provide complete fixed-width Unicode fonts, e.g. for xterm. Windows has the Courier New font, which includes characters like ♥☺). Also, the common practice of rendering Unicode with a mixture of variable width fonts is likely to make predictable display hard, if more than a tiny subset of Unicode is used. is an adequate representation of a cat's face in a font with varying character widths.\nControl and combining characters\nThe combining characters mechanism of Unicode provides considerable ways of customizing the style, even obfuscating the text (e.g. via an online generator like Obfuscator, which focuses on the filters). 'Glitcher' is one example of Unicode art, initiated in 2012: \"These symbols, intruding up and down, are made by combining lots of diacritical marks. It's a kind of art. There's quite a lot of artists who use the Internet or specific social networks as their canvas.\" The corresponding creations are favored in web browsers (thanks to their always better support), as geekily stylized usernames for social networks. With a fair compatibility, and among different online tools, Facebook symbols showcases various types of Unicode art, mainly for aesthetic purpose (Ɯıḳĭƥḙȡḯả Wîkipêȡıẚ Ẉǐḳîṗȅḍȉā Ẃįḵįṗẻḑìẵ Ẉĭḵɪṕḗdïą Ẇïƙỉpểɗĭà Ẅȉḱïṕȩđĩẵ etc.). Besides, the creations can be hand-crafted (by programming), or pasted from mobile applications. The underlying technique dates back to the old systems that incorporated control characters, though. E.g. the German composite ö would be imitated on ZX Spectrum by overwriting \" after backspace and o.\nOverprinting (surprint)\nIn the 1970s and early 1980s it was popular to produce a kind of text art that relied on overprinting. This could be produced either on a screen or on a printer by typing a character, backing up, and then typing another character, just as on a typewriter. This developed into sophisticated graphics in some cases, such as the PLATO system (circa 1973), where superscript and subscript allowed a wide variety of graphic effects. A common use was for emoticons, with WOBTAX and VICTORY both producing convincing smiley faces. Overprinting had previously been used on typewriters, but the low-resolution pixelation of characters on video terminals meant that overprinting here produced seamless pixel graphics, rather than visibly overstruck combinations of letters on paper.\n\nBeyond pixel graphics, this was also used for printing photographs, as the overall darkness of a particular character space dependent on how many characters, as well as the choice of character, were printed in a particular place. Thanks to the increased granularity of tone, photographs were often converted to this type of printout. Even manual typewriters or daisy wheel printers could be used. The technique has fallen from popularity since all cheap printers can easily print photographs, and a normal text file (or an e-mail message or Usenet posting) cannot represent overprinted text. However, something similar has emerged to replace it: shaded or colored ASCII art, using ANSI video terminal markup or color codes (such as those found in HTML, IRC, and many internet message boards) to add a bit more tone variation. In this way, it is possible to create ASCII art where the characters only differ in color.\nSee also\nMicrography\nTypes and styles: Alt code, ASCII stereogram, box-drawing characters, emoticon, FILE_ID.DIZ, .nfo (release info file)\nPre-ASCII history: Calligram, Concrete poetry, Typewriter, Typewriter mystery game, Teleprinter, Radioteletype\nRelated art: ANSI art, ASCII porn, ATASCII, Fax art, PETSCII, Shift JIS art, Text semigraphics\nRelated context: Bulletin board system (BBS), Computer art scene, :Category:Artscene groups\nSoftware: AAlib, cowsay\nUnicode: Homoglyph, Duplicate characters in Unicode\nPixel art\nCross-stitch\nNotesReferencesFurther reading\n(Polish translators: Ania Górecka [ag], Asia Mazur [as], Błażej Kozłowski [bug], Janusz [jp], Łukasz Dąbrowski [luk], Łukasz Tyrała [lt.], Łukasz Wilk [wilu], Marcin Gliński [fsc])\nExternal links\nmedia4u.ch - ASCII Art (ASCII Art Movie. The Matrix in ASCII Art)\nTexArt.io ASCII Art collection\nTextfiles.com archive\nDefacto2.net Scene NFO Files Archive\nChris.com ASCII art collection\n\"As-Pixel Characters\" ASCII art collection\nASCII Art Animation of Star Wars, \"ASCIIMATION\"\nASCII Keyboard Art Collection\nAnimasci\nVideo to ASCII Demonstration in 4 stages","text_chars":25196,"text_sha256":"1f32e6651c40f9c5297a50b737aef728febe2bbddf30bc9e8dc010465166a18b","text_utf8_bytes":26101,"title":"ASCII art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII_art","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"b3a2dff8805aac7f8101fa3a38bccadbb5da427b539a143b0d831fcdb9948126"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2955&action=history","id":"2955","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":12008,"raw_text_sha256":"b557a102d2218ff4b6dac936a0cd94f057b3f94860637cef034a967c8c78da81","raw_text_utf8_bytes":12090,"revision_id":"1368615684","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-10T02:51:25Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1368615684","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"In chemistry, an alkali or base\nis a hydroxide of any of either the alkali metal which are Group I s-block elements, or the alkaline earth metal which are Group II s-block. Alkali can also be defined as a base that dissolves in water. A solution of a soluble base has a pH greater than 7.0. The adjectives alkaline and, less often, alkalescent are commonly used in English as a synonyms for basic, especially for bases soluble in water. This broad use of the term is likely to have come about because alkalis were the first bases known to obey the Arrhenius definition of a base, and they are still among the most common bases.\nEtymology\nThe word alkali is derived from Arabic meaning , that is, ashes of burnt Salicornia, a type of saltwort that is the original source of alkaline substances. A water-extract of burned plant ashes, called potash and composed mostly of potassium carbonate, was mildly basic. After heating this substance with calcium hydroxide (slaked lime), a far more strongly basic substance known as caustic potash (potassium hydroxide) was produced. Caustic potash was traditionally used in conjunction with animal fats to produce soft soaps, one of the caustic processes that rendered soaps from fats in the process of saponification, one known since antiquity. Plant potash lent the name to the element potassium, which was first derived from caustic potash, and its chemical symbol K (from the German name ), which ultimately derived from alkali.\nCommon properties of alkalis and bases\nAlkalis are all Arrhenius bases, ones which form hydroxide ions (OH−) when dissolved in water. Common properties of alkaline aqueous solutions include:\nModerately concentrated solutions (over 10−3 M) have a pH of 10 or greater. This means that they will turn phenolphthalein from colorless to pink.\nConcentrated solutions are caustic (causing chemical burns).\nAlkaline solutions are slippery or soapy to the touch, due to the saponification of the fatty substances on the surface of the skin.\nAlkalis are normally water-soluble, although some like barium carbonate are only soluble when reacting with an acidic aqueous solution.\nDifference between alkali and base\nThe terms \"base\" and \"alkali\" are often used interchangeably, particularly outside the context of chemistry and chemical engineering.\n\nThere are various, more specific definitions for the concept of an alkali. Alkalis are usually defined as a subset of the bases. One of two subsets is commonly chosen.\nA basic salt of an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal (this includes Mg(OH)2 (magnesium hydroxide) but excludes NH3 (ammonia)).\nAny base that is soluble in water and forms hydroxide ions or the solution of a base in water. (This includes both Mg(OH)2 and NH3, which forms NH4OH.)\n\nThe second subset of bases is also called an \"Arrhenius base\".\nAlkali salts\nAlkali salts are soluble hydroxides of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals, of which common examples are:\nSodium hydroxide (NaOH) – often called \"caustic soda\"\nPotassium hydroxide (KOH) – commonly called \"caustic potash\"\nLye – generic term for either of two previous salts or their mixture\nCalcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) – saturated solution known as \"limewater\"\nMagnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) – an atypical alkali since it has low solubility in water (although the dissolved portion is considered a strong base due to complete dissociation of its ions)\nAlkaline soil\nSoils with pH values that are higher than 7.3 are usually defined as being alkaline. These soils can occur naturally due to the presence of alkali salts. Although many plants do prefer slightly basic soil (including vegetables like cabbage and fodder like buffalo grass), most plants prefer mildly acidic soil (with pHs between 6.0 and 6.8), and alkaline soils can cause problems.\nAlkali lakes\nIn alkali lakes (also called soda lakes), evaporation concentrates the naturally occurring carbonate salts, giving rise to an alkalic and often saline lake.\n\nExamples of alkali lakes:\nAlkali Lake, Lake County, Oregon\nBaldwin Lake, San Bernardino County, California\nBear Lake on the Utah–Idaho border\nLake Magadi in Kenya\nLake Turkana in Kenya\nMono Lake, near Owens Valley in California\nRedberry Lake, Saskatchewan\nSummer Lake, Lake County, Oregon\nTramping Lake, Saskatchewan\nSee also\nAlkali manufacture\nAlkali metals\nAlkaline earth metals\nAlkaline magma series\nBase (chemistry)\nReferences","text_chars":4387,"text_sha256":"aaaa6d03cbbf69f9326d9d6af7ac10e8abe88cff5fc3c2225ebbc89d757de8d8","text_utf8_bytes":4403,"title":"Alkali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"77f52fc36a9b91b118d625011933da3f12cb0a621b38a2cd15168ebba53c622e"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3046&action=history","id":"3046","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":23864,"raw_text_sha256":"d8fae5b42a3829eeb295e2e6a5017857484d973dd342753cd0e60bd01552da40","raw_text_utf8_bytes":23921,"revision_id":"1369254271","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-13T21:04:08Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1369254271","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Amyl nitrite is a chemical compound with the formula C5H11NO2. A variety of isomers are known, but they all feature an amyl group attached to the nitrite functional group. The alkyl group (the amyl in this case) is unreactive and the chemical and biological properties are mainly due to the nitrite group. Like other alkyl nitrites, amyl nitrite is bioactive in mammals, being a vasodilator, which is the basis of its use as a prescription medicine. As an inhalant, it also has a psychoactive effect, which has led to its recreational use, with its smell being described as that of old socks or dirty feet.\n\nIt was first documented in 1844 and came into medical use in 1867.\nUses\nAmyl nitrite was historically employed medically to treat heart diseases as well as angina.\nAmyl nitrite was sometimes used as an antidote for cyanide poisoning. It was thought to act as an oxidant, to induce the formation of methemoglobin. Methemoglobin in turn can sequester cyanide as cyanomethemoglobin. However, it has been replaced by hydroxocobalamin which had better efficacy, and the use of amyl nitrite has been found to be ineffective and unscientific.\nAmyl nitrite is sometimes used as an antidote for hydrogen sulfide toxicity, given in conjunction with sodium nitrite. The nitrite bonds with haemoglobin to form sulfmethemoglobin which in turn binds to hydrogen sulfide, preventing it from binding to tissue, but triggering sulfhemoglobinemia in the process. The use of amyl nitrite for this purpose is considered anecdotal; the CDC notes that it should not interfere with the establishment of adequate ventilation and oxygenation, and must be administered immediately to be most effective.\nTrace amounts are added to some perfumes.\nIt is also used recreationally as an inhalant drug that induces a brief euphoric state, and when combined with other intoxicant stimulant drugs such as cocaine or MDMA, the euphoric state intensifies and is prolonged. Once some stimulative drugs wear off, a common side effect is a period of depression or anxiety, colloquially called a \"come down\"; amyl nitrite is sometimes used to combat these negative after-effects. This effect, combined with its dissociative effects, has led to its use as a recreational drug .\nNomenclature\nThe term \"amyl nitrite\" encompasses several isomers. In older literature, the common non-systematic name amyl was often used for the pentyl group, where the amyl group is a linear or normal (n) alkyl group, and the resulting amyl nitrite would have the structural formula CH3(CH2)3CH2ONO, also referred to as n-amyl nitrite.\n\nA common form of amyl nitrite is the isomer with the formula (CH3)2CHCH2CH2ONO, which may be more specifically referred to as isoamyl nitrite.\n\nThe similarly named amyl nitrate has very different properties. At the same time, isopropyl nitrite has a similar structure and similar uses (also called 'poppers') but with worse side-effects.\n\nAmyl nitrite is sometimes referred to colloquially as banapple gas.\nSynthesis and reactions\nAlkyl nitrites are prepared by the reaction of alcohols with nitrous acid:\nROH + HONO → RONO + H2O, where R = alkyl group\n\nThe reaction is called esterification. Synthesis of alkyl nitrites is, in general, straightforward and can be accomplished in home laboratories. A common procedure includes the dropwise addition of concentrated sulfuric acid to a cooled mixture of an aqueous sodium nitrite solution and an alcohol. The intermediately-formed stoichiometric mixture of nitrogen dioxide and nitric oxide then converts the alcohol to the alkyl nitrite, which, due to its low density, will form an upper layer that can be easily decanted from the reaction mixture.\n\nIsoamyl nitrite decomposes in the presence of base to give nitrite salts and the isoamyl alcohol:\nC5H11ONO + NaOH → C5H11OH + NaNO2\n\nAmyl nitrite, like other alkyl nitrites, reacts with carbanions to give oximes.\n\nAmyl nitrites are also useful as reagents in a modification of the Sandmeyer reaction. The reaction of the alkyl nitrite with an aromatic amine in a halogenated solvent produces a radical aromatic species, this then frees a halogen atom from the solvent. For the synthesis of aryl iodides diiodomethane is used, whereas bromoform is the solvent of choice for the synthesis of aryl bromides.\nPhysiological effects\nAmyl nitrite, in common with other alkyl nitrites, is a potent vasodilator; it expands blood vessels, resulting in lowering of the blood pressure. Amyl nitrite may be used during cardiovascular stress testing in patients with suspected hypertrophic cardiomyopathy to cause vasodilation and thereby reduce afterload and provoke obstruction of blood flow towards the aorta from the ventricle by increasing the pressure gradient, thereby causing left ventricular outflow obstruction. Alkyl nitrites are a source of nitric oxide, which signals for relaxation of the involuntary muscles. Physical effects include decrease in blood pressure, headache, flushing of the face, increased heart rate, dizziness, and relaxation of involuntary muscles, especially the blood vessel walls and the internal and external anal sphincter. There are no withdrawal symptoms. Overdose symptoms include nausea, vomiting, hypotension, hypoventilation, shortness of breath, and fainting. The effects set in very quickly, typically within a few seconds and disappear within a few minutes. Amyl nitrite may also intensify the experience of synesthesia. Amyl nitrite, when given as a medication for patients with angina, can also be administered as an ampule. The ampule is put in a gauze pad and then inhaled by the patient during an angina attack and repeated every fifteen minutes. However, oral dosing of amyl nitrite is ineffective due to poor absorption and extensive hepatic metabolism. Amyl nitrite has been widely replaced by nitroglycerin for the treatment of acute angina.\nToxicity\nThere are case reports of life-threatening toxicity involving unusually large amounts. However, there is little evidence that typical inhaled doses of amyl nitrite pose a significant risk, except when combined with drugs used for erectile dysfunction. One study found neurotoxic effects in rats injected with alkyl nitrites, including impairments to memory, learning, and motor coordination, hypothesized to be due to effects on the glutamergic pathway in the hippocampus. Further, liquid amyl nitrite is highly toxic when ingested because of the dangerously high concentration it causes in the blood. Regardless of the form or route of administration, toxicity principally results when the nitrite oxidizes a significant proportion of hemoglobin in the blood without oxygen, forming methemoglobin, which cannot carry oxygen. Severe poisoning cases will progress to methemoglobinemia, characterized by a blue-brown discoloration under the skin which could be mistaken for cyanosis. Treatment with oxygen and intravenous methylene blue frustrates visual confirmation further as methylene blue itself is, as its name suggests, a blue dye; the patient's changes in different shades of blue notwithstanding, it is an effective antidote by way of catalyzing the production of the enzyme responsible for reducing the methemoglobin in the blood back to hemoglobin.\n\nThe discoloration does mean that regular near-infrared–based pulse oximetry becomes useless. More fundamentally, blood gas analysis on the whole has limited effectiveness, as the increased methemoglobin level increases the oxygen binding affinity of regular hemoglobin. Therefore, the measurement of actual ratios and levels of methemoglobin and hemoglobin must accompany any blood gas partial pressure sample in these cases.\nIn popular culture\nThe Animals frontman Eric Burdon claimed that he inspired the line \"I am the eggman\" in the Beatles song I Am the Walrus after telling John Lennon about a sensual experience he had with a girlfriend involving a raw egg while Burdon was under influence of amyl nitrite.\n\nThe Columbo episode titled \"Troubled Waters\" (1974–1975) features amyl nitrite inhaled by the antagonist Hayden Danziger – played by Robert Vaughn – to help him feign a heart attack for his alibi. However, the episode consistently refers to the substance incorrectly as amyl nitrate.\n\nThe 1978 Derek Jarman film Jubilee features a character credited as \"Amyl Nitrite\", although in the film itself the character is \"Amyl Nitrate\".\n\nThe 1978 Cheech & Chong film \"Up in Smoke\" features a character named Jade East- played by Zane Buzby- who, while trying to help Pedro rouse Man from the sofa backstage at the Roxy Theatre says, \"I got a popper. We could either, like, you know, party later or try to start his heart.\"\n\nIn the 1986 film Blue Velvet, the character Frank Booth uses the drug.\n\nThe title of the 1993 song \"Animal Nitrate\" by English band Suede is a pun on amyl nitrite, referencing its recreational use, although singer Brett Anderson has said the song has more to do with other drugs like ecstasy and cocaine.\n\nIn the 1999 film Fight Club, the character Chloe, a terminally ill woman, mentions having a collection of amyl nitrite while openly discussing her unfulfilled desires at a cancer support group.\n\nThe punk band Amyl and the Sniffers reference recreational use of amyl nitrite in their name.\n\nThe Hunter S. Thompson book Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas sees amyl nitrite as one of the many drugs Raoul Duke packs for the trip to Las Vegas, taking about two dozen ampules of it with him and usually justifying its usage by him and Dr. Gonzo to other people around them by claiming it is for angina.\n\nIn Season 1, Episode 9 of Bob's Burgers, \"Spaghetti Western and Meatballs\", Gene guesses amyl nitrite for the A in the ABS program near the end of the episode.\n\nIn the movie Diggstown, Charles Macom Diggs is doped in a boxing match with amyl nitrite.\nReferencesFurther reading\nEditorial on the use of the word \"amyl\".","text_chars":9884,"text_sha256":"f89a29b63835ffb1e659bad279dc4f81f4c9a57f4b159538419185c3df196d5e","text_utf8_bytes":9896,"title":"Amyl nitrite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyl_nitrite","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"2c12170acbd5e5e3c48e53d0328f88d8363a9f294af277dfab1278694e1fcdd6"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1826&action=history","id":"1826","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":45620,"raw_text_sha256":"fd9b7e0929c5400b597ee6cebe084805b669ab6761d62a6a007474014561d195","raw_text_utf8_bytes":45720,"revision_id":"1370674978","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-22T13:00:25Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1370674978","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Events\nPre-1600\n796 – King Æthelred I of Northumbria is murdered in Corbridge by a group led by his ealdormen, Ealdred and Wada. The patrician Osbald is crowned, but abdicates within 27 days.\n1428 – Peace of Ferrara between Republic of Venice, Duchy of Milan, Republic of Florence and House of Gonzaga: ending of the second campaign of the Wars in Lombardy fought until the Treaty of Lodi in 1454, which will then guarantee the conditions for the development of the Italian Renaissance.\n1506 – The cornerstone of the current St. Peter's Basilica is laid.\n1518 – Bona Sforza is crowned as queen consort of Poland.\n1521 – Trial of Martin Luther begins its second day during the assembly of the Diet of Worms. He refuses to recant his teachings despite the risk of excommunication.\n1601–1900\n1689 – Bostonians rise up in rebellion against Sir Edmund Andros.\n1738 – Real Academia de la Historia (\"Royal Academy of History\") is founded in Madrid.\n1775 – American Revolution: The British Army advances up the Charles River in Massachusetts to destroy supplies of American militias, while Paul Revere and other riders rapidly warn the countryside.\n1783 – Three-Fifths Compromise: The first instance of black slaves in the United States of America being counted as three-fifths of persons (for the purpose of taxation), in a resolution of the Congress of the Confederation. This was later adopted in the 1787 Constitution.\n1797 – War of the First Coalition: The Peace of Leoben is signed by Napoleon Bonaparte and Maximilian, Count of Merveldt, creating an armistice between France and Austria, setting the stage for the Treaty of Campo Formio and ending the War of the First Coalition.\n1831 – The University of Alabama is founded in Tuscaloosa, Alabama.\n1847 – American victory at the battle of Cerro Gordo opens the way for invasion of Mexico.\n1857 – The Spirits Book by Allan Kardec is published, marking the birth of Spiritualism in France.\n1864 – Battle of Dybbøl: A Prussian-Austrian army defeats Denmark and gains control of Schleswig. Denmark surrenders the province in the following peace settlement.\n1897 – The Greco-Turkish War is declared between Greece and the Ottoman Empire.\n1899 – The St. Andrew's Ambulance Association is granted a royal charter by Queen Victoria.\n1901–present\n1902 – The 7.5 Guatemala earthquake shakes Guatemala with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe), killing between 800 and 2,000.\n1906 – The 7.9 earthquake and fire destroy much of San Francisco, California, killing more than 3,000 people, making one of the worst natural disasters in American history.\n1909 – Joan of Arc is beatified in Rome.\n1912 – The Cunard liner brings 705 survivors from the to New York City.\n1915 – World War I: French pilot Roland Garros is shot down and glides to a landing on the German side of the lines.\n1916 – World War I: During a mine warfare in high altitude on the Dolomites, the Italian troops conquer the Col di Lana held by the Austrian army.\n1930 – A fire kills 118 people at a wooden church in the small Romanian town of Costești, most of them schoolchildren, after starting during Good Friday services.\n1938 – Superman debuts in Action Comics #1 (cover dated June 1938).\n1939 – Robert Menzies, who became Australia's longest-serving prime minister, is elected as leader of the United Australia Party after the death of Prime Minister Joseph Lyons.\n1942 – World War II: The Doolittle Raid on Japan: Tokyo, Yokohama, Kobe and Nagoya are bombed.\n1942 – Pierre Laval becomes Prime Minister of Vichy France.\n1943 – World War II: Operation Vengeance, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto is killed when his aircraft is shot down by U.S. fighters over Bougainville Island.\n1945 – World War II: Over 1,000 bombers attack the small island of Heligoland, Germany.\n1945 – Italian resistance movement: In Turin, despite the harsh repressive measures adopted by Nazi-fascists, a great pre-insurrectional strike begins.\n1946 – The International Court of Justice holds its inaugural meeting in The Hague, Netherlands.\n1946 – Jackie Robinson makes his regular season debut for the Montreal Royals of the International League, to make them the first integrated modern professional baseball team.\n1947 – The Operation Big Bang, the largest non-nuclear man-made explosion to that time, destroys bunkers and military installations on the North Sea island of Heligoland, Germany.\n1949 – The Republic of Ireland Act comes into force, declaring Éire to be a republic and severing Ireland \"association\" with the Commonwealth of Nations.\n1954 – Gamal Abdel Nasser seizes power in Egypt.\n1955 – Twenty-nine nations meet at Bandung, Indonesia, for the first Asian-African Conference.\n1972 – East African Airways Flight 720 crashes during a rejected takeoff from Addis Ababa Bole International Airport in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, killing 43.\n1978 – The Ba Chúc massacre begins, which precipitates the Cambodian–Vietnamese War the same year.\n1980 – The Republic of Zimbabwe (formerly Rhodesia) comes into being, with Canaan Banana as the country's first President. The Zimbabwean dollar replaces the Rhodesian dollar as the official currency.\n1980 – The town of Elmore City, Oklahoma holds its first dance in the town's history.\n1988 – The United States launches Operation Praying Mantis against Iranian naval forces in the largest naval battle since World War II.\n1988 – In Israel John Demjanjuk is sentenced to death for war crimes committed in World War II, although the verdict is later overturned.\n1996 – The Israeli military commits the Qana massacre in a deliberate shelling of a United Nations compound near the village of Qana in southern Lebanon, killing 106 Lebanese civilians who were taking shelter there and wounding over 100 more.\n2018 – King Mswati III of Swaziland announces that his country's name will change to Eswatini.\n2018 – Anti-government protests start in Nicaragua.\n2019 – A redacted version of the Mueller report is released to the United States Congress and the public.\n2026 – Seven people are killed and fourteen others are injured in a mass shooting in Kyiv, Ukraine\nBirths\nPre-1600\n359 – Gratian, Roman emperor (died 383)\n588 – K'an II, Mayan ruler (died 658)\n812 – Al-Wathiq, Abbasid caliph (died 847)\n1446 – Ippolita Maria Sforza, Italian noble (died 1484)\n1480 – Lucrezia Borgia, daughter of Pope Alexander VI (died 1519)\n1503 – Henry II of Navarre (died 1555)\n1534 – William Harrison, English clergyman (died 1593)\n1580 – Thomas Middleton, English Jacobean playwright and poet (died 1627)\n1590 – Ahmed I, Ottoman Emperor (died 1617)\n1601–1900\n1605 – Giacomo Carissimi, Italian priest and composer (died 1674)\n1666 – Jean-Féry Rebel, French violinist and composer (died 1747)\n1740 – Sir Francis Baring, 1st Baronet, English banker and politician (died 1810)\n1759 – Jacques Widerkehr, French cellist and composer (died 1823)\n1771 – Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg (died 1820)\n1772 – David Ricardo, British economist and politician (died 1823)\n1794 – William Debenham, English founder of Debenhams (died 1863)\n1813 – James McCune Smith, African-American physician, apothecary, abolitionist, and author (died 1865)\n1819 – Carlos Manuel de Céspedes, Cuban lawyer and activist (died 1874)\n1819 – Franz von Suppé, Austrian composer and conductor (died 1895)\n1838 – Paul-Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran, French chemist and academic (died 1912)\n1854 – Ludwig Levy, German architect (died 1907)\n1857 – Clarence Darrow, American lawyer (died 1938)\n1858 – Dhondo Keshav Karve, Indian educator and activist, Bharat Ratna Awardee (died 1962)\n1858 – Alexander Shirvanzade, Armenian playwright and author (died 1935)\n1863 – Count Leopold Berchtold, Austrian-Hungarian politician and diplomat, Joint Foreign Minister of Austria-Hungary (died 1942)\n1863 – Linton Hope, English sailor and architect (died 1920)\n1863 – Siegfried Bettmann, founder of the Triumph Motorcycle Company and Mayor of Coventry (died 1955)\n1864 – Richard Harding Davis, American journalist and author (died 1916)\n1874 – Ivana Brlić-Mažuranić, Croatian author and poet (died 1938)\n1877 – Vicente Sotto, Filipino lawyer and politician (died 1950)\n1879 – Korneli Kekelidze, Georgian philologist and scholar (died 1962)\n1880 – Sam Crawford, American baseball player, coach, and umpire (died 1968)\n1882 – Isaac Babalola Akinyele, Nigerian ruler (died 1964)\n1882 – Leopold Stokowski, English conductor (died 1977)\n1883 – Aleksanteri Aava, Finnish poet (died 1956)\n1884 – Jaan Anvelt, Estonian educator and politician (died 1937)\n1889 – Jessie Street, Australian activist (died 1970)\n1892 – Eugene Houdry, French-American mechanical engineer and inventor (died 1962)\n1897 – Ardito Desio, Italian geologist and cartographer (died 2001)\n1898 – Patrick Hennessy, Irish soldier and businessman (died 1981)\n1900 – Bertha Isaacs, Bahamian teacher, tennis player, politician and women's rights activist (died 1997)\n1901–present\n1901 – Al Lewis, American songwriter (died 1967)\n1901 – László Németh, Hungarian dentist, author, and playwright (died 1975)\n1902 – Waldemar Hammenhög, Swedish author (died 1972)\n1902 – Giuseppe Pella, Italian politician, 32nd Prime Minister of Italy (died 1981)\n1904 – Pigmeat Markham, African-American comedian, singer, and dancer (died 1981)\n1905 – Sydney Halter, Canadian lawyer and businessman (died 1990)\n1905 – George H. Hitchings, American physician and pharmacologist, Nobel Prize laureate (died 1998)\n1907 – Miklós Rózsa, Hungarian-American composer and conductor (died 1995)\n1911 – Maurice Goldhaber, Ukrainian-American physicist and academic (died 2011)\n1914 – Claire Martin, Canadian author (died 2014)\n1915 – Joy Davidman, Polish-Ukrainian American poet and author (died 1960)\n1916 – Carl Burgos, American illustrator (died 1984)\n1918 – Gabriel Axel, Danish-French actor, director, and producer (died 2014)\n1918 – André Bazin, French critic and theorist (died 1958)\n1918 – Shinobu Hashimoto, Japanese director, producer, and screenwriter (died 2018)\n1918 – Clifton Hillegass, American publisher, founded CliffsNotes (died 2001)\n1918 – Tony Mottola, American guitarist and composer (died 2004)\n1919 – Virginia O'Brien, American actress and singer (died 2001)\n1919 – Esther Afua Ocloo, Ghanaian entrepreneur and pioneer of microlending (died 2002)\n1920 – John F. Wiley, American football player and coach (died 2013)\n1921 – Jean Richard, French actor and singer (died 2001)\n1922 – Barbara Hale, American actress (died 2017)\n1924 – Clarence \"Gatemouth\" Brown, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (died 2005)\n1925 – Marcus Schmuck, Austrian mountaineer and author (died 2005)\n1926 – Doug Insole, English cricketer (died 2017)\n1927 – Samuel P. Huntington, American political scientist, author, and academic (died 2008)\n1927 – Tadeusz Mazowiecki, Polish journalist and politician, Prime Minister of Poland (died 2013)\n1928 – Karl Josef Becker, German cardinal and theologian (died 2015)\n1928 – Otto Piene, German sculptor and academic (died 2014)\n1929 – Peter Hordern, English soldier and politician (died 2024)\n1930 – Clive Revill, New Zealand actor and singer (died 2025)\n1930 – Jean Guillou, French organist (died 2019)\n1931 – Bill Miles, American director and producer (died 2013)\n1934 – James Drury, American actor (died 2020)\n1934 – George Shirley, African-American tenor and educator\n1935 – Costas Ferris, Egyptian-Greek actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n1936 – Roger Graef, American-English criminologist, director, and producer (died 2022)\n1936 – Vladimir Hütt, Estonian physicist and philosopher (died 1997)\n1937 – Keiko Abe, Japanese marimba player and composer\n1937 – Jan Kaplický, Czech architect, designed the Selfridges Building (died 2009)\n1939 – Glen Hardin, American pianist and arranger\n1939 – Thomas J. Moyer, American lawyer and judge (died 2010)\n1940 – Joseph L. Goldstein, American biochemist and geneticist, Nobel Prize laureate\n1940 – Mike Vickers, English guitarist, saxophonist, and songwriter\n1941 – Michael D. Higgins, Irish sociologist and politician, 9th President of Ireland\n1942 – Michael Beloff, English lawyer and academic\n1942 – Robert Christgau, American journalist and critic\n1942 – Jochen Rindt, German-Austrian racing driver (died 1970)\n1944 – Kathy Acker, American author and poet (died 1997)\n1944 – Philip Jackson, Scottish sculptor and photographer\n1945 – Bernard Arcand, Canadian anthropologist and author (died 2009)\n1946 – Hayley Mills, English actress\n1947 – Moses Blah, Liberian general and politician, 23rd President of Liberia (died 2013)\n1947 – Jerzy Stuhr, Polish actor, director, and screenwriter (died 2024)\n1947 – James Woods, American actor and producer\n1948 – Régis Wargnier, French director, producer, and screenwriter\n1950 – Grigory Sokolov, Russian pianist and composer\n1953 – Rick Moranis, Canadian-American actor, comedian, singer and screenwriter\n1953 – Sk. Mujibur Rahman, Bengali politician\n1954 – Robert Greenberg, American pianist and composer\n1958 – Gabi Delgado-López, Spanish-German singer, co-founder of D.A.F. (died 2020)\n1958 – Malcolm Marshall, Barbadian cricketer and coach (died 1999)\n1959 – Susan Faludi, American journalist, author and feminist\n1960 – Yelena Zhupiyeva-Vyazova, Ukrainian runner\n1961 – Jane Leeves, English actress and dancer\n1961 – John Podhoretz, American journalist and author\n1962 – Jeff Dunham, American ventriloquist and comedian\n1963 – Conan O'Brien, American television host, comedian, and writer\n1964 – Niall Ferguson, Scottish historian and academic\n1969 – Keith DeCandido, American author\n1970 – Saad Hariri, Saudi Arabian-Lebanese businessman and politician, 33rd Prime Minister of Lebanon\n1970 – Willie Roaf, American football player\n1971 – David Tennant, Scottish actor\n1972 – Rosa Clemente, American journalist and activist\n1972 – Eli Roth, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n1973 – Derrick Brooks, American football player\n1973 – Haile Gebrselassie, Ethiopian runner\n1974 – Edgar Wright, English filmmaker\n1976 – Melissa Joan Hart, American actress\n1976 – Andrew Ng, British-born American artificial intelligence researcher\n1979 – Matt Cooper, Australian rugby league player\n1979 – Kourtney Kardashian, American television personality\n1981 – Audrey Tang, Taiwanese Minister of Digital Affairs and programmer\n1983 – Miguel Cabrera, Venezuelan baseball player\n1984 – America Ferrera, American actress\n1985 – Łukasz Fabiański, Polish footballer\n1986 – Tina Bru, Norwegian politician\n1988 – Vanessa Kirby, English actress\n1989 – Alia Shawkat, American actress\n1990 – Wojciech Szczęsny, Polish footballer\n1992 – Chloe Bennet, American actress\n1993 – Mika Zibanejad, Swedish ice hockey player\n1994 – Aminé, American singer-songwriter\n1995 – Divock Origi, Belgian footballer\n1996 – Ski Mask the Slump God, American rapper\nDeaths\nPre-1600\n727 – Agallianos Kontoskeles, Byzantine commander and rebel leader\n850 – Perfectus, Spanish monk and martyr\n909 – Dionysius II, Syriac Orthodox patriarch of Antioch\n943 – Fujiwara no Atsutada, Japanese nobleman and poet (born 906)\n963 – Stephen Lekapenos, co-emperor of the Byzantine Empire\n1161 – Theobald of Bec, French-English archbishop (born 1090)\n1176 – Galdino della Sala, Italian archdeacon and saint\n1430 – John III, Count of Nassau-Siegen, German count\n1552 – John Leland, English poet and historian (born 1502)\n1555 – Polydore Vergil, English historian (born 1470)\n1556 – Luigi Alamanni, Italian poet and politician (born 1495)\n1567 – Wilhelm von Grumbach, German adventurer (born 1503)\n1587 – John Foxe, English historian and author (born 1516)\n1601–1900\n1636 – Julius Caesar, English judge and politician (born 1557)\n1650 – Simonds d'Ewes, English lawyer and politician (born 1602)\n1674 – John Graunt, English demographer and statistician (born 1620)\n1689 – George Jeffreys, 1st Baron Jeffreys, Welsh judge and politician, Lord Chancellor of Great Britain (born 1648)\n1732 – Louis Feuillée, French astronomer, geographer, and botanist (born 1660)\n1742 – Arvid Horn, Swedish general and politician (born 1664)\n1763 – Marie-Josephte Corriveau, Canadian murderer (born 1733)\n1794 – Charles Pratt, 1st Earl Camden, English lawyer, judge, and politician, Lord Chancellor of Great Britain (born 1714)\n1796 – Johan Wilcke, Swedish physicist and academic (born 1732)\n1802 – Erasmus Darwin, English physician and botanist (born 1731)\n1832 – Jeanne-Elisabeth Chaudet, French painter (born 1761)\n1859 – Tatya Tope, Indian general (born 1814)\n1864 – Juris Alunāns, Latvian philologist and linguist (born 1832)\n1873 – Justus von Liebig, German chemist and academic (born 1803)\n1890 – Paweł Bryliński, Polish sculptor (born 1814)\n1898 – Gustave Moreau, French painter and academic (born 1826)\n1901–present\n1906 – Luis Martín, Spanish religious leader, 24th Superior-General of the Society of Jesus (born 1846)\n1912 – Martha Ripley, American physician (born 1843)\n1917 – Vladimir Serbsky, Russian psychiatrist and academic (born 1858)\n1923 – Savina Petrilli, Italian religious leader (born 1851)\n1936 – Milton Brown, American singer and bandleader (born 1903)\n1936 – Ottorino Respighi, Italian composer and conductor (born 1879)\n1938 – George Bryant, American archer (born 1878)\n1942 – Aleksander Mitt, Estonian speed skater (born 1903)\n1942 – Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney, American heiress, sculptor and art collector, founded the Whitney Museum of American Art (born 1875)\n1943 – Isoroku Yamamoto, Japanese admiral (born 1884)\n1945 – John Ambrose Fleming, English physicist and engineer, invented the vacuum tube (born 1849)\n1945 – Ernie Pyle, American journalist and soldier (born 1900)\n1947 – Jozef Tiso, Slovak priest and politician, President of Slovakia (born 1887)\n1951 – Óscar Carmona, Portuguese field marshal and politician, 11th President of Portugal (born 1869)\n1955 – Albert Einstein, German-American physicist, engineer, and academic (born 1879)\n1958 – Maurice Gamelin, Belgian-French general (born 1872)\n1963 – Meyer Jacobstein, American academic and politician (born 1880)\n1964 – Ben Hecht, American director, producer, and screenwriter (born 1894)\n1965 – Guillermo González Camarena, Mexican engineer (born 1917)\n1974 – Marcel Pagnol, French author, playwright, and director (born 1895)\n1988 – Oktay Rıfat Horozcu, Turkish poet and playwright (born 1914)\n1995 – Arturo Frondizi, Argentinian lawyer and politician, 32nd President of Argentina (born 1908)\n2002 – Thor Heyerdahl, Norwegian ethnographer and explorer (born 1914)\n2004 – Kamisese Mara, Fijian politician, 2nd President of Fiji (born 1920)\n2008 – Germaine Tillion, French ethnologist and anthropologist (born 1907)\n2012 – Dick Clark, American television host and producer, founded Dick Clark Productions (born 1929)\n2012 – René Lépine, Canadian businessman and philanthropist (born 1929)\n2012 – Robert O. Ragland, American musician (born 1931)\n2012 – K. D. Wentworth, American author (born 1951)\n2013 – Goran Švob, Croatian philosopher and author (born 1947)\n2013 – Anne Williams, English activist (born 1951)\n2014 – Guru Dhanapal, Indian director and producer (born 1959)\n2014 – Sanford Jay Frank, American screenwriter and producer (born 1954)\n2014 – Brian Priestman, English conductor and academic (born 1927)\n2019 – Lyra McKee, Irish journalist (born 1990)\n2022 – Harrison Birtwistle, British composer (born 1934)\n2024 – Dickey Betts, American guitarist, singer, songwriter and composer (born 1943)\n2024 – Mandisa, American gospel singer (born 1976)\nHolidays and observances\nChristian feast day:\nAnthusa of Constantinople\nCyril VI of Constantinople (Eastern Orthodox Church)\nEleutherius and Antia\nGaldino della Sala\nBlessed Marie of the Incarnation\nMolaise of Leighlin\nPerfectus\nBlessed Savina Petrilli\nApril 18 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\nArmy Day (Iran)\nComa Patients' Day (Poland)\nFriend's Day (Brazil)\nIndependence Day (Zimbabwe)\nInternational Day For Monuments and Sites\nInvention Day (Japan)\nVictory over the Teutonic Knights in the Battle of the Ice (Russia; Julian Calendar)\nWorld Amateur Radio Day\nReferencesExternal links\nBBC: On This Day\nHistorical Events on April 18","text_chars":20036,"text_sha256":"e7b58456c96f576a1e5652f2c047cfa72c0af59d1fdebdc2804b3417d3ecf778","text_utf8_bytes":20588,"title":"April 18","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_18","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"d62d73a81d3071f1b877937db98a1276e3eb67dd2e91292b3ca1e5280a02622d"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1506&action=history","id":"1506","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":1348,"raw_text_sha256":"53836760019685eeaba7c33b1ced3101d08ffa71cb1e9b6bd6addf22866dc439","raw_text_utf8_bytes":1379,"revision_id":"1371641654","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-27T15:56:30Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1371641654","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Albert II may refer to:\nMonkeys\nAlbert II (monkey), first primate and first mammal in space, died on impact following V-2 flight June 14, 1949\nPeople\nAlbert II of Namur (died 1067)\nAlbert II, Count of Tyrol (died 1120s)\nAlbert II of Brandenburg (–1220)\nAlbert Suerbeer (1200–1273)\nAlbert II of Meissen (1240–1314),\nAlbert II of Saxony (1250–1298)\nAlbert II, Duke of Brunswick (–1318)\nAlbert II (bishop of Halberstadt) (c. 1294–1358), Albert II of Brunswick-Lüneburg\nAlbert II, Duke of Austria (1298–1358)\nAlbert II, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst (died 1362)\nAlbert II of Mecklenburg (1318–1379)\nAlbert II, Duke of Bavaria (1368–1397)\nAlbert II, Count of Holstein-Rendsburg (1369–1403)\nAlbert II of Germany (1397–1439), King of Germany, Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia, Duke of Austria\nAlbert II, Duke of Brunswick-Grubenhagen (1419–1485)\nAlbert II of Mecklenburg-Stargard (1400s)\nAlbert II, Count of Hoya (1526–1563)\nAlbert II of Brandenburg-Ansbach (1620–1667)\nAlbert II of Belgium (born 1934), King of the Belgians\nAlbert II of Monaco (born 1958), ruler of the principality of Monaco\nAlbert von Thurn und Taxis (born 1983), German prince","text_chars":1130,"text_sha256":"c6f50f5ccb419d50733b068e580ff3153c6219d23670be1e4c99ff605e07e04c","text_utf8_bytes":1161,"title":"Albert II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_II","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"0695511047d3e75c3f481fda38a78c9e80d05a6a98adfc9c986fd46300a5f7dc"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1030&action=history","id":"1030","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":67994,"raw_text_sha256":"86675b36713fbc2df3832fa51d3be3ac16aeb97dc92c9b2eaee4ba8f045e8cc6","raw_text_utf8_bytes":68107,"revision_id":"1369787118","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-17T04:08:15Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1369787118","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"The Austrian school of economics is a school of economic thought that advocates strict adherence to methodological individualism, the concept that social phenomena result primarily from the motivations and actions of individuals along with their self-interest. Austrian-school theorists hold that economic theory should be exclusively derived from basic axioms of human action, known as praxeology, rather than primarily from statistical analysis.\n\nThe Austrian school originated in 1871 in Vienna with the work of Carl Menger, Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk, Friedrich von Wieser, and others. It was methodologically opposed to the Historical school, in a dispute known as Methodenstreit, or methodology quarrel. Current-day economists working in this tradition are located in many countries, but their work is still referred to as Austrian economics. Among the theoretical contributions of the early years of the Austrian school are the subjective theory of value, marginalism in price theory and the formulation of the economic calculation problem.\n\nIn the 1970s, the Austrian school attracted some renewed interest after Friedrich August von Hayek shared the 1974 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences with Gunnar Myrdal.\nHistoryEtymology\nThe Austrian school owes its name to members of the German historical school of economics, who argued against the Austrians during the late 19th-century Methodenstreit (\"methodology struggle\"). In this debate, the Austrians defended the role of theory in economics as distinct from the study or compilation of historical circumstance. In 1883, Menger published Investigations into the Method of the Social Sciences with Special Reference to Economics, which attacked the methods of the historical school. Gustav von Schmoller, a leader of the historical school, responded with an unfavorable review, coining the term \"Austrian school\" in an attempt to characterize the school as outcast and provincial. The label endured and was adopted by the adherents themselves.\nPrecursors\nThe School of Salamanca (16th-century Spain) and the French Liberal School (19th-century France) are often regarded as early precursors to the Austrian School of Economics due to their contributions to the subjective theory of value and advocacy for free-market principles. Scholars from the University of Salamanca, such as Francisco de Vitoria and Luis de Molina, argued that the value of goods was determined by individual preferences rather than intrinsic factors. They also emphasized the role of supply and demand in setting prices and importance of sound money, laying the groundwork for modern economic concepts that the Austrian School would later refine and expand upon.\nFirst wave\nThe school originated in Vienna in Austria-Hungary. Carl Menger's 1871 book Principles of Economics is generally considered the founding of the Austrian school. The book was one of the first modern treatises to advance the theory of marginal utility. The Austrian school was one of three founding currents of the marginalist revolution of the 1870s, with its major contribution being the introduction of the subjectivist approach in economics.\n\nJohn Stuart Mill had earlier expressed a similar idea in his 1848 Principles of Political Economy, observing that the usefulness of a good to the buyer effectively sets the highest price anyone would rationally pay for it. Market price can fall below this level of usefulness, but it cannot rise above it; otherwise buyers would be paying more than they themselves judge the good to be worth as a means of satisfying their wants.\n\nWhile marginalism was generally influential, there was also a more specific school that began to coalesce around Menger's work, which came to be known as the \"psychological school\", \"Vienna school\", or \"Austrian school\". Menger's contributions to economic theory were closely followed by those of Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk and Friedrich von Wieser. These three economists became what is known as the \"first wave\" of the Austrian school. Böhm-Bawerk wrote extensive critiques of Karl Marx in the 1880s and 1890s and was part of the Austrians' participation in the late 19th-century , during which they attacked the Hegelian doctrines of the historical school.\nEarly 20th century\nFrank Albert Fetter (1863–1949) was a leader in the United States of Austrian thought. He obtained his PhD in 1894 from the University of Halle and became Professor of Political Economy and Finance at Cornell University in 1901.\n\nSeveral important Austrian economists trained at the University of Vienna in the 1920s and later participated in private seminars held by Ludwig von Mises. These included Gottfried Haberler, Friedrich Hayek, Fritz Machlup, Karl Menger (son of Carl Menger), Oskar Morgenstern, Paul Rosenstein-Rodan, Abraham Wald, and Michael A. Heilperin, and the sociologist Alfred Schütz.\nLater 20th century\nBy the mid-1930s, most economists had embraced what they considered the important contributions of the early Austrians. Fritz Machlup quoted Hayek's statement that \"the greatest success of a school is that it stops existing because its fundamental teachings have become parts of the general body of commonly accepted thought\".\n\nSometime during the middle of the 20th century, Austrian economics was largely sidelined by mainstream economists who favored mathematical modeling and statistical methods. Mises' student Israel Kirzner recalled that in 1954, when Kirzner was pursuing his PhD, there was no separate Austrian school as such. When Kirzner was deciding which graduate school to attend, Mises had advised him to accept an offer of admission at Johns Hopkins because it was a prestigious university and Fritz Machlup taught there.\n\nAfter the 1940s, Austrian economics can be divided into two schools of economic thought and the school split to some degree in the late 20th century. One camp of Austrians, exemplified by Mises, regards neoclassical methodology to be irredeemably flawed; the other camp, exemplified by Friedrich Hayek, accepts a large part of neoclassical methodology and is more accepting of government intervention in the economy. Henry Hazlitt wrote economics columns and editorials for a number of publications and wrote many books on the topic of Austrian economics from the 1930s to the 1980s. Hazlitt's thinking was influenced by Mises. His book Economics in One Lesson (1946) sold over a million copies and he is also known for The Failure of the \"New Economics\" (1959), a line-by-line critique of John Maynard Keynes's General Theory.\n\nThe reputation of the Austrian school rose in the late 20th century due in part to the work of Israel Kirzner and Ludwig Lachmann at New York University and to renewed public awareness of the work of Hayek after he won the 1974 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. Hayek's work was influential in the revival of laissez-faire thought in the 20th century.\nSplit among contemporary Austrians\nEconomist Leland Yeager discussed the late 20th-century rift and referred to a discussion written by Murray Rothbard, Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Joseph Salerno and others in which they criticized Hayek. Yeager stated: \"To try to drive a wedge between Mises and Hayek on [the role of knowledge in economic calculation], especially to the disparagement of Hayek, is unfair to these two great men, unfaithful to the history of economic thought\". He went on to call the rift subversive to economic analysis and the historical understanding of the fall of Eastern European communism.\n\nIn a 1999 book published by the Ludwig von Mises Institute, Hoppe asserted that Rothbard was the leader of the \"mainstream within Austrian Economics\" and contrasted Rothbard with Nobel Laureate Friedrich Hayek, whom he identified as a British empiricist and an opponent of the thought of Mises and Rothbard. Hoppe acknowledged that Hayek was the most prominent Austrian economist within academia, but stated that Hayek was an opponent of the Austrian tradition which led from Carl Menger and Böhm-Bawerk through Mises to Rothbard. Austrian economist Walter Block says that the Austrian school can be distinguished from other schools of economic thought through two categories—economic theory and political theory. According to Block, while Hayek can be considered an Austrian economist, his views on political theory clash with the libertarian political theory which Block sees as an integral part of the Austrian school.\n\nBoth criticism from Hoppe and Block to Hayek apply to Carl Menger, the founder of the Austrian school. Hoppe emphasizes that Hayek, which for him is from the English empirical tradition, is an opponent of the supposed rationalist tradition of the Austrian school; Menger made strong critiques to rationalism in his works in similar vein as Hayek's. Menger emphasized the idea that there are several institutions which were not deliberately created, have a kind of \"superior wisdom\" and serve important functions to society. He also talked about Edmund Burke and the English tradition to sustain these positions.\n\nWhen saying that the libertarian political theory is an integral part of the Austrian school and supposing Hayek is not a libertarian, Block excludes Menger from the Austrian school, too, since Menger seems to defend broader state activity than Hayek—for example, progressive taxation and extensive labour legislation.\n\nEconomists of the Hayekian view are affiliated with the Cato Institute, George Mason University (GMU) and New York University, among other institutions. They include Roger Garrison and George Reisman. Economists of the Mises–Rothbard view include Walter Block, Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Jesús Huerta de Soto and Robert P. Murphy, each of whom is associated with the Mises Institute and some of them also with academic institutions.\nInfluence\nMany theories developed by \"first wave\" Austrian economists have long been absorbed into mainstream economics. These include Carl Menger's theories on marginal utility, Friedrich von Wieser's theories on opportunity cost and Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk's theories on time preference, as well as Menger and Böhm-Bawerk's criticisms of Marxian economics.\n\nFormer American Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan said that the founders of the Austrian school \"reached far into the future from when most of them practiced and have had a profound and, in my judgment, probably an irreversible effect on how most mainstream economists think in this country\". In 1987, Nobel Laureate James M. Buchanan told an interviewer: \"I have no objections to being called an Austrian. Hayek and Mises might consider me an Austrian but, surely some of the others would not\".\n\nAs economics has become increasingly quantitative with the rise of statistics and econometrics, the Austrian school is now generally considered heterodox due to its rejection of such mathematical methods, rather focusing more on decentralised knowledge.\n\nCurrently, universities with a significant Austrian presence are George Mason University, King Juan Carlos University, and Universidad Francisco Marroquín. Austrian economic ideas are also promoted by privately funded organizations such as the Mises Institute, the Cato Institute or the Instituto Juan de Mariana.\nTheory\nThe Austrian school theorizes that the subjective choices of individuals including individual knowledge, time, expectation and other subjective factors cause all economic phenomena. Austrians seek to understand the economy by examining the social ramifications of individual choice, an approach called methodological individualism. It differs from other schools of economic thought, which have focused on aggregate variables, equilibrium analysis, and societal groups rather than individuals.\n\nIn the 20th and 21st centuries, economists with a methodological lineage to the early Austrian school developed many diverse approaches and theoretical orientations. Ludwig von Mises organized his version of the subjectivist approach, which he called \"praxeology\", in a book published in English as Human Action in 1949. In it, Mises stated that praxeology could be used to deduce a priori theoretical economic truths and that deductive economic thought experiments could yield conclusions which follow irrefutably from the underlying assumptions. He wrote that conclusions could not be inferred from empirical observation or statistical analysis and argued against the use of probabilities in economic models.\n\nSince Mises' time, some Austrian thinkers have accepted his praxeological approach while others have adopted alternative methodologies. For example, Fritz Machlup, Friedrich Hayek and others did not take Mises' strong a priori approach to economics. Ludwig Lachmann, a radical subjectivist, also largely rejected Mises' formulation of Praxeology in favor of the verstehende Methode (\"interpretive method\") articulated by Max Weber.\n\nIn the 20th century, various Austrians incorporated models and mathematics into their analysis. Austrian economist Steven Horwitz argued in 2000 that Austrian methodology is consistent with macroeconomics and that Austrian macroeconomics can be expressed in terms of microeconomic foundations. Austrian economist Roger Garrison writes that Austrian macroeconomic theory can be correctly expressed in terms of diagrammatic models. In 1944, Austrian economist Oskar Morgenstern presented a rigorous schematization of an ordinal utility function (the Von Neumann–Morgenstern utility theorem) in Theory of Games and Economic Behavior.\nFundamental tenets\nIn 1981, Fritz Machlup summarized what he regarded as the typical views of Austrian economic thinking:\nMethodological individualism: Economic phenomena must be explained by tracing them back to the actions (or inaction) of individuals; groups or collectives act only through their individual members. Groups do not think; people think.\nMethodological subjectivism: Judgments and choices are made by individuals on the basis of their own knowledge, beliefs, and expectations regarding external developments and the consequences of their actions.\nTastes and preferences: Subjective valuations of goods and services determine the demand for them so that their prices are influenced by consumers.\nOpportunity costs: The costs of the alternative opportunities that must be foregone; as productive services are employed for one purpose, all alternative uses have to be sacrificed.\nMarginalism: In all economic designs, the values, costs, revenues, productivity and so on are determined by the significance of the last unit added to or subtracted from the total.\nTime structure of production and consumption: Decisions to save reflect \"time preferences\" regarding consumption in the immediate, distant, or indefinite future and investments are made in view of larger outputs expected to be obtained if more time-taking production processes are undertaken.\n\nMachlup also identified two additional tenets particularly associated with the Mises branch of Austrian economics:\nConsumer sovereignty: The influence consumers have on the effective demand for goods and services and through the prices which result in free competitive markets, on the production plans of producers and investors, is not merely a hard fact but also an important objective, attainable only by complete avoidance of governmental interference with the markets and of restrictions on the freedom of sellers and buyers to follow their own judgment regarding quantities, qualities and prices of products and services.\nPolitical individualism: Only when individuals are given full economic freedom will it be possible to secure political and moral freedom. Restrictions on economic freedom lead, sooner or later, to an extension of the coercive activities of the state into the political domain, undermining and eventually destroying the essential individual liberties which the capitalistic societies were able to attain in the 19th century.\nContributions to economic thought\nOpportunity cost\nThe opportunity cost doctrine was first explicitly formulated by the Austrian economist Friedrich von Wieser in the late 19th century. Opportunity cost is the cost of any activity measured in terms of the value of the next best alternative foregone (that is not chosen). It is the sacrifice related to the second best choice available to someone, or group, who has picked among several mutually exclusive choices.\n\nExpectations of the future must also be considered as a form of scarcity; when quantified as time preference, opportunity cost must also be valued with respect to one's preference for present versus future investments. Opportunity cost is a key concept in mainstream economics and has been described as expressing \"the basic relationship between scarcity and choice\". The notion of opportunity cost plays a crucial part in ensuring that resources are used efficiently.\nCapital and interest\nThe Austrian theory of capital and interest was first developed by Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk. He stated that interest rates and profits are determined by supply and demand in the market for final goods and by time preference.\n\nBöhm-Bawerk's theory equates capital intensity with the degree of roundaboutness of production processes. He also argued that the law of marginal utility necessarily implies the classical law of costs. However, later Austrian economists such as Ludwig von Mises, Israel Kirzner, Ludwig Lachmann, and Jesús Huerta de Soto rejected a productivity explanation for interest rates, viewing the average period of production as a remnant of classical economic thought.\nInflation\nIn Mises's definition, inflation is an increase in the supply of money:\n\nHayek claimed that inflationary stimulation exploits the lag between an increase in money supply and the consequent increase in the prices of goods and services:\n\nEven prominent Austrian economists have noted the terminological confusion: Austrians define inflation as an increase in the money supply, while most economists and the public define it as rising prices.\nEconomic calculation problem\nThe economic calculation problem refers to a criticism of planned economies first developed by Ludwig von Mises with his 1920 essay \"economic calculation in the socialist commonwealth\". Mises subsequently discussed his idea with his student Friedrich Hayek, who expanded it in various works including The Road to Serfdom. The calculation problem essentially states that without price signals, the factors of production cannot be allocated in the most efficient way possible, rendering planned economies inefficacious.\n\nMax Weber reached a similar conclusion in his magnum opus \"Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft\" (posthumously published in 1921), discussing the impossibility of centralized planning of a complex economic system.\n\nAustrian theory emphasizes the organizing power of markets. Hayek stated that market prices reflect information, the totality of which is not known to any single individual, which determines the allocation of resources in an economy. Because socialist systems lack the individual incentives and price discovery processes by which individuals act on their personal information, Hayek argued that socialist economic planners lack all of the knowledge required to make optimal decisions. Those who agree with this criticism view it as a refutation of socialism, showing that socialism is not a viable or sustainable form of economic organization. The debate rose to prominence in the 1920s and 1930s and that specific period of the debate has come to be known by historians of economic thought as the socialist calculation debate.\n\nMises argued that the pricing systems in socialist economies were necessarily deficient because if the government owned the means of production, then no prices could be obtained for capital goods as they were merely internal transfers of goods in a socialist system and not \"objects of exchange\", unlike final goods. Therefore, they were unpriced and hence the system would be necessarily inefficient since the central planners would not know how to allocate the available resources efficiently. This led him to write \"that rational economic activity is impossible in a socialist commonwealth\".\nBusiness cycles\nThe Austrian theory of the business cycle (ABCT) focuses on banks' issuance of credit as the cause of economic fluctuations. Although later elaborated by Hayek and others, the theory was first set forth by Mises, who posited that fractional reserve banks extend credit at artificially low interest rates, causing businesses to invest in relatively roundabout production processes. This artificial \"boom\" then led to a misallocation of resources which he called \"malinvestment\" that must eventually end in a \"bust\".\n\nMises surmised that government manipulation of money and credit in the banking system throws savings and investment out of balance, resulting in misdirected investment projects that are eventually found to be unsustainable, at which point the economy has to rebalance itself through a period of corrective recession. Austrian economist Fritz Machlup summarized the Austrian view by stating, \"monetary factors cause the cycle but real phenomena constitute it.\"\n\nCritics have noted that successful entrepreneurs will adjust their investment decisions based on projected long-term interest rates. For Austrians, the only prudent strategy for government is to leave money and the financial system to the free market's competitive forces to eradicate the business cycle's inflationary booms and recessionary busts, allowing markets to keep people's saving and investment decisions in place for well-coordinated economic stability and growth.\n\nA Keynesian would suggest government intervention during a recession to inject spending into the economy when people will not. However, the heart of Austrian macroeconomic theory argues the government \"fine tuning\" through expansions and contractions in the money supply orchestrated by the government are actually the cause of business cycles because of the differing impact of the resulting interest rate changes on different stages in the structure of production. Austrian economist Thomas Woods further supports this view by arguing it is not consumption, but rather production that should be emphasized. A country cannot become rich by consuming, and therefore, by using up all their resources. Instead, production is what enables consumption as a possibility in the first place, since a producer would be working for nothing, if not for the desire to consume.\nCentral banks\nAccording to Ludwig von Mises, central banks enable commercial banks to fund loans at artificially low interest rates, thereby inducing an unsustainable expansion of bank credit and impeding any subsequent contraction. He argued for a gold standard as a monetary reform to constrain growth in fiduciary media. Friedrich Hayek took a different perspective, not focusing on gold but on regulation of the banking sector via strong central banking.\n\nSome economists argue money is endogenous and that this refutes the Austrian Business Cycle Theory. Others maintain that the underlying issue of credit expansion would remain the same under any system of fractional-reserve banking, whether central or private.\nBitcoin and cryptocurrencies\nSome economists assert that Bitcoin's theoretical foundations can be traced back to the Austrian school through its embrace of core principles such as decentralization, individual sovereignty, sound money, and resistance to fiat money. In the 21st century, some political scientists have argued that Friedrich Hayek would have supported Bitcoin and cryptocurrencies due to their resistance to political pressure and alignment with his emphasis on sound money and competition in currencies. They have also described cryptocurrency as a potential \"Hayekian escape\" from government currency monopolies, particularly during periods of hyperinflation.\n\nIn some ways, Bitcoin is at odds with certain Austrian principles, such as Mises' regression theorem, which holds that money must originate from a commodity with prior use value. Bitcoin demonstrates that digital scarcity and market trust alone are sufficient to create a functioning medium of exchange.\n\nMany proponents of Bitcoin and cryptocurrency have been inspired by Austrian economics. For example, Saifedean Ammous and Nick Szabo both use Austrian principles to explain why the Rai stones of Yap failed as sound money while Bitcoin succeeds. The Rai stones embodied many properties, such as durability, general acceptance, and \"the high cost of acquiring new stones,\" which made them difficult to debase. However, when colonists visited the island in the 1870s, they were able to bring in new Rai stones with far less effort, inflating the supply and devaluing the currency. Ammous and Szabo argue that Bitcoin's 21 million cap prevents similar debasement. Ammous also criticizes Keynesian economics for discounting long-term consequences in favor of perceived short-term gain. Erik Voorhees was also inspired to become involved in cryptocurrency, in part through Austrian economics, and had Ron Paul sign his copy of Murray Rothbard's “Man, Economy and State.”\nSee also\nCarl Menger\nChicago school of economics\nCriticism of the Federal Reserve\nHard money (policy)\nKraków School of Economics\nList of Austrian intellectual traditions\nList of Austrian-school economists\nNew institutional economics\nPerspectives on capitalism by school of thought\nPeter St. Onge\nReferences\nFootnotes\n\nCitations\nFurther reading\nBoettke, Peter J.; Coyne, Christopher J. (2023). \"New Thinking in Austrian Economics\". Annual Review of Economics 15 (1).\nPDF .\n(Excerpt via Amazon).\nExternal links\n\"Understanding 'Austrian' Economics\" by Henry Hazlitt","text_chars":25761,"text_sha256":"2519552f417da94afd6392fd9ca5dd98a91cd2e82c24d145c875853b571564a1","text_utf8_bytes":25788,"title":"Austrian school of economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian_school_of_economics","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"1c031c5adc4ef034571b2440f9fe4a3c6a0090e358df7b8d81146931ab2ee672"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1260&action=history","id":"1260","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":52000,"raw_text_sha256":"9558c7ebc35c37bd57beb16551eb9e8d3b2da48aa77f0fdcde863fd21d676792","raw_text_utf8_bytes":52098,"revision_id":"1372379016","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-31T13:27:20Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1372379016","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), also known by its original name Rijndael (, ), is a specification for the encryption of electronic data established by the US National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in 2001.\n\nAES is a variant of the Rijndael block cipher developed by two Belgian cryptographers, Joan Daemen and Vincent Rijmen, who submitted a proposal to NIST during the AES selection process. Rijndael is a family of ciphers with different key and block sizes. For AES, NIST selected three members of the Rijndael family, each with a block size of 128 bits, but three different key lengths: 128, 192 and 256 bits.\n\nAES has been adopted by the US government. It supersedes the Data Encryption Standard (DES), which was published in 1977. The algorithm described by AES is a symmetric-key algorithm, meaning the same key is used for both encrypting and decrypting the data.\n\nIn the United States, AES was announced by the NIST as the US FIPS PUB 197 (FIPS 197) standard on November 26, 2001. This announcement followed a five-year standardization process in which fifteen competing designs were presented and evaluated, before the Rijndael cipher was selected as the most suitable.\n\nAES is included in the ISO/IEC 18033-3 standard. AES became effective as a US federal government standard on May 26, 2002, after approval by US secretary of commerce Donald Evans. AES is available in many different encryption packages, and is the first (and only) publicly accessible cipher approved by the US National Security Agency (NSA) for top secret information when used in an NSA approved cryptographic module.\nDefinitive standards\nThe Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) is defined in these standards:\nFIPS PUB 197: Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)\nISO/IEC 18033-3: Block ciphers\nDescription of the ciphers\nAES is based on a design principle known as a substitution–permutation network, and is efficient in both software and hardware. Unlike its predecessor DES, AES does not use a Feistel network. AES is a variant of Rijndael, with a fixed block size of 128 bits, and a key size of 128, 192, or 256 bits. By contrast, Rijndael per se is specified with block and key sizes that may be any multiple of 32 bits, with a minimum of 128 and a maximum of 256 bits. Most AES calculations are done in a particular finite field.\n\nAES operates on a 4 × 4 column-major order array of 16 bytes termed the state:\n\nThe key size used for an AES cipher specifies the number of transformation rounds that convert the input, called the plaintext, into the final output, called the ciphertext. The number of rounds are as follows:\n10 rounds for 128-bit keys;\n12 rounds for 192-bit keys;\n14 rounds for 256-bit keys.\n\nEach round consists of several processing steps, including one that depends on the encryption key itself. A set of reverse rounds are applied to transform ciphertext back into the original plaintext using the same encryption key.\nHigh-level description of the algorithm\nround keys are derived from the cipher key using the AES key schedule. AES requires a separate 128-bit round key block for each round, plus one more.\nInitial round key addition:\neach byte of the state is combined with a byte of the round key using the bitwise exclusive or.\n9, 11 or 13 rounds:\na non-linear substitution step where each byte is replaced with another according to a lookup table.\na transposition step where the last three rows of the state are shifted cyclically a certain number of steps.\na linear mixing operation which operates on the columns of the state, combining the four bytes in each column.\nFinal round (making 10, 12 or 14 rounds in total):\nThe step\nIn the step, each byte in the state array is replaced with a using an 8-bit substitution box. Before round 0, the state array is simply the plaintext/input. This operation provides the non-linearity in the cipher. The S-box used is derived from the multiplicative inverse over , known to have good non-linearity properties. To avoid attacks based on simple algebraic properties, the S-box is constructed by combining the inverse function with an invertible affine transformation. The S-box is also chosen to avoid any fixed points (and so is a derangement), i.e., , and also any opposite fixed points, i.e., .\nWhile performing the decryption, the step (the inverse of ) is used, which requires first taking the inverse of the affine transformation and then finding the multiplicative inverse.\nThe step\nThe step operates on the rows of the state; it cyclically shifts the bytes in each row by a certain offset. For AES, the first row is left unchanged. Each byte of the second row is shifted one to the left. Similarly, the third and fourth rows are shifted by offsets of two and three respectively. In this way, each column of the output state of the step is composed of bytes from each column of the input state. The importance of this step is to avoid the columns being encrypted independently, in which case AES would degenerate into four independent block ciphers.\nThe step\nIn the step, the four bytes of each column of the state are combined using an invertible linear transformation. The function takes four bytes as input and outputs four bytes, where each input byte affects all four output bytes. Together with , provides diffusion in the cipher.\n\nDuring this operation, each column is transformed using a fixed matrix (matrix left-multiplied by column gives new value of column in the state):\n\nMatrix multiplication is composed of multiplication and addition of the entries. Entries are bytes treated as coefficients of polynomial of order . Addition is simply XOR. Multiplication is modulo irreducible polynomial . If processed bit by bit, then, after shifting, a conditional XOR with 1B16 should be performed if the shifted value is larger than FF16 (overflow must be corrected by subtraction of generating polynomial). These are special cases of the usual multiplication in .\n\nIn more general sense, each column is treated as a polynomial over and is then multiplied modulo with a fixed polynomial The coefficients are displayed in their hexadecimal equivalent of the binary representation of bit polynomials from . The step can also be viewed as a multiplication by the shown particular MDS matrix in the finite field . This process is described further in the article Rijndael MixColumns.\nThe Step\nImage:AES-AddRoundKey.svg|right|320px|thumbnail|In the step, each byte of the state is combined with a byte of the round subkey using the XOR operation (⊕).\nIn the step, the subkey is combined with the state. For each round, a subkey is derived from the main key using Rijndael's key schedule; each subkey is the same size as the state. The subkey is added by combining of the state with the corresponding byte of the subkey using bitwise XOR.\nOptimization of the cipher\nOn systems with 32-bit or larger words, it is possible to speed up execution of this cipher by combining the and steps with the step by transforming them into a sequence of table lookups. This requires four 256-entry 32-bit tables (together occupying 4096 bytes). A round can then be performed with 16 table lookup operations and 12 32-bit exclusive-or operations, followed by four 32-bit exclusive-or operations in the step. Alternatively, the table lookup operation can be performed with a single 256-entry 32-bit table (occupying 1024 bytes) followed by circular rotation operations.\n\nUsing a byte-oriented approach, it is possible to combine the , , and steps into a single round operation.\nSecurity\nThe National Security Agency (NSA) reviewed all the AES finalists, including Rijndael, and stated that all of them were secure enough for US Government non-classified data. In June 2003, the US Government announced that AES could be used to protect classified information:\n\nAES has 10 rounds for 128-bit keys, 12 rounds for 192-bit keys, and 14 rounds for 256-bit keys.\n\nMore recent guidance from the NSA, however, only allows classified information to be encrypted with 256-bit key lengths. 128-bit and 192-bits is no longer sufficient for the encryption of classified information.\nKnown attacks\nFor cryptographers, a cryptographic \"break\" is anything faster than a brute-force attack i.e., performing one trial decryption for each possible key in sequence . A break can thus include results that are infeasible with current technology. Despite being impractical, theoretical breaks can sometimes provide insight into vulnerability patterns. The largest successful publicly known brute-force attack against a widely implemented block-cipher encryption algorithm was against a 64-bit RC5 key by distributed.net in 2006.\n\nThe key space increases by a factor of 2 for each additional bit of key length, and if every possible value of the key is equiprobable; this translates into a doubling of the average brute-force key search time with every additional bit of key length. This implies that the effort of a brute-force search increases exponentially with key length. Key length in itself does not imply security against attacks, since there are ciphers with very long keys that have been found to be vulnerable.\n\nAES has a fairly simple algebraic framework. In 2002, a theoretical attack, named the \"XSL attack\", was announced by Nicolas Courtois and Josef Pieprzyk, purporting to show a weakness in the AES algorithm, partially due to the low complexity of its nonlinear components. Since then, other papers have shown that the attack, as originally presented, is unworkable; see XSL attack on block ciphers.\n\nDuring the AES selection process, developers of competing algorithms wrote of Rijndael's algorithm \"we are concerned about [its] use ... in security-critical applications.\" In October 2000, however, at the end of the AES selection process, Bruce Schneier, a developer of the competing algorithm Twofish, wrote that while he thought successful academic attacks on Rijndael would be developed someday, he \"did not believe that anyone will ever discover an attack that will allow someone to read Rijndael traffic.\"\n\nBy 2006, the best known attacks were on 7 rounds for 128-bit keys, 8 rounds for 192-bit keys, and 9 rounds for 256-bit keys.\n\nUntil May 2009, the only successful published attacks against the full AES were side-channel attacks on some specific implementations. In 2009, a new related-key attack was discovered that exploits the simplicity of AES's key schedule and has a complexity of 2119. In December 2009 it was improved to 299.5. This is a follow-up to an attack discovered earlier in 2009 by Alex Biryukov, Dmitry Khovratovich, and Ivica Nikolić, with a complexity of 296 for one out of every 235 keys. However, related-key attacks are not of concern in any properly designed cryptographic protocol, as a properly designed protocol (i.e., implementational software) will take care not to allow related keys, essentially by constraining an attacker's means of selecting keys for relatedness.\n\nAnother attack was blogged by Bruce Schneier\non July 30, 2009, and released as a preprint\non August 3, 2009. This new attack, by Alex Biryukov, Orr Dunkelman, Nathan Keller, Dmitry Khovratovich, and Adi Shamir, is against AES-256 that uses only two related keys and 239 time to recover the complete 256-bit key of a 9-round version, or 245 time for a 10-round version with a stronger type of related subkey attack, or 270 time for an 11-round version. 256-bit AES uses 14 rounds, so these attacks are not effective against full AES.\n\nThe practicality of these attacks with stronger related keys has been criticized, for instance, by the paper on chosen-key-relations-in-the-middle attacks on AES-128 authored by Vincent Rijmen in 2010.\n\nIn November 2009, the first known-key distinguishing attack against a reduced 8-round version of AES-128 was released as a preprint.\nThis known-key distinguishing attack is an improvement of the rebound, or the start-from-the-middle attack, against AES-like permutations, which view two consecutive rounds of permutation as the application of a so-called Super-S-box. It works on the 8-round version of AES-128, with a time complexity of 248, and a memory complexity of 232. 128-bit AES uses 10 rounds, so this attack is not effective against full AES-128.\n\nThe first key-recovery attacks on full AES were by Andrey Bogdanov, Dmitry Khovratovich, and Christian Rechberger, and were published in 2011. The attack is a biclique attack and is faster than brute force by a factor of about four. It requires 2126.2 operations to recover an AES-128 key. For AES-192 and AES-256, 2190.2 and 2254.6 operations are needed, respectively. This result has been further improved to 2126.0 for AES-128, 2189.9 for AES-192, and 2254.3 for AES-256 by Biaoshuai Tao and Hongjun Wu in a 2015 paper, which are the current best results in key recovery attack against AES.\n\nThis is a very small gain, as a 126-bit key (instead of 128 bits) would still take billions of years to brute force on current and foreseeable hardware. Also, the authors calculate the best attack using their technique on AES with a 128-bit key requires storing 288 bits of data. That works out to about 38 trillion terabytes of data, which was more than all the data stored on all the computers on the planet in 2016. A paper in 2015 later improved the space complexity to 256 bits, which is 9007 terabytes (while still keeping a time complexity of approximately 2126).\n\nAccording to the Snowden documents, the NSA is doing research on whether a cryptographic attack based on tau statistic may help to break AES.\n\nAs of 2026, there is no known practical attack that would allow someone without knowledge of the key to read data encrypted by AES when correctly implemented.\nSide-channel attacks\nSide-channel attacks do not attack the cipher as a black box, and thus are not related to cipher security as defined in the classical context, but are important in practice. They attack implementations of the cipher on hardware or software systems that inadvertently leak data. There are several such known attacks on various implementations of AES.\n\nIn April 2005, D. J. Bernstein announced a cache-timing attack that he used to break a custom server that used OpenSSL's AES encryption. The attack required over 200 million chosen plaintexts. The custom server was designed to give out as much timing information as possible (the server reports back the number of machine cycles taken by the encryption operation). However, as Bernstein pointed out, \"reducing the precision of the server's timestamps, or eliminating them from the server's responses, does not stop the attack: the client simply uses round-trip timings based on its local clock, and compensates for the increased noise by averaging over a larger number of samples.\"\n\nIn October 2005, Dag Arne Osvik, Adi Shamir and Eran Tromer presented a paper demonstrating several cache-timing attacks against the implementations in AES found in OpenSSL and Linux's dm-crypt partition encryption function. One attack was able to obtain an entire AES key after only 800 operations triggering encryptions, in a total of 65 milliseconds. This attack requires the attacker to be able to run programs on the same system or platform that is performing AES.\n\nIn December 2009 an attack on some hardware implementations was published that used differential fault analysis and allows recovery of a key with a complexity of 232.\n\nIn November 2010, Endre Bangerter, David Gullasch and Stephan Krenn published a paper which described a practical approach to a \"near real time\" recovery of secret keys from AES-128 without the need for either cipher text or plaintext. The approach also works on AES-128 implementations that use compression tables, such as OpenSSL. Like some earlier attacks, this one requires the ability to run unprivileged code on the system performing the AES encryption, which may be achieved by malware infection far more easily than commandeering the root account.\n\nIn March 2016, C. Ashokkumar, Ravi Prakash Giri and Bernard Menezes presented a side-channel attack on AES implementations that can recover the complete 128-bit AES key in just 6–7 blocks of plaintext/ciphertext, which is a substantial improvement over previous works that require between 100 and a million encryptions. The proposed attack requires standard user privilege and key-retrieval algorithms run under a minute.\n\nMany modern CPUs have built-in hardware instructions for AES, which protect against timing-related side-channel attacks.\nQuantum attacks\nAES-256 is considered to be quantum resistant, as it has similar quantum resistance to AES-128's resistance against traditional, non-quantum, attacks at 128 bits of security. AES-192 and AES-128 are not considered quantum resistant due to their smaller key sizes. AES-192 has a strength of 96 bits against quantum attacks and AES-128 has 64 bits of strength against quantum attacks, making them both insecure.\nNIST/CSEC validation\nThe Cryptographic Module Validation Program (CMVP) is operated jointly by the United States Government's National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Computer Security Division and the Communications Security Establishment (CSE) of the Government of Canada. The use of cryptographic modules validated to NIST FIPS 140-2 is required by the United States Government for encryption of all data that has a classification of Sensitive but Unclassified (SBU) or above. From NSTISSP #11, National Policy Governing the Acquisition of Information Assurance: \"Encryption products for protecting classified information will be certified by NSA, and encryption products intended for protecting sensitive information will be certified in accordance with NIST FIPS 140-2.\"\n\nThe Government of Canada also recommends the use of FIPS 140 validated cryptographic modules in unclassified applications of its departments.\n\nAlthough NIST publication 197 (\"FIPS 197\") is the unique document that covers the AES algorithm, vendors typically approach the CMVP under FIPS 140 and ask to have several algorithms (such as Triple DES or SHA1) validated at the same time. Therefore, it is rare to find cryptographic modules that are uniquely FIPS 197 validated and NIST itself does not generally take the time to list FIPS 197 validated modules separately on its public web site. Instead, FIPS 197 validation is typically just listed as an \"FIPS approved: AES\" notation (with a specific FIPS 197 certificate number) in the current list of FIPS 140 validated cryptographic modules.\n\nThe Cryptographic Algorithm Validation Program (CAVP) allows for independent validation of the correct implementation of the AES algorithm. Successful validation results in being listed on the NIST validations page. This testing is a pre-requisite for the FIPS 140-2 module validation. However, successful CAVP validation in no way implies that the cryptographic module implementing the algorithm is secure. A cryptographic module lacking FIPS 140-2 validation or specific approval by the NSA is not deemed secure by the US Government and cannot be used to protect government data.\n\nFIPS 140-2 validation is challenging to achieve both technically and fiscally. There is a standardized battery of tests as well as an element of source code review that must be passed over a period of a few weeks. The cost to perform these tests through an approved laboratory can be significant (e.g., well over ) and does not include the time it takes to write, test, document and prepare a module for validation. After validation, modules must be re-submitted and re-evaluated if they are changed in any way. This can vary from simple paperwork updates if the security functionality did not change to a more substantial set of re-testing if the security functionality was impacted by the change.\nTest vectors\nTest vectors are a set of known ciphers for a given input and key. NIST distributes the reference of AES test vectors as AES Known Answer Test (KAT) Vectors.\nPerformance\nHigh speed and low RAM requirements were some of the criteria of the AES selection process. As the chosen algorithm, AES performed well on a wide variety of hardware, from 8-bit smart cards to high-performance computers.\n\nOn a Pentium Pro, AES encryption requires 18 clock cycles per byte (cpb), equivalent to a throughput of about for a processor.\n\nOn Intel Core and AMD Ryzen CPUs supporting AES-NI instruction set extensions, throughput can be multiple GiB/s. On an Intel Westmere CPU, AES encryption using AES-NI takes about for AES-128, and for AES-256.\nImplementationsSee also\nAES modes of operation\nDisk encryption\nWhirlpool – hash function created by Vincent Rijmen and Paulo S. L. M. Barreto\nList of free and open-source software packages\nNotesReferences\n(companion web site contains online lectures on AES)\nExternal links\nAES algorithm archive information – (old, unmaintained)\nAnimation of Rijndael – AES deeply explained and animated using Flash (by Enrique Zabala / University ORT / Montevideo / Uruguay). This animation (in English, Spanish, and German) is also part of CrypTool 1 (menu Indiv. Procedures → Visualization of Algorithms → AES).\nHTML5 Animation of Rijndael – Same Animation as above made in HTML5.\nAES Demo in Excel - Example implementation and demonstration in Excel (without macros) by Tim Wambach.","text_chars":21328,"text_sha256":"cb493a1018d734f1b3d5c09d63de2b269d303abb19004983929e013bad419317","text_utf8_bytes":21348,"title":"Advanced Encryption Standard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Encryption_Standard","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"c5349db9d1e82c968596dd41755d27be1ba6bf8836dbd9f0338d2cfa420d4a1e"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2663&action=history","id":"2663","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":3686,"raw_text_sha256":"b0163589d6c892d76d6fcbdd8cc45e998e6001486ad13d45bd8b1d29001a0e14","raw_text_utf8_bytes":3686,"revision_id":"1345968523","revision_timestamp":"2026-03-29T05:51:37Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1345968523","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Affinity may refer to:\nCommerce, finance and law\nAffinity (law), kinship by marriage\nAffinity analysis, a market research and business management technique\nAffinity Credit Union, a Saskatchewan-based credit union\nAffinity Equity Partners, an Asian private equity firm\nAffinity fraud, a type of scam targeting a specific demographic\nAffinity marketing, a method of extending market reach by forming partnerships and cross-selling relationships\nAffinity Partners, an American private equity firm\nReligion and belief\nAffinity (canon law), a kinship arising from the sexual intercourse of a man and a woman\nAffinity (Christian organisation), network of conservative evangelical churches and Christian agencies\nAffinity group, a private, non-commercial and non-governmental organisation formed around a shared interest or goal\nScience and technology\nAffinity, the UK's first road-legal solar car, built by Cambridge University Eco Racing\nAffinity (mathematics), an affine transformation preserving collinearity\nAffinity (pharmacology), a characterisation of protein-ligand binding strength\nAffinity (sociology), a shared interest and commitment between persons in groups and/or willingness to associate\nAffinity (taxonomy), a suggestion of common descent or type\nAffinity chromatography, method of separating a biomolecule from a mixture\nAffinity electrophoresis, general name for many analytical methods used in biochemistry and biotechnology\nAffinity laws, laws used in hydraulics to express relationships between variables involved in fan or pump performance\nBinding affinity, a measure of the interaction of ligands with their binding sites\nChemical affinity, used to describe or characterise elements' or compounds' readiness to form bonds\nElectron affinity, energy released on formation of anions\nProcessor affinity, a computing term for the assignment of a task to a given core of a multicore CPU\nSerif Europe/Canva's Affinity series of programs:\nAffinity (software), an all-in-one graphics editor\nAffinity Designer, a discontinued vector graphics editor\nAffinity Photo, a discontinued raster graphics editor\nAffinity Publisher, a discontinued desktop publishing application\nMedia-relatedMusic\nAffinity (band), a jazz/rock band\nAffinity (Affinity album)\nAffinity (Bill Evans album)\nAffinity (Haken album)\nAffinity (Oscar Peterson album)\nAffinity (EP), a 2013 EP by the English band Press to Meco\nJohnny Alegre Affinity, a jazz collective based in Manila\nOther media\nAffinity (novel), a 1999 novel by Sarah Waters\nAffinity (film), a 2008 feature film based on the novel\n\"Affinity\" (Stargate SG-1), an episode from season 8 of the TV sci-fi spin-off series Stargate SG-1\nOther uses\nAffinity (medieval), late medieval retainers of a monarch in \"bastard feudalism\"\nAffinity, West Virginia\nSee also\nAffine (disambiguation)\nAffine transformation, a type of transformation applied to a geometry\nRefining, also known as \"affining\"\nAfinidad (disambiguation)","text_chars":2950,"text_sha256":"481f66a5893628fe4d9a68213b4a1cf92b8ae4906086980edeafa93986237972","text_utf8_bytes":2950,"title":"Affinity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affinity","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"27ec3e86caf1ad24f1b86b5422ecae38aa25aacd9a9128939d20f3b47b3e12d9"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2147&action=history","id":"2147","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":33080,"raw_text_sha256":"c7bbe5c742b1cb8e822b6dfb3b1bc3606bf4da979ba4585d464d8ea13f5d7d06","raw_text_utf8_bytes":33164,"revision_id":"1366528201","revision_timestamp":"2026-07-28T14:57:02Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1366528201","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Armour (Commonwealth English) or armor (American English; see spelling differences) is a covering used to protect an object, individual, or vehicle from physical injury or damage, especially direct contact weapons or projectiles during combat, or from a potentially dangerous environment or activity (e.g. cycling, construction sites, etc.). Personal armour is used to protect soldiers and war animals. Vehicle armour is used on warships, armoured fighting vehicles, and some combat aircraft, mostly ground attack aircraft.\n\nA second use of the term armour describes armoured forces, armoured weapons, and their role in combat. After the development of armoured warfare, tanks and mechanised infantry and their combat formations came to be referred to collectively as \"armour\".\nEtymology\nThe word \"armour\" began to appear in the Middle Ages as a derivative of Old French. It is dated from 1297 as a \"mail, defensive covering worn in combat\". The word originates from the Old French , itself derived from the Latin meaning \"arms and/or equipment\", with the root meaning \"arms or gear\".\nHistoryPersonal\nArmour has been used throughout recorded history. It has been made from a variety of materials, beginning with the use of leathers or fabrics as protection and evolving through chain mail and metal plate into today's modern composites. For much of military history the manufacture of metal personal armour has dominated the technology and employment of armour.\n\nArmour drove the development of many important technologies of the Ancient World, including wood lamination, mining, metal refining, vehicle manufacture, leather processing, and later decorative metal working. Its production was influential in the Industrial Revolution, and furthered commercial development of metallurgy and engineering. Armour was also an important factor in the development of firearms, which in turn revolutionised warfare.\nHistory\nSignificant factors in the development of armour include the economic and technological necessities of its production. For instance, plate armour became widespread in Medieval Europe when water-powered trip hammers made the forming of plates faster and cheaper. At times the development of armour has paralleled the development of increasingly effective weaponry on the battlefield, with armourers seeking to create better protection without sacrificing mobility.\n\nWell-known armour types in European history include the lorica squamata and the lorica segmentata of the Roman legions, the mail hauberk of the early medieval age, and the full steel plate harness worn by later medieval and renaissance knights, and breast and back plates worn by heavy cavalry in several European countries until the first year of World War I (1914–1915).\n\nA well known example in Europe of Asian armour are the many types of armour used by warriors of Feudal Japan for hundreds of years up to the 19th century.\nEarly\nThe first record of body armour in history was found on the Stele of Vultures in ancient Sumer in today's south Iraq, and various forms of scale mail can be seen in surviving records from the New Kingdom of Egypt, Zhou dynasty China, and dynastic India. Cuirasses and helmets were manufactured in Japan as early as the 4th century. Tankō, worn by foot soldiers and keikō, worn by horsemen were both pre-samurai types of early Japanese armour constructed from iron plates connected together by leather thongs. Japanese lamellar armour (keiko) passed through Korea and reached Japan around the 5th century. These early Japanese lamellar armours took the form of a sleeveless jacket, leggings and a helmet.\n\nArmour did not always cover all of the body; sometimes no more than a helmet and leg plates were worn. The rest of the body was generally protected by means of a large shield. An example of armies equipping their troops in this fashion were the Aztecs (13th to 15th century CE).\n\nIn East Asia, many types of armour were commonly used at different times by various cultures, including scale armour, lamellar armour, laminar armour, plated mail, mail, plate armour, and brigandine.Around the dynastic Tang, Song, and early Ming Period, cuirasses and plates (mingguangjia) were also used, with more elaborate versions for officers in war. The Chinese, during that time used partial plates for \"important\" body parts instead of covering their whole body since too much plate armour hinders their martial arts movement. The other body parts were covered in cloth, leather, lamellar, or mountain pattern armour. In pre-Qin dynasty times, leather armour was made out of various animals, with more exotic ones such as the rhinoceros\n\nMail, sometimes called \"chainmail\", made of interlocking iron rings is believed to have first appeared some time after 300 BC. Its invention is credited to the Celts; the Romans are thought to have adopted their design.\n\nGradually, small additional plates or discs of iron were added to the mail to protect vulnerable areas. Hardened leather and splinted construction were used for arm and leg pieces. The coat of plates was developed, an armour made of large plates sewn inside a textile or leather coat.\n13th to 18th century Europe\nEarly plate in Italy, and elsewhere in the 13th–15th century, were made of iron. Iron armour could be carburised or case hardened to give a surface of harder steel. Plate armour became cheaper than mail by the 15th century as it required much less labour and labour had become much more expensive after the Black Death, though it did require larger furnaces to produce larger blooms. Mail continued to be used to protect those joints which could not be adequately protected by plate, such as the armpit, crook of the elbow and groin. Another advantage of plate was that a lance rest could be fitted to the breast plate.\n\nThe small skull cap evolved into a bigger true helmet, the bascinet, as it was lengthened downward to protect the back of the neck and the sides of the head. Additionally, several new forms of fully enclosed helmets were introduced in the late 14th century.\n\nProbably the most recognised style of armour in the world became the plate armour associated with the knights of the European Late Middle Ages, but continuing to the early 17th century Baroque period in all European countries.\n\nBy 1400, the full harness of plate armour had been developed in armouries of Lombardy. Heavy cavalry dominated the battlefield for centuries in part because of their armour.\n\nIn the early 15th century, advances in weaponry allowed infantry to defeat armoured knights on the battlefield. The quality of the metal used in armour deteriorated as armies became bigger and armour was made thicker, necessitating breeding of larger cavalry horses. If during the 14–15th centuries armour seldom weighed more than 15 kg, then by the late 16th century it weighed 25 kg. The increasing weight and thickness of late 16th century armour therefore gave substantial resistance.\n\nIn the early years of low velocity firearms, full suits of armour, or breast plates actually stopped bullets fired from a modest distance. Crossbow bolts, if still in use, would seldom penetrate good plate, nor would any bullet unless fired from close range. In effect, rather than making plate armour obsolete, the use of firearms stimulated the development of plate armour into its later stages. For most of that period, it allowed horsemen to fight while being the targets of defending arquebusiers without being easily killed. Full suits of armour were actually worn by generals and princely commanders right up to the second decade of the 18th century. It was the only way they could be mounted and survey the overall battlefield with safety from distant musket fire.\n\nThe horse was afforded protection from lances and infantry weapons by steel plate barding. This gave the horse protection and enhanced the visual impression of a mounted knight. Late in the era, elaborate barding was used in parade armour.\nLater\nGradually, starting in the mid-16th century, one plate element after another was discarded to save weight for foot soldiers.\n\nBack and breast plates continued to be used throughout the entire period of the 18th century and through Napoleonic times, in many European heavy cavalry units, until the early 20th century. From their introduction, muskets could pierce plate armour, so cavalry had to be far more mindful of the fire. In Japan, armour continued to be used until the late 19th century, with the last major fighting in which armour was used, this occurred in 1868. Samurai armour had one last short lived use in 1877 during the Satsuma Rebellion.\n\nThough the age of the knight was over, armour continued to be used in many capacities. Soldiers in the American Civil War bought iron and steel vests from peddlers (both sides had considered but rejected body armour for standard issue). The effectiveness of the vests varied widely, some successfully deflected bullets and saved lives, but others were poorly made and resulted in tragedy for the soldiers. In any case the vests were abandoned by many soldiers due to their increased weight on long marches, as well as the stigma they got for being cowards from their fellow troops.\n\nAt the start of World War I, thousands of the French Cuirassiers rode out to engage the German Cavalry. By that period, the shiny metallic cuirass was covered in a dark paint and a canvas wrap covered their elaborate Napoleonic style helmets, to help mitigate the sunlight being reflected off the surfaces, thereby alerting the enemy of their location. Their armour was only meant for protection against edged weapons such as bayonets, sabres, and lances. Cavalry had to be wary of repeating rifles, machine guns, and artillery, unlike the foot soldiers, who at least had a trench to give them some protection.\nPresent\nToday, ballistic vests, also known as flak jackets, made of ballistic cloth (e.g. kevlar, dyneema, twaron, spectra etc.) and ceramic or metal plates are common among police officers, security guards, corrections officers and some branches of the military.\n\nThe US Army has adopted Interceptor body armour, which uses Enhanced Small Arms Protective Inserts (ESAPIs) in the chest, sides, and back of the armour. Each plate is rated to stop a range of ammunition including 3 hits from a 7.62×51 NATO AP round at a range of . Dragon Skin is another ballistic vest which is currently in testing with mixed results. As of 2019, it has been deemed too heavy, expensive, and unreliable, in comparison to more traditional plates, and it is outdated in protection compared to modern US IOTV armour, and even in testing was deemed a downgrade from the IBA.\n\nThe British Armed Forces also have their own armour, known as Osprey. It is rated to the same general equivalent standard as the US counterpart, the Improved Outer Tactical Vest, and now the Soldier Plate Carrier System and Modular Tactical Vest.\n\nThe Russian Armed Forces also have armour, known as the 6B43, all the way to 6B45, depending on variant. Their armour runs on the GOST system, which, due to regional conditions, has resulted in a technically higher protective level overall.\nVehicle\nThe first modern production technology for armour plating was used by navies in the construction of the ironclad warship, reaching its pinnacle of development with the battleship. The first tanks were produced during World War I. Aerial armour has been used to protect pilots and aircraft systems since the First World War.\n\nIn modern ground forces' usage, the meaning of armour has expanded to include the role of troops in combat. After the evolution of armoured warfare, mechanised infantry were mounted in armoured fighting vehicles and replaced light infantry in many situations. In modern armoured warfare, armoured units equipped with tanks and infantry fighting vehicles serve the historic role of heavy cavalry, light cavalry, and dragoons, and belong to the armoured branch of warfare.\nHistoryShips\nThe first ironclad battleship, with iron armour over a wooden hull, , was launched by the French Navy in 1859 prompting the British Royal Navy to build a counter. The following year they launched , which was twice the size and had iron armour over an iron hull. After the first battle between two ironclads took place in 1862 during the American Civil War, it became clear that the ironclad had replaced the unarmoured line-of-battle ship as the most powerful warship afloat.\n\nIronclads were designed for several roles, including as high seas battleships, coastal defence ships, and long-range cruisers. The rapid evolution of warship design in the late 19th century transformed the ironclad from a wooden-hulled vessel which carried sails to supplement its steam engines into the steel-built, turreted battleships and cruisers familiar in the 20th century. This change was pushed forward by the development of heavier naval guns (the ironclads of the 1880s carried some of the heaviest guns ever mounted at sea), more sophisticated steam engines, and advances in metallurgy which made steel shipbuilding possible.\n\nThe rapid pace of change in the ironclad period meant that many ships were obsolete as soon as they were complete, and that naval tactics were in a state of flux. Many ironclads were built to make use of the ram or the torpedo, which a number of naval designers considered the crucial weapons of naval combat. There is no clear end to the ironclad period, but towards the end of the 1890s the term ironclad dropped out of use. New ships were increasingly constructed to a standard pattern and designated battleships or armoured cruisers.\nTrains\nArmoured trains saw use from the mid-19th to the mid-20th century, including the American Civil War (1861–1865), the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871), the First and Second Boer Wars (1880–81 and 1899–1902), the Polish–Soviet War (1919–1921), the First (1914–1918) and Second World Wars (1939–1945) and the First Indochina War (1946–1954). The most intensive use of armoured trains was during the Russian Civil War (1918–1920).\nArmoured fighting vehicles\nAncient siege engines were usually protected by wooden armour, often covered with wet hides or thin metal to prevent being easily burned.\n\nMedieval war wagons were horse-drawn wagons that were similarly armoured. These contained guns or crossbowmen that could fire through gun-slits.\n\nThe first modern armoured fighting vehicles were armoured cars, developed . These started as ordinary wheeled motor-cars protected by iron shields, typically mounting a machine gun.\n\nDuring the First World War, the stalemate of trench warfare on the Western Front spurred the development of the tank. It was envisioned as an armoured machine that could advance under fire from enemy rifles and machine guns, and respond with its own heavy guns. It used caterpillar tracks to cross ground broken up by shellfire and trenches.\nAircraft\nWith the development of effective anti-aircraft artillery in the period before the Second World War, military pilots, once the \"knights of the air\" during the First World War, became far more vulnerable to ground fire. As a response, armour plating was added to aircraft to protect aircrew and vulnerable areas such as engines and fuel tanks. Self-sealing fuel tanks functioned like armour in that they added protection but also increased weight and cost.\nPresent\nTank armour has progressed from the Second World War armour forms, now incorporating not only harder composites, but also reactive armour designed to defeat shaped charges. As a result of this, the main battle tank (MBT) conceived in the Cold War era can survive multiple rocket-propelled grenade strikes with minimal effect on the crew or the operation of the vehicle. The light tanks that were the last descendants of the light cavalry during the Second World War have almost completely disappeared from the world's militaries due to increased lethality of the weapons available to the vehicle-mounted infantry.\n\nThe armoured personnel carrier (APC) was devised during the First World War. It allows the safe and rapid movement of infantry in a combat zone, minimising casualties and maximising mobility. APCs are fundamentally different from the previously used armoured half-tracks in that they offer a higher level of protection from artillery burst fragments, and greater mobility in more terrain types. The basic APC design was substantially expanded to an infantry fighting vehicle (IFV) when properties of an APC and a light tank were combined in one vehicle.\n\nNaval armour has fundamentally changed from the Second World War doctrine of thicker plating to defend against shells, bombs and torpedoes. Passive defence naval armour is limited to kevlar or steel (either single layer or as spaced armour) protecting particularly vital areas from the effects of nearby impacts. Since ships cannot carry enough armour to completely protect against anti-ship missiles, they depend more on defensive weapons destroying incoming missiles, or causing them to miss by confusing their guidance systems with electronic warfare.\n\nAlthough the role of the ground attack aircraft significantly diminished after the Korean War, it re-emerged during the Vietnam War, and in the recognition of this, the US Air Force authorised the design and production of what became the A-10 dedicated anti-armour and ground-attack aircraft that first saw action in the Gulf War.\n\nHigh-voltage transformer fire barriers are often required to defeat ballistics from small arms as well as projectiles from transformer bushings and lightning arresters, which form part of large electrical transformers, per NFPA 850. Such fire barriers may be designed to inherently function as armour, or may be passive fire protection materials augmented by armour, where care must be taken to ensure that the armour's reaction to fire does not cause issues with regards to the fire barrier being armoured to defeat explosions and projectiles in addition to fire, especially since both functions must be provided simultaneously, meaning they must be fire-tested together to provide realistic evidence of fitness for purpose.\n\nCombat drones use little to no vehicular armour as they are not crewed vessels, this results in them being lightweight and small in size.\nAnimal armourHorse armour\nBody armour for war horses has been used since at least 2000 BC. Cloth, leather, and metal protection covered cavalry horses in ancient civilisations, including ancient Egypt, Assyria, Persia, and Rome. Some formed heavy cavalry units of armoured horses and riders used to attack infantry and mounted archers. Armour for horses is called barding (also spelled bard or barb) especially when used by European knights.\n\nDuring the late Middle Ages as armour protection for knights became more effective, their mounts became targets. This vulnerability was exploited by the Scots at the Battle of Bannockburn in the 14th century, when horses were killed by the infantry, and for the English at the Battle of Crécy in the same century where longbowmen shot horses and the then dismounted French knights were killed by heavy infantry. Barding developed as a response to such events.\n\nExamples of armour for horses could be found as far back as classical antiquity. Cataphracts, with scale armour for both rider and horse, are believed by many historians to have influenced the later European knights, via contact with the Byzantine Empire.\n\nSurviving period examples of barding are rare; however, complete sets are on display at the Philadelphia Museum of Art, the Wallace Collection in London, the Royal Armouries in Leeds, and the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. Horse armour could be made in whole or in part of cuir bouilli (hardened leather), but surviving examples of this are especially rare.\nElephant armour\nWar elephants were first used in ancient times without armour, but armour was introduced because elephants injured by enemy weapons would often flee the battlefield. Elephant armour was often made from hardened leather, which was fitted onto an individual elephant while moist, then dried to create a hardened shell. Alternatively, metal armour pieces were sometimes sewn into heavy cloth. Later lamellar armour (small overlapping metal plates) was introduced. Full plate armour was not typically used due to its expense and the danger of the animal overheating.\nSee also\nBattledress\nBioinspired armor\nBomb suit\nHigh-voltage transformer fire barriers\nLinothorax\nPowered exoskeleton\nRolled homogeneous armour\nCommercial uses of armor\nArmored combat (sport)\nNotesReferences\n\"Ballistic Protection Levels.\" BulletproofME.com Body Armor. ArmorUP L.P., n.d. 19 October 2014\nExternal links","text_chars":20736,"text_sha256":"fda55d3abc58d0265e31989886f32b77f9bccc8b9a747125180e02a3a389de22","text_utf8_bytes":20766,"title":"Armour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armour","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"a6938e35b442264d6e5c3309b1d8d87107cb1c4779d9656e08755a379688b5d1"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2230&action=history","id":"2230","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":25878,"raw_text_sha256":"113ba8e760c84352c460a6fcfe48b58f5ced145d7ac2b3bf82f8dd1a91b66534","raw_text_utf8_bytes":25903,"revision_id":"1365706079","revision_timestamp":"2026-07-24T00:03:55Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1365706079","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"In computer science, the analysis of algorithms is the process of finding the computational complexity of algorithms—the amount of time, storage, or other resources needed to execute them. Usually, this involves determining a function that relates the size of an algorithm's input to the number of steps it takes (its time complexity) or the number of storage locations it uses (its space complexity). An algorithm is said to be efficient when this function's values are small, or grow slowly compared to a growth in the size of the input. Different inputs of the same size may cause the algorithm to have different behavior, so best, worst and average case descriptions might all be of practical interest. When not otherwise specified, the function describing the performance of an algorithm is usually an upper bound, determined from the worst case inputs to the algorithm.\n\nThe term \"analysis of algorithms\" was coined by Donald Knuth. Algorithm analysis is an important part of a broader computational complexity theory, which provides theoretical estimates for the resources needed by any algorithm which solves a given computational problem. These estimates provide an insight into reasonable directions of search for efficient algorithms.\n\nIn theoretical analysis of algorithms it is common to estimate their complexity in the asymptotic sense, i.e., to estimate the complexity function for arbitrarily large input. Big O notation, Big-omega notation and Big-theta notation are used to this end. For instance, binary search is said to run in a number of steps proportional to the logarithm of the size of the sorted list being searched, or in , colloquially \"in logarithmic time\". Usually asymptotic estimates are used because different implementations of the same algorithm may differ in efficiency. However the efficiencies of any two \"reasonable\" implementations of a given algorithm are related by a constant multiplicative factor called a hidden constant.\n\nExact (not asymptotic) measures of efficiency can sometimes be computed but they usually require certain assumptions concerning the particular implementation of the algorithm, called a model of computation. A model of computation may be defined in terms of an abstract computer, e.g. Turing machine, and/or by postulating that certain operations are executed in unit time.\nFor example, if the sorted list to which we apply binary search has elements, and we can guarantee that each lookup of an element in the list can be done in unit time, then at most time units are needed to return an answer.\nCost models\nTime efficiency estimates depend on what we define to be a step. For the analysis to correspond usefully to the actual run-time, the time required to perform a step must be guaranteed to be bounded above by a constant. One must be careful here; for instance, some analyses count an addition of two numbers as one step. This assumption may not be warranted in certain contexts. For example, if the numbers involved in a computation may be arbitrarily large, the time required by a single addition can no longer be assumed to be constant.\n\nTwo cost models are generally used:\nthe uniform cost model, also called unit-cost model (and similar variations), assigns a constant cost to every machine operation, regardless of the size of the numbers involved\nthe logarithmic cost model, also called logarithmic-cost measurement (and similar variations), assigns a cost to every machine operation proportional to the number of bits involved\n\nThe latter is more cumbersome to use, so it is only employed when necessary, for example in the analysis of arbitrary-precision arithmetic algorithms, like those used in cryptography.\n\nA key point which is often overlooked is that published lower bounds for problems are often given for a model of computation that is more restricted than the set of operations that you could use in practice and therefore there are algorithms that are faster than what would naively be thought possible.\nRun-time analysis\nRun-time analysis is a theoretical classification that estimates and anticipates the increase in running time (or run-time or execution time) of an algorithm as its input size (usually denoted as ) increases. Run-time efficiency is a topic of great interest in computer science: A program can take seconds, hours, or even years to finish executing, depending on which algorithm it implements. While software profiling techniques can be used to measure an algorithm's run-time in practice, they cannot provide timing data for all infinitely many possible inputs; the latter can only be achieved by the theoretical methods of run-time analysis.\nShortcomings of empirical metrics\nSince algorithms are platform-independent (i.e. a given algorithm can be implemented in an arbitrary programming language on an arbitrary computer running an arbitrary operating system), there are additional significant drawbacks to using an empirical approach to gauge the comparative performance of a given set of algorithms.\n\nTake as an example a program that looks up a specific entry in a sorted list of size n. Suppose this program were implemented on Computer A, a state-of-the-art machine, using a linear search algorithm, and on Computer B, a much slower machine, using a binary search algorithm. Benchmark testing on the two computers running their respective programs might look something like the following:\n\nBased on these metrics, it would be easy to jump to the conclusion that Computer A is running an algorithm that is far superior in efficiency to that of Computer B. However, if the size of the input-list is increased to a sufficient number, that conclusion is dramatically demonstrated to be in error:\n\nComputer A, running the linear search program, exhibits a linear growth rate. The program's run-time is directly proportional to its input size. Doubling the input size doubles the run-time, quadrupling the input size quadruples the run-time, and so forth. On the other hand, Computer B, running the binary search program, exhibits a logarithmic growth rate. Quadrupling the input size only increases the run-time by a amount (in this example, 50,000 ns). Even though Computer A is ostensibly a faster machine, Computer B will inevitably surpass Computer A in run-time because it is running an algorithm with a much slower growth rate.\nOrders of growth\nInformally, an algorithm can be said to exhibit a growth rate on the order of a mathematical function if beyond a certain input size , the function times a positive constant provides an upper bound or limit for the run-time of that algorithm. In other words, for a given input size greater than some 0 and a constant , the run-time of that algorithm will never be larger than . This concept is frequently expressed using Big O notation. For example, since the run-time of insertion sort grows quadratically as its input size increases, insertion sort can be said to be of order .\n\nBig O notation is a convenient way to express the worst-case scenario for a given algorithm, although it can also be used to express the average-case — for example, the worst-case scenario for quicksort is , but the average-case run-time is .\nEmpirical orders of growth\nAssuming the run-time follows the power rule, , the parameter can be found by taking empirical measurements of run-time and at some problem-size points and , and solving the equation w.r.t. , that is, . In other words, this measures the slope of the empirical line on the log–log plot of run-time vs. input size, at some size point. If the order of growth indeed follows the power rule (and so the line on the log–log plot is indeed a straight line), the empirical value of will stay constant at different ranges, and if not, it will change (and the line is a curved line)—but still can serve for comparison of any two given algorithms as to their empirical local orders of growth behaviour. Applied to the above table:\n\nIt is clearly seen that the first algorithm exhibits a linear order of growth indeed following the power rule. The empirical values for the second one are diminishing rapidly, suggesting it follows another rule of growth and in any case has much lower local orders of growth (and improving further still), empirically, than the first one.\nEvaluating run-time complexity\nThe run-time complexity for the worst-case scenario of a given algorithm can sometimes be evaluated by examining the structure of the algorithm and making some simplifying assumptions. Consider the following pseudocode:\n\n1 get a positive integer n from input\n2 if n > 10\n3 print \"This might take a while...\"\n4 for i = 1 to n\n5 for j = 1 to i\n6 print i * j\n7 print \"Done!\"\n\nA given computer will take a discrete amount of time to execute each of the instructions involved with carrying out this algorithm. Say that the actions carried out in step 1 are considered to consume time at most T1, step 2 uses time at most T2, and so forth.\n\nIn the algorithm above, steps 1, 2 and 7 will only be run once. For a worst-case evaluation, it should be assumed that step 3 will be run as well. Thus the total amount of time to run steps 1–3 and step 7 is:\nThe loops in steps 4, 5 and 6 are trickier to evaluate. The outer loop test in step 4 will execute ( n + 1 )\ntimes, which will consume T4( n + 1 ) time. The inner loop, on the other hand, is governed by the value of j, which iterates from 1 to i. On the first pass through the outer loop, j iterates from 1 to 1: The inner loop makes one pass, so running the inner loop body (step 6) consumes T6 time, and the inner loop test (step 5) consumes 2T5 time. During the next pass through the outer loop, j iterates from 1 to 2: the inner loop makes two passes, so running the inner loop body (step 6) consumes 2T6 time, and the inner loop test (step 5) consumes 3T5 time.\n\nAltogether, the total time required to run the inner loop body can be expressed as an arithmetic progression:\nwhich can be factored as\nThe total time required to run the inner loop test can be evaluated similarly:\nwhich can be factored as\nTherefore, the total run-time for this algorithm is:\nwhich reduces to\nAs a rule-of-thumb, one can assume that the highest-order term in any given function dominates its rate of growth and thus defines its run-time order. In this example, n2 is the highest-order term, so one can conclude that . Formally this can be proven as follows:\n\nA more elegant approach to analyzing this algorithm would be to declare that [T1..T7] are all equal to one unit of time, in a system of units chosen so that one unit is greater than or equal to the actual times for these steps. This would mean that the algorithm's run-time breaks down as follows:\nGrowth rate analysis of other resources\nThe methodology of run-time analysis can also be utilized for predicting other growth rates, such as consumption of memory space. As an example, consider the following pseudocode which manages and reallocates memory usage by a program based on the size of a file which that program manages:\n\nwhile file is still open:\nlet n = size of file\nfor every 100,000 kilobytes of increase in file size\ndouble the amount of memory reserved\n\nIn this instance, as the file size n increases, memory will be consumed at an exponential growth rate, which is order . This is an extremely rapid and most likely unmanageable growth rate for consumption of memory resources.\nRelevance\nAlgorithm analysis is important in practice because the accidental or unintentional use of an inefficient algorithm can significantly impact system performance. In time-sensitive applications, an algorithm taking too long to run can render its results outdated or useless. An inefficient algorithm can also end up requiring an uneconomical amount of computing power or storage in order to run, again rendering it practically useless.\nConstant factors\nAnalysis of algorithms typically focuses on the asymptotic performance, particularly at the elementary level, but in practical applications constant factors are important, and real-world data is in practice always limited in size. The limit is typically the size of addressable memory, so on 32-bit machines 232 = 4 GiB (greater if segmented memory is used) and on 64-bit machines 264 = 16 EiB. Thus given a limited size, an order of growth (time or space) can be replaced by a constant factor, and in this sense all practical algorithms are for a large enough constant, or for small enough data.\n\nThis interpretation is primarily useful for functions that grow extremely slowly: (binary) iterated logarithm (log*) is less than 5 for all practical data (265536 bits); (binary) log-log (log log n) is less than 6 for virtually all practical data (264 bits); and binary log (log n) is less than 64 for virtually all practical data (264 bits). An algorithm with non-constant complexity may nonetheless be more efficient than an algorithm with constant complexity on practical data if the overhead of the constant time algorithm results in a larger constant factor, e.g., one may have so long as and .\n\nFor large data linear or quadratic factors cannot be ignored, but for small data an asymptotically inefficient algorithm may be more efficient. This is particularly used in hybrid algorithms, like Timsort, which use an asymptotically efficient algorithm (here merge sort, with time complexity ), but switch to an asymptotically inefficient algorithm (here insertion sort, with time complexity ) for small data, as the simpler algorithm is faster on small data.\nSee also\nAmortized analysis\nAnalysis of parallel algorithms\nAsymptotic computational complexity\nInformation-based complexity\nMaster theorem (analysis of algorithms)\nNP-completeness\nNumerical analysis\nPolynomial time\nProgram optimization\nScalability\nSmoothed analysis\nTermination analysis — the subproblem of checking whether a program will terminate at all\nNotesReferences\nExternal links","text_chars":13901,"text_sha256":"aa2c6f2e67e7c980887b63542acbd8c9d506fe7db26817c3a9ba9fd22308000d","text_utf8_bytes":13915,"title":"Analysis of algorithms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis_of_algorithms","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"30aeb4f4ebef908e365849f471d5b6da36327bf71bdf3661ff49298fa7ffba1b"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2163&action=history","id":"2163","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":7084,"raw_text_sha256":"66d2f6a82e2f1a58b0460accb831d2123010a32805e0fa5fc261ce9f410dada3","raw_text_utf8_bytes":7113,"revision_id":"1363480830","revision_timestamp":"2026-07-10T13:25:54Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1363480830","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"In Greek mythology, Aiolos, transcribed as Aeolus (; ; ) refers to three characters. These three are often difficult to tell apart, and even the ancient mythographers appear to have been perplexed about which Aeolus was which. Diodorus Siculus made an attempt to define each of these three (although it is clear that he also became muddled), and his opinion is followed here.\nThe first Aeolus was a son of Hellen and the eponymous founder of the Aeolian race.\nThe second Aeolus was a son of Poseidon, who led a colony to islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea.\nThe third Aeolus was a son of Hippotes who is mentioned in the Odyssey and the Aeneid as the ruler of the winds.\n\nAll three men named Aeolus appear to be connected genealogically, although the precise relationship, especially regarding the second and third Aeolus, is often ambiguous as their identities seem to have been merged by many ancient writers.\n\nAeolus was also the name of the following minor characters:\nAeolus, a defender of Thebes in the war of the Seven against Thebes. He was killed by Parthenopaeus.\nAeolus, a Trojan companion of Aeneas in Italy, where he was killed by Turnus, King of the Rutulians. Aeolus was the father of Clytius and Misenus.\nSee also\nAeolia (mythical island), island kingdom of Aeolus, ruler of the winds\nADM-Aeolus, a satellite mission by ESA for measuring wind profiles from space\nNotesReferences\nApollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. . Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.\nHyginus, Gaius Julius, Fabulae, in The Myths of Hyginus, edited and translated by Mary A. Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960. Online version at ToposText.\nHomer, The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.\nKerényi, Karl, The Gods of the Greeks, Thames and Hudson, London, 1951. Internet Archive.\nParada, Carlos, Genealogical Guide to Greek Mythology, Jonsered, Paul Åströms Förlag, 1993. .\nRose, H. J., s.v. Aeolus (2) in the Oxford Classical Dictionary, second edition, Hammond, N.G.L. and Howard Hayes Scullard (editors), Oxford University Press, 1992. .\nSmith, William, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.\nStatius, Statius with an English Translation by J. H. Mozley, Volume II, Thebaid, Books V–XII, Achilleid, Loeb Classical Library No. 207, London: William Heinemann, Ltd., New York: G. P. Putnamm's Sons, 1928. . Internet Archive.\nThomas, Richard. F., \"The Isolation of Turnus, Aeneid, book 12\", in Vergil's Aeneid: Augustan Epic and Political Context, Hans-Peter Stahl (ed.), Classical Press of Wales, pp. 271–303. .\nVirgil, Aeneid, Theodore C. Williams. trans. Boston. Houghton Mifflin Co. 1910. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.\nde Weever, Jaqueline, Chaucer Name Dictionary, Garland Publishing, Inc., New York and London, 1988, 1996.","text_chars":3175,"text_sha256":"e1e0d0e964a0dda33633b6c468c91d0e3027d63345c8b898183cf7632b999595","text_utf8_bytes":3183,"title":"Aeolus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeolus","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"d1a070f67aad3726544cc1a74429fb7cd132dfaede9b53622b83a240de988e5b"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2429&action=history","id":"2429","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":1383,"raw_text_sha256":"037a5025ec77f752d85534a5f4942b90c419dd668991af4a9134a30e8d4b4562","raw_text_utf8_bytes":1383,"revision_id":"1363263168","revision_timestamp":"2026-07-09T02:08:44Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1363263168","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Audio most commonly refers to sound, as it is transmitted in signal form. It may also refer to:\nSound\nAudio signal, an electrical representation of sound\nAudio frequency, a frequency in the audio spectrum\nDigital audio, representation of sound in a form processed and/or stored by computers or digital electronics\nAudio, audible content (media) in audio production and publishing\nSemantic audio, extraction of symbols or meaning from audio\nStereophonic audio, method of sound reproduction that creates an illusion of multi-directional audible perspective\nAudio equipment\nEntertainment\nAUDIO (group), an American R&B band of 5 brothers formerly known as TNT Boyz and as B5\nAudio (album), an album by the Blue Man Group\nAudio (magazine), a magazine published from 1947 to 2000\nAudio (musician), British drum and bass artist\n\"Audio\" (song), a song by LSD\n\"Audios\", a song by Black Eyed Peas from Elevation\nComputing\nHTML audio, identified by the tag\nSee also\nAcoustic (disambiguation)\nAudible (disambiguation)\nAudiobook\nRadio broadcasting\nSound recording and reproduction\nSound reinforcement","text_chars":1088,"text_sha256":"399a5311b019649e9c803a3a6437a2950c697530b6ee7721edff7cef0d0c45e9","text_utf8_bytes":1088,"title":"Audio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"6f44a4b2ea83daa203e5b5ec0b8b5629da1440c491decc960201379b0664e0f6"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1334&action=history","id":"1334","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":63495,"raw_text_sha256":"6c8c1bf7dd9e17b46bb24755b38fb4e5c663acda1003e714b715356f7825763d","raw_text_utf8_bytes":63766,"revision_id":"1372096217","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-30T07:55:14Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1372096217","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Events\nPre-1600\n1457 BC – Battle of Megiddo: The first battle to have been recorded in what is accepted as relatively reliable detail.\n69 – Defeated by Vitellius' troops at Bedriacum, Roman emperor Otho commits suicide.\n73 – Masada, a Jewish fortress, falls to the Romans after several months of siege, ending the First Jewish–Roman War.\n556 – Pope Pelagius I is consecrated following Imperial approval by Emperor Justinian I.\n682 – Pope Leo II is elected head of the Catholic Church, although he will not be consecrated until 17 August.\n1346 – Stefan Dušan, \"the Mighty\", is crowned Emperor of the Serbs at Skopje, his empire occupying much of the Balkans.\n1520 – The Revolt of the Comuneros begins in Spain against the rule of Charles V.\n1582 – Spanish conquistador Hernando de Lerma founds the settlement of Salta, Argentina.\n1601–1900\n1746 – The Battle of Culloden is fought between the French-supported Jacobites and the British Hanoverian forces commanded by William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, in Scotland.\n1780 – Franz Friedrich Wilhelm von Fürstenberg founds the University of Münster.\n1797 – The Spithead mutiny begins, immobilising the Channel fleet.\n1799 – French Revolutionary Wars: The Battle of Mount Tabor: Napoleon drives Ottoman Turks across the River Jordan near Acre.\n1818 – The United States Senate ratifies the Rush–Bagot Treaty, limiting naval armaments on the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain.\n1838 – The French Army captures Veracruz in the Pastry War.\n1847 – Shooting of a Māori by an English sailor results in the opening of the Wanganui Campaign of the New Zealand Wars.\n1853 – The Great Indian Peninsula Railway opens the first passenger rail in India, from Bori Bunder to Thane.\n1858 – The Wernerian Natural History Society, a former Scottish learned society, is dissolved.\n1862 – American Civil War: Battle at Lee's Mills in Virginia.\n1862 – American Civil War: The District of Columbia Compensated Emancipation Act, a bill ending slavery in the District of Columbia, becomes law.\n1863 – American Civil War: During the Vicksburg Campaign, gunboats commanded by acting Rear Admiral David Dixon Porter run downriver past Confederate artillery batteries at Vicksburg.\n1878 – The Senate of the Grand Duchy of Finland issues a declaration establishing a city of Kotka on the southern part islands from the old Kymi parish.\n1881 – In Dodge City, Kansas, Bat Masterson fights his last gun battle.\n1901–present\n1908 – Natural Bridges National Monument is established in Utah.\n1910 – The oldest indoor ice hockey arena used for the sport in the 21st century, Boston Arena, opens for the first time.\n1912 – Harriet Quimby becomes the first woman to fly an airplane across the English Channel.\n1917 – Russian Revolution: Vladimir Lenin returns to Petrograd, Russia, from exile in Switzerland.\n1919 – Mohandas Gandhi organizes a day of \"prayer and fasting\" in response to the killing of Indian protesters in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre by the British colonial troops three days earlier.\n1919 – Polish–Lithuanian War: The Polish Army launches the Vilna offensive to capture Vilnius in modern Lithuania.\n1922 – The Treaty of Rapallo, pursuant to which Germany and the Soviet Union re-establish diplomatic relations, is signed.\n1925 – During the Communist St Nedelya Church assault in Sofia, Bulgaria, 150 are killed and 500 are wounded.\n1941 – World War II: The Italian-German Tarigo convoy is attacked and destroyed by British ships.\n1941 – World War II: The Nazi-affiliated Ustaše is put in charge of the Independent State of Croatia by the Axis powers after Operation 25 is effected.\n1943 – Albert Hofmann accidentally discovers the hallucinogenic effects of the research drug LSD. He intentionally takes the drug three days later on April 19.\n1944 – World War II: Allied forces start bombing Belgrade, killing about 1,100 people. This bombing fell on the Orthodox Christian Easter.\n1945 – World War II: The Red Army begins the final assault on German forces around Berlin, with nearly one million troops fighting in the Battle of the Seelow Heights.\n1945 – World War II: The United States Army liberates Nazi Sonderlager (high security) prisoner-of-war camp Oflag IV-C (better known as Colditz).\n1945 – World War II: More than 7,000 die when the German transport ship Goya is sunk by a Soviet submarine.\n1947 – An explosion on board a freighter in port causes Texas City in the state of Texas, United States, to catch fire, killing almost 600 people.\n1947 – Bernard Baruch first applies the term \"Cold War\" to describe the relationship between the United States and the Soviet Union.\n1948 – The Organization of European Economic Co-operation is formed.\n1961 – In a nationally broadcast speech, Cuban leader Fidel Castro declares that he is a Marxist–Leninist and that Cuba is going to adopt Communism.\n1963 – U.S. civil rights campaigner Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. writes his open letter from Birmingham Jail, sometimes known as \"The Negro Is Your Brother\", while incarcerated in Birmingham, Alabama, for protesting against segregation.\n1972 – Apollo program: The launch of Apollo 16 from Cape Canaveral, Florida.\n2001 – India and Bangladesh begin a five-day border conflict, but are unable to resolve the disputes about their border.\n2003 – The Treaty of Accession is signed in Athens admitting ten new member states to the European Union.\n2007 – Virginia Tech shooting: Seung-Hui Cho murders 32 people and injures 17 before committing suicide.\n2008 – The U.S. Supreme Court rules in the Baze v. Rees decision that execution by lethal injection does not violate the Eighth Amendment ban against cruel and unusual punishment.\n2012 – The trial for Anders Behring Breivik, the perpetrator of the 2011 Norway attacks, begins in Oslo, Norway.\n2012 – The Pulitzer Prize winners are announced. It was the first time since 1977 that no book won the Fiction Prize.\n2013 – A 7.8-magnitude earthquake strikes Sistan and Balochistan province, Iran, killing at least 35 people and injuring 117 others.\n2013 – The 2013 Baga massacre is started when Boko Haram militants engage government soldiers in Baga.\n2014 – The South Korean ferry MV Sewol capsizes and sinks near Jindo Island, killing 304 passengers and crew and leading to widespread criticism of the South Korean government, media, and shipping authorities.\n2016 – Ecuador's worst earthquake in nearly 40 years kills 676 and injures more than 230,000.\n2018 – The New York Times and The New Yorker win the Pulitzer Prize for Public Service for breaking news of the Harvey Weinstein sexual abuse scandal.\n2024 – The historic Børsen in Copenhagen, Denmark, is severely damaged by a fire.\nBirths\nPre-1600\n1488 – Jungjong of Joseon (died 1544)\n1495 – Petrus Apianus, German mathematician and astronomer (died 1557)\n1516 – Tabinshwehti, Burmese king (died 1550)\n1569 – John Davies, English poet and lawyer (died 1626)\n1601–1900\n1635 – Frans van Mieris the Elder, Dutch painter (died 1681)\n1646 – Jules Hardouin-Mansart, French architect (probable; (died 1708)\n1660 – Hans Sloane, Irish-English physician and academic (died 1753)\n1661 – Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax, English poet and politician, First Lord of the Treasury (died 1715)\n1682 – John Hadley, English mathematician, invented the octant (died 1744)\n1697 – Johann Gottlieb Görner, German organist and composer (died 1778)\n1728 – Joseph Black, French-Scottish physician and chemist (died 1799)\n1730 – Henry Clinton, English general and politician (died 1795)\n1755 – Louise Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun, French painter (died 1842)\n1786 – John Franklin, English admiral and politician, fourth Lieutenant Governor of Van Diemen's Land (died 1847)\n1800 – George Bingham, 3rd Earl of Lucan, English field marshal and politician (died 1888)\n1808 – Caleb Blood Smith, American journalist, lawyer, and politician, sixth United States Secretary of the Interior (died 1864)\n1812 – Juraj Dobrila, Croatian bishop and national revivalist (died 1882)\n1821 – Ford Madox Brown, French-English soldier and painter (died 1893)\n1823 – Gotthold Eisenstein, German mathematician and academic (died 1852)\n1826 – Sir James Corry, 1st Baronet, British politician (died 1891)\n1827 – Octave Crémazie, Canadian poet and bookseller (died 1879)\n1839 – Antonio Starabba, Marchese di Rudinì, Italian politician, 12th Prime Minister of Italy (died 1908)\n1834 – Charles Lennox Richardson, English merchant (died 1862)\n1844 – Anatole France, French journalist, novelist, and poet, Nobel Prize laureate (died 1924)\n1847 – Hans Auer, Swiss-Austrian architect, designed the Federal Palace of Switzerland (died 1906)\n1848 – Kandukuri Veeresalingam, Indian author and activist (died 1919)\n1851 – Ponnambalam Ramanathan, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician, third Solicitor General of Sri Lanka (died 1930)\n1865 – Harry Chauvel, Australian general (died 1945)\n1866 – José de Diego, Puerto Rican journalist, lawyer, and politician (died 1918)\n1867 – Wilbur Wright, American inventor (died 1912)\n1871 – John Millington Synge, Irish author, poet, and playwright (died 1909)\n1874 – Jōtarō Watanabe, Japanese general (died 1936)\n1878 – R. E. Foster, English cricketer and footballer (died 1914)\n1882 – Seth Bingham, American organist and composer (died 1972)\n1884 – Ronald Barnes, 3rd Baron Gorell, English cricketer, journalist, and politician (died 1963)\n1885 – Leó Weiner, Hungarian composer and educator (died 1960)\n1886 – Michalis Dorizas, Greek-American football player and javelin thrower (died 1957)\n1886 – Ernst Thälmann, German politician (died 1944)\n1888 – Billy Minter, English footballer and manager (died 1940)\n1889 – Charlie Chaplin, English actor, director, producer, screenwriter, and composer (died 1977)\n1890 – Fred Root, English cricketer and umpire (died 1954)\n1890 – Gertrude Chandler Warner, American author and educator (died 1979)\n1891 – Dorothy P. Lathrop, American author and illustrator (died 1980)\n1892 – Dora Richter, German transgender woman and the first known person to undergo complete male-to-female gender-affirming surgery (died 1966)\n1892 – Howard Mumford Jones, American author, critic, and academic (died 1980)\n1893 – Germaine Guèvremont, Canadian journalist and author (died 1968)\n1893 – John Norton, American hurdler (died 1979)\n1895 – Ove Arup, English-Danish engineer and businessman, founded Arup (died 1988)\n1896 – Árpád Weisz, Hungarian footballer (died 1944)\n1899 – Osman Achmatowicz, Polish chemist and academic (died 1988)\n1900 – Polly Adler, Russian-American madam and author (died 1962)\n1901–present\n1903 – Paul Waner, American baseball player and manager (died 1965)\n1904 – Fifi D'Orsay, Canadian-American vaudevillian, actress, and singer (died 1983)\n1905 – Frits Philips, Dutch businessman (died 2005)\n1907 – Joseph-Armand Bombardier, Canadian inventor and businessman, founded Bombardier Inc. (died 1964)\n1907 – August Eigruber, Austrian-German politician (died 1947)\n1908 – Ellis Marsalis, Sr., American businessman and activist (died 2004)\n1908 – Ray Ventura, French jazz bandleader (died 1979)\n1910 – Berton Roueché, American journalist and author (died 1994)\n1911 – Guy Burgess, English-Russian spy (died 1963)\n1914 – John Hodiak, American actor (died 1955)\n1916 – Behçet Necatigil, Turkish author, poet, and translator (died 1979)\n1917 – Victoria Eugenia Fernández de Córdoba, 18th Duchess of Medinaceli (died 2013)\n1918 – Spike Milligan, Indian-Irish actor, comedian, and writer (died 2002)\n1919 – Merce Cunningham, American dancer and choreographer (died 2009)\n1919 – Nilla Pizzi, Italian singer (died 2011)\n1919 – Pedro Ramírez Vázquez, Mexican architect (died 2013)\n1920 – Ananda Dassanayake, Sri Lankan politician (died 2012)\n1920 – Prince Georg of Denmark (died 1986)\n1921 – Wolfgang Leonhard, German historian and author (died 2014)\n1921 – Peter Ustinov, English actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (died 2004)\n1922 – Kingsley Amis, English novelist, poet, and critic (died 1995)\n1922 – Lawrence N. Guarino, American colonel (died 2014)\n1922 – Leo Tindemans, Belgian politician, 43rd Prime Minister of Belgium (died 2014)\n1923 – Warren Barker, American composer (died 2006)\n1923 – Arch A. Moore Jr., American sergeant, lawyer, and politician, 28th Governor of West Virginia (died 2015)\n1924 – Henry Mancini, American composer and conductor (died 1994)\n1924 – Madanjeet Singh, Indian diplomat, author, and philanthropist (died 2013)\n1926 – Pierre Fabre, French pharmacist, founded Laboratoires Pierre Fabre (died 2013)\n1927 – Edie Adams, American actress and singer (died 2008)\n1927 – Pope Benedict XVI (died 2022)\n1927 – Rolf Schult, German actor (died 2013)\n1928 – Night Train Lane, American football player (died 2002)\n1929 – Roy Hamilton, American singer (died 1969)\n1929 – Ralph Slatyer, Australian biologist and ecologist (died 2012)\n1930 – Herbie Mann, American flute player and composer (died 2003)\n1931 – Julian Carroll, American politician, 54th Governor of Kentucky (died 2023)\n1932 – Maury Meyers, American lawyer and politician (died 2014)\n1933 – Marcos Alonso Imaz, Spanish footballer (died 2012)\n1933 – Joan Bakewell, English journalist and author\n1933 – Vera Krepkina, Russian long jumper (died 2023)\n1934 – Robert Stigwood, Australian producer and manager (died 2016)\n1934 – Barrie Unsworth, Australian politician, 36th Premier of New South Wales\n1934 – Vicar, Chilean cartoonist (died 2012)\n1935 – Marcel Carrière, Canadian director and screenwriter\n1935 – Sarah Kirsch, German poet and author (died 2013)\n1935 – Lennart Risberg, Swedish boxer (died 2013)\n1935 – Dominique Venner, French journalist and historian (died 2013)\n1935 – Bobby Vinton, American singer\n1936 – Vadim Kuzmin, Russian physicist and academic (died 2015)\n1937 – Gert Potgieter, South African hurdler and coach\n1937 – George Steele, American wrestler and actor (died 2017)\n1939 – Dusty Springfield, English singer and record producer (died 1999)\n1940 – Benoît Bouchard, Canadian academic and politician, 18th Canadian Minister of Transport\n1940 – David Holford, Barbadian cricketer (died 2022)\n1940 – Fotis Kafatos, Greek biologist, founding president of the European Research Council (ERC) (died 2017).\n1940 – Queen Margrethe II of Denmark\n1942 – Nikos Gioutsos, Greek footballer (died 2023)\n1942 – Sir Frank Williams, English businessman, founded the Williams F1 Racing Team (died 2021)\n1943 – Petro Tyschtschenko, Austrian-German businessman\n1943 – John Watkins, Australian cricketer\n1945 – Tom Allen, American lawyer and politician\n1945 – Stefan Grossman, American acoustic fingerstyle guitarist and singer\n1946 – Margot Adler, American journalist and author (died 2014)\n1946 – Johnnie Lewis, Liberian lawyer and politician, 18th Chief Justice of Liberia (died 2015)\n1947 – Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, American basketball player and coach\n1947 – Gerry Rafferty, Scottish singer-songwriter (died 2011)\n1948 – Reg Alcock, Canadian businessman and politician, 17th Canadian President of the Treasury Board (died 2011)\n1950 – David Graf, American actor (died 2001)\n1950 – Colleen Hewett, Australian singer and actress\n1951 – Ioan Mihai Cochinescu, Romanian author and photographer\n1952 – Michel Blanc, French actor and director (died 2024)\n1952 – Esther Roth-Shahamorov, Israeli sprinter and hurdler\n1952 – Bill Belichick, American football coach\n1953 – Peter Garrett, Australian singer-songwriter and politician\n1954 – Ellen Barkin, American actress\n1954 – John Bowe, Australian racing driver\n1954 – Mike Zuke, Canadian ice hockey player\n1955 – Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n1956 – David M. Brown, American captain, pilot, and astronaut (died 2003)\n1956 – T Lavitz, American keyboard player, composer, and producer (died 2010)\n1956 – Lise-Marie Morerod, Swiss skier\n1957 – Patricia De Martelaere, Belgian philosopher, author, and academic (died 2009)\n1958 – Tim Flach, English photographer and director\n1958 – Ulf Wakenius, Swedish guitarist\n1959 – Alison Ramsay, English-Scottish field hockey player and lawyer\n1960 – Wahab Akbar, Filipino politician (died 2007)\n1960 – Rafael Benítez, Spanish footballer and manager\n1960 – Pierre Littbarski, German footballer and manager\n1961 – Jarbom Gamlin, Indian lawyer and politician, seventh Chief Minister of Arunachal Pradesh (died 2014)\n1962 – Anna Dello Russo, Italian journalist\n1963 – Saleem Malik, Pakistani cricketer\n1963 – Jimmy Osmond, American singer\n1964 – Esbjörn Svensson, Swedish pianist (died 2008)\n1965 – Yves-François Blanchet, Canadian politician\n1965 – Jon Cryer, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n1965 – Martin Lawrence, German-American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n1966 – Jarle Vespestad, Norwegian drummer\n1968 – Vickie Guerrero, American wrestler and manager\n1968 – Rüdiger Stenzel, German runner\n1969 – Patrik Järbyn, Swedish skier\n1969 – Fernando Viña, American baseball player and sportscaster\n1970 – Dero Goi, German singer-songwriter and drummer\n1970 – Margreth Olin, Norwegian filmmaker\n1971 – Cameron Blades, Australian rugby player\n1971 – Selena, American singer-songwriter, actress, and fashion designer (died 1995)\n1971 – Seigo Yamamoto, Japanese racing driver\n1971 – Natasha Zvereva, Belarusian tennis player\n1972 – Conchita Martínez, Spanish-American tennis player\n1973 – Akon, Senegalese-American singer, rapper and songwriter\n1973 – Charlotta Sörenstam, Swedish golfer\n1973 – Teddy Cobeña, Spanish-Ecuadorian expressionist and representational sculptor\n1976 – Lukas Haas, American actor and musician\n1976 – Kelli O'Hara, American actress and singer\n1977 – Freddie Ljungberg, Swedish footballer\n1979 – Christijan Albers, Dutch racing driver\n1979 – Lars Börgeling, German pole vaulter\n1979 – Daniel Browne, New Zealand rugby player\n1981 – Anestis Agritis, Greek footballer\n1982 – Gina Carano, American mixed martial artist and actress\n1982 – Boris Diaw, French basketball player\n1983 – Marié Digby, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actress\n1983 – Cat Osterman, American softball player\n1984 – Claire Foy, English actress\n1984 – Tucker Fredricks, American speed skater\n1984 – Paweł Kieszek, Polish footballer\n1984 – Kerron Stewart, Jamaican sprinter\n1985 – Luol Deng, Sudanese-English basketball player\n1985 – Nate Diaz, American mixed martial artist\n1985 – Brendon Leonard, New Zealand rugby player\n1985 – Katerina Stikoudi, Greek singer, actress, TV host, model, businesswoman, former champion swimmer and beauty pageant titleholder.\n1985 – Taye Taiwo, Nigerian footballer\n1986 – Shinji Okazaki, Japanese footballer\n1986 – Peter Regin, Danish ice hockey player\n1986 – Epke Zonderland, Dutch gymnast\n1987 – Cenk Akyol, Turkish basketball player\n1987 – Aaron Lennon, English international footballer\n1988 – Kyle Okposo, American ice hockey player\n1990 – Reggie Jackson, American basketball player\n1990 – Vangelis Mantzaris, Greek basketball player\n1990 – Tony McQuay, American sprinter\n1991 – Nolan Arenado, American baseball player\n1991 – Kim Kyung-jung, South Korean footballer\n1992 – Brian Poe Llamanzares, Filipino journalist and politician\n1993 – Chance the Rapper, American rapper\n1993 – Mirai Nagasu, Japanese-American figure skater\n1996 – Anya Taylor-Joy, Argentine-British actress\n1996 – Taylor Townsend, American tennis player\n2002 – Sadie Sink, American actress\nDeaths\nPre-1600\nAD 69 – Otho, Roman emperor (born AD 32)\n665 – Fructuosus of Braga, French archbishop and saint\n1090 – Sikelgaita, duchess of Apulia (born c. 1040)\n1113 – Sviatopolk II of Kiev (born 1050)\n1118 – Adelaide del Vasto, regent of Sicily, mother of Roger II of Sicily, queen of Baldwin I of Jerusalem\n1198 – Frederick I, Duke of Austria (born 1175)\n1234 – Richard Marshal, 3rd Earl of Pembroke (born 1191)\n1375 – John Hastings, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, English nobleman and soldier (born 1347)\n1496 – Charles II, Duke of Savoy (born 1489)\n1587 – Anne Seymour, Duchess of Somerset (born 1497)\n1601–1900\n1640 – Countess Charlotte Flandrina of Nassau (born 1579)\n1645 – Tobias Hume, Scottish soldier, viol player, and composer (born 1569)\n1687 – George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, English poet and politician, Lord Lieutenant of the West Riding of Yorkshire (born 1628)\n1689 – Aphra Behn, English author and playwright (born 1640)\n1742 – Stefano Benedetto Pallavicino, Italian poet and translator (born 1672)\n1756 – Jacques Cassini, French astronomer (born 1677)\n1783 – Christian Mayer, Czech astronomer and educator (born 1719)\n1788 – Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, French mathematician, cosmologist, and author (born 1707)\n1828 – Francisco Goya, Spanish-French painter and illustrator (born 1746)\n1846 – Domenico Dragonetti, Italian bassist and composer (born 1763)\n1850 – Marie Tussaud, French-English sculptor, founded the Madame Tussauds Wax Museum (born 1761)\n1859 – Alexis de Tocqueville, French historian and philosopher, French Minister of Foreign Affairs (born 1805)\n1879 – Bernadette Soubirous, French nun and saint (born 1844)\n1888 – Zygmunt Florenty Wróblewski, Polish physicist and chemist (born 1845)\n1899 – Emilio Jacinto, Filipino journalist and activist (born 1875)\n1901–present\n1904 – Maximilian Kronberger, German poet and author (born 1888)\n1904 – Samuel Smiles, Scottish-English author (born 1812)\n1914 – George William Hill, American astronomer and mathematician (born 1838)\n1915 – Nelson W. Aldrich, American businessman and politician (born 1841)\n1916 – George Wilbur Peck, American politician, 17th Governor of Wisconsin (born 1840)\n1925 – Stefan Nerezov, Bulgarian general (born 1867)\n1930 – José Carlos Mariátegui, Peruvian journalist, philosopher, and activist (born 1894)\n1935 – Panait Istrati, Romanian journalist and author (born 1884)\n1937 – Jay Johnson Morrow, American military engineer and politician, third Governor of the Panama Canal Zone (born 1870)\n1938 – Steve Bloomer, English footballer and manager (born 1874)\n1941 – Josiah Stamp, 1st Baron Stamp, English economist and civil servant (born 1880)\n1942 – Princess Alexandra of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (born 1878)\n1942 – Denis St. George Daly, Irish polo player (born 1862)\n1946 – Arthur Chevrolet, Swiss-American racing driver and engineer (born 1884)\n1947 – Rudolf Höss, German SS officer, commandant of Auschwitz, convicted war criminal (born 1900)\n1950 – Eduard Oja, Estonian composer, conductor, and critic (born 1905)\n1950 – Anders Peter Nielsen, Danish target shooter (born 1867)\n1955 – David Kirkwood, Scottish engineer and politician (born 1872)\n1957 – Pieter van der Hoog, Dutch bacteriologist, dermatologist, and Islamicist (born 1888)\n1958 – Rosalind Franklin, English biophysicist and academic (born 1920)\n1960 – Mihály Fekete, Hungarian actor, screenwriter and film director (born 1884)\n1961 – Carl Hovland, American psychologist and academic (born 1912)\n1965 – Sydney Chaplin, English actor, comedian, brother of Charlie Chaplin (born 1885)\n1966 – Eric Lambert, Australian author (born 1918)\n1968 – Fay Bainter, American actress (born 1893)\n1968 – Edna Ferber, American novelist, short story writer, and playwright (born 1885)\n1969 – Hem Vejakorn, Thai illustrator and painter (born 1904)\n1970 – Richard Neutra, Austrian-American architect, designed the Los Angeles County Hall of Records (born 1892)\n1970 – Péter Veres, Hungarian politician, Hungarian Minister of Defence (born 1897)\n1972 – Yasunari Kawabata, Japanese novelist and short story writer, Nobel Prize laureate (born 1899)\n1972 – Frank O'Connor, Australian public servant (born 1894)\n1973 – István Kertész, Hungarian conductor and educator (born 1929)\n1978 – Lucius D. Clay, American officer and military governor in occupied Germany (born 1898)\n1980 – Morris Stoloff, American composer (born 1898)\n1985 – Scott Brady, American actor (born 1924)\n1988 – Khalil al-Wazir, Palestinian commander, founded Fatah (born 1935)\n1988 – Youri Egorov, Russian pianist (born 1954)\n1989 – Jocko Conlan, American baseball player and umpire (born 1899)\n1989 – Kaoru Ishikawa Japanese author and educator (born 1915)\n1989 – Miles Lawrence, English cricketer (born 1940)\n1989 – Hakkı Yeten, Turkish footballer, manager and president (born 1910)\n1991 – David Lean, English director, producer, and screenwriter (born 1908)\n1992 – Neville Brand, American actor (born 1920)\n1992 – Alexandru Nicolschi, Romanian spy and activist (born 1915)\n1992 – Andy Russell, American singer and actor (born 1919)\n1994 – Paul-Émilien Dalpé, Canadian labor unionist (born 1919)\n1994 – Ralph Ellison, American novelist and critic (born 1913)\n1996 – Lucille Bremer, American actress and dancer (born 1917)\n1997 – Esmeralda Arboleda Cadavid, Colombian politician (born 1921)\n1997 – Roland Topor, French actor, director, and painter (born 1938)\n1998 – Alberto Calderón, Argentinian-American mathematician and academic (born 1920)\n1998 – Fred Davis, English snooker player (born 1913)\n1998 – Marie-Louise Meilleur, Canadian super-centenarian (born 1880)\n1999 – Skip Spence, Canadian-American singer-songwriter and guitarist (born 1946)\n2001 – Robert Osterloh, American actor (born 1918)\n2002 – Billy Ayre, English footballer and manager (born 1952)\n2002 – Ruth Fertel, American businesswoman, founded Ruth's Chris Steak House (born 1927)\n2002 – Robert Urich, American actor (born 1946)\n2005 – Kay Walsh, English actress, singer, and dancer (born 1911)\n2007 – Frank Bateson, New Zealand astronomer (born 1909)\n2007 – Gaétan Duchesne, Canadian ice hockey player (born 1962)\n2007 – Maria Lenk, Brazilian swimmer (born 1915)\n2007 – Chandrabose Suthaharan, Sri Lankan journalist\n2008 – Edward Norton Lorenz, American mathematician and meteorologist (born 1917)\n2009 – Michael Martin Dwyer, Irish security guard (born 1984)\n2009 – Eduardo Rózsa-Flores, Bolivian-Hungarian-Croatian mercenary, journalist, and actor (born 1960)\n2010 – Rasim Delić, Bosnian general and convicted war criminal (born 1949)\n2011 – Gerry Alexander, Jamaican cricketer and veterinarian (born 1928)\n2011 – Allan Blakeney, Canadian scholar and politician, tenth Premier of Saskatchewan (born 1925)\n2011 – Sol Saks, American screenwriter and producer (born 1910)\n2012 – Sári Barabás, Hungarian soprano (born 1914)\n2012 – George Kunda, Zambian lawyer and politician, 11th Vice-President of Zambia (born 1956)\n2012 – Mærsk Mc-Kinney Møller, Danish businessman (born 1913)\n2012 – Carlo Petrini, Italian footballer and coach (born 1948)\n2013 – Ali Kafi, Algerian politician (born 1928)\n2013 – Siegfried Ludwig, Austrian politician, 18th Governor of Lower Austria (born 1926)\n2013 – Pentti Lund, Finnish-Canadian ice hockey player (born 1925)\n2013 – George Beverly Shea, Canadian-American singer-songwriter (born 1909)\n2013 – Pat Summerall, American football player and sportscaster (born 1930)\n2013 – Pedro Ramírez Vázquez, Mexican architect, designed the Tijuana Cultural Center and National Museum of Anthropology (born 1919)\n2014 – Gyude Bryant, Liberian businessman and politician (born 1949)\n2014 – Aulis Rytkönen, Finnish footballer and manager (born 1929)\n2014 – Ernst Florian Winter, Austrian-American historian and political scientist (born 1923)\n2015 – Valery Belousov, Russian ice hockey player and coach (born 1948)\n2015 – Stanislav Gross, Czech lawyer and politician, fifth Prime Minister of the Czech Republic (born 1969)\n2018 – Harry Anderson, American actor and magician (born 1952)\n2021 – Andrew Peacock, Australian politician (born 1939)\n2021 – Helen McCrory, British actress (born 1968)\n2021 – Liam Scarlett, British choreographer (born 1986)\n2021 – John Dawes, Welsh rugby union player (born 1940)\n2024 – Carl Erskine, American baseball player (born 1926)\n2024 – Bob Graham, American lawyer, author, and politician, 38th governor of Florida (born 1936)\n2025 – Nora Aunor, Filipino actress and recording artist (born 1953)\n2026 – Justin Fairfax, American lawyer and politician, 41st Lieutenant Governor of Virginia (born 1979)\n2026 – Alex Manninger, Austrian footballer (born 1977)\nHolidays and observances\nChristian feast day:\nBenedict Joseph Labre\nBernadette Soubirous\nDrogo\nEngratia\nFructuosus of Braga\nIsabella Gilmore (Church of England)\nMartyrs of Zaragoza\nMolly Brant (Konwatsijayenni) (Anglican Church of Canada, Episcopal Church)\nTuribius of Astorga\nApril 16 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\nBirthday of José de Diego (Puerto Rico, United States)\nBirthday of Queen Margrethe II (Denmark)\nFlag Day (Jordan)\nEmancipation Day (Washington, D.C., United States)\nMemorial Day for the Victims of the Holocaust (Hungary)\nNational Healthcare Decisions Day (United States)\nRemembrance of Chemical Attack on Balisan and Sheikh Wasan (Iraqi Kurdistan)\nWorld Voice Day\nReferencesExternal links\nBBC: On This Day\nHistorical Events on April 16","text_chars":28587,"text_sha256":"ff1384253f6d5b1565500f21978b1a3ad39e1c873a3179b861d174ddb20906dd","text_utf8_bytes":29417,"title":"April 16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_16","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"e6dea95855b49d5f45d6a3785b4445eb9d8223372d961ec75eae8b670fbedfa6"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1491&action=history","id":"1491","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":60800,"raw_text_sha256":"71b00b4a5d24bf904280e04472c05cc57388f64d93f3ff7df694860d43ccd3bb","raw_text_utf8_bytes":60955,"revision_id":"1370717318","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-22T18:16:39Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1370717318","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Events\nPre-1600\n1099 – First Crusade: Battle of Ascalon: Crusaders under the command of Godfrey of Bouillon defeat Fatimid forces led by Al-Afdal Shahanshah. This is considered the last engagement of the First Crusade.\n1121 – Battle of Didgori: The Georgian army under King David IV wins a decisive victory over the famous Seljuk commander Ilghazi.\n1164 – Battle of Harim: Nur ad-Din Zangi defeats the Crusader armies of the County of Tripoli and the Principality of Antioch.\n1204 – The Republic of Venice acquires the right to Crete from Boniface I of Montferrat.\n1323 – The Treaty of Nöteborg between Sweden and Novgorod Republic is signed, regulating the border between the two countries for the first time.\n1376 – Andronikos IV Palaiologos enters Constantinople by force and captures his father, emperor John V Palaiologos, and his younger brothers during the Byzantine civil war of 1373–1379.\n1492 – Christopher Columbus arrives in the Canary Islands on his first voyage to the New World.\n1499 – First engagement of the Battle of Zonchio between Venetian and Ottoman fleets.\n1601–1900\n1624 – Charles de La Vieuville is arrested and replaced by Cardinal Richelieu as the French king's chief advisor.\n1676 – Praying Indian John Alderman shoots and kills Metacomet, the Wampanoag war chief, ending King Philip's War.\n1687 – Battle of Mohács: Charles of Lorraine defeats the Ottoman Empire.\n1765 – Treaty of Allahabad is signed. The Treaty marks the political and constitutional involvement and the beginning of Company rule in India.\n1788 – The Anjala conspiracy is signed.\n1793 – The Rhône and Loire départments are created when the former département of Rhône-et-Loire is split into two.\n1806 – Santiago de Liniers, 1st Count of Buenos Aires re-takes the city of Buenos Aires, Argentina after the first British invasion.\n1831 – French intervention forces William I of the Netherlands to abandon his attempt to suppress the Belgian Revolution.\n1851 – Isaac Singer is granted a patent for his sewing machine.\n1865 – Joseph Lister, British surgeon and scientist, performs the first antiseptic surgery.\n1883 – The last quagga dies at the Natura Artis Magistra, a zoo in Amsterdam, Netherlands.\n1898 – The Hawaiian flag is lowered from Iolani Palace in an elaborate annexation ceremony and replaced with the flag of the United States to signify the transfer of sovereignty from the Republic of Hawaii to the United States where it is formally recognized as Hawaii.\n1901–present\n1914 – World War I: France, the United Kingdom and the British Empire declare war on Austria-Hungary.\n1914 – World War I: The Battle of Halen a.k.a. Battle of the Silver Helmets, a clash between large Belgian and German cavalry formations at Halen, Belgium.\n1944 – World War II: Waffen-SS troops massacre 560 people in Sant'Anna di Stazzema.\n1944 – World War II: Nazi German troops end the week-long Wola massacre, during which at least 40,000 people are killed indiscriminately or in mass executions.\n1944 – World War II: Alençon is liberated by General Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque, becoming the first city in France to be liberated from the Nazis by French forces.\n1948 – Between 15 and 150 unarmed members of the Khudai Khidmatgar movement are killed by Pakistani police.\n1950 – Korean War: Bloody Gulch massacre: Seventy-five American POWs are massacred by the North Korean Army.\n1952 – The Night of the Murdered Poets: Thirteen prominent Jewish intellectuals are murdered in Moscow, Russia, Soviet Union.\n1953 – Thermonuclear bomb testing: The Soviet atomic bomb project continues with the detonation of \"RDS-6s\" (Joe 4) using a \"layered\" scheme.\n1953 – The 7.2 Ionian earthquake shakes the southern Ionian Islands with a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme). Between 445 and 800 people are killed.\n1960 – Echo 1A, NASA's first successful communications satellite, is launched.\n1964 – South Africa is banned from the Olympic Games due to the country's racist policies.\n1969 – Violence erupts after the Apprentice Boys of Derry march in Derry, Northern Ireland, resulting in a three-day communal riot known as the Battle of the Bogside.\n1976 – Between 1,000 and 3,500 Palestinians are killed in the Tel al-Zaatar massacre, one of the bloodiest events of the Lebanese Civil War.\n1977 – The first free flight of the .\n1977 – The Sri Lanka Riots, targeting the minority Sri Lankan Tamils, begin, less than a month after the United National Party came to power. Over 300 Tamils are killed.\n1981 – The IBM Personal Computer is released.\n1984 – An infamous brawl takes place at the Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium between the Atlanta Braves and San Diego Padres.\n1985 – Japan Air Lines Flight 123, a Boeing 747, crashes into Osutaka ridge in Gunma Prefecture, Japan, killing 520, becoming the worst single-plane air disaster.\n1990 – Sue, the largest and most complete Tyrannosaurus rex skeleton found to date, is discovered by Sue Hendrickson in South Dakota.\n1992 – Canada, Mexico and the United States announce completion of negotiations for the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).\n1994 – Major League Baseball players go on strike, eventually forcing the cancellation of the 1994 World Series.\n2000 – The Russian Navy submarine explodes and sinks in the Barents Sea during a military exercise, killing her entire 118-man crew.\n2015 – At least two massive explosions kill 173 people and injure nearly 800 more in Tianjin, China.\n2016 – Syrian civil war: The Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) capture the city of Manbij from the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL).\n2017 – The Unite the Right rally occurs in Charlottesville, Virginia, leading to three deaths and injuring nearly 50 more.\n2018 – Thirty-nine civilians, including a dozen children, are killed in an explosion at a weapons depot in Sarmada, Syria.\n2021 – Six people, five victims and the perpetrator are killed in Keyham, Plymouth in the worst mass shooting in the UK since 2010.\nBirths\nPre-1600\n1452 – Abraham Zacuto, Jewish astronomer, astrologer, mathematician, rabbi and historian (died 1515)\n1503 – Christian III of Denmark (died 1559)\n1506 – Franciscus Sonnius, Dutch counter-Reformation theologian (died 1576)\n1591 – Louise de Marillac, co-founder of the Daughters of Charity (died 1660)\n1599 – Sir William Curtius FRS, German magistrate, English baronet (died 1678)\n1601–1900\n1604 – Tokugawa Iemitsu, Japanese shōgun (died 1651)\n1626 – Giovanni Legrenzi, Italian composer (died 1690)\n1629 – Archduchess Isabella Clara of Austria, Austrian archduchess (died 1685)\n1644 – Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber, Bohemian-Austrian violinist and composer (died 1704)\n1686 – John Balguy, English philosopher and author (died 1748)\n1696 – Maurice Greene, English organist and composer (died 1755)\n1762 – George IV of the United Kingdom (died 1830)\n1773 – Karl Faber, Prussian historian and academic (died 1853)\n1774 – Robert Southey, English poet and author (died 1843)\n1801 – John Cadbury, British Quaker and businessman who founded the Cadbury chocolate company (died 1889)\n1831 – Helena Blavatsky, Russian theosophist and scholar (died 1891)\n1833 – William P. Sanders, American army officer (died 1863)\n1852 – Michael J. McGivney, American priest and founder of the Knights of Columbus (died 1890)\n1856 – Diamond Jim Brady, American businessman and philanthropist (died 1917)\n1857 – Ernestine von Kirchsberg, Austrian painter and educator (died 1924)\n1859 – Katharine Lee Bates, American poet and author (died 1929)\n1860 – Klara Hitler, Austrian mother of Adolf Hitler (died 1907)\n1866 – Jacinto Benavente, Spanish playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (died 1954)\n1866 – Henrik Sillem, Dutch target shooter, mountaineer, and jurist (died 1907)\n1867 – Edith Hamilton, German-American author and educator (died 1963)\n1870 – Henry Reuterdahl, Swedish-American artist (died 1925)\n1871 – Gustavs Zemgals, Latvian politician, 2nd President of Latvia (died 1939)\n1876 – Mary Roberts Rinehart, American author and playwright (died 1958)\n1877 – Albert Bartha, Hungarian general and politician, Hungarian Minister of Defence (died 1960)\n1880 – Radclyffe Hall, English poet, author, and activist (died 1943)\n1880 – Christy Mathewson, American baseball player and manager (died 1925)\n1881 – Cecil B. DeMille, American director and producer (died 1959)\n1883 – Martha Hedman, Swedish-American actress and playwright (died 1974)\n1883 – Marion Lorne, American actress (died 1968)\n1885 – Jean Cabannes, French physicist and academic (died 1959)\n1885 – Keith Murdoch, Australian journalist (died 1952)\n1885 – Juhan Simm, Estonian composer and conductor (died 1959)\n1887 – Erwin Schrödinger, Austrian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (died 1961)\n1889 – Zerna Sharp, American author and educator (died 1981)\n1891 – C. E. M. Joad, English philosopher and academic (died 1953)\n1891 – John McDermott, American golfer (died 1971)\n1892 – Alfred Lunt, American actor and director (died 1977)\n1897 – Maurice Fernandes, Guyanese cricketer (died 1981)\n1897 – Otto Struve, Russian-American astronomer (discoveries in stellar spectroscopy at Yerkes observatory) (died 1963)\n1899 – Ben Sealey, Trinidadian cricketer (died 1963)\n1901–present\n1902 – Mohammad Hatta, Indonesian statesman, 1st Vice President of Indonesia (died 1980)\n1904 – Idel Jakobson, Latvian-Estonian NKVD officer (died 1997)\n1904 – Tamás Lossonczy, Hungarian painter (died 2009)\n1904 – Alexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of Russia (died 1918)\n1906 – Harry Hopman, Australian tennis player and coach (died 1985)\n1906 – Tedd Pierce, American animator, producer, and screenwriter (died 1972)\n1907 – Gladys Bentley, American blues singer (died 1960)\n1907 – Joe Besser, American actor (died 1988)\n1907 – Boy Charlton, Australian swimmer (died 1975)\n1907 – Benjamin Sheares, Singaporean physician and politician, 2nd President of Singapore (died 1981)\n1909 – Bruce Matthews, Canadian general and businessman (died 1991)\n1910 – Yusof bin Ishak, Singaporean journalist and politician, 1st President of Singapore (died 1970)\n1910 – Jane Wyatt, American actress (died 2006)\n1911 – Cantinflas, Mexican actor, screenwriter, and producer (died 1993)\n1912 – Samuel Fuller, American actor, director, and screenwriter (died 1997)\n1913 – Richard L. Bare, American director, producer, and screenwriter (died 2015)\n1914 – Gerd Buchdahl, German-English philosopher and author (died 2001)\n1914 – Ruth Lowe, Canadian pianist and songwriter (died 1981)\n1915 – Michael Kidd, American dancer and choreographer (died 2007)\n1916 – Ioan Dicezare, Romanian general and pilot (died 2012)\n1916 – Edward Pinkowski, American writer, journalist and Polonia historian (died 2020)\n1917 – Oliver Crawford, American screenwriter and author (died 2008)\n1917 – Ebba Haslund, Norwegian writer (died 2009)\n1918 – Sid Bernstein, American record producer (died 2013)\n1918 – Guy Gibson, Anglo-Indian commander and pilot, Victoria Cross recipient (died 1944)\n1919 – Margaret Burbidge, English-American astrophysicist and academic (died 2020)\n1919 – Vikram Sarabhai, Indian physicist and academic (died 1971)\n1920 – Charles Gibson, American ethnohistorian (died 1985)\n1920 – Percy Mayfield, American R&B singer-songwriter (died 1984)\n1922 – Fulton Mackay, Scottish actor and playwright (died 1987)\n1922 – Miloš Jakeš, Czech communist politician (died 2020)\n1923 – John Holt, Jamaican cricketer (died 1997)\n1924 – Derek Shackleton, English cricketer, coach, and umpire (died 2007)\n1924 – Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, Pakistani general and politician, 6th President of Pakistan (died 1988)\n1925 – Dale Bumpers, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 38th Governor of Arkansas (died 2016)\n1925 – Guillermo Cano Isaza, Colombian journalist (died 1986)\n1925 – Donald Justice, American poet and writing teacher (died 2004)\n1925 – Norris McWhirter, Scottish publisher and activist co-founded the Guinness World Records (died 2004)\n1925 – Ross McWhirter, Scottish publisher and activist, co-founded the Guinness World Records (died 1975)\n1925 – George Wetherill, American physicist and academic (died 2006)\n1926 – Douglas Croft, American child actor (died 1963)\n1926 – John Derek, American actor, director, and cinematographer (died 1998)\n1926 – Joe Jones, American R&B singer-songwriter and producer (died 2005)\n1927 – Porter Wagoner, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (died 2007)\n1928 – Charles Blackman, Australian painter and illustrator (died 2018)\n1928 – Bob Buhl, American baseball player (died 2001)\n1928 – Dan Curtis, American director and producer (died 2006)\n1929 – Buck Owens, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (died 2006)\n1930 – Harry Babcock, American football player and first overall draft pick (died 1996)\n1930 – George Soros, Hungarian-American businessman and investor, founded the Soros Fund Management\n1930 – Kanagaratnam Sriskandan, Sri Lankan engineer and civil servant (died 2010)\n1930 – Jacques Tits, Belgian-French mathematician and academic (died 2021)\n1931 – William Goldman, American author, playwright, and screenwriter (died 2018)\n1932 – Dallin H. Oaks, American lawyer, jurist, and religious leader\n1932 – Charlie O'Donnell, American radio and television announcer (died 2010)\n1932 – Sirikit, Queen mother of Thailand (died 2025)\n1933 – Parnelli Jones, American race car driver and businessman (died 2024)\n1933 – Frederic Lindsay, Scottish author and educator (died 2013)\n1934 – Robin Nicholson, English metallurgist and academic (died 2024)\n1935 – John Cazale, American actor (died 1978)\n1936 – Kjell Grede, Swedish director and screenwriter (died 2017)\n1936 – John Poindexter, American naval officer, and National Security Advisor under Ronald Reagan\n1937 – Walter Dean Myers, American author and poet (died 2014)\n1938 – Jean-Paul L'Allier, Canadian journalist and politician, 38th Mayor of Quebec City (died 2016)\n1939 – George Hamilton, American actor\n1939 – David Jacobs, American television writer and producer (died 2023)\n1939 – S. Jayakumar, Singaporean politician, 4th Senior Minister of Singapore\n1939 – Pam Kilborn, Australian track and field athlete\n1939 – David King, South African chemist and academic\n1939 – Sushil Koirala, Nepalese politician, 37th Prime Minister of Nepal (died 2016)\n1939 – Roy Romanow, Canadian lawyer and politician, 12th Premier of Saskatchewan\n1940 – Eddie Barlow, South African cricketer and coach (died 2005)\n1940 – John Waller, English historical European martial arts (HEMA) revival pioneer and fight director (died 2018)\n1941 – Réjean Ducharme, Canadian author and playwright (died 2017)\n1941 – Edwin Feulner, American political scientist (died 2025)\n1941 – Dana Ivey, American actress\n1942 – Hans-Wilhelm Müller-Wohlfahrt, German physician and author\n1943 – Javeed Alam, Indian academician (died 2016)\n1945 – Dorothy E. Denning, American computer scientist and academic\n1945 – Ron Mael, American keyboard player and songwriter\n1947 – John Nathan-Turner, English author and television director, producer, and writer (died 2002)\n1948 – Siddaramaiah, Indian lawyer and politician, 22nd Chief Minister of Karnataka\n1948 – Graham J. Zellick, English academic and jurist\n1949 – Panagiotis Chinofotis, Greek admiral and politician\n1949 – Mark Knopfler, Scottish-English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer\n1949 – Lou Martin, Northern Irish pianist, songwriter, and producer (died 2012)\n1949 – Alex Naumik, Lithuanian-Norwegian singer-songwriter and producer (died 2013)\n1949 – Rick Ridgeway, American mountaineer and photographer\n1950 – Jim Beaver, American actor, director, and screenwriter\n1950 – August \"Kid Creole\" Darnell, American musician, bandleader, singer-songwriter, and record producer\n1950 – Jamie Dunn, Australian actor, radio and television host (died 2026)\n1950 – George McGinnis, American basketball player (died 2023)\n1951 – Klaus Toppmöller, German football manager and former player\n1952 – Daniel Biles, American associate justice of the Kansas Supreme Court\n1952 – Sitaram Yechury, Indian politician and leader of CPI(M) (died 2024)\n1953 – Peter Ostroushko, American fiddler, mandolin player, and composer (A Prairie Home Companion) (died 2021)\n1954 – Rob Borbidge, Australian politician, 35th Premier of Queensland\n1954 – Leung Chun-ying, Hong Kong businessman and politician, 3rd Chief Executive of Hong Kong\n1954 – Ibolya Dávid, Hungarian lawyer and politician, Minister of Justice of Hungary\n1954 – François Hollande, French lawyer and politician, 24th President of France\n1954 – Sam J. Jones, American actor\n1954 – Pat Metheny, American jazz guitarist and composer\n1956 – Bruce Greenwood, Canadian actor and producer\n1956 – Sidath Wettimuny, Sri Lankan cricketer\n1957 – Friedhelm Schütte, German footballer\n1958 – Jürgen Dehmel, German bass player and songwriter\n1960 – Laurent Fignon, French cyclist and sportscaster (died 2010)\n1961 – Mark Priest, New Zealand cricketer\n1963 – Kōji Kitao, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 60th Yokozuna (died 2019)\n1963 – Campbell Newman, Australian politician, 38th Premier of Queensland\n1964 – Txiki Begiristain, Spanish footballer\n1964 – Michael Hagan, Australian rugby league player and coach\n1965 – Peter Krause, American actor\n1966 – Tobias Ellwood, American-English captain and politician\n1967 – Andy Hui, Hong Kong singer-songwriter and actor\n1967 – Andrey Plotnikov, Russian race walker\n1967 – Regilio Tuur, Dutch boxer\n1968 – Thorsten Boer, German footballer and manager\n1969 – Tanita Tikaram, British pop/folk singer-songwriter\n1970 – Aleksandar Đurić, Bosnian footballer\n1971 – Michael Ian Black, American comedian, actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n1971 – Yvette Nicole Brown, American actress, comedian, and talk show host\n1971 – Rebecca Gayheart, American actress\n1971 – Pete Sampras, American tennis player\n1972 – Demir Demirkan, Turkish singer-songwriter and producer\n1972 – Mark Kinsella, Irish footballer and manager\n1972 – Takanohana Kōji, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 65th Yokozuna\n1972 – Gyanendra Pandey, Indian cricketer\n1972 – Del the Funky Homosapien, American rapper\n1973 – Jonathan Coachman, American sportscaster and wrestler\n1973 – Grey DeLisle, American country singer-songwriter, autoharp player, voice actress and comedienne\n1973 – Mark Iuliano, Italian footballer and manager\n1975 – Casey Affleck, American actor\n1976 – Pedro Collins, Barbadian cricketer\n1976 – Mikko Lindström, Finnish guitarist\n1976 – Henry Tuilagi, Samoan rugby player\n1976 – Antoine Walker, American basketball player\n1977 – Plaxico Burress, American football player\n1977 – Jesper Grønkjær, Danish footballer\n1977 – Park Yong-ha, South Korean actor (died 2010)\n1978 – Chris Chambers, American football player\n1978 – Hayley Wickenheiser, Canadian ice hockey player\n1979 – Cindy Klassen, Canadian speed skater\n1979 – Austra Skujytė, Lithuanian pentathlete\n1980 – Javier Chevantón, Uruguayan footballer\n1980 – Maggie Lawson, American actress\n1980 – Dominique Swain, American actress\n1980 – Matt Thiessen, Canadian-American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n1981 – Tony Capaldi, Norwegian–Northern Irish footballer\n1981 – Djibril Cissé, French footballer\n1982 – Boban Grnčarov, Macedonian footballer\n1982 – Alexandros Tzorvas, Greek footballer\n1983 – Klaas-Jan Huntelaar, Dutch footballer\n1983 – Kléber Giacomance de Souza Freitas, Brazilian footballer\n1983 – Manoa Vosawai, Italian rugby player\n1985 – Danny Graham, English footballer\n1986 – Andrei Agius, Maltese footballer\n1986 – Kyle Arrington, American football player\n1987 – Vanessa Watts, West Indian cricketer\n1988 – Tyson Fury, English boxer\n1988 – Matt Gillett, Australian rugby league player\n1989 – Tom Cleverley, English footballer\n1989 – Hong Jeong-ho, South Korean footballer\n1989 – Sunye, South Korean singer\n1990 – Mario Balotelli, Italian footballer\n1991 – Jesinta Campbell, Australian model\n1991 – Sam Hoare, Australian rugby league player\n1991 – Khris Middleton, American basketball player\n1991 – LaKeith Stanfield, American actor and musician\n1992 – Cara Delevingne, English model and actress\n1992 – Jacob Loko, Australian rugby player\n1992 – Teo Gheorghiu, Swiss pianist and actor\n1993 – Ewa Farna, Czech singer-songwriter\n1993 – Luna, South Korean singer, actress and presenter\n1994 – Ian Happ, American baseball player\n1996 – Choi Yu-jin, South Korean singer and actress\n1996 – Arthur Melo, Brazilian footballer\n1996 – Samuel Moutoussamy, Congolese footballer\n1998 – Stefanos Tsitsipas, Greek tennis player\n1999 – Matthijs de Ligt, Dutch footballer\n1999 – Dream, American YouTuber\n1999 – Jule Niemeier, German tennis player\n1999 – GK Barry, social media star and presenter\n2000 – Tristan Charpentier, French racing driver\n2001 – Dixie D'Amelio, American social media personality and singer\nDeaths\nPre-1600\n30 BC – Cleopatra, Egyptian queen (born 69 BC)\n792 – Jænberht, archbishop of Canterbury\n875 – Louis II, Holy Roman Emperor (born 825)\n960 – Li Gu, chancellor of Later Zhou (born 903)\n961 – Yuan Zong, emperor of Southern Tang (born 916)\n1222 – Vladislaus III, duke of Bohemia\n1295 – Charles Martel, king of Hungary (born 1271)\n1319 – Rudolf I, duke of Bavaria (born 1274)\n1315 – Guy de Beauchamp, 10th Earl of Warwick, English nobleman\n1335 – Prince Moriyoshi, Japanese shōgun (born 1308)\n1399 – Demetrius I Starshy, Prince of Trubczewsk (in battle) (born 1327)\n1424 – Yongle, emperor of the Ming Empire (born 1360)\n1484 – Sixtus IV, pope of the Catholic Church (born 1414)\n1546 – Francisco de Vitoria, Spanish theologian (born 1492)\n1577 – Thomas Smith, English scholar and diplomat (born 1513)\n1588 – Alfonso Ferrabosco the elder, Italian-English composer (born 1543)\n1601–1900\n1602 – Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak, Mughal vizier and historian (born 1551)\n1612 – Giovanni Gabrieli, Italian organist and composer (born 1557)\n1638 – Johannes Althusius, German jurist and philosopher (born 1557)\n1674 – Philippe de Champaigne, Belgian-French painter and educator (born 1602)\n1689 – Pope Innocent XI (born 1611)\n1778 – Peregrine Bertie, 3rd Duke of Ancaster and Kesteven, English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Lincolnshire (born 1714)\n1809 – Mikhail Kamensky, Russian field marshal (born 1738)\n1810 – Étienne Louis Geoffroy, French pharmacist and entomologist (born 1725)\n1822 – Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh, Irish-English politician, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs (born 1769)\n1827 – William Blake, English poet and painter (born 1757)\n1829 – Charles Sapinaud de La Rairie, French general (born 1760)\n1848 – George Stephenson, English engineer and academic (born 1781)\n1849 – Albert Gallatin, Swiss-American ethnologist, linguist, and politician, 4th United States Secretary of the Treasury (born 1761)\n1861 – Eliphalet Remington, American inventor and businessman, founded Remington Arms (born 1793)\n1864 – Sakuma Shōzan, Japanese scholar and politician (born 1811)\n1865 – William Jackson Hooker, English botanist and academic (born 1785)\n1891 – James Russell Lowell, American poet and critic (born 1819)\n1896 – Thomas Chamberlain, American colonel (born 1841)\n1900 – Wilhelm Steinitz, Austrian chess player and theoretician (born 1836)\n1901–present\n1901 – Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld, Finnish-Swedish botanist, geologist, mineralogist, and explorer (born 1832)\n1904 – William Renshaw, English tennis player (born 1861)\n1914 – John Philip Holland, Irish engineer, designed (born 1840)\n1918 – William Thompson, American archer (born 1848)\n1921 – Pyotr Boborykin, Russian playwright and journalist (born 1836)\n1922 – Arthur Griffith, Irish journalist and politician, 3rd President of Dáil Éireann (born 1871)\n1924 – Sándor Bródy, Hungarian journalist and author (born 1863)\n1928 – Leoš Janáček, Czech composer and educator (born 1854)\n1934 – Hendrik Petrus Berlage, Dutch architect, designed the Beurs van Berlage (born 1856)\n1935 – Friedrich Schottky, German mathematician and academic (born 1851)\n1940 – Nikolai Triik, Estonian painter, illustrator, and academic (born 1884)\n1941 – Freeman Freeman-Thomas, 1st Marquess of Willingdon, English soldier and politician, 56th Governor General of Canada (born 1866)\n1941 – Bobby Peel, English cricketer and umpire (born 1857)\n1943 – Vittorio Sella, Italian photographer and mountaineer (born 1859)\n1944 – Joseph P. Kennedy Jr., American lieutenant and pilot (born 1915)\n1944 – Jacques Pellegrin, French zoologist (born 1873)\n1952 – David Bergelson, Ukrainian author and playwright (born 1884)\n1955 – Thomas Mann, German author and critic, Nobel Prize laureate (born 1875)\n1955 – James B. Sumner, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (born 1887)\n1959 – Mike O'Neill, Irish-American baseball player and manager (born 1877)\n1964 – Ian Fleming, English spy, journalist, and author (born 1908)\n1966 – Artur Alliksaar, Estonian poet and author (born 1923)\n1967 – Esther Forbes, American historian and author (born 1891)\n1973 – Walter Rudolf Hess, Swiss physiologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (born 1881)\n1973 – Karl Ziegler, German chemist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate (born 1898)\n1976 – Tom Driberg, British politician/journalist (born 1905)\n1978 – John Williams, English motorcycle racer (born 1946)\n1979 – Ernst Boris Chain, German-Irish biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (born 1906)\n1982 – Henry Fonda, American actor (born 1905)\n1982 – Salvador Sánchez, Mexican boxer (born 1959)\n1983 – Theodor Burchardi, German admiral (born 1892)\n1984 – Ladi Kwali, Nigerian potter (born 1925)\n1985 – Kyu Sakamoto, Japanese singer-songwriter (born 1941)\n1985 – Manfred Winkelhock, German race car driver (born 1951)\n1986 – Evaline Ness, American author and illustrator (born 1911)\n1988 – Jean-Michel Basquiat, American painter (born 1960)\n1989 – Aimo Koivunen, Finnish soldier and corporal (born 1917)\n1989 – William Shockley, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (born 1910)\n1990 – Dorothy Mackaill, English-American actress (born 1903)\n1992 – John Cage, American composer and theorist (born 1912)\n1996 – Victor Ambartsumian, Georgian-Armenian astrophysicist and academic (born 1908)\n1996 – Mark Gruenwald, American author and illustrator (born 1953)\n1997 – Jack Delano, American photographer and composer (born 1914)\n1999 – Jean Drapeau, Canadian lawyer and politician, 37th Mayor of Montreal (born 1916)\n2000 – Gennady Lyachin, Russian captain (born 1955)\n2000 – Loretta Young, American actress (born 1913)\n2002 – Enos Slaughter, American baseball player and manager (born 1916)\n2004 – Godfrey Hounsfield, English biophysicist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate (born 1919)\n2005 – John Loder, English sound engineer and producer, founded Southern Studios (born 1946)\n2006 – Victoria Gray Adams, American civil rights activist (born 1926)\n2007 – Merv Griffin, American actor, singer, and producer, created Jeopardy! and Wheel of Fortune (born 1925)\n2007 – Mike Wieringo, American author and illustrator (born 1963)\n2008 – Christie Allen, English-Australian singer (born 1954)\n2008 – Helge Hagerup, Norwegian playwright, poet and novelist (born 1933)\n2009 – Les Paul, American guitarist, songwriter, and inventor (born 1915)\n2010 – Isaac Bonewits, American Druid, author, and activist; founded Ár nDraíocht Féin (born 1949)\n2010 – Guido de Marco, Maltese lawyer and politician, 6th President of Malta (born 1931)\n2010 – Richie Hayward, American drummer and songwriter (born 1946)\n2010 – André Kim, South Korean fashion designer (born 1935)\n2011 – Robert Robinson, English journalist and author (born 1927)\n2012 – Jimmy Carr, American football player and coach (born 1933)\n2012 – Jerry Grant, American race car driver (born 1935)\n2012 – Joe Kubert, Polish-American illustrator, founded The Kubert School (born 1926)\n2012 – Édgar Morales Pérez, Mexican engineer and politician\n2012 – Alf Morris, English politician and activist (born 1928)\n2013 – Tereza de Arriaga, Portuguese painter (born 1915)\n2013 – Hans-Ekkehard Bob, German soldier and pilot (born 1917)\n2013 – Pauline Maier, American historian and academic (born 1938)\n2013 – David McLetchie, Scottish lawyer and politician (born 1952)\n2013 – Vasiliy Mihaylovich Peskov, Russian ecologist and journalist (born 1930)\n2014 – Lauren Bacall, American model, actress, and singer (born 1924)\n2014 – Futatsuryū Jun'ichi, Japanese sumo wrestler (born 1950)\n2014 – Kongō Masahiro, Japanese sumo wrestler (born 1948)\n2015 – Jaakko Hintikka, Finnish philosopher and academic (born 1929)\n2015 – Stephen Lewis, English actor and screenwriter (born 1926)\n2015 – Meshulim Feish Lowy, Hungarian-Canadian rabbi and author (born 1921)\n2015 – John Scott, English organist and conductor (born 1956)\n2016 – Juan Pedro de Miguel, Spanish handball player (born 1958)\n2017 – Bryan Murray, Canadian ice hockey coach (born 1942)\n2019 – DJ Arafat, Ivorian DJ and singer (born 1986)\n2020 – Bill Yeoman, American college football player and coach (born 1927)\n2021 – Una Stubbs, English actress, TV personality, and dancer (born 1937)\n2024 – Kim Kahana, American actor and stunt performer (born 1929)\nHolidays and observances\nChristian feast day:\nEuplius\nEusebius of Milan\nHerculanus of Brescia\nPope Innocent XI\nJænberht\nJane Frances de Chantal\nBlessed Karl Leisner\nMuiredach (or Murtagh)\nPorcarius II\nBlessed Victoria Díez Bustos de Molina\nAugust 12 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\nGlorious Twelfth (United Kingdom)\nHM the Queen Mother's Birthday and National Mother's Day (Thailand)\nInternational Youth Day (United Nations)\nRussian Air Force Day (Russia)\nSea Org Day (Scientology)\nWorld Elephant Day (International)\nReferencesExternal links","text_chars":29438,"text_sha256":"5da2c42836e39233350d64158ccdbb72b12a093c580eaef585854614cddd20e4","text_utf8_bytes":30300,"title":"August 12","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_12","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"d93ce6ae5b52726139af92f5bc6d9b6099e50ad22928fd1e33108465ac4f7e49"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2529&action=history","id":"2529","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":36554,"raw_text_sha256":"61bd3cbbde7401eeef263472a7f91ee6fbfa8cb13381cae60139ae7c2e999293","raw_text_utf8_bytes":37017,"revision_id":"1372123161","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-30T12:49:54Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1372123161","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Alexandra is a female given name of Greek origin. It is the first attested form of its variants, including Alexander (, ). Etymologically, the name is a compound of the Greek verb (; meaning 'to defend') and (; GEN , ; meaning 'man'). Thus it may be roughly translated as \"defender of man\" or \"protector of man\". The name Alexandra was one of the epithets given to the Greek goddess Hera and as such is usually taken to mean \"one who comes to save warriors\". The earliest attested form of the name is the Mycenaean Greek ( or //), written in the Linear B syllabic script. Alexandra and its masculine equivalent, Alexander, are both common names in Greece as well as countries where Germanic, Romance, and Slavic languages are spoken.\nVariants\nAlastríona (Scottish Gaelic)\nAlejandra, Alejandrina (Spanish)\nAlessandra (Italian, Latvian)\nAlexandrea (English)\nAlexandrina (Portuguese, Roman)\nAlexandrine, Alexandrie (French)\nAliaksandra (Belarusian)\nAlissandra, Alyssandra (Sicilian)\nАлександра (Aleksandra), Александрина (Aleksandrina) (Albanian, Bulgarian, Estonian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Macedonian, Polish, Russian, Serbo-Croatian)\nОлександра (Oleksandra) (Ukrainian)\nاليخاندرا (Alikhandra) (Egyptian Arabic)\nআলেকজান্দ্রা (Ālēkjāndrā) (Bengali)\nΑλεξάνδρα (Greek)\nDiminutives\nAleka (Greek)\nAlessa (Latvian)\nAlessia (Italian)\nAlesya, Alya, Asya, Sanya, Sasha, Sashenka, Shura (Slavic)\nAleks, Alex (various)\nAlexa (various)\nAlexis (various)\nAlexina\nAlja (Slovene)\nAlyx\nAndra (Romanian)\nDrina\nAllie, Ally (various)\nLexa\nLexie, Lexi, Lexy\nLexine\nLeska (Czech)\nLesya, Olesya (Ukrainian)\nOla (Polish)\nSacha (French)\nSanda (Serbo-Croatian, Romanian)\nSandra (various)\nSandy, Sandie (various)\nSanja, Sanjica (Serbo-Croatian, Slovene)\nSascha (German)\nSaskia, Xandra (Dutch)\nSashka, Saška (Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovene)\nSaša (Czech, Serbo-Croatian, Slovak, Slovene)\nSassa (Swedish)\nSaundra (Lowland Scottish)\nSondra, Zandra (English)\nSzandra (Hungarian)\nPeople with the name\nRoyalty\nAlexandra of Russia (disambiguation), various royal consorts and grand duchesses\nEmpress Alexandra (disambiguation)\nPrincess Alexandra (disambiguation)\nQueen Alexandra (disambiguation)\nAlexandra of Denmark (1844–1925), queen consort of the United Kingdom by marriage to Edward VII, King of the United Kingdom\nAlexandra the Maccabee (63 BCE–28 BCE), only child of Hyrcanus II, King of Judaea\nDuchess Alexandra of Oldenburg (1838–1900), eldest child of Duke Peter of Oldenburg\nAlexandra\nAlexandra of Antioch , Greek noblewoman and the sister of Calliopius of Antioch\nAlexandra of Lithuania (died 1434), duchess consort of Masovia\nAlexandra of Rome , Christian saint and martyr of the Diocletianic persecutions\nAlexandra Aikhenvald (born 1957), Russian–Australian linguist\nAlexandra Aldridge (born 1994), American ice dancer\nAlexandra Allred (born 1965), American author and fitness instructor\nAlexandra Anghel (born 1997), Romanian freestyle wrestler\nAlexandra Ansanelli, American ballet dancer\nAlexandra Anstrell (born 1974), Swedish politician\nAlexandra Araújo (born 1972), Brazilian–born Italian water polo player\nAlexandra Arce (born 1977), Ecuadorian engineer and politician\nAlexandra Aristoteli (born 1997), Australian rhythmic gymnast\nAlexandra Asimaki (born 1988), Greek water polo player\nAlexandra Bachzetsis (born 1974), Greek–Swiss choreographer and visual artist\nAlexandra Backford (1942–2010), Aleut–American painter\nAlexandra Badea (born 1998), Romanian handballer\nAlexandra Balashova (1942–1969), Russian ballet dancer and choreographer\nAlexandra Barré (born 1958), Hungarian–born Canadian sprint kayaker\nAlexandra Barreto (born 1975), American actress\nAlexandra Bastedo (1946–2014), English actress\nAlexandra Beaton (born ), Canadian actress\nAlexandra Bellow (1935–2025), Romanian–American mathematician\nAlexandra Benado (born 1976), Chilean politician and football player\nAlexandra Béres (born 1976), Hungarian bodybuilder and curler\nAlexandra Berzon (born 1979), American investigative reporter and journalist\nAlexandra Beukes, South African politician\nAlexandra Beverfjord (born 1977), Norwegian journalist, crime fiction writer, and newspaper editor\nAlexandra Bezeková (born 1992), Slovak sprinter\nAlexandra Boltasseva (born 1978), Russian engineer and physicist\nAlexandra Borbély (born 1986), Slovak–Hungarian actress\nAlexandra Botez (born 1995), American–Canadian chess player and Twitch streamer\nAlexandra Bounxouei (born 1987), Laotian–Bulgarian actress, model, and singer\nAlexandra Boyko (1916–1996), Russian tank commander\nAlexandra Bracken (born 1987), American author\nAlexandra Bradshaw (1888–1981), Canadian–American art professor and watercolor artist\nAlexandra Branitskaya (1754–1838), Russian courtier\nAlexandra Braun (born 1983), Venezuelan actress, model, and beauty queen\nAlexandra Breckenridge (born 1982), American actress, model, and photographer\nAlexandra Brewis Slade (born 1965), New Zealand-American anthropologist\nAlexandra Brooks (born 1995), English footballer\nAlexandra Bruce (born 1990), Canadian badminton player\nAlexandra Brushtein (1884–1968), Russian and Soviet writer, playwright, and memoirist\nAlexandra Buch (born 1979), German mixed martial artist\nAlexandra Bugailiskis (born 1956), Canadian diplomat\nAlexandra Bujdoso (born 1990), Hungarian–German sabre fencer\nAlexandra Bunton (born 1993), Australian basketball player\nAlexandra Burghardt (born 1994), German bobsledder and sprinter\nAlexandra Burke (born 1988), British singer\nAlexandra W. Busch (born 1975), German Roman archaeologist\nAlexandra Byrne (born 1962), English costume designer\nAlexandra Căpitănescu (born 2003), Romanian singer and songwriter\nAlexandra Cardenas (born 1976), Colombian composer\nAlexandra Carlisle (1886–1936), English actress and suffragist\nAlexandra Carpenter (born 1994), American ice hockey player\nAlexandra Caso (born 1987), Dominican volleyball player\nAlexandra Cassavetes, American actress and filmmaker\nAlexandra Castillo (born 1971), Chilean–Canadian actress and dancer\nAlexandra Chalupa (born 1976 or 1977), American lawyer and pro–Ukrainian activist\nAlexandra Chambon (born 2000), French rugby player\nAlexandra Chando (born 1986), American actress\nAlexandra Charles (born 1946), Swedish nightclub owner\nAlexandra Chasin (born 1961), American experimental writer\nAlexandra Chaves (born 2001), Canadian actress and dancer\nAlexandra Chekina (born 1993), Russian cyclist\nAlexandra Cheron (1983–2011), Dominican–American actress, businesswoman, model, and socialite\nAlexandra Chidiac (born 1999), Australian footballer\nAlexandra Chong, Jamaican entrepreneur\nAlexandra Chreiteh (born 1987), Lebanese author\nAlexandra Clarke, Canadian ice hockey official\nAlexandra Coletti (born 1983), Monégasque alpine skier\nAlexandra Cordes (1935–1986), German writer\nAlexandra Cousteau (born 1976), French environmental activist and filmmaker\nAlexandra Cunha (born 1962), Mozambican–born Portuguese marine biologist\nAlexandra Cunningham (born 1972 or 1973), American playwright, screenwriter, and television producer\nAlexandra Curtis (born 1991), American beauty queen\nAlexandra Čvanová (1897–1939), Ukrainian–born Czech operatic soprano\nAlexandra Daddario (born 1986), American actress\nAlexandra Dahlström (born 1984), Swedish actress\nAlexandra Dane (born 1940), South African–born English actress\nAlexandra Danilova (1903–1997), Russian ballet dancer\nAlexandra Dariescu (born 1985), Romanian pianist\nAlexandra Dascalu (born 1991), French volleyball player\nAlexandra Daum (born 1986), Austrian alpine skier\nAlexandra David-Néel (1868–1969), French explorer and spiritualist\nAlexandra Davies (born 1977), English–born Australian actress\nAlexandra de la Mora (born 1979), Mexican actress\nAlexandra Dementieva (born 1960), Russian artist\nAlexandra Denisova (1922–2018), Canadian ballet dancer\nAlexandra Deshorties (born 1975), French–Canadian operatic soprano\nAlexandra Dimoglou (born 1981), Greek Paralympic track and field athlete\nAlexandra Dindiligan (born 1997), Romanian handballer\nAlexandra DiNovi (born 1989), American actress\nAlexandra Dinu (born 1981), Romanian actress and television presenter\nAlexandra Diplarou (born 1981), Greek volleyball player\nAlexandra Dobolyi (born 1971), Hungarian politician\nAlexandra Dowling (born 1990), English actress\nAlexandra Duckworth (born 1987), Canadian snowboarder\nAlexandra Duel-Hallen, American electrical engineer\nAlexandra Dulgheru (born 1989), Romanian tennis player\nAlexandra Dunn (born 1967), American lawyer\nAlexandra Eade (born 1998), Australian artistic gymnast\nAlexandra Eala (born 2005), Filipino tennis player\nAlexandra Elbakyan (born 1988), Kazakhstani computer programmer\nAlexandra Eldridge (born 1948), American painter\nAlexandra Engen (born 1988), Swedish cross country cyclist\nAlexandra Eremia (born 1987), Romanian rhythmic gymnast\nAlexandra Ermakova (born 1992), Russian rhythmic gymnast\nAlexandra Escobar (born 1980), Ecuadorian weightlifter\nAlexandra Feigin (born 2002), Bulgarian figure skater\nAlexandra Feracci (born 1992), French karateka\nAlexandra Finder (born 1977), German actress\nAlexandra Fisher (born 1988), Kazakhstani athlete\nAlexandra Flood (born 1990), Australian operatic soprano\nAlexandra Fomina (born 1975), Ukrainian volleyball player\nAlexandra Fominykh (1925–2004), Russian farm worker\nAlexandra Försterling (born 1999), German amateur golfer\nAlexandra Föster (born 2002), German rower\nAlexandra Fouace (born 1979), French archer\nAlexandra Fuentes (born 1978), Puerto Rican actress and radio host\nAlexandra Fusai (born 1973), French tennis player\nAlexandra Gage, Viscountess Gage (born 1969), British lecturer\nAlexandra Gajda (born 1979), English historian\nAlexandra Pavlovna Galitzine (1905–2006), Russian noblewoman\nAlexandra Gallagher (born 1980), English artist\nAlexandra Gardner (born 1967), American composer\nAlexandra Daisy Ginsberg (born 1982), English–South African artist\nAlexandra Goujon (born 1972), French political scientist\nAlexandra Gowie (born 1990), South African–born Hungarian–Canadian ice hockey player\nAlexandra Grande (born 1990), Peruvian karateka\nAlexandra Grant (born 1973), American visual artist\nAlexandra Gripenberg (1857–1913), Finnish activist, author, and newspaper publisher\nAlexandra Gummer (born 1992), Australian soccer player\nAlexandra Hagan (born 1991), Australian rower\nAlexandra Hargreaves (born 1980), Australian rugby player\nAlexandra Harrison (born 2002), French ice hockey player\nAlexandra Hasluck (1908–1993), Australian author and historian\nAlexandra Hedison (born 1969), American actress, director, and photographer\nAlexandra Heidrich, German canoeist\nAlexandra Helbling (born 1993), Sri Lankan–born Swiss Paralympic athlete\nAlexandra Heminsley (born 1976), British journalist and writer\nAlexandra Henao, Venezuelan cinematographer and director\nAlexandra Herbríková (born 1992), Slovak–Czech ice dancer\nAlexandra Hernandez (born 1981), French singer and songwriter\nAlexandra Hidalgo, Venezuelan–American documentarian\nAlexandra Hildebrandt (born 1959), German human rights activist\nAlexandra Mary Hirschi (born 1985), Australian social media personality and vlogger\nAlexandra Hoffman (born 1987), American beauty queen\nAlexandra Hoffmeyer (born 1988), American ice hockey player\nAlexandra Höglund (born 1990), Swedish football player\nAlexandra Holden (born 1977), American actress\nAlexandra Hollá (born 1994), Slovak football player\nAlexandra de Hoop Scheffer, French-Dutch political scientist\nAlexandra van Huffelen (born 1968), Dutch politician\nAlexandra Ashley Hughes (born 1985), Canadian singer and songwriter\nAlexandra Hulley (born 1997), Australian athlete\nAlexandra Hurst (born 1994), Northern Irish soccer player\nAlexandra Huynh (born 1994), Australian soccer player\nAlexandra Ianculescu (born 1991), Romanian–Canadian speed skater\nAlexandra Issayeva (born 1982), Kazakhstani volleyball player\nAlexandra Ivanovskaya (born 1989), Russian beauty queen and model\nAlexandra Jackson (born 1952), Irish–English swimmer\nAlexandra Jiménez (born 1980), Spanish actress\nAlexandra Jóhannsdóttir (born 2000), Icelandic football player\nAlexandra Johnes (born 1976), American documentary film producer\nAlexandra Joner (born 1990), Norwegian dancer and singer\nAlexandra Jupiter (born 1990), French volleyball player\nAlexandra Kalinovská (born 1974), Czech modern pentathlete\nAlexandra Kamieniecki (born 1996), Polish figure skater\nAlexandra Kamp (born 1966), German actress and model\nAlexandra Kapustina (born 1984), Russian ice hockey player\nAlexandra Kasser (born 1967), American attorney and politician\nAlexandra Kavadas (born 1983), Greek football player\nAlexandra Kehayoglou (born 1981), Argentine textile artist\nAlexandra Kenworthy (born 1932), American voice actress\nAlexandra Keresztesi (born 1983), Hungarian–born Argentine sprint canoer\nAlexandra Kerry (born 1973), American filmmaker\nAlexandra Killewald (born 1983), American sociology professor\nAlexandra Kiroi-Bogatyreva (born 2002), Australian Olympic rhythmic gymnast\nAlexandra Kim (1885–1918), Russian–Korean revolutionary political activist\nAlexandra Kleeman (born 1986), American writer\nAlexandra Kluge (1937–2017), German actress\nAlexandra Koefoed (born 1978), Norwegian sailor\nAlexandra Kolesnichenko (born 1992), Uzbekistani tennis player\nAlexandra Kollontai (1872–1952), Russian politician\nAlexandra Konofalskaya (born 1986), Belarusian sand animation artist\nAlexandra Korelova (born 1977), Russian equestrian\nAlexandra Korolkova (born 1984), Russian typeface designer\nAlexandra Kosinski (born 1989), American long-distance runner\nAlexandra Kosteniuk (born 1984), Russian chess grandmaster\nAlexandra Kotur, American fashion journalist\nAlexandra Kropotkin (1887–1966), Russian–American writer\nAlexandra Krosney, American actress\nAlexandra Kunová (born 1992), Slovak figure skater\nAlexandra Kutas (born 1993), Ukrainian model\nAlexandra Labelle (born 1996), Canadian ice hockey player\nAlexandra Lacrabère (born 1987), French handballer\nAlexandra Lamy (born 1971), French actress\nAlexandra Langley (born 1992), English badminton player\nAlexandra Lapierre, French author\nAlexandra Maria Lara (born 1978), Romanian–German actress\nAlexandra Larochelle (born 1993), Canadian writer\nAlexandra Larsson (born 1986), Swedish–Argentine model\nAlexandra Lazarowich, Cree–Canadian director and producer\nAlexandra Lebenthal (born 1964), American businesswoman\nAlexandra Leclère, French director and screenwriter\nAlexandra Lehti (born 1996), Finnish singer, known as Lxandra\nAlexandra Leitão (born 1973), Portuguese law professor and politician\nAlexandra Lemoine (born 1928), French artistic gymnast\nAlexandra Lencastre (born 1965), Portuguese actress\nAlexandra Lethbridge (born 1987), Hong Kong–born English photographer\nAlexandra Levit (born 1976), American writer\nAlexandra Lisney (born 1987), Australian cyclist and rower\nAlexandra London (born 1973), French actress\nAlexandra Longová (born 1994), Slovak archer\nAlexandra López (born 1989), Spanish soccer player\nAlexandra Louis (born 1983), French lawyer and politician\nAlexandra Lúgaro (born 1981), Puerto Rican attorney, businesswoman, and politician\nAlexandra Lukin (born 1998), New Zealand field hockey player\nAlexandra Lunca (born 1995), Romanian soccer player\nAlexandra Lydon, American actress\nAlexandra Măceșanu (2003–2019), Romanian murder victim\nAlexandra Madeleine, Seychellois judge\nAlexandra Makárová (born 1985), Slovak-Austrian filmmaker\nAlexandra Makovskaya (1837–1915), Russian landscape painter\nAlexandra Manly (born 1998), Australian cyclist\nAlexandra Mařasová (born 1965), Czech alpine skier\nAlexandra Mardell (born 1993), English actress\nAlexandra Marinescu (born 1982), Romanian artistic gymnast\nAlexandra Marinina (born 1957), Russian writer\nAlexandra Martin (born 1968), French politician\nAlexandra Marzo (born 1968), Brazilian actress and screenwriter\nAlexandra Mavrokordatou (1605–1684), Greek intellectual\nAlexandra Mazur (born 1986), Russian beauty queen\nAlexandra Meissnitzer (born 1973), Austrian alpine ski racer\nAlexandra Mendès (born 1963), Canadian politician\nAlexandra Merkulova (born 1995), Russian rhythmic gymnast\nAlexandra Micu, Romanian fashion model\nAlexandra Miller (born 1973), American businesswoman and politician\nAlexandra Milton (born 1967), French artist and illustrator\nAlexandra Mîrca (born 1993), Moldovan archer\nAlexandra Mitroshina (born 1994), Russian journalist\nAlexandra Mitsotaki (born 1956), Greek activist and entrepreneur\nAlexandra Moreno (born 2000), Spanish racing cyclist\nAlexandra Morgenrood (born 1940), Zimbabwean diver\nAlexandra Morrison, Canadian photographer\nAlexandra Morton (born 1957), American conservation activist and marine biologist\nAlexandra Mousavizadeh (born 1970), Danish economist\nAlexandra Mueller (born 1988), American tennis player\nAlexandra Muñoz (born 1992), Peruvian volleyball player\nAlexandra Munteanu (born 1980), Romanian alpine skier\nAlexandra Naclerio (born 2005), Italian rhythmic gymnast\nAlexandra Najarro (born 1993), Canadian figure skater\nAlexandra Nancarrow (born 1993), Australian tennis player\nAlexandra Ndolo (born 1986), German–born Kenyan épée fencer\nAlexandra Nechita (born 1985), Romanian–American cubist painter and philanthropist\nAlexandra Nekvapilová (1919–2014), Czech alpine skier\nAlexandra Neldel (born 1976), German actress\nAlexandra Nemich (born 1995), Kazakhstani synchronized swimmer\nAlexandra Nereïev (born 1976), French painter and sculptor\nAlexandra Newton, South African pharmacology professor\nAlexandra Niepel (born 1970), British tennis player\nAlexandra Nikiforova (born 1993), Russian actress\nAlexandra Nouchet (born 1998), French para-athlete\nAlexandra Obolentseva (born 2001), Russian chess player\nAlexandra Ocles (born 1979), Ecuadorian educator and politician\nAlexandra Oliver (born 1970), Canadian poet\nAlexandra Olsson (born 1998), Finnish handballer\nAlexandra Opachanova (born 1989), Kazakh rower\nAlexandra Oquendo (born 1984), Puerto Rican volleyball player\nAlexandra Ordolis (born 1986), Greek–Canadian actress\nAlexandra Osborne (born 1995), Australian tennis player\nAlexandra Panova (born 1989), Russian tennis player\nAlexandra Papageorgiou (born 1980), Greek hammer thrower\nAlexandra Park (born 1989), Australian actress\nAlexandra Parks (born 1984), English singer-songwriter\nAlexandra Pascalidou (born 1970), Greek–Swedish author and columnist\nAlexandra Paschalidou-Moreti (1912–2010), Greek architect\nAlexandra Patsavas (born 1968), Greek–American music supervisor\nAlexandra Pelosi (born 1970), American documentarian and journalist\nAlexandra Penney, American artist, author, and journalist\nAlexandra Perper (born 1991), Moldovan tennis player\nAlexandra Petkovski, Canadian composer\nAlexandra Petrova (1980–2000), Russian beauty queen and model\nAlexandra Picatto (born 1983), American accountant and child actress\nAlexandra Pierce (1934–2021), American composer and pianist\nAlexandra Piscupescu (born 1994), Romanian rhythmic gymnast\nAlexandra Podkolzina (born 1985), Russian–American tennis player\nAlexandra Podryadova (born 1989), Kazakhstani judoka\nAlexandra Polivanchuk (born 1990), Swedish deaf swimmer\nAlexandra Pomales (born 1995), American actress\nAlexandra Popp (born 1991), German soccer player\nAlexandra Potter (born 1970), English author\nAlexandra Poulovassilis, Greek–English computer scientist\nAlexandra Powers, American actress\nAlexandra Pringle (born 1953), British publisher\nAlexandra Quinn (born 1973), Canadian pornographic actress\nAlexandra Radius (born 1942), Dutch ballet dancer\nAlexandra Raeva (born 1992), Russian curler\nAlexandra Raffé (born 1955), Canadian film and television producer\nAlexandra Ramniceanu (born 1976), French film producer and screenwriter\nAlexandra Rapaport (born 1971), Swedish actress\nAlexandra Razarenova (born 1990), Russian triathlete\nAlexandra Recchia (born 1988), French karateka\nAlexandra Reid (born 1989), American rapper and singer\nAlexandra Rexová (born 2005), Slovak blind alpine skier\nAlexandra Richards (born 1986), American artist and model\nAlexandra Richter (born 1967), Brazilian actress\nAlexandra Rickham (born 1981), Jamaican–born English Paralympic sailor\nAlexandra Ridout (born 1998), English jazz trumpeter\nAlexandra Ripley (1934–2004), American writer\nAlexandra Roach (born 1987), Welsh actress\nAlexandra Robbins, American author, journalist, and lecturer\nAlexandra Roche, Lady Roche (born 1934), British philanthropist\nAlexandra Rochelle (born 1983), French volleyball player\nAlexandra Rodionova (born 1984), Russian bobsledder\nAlexandra Rojas (born 1995), American activist and political commentator\nAlexandra Rosenfeld (born 1986), French beauty queen and model\nAlexandra Rotan (born 1996), Norwegian singer and songwriter\nAlexandra Rout (born 1993), New Zealand figure skater\nAlexandra Rozenman (born 1971), Russian–born American graphic designer, illustrator, and painter\nAlexandra Rutherford, Canadian psychology professor\nAlexandra Rutlidge (born 1988), English water polo player\nAlexandra Saduakassova (born 2002), Kazakh sport shooter\nAlexandra Sahlen (born 1982), American soccer player\nAlexandra Salmela (born 1980), Slovak author\nAlexandra Salvador (born 1995), Canadian–born Ecuadorian soccer player\nAlexandra Savior (born 1995), American singer and songwriter\nAlexandra Schepisi, Australian actress\nAlexandra Schörghuber (born 1958), German entrepreneur\nAlexandra Seceleanu, Romanian mathematician\nAlexandra Sharp (born 1997), Australian basketball player\nAlexandra Shevchenko (born 1988), Ukrainian radical feminist activist\nAlexandra Shimo, Canadian writer\nAlexandra Shipp, American actress and singer\nAlexandra Shiryayeva (born 1983), Russian beach volleyball player\nAlexandra Shiva, American documentarian\nAlexandra Shulman (born 1957), English journalist\nAlexandra Sicoe (1932–2019), Romanian sprinter\nAlexandra Sidorovici (1906–2000), Romanian politician\nAlexandra Silber, American actress, educator, singer, and writer\nAlexandra Silk (born 1963), American pornographic actress\nAlexandra Silocea (born 1984), Romanian–born French pianist\nAlexandra Silva (born 1984), Portuguese computer scientist\nAlexandra Slade, American actress\nAlexandra Smirnoff (1838–1913) Finnish pomologist\nAlexandra Sobo (born 1987), Romanian volleyball player\nAlexandra Socha (born 1990), American actress\nAlexandra Sokoloff, American novelist and screenwriter\nAlexandra Soler (born 1983), French artistic gymnast\nAlexandra Solnado, Portuguese writer\nAlexandra Sorina (1899–1973), Belarusian actress\nAlexandra Soumm (born 1989), Russian–born French violinist\nAlexandra Sourla (born 1973), Greek equestrian\nAlexandra Speers (born 1987), retired Irish field hockey player\nAlexandra Stan (born 1989), Romanian singer\nAlexandra Stepanova (born 1995), Russian ice dancer\nAlexandra Stevenson (born 1980), American tennis player\nAlexandra Stewart (born 1939), Canadian actress\nAlexandra Stréliski (born 1985), Canadian composer and pianist\nAlexandra Styron, American author and professor\nAlexandra Subțirică (born 1987), Romanian handballer\nAlexandra Suda (born 1981), Canadian art historian\nAlexandra Takounda (born 2000), Cameroonian soccer player\nAlexandra Talomaa (born 1975), Swedish songwriter\nAlexandra Tavernier (born 1993), French hammer thrower\nAlexandra Techet, American marine engineer\nAlexandra Tegleva (1894–1955), Russian nursemaid\nAlexandra Tessier (born 1993), Canadian rugby player\nAlexandra Thein (born 1963), German politician\nAlexandra Tilley (born 1993), Scottish alpine ski racer\nAlexandra Timoshenko (born 1972), Ukrainian rhythmic gymnast\nAlexandra Tolstaya (1884–1979), Russian secretary and the youngest daughter of Leo Tolstoy\nAlexandra Touretski (born 1994), Swiss freestyle swimmer\nAlexandra Trică (born 1985), Romanian volleyball player\nAlexandra Trofimov (born 1999), Romanian soccer player\nAlexandra Trusova (born 2004), Russian figure skater\nAlexandra Truwit (born 2000), American Paralympic swimmer\nAlexandra Tsiavou (born 1985), Greek rower\nAlexandra Tüchi (born 1983), Austrian bobsledder\nAlexandra Tydings (born 1972), American actress\nAlexandra Udženija (born 1975), Serbian–Czech politician\nAlexandra Vafina (born 1990), Russian ice hockey player\nAlexandra Valetta-Ardisson (born 1976), French politician\nAlexandra Vandernoot (born 1965), Belgian actress\nAlexandra Vasilieva (born 1995), Russian figure skater\nAlexandra Vela, Ecuadorian lawyer and politician\nAlexandra Verbeek (born 1973), Dutch sailor\nAlexandra Vieira (born 1966), Portuguese teacher and politician\nAlexandra Viney (born 1992), Australian Paralympic rower\nAlexandra Vinogradova (born 1988), Russian volleyball player\nAlexandra Völker (born 1989), Swedish politician\nAlexandra von der Weth (born 1968), German operatic soprano\nAlexandra von Dyhrn (1873–1945), German author and genealogist\nAlexandra von Fürstenberg (born 1972), Hong Kong–born American entrepreneur, heiress, and socialite\nAlexandra Voronin (1905–1993), Russian wife of Vidkun Quisling\nAlexandra Vydrina (1988–2021), Russian linguist\nAlexandra Wager (born ), American child actress and the daughter of Michael Wager\nAlexandra Wallace (born 1975 or 1976), American news media executive\nAlexandra Walsham (born 1966), English–Australian historian\nAlexandra Waluszewski (born 1956), Swedish professor and organizational theorist\nAlexandra Waterbury, American ballet dancer and model\nAlexandra Wedgwood (born 1938), English architectural historian\nAlexandra Wejchert (1921–1995), Polish–Irish sculptor\nAlexandra Wenk (born 1995), German swimmer\nAlexandra Wescourt (born 1975), English actress\nAlexandra Wester (born 1994), Gambian–born German long jumper\nAlexandra Williams, American rugby player\nAlexandra Wong (born 1956), Hong Kong activist\nAlexandra Worden (born 1970), American genome scientist and microbial ecologist\nAlexandra Worisch (born 1965), Austrian synchronized swimmer\nAlexandra Zabelina (1937–2022), Soviet fencer\nAlexandra Zaharias (born 1929), American ballet teacher\nAlexandra Zapruder (born 1969), American author and editor\nAlexandra Zaretsky (born 1987), Israeli ice dancer\nAlexandra Zarini (born 1985), Italian–American daughter of Patricia Gucci\nAlexandra Zazzi (born 1966), Italian–born Swedish chef, journalist, and television presenter\nAlexandra Zertsalova (born 1982), Kyrgyz swimmer\nAlexandra Zhukovskaya (1842–1899), Russian–German lady-in-waiting\nAlexandra Zimmermann, English conservation scientist\nAlexandra Zvorigina (born 1991), Russian ice dancer\nAleksandra\nAleksandra Antonova, various people\nAleksandra Avramović (born 1982), Serbian volleyball player\nAleksandra Crnčević (born 1987), Serbian volleyball player\nAleksandra Crvendakić (born 1996), Serbian basketball player\nAleksandra Cvetićanin (born 1993), Serbian volleyball player\nAleksandra Dimitrova (born 2000), Russian chess master\nAleksandra Dulkiewicz (born 1979), Polish lawyer\nAleksandra Fedoriva (born 1988), Russian athlete\nAleksandra Gajewska (born 1971), Polish theatre director, actress, and politician\nAleksandra Gajewska (born 1989), Polish politician\nAleksandra Izmailovich (1878–1941), Belarusian revolutionary\nAleksandra Klepaczka (born 2000), Polish beauty pageant titleholder\nAleksandra Adamovna Kolemina-Bacheracht (1854–1941), Polish novelist\nAleksandra Kosiorek (born 1985), Polish politician and jurist\nAleksandra Krunić (born 1993), Serbian tennis player\nAleksandra Leo (born 1981), Polish politician and lawyer\nAleksandra Maltsevskaya (born 2002), Russian chess master\nAleksandra Melnichenko (born 1977), Serbian billionaire, former singer, and model who is the wife of the Russian billionaire Andrey Melnichenko\nAleksandra Perišić (born 2002), Serbian taekwondo practitioner\nAleksandra Prijović (born 1995), Serbian pop-folk singer\nAleksandra Przegalińska (born 1982), Polish futurist\nAleksandra Ranković (born 1980), Serbian volleyball player\nAleksandra Shchekoldina (born 2002), retired Russian gymnast\nAleksandra Shevchenko (1926–2000), Ukrainian scientist-zootechnician and milkmaid\nAleksandra Stepanović (born 1994), Serbian volleyball player\nAleksandra Stubleva, Bulgarian karateka\nAleksandra Szwed (born 1990), Polish actress, television presenter. and actress\nAleksandra Uznańska-Wiśniewska (born 1994), Polish–Thai politician, political scientist, and humanitarian\nAleksandra Vukajlović (born 1997), Serbian handball player\nAleksandra Woźniak (born 1975), Polish actress and psychologist\nAleksandra Wozniak (born 1987), Canadian tennis player\nAleksandra Zaitseva (born 1999), Russian para athlete\nAleksandra Ziółkowska-Boehm (born 1949), Polish writer\nFictional characters\nAlexandra, Nikita character\nAlexandra Borgia, an Assistant District Attorney in Law & Order, played by Annie Parisse\nAlexandra Cabot, an Assistant District Attorney in Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, played by Stephanie March\nAlexandra Eames, a detective in Law & Order Criminal Intent, played by Kathryn Erbe\nAleksandra Billewicz, a character in Deluge by Henryk Sienkiewicz\nSee also\nAlexander\nAlexandria (given name)\nReferences","text_chars":28943,"text_sha256":"39f55aa1c6b87d1c01809ada77adc86d19c88a22a6271a51d4e5043c7edda9a5","text_utf8_bytes":29303,"title":"Alexandra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandra","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"8e8c321b296266a5560731a36ae37cd40654330f32209ff1400e4706fdb2c750"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2389&action=history","id":"2389","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":6074,"raw_text_sha256":"9c7a170454882a84aad1ecd12aca8262e36b6f300be40f1581927a96cc264bfd","raw_text_utf8_bytes":6091,"revision_id":"1332971839","revision_timestamp":"2026-01-14T23:08:35Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1332971839","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"The Meitner–Auger effect is a physical phenomenon in which atoms eject electrons. It occurs when an inner-shell vacancy in an atom is filled by an electron, releasing energy that causes the emission of another electron from a different shell of the same atom.\n\nWhen a core electron is removed, leaving a vacancy, an electron from a higher energy level may fall into the vacancy, resulting in a release of energy. For light atoms (Z<12), this energy is most often transferred to a valence electron which is subsequently ejected from the atom. This second ejected electron is called an Auger electron. For heavier atomic nuclei, the release of the energy in the form of an emitted photon becomes gradually more probable.\nEffect\nUpon ejection, the kinetic energy of the Auger electron corresponds to the difference between the energy of the initial electronic transition into the vacancy and the ionization energy for the electron shell from which the Auger electron was ejected. These energy levels depend on the type of atom and the chemical environment in which the atom was located.\n\nAuger electron spectroscopy involves the emission of Auger electrons by bombarding a sample with either X-rays or energetic electrons and measures the intensity of Auger electrons that result as a function of the Auger electron energy. The resulting spectra can be used to determine the identity of the emitting atoms and some information about their environment.\n\nAuger recombination is a similar Auger effect which occurs in semiconductors. An electron and electron hole (electron-hole pair) can recombine, giving up their energy to an electron in the conduction band, increasing its energy. The reverse effect is known as impact ionization.\n\nThe Auger effect can impact biological molecules such as DNA. Following the K-shell ionization of the component atoms of DNA, Auger electrons are ejected, leading to damage to its sugar-phosphate backbone.\nDiscovery\nThe Auger emission process was observed and published in 1922 by Lise Meitner, an Austrian-Swedish physicist, as a side effect in her competitive search for the nuclear beta electrons with the British physicist Charles Drummond Ellis.\n\nThe French physicist Pierre Victor Auger independently discovered it in 1923 upon analysis of a Wilson cloud chamber experiment and it became the central part of his PhD work. High-energy X-rays were applied to ionize gas particles and observe photoelectric electrons. The observation of electron tracks that were independent of the frequency of the incident photon suggested a mechanism for electron ionization that was caused by an internal conversion of energy from a radiationless transition. Further investigation and theoretical work using elementary quantum mechanics and transition rate/transition probability calculations showed that the effect was a radiationless effect more than an internal conversion effect.\nSee also\nAuger therapy\nCharge carrier generation and recombination\nCharacteristic X-ray\nCoster–Kronig transition\nElectron capture\nRadiative Auger effect\nReferences","text_chars":3067,"text_sha256":"f8677615e93bbd2c801589fc44937cfe1177934c0b4892ba2410fcad9ea1be58","text_utf8_bytes":3071,"title":"Auger effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auger_effect","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"a24120f0657c9dff446000c702adc95eb80e01e02cdfa8208a5ac6a2846983f6"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2810&action=history","id":"2810","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":5691,"raw_text_sha256":"2d71d0fe535169feed7d2fb17787eca3943368717c9407eea21f75314b5d9d40","raw_text_utf8_bytes":5739,"revision_id":"1358477973","revision_timestamp":"2026-06-08T23:21:37Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1358477973","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Aldona (baptized Ona or Anna; her pagan name, Aldona, is known only from the writings of Maciej Stryjkowski; – 26 May 1339) was Queen consort of Poland (1333–1339), and a princess of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. She was the daughter of Gediminas, Grand Duke of Lithuania.\nBiography\nAldona married Casimir III of Poland, when he was 15 or 16 years old. The bride was probably of about the same age. The marriage took place on 30 April or 16 October 1325 and was a purely political maneuver to strengthen the first Polish–Lithuanian coalition against the Teutonic Knights. Casimir was seeking allies in the dispute over Pomerania with the Order. Gediminas had just undertaken an unsuccessful attempt to Christianize Lithuania. This coalition was a prelude to the Union of Krewo in 1385, and the Union of Lublin in 1569, which resulted in the creation of a new state, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The details of the agreement are not known; however, it is known that Gediminas released all Polish captives, some 25,000 people, who returned to Poland. The importance of the marriage was attested by the fact that Władysław abandoned his earlier plans to marry his son to Jutta of Bohemia. The alliance was put into effect when joint Polish–Lithuanian forces organized an attack against the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1326. However, the coalition was not strong and collapsed c. 1330. Yet, there is no evidence of fighting between Poland and Lithuania while Aldona was alive. Aldona died suddenly at the end of May 1339, and was buried in Kraków.\n\nAldona was remembered for her piety and devotion to music. She was accompanied by court musicians wherever she went. It was even suggested by Jan Długosz that the cymbals which were played in procession before her represented a pagan Lithuanian tradition. Her husband Casimir is known for his romantic affairs: after Aldona's death he married three more times.\nIssue\nAldona had two daughters:\nCunigunde of Poland (died in 1357); married on 1 January 1345 Louis VI the Roman, the son of Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor.\nElisabeth (1326–1361); married Bogislaus V, Duke of Pomerania. Elisabeth's daughter, Elizabeth of Pomerania, was the fourth wife of Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor.\nIn popular cultureFilm\nQueen Aldona Anna is one of the main characters in the first season of Polish historical TV drama series \"Korona Królów\" (\"The Crown of the Kings\"). She is played by Marta Bryła.\nSee also\nFamily of Gediminas – family tree of Aldona\nGediminids\nAldona (fungus) (family Parmulariaceae), was named after her in 1900.\nReferences","text_chars":2580,"text_sha256":"bd50ccce89890d505ae11035022a42d67b864a012aaf2a132f68e0537cd82af8","text_utf8_bytes":2601,"title":"Aldona of Lithuania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldona_of_Lithuania","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"2cd41ba7a00111336b5d50d2f0a7db5a1711dba62cbcfdede0f690e17f744d8f"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2246&action=history","id":"2246","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":111668,"raw_text_sha256":"ed07c36ecdeab645f26ab5f50a48e8b37babaca946605539d063eef18ad72c05","raw_text_utf8_bytes":112080,"revision_id":"1371819034","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-28T17:18:07Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1371819034","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"An analgesic, also called an antalgic, pain reliever, or painkiller, is any member of the group of drugs used for pain management. Analgesics are conceptually distinct from anesthetics, which temporarily reduce, and in some instances eliminate, sensation, although analgesia and anesthesia are neurophysiologically overlapping and thus various drugs have both analgesic and anesthetic effects.\n\nAnalgesic choice is also determined by the type of pain: For neuropathic pain, recent research has suggested that classes of drugs that are not normally considered analgesics, such as tricyclic antidepressants and anticonvulsants may be considered as an alternative.\n\nVarious analgesics, such as many NSAIDs, are available over the counter in most countries, whereas various others are prescription drugs owing to the substantial risks and high chances of overdose, misuse, and addiction in the absence of medical supervision.\nEtymology\nThe word analgesic derives from Greek an- (, \"without\"), álgos (, \"pain\"), and -ikos (, forming adjectives). Such drugs were usually known as \"anodynes\" before the 20th century.\nClassification\nAnalgesics are typically classified based on their mechanism of action.\nParacetamol (acetaminophen)\nParacetamol, also known as acetaminophen, is a medication used to treat pain and fever. It is typically used for mild to moderate pain. In combination with opioid pain medication, paracetamol is now used for more severe pain such as cancer pain and after surgery. It is typically used either by mouth or rectally but is also available intravenously. Effects last between two and four hours. Paracetamol is classified as a mild analgesic, and is generally safe at recommended doses.\nNSAIDs\nNonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are a drug class that groups together drugs that decrease pain and lower fever, and, in higher doses, decrease inflammation. The most prominent members of this group of drugs—aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen, and diclofenac—are all available over the counter in most countries.\nCOX-2 inhibitors\nThese drugs have been derived from NSAIDs. The cyclooxygenase enzyme inhibited by NSAIDs was discovered to have at least two different versions: COX-1 and COX-2. Research suggested most of the adverse effects of NSAIDs to be mediated by blocking the COX-1 (constitutive) enzyme, with the analgesic effects being mediated by the COX-2 (inducible) enzyme. Thus, the COX-2 inhibitors were developed to inhibit only the COX-2 enzyme (traditional NSAIDs block both versions in general). These drugs (e.g., rofecoxib, celecoxib, and etoricoxib) are equally effective analgesics when compared with NSAIDs, but cause less gastrointestinal hemorrhage in particular.\n\nAfter widespread adoption of the COX-2 inhibitors, it was discovered that most of the drugs in this class increase the risk of cardiovascular events by 40% on average. This led to the withdrawal of rofecoxib and valdecoxib, and warnings on others. Etoricoxib seems relatively safe, with the risk of thrombotic events similar to that of non-coxib NSAID diclofenac.\nOpioids\nMorphine, the archetypal opioid, and other opioids (e.g., codeine, oxycodone, hydrocodone, dihydromorphine, pethidine) all exert a similar influence on the cerebral opioid receptor system. Buprenorphine is a partial agonist of the μ-opioid receptor, and tramadol is a serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI) with weak μ-opioid receptor agonist properties. Tramadol is structurally closer to venlafaxine than to codeine and delivers analgesia by not only delivering \"opioid-like\" effects (through mild agonism of the μ-opioid receptor) but also by acting as a weak but fast-acting serotonin releasing agent and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor. Tapentadol, with some structural similarities to tramadol, presents what is believed to be a novel drug working through two (and possibly three) different modes of action in the fashion of both a traditional opioid and as an SNRI. The effects of serotonin and norepinephrine on pain, while not completely understood, have had causal links established and drugs in the SNRI class are commonly used in conjunction with opioids (especially tapentadol and tramadol) with greater success in pain relief.\n\nDosing of all opioids may be limited by opioid toxicity (e.g., confusion, respiratory depression, myoclonic jerks, and pinpoint pupils), seizures (particularly from tramadol), but opioid-tolerant individuals usually have higher dose ceilings than patients without tolerance. Opioids, while very effective analgesics, may have some unpleasant side-effects. Patients starting morphine may experience nausea and vomiting (generally relieved by a short course of antiemetics such as phenergan). Pruritus (itching) may require switching to a different opioid. Constipation occurs in almost all patients on opioids, and laxatives (lactulose, macrogol-containing or co-danthramer) are typically co-prescribed.\n\nOpioid tolerance should not be confused with opioid-induced hyperalgesia. The symptoms of these two conditions can appear very similar but the mechanism of action is different. Opioid-induced hyperalgesia is when exposure to opioids increases the sensation of pain (hyperalgesia) and can even make non-painful stimuli painful (allodynia).\nAlcohol\nAlcohol has biological, mental, and social effects which influence the consequences of using alcohol for pain. Moderate use of alcohol can lessen certain types of pain in certain circumstances.\n\nThe majority of its analgesic effects come from antagonizing NMDA receptors, similarly to ketamine, thus decreasing the activity of the primary excitatory (signal boosting) neurotransmitter, glutamate. It also functions as an analgesic to a lesser degree by increasing the activity of the primary inhibitory (signal reducing) neurotransmitter, GABA.\n\nAttempting to use alcohol to treat pain has also been observed to lead to negative outcomes including excessive drinking and alcohol use disorder.\nCannabis\nMedical cannabis, or medical marijuana, refers to cannabis or its cannabinoids used to treat disease or improve symptoms. There is evidence suggesting that cannabis can be used to treat chronic pain and muscle spasms, with some trials indicating improved relief of neuropathic pain over opioids.\nCombinations\nAnalgesics are frequently used in combination, such as the paracetamol and codeine preparations found in many non-prescription pain relievers. They can also be found in combination with vasoconstrictor drugs such as pseudoephedrine for sinus-related preparations, or with antihistamine drugs for people with allergies.\n\nWhile the use of paracetamol, aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen, and other NSAIDs concurrently with weak to mid-range opioids (up to about the hydrocodone level) has been said to show beneficial synergistic effects by combating pain at multiple sites of action, several combination analgesic products have been shown to have few efficacy benefits when compared to similar doses of their individual components. Moreover, these combination analgesics can often result in significant adverse events, including accidental overdoses, most often due to confusion that arises from the multiple (and often non-acting) components of these combinations.\nAlternative medicine\nThere is some evidence that some treatments using alternative medicine can relieve some types of pain more effectively than placebo. The available research concludes that more research would be necessary to better understand the use of alternative medicine.\nOther drugs\nNefopam—a monoamine reuptake inhibitor, and calcium and sodium channel modulator—is also approved for the treatment of moderate to severe pain in some countries.\n\nFlupirtine is a centrally acting K+ channel opener with weak NMDA antagonist properties. It was used in Europe for moderate to strong pain, as well as its migraine-treating and muscle-relaxant properties. It has no significant anticholinergic properties, and is believed to be devoid of any activity on dopamine, serotonin, or histamine receptors. It is not addictive, and tolerance usually does not develop. However, tolerance may develop in some cases.\n\nZiconotide, a blocker of potent N-type voltage-gated calcium channels, is administered intrathecally for the relief of severe, usually cancer-related pain.\nAdjuvants\nCertain drugs that have been introduced for uses other than analgesics are also used in pain management. Both first-generation (such as amitriptyline) and newer antidepressants (such as duloxetine) are used alongside NSAIDs and opioids for pain involving nerve damage and similar problems. Other agents directly potentiate the effects of analgesics, such as using hydroxyzine, promethazine, carisoprodol, or tripelennamine to increase the pain-killing ability of a given dose of opioid analgesic.\n\nAdjuvant analgesics, also called atypical analgesics, include orphenadrine, mexiletine, pregabalin, gabapentin, cyclobenzaprine, hyoscine (scopolamine), and other drugs possessing anticonvulsant, anticholinergic, and/or antispasmodic properties, as well as many other drugs with CNS actions. These drugs are used along with analgesics to modulate and/or modify the action of opioids when used against pain, especially of neuropathic origin.\n\nDextromethorphan has been noted to slow the development of and reverse tolerance to opioids, as well as to exert additional analgesia by acting upon NMDA receptors, as does ketamine. Some analgesics such as methadone and ketobemidone and perhaps piritramide have intrinsic NMDA action.\n\nThe anticonvulsant carbamazepine is used to treat neuropathic pain. Similarly, the gabapentinoids gabapentin and pregabalin are prescribed for neuropathic pain, and phenibut is available without prescription. Gabapentinoids work as α2δ-subunit blockers of voltage-gated calcium channels, and tend to have other mechanisms of action as well. Gabapentinoids are all anticonvulsants, which are most commonly used for neuropathic pain, as their mechanism of action tends to inhibit pain sensation originating from the nervous system.\nOther uses\nTopical analgesia is generally recommended to avoid systemic side-effects. Painful joints, for example, may be treated with an ibuprofen- or diclofenac-containing gel (The labeling for topical diclofenac has been updated to warn about drug-induced hepatotoxicity.); capsaicin also is used topically. Lidocaine, an anesthetic, and steroids may be injected into joints for longer-term pain relief. Lidocaine is also used for painful mouth sores and to numb areas for dental work and minor medical procedures. In February 2007 the FDA notified consumers and healthcare professionals of the potential hazards of topical anesthetics entering the bloodstream when applied in large doses to the skin without medical supervision. These topical anesthetics contain anesthetic drugs such as lidocaine, tetracaine, benzocaine, and prilocaine in a cream, ointment, or gel.\nUses\nTopical nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs provide pain relief in common conditions such as muscle sprains and overuse injuries. Since the side effects are also lesser, topical preparations could be preferred over oral medications in these conditions.\nList of analgesicsResearch\nSome novel and investigational analgesics include subtype-selective voltage-gated sodium channel blockers such as funapide and raxatrigine, as well as multimodal agents such as ralfinamide.\nSee also\nAudioanalgesia\nElectroanalgesia\nPain management\nPatient-controlled analgesia\nPain in babies\nCongenital analgesia (insensitivity to pain)\nReferences\nCitationsSources\n.\n.","text_chars":11616,"text_sha256":"bd4c0c3801f6568282bd230112b82370929463c4ac49789d60f749f4dd22af6b","text_utf8_bytes":11632,"title":"Analgesic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analgesic","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"8f9aca27a84e2afde9a6e54e25f8929eb89c26a5d106024daff783598a38f61a"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2268&action=history","id":"2268","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":35472,"raw_text_sha256":"664a661a439709195ac9c56f638b6e8e92d7454bc4b4855ed7082832ba6b2966","raw_text_utf8_bytes":35540,"revision_id":"1370639386","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-22T06:09:55Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1370639386","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Ascorbic acid is an organic compound with the formula , originally called hexuronic acid. It is a white solid, but impure samples can appear yellowish. It dissolves freely in water to give mildly acidic solutions. It is a mild reducing agent.\n\nAscorbic acid exists as two enantiomers (mirror-image isomers), commonly denoted \"\" (for \"levo\") and \"\" (for \"dextro\"). The isomer is the one most often encountered: it occurs naturally in many foods, and is one form (\"vitamer\") of vitamin C, an essential nutrient for humans and many animals. Deficiency of vitamin C causes scurvy, formerly a major disease of sailors in long sea voyages. It is used as a food additive and a dietary supplement for its antioxidant properties. The \"\" form (erythorbic acid) can be made by chemical synthesis, but has no major biological role.\nEtymology\nThe term ascorbic means \"without scurvy\" (\"a-\" meaning \"without\" and \"scorbutic\" meaning \"of scurvy\") and denotes the ability to fight off scurvy. It is related to combating Vitamin C deficiency.\nHistory\nThe antiscorbutic properties of certain foods were demonstrated in the 18th century by James Lind. In 1907, Axel Holst and Theodor Frølich discovered that the antiscorbutic factor was a water-soluble chemical substance, distinct from the one that prevented beriberi. Between 1928 and 1932, Albert Szent-Györgyi isolated a candidate for this substance, which he called \"hexuronic acid\", first from plants and later from animal adrenal glands. In 1932 Charles Glen King confirmed that it was indeed the antiscorbutic factor.\n\nIn 1933, sugar chemist Walter Norman Haworth, working with samples of \"hexuronic acid\" (now called ascorbic acid) that Szent-Györgyi had isolated from paprika and sent him in the previous year, deduced the correct structure and optical-isomeric nature of the compound, and in 1934 reported its first synthesis. In reference to the compound's antiscorbutic properties, Haworth and Szent-Györgyi proposed to rename it \"a-scorbic acid\" for the compound, and later specifically -ascorbic acid. Because of their work, in 1937 two Nobel Prizes: in Chemistry and in Physiology or Medicine were awarded to Haworth and Szent-Györgyi, respectively.\nChemical propertiesAcidity\nAscorbic acid is a furan-based lactone of 2-ketogluconic acid. It contains an adjacent enediol adjacent to the carbonyl. This −C(OH)=C(OH)−C(=O)− structural pattern is characteristic of reductones, and increases the acidity of one of the enol hydroxyl groups. The deprotonated conjugate base is the ascorbate anion, which is stabilized by electron delocalization that results from resonance between two forms:\nFor this reason, ascorbic acid is much more acidic than would be expected if the compound contained only isolated hydroxyl groups.\nSalts\nThe ascorbate anion forms salts, such as sodium ascorbate, calcium ascorbate, lithium ascorbate, and potassium ascorbate.\nEsters\nAscorbic acid can also react with organic acids as an alcohol forming esters such as ascorbyl palmitate and ascorbyl stearate.\nNucleophilic attack\nNucleophilic attack of ascorbic acid on a proton results in a 1,3-diketone:\nOxidation\nThe ascorbate ion is the predominant species at typical biological pH values. It is a mild reducing agent and antioxidant, typically reacting with oxidants of the reactive oxygen species, such as the hydroxyl radical.\n\nReactive oxygen species are damaging to animals and plants at the molecular level due to their possible interaction with nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids. Sometimes these radicals initiate chain reactions. Ascorbate can terminate these chain radical reactions by electron transfer. The oxidized forms of ascorbate are relatively unreactive and do not cause cellular damage.\n\nAscorbic acid and its sodium, potassium, and calcium salts are commonly used as antioxidant food additives. These compounds are water-soluble, and thus cannot protect fats from oxidation: for this purpose, the fat-soluble esters of ascorbic acid with long-chain fatty acids (ascorbyl palmitate and ascorbyl stearate) can be used as antioxidant food additives. Sodium-dependent active transport process enables absorption of ascorbic acid from the intestine.\n\nAscorbate readily donates a hydrogen atom to free radicals, forming the radical anion semidehydroascorbate (also known as monodehydroascorbate), a resonance-stabilized semitrione:\nLoss of an electron from semidehydroascorbate to produce the 1,2,3-tricarbonyl pseudodehydroascorbate is thermodynamically disfavored, which helps prevent propagation of free radical chain reactions such as autoxidation:\nHowever, being a good electron donor, excess ascorbate in the presence of free metal ions can not only promote but also initiate free radical reactions, thus making it a potentially dangerous pro-oxidative compound in certain metabolic contexts.\n\nSemidehydroascorbate oxidation instead occurs in conjunction with hydration, yielding the bicyclic hemiketal dehydroascorbate. In particular, semidehydroascorbate undergoes disproportionation to ascorbate and dehydroascorbate:\nAqueous solutions of dehydroascorbate are unstable, undergoing hydrolysis with a half-life of 5–15 minutes at . Decomposition products include diketogulonic acid, xylonic acid, threonic acid and oxalic acid.\nOther reactions\nIt creates volatile compounds when mixed with glucose and amino acids at 90 °C.\n\nIt is a cofactor in tyrosine oxidation, though because a crude extract of animal liver is used, it is unclear which reaction catalyzed by which enzyme is being helped here. For known roles in enzymatic reactions, see .\n\nBecause it reduces iron(III) and chelates iron ions, it enhances the oral absorption of non-heme iron. This property also applies to its enantiomer.\nConversion to oxalate\nIn 1958, it was discovered that ascorbic acid can be converted to oxalate, a key component of calcium oxalate kidney stones. The process begins with the formation of dehydroascorbic acid (DHA) from the ascorbyl radical. While DHA can be recycled back to ascorbic acid, a portion irreversibly degrades to 2,3-diketogulonic acid (DKG), which then breaks down to both oxalate and the sugars L-erythrulose and threosone. Research conducted in the 1960s suggested ascorbic acid could substantially contribute to urinary oxalate content (possibly over 40%), but these estimates have been questioned due to methodological limitations. Subsequent large cohort studies have yielded conflicting results regarding the link between vitamin C intake and kidney stone formation. The overall clinical significance of ascorbic acid consumption to kidney stone risk, however, remains inconclusive, although several studies have suggested a potential association, especially with high-dose supplementation in men.\nUses\nFood additive\nThe main use of -ascorbic acid and its salts is as food additives, mostly to combat oxidation and prevent discoloration of the product during storage. It is approved for this purpose in the EU with E number E300, the US, Australia, and New Zealand.\n\nThe \"\" enantiomer (erythorbic acid) shares all of the non-biological chemical properties with the more common enantiomer. As a result, it is an equally effective food antioxidant, and is also approved in processed foods.\nDietary supplement and biological relevance\nAnother major use of -ascorbic acid is as a dietary supplement. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Its deficiency over a prolonged period of time could cause scurvy, which is characterized by fatigue, widespread weakness in connective tissues and capillary fragility. It affects multiple organ systems due to its role in the biochemical reactions of connective tissue synthesis. Ascorbic acid deficiency inhibits the body's ability to synthesize collagen, which results in body deterioration such as producing tender joints, weakness, and ruptured blood vessels.\nNiche, non-food uses\nAscorbic acid is easily oxidized and so is used as a reductant in photographic developer solutions (among others) and as a preservative.\nIn fluorescence microscopy and related fluorescence-based techniques, ascorbic acid can be used as an antioxidant to increase fluorescent signal and chemically retard dye photobleaching.\nIt is also commonly used to remove dissolved metal stains, such as iron, from fiberglass swimming pool surfaces.\nIn plastic manufacturing, ascorbic acid can be used to assemble molecular chains more quickly and with less waste than traditional synthesis methods.\nHeroin users are known to use ascorbic acid as a means to convert heroin base to a water-soluble salt so that it can be injected.\nAs justified by its reaction with iodine, it is used to negate the effects of iodine tablets in water purification. It reacts with the sterilized water, removing the taste, color, and smell of the iodine. This is why it is often sold as a second set of tablets in most sporting goods stores as Potable Aqua-Neutralizing Tablets, along with the potassium iodide tablets.\nIntravenous high-dose ascorbate is being used as a chemotherapeutic and biological response modifying agent. It is undergoing clinical trials.\nIt is sometimes used as a urinary acidifier to enhance the antiseptic effect of methenamine.\nSynthesis\nNatural biosynthesis of vitamin C occurs through various processes in many plants and animals.\nIndustrial preparation\nSeventy percent of the world's supply of ascorbic acid is produced in China. Ascorbic acid is prepared in industry from glucose in a method based on the historical Reichstein process. In the first of a five-step process, glucose is catalytically hydrogenated to sorbitol, which is then oxidized by the microorganism Acetobacter suboxydans to sorbose. Only one of the six hydroxy groups is oxidized by this enzymatic reaction. From this point, two routes are available. Treatment of the product with acetone in the presence of an acid catalyst converts four of the remaining hydroxyl groups to acetals. The unprotected hydroxyl group is oxidized to the carboxylic acid by reaction with the catalytic oxidant TEMPO (regenerated by sodium hypochlorite bleaching solution). Historically, industrial preparation via the Reichstein process used potassium permanganate as the bleaching solution. Acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of this product performs the dual function of removing the two acetal groups and ring-closing lactonization. This step yields ascorbic acid. Each of the five steps has a yield larger than 90%.\n\nA biotechnological process, first developed in China in the 1960s but further developed in the 1990s, bypasses acetone-protecting groups. A second genetically modified microbe species, such as mutant Erwinia, among others, oxidises sorbose into 2-ketogluconic acid (2-KGA), which can then undergo ring-closing lactonization via dehydration. This method is used in the predominant process used by the ascorbic acid industry. Researchers are exploring means for one-step fermentation.\nDetermination\nThe traditional way to analyze the ascorbic acid content is by titration with an oxidizing agent, and several procedures have been developed.\n\nThe popular iodometry approach uses iodine in the presence of a starch indicator. Iodine is reduced by ascorbic acid, and when all the ascorbic acid has reacted, the iodine is in excess, forming a blue-black complex with the starch indicator. This indicates the end-point of the titration.\n\nAs an alternative, ascorbic acid can be treated with iodine in excess, followed by back titration with sodium thiosulfate using starch as an indicator.\n\nThis iodometric method has been revised to exploit the reaction of ascorbic acid with iodate and iodide in acid solution. Electrolyzing the potassium iodide solution produces iodine, which reacts with ascorbic acid. The end of the process is determined by potentiometric titration like Karl Fischer titration. The amount of ascorbic acid can be calculated by Faraday's law.\n\nAnother alternative uses N-bromosuccinimide (NBS) as the oxidizing agent in the presence of potassium iodide and starch. The NBS first oxidizes the ascorbic acid; when the latter is exhausted, the NBS liberates the iodine from the potassium iodide, which then forms the blue-black complex with starch.\nSee also\nColour retention agent\nErythorbic acid: a diastereomer of ascorbic acid.\nMineral ascorbates: salts of ascorbic acid\nAcids in wine\nReferencesFurther reading\nExternal links\nIPCS Poisons Information Monograph (PIM) 046\nInteractive 3D-structure of vitamin C with details on the x-ray structure","text_chars":12528,"text_sha256":"c210d49b6e8b012c65705b0b79919aeb930d36879f150788987e340ad2d4208c","text_utf8_bytes":12542,"title":"Chemistry of ascorbic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistry_of_ascorbic_acid","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"dfd2bcd07a25f59b2b22eecc86c50279f0026fbc0f0fe78b9558652479bff37f"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2551&action=history","id":"2551","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":10751,"raw_text_sha256":"a987b4f237720b59067fb53bb8cf83ab26a6f17b4326fb1e0c5fcb18b45e54a5","raw_text_utf8_bytes":10798,"revision_id":"1370280377","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-20T05:05:40Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1370280377","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Astronomical year numbering is based on AD/CE year numbering, but follows normal decimal integer numbering more strictly. Thus, it has a year 0; the years before that are designated with negative numbers and the years after that are designated with positive numbers. Astronomers use the Julian calendar for years before 1582, including the year 0, and the Gregorian calendar for years after 1582, as exemplified by Jacques Cassini (1740), Simon Newcomb (1898) and Fred Espenak (2007).\n\nThe prefix AD and the suffixes CE, BC or BCE (Common Era, Before Christ or Before Common Era) are dropped. The year 1 BC/BCE is numbered 0, the year 2 BC is numbered −1, and in general the year n BC/BCE is numbered \"−(n − 1)\" (a negative number equal to 1 − n). The numbers of AD/CE years are not changed and are written with either no sign or a positive sign; thus in general n AD/CE is simply n or +n. For normal calculation a number zero is often needed, here most notably when calculating the number of years in a period that spans the epoch; the end years need only be subtracted from each other.\n\nThe system is so named due to its use in astronomy. Few other disciplines outside history deal with the time before year 1, some exceptions being dendrochronology, archaeology and geology, the latter two of which use 'years before the present'. Although the absolute numerical values of astronomical and historical years only differ by one before year 1, this difference is critical when calculating astronomical events like eclipses or planetary conjunctions to determine when historical events which mention them occurred.\nUsage of the year zero\nIn his Rudolphine Tables (1627), Johannes Kepler used a prototype of year zero which he labeled Christi (Christ's) between years labeled Ante Christum (Before Christ) and Post Christum (After Christ) on the mean motion tables for the Sun, Moon, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus and Mercury. In 1702, the French astronomer Philippe de la Hire used a year he labeled at the end of years labeled ante Christum (BC), and immediately before years labeled post Christum (AD) on the mean motion pages in his Tabulæ Astronomicæ, thus adding the designation 0 to Kepler's Christi. Finally, in 1740 the French astronomer Jacques Cassini , who is traditionally credited with the invention of year zero, completed the transition in his Tables astronomiques, simply labeling this year 0, which he placed at the end of Julian years labeled avant Jesus-Christ (before Jesus Christ or BC), and immediately before Julian years labeled après Jesus-Christ (after Jesus Christ or AD).\n\nCassini gave the following reasons for using a year 0:\n\nFred Espenak of NASA lists 50 phases of the Moon within year 0, showing that it is a full year, not an instant in time. Jean Meeus gives the following explanation:\nSigned years without the year zero\nAlthough he used the usual French terms \"avant J.-C.\" (before Jesus Christ) and \"après J.-C.\" (after Jesus Christ) to label years elsewhere in his book, the Byzantinist historian Venance Grumel (1890–1967) used negative years (identified by a minus sign, −) to label BC years and unsigned positive years to label AD years in a table. He may have done so to save space and he put no year 0 between them.\n\nVersion 1.0 of the XML Schema language, often used to describe data interchanged between computers in XML, includes built-in primitive datatypes date and dateTime. Although these are defined in terms of ISO 8601 which uses the proleptic Gregorian calendar and therefore should include a year 0, the XML Schema specification states that there is no year zero. Version 1.1 of the defining recommendation realigned the specification with ISO 8601 by including a year zero, despite the problems arising from the lack of backward compatibility.\nSee also\nJulian day, another calendar commonly used by astronomers\nAstronomical chronology\nHolocene calendar\nISO 8601\nReferences","text_chars":3926,"text_sha256":"2a231d6d8544660dced9a7a88d5482274d04751f2f3fdfd809b3363b7f1bcf81","text_utf8_bytes":3942,"title":"Astronomical year numbering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_year_numbering","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"a0c4f91e8aa8120c1cac3d73d10281a822576162c75c5b5d14cb4c3014102ddc"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2127&action=history","id":"2127","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":737,"raw_text_sha256":"07e5bedf4f490dbd77609c17175df25cc41596d8530f458554f64798fb5dd443","raw_text_utf8_bytes":744,"revision_id":"1157858585","revision_timestamp":"2023-05-31T11:49:52Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1157858585","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"An Arene, or aromatic hydrocarbon, is a hydrocarbon with alternating double and single bonds between carbon atoms forming rings.\n\nArene may also refer to:\nArene (gastropod), a genus of marine snails in the family Areneidae\nArene (mythology), the wife of Aphareus and mother of Idas and Lynceus in Greek mythology\nArene, Elis, an ancient town in Elis, Greece, also known as Samiko\nJean Arènes (1898–1960), French botanist who described many new species of the genus Dombeya\nPaul Arène (1843–1896), Provençal poet and French writer\nSee also\nArena (disambiguation)","text_chars":561,"text_sha256":"3d9abb1a142d3f310ca81d4f7a879934f7499741e88fe3b50ea3be17bd8035a8","text_utf8_bytes":568,"title":"Arene (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arene_%28disambiguation%29","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"054551c3d4d5be46b1f2f839738aecef02b7b1769f3879c8f09fed44dc0347ea"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2245&action=history","id":"2245","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":14832,"raw_text_sha256":"99f7d9efdbc37a1bacbbbaf998dccae7ce5a2799ee7a64ec2ed6c5a52d7c0090","raw_text_utf8_bytes":14842,"revision_id":"1372785063","revision_timestamp":"2026-09-02T07:06:02Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1372785063","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"The Annapolis Valley is a valley and region in the province of Nova Scotia, Canada. It is located in the western part of the Nova Scotia peninsula, formed by a trough between two parallel mountain ranges along the shore of the Bay of Fundy. Statistics Canada defines the Annapolis Valley as an economic region, composed of Annapolis County, Kings County, and Hants County.\nGeography\nThe valley measures approximately in length from Annapolis Royal and the Annapolis Basin in the west to Wolfville and the Minas Basin in the east, spanning the counties of Digby, Annapolis and Kings.\n\nSome also include the western part of Hants County, including the towns of Hantsport and Windsor even further to the east, but geographically speaking they are part of the Avon River valley.\n\nThe steep face of basaltic North Mountain shelters the valley from the adjacent Bay of Fundy and rises over in elevation near Lawrencetown. The granitic South Mountain rises to a somewhat higher elevation and shelters the valley from the climate of the Atlantic Ocean approximately 100 kilometres further south on the province's South Shore.\n\nThe shelter provided by these two mountainous ridges has produced a microclimate which provides relatively mild temperatures for the region and, coupled with the fertile glacial sedimentary soils on the valley floor, the region is conducive to growing vegetable and fruit crops. Particularly famous for its apple crop, the valley hosts in excess of 1,000 farms of various types, the majority being relatively small family-owned operations.\n\nWithin the valley itself are two major rivers, the Annapolis River which flows west from Caribou Bog in the central part of the valley into Annapolis Basin, and the Cornwallis River which flows east from Caribou Bog into Minas Basin. The North Mountain ridge forms the north side of the Annapolis Valley. Also flowing east, in two smaller valleys north of the Cornwallis River, are the Canard River and the Habitant River, both of which also flow into the Minas Basin.\nHistory\nImage:Annapolis Valley from lookoff1.JPG|thumb|left|Annapolis Valley from North Mountain in Valleyview Provincial Park, north of Bridgetown\n\nLong settled by the Mi'kmaq nation, the valley experienced French settlement at the Habitation at Port-Royal, near modern-day Annapolis Royal in the western part of the valley, beginning in 1605. From there, the Acadians spread throughout the Valley, in various communities, building dykes to claim the tidal lands along the Annapolis and Cornwallis Rivers. They continued throughout the Annapolis Valley until the British-ordered expulsion of Acadians in 1755 which is memorialized at Grand-Pré in the eastern part of the valley. New England Planters moved in to occupy the abandoned Acadian farming areas and the region also saw subsequent settlement by Loyalist refugees of the American Revolutionary War, as well as foreign Protestants. These were followed by significant numbers of freed Africans in the War of 1812, Irish immigrants in the mid-19th century and Dutch immigrants after World War II. Agriculture in the Annapolis valley boomed in the late 19th century with the arrival of the Windsor and Annapolis Railway, later the Dominion Atlantic Railway, which developed large export markets for Annapolis Valley apples.\n\nThe Annapolis Valley Regional Library was established in 1949. It was the first regional library system in Nova Scotia.\nEconomy\nFile:Port Royal today.jpg|thumb|Western end, at Port-Royal habitation, where Annapolis River widens to form the Annapolis Basin\nFile:Grafton, Nova Scotia.JPG|thumb|Corn at Grafton\n\nThe Valley has traditionally been built on a diversified agricultural industry, with a wide range of output ranging from livestock to fruit trees and berries. The last quarter-century has also seen the development of a wine industry, with such notable wineries as Gaspereau Vineyards winning national and international awards for their produce.\n\nToday, the Valley is still largely dominated by agriculture but also has a growing diversity in its economies, partly aided by the importance of post-secondary education centres provided by Acadia University in Wolfville, and the Nova Scotia Community College campuses located in Kentville, Middleton, Lawrencetown, and Digby.\n\nMichelin has an important truck tire manufacturing plant in Waterville and the Department of National Defence has its largest air force base in Atlantic Canada located at CFB Greenwood along with an important training facility at Camp Aldershot, near Kentville.\n\nTourism is also an important industry and the Annapolis Valley is known for its scenic farmland, although today some is threatened with suburban development in the eastern end, and a great deal has been abandoned. The valley also struggles with pollution from farm runoffs and residential sewers in its two major rivers, the Annapolis River and the Cornwallis River. The Annapolis Valley additionally has become home to the majority of Nova Scotia wineries, located in either the Gaspereau Valley or in the Canning, Grand Pré, or Bear River areas.\n\nThe Valley is home to the annual Apple Blossom Festival, held in late spring. In July is the annual Steer Bar-B-Que in Kingston, and Heart of the Valley Festival in Middleton. August sees Mud Creek Days in Wolfville and the Annapolis Valley Exhibition in Lawrencetown. Bridgetown's Cider Festival comes in mid-September. The Canadian Deep Roots Music Festival is held each year at the end of September in Wolfville, a community-based festival, supported by both the Town of Wolfville and Acadia University and built by over 100 volunteers, and on in-kind and financial support from virtually all sectors of the Valley community. Late October sees Wolfville and Kings County play host to Devour! The Food Film Fest, an annual international film festival celebrating all things culinary. Farmers markets in Annapolis Royal, Bridgetown, Middleton, Kentville, Kingsport, Berwick and Wolfville bring a produce and other goods to the public every week. In the fall, there is the Pumpkin People in Kentville.\nCommunities\nCommunities in the Valley from west to east include:\nDigby\nCornwallis\nAnnapolis Royal\nBridgetown\nLawrencetown\nMiddleton\nGreenwood\nKingston\nAuburn\nAylesford\nBerwick\nWaterville\nCambridge\nColdbrook\nKentville\nNew Minas\nCanning\nWolfville\nGrand-Pré\nGlooscap\nHantsport\nMount Denson\nFalmouth\nWindsor\nMount Uniacke\nRawdon\nEast Hants\nNine Mile River\nElmsdale\nMilford\nNotable residents\nWilliam Hall (1827–1904), the first Black person, first Nova Scotian, and the third Canadian to receive the Victoria Cross\nBenjamin Jackson (1835–1915), Black Nova Scotian sailor, farmer, and decorated veteran of the American Civil War\nReferencesExternal links\nAnnapolis Valley Tourism","text_chars":6778,"text_sha256":"e22f98418e492ad4adf8c89b5ccc95c4aebee6c62f2e5291b25dc1648b5af2f1","text_utf8_bytes":6785,"title":"Annapolis Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annapolis_Valley","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"9455549084d29090012942d6c87cba458ef107d44117c40e24282da3fa6d7685"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3070&action=history","id":"3070","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":57821,"raw_text_sha256":"f7d1861f9620b013cb18613ce2cfd7092ff61e5715c4958265725eddcf2f5cce","raw_text_utf8_bytes":58365,"revision_id":"1369759006","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-17T00:09:48Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1369759006","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"The Durrani Empire, colloquially known as the Kingdom of Afghanistan, the Afghan Empire, or the Sadozai Kingdom, was an Afghan empire founded in 1747 by Ahmad Shah Durrani, of the Pashtun Durrani tribe. The empire spanned parts of Central Asia, the Iranian plateau, and the Indian subcontinent. At its peak, it ruled over present-day Afghanistan, much of Pakistan, parts of northeastern and southeastern Iran, eastern Turkmenistan, and northwestern India. Next to the Ottoman Empire, the Durrani Empire is considered to be among the most significant Islamic empires of the second half of the 18th century.\n\nAhmad was the son of Muhammad Zaman Khan, chief of the Abdali tribe, and the commander of Nader Shah Afshar. Following Afshar's death in June 1747, Ahmad secured western and central Afghanistan by taking Kandahar and Ghazni. After his accession as the nation's king, he changed his tribal name from Abdali to Durrani. In 1749, the eastern Afghanistan was under the control of Maratha Empire who occupied it from Mughals; Ahmad then set out westward to take possession of Mashhad, which was ruled by the Afsharid dynasty under Shahrokh Shah, who also acknowledged Afghan suzerainty. Subsequently, Ahmad sent an army to subdue the areas north of the Hindu Kush down to the Amu Darya, and in short order, all of the different Afghan tribes began to join his cause. Under Ahmad, the Afghans invaded India on eight occasions, subjugating parts of Kashmir and the majority of Punjab. In early 1757, Ahmad Shah sacked Delhi, but permitted Mughal emperor Alamgir II to remain in nominal control as long as he acknowledged Afghan suzerainty over the regions south of the Indus River, up to the Sutlej River.\n\nFollowing Ahmad's death in 1772, his son Timur Shah Durrani became the next ruler of the Durrani dynasty. Under Timur, the city of Kabul became the new capital of the Durrani Empire while Peshawar served as its winter capital. However, the empire had begun to crumble by this time, and lost territories of Peshawar, Multan and Kashmir to the Sikh Empire in the early 19th century. The dynasty would become heirs of Afghanistan for generations, up until Dost Muhammad Khan and the Barakzai dynasty deposed the Durrani dynasty in Kabul, leading to its supersession by the Emirate of Afghanistan. The Durrani Empire is considered to be the foundational polity of the modern nation-state of Afghanistan, with Ahmad being credited as its Father of the Nation.\nHistoryReign of Ahmad Shah Durrani (1747–1772)\nFoundation of the Afghan state\nIn 1709, Mirwais Hotak chief of the Ghilji tribe of Kandahar Province, gained independence from the Safavid Persians. From 1722 to 1725, his son Mahmud Hotak briefly ruled large parts of Iran and declared himself as Shah of Persia. However, the Hotak dynasty came to a complete end in 1738 after being toppled and banished by the Afsharids who were led by Nader Shah Afshar of Persia.\n\nThe year 1747 marks the definitive appearance of an Afghan political entity independent of both the Persian and Mughal empires. In June of that year a loya jirga (grand council) was called into session. The jirga lasted for nine days and two chief contestants emerged: Hajji Jamal Khan of the Mohammadzai lineage and Ahmad Khan of the Sadozai. Mohammad Sabir Khan, a noted darwish (holy man), who had earlier predicted that Ahmad Khan would be the leader of the Afghans, rose in the jirga and said\n\nAhmad Khan reputedly hesitated to accept the open decision of the jirga, so Sabir Khan again intervened. He placed some wheat or barley sheaves in Ahmad Khan's turban, and crowned him Pādshah, Durr-i-Durrān (Shah, Pearl of the Pearls). The jirga concluded near the city of Kandahar with Ahmad Shah Durrani being selected as the new leader of the Afghans, thus the Durrani dynasty was founded. Despite being younger than the other contenders, Ahmad Shah had several overriding factors in his favor. He belonged to a respectable family of political background, especially since his father had served as Governor of Herat who died in a battle defending the Afghans.\nEarly victories\nOne of Ahmad Shah's first military actions was to capture Qalati Ghilji and Ghazni from the Ghilji, and wrest Kabul and Peshawar from Mughal-appointed governor Nasir Khan. In 1749, the Mughal Emperor Ahmad Shah Bahadur was induced to cede Sindh, the Punjab region and the important trans Indus River to Ahmad Shah Durrani in order to save his capital from Afghan attack. Having thus gained substantial territories to the east without a fight, Ahmad Shah turned westward to take possession of Mashhad, which was ruled by Nader Shah Afshar's grandson, Shahrukh Afshar. Ahmad Shah next sent an army to subdue the areas north of the Hindu Kush mountains. In short order, the powerful army brought under its control the Tajik, Hazara, Uzbek, Turkmen, and other tribes of northern Afghanistan. Ahmad Shah invaded the remnants of the Mughal Empire a third time, and then a fourth, consolidating control over the Kashmir and Punjab regions, with Lahore being governed by Afghans. He sacked Delhi in 1757 but permitted the Mughal dynasty to remain in nominal control of the city as long as the ruler acknowledged Ahmad Shah's suzerainty over Punjab, Sindh, and Kashmir. Leaving his second son Timur Shah to safeguard his interests, Ahmad Shah left India to return to Afghanistan.\nRelations with China\nFazil Biy, the ruler of Kokand, and other Kyrgyz chieftains pleaded to Ahmad Shah to aid them against Qing expansionism. Ahmad Shah, delighted to use a casus belli in the name of Islam, accepted, and occupied the regions between Tashkent and Kokand in 1763, though later withdrawing by 1764 as any alliance failed to be forged.\n\nIn 1763, Ahmad Shah had dispatched an embassy to the Qing. His aims in this are unknown, however, an embassy allowed Ahmad Shah to establish himself as an emperor. The letter he sent to the Qing emperor Qianlong is missing, but from the Qing reply, the letter was likely dedicated to his conquests and victory at Panipat, alongside Qing expansion.\n\nThe letter positioned Ahmad Shah's expansions as bringing order and stability to areas overrun with rebels and lawlessness (in reference to his campaigns in Iran and India). The battle of Panipat was strongly detailed in the letter, in what was likely a fath-nama, meaning a victory letter or declaration to celebrate a victory. The Qing emperor ignored the effective threat.\n\nIn the second part of the letter, Qianlong appeared much more defensive, justifying the Qing conquest of the Dzungars and the Altishahr Khojas. He accused them of causing devastation and laying false accusations against him. A report also suggested that Ahmad Shah considered the territories the Qing claimed belonged to the Muslims. In reality, Ahmad Shah possibly wanted to establish spheres of influence, which was similarly done with the Ottomans which divided Iran between them, and a treaty with Bukhara that had established the Amu Darya as the border.\n\nWhen the Afghan embassy had arrived in Beijing, the chief envoy, Khwaja Mirhan, had refused to kowtow before the Qing emperor. The Qing officials, in shock, demanded he kowtow, to which Mirhan eventually acquiesced. This incident damaged the Qing-Afghan relations and Qianlong cut ties with the Afghans following this. No immediate consequence occurred, and the envoy was shown favor.\n\nMirhan's refusal likely came out of religious reasons, but the Qing received it as Ahmad Shah declaring himself equal to Qianlong. From Qianlong's view, he saw the Afghans as a significant power and attempted to impress the envoy and in contrast, Ahmad Shah, of the Qing empire. This was especially done in motivation of Altishahr's recent conquest and concerns over stability in the region.\n\nAhmad Shah's gifts to the Qing emperor included four horses, which were painted by the Qing court painter, Giuseppe Castiglione. Nonetheless, by the time of the envoy's return journey to Afghanistan, Qianlong made preparations to secure Qing territories.\n\nIn 1759, as the revolt of the Altishahr Khojas crumbled, two descendants of the Afaqi Sufi lineage crossed into Badakhshan, being pursued by the Qing forces. Fude, the Qing general of the expedition, demanded that Sultan Shah, the ruler of Badakhshan, to arrest the brothers. Sultan Shah accepted, likely wishing to receive Qing military aid against the Durrani Empire. Distrust occurred, however, due to the Afaqi descendants residing in Badakhshan for months, including Sultan Shah's initial refusal to hand them over, possibly intending to send them to Bukhara. Qianlong threatened invasion, which did not occur as one of the descendant's remains were sent to Yarkand.\n\nThe death of the Afaqi brothers spurned relations with the Afghans, causing Sultan Shah to plead to the Qing, claiming that Ahmad Shah intended to exact revenge for their deaths. No immediate Afghan invasion occurred. The Qing however, faced numerous frustrations with their tributaries in Central Asia, alongside a major insurrection in Uch-Turfan that required tremendous effort to defeat.\n\nAs a result, Qianlong adopted a policy of strict non-interference, realizing that Qing troops in Altishahr were significantly stretched and spread thin. The Afghans, however, seen as a threat, would show the weakness of Qing control in the region.\n\nIn August 1768, Qianlong was informed of the Afghan invasion of Badakhshan led by Shah Wali Khan in May, with Afghan forces seizing Sultan Shah's capital, Fayzabad. A Qing agent, Yunggui, held the position that the Qing should interfere in the conflict. Qianlong, however, affirmed that military intervention would irrational, and strictly forbade any military interference. Historians see this as surprising, as the invasion by the Afghans threatened the Qing Empire itself.\n\nQing sources affirm that the Afghans established Sarimsaq, a child of the Afaqi's who escaped to Badakhshan, in Kunduz. Qianlong was distraught, as another possible revolt could revolve around Sarimsaq, especially after reports came of Muslim travelers and funds being sent to Sarimsaq. This still did not convince Qianlong to act, and he refused to send any negative response to Ahmad Shah at all. During this, Sultan Shah defeated the Afghan governor and reoccupied his capital, but feared another Afghan invasion, sending desperate letters to the Qing in the winter of 1768 to ask for help, claiming that Ahmad Shah would invade next year.\n\nQianlong rebutted, blaming Sultan Shah for provoking the conflict with the Afghans and affirmed that he would only fight the Afghans if they actually invaded Qing territory. Sultan Shah wrote a letter to Emin Khoja in response in August 1769, expecting aid as he was a vassal, only to find himself abandoned. In December 1769, Sultan Shah wrote another letter that accused Qianlong of failing to uphold his duties. Qianlong rebuked him, and stated that under no circumstances would the Qing aid him.\n\nQianlong had initially considered the Afghans tributaries, but after the former incident, he no longer even sought the prospect of any form of Durrani submission. His reply to Sultan Shah effectively saw the Qing recognize the Afghans as a rival power to them, with Qianlong recognizing that the Afghans were unable to be treated like tributaries. Rather than aiding the ruler of Badakhshan as his initial policy implicated him to, Qianlong instead justified the Afghan invasion, prompted to by overextended armies, the distance, and stability. Instead, gambling on the difficult terrain between the Afghan and Qing realms for safety. Within the year, Ahmad Shah occupied Badakhshan and Sultan Shah was executed.\nThird Battle of Panipat\nThe Mughal power in northern India had been declining after the death of Emperor Aurangzeb, who died in 1707. In 1751–52, the Ahamdiya treaty was signed between the Marathas and Mughals, when Balaji Bajirao was the Peshwa. Through this treaty, the Marathas controlled virtually the whole of India from their capital at Pune and the Mughal rule was restricted only to Delhi (the Mughals remained the nominal heads of Delhi). Marathas were now straining to expand their area of control towards the Northwest of India. Ahmad Shah sacked the Mughal capital and withdrew with the booty he coveted. To counter the Afghans, Peshwa Balaji Bajirao sent Raghunathrao. He defeated the Rohillas and Afghan garrisons in Punjab and succeeded in ousting Timur Shah and his court from India and brought Lahore, Multan, Kashmir and other subahs on the Indian side of Attock under Maratha rule. Thus, upon his return to Kandahar in 1757, Ahmad was forced to return to India and face the formidable attacks of the Maratha Confederacy.\n\nAhmad Shah declared a jihad (or Islamic holy war) against the Marathas, and warriors from various Afghan tribes joined his army, including the Baloch people under the command of Khan of Kalat Mir Nasir I of Kalat. Suba Khan Tanoli (Zabardast Khan) was selected as army chief of all military forces. Early skirmishes were followed by victory for the Afghans against the much larger Maratha garrisons in Northwest India and by 1759 Ahmad Shah and his army had reached Lahore and were poised to confront the Marathas. Ahmad Shah Durrani was famous for winning wars much larger than his army. By 1760, the Maratha groups had coalesced into a big enough army under the command of Sadashivrao Bhau. Once again, Panipat was the scene of a confrontation between two warring contenders for control of northern India. The Third Battle of Panipat (14 January 1761), fought between largely Muslim and largely Hindu armies was waged along a twelve-kilometer front. There were rebellions in the north in the region of Bukhara. The Durranis decisively defeated the Marathas in the Third Battle of Panipat on 14 January 1761. The defeat at Panipat resulted in heavy losses for the Marathas, and was a huge setback for Peshwa Balaji Rao. He received the news of the defeat of Panipat on 24 January 1761 at Bhilsa, while leading a reinforcement force. Besides several important generals, he had lost his own son Vishwasrao in the Battle of Panipat. He died on 23 June 1761, and was succeeded by his younger son Madhav Rao I.\nFinal years\nThe victory at Panipat was the high point of Ahmad Shah's—and Afghan—power. However, even prior to his death, the empire began to unravel. In 1762, Ahmad Shah crossed the passes from Afghanistan for the sixth time to subdue the Sikhs. From this time and on, the domination and control of the Empire began to loosen, and by the time of Durrani's death he had lost parts of Punjab to the Sikhs, as well as earlier losses of northern territories to the Uzbeks, necessitating a compromise with them.\n\nHe assaulted Lahore and, after taking their holy city of Amritsar, massacred thousands of Sikh inhabitants, destroyed their revered Golden Temple. Within two years, the Sikhs rebelled again and rebuilt their holy city of Amritsar. Ahmad Shah tried several more times to subjugate the Sikhs permanently, but failed. Durrani's forces instigated the Vaḍḍā Ghallūghārā when they killed thousands of Sikhs in the Punjab in 1762. Ahmad Shah also faced other rebellions in the north, and eventually he and the Uzbek Emir of Bukhara agreed that the Amu Darya would mark the division of their lands. Ahmad Shah retired to his home in the mountains east of Kandahar, where he died in 1772. He had succeeded to a remarkable degree in balancing tribal alliances and hostilities, and in directing tribal energies away from rebellion. He earned recognition as Ahmad Shah Baba, or \"Father\" of Afghanistan.\nOther Durrani rulers in the Empire (1772–1823)\nAhmad Shah's successors governed so ineptly during a period of profound unrest that within fifty years of his death, the Durrani empire per se was at an end, and Afghanistan was embroiled in civil war. Much of the territory conquered by Ahmad Shah fell to others in this half century. By 1818, the Sadozai rulers who succeeded Ahmad Shah controlled little more than Kabul and the surrounding territory within a 160-kilometer radius. They not only lost the outlying territories but also alienated other tribes and lineages among the Durrani Pashtuns.\nHumayun Mirza (1772)\nPrior to his death, Ahmad Shah announced that his son, Timur Shah, would inherit the empire. This was controversial in the court, as many powerul military and tribal leaders had supported Ahmad Shah's elder son, Sulaiman Shah; they attempted to convince Ahmad Shah to change his mind. However, Ahmad Shah said he felt that Sulaiman was violent, unpopular with the Kandahari Durranis, and would be an inferior leader. Timur's appointment would also possibly limit the power held by Senior Generals and the Durrani Tribal Council. Timur was in Herat, however far from his ailing father; Begi Khan Bamizai and Sardar Jahan Khan used this opportunity to turn Ahmad Shah against his son. When Timur came to see his father, he turned him away. Recognizing that a conflict with his brother was imminent, Timur began building his forces; in this task he was interrupted by Darwish 'Ali Khan's revolt, an action was that possibly orchestrated by those loyal to Sulaiman. Timur promised Darwish Ali pardon and power, then executed him after he arrived in Herat.\n\nUpon Ahmad Shah's death in 1772, Shah Wali Khan and Sardar Jahan Khan pretended that the Shah was not dead, merely ill, and was being kept separate from all but the most trusted officials. They began a march, with his body, to the capital, Kandahar; upon arriving, they told Sulaiman of his father's death and declared Sulaiman was to be king. Timur received word of this from Amirs who had turned against Shah Wali, and he too went to Kandahar. The two sides met at Farah, where Shah Wali and his sons were assassinated. Shah Sulayman surrendered to Timur Shah and became loyal, according to Amir Habibullah Khan. Timur Shah ascended the throne in November 1772.\nTimur Shah (1772–1793)Zaman Shah (1793–1801)\nAfter the death of Timur Shah, three of his sons, the governors of Kandahar, Herat and Kabul, contended for the succession. Zaman Shah, governor of Kabul, held the field by virtue of being in control of the capital, and became shah at the age of twenty-three. Many of his half-brothers were imprisoned on their arrival in the capital for the purpose, ironically, of electing a new shah. The quarrels among Timur's descendants that threw Afghanistan into turmoil also provided the pretext for the interventions of outside forces.\n\nThe efforts of the Sadozai heirs of Timur to impose a true monarchy on the truculent Pashtun tribes, and their efforts to rule absolutely and without the advice of the other major Pashtun tribal leaders, were ultimately unsuccessful. The Sikhs started to rise under the command of Sikh chief, Ranjit Singh, who succeeded in wresting power from Zaman's forces. Later, when Zaman was blinded by his brother, Ranjit Singh gave him asylum in Punjab.\n\nZaman's downfall was triggered by his attempts to consolidate power. Although it had been through the support of the Barakzai chief, Painda Khan Barakzai, that he had come to the throne, Zaman soon began to remove prominent Barakzai leaders from positions of power and replace them with men of his own lineage, the Sadozai. This upset the delicate balance of Durrani tribal politics that Ahmad Shah had established and may have prompted Painda Khan and other Durrani chiefs to plot against the shah. Painda Khan and the chiefs of the Nurzai and the Alizai Durrani clans were executed, as was the chief of the Qizilbash clan. Painda Khan's son fled to Iran and pledged the substantial support of his Barakzai followers to a rival claimant to the throne, Zaman's younger brother, Mahmud Shah. The clans of the chiefs Zaman had executed joined forces with the rebels, and they took Kandahar without bloodshed. Mahmud Shah had then proceeded to march to Kabul, where he met Zaman Shah and his army on the way from Ghanzi to Kabul, Zaman Shah was decisively defeated, including portions of his army fleeing to Mahmud Shah's cause. Mahmud Shah ordered the lancing of Zaman Shah's eyes, and had succeeded Zaman Shah on the throne of the Durrani Empire.\nMahmud Shah (first reign, 1801–1803)\nZaman Shah's overthrow in 1801 was not the end of civil strife in Afghanistan, but the beginning of even greater violence. Mahmud Shah's first reign lasted for only two years before he was replaced by Shuja Shah.\nShuja Shah (1803–1809 and 1839–1842)\nYet another of Timur Shah's sons, Shuja Shah (or Shah Shuja), ruled for only six years. On June 7, 1809, Shuja Shah signed a treaty with the British, which included a clause stating that he would oppose the passage of foreign troops through his territories. This agreement, the first Afghan pact with a European power, stipulated joint action in case of Franco-Persian aggression against Afghan or British dominions. Only a few weeks after signing the agreement, Shuja was deposed by his predecessor, Mahmud. Much later, he was reinstated by the British, ruling during 1839–1842. Two of his sons also ruled for a brief period in 1842.\nMahmud Shah (second reign, 1809–1818)\nMahmud's second reign lasted 9 years, where he had further attempted to consolidate power, but was deposed by his brother in 1818, Mahmud's reign was also disputed in 1810, while he was campaigning, another one of Timur Shah Durrani's sons had seized the throne, but was defeated by Shah Mahmud in 1810.\nAbbas Mirza (1810)\nWhile Mahmud Shah was campaigning in 1810, another one of Timur Shah's sons placed himself in rule at Kabul. Abbas Mirza ruled for a short period of time before being defeated by Mahmud Shah once he returned from campaign.\nSultan Ali Shah (1818–1819)\nAli Shah was another son of Timur Shah. He seized power for a brief period in 1818–1819. in 1818 or 1819, He was strangled by his brother, Isma'il.\nAyub Shah (1819–1823)\nAyub Shah was another son of Timur Shah, who took control of the Durrani Empire after the death of Ali Shah Durrani. The Durrani Empire lost its control over Kashmir to the Sikh Empire in the Battle of Shopian in 1819. Ayub Shah was himself later deposed, and presumably killed in 1823.\nDurrani Herat (1793–1863)Shah Shuja and the First Anglo Afghan War (1839–1842)\nIn the 19th century as a whole, Britain and Russia were interlocked in a battle for influence in South Asia. Russian advance was trudging through Central Asia, while the British were landing in the masses on the Indian subcontinent. The \"Army of the Indus\", full of both British and Indian infantrymen and cavalrymen, was intent on restoring Shah Shuja Durrani, the deposed monarch to the throne of Afghanistan. By March 1839, the British had already crossed into the Emirate of Afghanistan.\nMilitary\nThe Durrani military was based on cavalry armed with flintlocks who performed hit-and-run attacks, combining new technology in firearms with Turco-Mongol tactics. The core of the Durrani army were the 10,000 sher-bacha (blunderbuss)-carrying mounted ghulams (slave-soldiers) of which a third were previously Shia soldiers (Qizilbash) of Nader Shah. Many others were also former troops of Nader Shah. The bulk of the army were Afghan irregular tribal cavalry armed with lance and broadsword. Mounted archers were still used but were uncommon due to the difficulty of training them. Infantry played a very small role in the Durrani army and, with the exception of light swivel guns mounted on camels, the Zamburak, so did artillery.\nList of monarchsEmpire (1747–1823; 1839–1842)Kandahar (1793–1795)Herat (1793–1863)See also\nList of Durrani Wazirs\nIndian campaign of Ahmad Shah Durrani\nList of Pashtun empires and dynasties\nNotesReferencesSources\nExternal links\nAfghanistan 1747–1809: Sources in the India Office Records\nBiography of Ahmad Shah Abdali (Durrani)\nAhmad Shah Baba\nAfghanistan and the Search for Unity Article on Durrani methods of government, published in Asian Affairs, Volume 38, Issue 2, 2007, pp. 145–157.","text_chars":24039,"text_sha256":"a94bf9cd49cc135572488a0f601d05f1babb424863a5e24ddddfac6ee40da293","text_utf8_bytes":24095,"title":"Durrani Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durrani_Empire","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"f0e5f0e822a487a4b4a524bc4b46cbf72536b54e75aee825475398f1bfe35c5d"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=681&action=history","id":"681","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":28751,"raw_text_sha256":"5f063db1c7f2478711bfa1bf4d4754fa2110bcfb014f6cbd17edd50dec191a6b","raw_text_utf8_bytes":28815,"revision_id":"1368810805","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-11T06:33:36Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1368810805","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"The aardwolf (Proteles cristatus) is an insectivorous hyaenid species, native to East and Southern Africa. Its name means 'earth-wolf' in Afrikaans and Dutch. It is also called the maanhaarjakkals (Afrikaans for 'mane-jackal'), termite-eating hyena and civet hyena, based on its habit of secreting substances from its anal gland, a characteristic shared with the African civet.\n\nUnlike many of its relatives in the order Carnivora, the aardwolf does not hunt large animals. It eats insects and their larvae, mainly termites; one aardwolf can lap up as many as 300,000 termites during a single night using its long, sticky tongue. The aardwolf's tongue has adapted to be tough enough to withstand the strong bite of termites.\n\nThe aardwolf lives in the shrublands of eastern and southern Africa – open lands covered with stunted trees and shrubs. It is nocturnal, resting in burrows during the day and emerging at night to seek food.\nTaxonomy\nThe aardwolf is generally classified as part of the hyena family Hyaenidae. However, it was formerly placed in its own family Protelidae. Early on, scientists felt that it was merely mimicking the striped hyena, which subsequently led to the creation of Protelidae. Recent studies have suggested that the aardwolf probably diverged from other hyaenids early on; how early is still unclear, as the fossil record and genetic studies disagree by 10 million years.\n\nThe aardwolf is the only surviving species in the subfamily Protelinae. There is disagreement as to whether the species is monotypic, or can be divided into subspecies. A 2021 study found the genetic differences in eastern and southern aardwolves may be pronounced enough to categorize them as species. Therefore, the American Society of Mammalogists currently considers Proteles cristatus and Proteles septentrionalis to be separate species.\n\nA 2006 molecular analysis indicates it is phylogenetically the most basal of the four extant hyaenidae species.\nEtymology\nThe generic name Proteles is derived from two words of Greek origin: , prōtos and téleios, which combined mean \"complete in front\" referring to the aardwolf's five toes on the front paws and four on the hindpaws.\nThe specific name cristatus is derived from Latin and means \"provided with a comb or tuft\", relating to its mane.\nDescription\nFile:Aardwolf, Proteles cristata, at Lion and Rhino Reserve, Gauteng, South Africa (47987248651).jpg|thumb|Aardwolf with tongue exposed. Note the prominent papillae.\nThe aardwolf resembles a much smaller and thinner striped hyena, with a more slender muzzle, black vertical stripes on a coat of yellowish fur, and a long, distinct down the midline of the neck and back. It also has one or two diagonal stripes down the fore and hindquarters and several stripes on its legs. The mane is raised during confrontations to make the aardwolf appear larger. It is missing the throat spot that others in the family have. Its lower leg (from the knee down) is all black, and its tail is bushy with a black tip.\n\nThe aardwolf is about long, excluding its bushy tail, which is about long, and stands about tall at the shoulders. An adult aardwolf weighs approximately , sometimes reaching . The aardwolves in the south of the continent tend to be slightly smaller (about ) than the eastern version (around ). This makes the aardwolf the smallest extant member of the Hyaenidae family. The front feet have five toes each, unlike the four-toed hyena. The skull is similar in shape to those of other hyenas, though much smaller, and its cheek teeth are specialised for eating insects. It still has canines, but unlike other hyenas, these teeth are used primarily for fighting and defense. Its ears, which are large, are very similar to those of the striped hyena.\n\nAs an aardwolf ages, it will typically lose some of its teeth, though this has little impact on its feeding habits due to the softness of the insects that it eats.\nDistribution and habitat\nAardwolves live in open, dry plains and bushland, avoiding mountainous areas. Due to their specific food requirements, they are found only in regions where termites of the family Hodotermitidae occur. Termites of this family depend on dead and withered grass and are most populous in heavily grazed grasslands and savannahs, including farmland. For most of the year, aardwolves spend time in shared territories consisting of up to a dozen dens, which are occupied for six weeks at a time.\n\nThere are two distinct populations: one in Southern Africa, and another in East and Northeast Africa. The species does not occur in the intermediary miombo forests.\n\nAn adult pair, along with their most-recent offspring, occupies a territory of .\nBehavior and ecology\nImage:Aardwolf.jpg|thumb|left|Aardwolf at the San Antonio Zoo\nAardwolves are shy and nocturnal, sleeping in burrows by day. They will, on occasion during the winter, become diurnal feeders. This happens during the coldest periods as they then stay in at night to conserve heat.\n\nThey are primarily solitary animals, though during mating season they form monogamous pairs which occupy a territory with their young. If their territory is infringed upon by another aardwolf, they will chase the intruder away for up to or to the border. If the intruder is caught, which rarely happens, a fight will occur, which is accompanied by soft clucking, hoarse barking, and a type of roar. The majority of incursions occur during mating season, when they can occur once or twice per week. When food is scarce, the stringent territorial system may be abandoned and as many as three pairs may occupy a single territory.\n\nThe territory is marked by both sexes, as they both have developed anal glands from which they extrude a black substance that is smeared on rocks or grass stalks in -long streaks. Aardwolves also have scent glands on the forefoot and penile pad. They often mark near termite mounds within their territory every 20 minutes or so. If they are patrolling their territorial boundaries, the marking frequency increases drastically, to once every . At this rate, an individual may mark 60 marks per hour, and upwards of 200 per night.\n\nAn aardwolf pair's territory may have up to 10 dens, and numerous middens where they dig small holes and bury their feces with sand. Their dens are usually abandoned aardvark, springhare, or porcupine dens, or on occasion they are crevices in rocks. They will also dig their own dens, or enlarge dens started by springhares. They typically will only use one or two dens at a time, rotating through all of their dens every six months. During the summer, they may rest outside their den during the night and sleep underground during the heat of the day.\n\nAardwolves are not fast runners nor are they particularly adept at fighting off predators. Therefore, when threatened, the aardwolf may attempt to mislead its foe by doubling back on its tracks. If confronted, it may raise its mane in an attempt to appear more menacing. It also emits a foul-smelling liquid from its anal glands.\nFeeding\nThe aardwolf feeds primarily on termites and more specifically on Trinervitermes and Hodotermes. This genus of termites has different species throughout the aardwolf's range. In East Africa, they eat Trinervitermes bettonianus, in central Africa, they eat Trinervitermes rhodesiensis, and in southern Africa, they eat T. trinervoides. Their technique consists of licking them off the ground as opposed to the aardvark, which digs into the mound. They locate their food by sound and also from the scent secreted by the soldier termites. An aardwolf may consume up to 250,000 termites per night using its long, broad, sticky tongue.\n\nThey do not destroy the termite mound or consume the entire colony, thus ensuring that the termites can rebuild and provide a continuous supply of food. They often memorize the location of such nests and return to them every few months. During certain seasonal events, such as the onset of the rainy season and the cold of midwinter, the primary termites become scarce, so the need for other foods becomes pronounced. During these times, the southern aardwolf will seek out Hodotermes mossambicus, a type of harvester termite active in the afternoon, which explains some of their diurnal behavior in the winter. The eastern aardwolf, during the rainy season, subsists on termites from the genera Odontotermes and Macrotermes. They are also known to feed on other insects and larvae, and, some sources mention, very occasionally small mammals and birds, but these constitute a very small percentage of their total diet. They use their wide tongues to lap surface foraging termites off of the ground and consume large quantities of sand in the process, which aids in digestion in the absence of teeth to break down their food.\n\nUnlike other hyenas, aardwolves do not scavenge or kill larger animals. Contrary to popular myths, aardwolves do not eat carrion, and if they are seen eating while hunched over a dead carcass, they are actually eating larvae and beetles. Also, contrary to some sources, they do not like meat, unless it is finely ground or cooked for them. The adult aardwolf was formerly assumed to forage in small groups, but more recent research has shown that they are primarily solitary foragers, necessary because of the scarcity of their insect prey. Their primary source, Trinervitermes, forages in small but dense patches of . While foraging, the aardwolf can cover about per hour, which translates to per summer night and per winter night.\nBreeding\nThe breeding season varies depending on location, but normally takes place during autumn or spring. In South Africa, breeding occurs in early July. During the breeding season, unpaired male aardwolves search their own territory, as well as others, for a female to mate with. Dominant males also mate opportunistically with the females of less dominant neighboring aardwolves, which can result in conflict between rival males. Dominant males even go a step further and as the breeding season approaches, they make increasingly greater and greater incursions onto weaker males' territories. As the female comes into oestrus, they add pasting to their tricks inside of the other territories, sometimes doing so more in rivals' territories than their own. Females will also, when given the opportunity, mate with the dominant male, which increases the chances of the dominant male guarding \"his\" cubs with her. Copulation lasts between 1 and 4.5 hours.\n\nGestation lasts between 89 and 92 days, producing two to five cubs (most often two or three) during the rainy season (October–December), when termites are more active. They are born with their eyes open, but initially are helpless, and weigh around . The first six to eight weeks are spent in the den with their parents. The male may spend up to six hours a night watching over the cubs while the mother is out looking for food. After three months, they begin supervised foraging, and by four months are normally independent, though they often share a den with their mother until the next breeding season. By the time the next set of cubs is born, the older cubs have moved on. Aardwolves generally achieve sexual maturity at one and a half to two years of age.\nConservation\nThe aardwolf has not seen decreasing numbers and is relatively widespread throughout eastern Africa. They are not common throughout their range, as they maintain a density of no more than 1 per square kilometer, if food is abundant. Because of these factors, the IUCN has rated the aardwolf as least concern. In some areas, they are persecuted because of the mistaken belief that they prey on livestock; however, they are actually beneficial to the farmers because they eat termites that are detrimental. In other areas, the farmers have recognized this, but they are still killed, on occasion, for their fur. Dogs and insecticides are also common killers of the aardwolf.\nIn captivity\nFrankfurt Zoo in Germany was home to the oldest recorded aardwolf in captivity at 18 years and 11 months.\n\nThe eastern subspecies is kept in one zoo : the Novosibirsk zoo.\n\nThe southern subspecies is more common in zoos. It is kept in zoos in the Czech Republic, the United Kingdom, the United States, South Africa and the United Arab Emirates, and the subspecies was kept in 15 zoos around the world.\nNotesReferences\nFootnotesSources cited\nFurther reading\nExternal links\nIUCN Hyaenidae Specialist Group Aardwolf pages on hyaenidae.org\nCam footage from the Namib desert","text_chars":12515,"text_sha256":"b7ccc29a31a703d8bffff46585d9bdd086965298d3ffe15740290e385939816d","text_utf8_bytes":12521,"title":"Aardwolf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aardwolf","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"a1b580208f5b87abbfee95a0c4328c8eca1748da3d4e81728996e25c6cbf4d4f"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2546&action=history","id":"2546","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":31206,"raw_text_sha256":"106a36b419ea17377585e02dce34c13a311e4cbd2a9143d274d43b1ef7c247bc","raw_text_utf8_bytes":31263,"revision_id":"1371244755","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-25T11:52:42Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1371244755","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Automated theorem proving (also known as ATP or automated deduction) is a subfield of automated reasoning and mathematical logic dealing with proving mathematical theorems by computer programs. Automated reasoning over mathematical proof was a major motivating factor for the development of computer science.\nLogical foundations\nWhile the roots of formalized logic go back to Aristotle, the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries saw the development of modern logic and formalized mathematics. Frege's Begriffsschrift (1879) introduced both a complete propositional calculus and what is essentially modern predicate logic. His Foundations of Arithmetic, published in 1884, expressed (parts of) mathematics in formal logic. This approach was continued by Russell and Whitehead in their influential Principia Mathematica, first published 1910–1913, and with a revised second edition in 1927. Russell and Whitehead thought they could derive all mathematical truth using axioms and inference rules of formal logic, in principle opening up the process to automation. In 1920, Thoralf Skolem simplified a previous result by Leopold Löwenheim, leading to the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem and, in 1930, to the notion of a Herbrand universe and a Herbrand interpretation that allowed (un)satisfiability of first-order formulas (and hence the validity of a theorem) to be reduced to (potentially infinitely many) propositional satisfiability problems.\n\nIn 1929, Mojżesz Presburger showed that the first-order theory of the natural numbers with addition and equality (now called Presburger arithmetic in his honor) is decidable and gave an algorithm that could determine if a given sentence in the language was true or false.\n\nHowever, shortly after this positive result, Kurt Gödel published On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems (1931), showing that in any sufficiently strong axiomatic system, there are true statements that cannot be proved in the system. This topic was further developed in the 1930s by Alonzo Church and Alan Turing, who on the one hand gave two independent but equivalent definitions of computability, and on the other gave concrete examples of undecidable questions.\nFirst implementations\nIn 1954, Martin Davis programmed Presburger's algorithm for a JOHNNIAC vacuum-tube computer at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. According to Davis, \"Its great triumph was to prove that the sum of two even numbers is even\". More ambitious was the Logic Theorist in 1956, a deduction system for the propositional logic of the Principia Mathematica, developed by Allen Newell, Herbert A. Simon and J. C. Shaw. Also running on a JOHNNIAC, the Logic Theorist constructed proofs from a small set of propositional axioms and three deduction rules: modus ponens, (propositional) variable substitution, and the replacement of formulas by their definition. The system used heuristic guidance, and managed to prove 38 of the first 52 theorems of the Principia.\n\nThe \"heuristic\" approach of the Logic Theorist tried to emulate human mathematicians, and could not guarantee that a proof could be found for every valid theorem even in principle. In contrast, other, more systematic algorithms achieved, at least theoretically, completeness for first-order logic. Initial approaches relied on the results of Herbrand and Skolem to convert a first-order formula into successively larger sets of propositional formulae by instantiating variables with terms from the Herbrand universe. The propositional formulas could then be checked for unsatisfiability using a number of methods. Gilmore's program used conversion to disjunctive normal form, a form in which the satisfiability of a formula is obvious.\nDecidability of the problem\nDepending on the underlying logic, the problem of deciding the validity of a formula varies from trivial to impossible. For the common case of propositional logic, the problem is decidable but co-NP-complete, and hence only exponential-time algorithms are believed to exist for general proof tasks. For a first-order predicate calculus, Gödel's completeness theorem states that the theorems (provable statements) are exactly the semantically valid well-formed formulas, so the valid formulas are computably enumerable: given unbounded resources, any valid formula can eventually be proven. However, invalid formulas (those that are not entailed by a given theory), cannot always be recognized.\n\nThe above applies to first-order theories, such as Peano arithmetic. However, for a specific model that may be described by a first-order theory, some statements may be true but undecidable in the theory used to describe the model. For example, by Gödel's incompleteness theorem, we know that any consistent theory whose axioms are true for the natural numbers cannot prove all first-order statements true for the natural numbers, even if the list of axioms is allowed to be infinite enumerable. It follows that an automated theorem prover will fail to terminate while searching for a proof precisely when the statement being investigated is undecidable in the theory being used, even if it is true in the model of interest. Despite this theoretical limit, in practice, theorem provers can solve many hard problems, even in models that are not fully described by any first-order theory (such as the integers).\nRelated problems\nA simpler, but related, problem is proof verification, where an existing proof for a theorem is certified valid. For this, it is generally required that each individual proof step can be verified by a primitive recursive function or program, and hence the problem is always decidable.\n\nSince the proofs generated by automated theorem provers are typically very large, the problem of proof compression is crucial, and various techniques aiming at making the prover's output smaller, and consequently more easily understandable and checkable, have been developed.\n\nProof assistants require a human user to give hints to the system. Depending on the degree of automation, the prover can essentially be reduced to a proof checker, with the user providing the proof in a formal way, or significant proof tasks can be performed automatically. Interactive provers are used for a variety of tasks, but even fully automatic systems have proved a number of interesting and hard theorems, including at least one that has eluded human mathematicians for a long time, namely the Robbins conjecture. However, these successes are sporadic, and work on hard problems usually requires a proficient user.\n\nAnother distinction is sometimes drawn between theorem proving and other techniques, where a process is considered to be theorem proving if it consists of a traditional proof, starting with axioms and producing new inference steps using rules of inference. Other techniques would include model checking, which, in the simplest case, involves brute-force enumeration of many possible states (although the actual implementation of model checkers requires much cleverness, and does not simply reduce to brute force).\n\nThere are hybrid theorem proving systems that use model checking as an inference rule. There are also programs that were written to prove a particular theorem, with a (usually informal) proof that if the program finishes with a certain result, then the theorem is true. A good example of this was the machine-aided proof of the four color theorem, which was very controversial as the first claimed mathematical proof that was essentially impossible to verify by humans due to the enormous size of the program's calculation (such proofs are called non-surveyable proofs). Another example of a program-assisted proof is the one that shows that the game of Connect Four can always be won by the first player.\nApplications\nCommercial use of automated theorem proving is mostly concentrated in integrated circuit design and verification. Since the Pentium FDIV bug, the complicated floating point units of modern microprocessors have been designed with extra scrutiny. AMD, Intel and others use automated theorem proving to verify that division and other operations are correctly implemented in their processors.\n\nOther uses of theorem provers include program synthesis, constructing programs that satisfy a formal specification. Automated theorem provers have been integrated with proof assistants, including Isabelle/HOL.\n\nApplications of theorem provers are also found in natural language processing and formal semantics, where they are used to analyze discourse representations.\nFirst-order theorem proving\nIn the late 1960s agencies funding research in automated deduction began to emphasize the need for practical applications. One of the first fruitful areas was that of program verification whereby first-order theorem provers were applied to the problem of verifying the correctness of computer programs in languages such as Pascal, Ada, etc. Notable among early program verification systems was the Stanford Pascal Verifier developed by David Luckham at Stanford University. This was based on the Stanford Resolution Prover also developed at Stanford using John Alan Robinson's resolution principle. This was the first automated deduction system to demonstrate an ability to solve mathematical problems that were announced in the Notices of the American Mathematical Society before solutions were formally published.\n\nFirst-order theorem proving is one of the most mature subfields of automated theorem proving. The logic is expressive enough to allow the specification of arbitrary problems, often in a reasonably natural and intuitive way. On the other hand, it is still semi-decidable, and a number of sound and complete calculi have been developed, enabling fully automated systems. More expressive logics, such as higher-order logics, allow the convenient expression of a wider range of problems than first-order logic, but theorem proving for these logics is less well developed.\nRelationship with SMT\nThere is substantial overlap between first-order automated theorem provers and SMT solvers. Generally, automated theorem provers focus on supporting full first-order logic with quantifiers, whereas SMT solvers focus more on supporting various theories (interpreted predicate symbols). ATPs excel at problems with lots of quantifiers, whereas SMT solvers do well on large problems without quantifiers. The line is blurry enough that some ATPs participate in SMT-COMP, while some SMT solvers participate in CASC.\nBenchmarks, competitions, and sources\nThe quality of implemented systems has benefited from the existence of a large library of standard benchmark examples—the Thousands of Problems for Theorem Provers (TPTP) Problem Library—as well as from the CADE ATP System Competition (CASC), a yearly competition of first-order systems for many important classes of first-order problems.\n\nSome important systems (all have won at least one CASC competition division) are listed below.\nE is a high-performance prover for full first-order logic, but built on a purely equational calculus, originally developed in the automated reasoning group of Technical University of Munich under the direction of Wolfgang Bibel, and now at Baden-Württemberg Cooperative State University in Stuttgart.\nOtter, developed at the Argonne National Laboratory, is based on first-order resolution and paramodulation. Otter has since been replaced by Prover9, which is paired with Mace4.\nSETHEO is a high-performance system based on the goal-directed model elimination calculus, originally developed by a team under direction of Wolfgang Bibel. E and SETHEO have been combined (with other systems) in the composite theorem prover E-SETHEO.\nVampire was originally developed and implemented at Manchester University by Andrei Voronkov and Kryštof Hoder. It is now developed by a growing international team. It has won the FOF division (among other divisions) at the CADE ATP System Competition regularly since 2001.\nWaldmeister is a specialized system for unit-equational first-order logic developed by Arnim Buch and Thomas Hillenbrand. It won the CASC UEQ division for fourteen consecutive years (1997–2010).\nSPASS is a first-order logic theorem prover with equality. This is developed by the research group Automation of Logic, Max Planck Institute for Computer Science.\n\nThe Theorem Prover Museum is an initiative to conserve the sources of theorem prover systems for future analysis, since they are important cultural/scientific artefacts. It has the sources of many of the systems mentioned above.\nPopular techniques\nFirst-order resolution with unification\nModel elimination\nMethod of analytic tableaux\nSuperposition and term rewriting\nModel checking\nMathematical induction\nBinary decision diagrams\nDPLL\nHigher-order unification\nQuantifier elimination\nLarge language models\nSoftware systemsFree software\nAlt-Ergo\nAutomath\nCVC\nE\nIsaPlanner\nLCF\nMizar\nNuPRL\nParadox\nProver9\nPVS\nSPARK (programming language)\nTwelf\nZ3 Theorem Prover\nProprietary software\nCARINE\nWolfram Mathematica\nResearchCyc\nSee also\nCurry–Howard correspondence\nSymbolic computation\nRamanujan machine\nComputer-aided proof\nFormal verification\nLogic programming\nProof checking\nModel checking\nProof complexity\nComputer algebra system\nProgram analysis (computer science)\nGeneral Problem Solver\nMetamath language for formalized mathematics\nDe Bruijn factor\nReferencesFurther reading\nII .\nExternal links\nA list of theorem proving tools","text_chars":13495,"text_sha256":"1d62b496598f508493bd502aa34aa60a4e74495d200249cad95379455a9aa853","text_utf8_bytes":13515,"title":"Automated theorem proving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_theorem_proving","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"5d986d95e718c51b356f8916520d98e4c684441a48bd722e12fe3881ff4d31ae"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2732&action=history","id":"2732","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":7216,"raw_text_sha256":"3af65c19f67406afbba99166f81615fa3ef6cdccef11297f988109a8c9b2420a","raw_text_utf8_bytes":7228,"revision_id":"1295201339","revision_timestamp":"2025-06-12T09:33:55Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1295201339","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"The Au file format is a simple audio file format introduced by Sun Microsystems. The format was common on NeXT systems and on early Web pages. Originally it was headerless, being 8-bit μ-law-encoded data at an 8000 Hz sample rate. Hardware from other vendors often used sample rates as high as 8192 Hz, often integer multiples of video clock signal frequencies. Newer files have a header that consists of six unsigned 32-bit words, an optional information chunk which is always of non-zero size, and then the data (in big-endian format).\n\nAlthough the format now supports many audio encoding formats, it remains associated with the μ-law logarithmic encoding. This encoding was native to the SPARCstation 1 hardware, where SunOS exposed the encoding to application programs through the /dev/audio device file interface. This encoding and interface became a de facto standard for Unix sound.\nNew format\nAll fields are stored in big-endian format, including the sample data.\n\nThe type of encoding depends on the value of the \"encoding\" field (word 3 of the header). Formats 2 through 7 are uncompressed linear PCM, therefore technically lossless (although not necessarily free of quantization error, especially in 8-bit form). Formats 1 and 27 are μ-law and A-law, respectively, both companding logarithmic representations of PCM, and arguably lossy, as they pack what would otherwise be almost 16 bits of dynamic range into 8 bits of encoded data, even though this is achieved by an altered dynamic response and no data are discarded. Formats 23 through 26 are ADPCM, which is an early form of lossy compression, usually with four bits of encoded data per audio sample (for 4:1 efficiency with 16-bit input, or 2:1 with 8-bit input). Several of the others (number 8 through 22) are DSP commands or data, designed to be processed by the NeXT Music Kit software.\n\nNote: PCM formats are encoded as signed data, as opposed to unsigned.\n\nThe current format supports only a single audio data segment per file. The variable-length annotation field is currently ignored by most audio applications.\nReferencesExternal links\nOracle man pages: audio(7i) — generic audio device interface (for information on the /dev/audio interface)","text_chars":2220,"text_sha256":"627ff335e47ad62363aa45e36c80e8fefc903da1d29d8205e91f2776685398ff","text_utf8_bytes":2225,"title":"Au file format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Au_file_format","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"c589fc165d97ce916a637f01aa92abf3ef78f7091917813028f9f61b23e9c86a"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=661&action=history","id":"661","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":1762,"raw_text_sha256":"988055e44ef35acae8252662070810f43e9c07909321380a4715b9f12f8cede4","raw_text_utf8_bytes":1762,"revision_id":"1235736655","revision_timestamp":"2024-07-20T23:37:04Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1235736655","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"In logic and philosophy, an argument is an attempt to persuade someone of something, or give evidence or reasons for accepting a particular conclusion.\n\nArgument may also refer to:\nMathematics and computer science\nArgument (complex analysis), a function which returns the polar angle of a complex number\nCommand-line argument, an item of information provided to a program when it is started\nParameter (computer programming), a piece of data provided as input to a subroutine\nArgument principle, a theorem in complex analysis\nAn argument of a function, also known as an independent variable\nLanguage and rhetoric\nArgument (literature), a brief summary, often in prose, of a poem or section of a poem or other work\nArgument (linguistics), a phrase that appears in a syntactic relationship with the verb in a clause\nOral argument in the United States, a spoken presentation to a judge or appellate court by a lawyer (or parties when representing themselves) of the legal reasons why they should prevail\nClosing argument, in law, the concluding statement of each party's counsel reiterating the important arguments in a court case\nOther uses\nMusical argument, a concept in the theory of musical form\nArgument (ship), an Australian sloop wrecked in 1809\nDas Argument, a German academic journal\nArgument Clinic, a Monty Python sketch\nA disagreement between two or more parties or the discussion of the disagreement\nArgument (horse)\nSee also\nThe Argument (disambiguation)\nargumentation","text_chars":1478,"text_sha256":"70ee6f5bf0fbf6c6f0eacc8443ef512cab5a50c55baff4089b0c11602c1bfa86","text_utf8_bytes":1478,"title":"Argument (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argument_%28disambiguation%29","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"8f2d565c013132aee0f325f0780edfa776b4032ed7fc6707c25b04468acbbdb3"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2963&action=history","id":"2963","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":27658,"raw_text_sha256":"6b538cf4988247e8189cb7cb0db2eb5e23e8d2c670b8cb0cd9274e3acff3667e","raw_text_utf8_bytes":27716,"revision_id":"1372383991","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-31T13:59:26Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1372383991","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Assassination is murder by a sudden or secret attack, often for political reasons, particularly when the victim is a prominent political figure. A person who commits an assassination is called an assassin.\nEtymology\nThe word assassin was used in medieval Europe for the Nizari Ismailis. European forms of the word were based on variants of the Arabic ḥašiši (plural ḥašišiya), pejorative terms used for the Nizaris by their opponents. Crusaders and other European observers encountered these terms in the Levant and adopted them as names for the group.\n\nMedieval European writers later associated the Nizari fedāʾīs with hashish. Modern scholarship has found no evidence that hashish or another intoxicant was used to motivate them to carry out killings; contemporary Muslim sources that used the related pejorative terms did not accuse the Nizaris of using the drug. By the 14th century, assassin had become a common noun in European languages meaning a murderer.\nUse in historyAncient to medieval times\nIn ancient Egypt, Pharaoh Ramesses III was killed during the harem conspiracy. A 2012 forensic study of his mummy found a deep wound across the throat and concluded that he was murdered during the conspiracy.\n\nIn ancient India, the Arthashastra, written about 300 BC, discussed covert warfare, including the use of secret agents to kill enemy leaders. In China, Jing Ke attempted to assassinate King Zheng of Qin in 227 BC; the episode is recorded in Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian.\n\nRoman dictator Julius Caesar was assassinated on March 15, 44 BC, by conspirators including Brutus and Cassius.\n\nDuring the medieval Alamut period (1090–1256), Nizari Ismaili fedāʾīs were sent on missions against prominent enemies of their community, including assassination missions.\nModern history\nDuring the late 16th and early 17th centuries, European jurists began to argue against assassination in war and foreign policy. Balthazar Ayala, Alberico Gentili, and Hugo Grotius were among those who addressed the practice, contributing to the development of a norm against international assassination.\n\nIn the United States, four presidents were assassinated between 1865 and 1963: Abraham Lincoln, James A. Garfield, William McKinley, and John F. Kennedy.\n\nOn June 28, 1914, Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his wife, Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, in Sarajevo. The assassination set off a chain of events that culminated in World War I by August 1914. During World War II, Operation Anthropoid was planned in the United Kingdom and carried out by members of the Czechoslovak forces against Reinhard Heydrich, who died following the attack in 1942.\n\nMahatma Gandhi was assassinated by Nathuram Godse on January 30, 1948. Malcolm X was assassinated in New York City on February 21, 1965, and Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee, on April 4, 1968.\nLate 20th century to present\nIndian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was assassinated on October 31, 1984, by two Sikh members of her security detail. Her son, former prime minister Rajiv Gandhi, was assassinated by a bomb at an election rally in Sriperumbudur, India, on May 21, 1991.\n\nOn April 6, 1994, Rwandan President Juvénal Habyarimana and Burundian President Cyprien Ntaryamira were killed when their aircraft was shot down near Kigali. Their deaths were followed by the systematic mass killings that became the Rwandan genocide. Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin was assassinated in November 1995 by Yigal Amir, an Israeli who opposed the Oslo Accords.\n\nFormer Lebanese Prime Minister Rafic Hariri and 22 other people were killed in a bombing in Beirut on February 14, 2005. The United Nations subsequently established an international commission to investigate the assassination.\n\nIn 2022, a man attempted to assassinate Argentine Vice President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner by pulling the trigger of a loaded pistol near her head, but the weapon did not fire. In 2025, Fernando Sabag Montiel was convicted of attempted aggravated homicide and sentenced to ten years in prison; Brenda Uliarte was sentenced to eight years as an accessory.\n\nOn September 10, 2025, American conservative activist Charlie Kirk was assassinated while speaking at an event at Utah Valley University in Orem, Utah.\nPolitical and military uses\nMilitary and foreign policy\nAssassination has been used as an instrument of foreign policy, although a norm against international assassination developed over time. Political scientist Ward Thomas traced the development of that norm and argued that great powers historically prohibited political assassination in part because the prohibition reinforced their position relative to state and non-state actors. Warner R. Schilling and Jonathan L. Schilling found that decisions to use assassination for foreign-policy purposes are susceptible to bias, particularly when assessing the likely successor to the targeted person.\n\nDuring the Vietnam War, the Phoenix/Phung Hoang program coordinated American and South Vietnamese operations against the political infrastructure of the Viet Cong. U.S. government records state that Provincial Reconnaissance Units acting on intelligence produced through the program conducted operations to capture members of that infrastructure and also killed people during those operations. The program's characterization as an assassination program has been disputed; a later CIA historical study noted that critics described it that way while stating that assassination was not its declared purpose.\nInsurgent groups\nAssassination has also been used by non-state armed groups. During the Irish War of Independence, the Squad, associated with Michael Collins, targeted British intelligence personnel. On Bloody Sunday in November 1920, members of the IRA killed British intelligence officers and others in Dublin.\n\nDuring the Troubles, the Provisional Irish Republican Army carried out the Brighton hotel bombing in October 1984, targeting British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and members of her cabinet during the Conservative Party Conference. Thatcher survived, while five people were killed.\n\nIn Spain, the Basque separatist organization ETA killed Prime Minister Luis Carrero Blanco in a bombing in Madrid on December 20, 1973, and claimed responsibility for the attack.\n\nIn Italy, the Red Brigades kidnapped Aldo Moro, a former prime minister and president of the Christian Democratic Party, on March 16, 1978. Moro was killed on May 9 after 55 days in captivity.\nBehavioral research\nA 1999 study by Robert A. Fein and Bryan Vossekuil examined 83 people known to have attacked or approached to attack prominent public officials or public figures in the United States between 1949 and 1996. The authors found no single profile of an attacker. They concluded that attacks and near-lethal approaches generally developed through a process of thinking and action. Motives identified in the study included notoriety or fame, attention to a perceived problem, revenge, a desire to be killed, political change, financial gain, and attempts to establish a special relationship with the target.\n\nA later review of research on attacks against public figures reported that 44 percent of the subjects in the Fein and Vossekuil study had a history of serious depression or despair. Among 73 subjects whose mental state at the time of the principal incident was analyzed, 25 percent of attackers and 60 percent of near-lethal approachers were delusional. The review noted that serious mental disorders did not prevent subjects from carefully planning attacks and cautioned against relying on mental illness alone to explain such behavior.\nMethods\nAssassinations and assassination attempts have involved firearms, explosives, bladed weapons, and poisons. A 2004 review of research on attacks against public figures in the United States reported that, among 74 incidents examined in an earlier study by Robert Fein and Bryan Vossekuil, handguns were used in 51 percent, rifles or shotguns in 30 percent, and knives in 15 percent. The 1914 plot against Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria involved both methods: Nedeljko Čabrinović carried out an unsuccessful bomb attack before Gavrilo Princip later shot Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg.\n\nPoison has also been used or considered in assassination plots. In its 1975 investigation of United States assassination plots against foreign leaders, the Church Committee found that U.S. government officials had initiated and participated in plots to assassinate Fidel Castro. Plans considered by the CIA included poison cigars and poison pills.\n\nBulgarian dissident and BBC journalist Georgi Markov was attacked in London in 1978 and later died. A postmortem examination found a small pellet in his thigh that had contained a poison believed to be ricin. The BBC later reported that the KGB had developed an umbrella capable of injecting ricin pellets. In 2006, former Russian intelligence officer Alexander Litvinenko was deliberately poisoned in London with radioactive polonium-210. The public inquiry into his death found that he ingested the fatal dose while drinking tea and concluded that Andrey Lugovoy and Dmitry Kovtun had administered the poison.\nTargeted killing\nThere is no single agreed definition of targeted killing in international law. Legal scholar Nils Melzer defines it as the intentional, premeditated, and deliberate use of lethal force against an individually selected person who is not in the physical custody of those carrying out the operation. The legality of a targeted killing depends on the circumstances and the legal framework that applies. Melzer distinguishes between operations governed by law-enforcement standards and those governed by the law of armed conflict.\n\nThe relationship between targeted killing and assassination is disputed. Gary D. Solis distinguishes targeted killing from assassination for political purposes and argues that some targeted killings may be lawful under the law of armed conflict. Legal scholar Mary Ellen O'Connell has argued that the definition of targeted killing also describes assassination and that the term \"targeted killing\" came into use to convey a perception of legality.\n\nA prominent case involved Anwar al-Awlaki, a United States citizen who was killed in Yemen in September 2011. The U.S. Department of Justice's Office of Legal Counsel had prepared legal analysis addressing the lawfulness of targeting al-Awlaki, and the memorandum later became the subject of litigation seeking its disclosure.\nCountermeasures\nProtective measures against assassination include close physical protection, advance security planning, threat assessment, and the collection and analysis of intelligence about potential attackers. In the United States, systematic presidential protection developed after the assassination of William McKinley in 1901. The United States Secret Service assumed full-time responsibility for protecting the president in 1902.\n\nThe Secret Service has instructed agents responding to an immediate threat to shield the person being protected and move that person away from danger as quickly as possible. Preventive measures also include protective-intelligence investigations and assessments of individuals who may pose a threat. The Secret Service also uses counter-surveillance and intelligence analysis to identify possible threats before or during protective operations.\nSee also\nContract killing\nList of assassinations in fiction\nList of people who survived assassination attempts\nLists of assassinations\nPolitical violence\nRegicide\nTyrannicide\nNotes and referencesFurther reading\nExternal links","text_chars":11740,"text_sha256":"14d03559e7a2f863706c5c3715c76b62924ac5435f42cf90e5c0a95035d9e2ea","text_utf8_bytes":11760,"title":"Assassination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"cfc9b730f26f919e2f20a46bb0a6cbf2ca8445d85a107b88ed71dab44fa23446"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2418&action=history","id":"2418","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":62260,"raw_text_sha256":"9878ed2a1ab337936705c30d1b51f79d033a1c77dfdd3478f66a781141f63cbd","raw_text_utf8_bytes":62422,"revision_id":"1372096846","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-30T08:04:33Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1372096846","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Events\nPre-1600\n70 BC – The trial against Gaius Verres for corruption is opened, with Marcus Tullius Cicero as prosecutor and renowned orator Quintus Hortensius as defending lawyer.\n598 – Goguryeo-Sui War: In response to a Goguryeo (Korean) incursion into Liaoxi, Emperor Wéndi of Sui orders his youngest son, Yang Liang (assisted by the co-prime minister Gao Jiong), to conquer Goguryeo during the Manchurian rainy season, with a Chinese army and navy.\n1265 – Second Barons' War: Battle of Evesham: The army of Prince Edward (the future king Edward I of England) defeats the forces of rebellious barons led by Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, killing de Montfort and many of his allies.\n1320 – The so-called Black Parliament at Scone tries William II de Soules and other nobles who had plotted against Robert I of Scotland and intended to place William on the Scottish throne.\n1327 – First War of Scottish Independence: James Douglas leads a raid into Weardale and almost kills Edward III of England.\n1578 – Battle of Al Kasr al Kebir: The Moroccans defeat the Portuguese but both the Moroccan king Abd al-Malik and the Portuguese king Sebastian die. Ahmad al-Mansur follows Abd al-Malik as sultan of Morocco while the death of Sebastian leads to a succession crisis in Portugal.\n1601–1900\n1693 – Date traditionally ascribed to Dom Perignon's invention of champagne; it is not clear whether he actually invented champagne, however he has been credited as an innovator who developed the techniques used to perfect sparkling wine.\n1701 – Great Peace of Montreal between New France and First Nations is signed.\n1704 – War of the Spanish Succession: Gibraltar is captured by an English and Dutch fleet, commanded by Admiral Sir George Rooke and allied with Archduke Charles.\n1781 – Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, a fleet of six East India Company ships sets sail from Fort Marlborough to raid the Dutch VOC factories on the West coast of Sumatra including the major port of Padang.\n1783 – Mount Asama erupts in Japan, killing about 1,400 people (Tenmei eruption). The eruption causes a famine, which results in an additional 20,000 deaths.\n1789 – France: abolition of feudalism by the National Constituent Assembly.\n1790 – A newly passed tariff act creates the Revenue Cutter Service (the forerunner of the United States Coast Guard).\n1791 – The Treaty of Sistova is signed, ending the Ottoman–Habsburg wars.\n1796 – French Revolutionary Wars: Napoleon leads the French Army of Italy to victory in the Battle of Lonato.\n1814 – War of 1812: The ultimately unsuccessful Siege of Fort Erie begins as British forces attempt to recapture the fort and drive American forces out of Canada.\n1821 – The Saturday Evening Post is published for the first time as a weekly newspaper.\n1854 – The Hinomaru is established as the official flag to be flown from Japanese ships.\n1863 – Matica slovenská, Slovakia's public-law cultural and scientific institution focusing on topics around the Slovak nation, is established in Martin.\n1873 – American Indian Wars: While protecting a railroad survey party in Montana, the United States 7th Cavalry, under Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer clashes for the first time with the Cheyenne and Lakota people near the Tongue River; only one man on each side is killed.\n1887 – Granny, a sea anemone, died in Edinburgh after nearly 60 years in captivity. Her death was reported in The Scotsman and The New York Times.\n1889 – The Great Fire of Spokane, Washington destroys some 32 blocks of the city, prompting a mass rebuilding project.\n1892 – The father and stepmother of Lizzie Borden are found murdered in their Fall River, Massachusetts home. She will be tried and acquitted for the crimes a year later.\n1901–present\n1914 – World War I: In response to the German invasion of Belgium, Belgium and the British Empire declare war on Germany. The United States declares its neutrality.\n1915 – World War I: The German 12th Army occupies Warsaw during the Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive and the Great Retreat of 1915.\n1921 – Bolshevik–Makhnovist conflict: Mikhail Frunze declares victory over the Makhnovshchina.\n1922 – Enver Pasha dies in a skirmish between the Bolshevik Red Army and Basmachi troops, to whom he had defected earlier.\n1924 – Diplomatic relations between Mexico and the Soviet Union are established.\n1936 – Prime Minister of Greece Ioannis Metaxas suspends parliament and the Constitution and establishes the 4th of August Regime.\n1944 – The Holocaust: A tip from a Dutch informer leads the Gestapo to a sealed-off area in an Amsterdam warehouse, where they find and arrest Jewish diarist Anne Frank, her family, and four others.\n1944 – Under the state of emergency law, the Finnish Parliament elects Marshal C. G. E. Mannerheim as the President of Finland to replace the resigned Risto Ryti.\n1946 – An earthquake of magnitude 8.0 hits northern Dominican Republic. One hundred are killed and 20,000 are left homeless.\n1947 – The Supreme Court of Japan is established.\n1964 – Civil rights movement: Civil rights workers Michael Schwerner, Andrew Goodman and James Chaney are found dead in Mississippi after disappearing on June 21.\n1964 – Second Gulf of Tonkin Incident: U.S. destroyers and mistakenly report coming under attack in the Gulf of Tonkin.\n1965 – The Constitution of the Cook Islands comes into force, giving the Cook Islands self-governing status within New Zealand.\n1969 – Vietnam War: At the apartment of French intermediary Jean Sainteny in Paris, American representative Henry Kissinger and North Vietnamese representative Xuân Thuỷ begin secret peace negotiations. The negotiations will eventually fail.\n1972 – Ugandan President Idi Amin announces that Uganda is no longer responsible for the care of British subjects of Asian origin, beginning the expulsions of Ugandan Asians.\n1974 – A bomb explodes in the Italicus Express train at San Benedetto Val di Sambro, Italy, killing 12 people and wounding 22.\n1975 – The Japanese Red Army takes more than 50 hostages at the AIA Building housing several embassies in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The hostages include the U.S. consul and the Swedish Chargé d'affaires. The gunmen win the release of five imprisoned comrades and fly with them to Libya.\n1977 – U.S. President Jimmy Carter signs legislation creating the United States Department of Energy.\n1983 – Jean-Baptiste Ouédraogo, president of the military government of Upper Volta, is ousted from power in a coup d'état led by Captain Thomas Sankara.\n1984 – The Republic of Upper Volta changes its name to Burkina Faso.\n1984 – The Ariane 3 rocket is launched for the first time, carrying the Eutelsat I F-2 and Télécom 1A satellites into geosynchronous transfer orbit.\n1987 – The Federal Communications Commission rescinds the Fairness Doctrine which had required radio and television stations to give equal time to opposing views.\n1995 – Operation Storm, the last major battle of the Croatian War of Independence begins.\n2006 – A massacre is carried out by Sri Lankan government forces, killing 17 employees of the French INGO Action Against Hunger (known internationally as Action Contre la Faim, or ACF).\n2007 – NASA's Phoenix Mars lander is launched.\n2018 – Syrian civil war: The Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) expel the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) from the Iraq–Syria border, concluding the second phase of the Deir ez-Zor campaign.\n2018 – Crisis in Venezuela: Seven people are injured when two drones detonate explosives on Avenida Bolívar, Caracas while president Nicolás Maduro is giving a speech to the Venezuelan National Guard.\n2019 – Nine people are killed and 26 injured in a shooting in Dayton, Ohio. This comes only 13 hours after another mass shooting in El Paso, Texas, where 23 people were killed.\n2020 – Beirut Port explosion: At least 220 people are killed and over 5,000 are wounded when 2,700 tons of ammonium nitrate explodes in Beirut, Lebanon.\nBirths\nPre-1600\n1222 – Richard de Clare, 6th Earl of Gloucester, English soldier (died 1262)\n1281 – Külüg Khan, Emperor Wuzong of Yuan (died 1311)\n1290 – Leopold I, Duke of Austria (died 1326)\n1463 – Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici, Florentine patron of the arts (died 1503)\n1469 – Margaret of Saxony, Duchess of Brunswick-Lüneburg (died 1528)\n1470 – Bernardo Dovizi, Italian cardinal (died 1520)\n1470 – Lucrezia de' Medici, Italian noblewoman (died 1553)\n1521 – Pope Urban VII (died 1590)\n1522 – Udai Singh II, King of Mewar (died 1572)\n1601–1900\n1604 – François Hédelin, abbé d'Aubignac, French cleric and author (died 1676)\n1623 – Friedrich Casimir, Count of Hanau-Lichtenberg (1641–1680) and Hanau-Münzenberg (1642–1680) (died 1685)\n1701 – Thomas Blackwell, Scottish historian and scholar (died 1757)\n1704 – Louis d'Orléans, Duke of Orléans (died 1752)\n1719 – Johann Gottlob Lehmann, German mineralogist and geologist (died 1767)\n1721 – Granville Leveson-Gower, 1st Marquess of Stafford, English politician, Lord President of the Council (died 1803)\n1725 - John Newton, slaver turned Christian evangelist and author of “Amazing Grace”\n1755 – Nicolas-Jacques Conté, French soldier, painter, balloonist, and inventor (died 1805)\n1792 – Percy Bysshe Shelley, English poet and playwright (died 1822)\n1805 – William Rowan Hamilton, Irish physicist, astronomer, and mathematician (died 1865)\n1821 – Louis Vuitton, French fashion designer, founded Louis Vuitton (died 1892)\n1821 – James Springer White, American religious leader, co-founded the Seventh-day Adventist Church (died 1881)\n1834 – John Venn, English mathematician and philosopher (died 1923)\n1836 – Jens Vilhelm Dahlerup, Danish architect (died 1907)\n1839 – Walter Pater, English author, critic, and academic (died 1894)\n1844 – Henri Berger, German composer and bandleader (died 1929)\n1853 – John Henry Twachtman, American painter, etcher, and academic (died 1902)\n1859 – Knut Hamsun, Norwegian novelist, poet, and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (died 1952)\n1861 – Daniel Edward Howard, 16th president of Liberia (died 1935)\n1867 – Jake Beckley, American baseball player and coach (died 1918)\n1868 – Master C. V. V., Indian philosopher, yogi and guru (died 1922)\n1870 – Harry Lauder, Scottish actor and singer (died 1950)\n1871 – William Holman, English-Australian politician, 19th Premier of New South Wales (died 1934)\n1876 – Giovanni Giuriati, Italian lawyer and politician (died 1970)\n1876 – John Scaddan, Australian politician, 10th Premier of Western Australia (died 1934)\n1877 – Dame Laura Knight, English artist (died 1970)\n1884 – Béla Balázs, Hungarian poet and critic (died 1949)\n1884 – Henri Cornet, French cyclist (died 1941)\n1887 – Albert M. Greenfield, Ukrainian-American businessman and philanthropist (died 1967)\n1888 – Taher Saifuddin, Indian religious leader, 51st Da'i al-Mutlaq (died 1965)\n1890 – Dolf Luque, Cuban baseball player and manager (died 1957)\n1893 – Fritz Gause, German historian and curator (died 1973)\n1898 – Ernesto Maserati, Italian race car driver and engineer (died 1975)\n1899 – Ezra Taft Benson, American religious leader, 13th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (died 1994)\n1900 – Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother, Queen Consort of King George VI of the United Kingdom, Empress Consort of India (died 2002)\n1901–present\n1901 – Louis Armstrong, American trumpet player and singer (died 1971)\n1902 – Bill Hallahan, American baseball player (died 1981)\n1904 – Witold Gombrowicz, Polish author and playwright (died 1969)\n1905 – Abeid Karume, 1st President of Zanzibar (died 1972)\n1906 – Eugen Schuhmacher, German zoologist, director, and producer (died 1973)\n1908 – Kurt Eichhorn, German conductor (died 1994)\n1909 – Glenn Cunningham, American runner and academic (died 1988)\n1909 – Saunders Mac Lane, American mathematician (co-founded category theory) (died 2005)\n1910 – Anita Page, American actress (died 2008)\n1910 – William Schuman, American composer and educator (died 1992)\n1910 – Hedda Sterne, Romanian-American painter and photographer (died 2011)\n1912 – Aleksandr Danilovich Aleksandrov, Russian mathematician, physicist, and mountaineer (died 1999)\n1912 – David Raksin, American composer and educator (died 2004)\n1912 – Raoul Wallenberg, Swedish architect and diplomat, savior of thousands of Jews from The Holocaust (died ~1947)\n1913 – Wesley Addy, American actor (died 1996)\n1913 – Robert Hayden, American poet and educator (died 1980)\n1915 – Warren Avis, American businessman, founded Avis Rent a Car System (died 2007)\n1917 – John Fitch, American race car driver and engineer (died 2012)\n1918 – Brian Crozier, Australian-English historian and journalist (died 2012)\n1919 – Michel Déon, French novelist, playwright, and critic (died 2016)\n1919 – Sidney Harman, Canadian-American businessman and audio pioneer responsible for the first high-fidelity stereo receiver (died 2011)\n1920 – Helen Thomas, American journalist and author (died 2013)\n1921 – Herb Ellis, American guitarist (died 2010)\n1921 – Maurice Richard, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (died 2000)\n1922 – Mayme Agnew Clayton, American librarian (died 2006)\n1922 – Luis Aponte Martínez, Puerto Rican cardinal (died 2012)\n1926 – George Irving Bell, American physicist, biologist, and mountaineer (died 2000)\n1926 – Perry Moss, American football player and coach (died 2014)\n1928 – Gerard Damiano, American director, producer, and screenwriter (died 2008)\n1928 – Nadežka Mosusova, Serbian composer\n1928 – Clarke Reed, American businessman and politician (died 2024)\n1929 – Kishore Kumar, Indian singer-songwriter and actor (died 1987)\n1929 – Vellore G. Ramabhadran, Mridangam artiste from Tamil Nadu, India (died 2012)\n1930 – Ali al-Sistani, Iranian-Iraqi cleric and scholar\n1931 – Naren Tamhane, Indian cricketer (died 2002)\n1932 – Frances E. Allen, American computer scientist and academic (died 2020)\n1932 – Liang Congjie, Chinese environmentalist, founded Friends of Nature (died 2010)\n1934 – Dallas Green, American baseball player and manager (died 2017)\n1935 – Carol Arthur, American actress and producer (died 2020)\n1935 – Hans-Walter Eigenbrodt, German footballer and coach (died 1997)\n1935 – Michael J. Noonan, Irish farmer and politician, 25th Minister of Defence for Ireland (died 2013)\n1936 – Giorgos Zographos, Greek singer and actor (died 2005)\n1937 – David Bedford, English keyboard player, composer, and conductor (died 2011)\n1938 – Ellen Schrecker, American historian and academic\n1939 – Jack Cunningham, Baron Cunningham of Felling, English politician, Minister for the Cabinet Office\n1939 – Frankie Ford, American R&B/rock and roll singer (died 2015)\n1940 – Coriún Aharonián, Uruguayan composer and musicologist (died 2017)\n1940 – Robin Harper, Scottish academic and politician\n1940 – Larry Knechtel, American bass player and pianist (died 2009)\n1940 – Frances Stewart, English economist and academic\n1940 – Timi Yuro, American singer-songwriter (died 2004)\n1941 – Martin Jarvis, English actor\n1941 – Andy Smillie, English footballer\n1941 – Cliff Nobles, American musician (died 2008)\n1941 – Ted Strickland, American psychologist and politician, 68th Governor of Ohio\n1941 – Régis Barroso, Brazilian politician (died 2026)\n1942 – Don S. Davis, American actor (died 2008)\n1942 – Cleon Jones, American baseball player\n1942 – David Lange, New Zealand lawyer and politician, 32nd Prime Minister of New Zealand (died 2005)\n1943 – Vicente Álvarez Areces, Spanish politician, 6th President of the Principality of Asturias (died 2019)\n1943 – Barbara Saß-Viehweger, German politician, lawyer and civil law notary\n1943 – Bjørn Wirkola, Norwegian ski jumper and footballer\n1944 – Richard Belzer, American actor (died 2023)\n1944 – Doudou Ndoye, Senegalese lawyer and politician\n1945 – Paul McCarthy, American painter and sculptor\n1945 – Alan Mulally, American engineer and businessman\n1946 – Aleksei Turovski, Estonian zoologist and ethologist\n1947 – Klaus Schulze, German keyboard player and songwriter (died 2022)\n1948 – Johnny Grubb, American baseball player and coach\n1949 – John Riggins, American football player, sportscaster, and actor\n1950 – Caldwell Jones, American basketball player and coach (died 2014)\n1950 – Natesan Rangaswamy, Indian lawyer and politician, 9th Chief Minister of Puducherry\n1951 – Peter Goodfellow, English geneticist and academic\n1952 – James Arbuthnot, English lawyer and politician, Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills\n1952 – Moya Brennan, Irish singer-songwriter and harp player (died 2026)\n1952 – Gábor Demszky, Hungarian sociologist, lawyer, and politician\n1953 – Hiroyuki Usui, Japanese footballer and manager\n1954 – Anatoliy Kinakh, Ukrainian engineer and politician, 11th Prime Minister of Ukraine\n1954 – Steve Phillips, English footballer\n1954 – François Valéry, Algerian-French singer-songwriter\n1955 – Alberto Gonzales, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 80th United States Attorney General\n1955 – Billy Bob Thornton, American actor, director, and screenwriter\n1957 – Rupert Farley, British actor and voice actor\n1957 – Brooks D. Simpson, American historian and author\n1957 – Valdis Valters, Latvian basketball player and coach\n1957 – John Wark, Scottish footballer and sportscaster\n1958 – Allison Hedge Coke, American-Canadian poet and academic\n1958 – Mary Decker, American runner\n1958 – Silvan Shalom, Tunisian-Israeli sergeant and politician, 30th Deputy Prime Minister of Israel\n1958 – Brian Voss, American tenpin bowler\n1959 – Robbin Crosby, American guitarist and songwriter (died 2002)\n1959 – John Gormley, Irish politician, Minister for the Environment, Community and Local Government\n1960 – Chuck C. Lopez, American jockey\n1960 – Dean Malenko, American wrestler\n1960 – José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, Spanish academic and politician, 5th Prime Minister of Spain\n1960 – Bernard Rose, English director, screenwriter, and cinematographer\n1960 – Tim Winton, Australian author and playwright\n1961 – Barack Obama, American lawyer and politician, 44th President of the United States, Nobel Prize laureate\n1962 – Roger Clemens, American baseball player and actor\n1962 – Paul Reynolds, English singer-songwriter and guitarist\n1963 – Keith Maurice Ellison, 30th Attorney General of Minnesota\n1964 – Andrew Bartlett, Australian social worker and politician\n1965 – Vishal Bhardwaj, Indian film director, screenwriter, producer, music composer and playback singer\n1965 – Adam Afriyie, English businessman and politician\n1965 – Terri Lyne Carrington, American award-winning jazz drummer, composer and educator\n1965 – Dennis Lehane, American author, screenwriter, and producer\n1965 – Fredrik Reinfeldt, Swedish soldier and politician, 42nd Prime Minister of Sweden\n1965 – Michael Skibbe, German footballer and manager\n1967 – Michael Marsh, American sprinter\n1968 – Daniel Dae Kim, South Korean-American actor\n1968 – Lee Mack, English comedian, actor, producer, and screenwriter\n1969 – Max Cavalera, Brazilian singer-songwriter and guitarist\n1970 – John August, American director and screenwriter\n1970 – Bret Baier, American journalist\n1970 – Kate Silverton, English journalist\n1971 – Jeff Gordon, American race car driver and actor\n1972 – Stefan Brogren, Canadian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n1973 – Eva Amaral, Spanish singer-songwriter and guitarist\n1973 – Xavier Marchand, French swimmer\n1973 – Marek Penksa, Slovak footballer\n1973 – Marcos Roberto Silveira Reis, Brazilian footballer\n1974 – Kily González, Argentine footballer\n1975 – Andy Hallett, American actor and singer (died 2009)\n1975 – Nikos Liberopoulos, Greek footballer\n1975 – Jutta Urpilainen, Finnish politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Finland\n1975 – Daniella van Graas, Dutch model and actress\n1976 – Paul Goldstein, American tennis player\n1976 – Andrew McLeod, Australian footballer\n1976 – Trevor Woodman, English rugby player and coach\n1977 – Frankie Kazarian, American wrestler\n1977 – Luís Boa Morte, Portuguese footballer and manager\n1978 – Jeremy Adduono, Canadian ice hockey player and coach\n1978 – Luke Allen, American baseball player (died 2022)\n1978 – Kurt Busch, American race car driver\n1978 – Agnė Eggerth, Lithuanian sprinter\n1978 – Ricardo Serrano, Spanish cyclist\n1978 – Per-Åge Skrøder, Norwegian ice hockey player\n1978 – Satoshi Hino, Japanese voice actor\n1979 – Robin Peterson, South African cricketer\n1980 – Richard Dawson, English cricketer and coach\n1981 – Marques Houston, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actor\n1981 – Meghan, Duchess of Sussex, American member of British royal family, media personality and actress\n1983 – Greta Gerwig, American actress, producer, and screenwriter\n1984 – Terry Campese, Australian rugby league player\n1984 – Mardy Collins, American basketball player\n1985 – Crystal Bowersox, American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n1985 – Robbie Findley, American soccer player\n1985 – Mark Milligan, Australian footballer\n1985 – Ha Seung-jin, South Korean basketball player\n1985 – Antonio Valencia, Ecuadorean footballer\n1986 – Nick Augusto, American drummer\n1986 – Leon Camier, English motorcycle racer\n1986 – Cicinho, Brazilian footballer\n1986 – Iosia Soliola, New Zealand-Samoan rugby league player\n1986 – David Williams, Australian rugby league player\n1987 – Marreese Speights American basketball player\n1988 – Kelley O'Hara, American soccer player\n1989 – Jessica Mauboy, Australian singer-songwriter and actress\n1989 – Wang Hao, Chinese chess grandmaster\n1992 – Daniele Garozzo, Italian fencer\n1992 – Domingo Germán, Dominican baseball player\n1992 – Cole Sprouse, American actor\n1992 – Dylan Sprouse, American actor\n1994 – Bobby Shmurda, American rapper\n1995 – Bruna Marquezine, Brazilian actress\n1998 – Lil Skies, American rapper\nDeaths\nPre-1600\n221 – Lady Zhen, Chinese empress (born 183)\n966 – Berengar II of Italy (born 900)\n1060 – Henry I of France (born 1008)\n1113 – Gertrude of Saxony, countess and regent of Holland (born c. 1030)\n1265 - Casualties of the Battle of Evesham\nPeter de Montfort, English politician (born 1215)\nHenry de Montfort (born 1238)\nSimon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, French-English soldier and politician, Lord High Steward (born 1208)\nHugh le Despencer, 1st Baron le Despencer, English politician (born 1223)\n1266 – Eudes of Burgundy, Count of Nevers (born 1230)\n1306 – Wenceslaus III of Bohemia (born 1289)\n1345 – As-Salih Ismail, Sultan of Egypt (born 1326)\n1378 – Galeazzo II Visconti, Lord of Milan (born c. 1320)\n1430 – Philip I, Duke of Brabant (born 1404)\n1526 – Juan Sebastián Elcano, Spanish explorer and navigator (born 1476)\n1578 – Sebastian of Portugal (born 1554)\n1598 – William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, English academic and politician, Lord High Treasurer (born 1520)\n1601–1900\n1612 – Hugh Broughton, English scholar and theologian (born 1549)\n1639 – Juan Ruiz de Alarcón, Mexican actor and playwright (born 1581)\n1718 – René Lepage de Sainte-Claire, French-Canadian founder of Rimouski (born 1656)\n1727 – Victor-Maurice, comte de Broglie, French general (born 1647)\n1741 – Andrew Hamilton, Scottish-American lawyer and politician (born 1676)\n1778 – Pierre de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnial, Canadian-French politician, Governor General of New France (born 1698)\n1792 – John Burgoyne, English general and politician (born 1723)\n1795 – Timothy Ruggles, American lawyer, jurist, and politician (born 1711)\n1804 – Adam Duncan, 1st Viscount Duncan, Scottish admiral (born 1731)\n1822 – Kristjan Jaak Peterson, Estonian poet and author (born 1801)\n1844 – Jacob Aall, Norwegian economist, historian, and politician (born 1773)\n1859 – John Vianney, French priest and saint (born 1786)\n1873 – Viktor Hartmann, Russian architect and painter (born 1834)\n1875 – Hans Christian Andersen, Danish novelist, short story writer, and poet (born 1805)\n1886 – Samuel J. Tilden, American lawyer and politician, 25th Governor of New York (born 1814)\n1900 – Isaac Levitan, Russian painter and educator (born 1860)\n1901–present\n1914 – Jules Lemaître, French playwright and critic (born 1853)\n1919 – Dave Gregory, Australian cricketer and umpire (born 1845)\n1922 – Enver Pasha, Ottoman general and politician (born 1881)\n1932 – Alfred Henry Maurer, American painter (born 1868)\n1938 – Pearl White, American actress (born 1889)\n1940 – Ze'ev Jabotinsky, Ukrainian-American general, journalist, and activist (born 1880)\n1941 – Mihály Babits, Hungarian poet and author (born 1883)\n1942 – Alberto Franchetti, Italian composer and educator (born 1860)\n1944 – Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński, Polish soldier and poet (born 1921)\n1957 – John Cain Sr., Australian politician, 34th Premier of Victoria (born 1882)\n1957 – Washington Luís, Brazilian lawyer and politician, 13th President of Brazil (born 1869)\n1958 – Ethel Anderson, Australian poet, author, and painter (born 1883)\n1959 – József Révai, Hungarian politician, Hungarian Minister of Education (born 1898)\n1961 – Margarito Bautista, Nahua-Mexican evangelizer, theologian, and religious founder (born 1878)\n1962 – Marilyn Monroe, American model and actress (born 1926)\n1964 – Nätti-Jussi, Finnish lumberjack and forest laborer (born 1890)\n1967 – Peter Smith, English cricketer (born 1908)\n1976 – Enrique Angelelli, Argentinian bishop and martyr (born 1923)\n1976 – Roy Thomson, 1st Baron Thomson of Fleet, Canadian-English publisher (born 1894)\n1977 – Edgar Adrian, 1st Baron Adrian, English physiologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (born 1889)\n1981 – Melvyn Douglas, American actor (born 1901)\n1982 – Bruce Goff, American architect, designed the Boston Avenue Methodist Church (born 1904)\n1985 – Don Whillans, English rock climber and mountaineer (born 1933)\n1990 – Ettore Maserati, Italian engineer and businessman (born 1894)\n1992 – Seichō Matsumoto, Japanese author (born 1909)\n1996 – Geoff Hamilton, English gardener, author, and television host (born 1936)\n1997 – Jeanne Calment, French super-centenarian; holds records for the world's substantiated longest-lived person (born 1875)\n1998 – Yury Artyukhin, Russian colonel, engineer, and astronaut (born 1930)\n1999 – Victor Mature, American actor (born 1913)\n2003 – Frederick Chapman Robbins, American pediatrician and virologist, Nobel Prize laureate (born 1916)\n2004 – Mary Sherman Morgan, American chemist and engineer (born 1921)\n2004 – Hossein Panahi (Persian: حسین پناهی), Iranian actor and poet (born 1956)\n2005 – Anatoly Larkin, Russian-American physicist and theorist (born 1932)\n2005 – Iván Szabó, Hungarian economist and politician, Minister of Finance of Hungary (born 1934)\n2007 – Lee Hazlewood, American singer-songwriter and producer (born 1929)\n2007 – Raul Hilberg, Austrian-American political scientist and historian (born 1926)\n2008 – Craig Jones, English motorcycle racer (born 1985)\n2009 – Blake Snyder, American screenwriter and producer (born 1957)\n2011 – Naoki Matsuda, Japanese footballer (born 1977)\n2012 – Johnnie Bassett, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (born 1935)\n2012 – Brian Crozier, Australian-English journalist and historian (born 1918)\n2012 – Bud Riley, American football player and coach (born 1925)\n2013 – Keith H. Basso, American anthropologist and academic (born 1940)\n2013 – Art Donovan, American football player and radio host (born 1925)\n2013 – Olavi J. Mattila, Finnish engineer and politician, Finnish Minister of Foreign Affairs (born 1918)\n2013 – Renato Ruggiero, Italian lawyer and politician, Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs (born 1930)\n2013 – Tony Snell, English lieutenant and pilot (born 1922)\n2013 – Sandy Woodward, English admiral (born 1932)\n2014 – James Brady, American activist and politician, 15th White House Press Secretary (born 1940)\n2014 – Chester Crandell, American lawyer and politician (born 1946)\n2014 – Jake Hooker, Israeli-American guitarist and songwriter (born 1953)\n2015 – Elsie Hillman, American philanthropist and politician (born 1925)\n2015 – Les Munro, New Zealand soldier and pilot (born 1919)\n2015 – John Rudometkin, American basketball player (born 1940)\n2015 – Billy Sherrill, American songwriter and producer (born 1936)\n2019 – Nuon Chea, Cambodian politician and theorist for the Khmer Rouge (born 1926)\n2023 – Dalia Fadila, Israeli educator (born 1971/1972)\n2024 – Charles Cyphers, American actor (born 1939)\n2024 – Tsung-Dao Lee, Chinese-American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (born 1926)\n2024 – Duane Thomas, American football player (born 1947)\nHolidays and observances\nChristian feast day:\nAristarchus\nBlessed Cecilia Cesarini\nEuphronius\nBlessed Frédéric Janssoone\nJohn Vianney\nMolua (or Lua)\nRaynerius of Split\nSithney, patron saint of mad dogs\nAugust 4 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\nCoast Guard Day (United States)\nConstitution Day (Cook Islands); first Monday in August\nMatica slovenská Day (Slovakia)\nBarack Obama Day in Illinois in the United States\n2020 Beirut explosion commemoration day in Lebanon\nReferencesExternal links","text_chars":28828,"text_sha256":"0ac1057535e7cc9d41d4b3f880b0a3e4ba0e2aee667958b07e3068f5ab9302bf","text_utf8_bytes":29624,"title":"August 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_4","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"9119547fd655e27d0a3d16a7ebae18c733285a56a476197b51c2b05c6b153e5f"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1527&action=history","id":"1527","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":39165,"raw_text_sha256":"875f280dbe6ce6997a0c2fb565d0ba6225997f45aac6b4919b2dbd98914a83a4","raw_text_utf8_bytes":39671,"revision_id":"1371110534","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-24T17:07:16Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1371110534","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Ahmed I ( ; ; 18 April 1590 – 22 November 1617) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1603 to 1617. Ahmed's reign is noteworthy for marking the first breach in the Ottoman tradition of royal fratricide; henceforth, Ottoman rulers would no longer systematically execute their brothers upon accession to the throne. He is also well known for his construction of the Blue Mosque, one of the most famous mosques in Turkey.\n\nFile:Arolsen Klebeband 02 323.jpg|thumbnail|Four-tiered crown built during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, depicted with Ahmed I\nEarly life\nAhmed was born at the Manisa Palace, Manisa, probably on 18 April 1590 to Şehzade Mehmed and his concubine Handan Sultan. He was the grandson of Sultan Murad III and his Haseki, Safiye Sultan. Ahmed lived in Manisa until his grandfather's death in January 1595, after which Ahmed accompanied his father to Constantinople for his enthronement.\n\nShortly after his enthronement, Sultan Mehmed III ordered the execution of his nineteen half brothers in accordance with the Ottoman practice of fratricide. Ahmed's elder half-brother Şehzade Mahmud was also executed by his father on 7 June 1603, just months before Mehmed's own death on 22 December 1603. Mahmud was buried along with his mother Halime Sultan, who died sometime after 1623, in a separate mausoleum commissioned by Ahmed in Şehzade Mosque in Constantinople (present-day Istanbul.\nReign\nAhmed ascended the throne after his father's death in 1603, at the age of thirteen, when his powerful grandmother Safiye Sultan was still alive. With his accession to the throne, the power struggle in the harem flared up; between his mother Handan Sultan and his grandmother Safiye Sultan, who in the previous reign had absolute power within the walls (behind the throne), in the end, with the support of Ahmed, the fight ended in favor of his mother. Ahmed broke with the traditional fratricide following previous enthronements and did not order the execution of his three year old half-brother Mustafa, the second son of Halime Sultan. Instead, Mustafa was sent to live at the old palace at Bayezit along with his mother and their grandmother, Safiye Sultan. This was most likely due to Ahmed's young age - he had not yet demonstrated his ability to sire children, and Mustafa was then the only other candidate for the Ottoman throne. His brother's execution would have endangered the dynasty, and thus he was spared.\n\nHis mother tried to interfere in his affairs and influence his decision, especially she wanted to control his communication and movements. In the earlier part of his reign, Ahmed I showed decision and vigor, which were belied by his subsequent conduct. The wars in Hungary and Persia, which attended his accession, terminated unfavourably for the empire. Its prestige was further tarnished in the Treaty of Zsitvatorok, signed in 1606, whereby the annual tribute paid by Austria was abolished. Following the crushing defeat in the Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–1612) against the neighbouring rivals Safavid Empire, led by Shah Abbas the Great, Georgia, Azerbaijan and other vast territories in the Caucasus were ceded back to Persia per the Treaty of Nasuh Pasha in 1612, territories that had been temporarily conquered in the Ottoman–Safavid War (1578–90). The new borders were drawn per the same line as confirmed in the Peace of Amasya of 1555.\nRelations with Morocco\nDuring his reign, the ruler of Morocco was Mulay Zidan whose father and predecessor Ahmad al-Mansur had paid a tribute of vassalage to the Ottomans until his death. The Saadi civil wars had interrupted this tribute of vassalage, but Mulay Zidan proposed to submit to it in order to protect himself from Algiers, and so he resumed paying the tribute to the Ottomans.\nOttoman-Safavid War: 1604–06\nThe Ottoman–Safavid War had begun shortly before the death of Ahmed's father Mehmed III. Upon ascending the throne, Ahmed I appointed Cigalazade Yusuf Sinan Pasha as the commander of the eastern army. The army marched from Constantinople on 15 June 1604, which was too late, and by the time it had arrived on the eastern front on 8 November 1604, the Safavid army had captured Yerevan and entered the Kars Eyalet, and could only be stopped in Akhaltsikhe. Despite the conditions being favourable, Sinan Pasha decided to stay for the winter in Van, but then marched to Erzurum to stop an incoming Safavid attack. This caused unrest within the army and the year was practically wasted for the Ottomans.\n\nIn 1605, Sinan Pasha marched to take Tabriz, but the army was undermined by Köse Sefer Pasha, the Beylerbey of Erzurum, marching independently from Sinan Pasha and consequently being taken prisoner by the Safavids. The Ottoman army was routed at Urmia and had to flee firstly to Van and then to Diyarbekir. Here, Sinan Pasha sparked a rebellion by executing the Beylerbey of Aleppo, Canbulatoğlu Hüseyin Pasha, who had come to provide help, upon the pretext that he had arrived too late. He soon died himself and the Safavid army was able to capture Ganja, Shirvan and Shamakhi in Azerbaijan.\nWar with the Habsburgs: 1604–06\nThe Long Turkish War between the Ottomans and the Habsburg monarchy had been going on for over a decade by the time Ahmed ascended the throne. Grand Vizier Malkoç Ali Pasha marched to the western front from Constantinople on 3 June 1604 and arrived in Belgrade, but died there, so Sokolluzade Lala Mehmed Pasha was appointed as the Grand Vizier and the commander of the western army. Under Mehmed Pasha, the western army recaptured Pest and Vác, but failed to capture Esztergom as the siege was lifted due to unfavourable weather and the objections of the soldiers. Meanwhile, the Prince of Transylvania, Stephen Bocskay, who struggled for the region's independence and had formerly supported the Habsburgs, sent a messenger to the Porte asking for help. Upon the promise of help, his forces also joined the Ottoman forces in Belgrade. With this help, the Ottoman army besieged Esztergom and captured it on 4 November 1605. Bocskai, with Ottoman help, captured Nové Zámky (Uyvar) and forces under Tiryaki Hasan Pasha took Veszprém and Palota. Sarhoş İbrahim Pasha, the Beylerbey of Nagykanizsa (Kanije), attacked the Austrian region of Istria.\nHowever, with Jelali revolts in Anatolia more dangerous than ever and a defeat in the eastern front, Mehmed Pasha was called to Constantinople. Mehmed Pasha suddenly died there, whilst preparing to leave for the east. Kuyucu Murad Pasha then negotiated the Peace of Zsitvatorok, which abolished the tribute of 30,000 ducats paid by Austria and addressed the Habsburg emperor as the equal of the Ottoman sultan. The Jelali revolts were a strong factor in the Ottomans' acceptance of the terms. This signaled the end of Ottoman growth in Europe.\nJelali revolts\nResentment over the war with the Habsburgs and heavy taxation, along with the weakness of the Ottoman military response, combined to make the reign of Ahmed I the zenith of the Jelali revolts. Tavil Ahmed launched a revolt soon after the coronation of Ahmed I and defeated Nasuh Pasha and the Beylerbey of Anatolia, Kecdehan Ali Pasha. In 1605, Tavil Ahmed was offered the position of the Beylerbey of Shahrizor to stop his rebellion, but soon afterwards he went on to capture Harput. His son, Mehmed, obtained the governorship of Baghdad with a fake firman and defeated the forces of Nasuh Pasha sent to defeat him.\n\nMeanwhile, Canbulatoğlu Ali Pasha united his forces with the Druze Sheikh Ma'noğlu Fahreddin to defeat the Amir of Tripoli Seyfoğlu Yusuf. He went on to take control of the Adana area, forming an army and issuing coins. His forces routed the army of the newly appointed Beylerbey of Aleppo, Hüseyin Pasha. Grand Vizier Boşnak Dervish Mehmed Pasha was executed for the weakness he showed against the Jelalis. He was replaced by Kuyucu Murad Pasha, who marched to Syria with his forces to defeat the 30,000-strong rebel army with great difficulty, albeit with a decisive result, on 24 October 1607. Meanwhile, he pretended to forgive the rebels in Anatolia and appointed the rebel Kalenderoğlu, who was active in Manisa and Bursa, as the sanjakbey of Ankara. Baghdad was recaptured in 1607 as well. Canbulatoğlu Ali Pasha fled to Constantinople and asked for forgiveness from Ahmed I, who appointed him to Timișoara and later Belgrade, but then executed him due to his misrule there. Meanwhile, Kalenderoğlu was not allowed in the city by the people of Ankara and rebelled again, only to be crushed by Murad Pasha's forces. Kalenderoğlu ended up fleeing to Persia. Murad Pasha then suppressed some smaller revolts in Central Anatolia and suppressed other Jelali chiefs by inviting them to join the army.\n\nDue to the widespread violence of the Jelali revolts, a great number of people had fled their villages and a lot of villages were destroyed. Some military chiefs had claimed these abandoned villages as their property. This deprived the Porte of tax income and on 30 September 1609, Ahmed I issued a letter guaranteeing the rights of the villagers. He then worked on the resettlement of abandoned villages.\nOttoman-Safavid War: Peace and continuation\nThe new Grand Vizier, Nasuh Pasha, did not want to fight with the Safavids. The Safavid Shah also sent a letter saying that he was willing to sign a peace treaty, with which he would have to send 200 loads of silk every year to Constantinople. On 20 November 1612, the Treaty of Nasuh Pasha was signed, which ceded all the lands the Ottoman Empire had gained in the war of 1578–90 back to Persia and reinstated the 1555 boundaries.\n\nHowever, the peace ended in 1615 when the Shah did not send the 200 loads of silk. On 22 May 1615, Grand Vizier Öküz Mehmed Pasha was assigned to organize an attack on Persia. Mehmed Pasha delayed the attack till the next year, until when the Safavids made their preparations and attacked Ganja. In April 1616, Mehmed Pasha left Aleppo with a large army and marched to Yerevan, where he failed to take the city and withdrew to Erzurum. He was removed from his post and replaced by Damat Halil Pasha. Halil Pasha went for the winter to Diyarbekir, while the Khan of Crimea, Canibek Giray, attacked the areas of Ganja, Nakhichevan and Julfa.\nCapitulations and trade treaties\nAhmed I renewed trade treaties with England, France and Venice. In July 1612, the first ever trade treaty with the Dutch Republic was signed. He expanded the capitulations given to France, specifying that merchants from Spain, Ragusa, Genoa, Ancona and Florence could trade under the French flag.\nArchitect and service to Islam\nSultan Ahmed constructed the Sultan Ahmed Mosque across from the Hagia Sophia. The sultan attended the breaking of the ground with a golden pickaxe to begin the construction of the mosque complex. An incident nearly broke out after the sultan discovered that the Blue Mosque contained the same number of minarets as the grand mosque of Mecca. Ahmed became furious at this fault and became remorseful until the Shaykh al-Islām recommended that he should erect another minaret at the grand mosque of Mecca and the matter was solved.\n\nAhmed became delightedly involved in the eleventh comprehensive renovations of the Kaaba, which had just been damaged by flooding. He sent craftsmen from Constantinople, and the golden rain gutter that kept rain from collecting on the roof of the Ka’ba was successfully renewed. It was again during the era of Sultan Ahmed that an iron web was placed inside the Zamzam Well in Mecca. The placement of this web about three feet below the water level was a response to lunatics who jumped into the well, imagining a promise of a heroic death.\n\nIn Medina, the city of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, a new pulpit made of white marble and shipped from Constantinople arrived in the mosque of Muhammad and substituted the old, worn-out pulpit. It is also known that Sultan Ahmed erected two more mosques in Uskudar on the Asian side of Istanbul; however, neither of them has survived.\n\nThe sultan had a crest carved with the footprint of Muhammad that he would wear on Fridays and festive days and illustrated one of the most significant examples of affection to Muhammad in Ottoman history. Engraved inside the crest was a poem he composed:\nCharacter\nSultan Ahmed was known for his skills in fencing, poetry, horseback riding, and fluency in several languages.\n\nAhmed was a poet who wrote a number of political and lyrical works under the name Bahti. Ahmed patronized scholars, calligraphers, and pious men. Hence, he commissioned a book entitled The Quintessence of Histories to be worked upon by calligraphers. He also attempted to enforce conformance to Islamic laws and traditions, restoring the old regulations that prohibited alcohol, and he attempted to enforce attendance at Friday prayers and paying alms to the poor in the proper way.\nDeath\nAhmed I died of typhus and gastric bleeding on 22 November 1617 at the Topkapı Palace, Constantinople. He was buried in Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque. He was succeeded by his younger half-brother Mustafa as Sultan Mustafa I. Later, three of Ahmed's sons ascended to the throne: Osman II (r. 1618–22), Murad IV (r. 1623–40) and Ibrahim (r. 1640–48).\nFamily\nAhmed had three known consorts and many unnamed ones, mothers of the other princes and princesses.\nHatice Mahfiruz Hatun ( – 1610/1615) — his first concubine; mother of his firstborn son, the future sultan Osman II, and other sons and daughters.\nFatma Hatun — his second or third concubine.\nMahpeyker Kösem Sultan ( – 2 September 1651) — his second or third concubine, haseki sultan, and possibly legal wife; mother of most of his children who survived past infancy, among them the future sultans Murad IV and Ibrahim I.\nSons\nAhmed I had at least thirteen sons:\nOsman II (3 November 1604, Constantinople, Topkapı Palace – 20 May 1622, Constantinople; killed by the janissaries and buried in the Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque) — with Mahfiruz Hatun\nŞehzade Mehmed (11 March 1605, Constantinople, Topkapı Palace – 12 January 1621, Constantinople, Topkapı Palace; executed at the order of Osman II and buried in the Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque) — with Kösem Sultan\nŞehzade Orhan (1609, Constantinople – 1612, Constantinople; buried in the Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque)\nŞehzade Cihangir (1609, Constantinople – 1609, Constantinople; buried in the Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque)\nUnnamed son (1610/1611, Constantinople – 1612, Constantinople)\nŞehzade Selim (27 June 1611, Constantinople – 27 July 1611, Constantinople; buried in the Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque)\nMurad IV (27 July 1612, Constantinople – 8 February 1640, Constantinople, Topkapı Palace; buried in the Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque) — with Kösem Sultan\nŞehzade Bayezid (December 1612, Constantinople – 27 July 1635, Constantinople, Topkapı Palace; executed at the order of Murad IV and buried in the Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque) —with Mahfiruz Hatun\nŞehzade Hüseyin (November 1613, Constantinople – 1617, Constantinople, Topkapı Palace; buried in the Mehmed III Mausoleum, Hagia Sophia) — with Mahfiruz Hatun\nŞehzade Hasan (1614, Constantinople – 1615, Constantinople; buried in the Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque)\nŞehzade Süleyman (1611/12 or 1615 Constantinople – 27 July 1635, Constantinople, Topkapı Palace; executed at the order of Murad IV and buried in the Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque) — with Mahfiruz Hatun or Kösem Sultan. There is some confusion with Huseyin between archival and narrative sources.\nŞehzade Kasım (1614, Constantinople – 17 February 1638, Constantinople, Topkapı Palace; executed at the order of Murad IV and buried in the Murad III Mausoleum, Hagia Sophia) — with Kösem Sultan\nIbrahim (13 October 1617, Constantinople – 18 August 1648, Constantinople, Topkapı Palace; killed by the janissaries and buried in the Ibrahim I Mausoleum, Hagia Sophia) — with Kösem Sultan\nDaughters\nAhmed I had at least twelve daughters:\nUnnamed daughter (early 1605, Constantinople – ?)\nGevherhan Sultan ( or 1608, Constantinople – 18 April 1631, Constantinople; buried in the Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque) — possibly with Kösem Sultan or Mahfiruz Hatun\nAyşe Sultan ( or late 1608, Constantinople – 1657, Constantinople; buried in the Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque) — with Kösem Sultan\nFatma Sultan ( or late 1608, Constantinople – 1667, Constantinople; buried in the Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque) — with Kösem Sultan\nHatice Sultan (after 1608, Constantinople – 1610, Constantinople; buried in the Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque)\nHanzade Sultan (1607, Constantinople – 21 September 1650, Constantinople; buried in the Ibrahim I Mausoleum, Hagia Sophia) — with Kösem Sultan\nEsma Sultan (1612, Constantinople – 1612, Constantinople; buried in the Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque)\nZahide Sultan (1613, Constantinople – 1620, Constantinople; buried in the Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque)\nBurnaz Atike Sultan ( 1614, Constantinople – 1674, Constantinople; buried in the Ibrahim I Mausoleum, Hagia Sophia)\nÜmmühan Sultan (before 1616 – after 1688). Married Shehit Ali Pasha\nZeynep Sultan (1617, Constantinople – 1619, Constantinople; buried in the Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque)\nAbide or Übeyde Sultan (1618, Constantinople – 1648, Constantinople; buried in the Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque); married Koca Musa Pasha (d. 1647) in 1642\nLegacy\nToday, Ahmed I is remembered mainly for the construction of the Sultan Ahmed Mosque (also known as the Blue Mosque), one of the masterpieces of Islamic architecture. The area in Fatih around the Mosque is today called Sultanahmet. He died at Topkapı Palace in Constantinople and is buried in a mausoleum right outside the walls of the famous mosque.\nIn popular culture\nIn the 2010 film Mahpeyker: Kösem Sultan, Ahmed I is played by Turkish actor Gökhan Mumcu.\nIn the 2015 TV series Muhteşem Yüzyıl: Kösem, Ahmed I is played by Turkish actor Ekin Koç.\nSee also\nTransformation of the Ottoman Empire\nSources\nReferencesExternal links\n[aged 27]","text_chars":18176,"text_sha256":"009e7ef7413a4117bdc71984d8176912fd805264cbfa77bef45a518f53c1a9f6","text_utf8_bytes":18356,"title":"Ahmed I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmed_I","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"e8473fd0b50bd8519b8fc93e50fa2b74dbe652fdd604280f96db569e007cdecb"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2166&action=history","id":"2166","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":12205,"raw_text_sha256":"a2297a975d30f46c60f3dd5e65a157e9a038c253355abd7aa2c76ae230eda7e1","raw_text_utf8_bytes":12219,"revision_id":"1366368753","revision_timestamp":"2026-07-27T16:35:47Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1366368753","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"ABC, abc, or Abc commonly refers to:\nABC, the first three letters of the Latin script\n\nABC, abc, or Abc may also refer to:\nArts, media, and entertainmentBroadcasting\nAmerican Broadcasting Company, a commercial American TV broadcaster\nDisney–ABC Television Group, the former name of the parent organization of ABC\nAustralian Broadcasting Corporation, one of the national publicly funded broadcasters of Australia\nABC Television (Australian TV network), the national television network of the Australian Broadcasting Corporation\nABC TV (Australian TV channel), the flagship TV station of the Australian Broadcasting Corporation\nABC Canberra (TV station), Canberra, and other ABC TV local stations in state capitals\nABC Australia (Southeast Asian TV channel), an international pay TV channel\nABC Radio (disambiguation), several radio stations\nAliw Broadcasting Corporation, a Philippine broadcast company\nAssociated Broadcasting Corporation, the former name of TV5 Network, Inc., a Philippine media company\nABC-5, the former name of TV5, a Philippine free-to-air television network\nABC (Swedish TV programme), a former Swedish regional news programme\nABC Weekend TV, a former British television company\nAsahi Broadcasting Corporation, a Japanese commercial television and radio station\nAssociated Broadcasting Company, a former name of Associated Television, a British television company\nAfrican Barter Company, a pan-African barter broadcast syndication company\nTVP ABC, a Polish children's television channel\nABC Television-Africa, a defunct Sierra Leone television channel\nAsociación Boliviana de Canales, a defunct Bolivian television network\nMusic\nAlbums\nABC (Jin album), a 2007 album by rapper MC Jin\nABC (Kreidler album), a 2014 album by Kreidler\nABC (The Jackson 5 album), a 1970 album by The Jackson 5\nGroups\nA.B.C., the former name of Japanese boy band A.B.C-Z\nABC (band), an English pop band\nAcid Black Cherry, a Japanese rock band\nActive Bird Community, an American indie rock band\nAlien Beat Club, a Danish pop and R&B band\nAndrus, Blackwood and Company, a Christian pop and R&B duo\nAnother Bad Creation, an American hip hop and new jack swing group\nLabels\nABC Classics, an Australian record label\nABC Records, an American record label\nOther uses in music\nABC song (disambiguation), several songs\nABC notation, a musical notation language\nO2 ABC Glasgow, a music venue\nPeriodicals\nABC (magazine), an Italian magazine (1960-1977)\nABC (newspaper), a Spanish daily newspaper (founded 1903)\nABC (Monterrey newspaper), a Mexican newspaper (founded 1985)\nABC Color, a Paraguayan newspaper (founded 1967)\nAudit Bureau of Circulations, a private organization that provides industry-agreed standards for media brand measurement of print publications and other media outlets\nAudit Bureau of Circulations (India), a non-profit circulation-auditing organisation\nAudit Bureau of Circulations (North America), the former name for the North American non-profit industry organization Alliance for Audited Media\nAudit Bureau of Circulations (UK), a non-profit organisation\nLiterature\nAlphabet book, a type of children's book listing and depicting the letters\nAmerica's Best Comics, an imprint of DC Comics\nAccessible Books Consortium, a subunit of the World Intellectual Property Organization\nAustin Bat Cave, a creative writing nonprofit organization in Texas\nOther uses in arts, media, and entertainment\nABC Cinemas, a British cinema chain\nEconomics and lawCommerce\nABC (Lebanon), a chain of department stores and shopping centers, and operator of fashion boutiques in Lebanon\nABC Stores, a chain of convenience stores in Hawaii\nFinance\nAgricultural Bank of China, a bank in the People's Republic of China\nBank ABC, an international bank headquartered in Bahrain\nOther uses in economics and law\nABC analysis, an inventory categorization technique\nActivity-based costing, an accounting method\nAssignment for the benefit of creditors, a concept in bankruptcy law\nABC trial, of Crispin Aubrey, John Berry, and Duncan Campbell in 1978 in the UK\nEducation\nABC strategy (abstinence, be faithful, use a condom), a sex-education strategy\nABC Learning, a former Australian childcare business\nAcademia Británica Cuscatleca, a school in Santa Tecla, El Salvador\nAfrikan Black Coalition, a University of California student organization\nAndres Bonifacio College, Dipolog City, Philippines\nFood and beverage\nAir batu campur, also known as ais kacang, a Malaysian dessert\nABC (food), an Indonesian-based food division of the H. J. Heinz Company\nAerated Bread Company, a British bakery and tea-room chain\nAlcoholic Beverage Control, or Alcoholic Beverage Commission, a U.S. state's regulatory control over the wholesaling or retailing of some or all categories of alcoholic beverages\nAppalachian Brewing Company, an American brewery\nPlaces\nABC countries, Argentina, Brazil, and Chile\nABC Islands (Alaska), Admiralty Island, Baranof Island, and Chichagof Island\nABC islands (Leeward Antilles), Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao\nABC Region, an industrial area outside of São Paulo, Brazil\nAppa Balwant Chowk, area of Pune, India, noted for its bookshops\nPolitics and unions\nAbantu Batho Congress, a South African political party\nABC (Cuba), a Cuban political organization 1931–1952, named after the system for labeling its clandestine cells\nABC Vancouver, a municipal political party in Vancouver, Canada\nA Better Calgary Party, a municipal political party in Calgary, Canada\nAll Basotho Convention, a political party in Lesotho\nAlliance for Barangay Concerns, a political party in the Philippines\nAmerican Bakery and Confectionery Workers' International Union, a predecessor of the Bakery, Confectionery, Tobacco Workers and Grain Millers' International Union\nAmericans Battling Communism, an anti-communist organization founded in 1947\nAnarchist Black Cross, an anarchist support organization\nAnything But Conservative, a 2008 Canadian political campaign\nArmagh City, Banbridge and Craigavon Borough Council, a local government council in Northern Ireland\nAssociation of Barangay Captains, or Association of Barangay Councils, the former names of the Philippine organization now known as the Liga ng mga Barangay\nAssociation of British Counties, a non-party-political society\nReligious\nAmerican Baptist Convention, the former name of American Baptist Churches US\nAssociation of Baptist Churches in Ireland, in Ireland and the UK\nScience and technology\nBiology and medicinePsychology\nABC data collection, a descriptive functional behavior assessment method in applied behavior analysis\nAffective-behavioral-cognitive model, an attitude component model\nZoology\nAlien big cat, a large feline outside its indigenous range\nAmerican Bird Conservancy, a nonprofit membership organization\nAustralian Bird Count, a project of the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union\nOther uses in biology and medicine\nAssociation of Black Cardiologists, a North American nonprofit organization\nAbacavir, an antiretroviral drug used to treat HIV/AIDS\nABC (medicine), a mnemonic for \"Airway, Breathing, Circulation\"\nABC model of flower development, a genetic model\nAbortion–breast cancer hypothesis, a posited connection between breast cancer and abortion\nAneurysmal bone cyst, a kind of lesion\nATP-binding cassette transporter, a transmembrane protein\nComputing\nHardware\nABC, a line of computers by Dataindustrier AB\nAcorn Business Computer, a series of microcomputers announced at the end of 1983 by the British company Acorn Computers\nAtanasoff–Berry computer, an early electronic digital computer\nSoftware\nABC (computer virus), a memory-resident, file-infecting computer virus\nABC (programming language), a programming language and environment\nABC (stream cipher), a stream cipher algorithm\nAbstract base class, a programming language concept\nArtificial bee colony algorithm, a search algorithm\n.abc, several file formats\nMathematics\nABC formula, an expression that provides the solutions to a quadratic equation\nAbsorbing boundary condition, a kind of technique for numerical analysis of outgoing waves\nApproximate Bayesian computation, a computational method in Bayesian statistics\nabc conjecture, a statement in number theory\nOther science and technology\nABC dry chemical, a fire extinguishing agent\nABC weapon (atomic, biological, and chemical), a weapon of mass destruction\nAtomic, biological, and chemical defense; now CBRN defense (chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear)\nAccelerated bridge construction, a technique for building bridges\nAerial bundled cable, for power lines\nAirborne Cigar, a British military electronic countermeasure system used during World War II\nSports\nABC Futebol Clube, a football (soccer) club based in Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil\nAmerican Bowling Congress, merged in 2005 with other bowling organizations to form the US Bowling Congress\nAssociation of Boxing Commissions, a North American not-for-profit professional boxing and mixed martial arts organization\nIndianapolis ABCs, a 1900s Negro league baseball team\nTransportationAviation\nAdvance Booking Charter, a type of air travel\nAlbacete Airport, Spain (IATA code: ABC)\nCars\nActive Body Control, a type of automobile suspension technology\nABC (1906 automobile), an American car by Albert Bledsoe Cole\nABC (1920 automobile), an English car by ABC Motors\nABC (1922 automobile), a planned American car\nRailway\nAutomatic Buffer Couplers, a type of railway couplers\nABC Rail Guide, a British railway guide published between 1853 and 2007\nAltnabreac railway station, Scotland (National Rail code: ABC)\nOther uses in transportation\nABC Motors, an English manufacturer of aircraft, aero engines and cars\nAnglo Belgian Corporation, a diesel engine manufacturer\nABC, a Finnish gas station chain owned by the\nABC motorcycles, a British motorcycle manufacturer\nOther uses\nAndrew Browne Cunningham, 1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope (1883–1963), nicknamed ABC, a British WWII admiral\nArchitectural, building and construction, an industry; see Industry Foundation Classes\nAmerican-born Chinese, people of Chinese ethnicity born in the US\nAustralian-born Chinese, people of Chinese ethnicity born in Australia\nAbecedarium, an inscription consisting of the letters of an alphabet\nAmbala Ayta language (ISO 639-3 code: abc)\nSee also\nAB (disambiguation)\nABCC (disambiguation)\nABCD (disambiguation)","text_chars":10338,"text_sha256":"1a6298e7ad943e5eef695042a5216f121e4e83fff46e9f889993062ff3d978b3","text_utf8_bytes":10352,"title":"ABC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABC","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"3959fdc89d4fda68bf19a362c3139fcd185c0e6a301c4caa2decaab7b145dfba"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=748&action=history","id":"748","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":44001,"raw_text_sha256":"860b34d561523984c7018722754919380eecfe4b1a57b346f9d6cc173a2e6577","raw_text_utf8_bytes":44057,"revision_id":"1368244598","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-07T22:44:45Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1368244598","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Image:Astronomy Amateur 3 V2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Amateur astronomers watch the night sky during the Perseid meteor shower.\nAmateur astronomy is a hobby where participants enjoy observing, studying, or imaging celestial objects in the sky using the unaided eye, binoculars, telescopes, and other gadgets. Although scientific research may not be their primary goal, some amateur astronomers contribute to citizen science by monitoring variable stars, double stars, sunspots, and occultations of stars by the Moon or asteroids, as well as by discovering transient astronomical events, such as comets, galactic novae or supernovae in other galaxies.\n\nAmateur astronomers do not use the field of astronomy as their primary source of income or support, as well as typically having no professional degree in astrophysics or advanced academic training in the subject. Most amateur astronomers are hobbyists, while others have a high degree of experience in astronomy and may often assist and work alongside professional astronomers. Many astronomers have studied the sky throughout history in an amateur framework; however, since the beginning of the twentieth century, professional astronomy has become a clearly distinguished activity from amateur astronomy and associated activities.\n\nAmateur astronomers typically view the sky at night, when most celestial objects and astronomical events are visible, but others observe during the daytime by viewing the Sun and solar eclipses. Some observe the sky using nothing more than their eyes or binoculars, while more dedicated amateurs often use portable telescopes or telescopes situated in their private or club observatories. However, light pollution has made amateur astronomy increasingly difficult to observe celestial objects, as sky glow washes out darkness and minimizes visibility. Amateurs commonly join amateur astronomical societies, which can advise, educate, or guide individuals towards ways of finding and observing celestial objects. Astronomical societies also promote the science of astronomy among the general public.\nObjectives\nCollectively, amateur astronomers observe a variety of celestial objects and phenomena. Common targets of amateur astronomers include the Sun, the Moon, planets, stars, comets, meteor showers, and a variety of deep sky objects such as star clusters, galaxies, and nebulae. Amateur astronomers purse their work in order to educate the public, make contributions to the scientific world, and express their passion. Many amateurs like to specialize in observing particular objects, types of objects, or types of events which interest them.\n\nOne branch of amateur astronomy, amateur astrophotography, involves the taking of photos of the night sky. Astrophotography has become more popular with the introduction of far easier to use equipment including digital cameras, DSLR cameras and relatively sophisticated purpose built high quality CCD cameras and CMOS cameras.\n\nMost amateur astronomers work at visible wavelengths, but a small minority experiment with wavelengths outside the visible spectrum. An early pioneer of radio astronomy was Grote Reber, an amateur astronomer who constructed the first purpose-built radio telescope in the late 1930s to follow up on the discovery of radio wavelength emissions from space by Karl Jansky. Non-visual amateur astronomy includes the use of infrared filters on conventional telescopes, and also the use of radio telescopes. Some amateur astronomers use home-made radio telescopes, while others use radio telescopes that were originally built for astronomical research but have since been made available for use by amateurs. The One-Mile Telescope is one such example.\n\nSidewalk astronomy — the practice of setting up telescopes for public viewing — aims at educating and engaging the public with astronomy. In addition to increasing interest in astronomy and science in general, sidewalk astronomy raises awareness of light pollution issues.\nHistory\nThe history of amateur astronomy dates back to early civilizations where the practice of observing celestial objects became a device that assisted in predicting atmospheric patterns to help enable proactive decisions on developing agriculture. Civilizations like the Babylonians, Chaldeans, and ancient Egyptians created calendars, predicted eclipse dates, and separated day and night through ancient amateur astronomers using simple tools and the naked eye to track celestial bodies. Popularizing in the mid-nineteenth century, amateur astronomy gained millions of participants evolving from wealthy \"Grand Amateurs\" and the more accessible equipment after World War II.\nCommon tools\nAmateur astronomers use a range of instruments to study the sky, depending on a combination of their interests and resources. Methods include simply looking at the night sky with the naked eye, using binoculars, and using a variety of optical telescopes of varying power and quality, as well as additional sophisticated equipment, such as cameras, to study light from the sky in both the visual and non-visual parts of the spectrum. To further improve studying the visual and non-visual part of the spectrum, amateur astronomers go to rural areas to get away from light pollution. Commercial telescopes are available, new and used, but it is also common for amateur astronomers to build (or commission the building of) their own custom telescopes. Some people even focus on amateur telescope making as their primary interest within the hobby of amateur astronomy. More advanced methods of locating objects in the sky include telescope mounts with setting circles, which allow pointing to targets in the sky using celestial coordinates, and GOTO telescopes, which are fully automated telescopes that are capable of locating objects on demand (having first been calibrated).\nSimple equipment\nAlthough specialized and experienced amateur astronomers tend to acquire more specialized and powerful equipment over time, relatively simple equipment is often preferred for certain tasks. Binoculars, for instance, although generally of lower power than the majority of telescopes, also tend to provide a wider field of view and are more portable, which is preferable for looking at some objects in the night sky. Recent smartphone models have a \"night mode\" option when taking pictures that allows users to increase exposure, which refers to the period of time the picture is being taken. This optimizes focus on light in the frame which is why it is used primarily at night.\nBeginner telescopes\nBeginner telescopes, commonly used by amateur astronomers to observe celestial objects in more detail, are a more powerful tool compared to other amateur equipment such as binoculars. Amateur astronomers often use four main types of optical telescopes: reflectors, refractors, hybrid, and Dobsonian telescopes. Reflector telescopes utilize mirrors while refractors use lenses, these combine to create the hybrid telescope, which uses a combination of both mirrors and lenses. The Dobsonian is a type of reflector with the addition of a base or mount.\n\nGOTO telescopes have become more popular since the 1980s as technology has improved and prices have been reduced. With these computer-driven telescopes, the user typically enters the name of the item of interest and the mechanics of the telescope point the telescope towards that item automatically. They have several notable advantages for amateur astronomers intent on research. For example, GOTO telescopes tend to be faster for locating items of interest than star hopping, allowing more time for studying of the object. GOTO also allows manufacturers to add equatorial tracking to mechanically simpler alt-azimuth telescope mounts, allowing them to produce an overall less expensive product. GOTO telescopes usually have to be calibrated using alignment stars to provide accurate tracking and positioning. Several telescope manufacturers have recently developed telescope systems that are calibrated with the use of built-in GPS, decreasing the time it takes to set up a telescope at the start of an observing session.\nRemote-controlled telescopes\nWith the development of fast internet in the last part of the 20th century along with advances in computer controlled telescope mounts and CCD cameras, \"remote telescope\" astronomy is now a viable means for amateur astronomers not aligned with major telescope facilities to partake in research and deep sky imaging. This enables anyone to control a telescope a great distance away in a dark location. The observer can image through the telescope using CCD cameras. The digital data collected by the telescope is then transmitted and displayed to the user by means of the Internet. An example of a digital remote telescope operation for public use via the Internet is the Bareket Observatory, and there are telescope farms in New Mexico, Australia and Atacama in Chile.\nStar charts\nAmateur astronomers also use star charts that, depending on experience and intentions, may range from simple planispheres through to star atlases with detailed charts of the entire night sky. A range of astronomy software is also available and used by amateur astronomers, including software that generates maps of the sky, software to assist with astrophotography, observation scheduling software, and software to perform various calculations pertaining to astronomical phenomena.\nSetting circles\nSetting circles are angular measurement scales that can be placed on the two main rotation axes of some telescopes. Since the widespread adoption of digital setting circles, any classical engraved setting circle is now specifically identified as an \"analog setting circle\" (ASC). By knowing the coordinates of an object (usually given in equatorial coordinates), the telescope user can use the setting circle to align (i.e., point) the telescope in the appropriate direction before looking through its eyepiece. A computerized setting circle is called a \"digital setting circle\" (DSC). Although digital setting circles can be used to display a telescope's RA and Dec coordinates, they are not simply a digital read-out of what can be seen on the telescope's analog setting circles. As with go-to telescopes, digital setting circle computers (commercial names include Argo Navis, Sky Commander, and NGC Max) contain databases of tens of thousands of celestial objects and projections of planet positions.\n\nTo find a celestial object in a telescope equipped with a DSC computer, one does not need to look up the specific RA and Dec coordinates in a book or other resource, and then adjust the telescope to those numerical readings. Rather, the object is chosen from the electronic database, which causes distance values and arrow markers to appear in the display that indicate the distance and direction to move the telescope. The telescope is moved until the two angular distance values reach zero, indicating that the telescope is properly aligned. When both the RA and Dec axes are thus \"zeroed out\", the object should be in the eyepiece. Many DSCs, like go-to systems, can also work in conjunction with laptop sky programs.\n\nComputerized systems provide the further advantage of computing coordinate precession. Traditional printed sources are subtitled by the epoch year, which refers to the positions of celestial objects at a given time to the nearest year (e.g., J2005, J2007). Most such printed sources have been updated for intervals of only about every fifty years (e.g., J1900, J1950, J2000). Computerized sources, on the other hand, are able to calculate the right ascension and declination of the \"epoch of date\" to the exact instant of observation.\nObserving logs\nAmateur astronomers often like to keep records of their observations, which usually takes the form of an observing log. Observing logs typically record details about which objects were observed and when, as well as describing the details that were seen. Sketching is sometimes used within logs, and photographic records of observations have also been used in recent times. The information gathered is used to help studies and interactions between amateur astronomers in yearly gatherings. Although not professional information or credible, it is a way for the hobby lovers to share their new sightings and experiences.\nMobile apps\nThe advent of mobile applications for use in smartphones has led to the creation of many dedicated apps. These apps allow any user to easily locate celestial objects of interest by simply pointing the smartphone device in that direction in the sky. These apps make use of the inbuilt hardware in the phone, such as GPS location and gyroscope. Useful information about the pointed object like celestial coordinates, the name of the object, its constellation, etc. are provided for a quick reference. Some paid versions give more information. These apps are gradually getting into regular use during observing, for the alignment process of telescopes.\nThe internet\nThe popularity of imaging among amateurs has led to large numbers of web sites being written by individuals about their images and equipment. Much of the social interaction of amateur astronomy occurs on mailing lists or discussion groups. Discussion group servers host numerous astronomy lists. A great deal of the commerce of amateur astronomy, the buying and selling of equipment, occurs online. Many amateurs use online tools to plan their nightly observing sessions, using tools such as the Clear Sky Chart.\nCommon techniques\nWhile a number of interesting celestial objects are readily identified by the naked eye, sometimes with the aid of a star chart, many others are so faint or inconspicuous that technical means are necessary to locate them. Although many methods are used in amateur astronomy, most are techniques that are adaptations of core practices.\nStar hopping\nStar hopping is a method often used by amateur astronomers with low-tech equipment such as binoculars or a manually driven telescope. It involves the use of maps (or memory) to locate known landmark stars, and \"hopping\" between them, often with the aid of a finderscope. Because of its simplicity, star hopping is a very common method for finding objects that are close to naked-eye stars.\nImaging techniques\nAmateur astronomers engage in many imaging techniques including film, DSLR, LRGB, and CCD astrophotography. DSLR (digital single-lens reflex) cameras, such as the Canon EOS 60D camera, provide a cost-effective, consumer-grade alternative to CCDs, capable of achieving ideal outcomes for MAD (median absolute deviation). LRGB produce high-quality, cleaner images, allowing amateur astronomers to acquire fine color detail by combining a RGB color images and greyscale images. CCD cameras are widely used due to their fast exposures, sensitivity, dynamic range, less hardware, and linear response, allowing amateur astronomers to capture vague celestial objects. Because CCD imagers are linear, image processing may be used to subtract away the effects of light pollution, which has increased the popularity of astrophotography in urban areas. Narrowband filters may also be used to minimize light pollution.\nLight pollution\nIn recent times, increasing light pollution, radio interference, and satellite activity have had a negative effect on the outcomes of amateur astronomers' observations and work, limiting their potential contributions or findings of scientific discoveries. Urban lighting has had particularly detrimental effects on amateur astronomers by light trespass compromising their observatories and ruining the correct lighting conditions for photographic observations.\nScientific research\nAlthough not the main goal of amateur astronomers, scientific research is possible, and many amateurs successfully contribute to the knowledge base of astronomy. Astronomy is sometimes promoted as one of the few remaining sciences for which amateurs can still contribute useful data. To recognize this, the Astronomical Society of the Pacific annually gives Amateur Achievement Awards for significant contributions to astronomy by amateurs.\n\nThe majority of scientific contributions by amateur astronomers are in the area of data collection. In particular, this applies where large numbers of amateur astronomers with small telescopes are more effective than the relatively small number of large telescopes that are available to professional astronomers. Several organizations, such as the American Association of Variable Star Observers and the British Astronomical Association, exist to help coordinate these contributions.\n\nAmateur astronomers often contribute toward activities such as monitoring the changes in brightness of variable stars and supernovae, helping to track asteroids, and observing occultations to determine both the shape of asteroids and the shape of the terrain on the apparent edge of the Moon as seen from Earth. With more advanced equipment, but still cheap in comparison to professional setups, amateur astronomers can measure the light spectrum emitted from astronomical objects, which can yield high-quality scientific data if the measurements are performed with due care. A relatively recent role for amateur astronomers is searching for overlooked phenomena (e.g., Kreutz Sungrazers) in the vast libraries of digital images and other data captured by Earth and space based observatories, much of which is available over the Internet.\n\nIn the past and present, amateur astronomers have played a major role in discovering new comets. The introduction of projects such as the Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research and Near Earth Asteroid Tracking projects has meant that most comets are now discovered by automated systems long before it is possible for amateurs to see them.\nSocieties\nThere are a large number of amateur astronomical societies around the world, that serve as a meeting point for those interested in amateur astronomy. Members range from active observers with their own equipment to \"armchair astronomers\" who are simply interested in the topic. Societies range widely in their goals and activities, which may depend on a variety of factors such as geographic spread, local circumstances, size, and membership. For example, a small local society located in dark countryside may focus on practical observing and star parties, whereas a large one based in a major city might have numerous members but be limited by light pollution and thus hold regular indoor meetings with guest speakers instead. Major national or international societies generally publish their own academic journal or newsletter, and some hold large multi-day meetings akin to a scientific conference or convention. They may also have sections devoted to particular topics, such as lunar observation or amateur telescope making.\nNotable contributions by amateur astronomers\nThere have been many significant scientific, technological, and cultural contributions made by amateur astronomers:\nGeorge Alcock, one of the most successful visual discoverers of comets and novae.\nJohn E. Bortle, authored '\"Comet Digest\" in Sky and Telescope magazine and the monthly AAVSO circular for the American Association of Variable Star Observers. Created the Bortle scale to quantify the darkness of the night sky.\nRobert Burnham Jr. (1931–1993), author of the Celestial Handbook.\nAndrew Ainslie Common (1841–1903), built his own very large reflecting telescopes and demonstrated that photography could record astronomical features invisible to the human eye.\nRobert E. Cox (1917–1989) who conducted the \"Gleanings for ATMs\" column in Sky & Telescope magazine for 21 years.\nJohn Dobson (1915–2014), promoter of astronomy whose name is associated with the Dobsonian telescope.\nRobert Owen Evans (1937–2022) was an amateur astronomer who currently holds the all-time record for visual discoveries of supernovae.\nGiuseppe Donatiello, discovered twelve nearby dwarf galaxies in the Local Volume including the first galaxy to be named after its non-professional discoverer and three ultrafaint dwarf galaxies in the Local Group (Pisces VII, Pegasus V/Andromeda XXXIV and Andromeda XXXVI).\nWill Hay, comedian and actor, who discovered a white spot on Saturn.\nWalter Scott Houston (1912–1993) who wrote the \"Deep-Sky Wonders\" column in Sky & Telescope magazine for almost 50 years.\nAlbert G. Ingalls (1888–1958), editor of Amateur Telescope Making, Vols. 1–3 and \"The Amateur Scientist\".\nDavid H. Levy discovered or co-discovered 22 comets including Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9, the most for any individual.\nSir Patrick Moore (1923–2012), presenter of the BBC's long-running The Sky at Night and author of many books on astronomy.\nJack Newton (1942-2025), Canadian developer of cold camera astrophotography; founder of the dark sky Arizona Sky Village.\nRussell W. Porter (1871–1949) founded Stellafane and has been referred to as a \"founder\" of amateur telescope making.\nGrote Reber (1911–2002), pioneer of radio astronomy constructing the first purpose-built radio telescope and conducted the first sky survey in the radio frequency.\nCitizen science projects\nAmateur astronomers and other non-professionals make contributions through ongoing citizen science projects:\nXO Project, an international team of amateur and professional astronomers tasked with identifying extrasolar planets.\nMany amateur astronomers contribute to scientific discoveries as part of the citizen science Zooniverse project.\nPrizes recognizing amateur astronomers\nAmateur Achievement Award of Astronomical Society of the Pacific\nChambliss Amateur Achievement Award\nSee also\nCaldwell catalogue – A list of astronomical objects for observation by amateur astronomers compiled by Sir Patrick Caldwell-Moore.\nClear Sky Chart – Weather forecasts designed for amateur astronomers.\nList of astronomical societies\nList of telescope parts and construction\nMessier catalogue – A set of astronomical objects catalogued by the French astronomer Charles Messier in 1771, which is still used by many amateurs as an observing list.\nObservation\nObservational astronomy\nSchool Astronomical Olympiad by Correspondence\nSidewalk astronomy\nStar party\nReferencesFurther reading\nExternal links\nAmateur Astronomy Magazine","text_chars":22262,"text_sha256":"caa9a1fbf957e91bc7c6ebbff1b2800f2d2efffa331a090277a59f06afbb6424","text_utf8_bytes":22294,"title":"Amateur astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_astronomy","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"4df475c832565167ff442ca487383908c4dbe49013e86dae7c65bc5fd99d0a68"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2626&action=history","id":"2626","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":19289,"raw_text_sha256":"96e2acf3403342eeb60111fba00ab39dcfc042a04247681447e9ae1ad9466739","raw_text_utf8_bytes":19349,"revision_id":"1367761842","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-05T01:39:54Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1367761842","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Aegeus (, ; ) was one of the kings of Athens in Greek mythology, who gave his name to the Aegean Sea, was the father of Theseus, and founded Athenian institutions.\nFamily\nAegeus was the son of Pandion II, king of Athens and Pylia, daughter of King Pylas of Megara and thus, brother to Pallas, Nysus, Lykos and the wife of Sciron. But, in some accounts, he was regarded as the son of Scyrius or Phemius and was not of the stock of the Erechtheids, since he was only an adopted son of Pandion.\n\nAegeus' first wife was Meta, daughter of Hoples and his second wife was Chalciope, daughter of Rhexenor, neither of whom bore him any children. He was also credited to be the father of Medus by the witch Medea. One of his wifes was Autochthe of the House of Perseus, who gave him many daughters but no sons. In a rare account, Pallas was also said to be the son of Aegeus. The latter was also said to fathered Megareus, eponymous founder of Megara.\n\nAegeides (Αἰγείδης), was a patronymic from Aegeus and especially used to designate Theseus.\nMythology\nReign\nAegeus was born in Megara where his father Pandion II had settled after being expelled from Athens by the sons of Metion who seized the throne. After the death of Pandion, now king of Megara, Aegeus in conjunction with his three brothers successfully attacked Athens, took control over the government and expelled the usurpers, the Metionids. Then, they divide the power among themselves but Aegeus obtained the sovereignty of Attica, succeeding Pandion to the throne. It has been said that Megara was at the time a part of Attica, and that Nisus received his part when he became king of that city. Lycus became king of Euboea whereas Pallas received the southern part of the territory. Aegeus, being the eldest of the brothers, received what they all regarded as the best part: Athens.\n\nThe division of the land was explained further in the following text by the geographer Strabo:\n\n... when Attica was divided into four parts, Nisus obtained Megaris as his portion and founded Nisaea. Now, according to Philochorus, his rule extended from the Isthmus to the Pythium, but according to Andron, only as far as Eleusis and the Thriasian Plain. Although different writers have stated the division into four parts in different ways, it suffices to take the following from Sophocles: Aegeus says that his father ordered him to depart to the shorelands, assigning to him as the eldest the best portion of this land; then to Lycus he assigns Euboea's garden that lies side by side therewith; and for Nisus he selects the neighboring land of Sceiron's shore; and the southerly part of the land fell to this rugged Pallas, breeder of giants.\n\nLater on, Lycus was driven from the territory by Aegeus himself, and had to seek refuge in Arene, Messenia which was ruled by King Aphareus. Pallas and his fifty sons revolted at a later time, being crushed by Aegeus' son Theseus.\nHeirless King\nStill without a male heir with his previous marriages, Aegeus asked the oracle at Delphi for advice. According to Pausanias, Aegeus ascribed this misfortune to the anger of Aphrodite and in order to conciliate her introduced her worship as Aphrodite Urania (Heavenly) in Athens.\n\nThe cryptic words of the oracle were \"Do not loosen the bulging mouth of the wineskin until you have reached the height of Athens, lest you die of grief.\" Aegeus did not understand the prophecy and was disappointed. This puzzling oracle forced Aegeus to visit Pittheus, king of Troezen, who was famous for his wisdom and skill at expounding oracles. Pittheus understood the prophecy and introduced Aegeus to his daughter, Aethra, when Aegeus was drunk. They lay with each other, and then in some versions, Aethra waded to the island of Sphairia (a.k.a. Calauria) and bedded Poseidon. When Aethra became pregnant, Aegeus decided to return to Athens. Before leaving, he buried his sandal, shield, and sword under a huge rock and told her that, when their son grew up, he should move the rock and bring the weapons to his father, who would acknowledge him. Upon his return to Athens, Aegeus married Medea, who had fled from Corinth and the wrath of Jason. Medea finally gave him one son named Medus.\n\nWhen Theseus grew up, he found his father's belongings left for him and went to Athens to claim his birthright. Aegeus recognized him as his son by his sword, shield, and sandals. Medea, Aegeus' wife perceived Theseus to be a threat for her children's inheritance and first tried to discredit and then to poison Theseus. When Aegeus discovered these schemes, he drove Medea out of Athens.\nConflict with Crete\nWhile visiting in Athens, King Minos' son, Androgeus managed to defeat Aegeus in every contest during the Panathenaic Games. Out of envy, Aegeus sent him to conquer the Marathonian Bull, which killed him. Minos was angry and declared war on Athens. He offered the Athenians peace, however, under the condition that Athens would send seven young men and seven young women every nine years to Crete to be fed to the Minotaur, a vicious monster. This continued until Theseus killed the Minotaur with the help of Ariadne, Minos' daughter.\n\nAfter his adventures in Crete, Theseus returned by ship to Athens. His father, Aegeus previously had asked him to hang a white sail as a sign that Theseus is alive, but Theseus neglected this request. When Aegeus saw Theseus' ships without a white sail, he assumed the worst and threw himself in his grief into the sea, named after him the Aegean Sea.\nTheseus and the Minotaur\nIn Troezen, Theseus grew up and became a brave young man. He managed to move the rock and took his father's weapons. His mother then told him the identity of his father and that he should take the weapons back to him at Athens and be acknowledged. Theseus decided to go to Athens and had the choice of going by sea, which was the safe way, or by land, following a dangerous path with thieves and bandits all the way. Young, brave and ambitious, Theseus decided to go to Athens by land.\n\nWhen Theseus arrived, he did not reveal his true identity. He was welcomed by Aegeus, who was suspicious about the stranger who came to Athens. Medea tried to have Theseus killed by encouraging Aegeus to ask him to capture the Marathonian Bull, but Theseus succeeded. She tried to poison him, but at the last second, Aegeus recognized his son and knocked the poisoned cup out of Theseus' hand. Father and son were thus reunited, and Medea was sent away to Asia.\n\nTheseus departed for Crete. Upon his departure, Aegeus told him to put up white sails when returning if he was successful in killing the Minotaur. However, when Theseus returned, he forgot these instructions. When Aegeus saw the black sails coming into Athens, mistaken in his belief that his son had been slain, he killed himself by jumping from a height: according to some, from the Acropolis or another unnamed rock; according to some Latin authors, into the sea which was therefore known as the Aegean Sea.\n\nSophocles' tragedy Aegeus has been lost, but Aegeus features in Euripides' Medea.\nLegacy\nAt Athens, the traveller Pausanias was informed in the second-century CE that the cult of Aphrodite Urania above the Kerameikos was so ancient that it had been established by Aegeus, whose sisters were barren, and he still childless himself.\n\nThere was a heroon of Aigeus in Athens, called Aigeion (Αἰγεῖον).\nSee also\nCatullus, LXIV.\nPlutarch, Theseus.\nNotesReferences\nApollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. ISBN 0-674-99135-4. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.\nDiodorus Siculus, The Library of History translated by Charles Henry Oldfather. Twelve volumes. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1989. Vol. 3. Books 4.59–8. Online version at Bill Thayer's Web Site\nDiodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica. Vol 1-2. Immanel Bekker. Ludwig Dindorf. Friedrich Vogel. in aedibus B. G. Teubneri. Leipzig. 1888–1890. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.\nGaius Julius Hyginus, Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project.\nLucius Mestrius Plutarchus, Lives with an English Translation by Bernadotte Perrin. Cambridge, MA. Harvard University Press. London. William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. 1. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.\nMaurus Servius Honoratus, In Vergilii carmina comentarii. Servii Grammatici qui feruntur in Vergilii carmina commentarii; recensuerunt Georgius Thilo et Hermannus Hagen. Georgius Thilo. Leipzig. B. G. Teubner. 1881. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.\nPausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. . Online version at the Perseus Digital Library\nPausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.\nScholia to Lycophron's Alexandra, marginal notes by Isaak and Ioannis Tzetzes and others from the Greek edition of Eduard Scheer (Weidmann 1881). Online version at the Topos Text Project..\nStrabo, The Geography of Strabo. Edition by H.L. Jones. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.\nStrabo, Geographica edited by A. Meineke. Leipzig: Teubner. 1877. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.\nExternal links","text_chars":9807,"text_sha256":"141ae6574030dcc2d922114c5e0d7612101f95e9b991228f6478db28f3f27489","text_utf8_bytes":9829,"title":"Aegeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegeus","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"12c301d81974491678429d6f465f25400acb0fa02f68a61943c407c2191cf72a"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1797&action=history","id":"1797","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":37344,"raw_text_sha256":"8197368865a207d46e77f8e4e2f09aa1311131c86f143764e494ca0a1e348afd","raw_text_utf8_bytes":37419,"revision_id":"1357447025","revision_timestamp":"2026-06-02T18:27:10Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1357447025","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"The acre is a unit of land area used in the British imperial and the United States customary systems. It is traditionally defined as the area of one chain by one furlong (66 by 660 feet), which is exactly equal to 10 square chains, of a square mile, 4,840 square yards, or 43,560 square feet, and approximately 4,047 m2, or about 40% of a hectare. The acre is sometimes abbreviated ac, but is usually spelled out as the word \"acre\".\n\nTraditionally, in the Middle Ages, an acre was conceived of as the area of land that could be ploughed by one man using a team of eight oxen in one day. The acre is still a statutory measure in the United States, where both the international acre and the US survey acre are in use, but they differ by only four parts per million. The most common use of the acre is to measure tracts of land. The acre is used in many existing and former Commonwealth of Nations countries by custom. In a few, it continues as a statute measure, although not since 2010 in the UK, and not for decades in Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. In many places where the acre is no longer a statute measure, it is still lawful to use as supplementary information next to the statutory hectare measurement.\nDescription\nOne acre equals (0.0015625) square mile, 4,840 square yards, 43,560 square feet, or about (see below). While all modern variants of the acre contain 4,840 square yards, there are alternative definitions of a yard, so the exact size of an acre depends upon the particular yard on which it is based. Originally, an acre was understood as a strip of land sized at forty perches (660 ft, or 1 furlong) long and four perches (66 ft) wide; this may have also been understood as an approximation of the amount of land a yoke of oxen could plough in one day (a furlong being \"a furrow long\"). A square enclosing one acre is approximately 69.57 yards, or 208 feet 9 inches , on a side. As a unit of measure, an acre has no prescribed shape; any area of 43,560 square feet is an acre.\nUS survey acres\nIn the international yard and pound agreement of 1959, the United States and five countries of the Commonwealth of Nations defined the international yard to be exactly 0.9144 metre. The US authorities decided that, while the refined definition would apply nationally in all other respects, the US survey foot (and thus the survey acre) would continue 'until such a time as it becomes desirable and expedient to readjust [it]'. By inference, an \"international acre\" may be calculated as exactly square metres but it does not have a basis in any international agreement.\n\nBoth the international acre and the US survey acre contain of a square mile or 4,840 square yards, but alternative definitions of a yard are used (see and ), so the exact size of an acre depends upon the yard upon which it is based. The US survey acre is about 4,046.872 square metres; its exact value ( m2) is based on an inch defined by 1 metre = 39.37 inches exactly, as established by the Mendenhall Order of 1893. Surveyors in the United States use both international and survey feet, and consequently, both varieties of acre.\n\nSince the difference between the US survey acre and international acre (0.016 square metres, 160 square centimetres or 24.8 square inches), is only about a quarter of the size of an A4 sheet or US letter, it is usually not important which one is being discussed. Areas are seldom measured with sufficient accuracy for the different definitions to be detectable. In October 2019, the US National Geodetic Survey and the National Institute of Standards and Technology announced their joint intent to end the \"temporary\" continuance of the US survey foot, mile, and acre units (as permitted by their 1959 decision, above), with effect from the end of 2022.\nSpanish acre\nThe Puerto Rican cuerda is sometimes called the \"Spanish acre\" in the continental United States.\nUse\nThe acre is commonly used in many current and former Commonwealth countries by custom, and in a few it continues as a statute measure. These include Antigua and Barbuda, American Samoa, The Bahamas, Belize, the British Virgin Islands, Canada, the Cayman Islands, Dominica, the Falkland Islands, Grenada, Ghana, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Jamaica, Montserrat, Samoa, Saint Lucia, St. Helena, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Turks and Caicos, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the US Virgin Islands.\nRepublic of Ireland\nIn the Republic of Ireland, the hectare is legally used under European units of measurement directives; however, the acre (the same standard statute as used in the UK, not the old Irish acre, which was of a different size) is still widely used, especially in agriculture.\nIndian subcontinent\nIn India, residential plots are measured in square feet, square yard or square metre, while agricultural land is measured in bigha, acres or hectare. In Sri Lanka, the division of an acre into 160 perches or 4 roods is common.\n\nIn Pakistan, residential plots are measured in Kanal (20 = 1 = 605 sq yards) and open/agriculture land measurement is in acres (8 = 1 acre) and (25 acres = 1 = 200 ), and .\nUnited Kingdom\nIts use as a primary unit for trade in the United Kingdom ceased to be permitted from 1 October 1995, due to the 1994 amendment of the Weights and Measures Act, where it was replaced by the hectare though its use as a supplementary unit continues to be permitted indefinitely. This was with the exemption of land registration, which records the sale and possession of land; in 2010 HM Land Registry ended its exemption. The measure is still used to communicate with the public, and informally (non-contract) by the farming and property industries.\nEquivalence to other units of area\n1 international acre is equal to the following metric units:\n0.40468564224 hectare (A square with 100 m sides has an area of 1 hectare.)\n4,046.8564224 square metres (or a square with approximately 63.61 m sides)\n\n1 United States survey acre is equal to:\n0.404687261 hectare\n4,046.87261 square metres (1 square kilometre is equal to 247.105 acres)\n\n1 acre (both variants) is equal to the following customary units:\n66 feet × 660 feet (43,560 square feet)\n10 square chains (1 chain = 66 feet = 22 yards = 4 rods = 100 links)\n1 acre is approximately 208.71 feet × 208.71 feet (a square)\n4,840 square yards\n43,560 square feet\n160 perches. A perch is equal to a square rod (1 square rod is 0.00625 acre)\n4 roods\nA furlong by a chain (furlong 220 yards, chain 22 yards)\n40 rods by 4 rods, 160 rods2 (historically fencing was often sold in 40 rod lengths)\n(0.0015625) square mile (1 square mile is equal to 640 acres)\n\nPerhaps the easiest way for US residents to envision an acre is as a rectangle measuring 88 yards by 55 yards ( of 880 yards by of 880 yards), about the size of a standard American football field. To be more exact, one acre is 90.75% of a 100-yd-long by 53.33-yd-wide American football field (without the end zone). The full field, including the end zones, covers about . For residents of other countries, the acre might be envisioned as rather more than half of a football pitch.\nHistorical origin\nThe word acre is derived from the Norman, attested for the first time in 1006 in a text from Fécamp with the meaning of \"agrarian measure\". Acre dates back to the old Scandinavian akr \"cultivated field, ploughed land\" which is perpetuated in Icelandic and the Faroese \"field (wheat)\", Norwegian and Swedish , Danish \"field\", cognate with German , Dutch , Latin , Sanskrit , and Greek . In English, an obsolete variant spelling was . According to the Act on the Composition of Yards and Perches, dating from around 1300, an acre is \"40 perches [rods] in length and four in breadth\", meaning 220 yards by 22 yards. As detailed in the diagram, an acre was roughly the amount of land tillable by a yoke of oxen in one day.\n\nBefore the introduction of the metric system, many countries in Europe used their own official \"acres\" (with other names). In France, the traditional unit of area was the arpent carré, a measure based on the Roman system of land measurement. The was used only in Normandy (and neighbouring places outside its traditional borders), but its value varied greatly across Normandy, ranging from 3,632 to 9,725 square metres, with 8,172 square metres being the most frequent value. But inside the same of Normandy, for instance in pays de Caux, the farmers (still in the 20th century) made the difference between the (68 ares, 66 centiares) and the (56 to 65 ca). The Normandy was usually divided in 4 (roods) and 160 square , like the English acre.\n\nThe Normandy was equal to 1.6 , the unit of area more commonly used in Northern France outside of Normandy. In Canada, the Paris used in Quebec before the metric system was adopted is sometimes called \"French acre\" in English, even though the Paris and the Normandy were two very different units of area in ancient France (the Paris became the unit of area of French Canada, whereas the Normandy was never used in French Canada).\n\nIn Germany, the Netherlands, and Eastern Europe the traditional unit of area was . Like the acre, the morgen was a unit of ploughland, representing a strip that could be ploughed by one man and an ox or horse in a morning. There were many variants of the morgen, differing between the different German territories, ranging from . It was also used in Old Prussia, in the Balkans, Norway, and Denmark, where it was equal to about . Statutory values for the acre were enacted in England, and subsequently the United Kingdom, by acts of:\nEdward I\nEdward III\nHenry VIII\nGeorge IV\nQueen Victoria – the British Weights and Measures Act 1878 defined it as containing 4,840 square yards.\n\nHistorically, the size of farms and landed estates in the United Kingdom was usually expressed in acres (or acres, roods, and perches), even if the number of acres was so large that it might conveniently have been expressed in square miles. For example, a certain landowner might have been said to own 32,000 acres of land, not 50 square miles of land.\n\nThe acre is related to the square mile, with 640 acres making up one square mile. One mile is 5280 feet (1760 yards). In western Canada and the western United States, divisions of land area were typically based on the square mile, and fractions thereof. If the square mile is divided into quarters, each quarter has a side length of mile (880 yards) and is square mile in area, or 160 acres. These subunits are typically then again divided into quarters, with each side being mile long, and being of a square mile in area, or 40 acres. In the United States, farmland was typically divided as such, and the phrase \"the back 40\" refers to the 40-acre parcel to the back of the farm. Most of the Canadian Prairie Provinces and the US Midwest are on square-mile grids for surveying purposes.\nLegacy units\nCustomary acre – The customary acre was roughly similar to the Imperial acre, but it was subject to considerable local variation similar to the variation in carucates, virgates, bovates, nooks, and farundels. These may have been multiples of the customary acre, rather than the statute acre.\nBuilder's acre = or , used in US real-estate development to simplify the math and for marketing. It is nearly 10% smaller than a survey acre, and the discrepancy has led to lawsuits alleging misrepresentation.\nFeddan – Middle Eastern measurement unit, .\nScottish acre = 1.3 imperial acres (5,080 m2, an obsolete Scottish measurement)\nIrish acre =\nCheshire acre =\nStremma or Greek acre ≈ 10,000 square Greek feet, but now set at exactly 1,000 square metres (a similar unit was the zeugarion)\nDunam or Turkish acre ≈ 1,600 square Turkish paces, but now set at exactly 1,000 square metres (a similar unit was the çift)\nActus quadratus or Roman acre ≈ 14,400 square Roman feet (about 1,260 square metres)\nLong acre – the grass strip on either side of a road that may be used for illicit grazing.\nTown acre was a term used in early 19th century in the planning of towns on a grid plan, such as Adelaide, South Australia and Wellington, New Plymouth and Nelson in New Zealand. The land was divided into plots of an Imperial acre, and these became known as town acres.\nSee also\nAcre-foot – used in US to measure a large water volume\nAnthropic units\nArpent – used in Louisiana to measure length and area\nConversion of units\nGod's Acre – a synonym for a churchyard\nJugerum – Roman unit of area\nMorgen (\"morning\") – normally of a Tagwerk (\"day work\") of ploughing with an ox\nMu – Chinese acre\nPublic Land Survey System\nQuarter acre\nSection (United States land surveying)\nSpanish units of measurement\nNotesReferencesExternal links\nThe Units of Measurement Regulations 1995 (United Kingdom)","text_chars":12755,"text_sha256":"e0938e8bd1120daae360130141df7fafea656e9a394adeacc7dd95028e956dc2","text_utf8_bytes":12786,"title":"Acre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acre","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"600480a9daa6f395a49721b09e3a6da1415c9971ac677bd51b2826b7313c4b21"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1716&action=history","id":"1716","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":8991,"raw_text_sha256":"dc9b24a193f06ee9c4042fdf8cb8f8e46582b5441ee26143074750d6da0302c3","raw_text_utf8_bytes":9011,"revision_id":"1367348232","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-02T15:10:55Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1367348232","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Ambrogio Traversari, also referred to as Ambrose of Camaldoli (138620 October 1439), was an Italian monk and theologian who was a prime supporter of the papal cause in the 15th century. He is honored as a saint by the Camaldolese Order.\nBiography\nTraversari was born near Forlì, in the village of Portico di Romagna in 1386. At the age of 14, he entered the Camaldolese Order in the Monastery of St. Mary of the Angels in Florence, and soon acquired a reputation as a leading theologian and Hellenist. In his study of Greek literature, his master was Emmanuel Chrysoloras. Traversari worked primarily as a scholar until he became prior general of the Order in 1431.\n\nTraversari emerged as a leading advocate of papal primacy. This attitude he showed clearly when he attended the Council of Basel as legate of Pope Eugene IV and defended the primacy of the pope, calling upon the council not to \"rend asunder Christ's seamless robe\". He was next sent by Eugene to the Emperor Sigismund to ask his aid in the pope's efforts to end this council, which for five years had been encroaching on papal prerogatives. Eugene transferred the council from Basel to Ferrara on 18 September 1437.\n\nSo strong was Traversari's hostility to some of the delegates that he described Basel as a western Babylon. He likewise supported the pope at Ferrara and Florence and worked hard to reconcile the Eastern and Western Churches. But in this council, and later, in that of Florence, Traversari, by his efforts and charity toward some indigent Greek bishops, greatly helped to bring about a union of the two Churches, the decree for which, 6 July 1439, he was called on to prepare a draft.\n\nAmbrose Traversari died soon after. His feastday is celebrated by the Camaldolese Order on 20 November.\nCharacter\nAccording to the author of his biography in the eleventh edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica: \"Ambrose is interesting as typical of the new humanism which was growing up within the church. Thus, while among his own colleagues he seemed merely a hypocritical and arrogant priest, in his relations with his brother humanists, such as Cosimo de' Medici, he appeared as the student of classical antiquities and especially of Greek theological authors\".\nWorks\nHis works include a treatise on the Holy Eucharist, one on the Procession of the Holy Spirit, many lives of saints, and a history of his term as prior general of the Camaldolese. He also translated from Greek into Latin a life of John Chrysostom (Venice, 1533); the Spiritual Wisdom of John Moschus; The Ladder of Divine Ascent of John Climacus (Venice, 1531), P.G., LXXXVIII. Between 1424 and 1433, he worked on the translation of the Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers by Diogenes Laërtius, which came to be widely circulated in manuscript form. He also translated four books against the errors of the Greeks, by Manuel Kalekas, Patriarch of Constantinople, a Dominican friar (Ingolstadt, 1608), P.G., CLII, col. 13-661, a work known only through Ambrose's translation.\n\nHe also translated many homilies of John Chrysostom; the writings of Dionysius Areopagita (1436); Basil of Caesarea's treatise on virginity; thirty-nine discourses of Ephrem the Syrian, and many other works of the Fathers and writers of the Greek Church. Jean Mabillon's Letters and Orations of St. Ambrose of Camaldoli was published in Florence in 1759.\n\nSelected works:\nHodoeporicon, diary of a journey visiting the monasteries of Italy\nEpistolarium, correspondence\ntranslations of\nPalladius, Life of Chrysostom\nEphraem Syrus, Nineteen Sermons of Ephraem Syrus\nBasil of Caesarea, On Virginity\nDiogenes Laërtius, Vitae philosophorum (Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers)\nPseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (1436)\n\nA number of his manuscripts remain in the library of Saint Mark in Venice.\nSee also\nTraversari\nThe Baptism of Christ (Piero della Francesca)\nReferences\nAttribution\nFurther reading\nExternal links\nLetters – a few letters in the original Latin and a portrait of him from a manuscript he copied.\nContains short biography","text_chars":4058,"text_sha256":"0d4e747d43fbcf438611e23dd68c086e16a6acbaa70fc590b36cf7e00aeb29e7","text_utf8_bytes":4064,"title":"Ambrose Traversari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrose_Traversari","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"cd475c14ed055cab825889b5243d24996274b3809713b3f8b369a674f4ee1a1d"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2323&action=history","id":"2323","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":16833,"raw_text_sha256":"f1a197583f2844b05756c183604d6c21fac9a752dcfb43a6ebb9fb7f55d8aa6b","raw_text_utf8_bytes":16847,"revision_id":"1369230958","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-13T17:51:31Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1369230958","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"In computer architecture, Amdahl's law (or Amdahl's argument) is a formula limiting the speedup of a task as resources are added to the system executing that task.\n\nThe law can be stated as:\n\nthe overall performance improvement gained by optimizing a single part of a system is limited by the fraction of time that the improved part is actually used.\n\nIt is named after computer scientist Gene Amdahl, and was presented at the American Federation of Information Processing Societies (AFIPS) Spring Joint Computer Conference in 1967.\n\nAmdahl's law is often used in parallel computing to predict the theoretical speedup when using multiple processors.\nDefinition\nIn the context of Amdahl's law, speedup can be defined as:\n\nor\n\nAmdahl's law can be formulated in the following way:\nwhere\nrepresents the total speedup of a program\nrepresents the proportion of time spent on the portion of the code where improvements are made\nrepresents the extent of the improvement\n\nThe is frequently much lower than one might expect. For instance, if a programmer enhances a part of the code that represents 10% of the total execution time (i.e. of 0.10) and achieves a of 10,000, then becomes 1.11 which means only 11% improvement in total speedup of the program. So, despite a massive improvement in one section, the overall benefit is quite small. In another example, if the programmer optimizes a section that accounts for 99% of the execution time (i.e. of 0.99) with a speedup factor of 100 (i.e. of 100), the only reaches 50. This indicates that half of the potential performance gain ( will reach 100 if 100% of the execution time is covered) is lost due to the remaining 1% of execution time that was not improved.\nDerivation\nA task executed by a system whose resources are improved compared to an initial similar system can be split up into two parts:\na part that does not benefit from the improvement of the resources of the system;\na part that benefits from the improvement of the resources of the system.\n\nAn example is a computer program that processes files. A part of that program may scan the directory of the disk and create a list of files internally in memory. After that, another part of the program passes each file to a separate thread for processing. The part that scans the directory and creates the file list cannot be sped up on a parallel computer, but the part that processes the files can.\n\nThe execution time of the whole task before the improvement of the resources of the system is denoted as . It includes the execution time of the part that would not benefit from the improvement of the resources and the execution time of the one that would benefit from it. The fraction of the execution time of the task that would benefit from the improvement of the resources is denoted by . The one concerning the part that would not benefit from it is therefore . Then:\nIt is the execution of the part that benefits from the improvement of the resources that is accelerated by the factor after the improvement of the resources. Consequently, the execution time of the part that does not benefit from it remains the same, while the part that benefits from it becomes:\nThe theoretical execution time of the whole task after the improvement of the resources is then:\nAmdahl's law gives the theoretical speedup in latency of the execution of the whole task at fixed workload , which yields\nParallel programs\nIf 30% of the execution time may be the subject of a speedup, p will be 0.3; if the improvement makes the affected part twice as fast, s will be 2. Amdahl's law states that the overall speedup of applying the improvement will be:\nFor example, assume that we are given a serial task which is split into four consecutive parts, whose percentages of execution time are , , , and respectively. Then we are told that the 1st part is not sped up, so , while the 2nd part is sped up 5 times, so , the 3rd part is sped up 20 times, so , and the 4th part is sped up 1.6 times, so . By using Amdahl's law, the overall speedup is\nNotice how the 5 times and 20 times speedup on the 2nd and 3rd parts respectively don't have much effect on the overall speedup when the 4th part (48% of the execution time) is accelerated by only 1.6 times.\nSerial programs\nFor example, with a serial program in two parts A and B for which and ,\nif part B is made to run 5 times faster, that is and , then\nif part A is made to run 2 times faster, that is and , then\n\nTherefore, making part to run 2 times faster is better than making part to run 5 times faster. The percentage improvement in speed can be calculated as\nImproving part A by a factor of 2 will increase overall program speed by a factor of 1.60, which makes it 37.5% faster than the original computation.\nHowever, improving part B by a factor of 5, which presumably requires more effort, will achieve an overall speedup factor of 1.25 only, which makes it 20% faster.\nOptimizing the sequential part of parallel programs\nIf the non-parallelizable part is optimized by a factor of , then\nIt follows from Amdahl's law that the speedup due to parallelism is given by\nWhen , we have , meaning that the speedup is\nmeasured with respect to the execution time after the non-parallelizable part is optimized.\n\nWhen ,\nIf , and , then:\nTransforming sequential parts of parallel programs into parallelizable\nNext, we consider the case wherein the non-parallelizable part is reduced by a factor of , and the parallelizable part is correspondingly increased. Then\nIt follows from Amdahl's law that the speedup due to parallelism is given by\nRelation to the law of diminishing returns\nAmdahl's law is often conflated with the law of diminishing returns, whereas only a special case of applying Amdahl's law demonstrates the law of diminishing returns. If one picks optimally (in terms of the achieved speedup) what is to be improved, then one will see monotonically decreasing improvements as one improves. If, however, one picks non-optimally, after improving a sub-optimal component and moving on to improve a more optimal component, one can see an increase in the return. Note that it is often rational to improve a system in an order that is \"non-optimal\" in this sense, given that some improvements are more difficult or require larger development time than others.\n\nAmdahl's law does represent the law of diminishing returns if one is considering what sort of return one gets by adding more processors to a machine, if one is running a fixed-size computation that will use all available processors to their capacity. Each new processor added to the system will add less usable power than the previous one. Each time one doubles the number of processors the speedup ratio will diminish, as the total throughput heads toward the limit of .\n\nThis analysis neglects other potential bottlenecks such as memory bandwidth and I/O bandwidth. If these resources do not scale with the number of processors, then merely adding processors provides even lower returns.\n\nAn implication of Amdahl's law is that to speed up real applications which have both serial and parallel portions, heterogeneous computing techniques are required. There are novel speedup and energy consumption models based on a more general representation of heterogeneity, referred to as the normal form heterogeneity, that support a wide range of heterogeneous many-core architectures. These modelling methods aim to predict system power efficiency and performance ranges, and facilitates research and development at the hardware and system software levels.\nSee also\nGustafson's law\nUniversal Scalability Law\nAnalysis of parallel algorithms\nCritical path method\nBrooks's law\nMoore's law\nList of eponymous laws\nReferencesFurther reading\nExternal links\n. Amdahl discusses his graduate work at the University of Wisconsin and his design of WISC. Discusses his role in the design of several computers for IBM including the STRETCH, IBM 701, and IBM 704. He discusses his work with Nathaniel Rochester and IBM's management of the design process. Mentions work with Ramo-Wooldridge, Aeronutronic, and Computer Sciences Corporation\n\"Amdahl's Law\" by Joel F. Klein, Wolfram Demonstrations Project (2007)\nAmdahl's Law in the Multicore Era (July 2008)","text_chars":8234,"text_sha256":"f9480a0fa0ef6c5b4e0d57c12461a985e3b3dba618b62d08232cd95759c756eb","text_utf8_bytes":8234,"title":"Amdahl's law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amdahl%27s_law","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"882c19f0b120d6c1cdcddeac5dcf6298da76022f2f6cf9646923504fca47679f"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2909&action=history","id":"2909","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":57287,"raw_text_sha256":"0647dc75107938090924a2a2fca481cf50138615e33ccfb83da4dcc504971bd2","raw_text_utf8_bytes":57379,"revision_id":"1369459480","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-15T03:10:59Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1369459480","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Albinism is a congenital condition characterized in humans by the partial or complete absence of pigment in the skin, hair and eyes. Albinism is associated with a number of vision defects, such as photophobia, nystagmus, and amblyopia. The visual abnormalities regarding albinism are mainly caused by reduced melanin during optic development, leading to misrouting of optic nerve fibers and underdevelopment of the fovea. Lack of skin pigmentation makes for more susceptibility to sunburn and skin cancers. In rare cases such as Chédiak–Higashi syndrome, albinism may be associated with deficiencies in the transportation of melanin granules. This also affects essential granules present in immune cells, leading to increased susceptibility to infection.\n\nAlbinism results from inheritance of recessive gene alleles and is known to affect all vertebrates, including humans. Many genes are now known to cause oculocutaneous albinism, that include TYR, OSA2, TYRP1, SLC45A2, SLC24AB, and C10orf11, all of which affect both melanin synthesis and melanosome function. Unlike humans, other animals have multiple pigments and for these albinism is considered to be a hereditary condition characterised by the absence of melanin, in particular in the eyes, skin, hair, scales, feathers or cuticle. While an organism with complete absence of melanin is called an albino, an organism with only a diminished amount of melanin is described as leucistic or albinoid. The term is from the Latin albus, \"white\".\nSigns and symptoms\nThere are two principal types of albinism: oculocutaneous, affecting the eyes, skin and hair, and ocular, affecting the eyes only.\n\nThere are different types of oculocutaneous albinism depending on which gene has undergone mutation. With some there is no pigment at all. The other end of the spectrum of albinism is \"a form of albinism called rufous oculocutaneous albinism, which usually affects dark-skinned people\".\n\nAccording to the US National Organization for Albinism and Hypopigmentation, \"With ocular albinism, the color of the iris of the eye may vary from blue to green or even brown, and sometimes darkens with age. However, when an optometrist or ophthalmologist examines the eye by shining a light from the side of the eye, the light shines back through the iris since very little pigment is present.\" This specific phenomenon is known as iris transillumination. It occurs due to reduced pigment in the iris stroma and is a common clinical aspect in albinism\n\nBecause individuals with albinism have skin that entirely lacks the dark pigment melanin, which helps protect the skin from the sun's ultraviolet radiation, their skin can burn more easily from overexposure. People with albinism are typically advised to complete full skin examinations at least once a year to detect early skin cancer. They are also encouraged to follow sun protection measures that include regular application of sunscreen.\n\nThe human eye normally produces enough pigment to color the iris blue, green or brown and lend opacity to the eye. In photographs, those with albinism are more likely to demonstrate \"red eye\", due to the red of the retina being visible through the iris. Lack of pigment in the eyes also results in problems with vision, both related and unrelated to photosensitivity.\n\nThose with albinism are generally as healthy as the rest of the population (but see related disorders below), with growth and development occurring as normal, and albinism by itself does not cause mortality, although the lack of pigment blocking ultraviolet radiation increases the risk of melanomas (skin cancers) and other problems such as actinic skin damage and long-term skin changes due to the sun, and studies show that without proper sun protection, cumulative exposure to ultraviolet light can significantly increase the risk of both non-melanoma skin cancers and melanoma, particularly in areas with strong sunlight.\nVision problems\nDevelopment of the optical system is highly dependent on the presence of melanin. For this reason, the reduction or absence of this pigment in people with albinism may lead to:\nMisrouting of the retinogeniculate projections, resulting in abnormal decussation (crossing) of optic nerve fibres\nPhotophobia and decreased visual acuity due to light scattering within the eye (ocular straylight)\nReduced visual acuity due to foveal hypoplasia and possibly light-induced retinal damage.\nIris transillumination defects, which occur due to reduced pigment in the iris, allowing light to pass through the iris when viewed using slit-lamp retroillumination.\n\nEye conditions common in albinism include:\nNystagmus, irregular rapid movement of the eyes back and forth, or in circular motion.\nAmblyopia, decrease in acuity of one or both eyes due to poor transmission to the brain, often due to other conditions such as strabismus.\nOptic nerve hypoplasia, underdevelopment of the optic nerve.\nFoveal Hypoplasia, incomplete development of the fovea, often a cause of reduced visual acuity in albinism.\nThe improper development of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), which in normal eyes absorbs most of the reflected sunlight, further increases glare due to light scattering within the eye. The resulting sensitivity (photophobia) generally leads to discomfort in bright light, but this can be reduced by the use of sunglasses or brimmed hats.\nGenetics\nOculocutaneous albinism is generally the result of the biological inheritance of genetically recessive alleles (genes) passed from both parents of an individual such as OCA1 and OCA2. Different OCA subtypes are caused by specific enzyme problems. OCA1 is due to a lack of the enzyme tyrosinase, resulting in no melanin production, while other types still allow partial enzyme activity and pigment production. A mutation in the human TRP-1 gene may result in the deregulation of melanocyte tyrosinase enzymes, a change that is hypothesized to promote brown versus black melanin synthesis, resulting in a third oculocutaneous albinism (OCA) genotype, \"OCA3\".\n\nMolecular genetic testing has become the main method of confirming OCA subtype, as clinical features alone are often insufficient to distinguish between different genetic forms. Some rare forms are inherited from only one parent. There are other genetic mutations that are proven to be associated with albinism. All alterations, however, lead to changes in melanin production in the body.\n\nThe chance of offspring with albinism resulting from the pairing of an organism with albinism and one without albinism is low. However, because organisms (including humans) can be carriers of genes for albinism without exhibiting any traits, albinistic offspring can be produced by two non-albinistic parents. Albinism usually occurs with equal frequency in both sexes. An exception to this is ocular albinism, which it is passed on to offspring through X-linked inheritance. Thus ocular albinism occurs more frequently in males as they have a single X and Y chromosome, unlike females, whose genetics are characterized by two X chromosomes.\n\nThere are two different forms of albinism: a partial lack of the melanin is known as hypomelanism, or hypomelanosis, and the total absence of melanin is known as amelanism or amelanosis. Even within the same subtype, pigmentation levels can significantly vary, with some individuals producing small amounts of melanin, which results in a wide range of hypopigmentation rather than a complete absence of pigment.\nProximity to the Equator\nIndividuals with oculocutaneous albinism residing in regions near the equator have a significantly increased risk of developing skin cancer called squamous cell carcinoma, a form of skin cancer that typically appears at a much earlier age than it does in most populations.\nEnzyme\nThe enzyme defect responsible for OCA1-type albinism is tyrosine 3-monooxygenase (tyrosinase), which synthesizes melanin from the amino acid tyrosine.\nTyrosinase catalyzes the conversion of tyrosine into L-DOPA and then to dopaquinone, which is the major rate-limiting step in melanin production.\nEvolutionary theories\nIt is suggested that the early genus Homo (humans in the broader sense) started to evolve in East Africa around 3 million years ago. The dramatic phenotypic change from the ape-like Australopithecus to early Homo is hypothesized to have involved the extreme loss of body hair – except for areas most exposed to UV radiation, such as the head – to allow for more efficient thermoregulation in the early hunter-gatherers. The skin that would have been exposed upon general body hair loss in these early proto-humans would have most likely been non-pigmented, reflecting the pale skin underlying the hair of our chimpanzee relatives.\n\nA positive advantage would have been conferred to early hominids inhabiting the African continent that were capable of producing darker skin – those who first expressed the eumelanin-producing MC1R allele – which protected them from harmful epithelium-damaging ultraviolet rays. Studies indicate that the evolution of dark skin in equatorial regions is closely associated with protection against folate breakdown caused by ultraviolet radiation, in addition to protection from DNA damage and the risk of skin cancer.\n\nOver time, the advantage conferred to those with darker skin may have led to the prevalence of darker skin on the continent. The positive advantage, however, would have had to be strong enough so as to produce a significantly higher reproductive fitness in those who produced more melanin. The cause of a selective pressure strong enough to cause this shift is an area of much debate. Some hypotheses include the existence of significantly lower reproductive fitness in people with less melanin due to lethal skin cancer, lethal kidney disease due to excess vitamin D formation in the skin of people with less melanin, or simply natural selection due to mate preference and sexual selection.\n\nWhen comparing the prevalence of albinism in Africa to its prevalence in other parts of the world, such as Europe and the United States, the potential evolutionary effects of skin cancer as a selective force due to its effect on these populations may not be insignificant. It would follow, then, that there would be stronger selective forces acting on albino individuals in Africa than on albinos in Europe and the US. In two separate studies in Nigeria, very few people with albinism appear to survive to old age. In regions with high ultraviolet radiation, people with albinism face higher risks of both severe sun damage and skin cancer, which reduces average life expectancy in affected populations without proper protection or access to medical care. One study found that 89% of people diagnosed with albinism are between 0 and 30 years of age, while the other found that 77% of albinos were under the age of 20.\n\nIt has also been theorized that albinism may have been able to spread in some Native American communities, because albino males were culturally revered and assumed as having divine origins. The very high incidence of albinism among the Hopi tribe has been frequently attributed to the privileged status of albino males in Hopi society, who were not required to perform physical work outdoors, shielding them from the harmful effects of UV radiation. This privileged status of albino males in Hopi society allowed them to reproduce with large numbers of non-albino women, spreading the genes that are associated with albinism.\nComorbidities\nAlbinism can also be a feature alongside several syndromes:\nABCD syndrome\nAlbinism-hearing loss syndrome\nChédiak–Higashi syndrome, in partial albinism\nDeafness, congenital, with total albinism\nErmine phenotype in partial albinism\nHermansky-Pudlak syndrome 1 to 11 (excluding 9)\nMicrocephaly-albinism-digital anomalies syndrome\nOcular albinism with late-onset sensorineural deafness\nOcular albinism, type II\nOculocutaneous albinism types 1B, 3 to 7\nTyrosinase-negative oculocutaneous albinism\nTyrosinase-positive oculocutaneous albinism\nVici syndrome\nWaardenburg syndrome, type 2A\nManagement\nSince there is no cure for albinism, it is managed through lifestyle adjustments. People with oculocutaneous albinism need to take care not to get sunburnt and should have regular skin checks by a dermatologist. Due to the increased risk in skin cancer, individuals with oculocutaneous albinism might consider more frequent assessments from dermatologists, particularly those with a history of multiple non-melanoma skin cancers.\n\nFor the most part, treatment of the eye conditions consists of visual rehabilitation. Surgery is possible on the extra-ocular muscles to decrease strabismus. Nystagmus-damping surgery can also be performed, to reduce the \"shaking\" of the eyes back and forth. Experimental vision treatments such as Revital Vision have also been proven to help treat albinism through therapy session that improve processing of visual input through the use of Gabor patches. The effectiveness of all these procedures varies greatly and depends on individual circumstances.\n\nGlasses (often with tinted lenses), low vision aids, and high contrast large-print or Braille materials can help individuals with albinism. Some people with albinism do well using bifocals with a strong reading lens, prescription reading glasses, hand-held devices such as magnifiers or monoculars or wearable devices like eSight\nand Brainport.\n\nThe condition may lead to abnormal development of the optic nerve and sunlight may damage the retina of the eye as the iris cannot filter out excess light due to a lack of pigmentation. Photophobia in albinism is primarily caused by reduced iris pigmentation and increased light scattering within the eye, and is typically managed with tinted lenses and environmental light control rather than medical treatment. Photophobia may be ameliorated by the use of sunglasses which filter out ultraviolet light.\n\nSome use bioptics, glasses which have small telescopes mounted on, in, or behind their regular lenses, so that they can look through either the regular lens or the telescope. Newer designs of bioptics use smaller light-weight lenses. Some US states allow the use of bioptic telescopes for driving motor vehicles.\n\nThere are a number of national support groups across the globe which come under the umbrella of the World Albinism Alliance.\nEpidemiology\nAlbinism affects people of all ethnic backgrounds; its frequency worldwide is estimated to be approximately one in 17,000. Prevalence of the different forms of albinism varies considerably by population and is highest overall in people of sub-Saharan African descent. OCA2 is the most common subtype in sub-Saharan Africa, accounting for most cases in many population studies, and OCA1 is distributed globally. Today, the prevalence of albinism in sub-Saharan Africa is around 1 in 5,000, while in Europe and the US it is around 1 in 20,000 of the European-derived population. Rates as high as 1 in 1,000 have been reported for some populations in Zimbabwe and other parts of Southern Africa.\n\nCertain ethnic groups and populations in isolated areas exhibit heightened susceptibility to albinism, presumably due to genetic factors. Smaller or geographically isolated populations face increased rates of albinism due to founder effect and genetic drift, where a small number of carriers result in a higher frequency of autosomal recessive mutations in the population. These include notably the Native American Guna, Zuni and Hopi nations (respectively of Panama, New Mexico and Arizona); Japan, in which one particular form of albinism is unusually common (OCA 4); and Ukerewe Island, the population of which shows a very high incidence of albinism.\nSociety and cultureSpecial status of albinos in Native American culture\nIn some Native American and South Pacific cultures, people with albinism have been traditionally revered, because they were considered heavenly beings associated with the sky. Among various indigenous tribes in South America, albinos were able to live luxurious lives due to their divine status. This special status was applied mainly to male albinos. It has been theorized that the very high level of albinism among some Native American tribes can be attributed to sexual privileges given to male albinos, which allowed them to reproduce with large numbers of non-albino women in their tribes, leading to the spread of genes that are associated with albinism.\nSpecial status of albinos in Yoruba culture\nIn Yoruba tradition, albinos are regarded as the creator deity Obatala's favourite with a special place. In some parts of Yorubaland, albinos are regarded as highly spiritual and are treated as such.\nPersecution of people with albinism\nHumans with albinism often face social and cultural challenges (even threats), as the condition is often a source of ridicule, discrimination, or even fear and violence. It is especially socially stigmatised in some African societies. A study conducted in Nigeria on albino children stated that \"they experienced alienation, avoided social interactions and were less emotionally stable. Affected individuals were less likely to complete schooling, find employment, and find partners.\"\n\nMany cultures around the world have developed beliefs regarding people with albinism. The general quality of life for individuals with albinism may be affected, as challenges sometimes appear to be evident in academic performance, and partnership opportunities compared to the general population. A study reported higher levels of anxiety, experiences with social stigma, and a general decrease in the quality of life among individuals with oculocutaneous albinism, particularly in areas where awareness is limited.\n\nIn Tanzania and Burundi, there has been an unprecedented rise in witchcraft-related killings of people with albinism in recent years, because their body parts are used in potions sold by witch doctors. Numerous authenticated incidents of ritual sacrifice of albinos have occurred in East Africa during the 21st century. For example, in Tanzania, in September 2009, three men were convicted of killing a 14-year-old albino boy and severing his legs in order to sell them for witchcraft purposes.\n\nAgain in Tanzania and Burundi in 2010, the murder and dismemberment of a kidnapped albino child was reported from the courts, as part of a continuing problem. The US-based National Geographic Society estimated that in Tanzania a complete set of albino body parts is worth US$75,000. An overview of Albinism in Malawi further highlights similar incidents. People with albinism in Malawi face significant challenges, including discrimination and violence. Since 2014, over 170 attacks on people with albinism have been reported in Malawi. In 2022, a Malawian court convicted 12 individuals, including a police officer and a priest, for the murder of a 22-year-old man with albinism.\n\nIn 2019, six individuals with albinism ran for parliamentary and local government positions in Malawi, aiming to combat stigma through political engagement. The United Nations has warned that people with albinism in Malawi are at risk of \"systemic extinction\" due to relentless attacks fueled by superstitions. Efforts have been made to integrate people with albinism into public service roles. In 2022, Malawi's police service welcomed its first officers with albinism, aiming to restore confidence in law enforcement.\n\nAnother harmful and false belief is that sex with an albinistic woman will cure a man of HIV. This has led, for example in Zimbabwe, to rapes (and subsequent HIV infection).\nAlbinism in popular culture\nFamous people with albinism include historical figures such as Oxford don William Archibald Spooner; actor-comedian Victor Varnado; musicians such as Johnny and Edgar Winter, Salif Keita, Winston \"Yellowman\" Foster, Brother Ali, Sivuca, Hermeto Pascoal, Willie \"Piano Red\" Perryman, his brother Speckled Red, Kalash Criminel; actor-rapper Krondon, and fashion models Connie Chiu, Ryan \"La Burnt\" Byrne and Shaun Ross.\n\nAlbinism organisations and others have expressed criticism over the portrayal of individuals with albinism in popular culture, specifically in movies and fictional works, citing the overwhelmingly negative depiction. There is concern that such depictions could increase social bias and discrimination against individuals with albinism. This phenomenon is often referred to as the \"evil albino\" .\nInternational Albinism Awareness Day\nInternational Albinism Awareness Day was established after a motion was accepted in December 2014 by the United Nations General Assembly, proclaiming that 13 June would be known as International Albinism Awareness Day as of 2015. This was followed by a mandate created by the United Nations Human Rights Council that appointed Ms. Ikponwosa Ero, who is from Nigeria, as the first Independent Expert on the enjoyment of human rights by persons with albinism.\nSee alsoReferencesExternal links\nGeneReview/NCBI/NIH/UW entry on Oculocutaneous Albinism Type 2\nGeneReview/NCBI/NIH/UW entry on Oculocutaneous Albinism Type 4","text_chars":21130,"text_sha256":"aa1256dd4b8971c064b15684673e6c1cbb3a75c6961491946662e97f09a9157a","text_utf8_bytes":21144,"title":"Albinism in humans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albinism_in_humans","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"02a498bde2ce3e3637a125133c2d5ea0bf01eb0482dadbf3decda4ce0fc0c54f"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1019&action=history","id":"1019","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":65325,"raw_text_sha256":"8d92e03541a7d4c314bc688cb2350c5106b0f3934d7ec7035d2a2c984475b94a","raw_text_utf8_bytes":65479,"revision_id":"1370676134","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-22T13:11:49Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1370676134","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Events\nPre-1600\n258 – Pope Sixtus II is arrested while celebrating mass and then beheaded with several of his deacons.\n686 – The Umayyad forces suffer a decisive defeat against the pro-Alid forces under Ibrahim ibn al-Ashtar in the battle of Khazir.\n768 – Antipope Constantine II is deposed and blinded by the Lombard troops of primicerius Christopher.\n1284 – The Republic of Pisa is defeated in the Battle of Meloria by the Republic of Genoa, thus losing its naval dominance in the Mediterranean.\n1538 – Bogotá, Colombia, is founded by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada.\n1585 – Toyotomi Hideyoshi is officially appointed kampaku (Imperial Regent).\n1601–1900\n1661 – The Treaty of The Hague is signed by Portugal and the Dutch Republic.\n1777 – American Revolutionary War: The bloody Battle of Oriskany prevents American relief of the Siege of Fort Stanwix.\n1787 – Sixty proof sheets of the Constitution of the United States are delivered to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.\n1806 – Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor, declares the moribund empire to be dissolved, although he retains power in the Austrian Empire.\n1819 – Norwich University is founded in Vermont as the first private military school in the United States.\n1824 – Peruvian War of Independence: Patriot forces led by Simón Bolívar defeat the Spanish Royalist army in the Battle of Junín.\n1825 – The Bolivian Declaration of Independence is proclaimed.\n1861 – Britain imposes the Lagos Treaty of Cession to suppress slavery in what is now Nigeria.\n1862 – American Civil War: The Confederate ironclad is scuttled on the Mississippi River after suffering catastrophic engine failure near Baton Rouge, Louisiana.\n1870 – Franco-Prussian War: The Battle of Spicheren is fought, resulting in a German victory.\n1870 – Franco-Prussian War: The Battle of Wörth results in a decisive German victory.\n1890 – At Auburn Prison in New York, murderer William Kemmler becomes the first person to be executed by electric chair.\n1901–present\n1901 – Kiowa land in Oklahoma is opened for white settlement, effectively dissolving the contiguous reservation.\n1914 – World War I: U-boat campaign: Two days after the United Kingdom had declared war on Germany over the German invasion of Belgium, ten German U-boats leave their base in Heligoland to attack Royal Navy warships in the North Sea.\n1914 – World War I: Serbia declares war on Germany; Austria declares war on Russia.\n1915 – World War I: Battle of Sari Bair: The Allies mount a diversionary attack timed to coincide with a major Allied landing of reinforcements at Suvla Bay.\n1917 – World War I: Battle of Mărășești between the Romanian and German armies begins.\n1926 – Gertrude Ederle becomes the first woman to swim across the English Channel.\n1926 – First public screening using the Vitaphone process\n1940 – Estonia is annexed by the Soviet Union.\n1942 – Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands becomes the first reigning queen to address a joint session of the United States Congress.\n1945 – World War II: Hiroshima, Japan is devastated when the atomic bomb \"Little Boy\" is dropped by the United States B-29 Enola Gay. Around 70,000 people are killed instantly, and some tens of thousands die in subsequent years from burns and radiation poisoning.\n1956 – After going bankrupt in 1955, the American broadcaster DuMont Television Network makes its final broadcast, a boxing match from St. Nicholas Arena in New York in the Boxing from St. Nicholas Arena series.\n1958 – Law of Permanent Defense of Democracy, outlawing the Communist Party of Chile and banning 26,650 persons from the electoral lists, is repealed in Chile.\n1960 – Cuban Revolution: Cuba nationalizes American and foreign-owned property in the nation.\n1962 – Jamaica becomes independent from the United Kingdom.\n1965 – US President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Voting Rights Act of 1965 into law.\n1986 – A low-pressure system that redeveloped off the New South Wales coast dumps a record 328 millimeters (13 inches) of rain in a day on Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.\n1990 – Gulf War: The United Nations Security Council orders a global trade embargo against Iraq in response to Iraq's invasion of Kuwait.\n1991 – Tim Berners-Lee releases files describing his idea for the World Wide Web. WWW makes its first appearance as a publicly available service on the Internet.\n1991 – Takako Doi, chair of the Social Democratic Party, becomes Japan's first female speaker of the House of Representatives.\n1996 – NASA announces that the ALH 84001 meteorite, thought to originate from Mars, contains evidence of primitive life-forms.\n1997 – Korean Air Flight 801 crashed at Nimitz Hill, Guam, killing 229 of the 254 people on board.\n2001 – Erwadi fire incident: Twenty-eight mentally ill persons tied to a chain are burnt to death at a faith based institution at Erwadi, Tamil Nadu.\n2008 – A military junta led by Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz stages a coup d'état in Mauritania, overthrowing president Sidi Ould Cheikh Abdallahi.\n2010 – Flash floods across a large part of Jammu and Kashmir, India, damages 71 towns and kills at least 255 people.\n2011 – War in Afghanistan: A United States military helicopter is shot down, killing 30 American special forces members and a working dog, seven Afghan soldiers, and one Afghan civilian. It was the deadliest single event for the United States in the War in Afghanistan.\n2012 – NASA's Curiosity rover lands on the surface of Mars.\n2015 – A suicide bomb attack kills at least 15 people at a mosque in the Saudi city of Abha.\nBirths\nPre-1600\n1180 – Emperor Go-Toba of Japan (died 1239)\n1504 – Matthew Parker, English archbishop (died 1575)\n1572 – Fakhr-al-Din II, Druze emir (died 1635)\n1601–1900\n1605 – Bulstrode Whitelocke, English lawyer (died 1675)\n1609 – Richard Bennett, English-American politician, Colonial Governor of Virginia (died 1675)\n1619 – Barbara Strozzi, Italian composer and singer-songwriter (died 1677)\n1622 – Tjerk Hiddes de Vries, Dutch admiral (died 1666)\n1638 – Nicolas Malebranche, French priest and philosopher (died 1715)\n1644 – Louise de La Vallière, French mistress of Louis XIV (died 1710)\n1651 – François Fénelon, French archbishop and poet (died 1715)\n1656 – Claude de Forbin, French general (died 1733)\n1666 – Maria Sophia of Neuburg (died 1699)\n1667 – Johann Bernoulli, Swiss mathematician (died 1748)\n1697 – Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor (died 1745)\n1715 – Luc de Clapiers, marquis de Vauvenargues, French author (died 1747)\n1765 – Petros Mavromichalis, Greek general and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Greece (died 1848)\n1766 – William Hyde Wollaston, English chemist and physicist (died 1828)\n1768 – Jean-Baptiste Bessières, French general and politician (died 1813)\n1775 – Daniel O'Connell, Irish lawyer and politician, Lord Mayor of Dublin (died 1847)\n1809 – Alfred, Lord Tennyson, English poet (died 1892)\n1826 – Thomas Alexander Browne, English-Australian author (died 1915)\n1835 – Hjalmar Kiærskou, Danish botanist (died 1900)\n1844 – Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (died 1900)\n1844 – James Henry Greathead, South African-English engineer (died 1896)\n1848 – Susie Taylor, American writer and first black Army nurse (died 1912)\n1846 – Anna Haining Bates, Canadian-American giant (died 1888)\n1868 – Paul Claudel, French poet and playwright (died 1955)\n1874 – Charles Fort, American author (died 1932)\n1877 – Wallace H. White Jr., American lawyer and politician (died 1952)\n1880 – Hans Moser, Austrian actor and singer (died 1964)\n1881 – Leo Carrillo, American actor (died 1961)\n1881 – Alexander Fleming, Scottish biologist, pharmacologist, and botanist, Nobel Prize laureate (died 1955)\n1881 – Louella Parsons, American journalist (died 1972)\n1883 – Constance Georgina Adams, South African botanist (died 1968)\n1883 – Scott Nearing, American economist and educator (died 1983)\n1886 – Edward Ballantine, American composer and academic (died 1971)\n1886 – Florence Goodenough, American child psychologist (died 1959)\n1887 – Dudley Benjafield, English racing driver (died 1957)\n1889 – George Kenney, Canadian-American general (died 1977)\n1889 – John Middleton Murry, English poet and author (died 1957)\n1891 – William Slim, 1st Viscount Slim, English field marshal and politician, 13th Governor-General of Australia (died 1970)\n1895 – Frank Nicklin, Australian politician, 28th Premier of Queensland (died 1978)\n1900 – Cecil Howard Green, English-American geophysicist and businessman, co-founded Texas Instruments (died 2003)\n1901–present\n1901 – Dutch Schultz, American gangster (died 1935)\n1903 – Virginia Foster Durr, American civil rights activist (died 1999)\n1904 – Jean Dessès, Greek-Egyptian fashion designer (died 1970)\n1904 – Henry Iba, American basketball player and coach (died 1993)\n1906 – Vic Dickenson, American trombonist (died 1984)\n1908 – Maria Ludwika Bernhard, Polish classical archaeologist and a member of WWII Polish resistance (died 1998)\n1908 – Helen Jacobs, American tennis player and commander (died 1997)\n1908 – Lajos Vajda, Hungarian painter and illustrator (died 1941)\n1909 – Diana Keppel, Countess of Albemarle (died 2013)\n1910 – Adoniran Barbosa, Brazilian musician, singer, composer, humorist, and actor (died 1982)\n1910 – Charles Crichton, English director, producer, and screenwriter (died 1999)\n1911 – Lucille Ball, American actress, television producer and businesswoman (died 1989)\n1911 – Norman Gordon, South African cricketer (died 2014)\n1911 – Constance Heaven, English author and actress (died 1995)\n1912 – Richard C. Miller, American photographer (died 2010)\n1914 – Gordon Freeth, Australian lawyer and politician, 24th Australian Minister for Foreign Affairs (died 2001)\n1916 – Richard Hofstadter, American historian and academic (died 1970)\n1916 – Dom Mintoff, Maltese journalist and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Malta (died 2012)\n1917 – Barbara Cooney, American author and illustrator (died 2000)\n1917 – Robert Mitchum, American actor (died 1997)\n1918 – Norman Granz, American-Swiss record producer and manager (died 2001)\n1919 – Pauline Betz, American tennis player (died 2011)\n1920 – John Graves, American author (died 2013)\n1920 – Ella Raines, American actress (died 1988)\n1922 – Freddie Laker, English businessman, founded Laker Airways (died 2006)\n1922 – Dan Walker, American lawyer and politician, 36th Governor of Illinois (died 2015)\n1923 – Jess Collins, American painter (died 2004)\n1923 – Paul Hellyer, Canadian engineer and politician, 16th Canadian Minister of Defence (died 2021)\n1924 – Samuel Bowers, American white supremacist, co-founded the White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan (died 2006)\n1924 – Ella Jenkins, American folk singer (died 2024)\n1926 – Elisabeth Beresford, English journalist and author (died 2010)\n1926 – Frank Finlay, English actor (died 2016)\n1926 – Clem Labine, American baseball player and manager (died 2007)\n1926 – János Rózsás, Hungarian author (died 2012)\n1926 – Norman Wexler, American screenwriter (died 1999)\n1928 – Herb Moford, American baseball player (died 2005)\n1928 – Andy Warhol, American painter, photographer and film director (died 1987)\n1929 – Mike Elliott, Jamaican saxophonist\n1929 – Roch La Salle, Canadian politician, 42nd Canadian Minister of Public Works (died 2007)\n1930 – Abbey Lincoln, American singer-songwriter and actress (died 2010)\n1931 – Chalmers Johnson, American scholar and author (died 2010)\n1932 – Michael Deeley, English screenwriter and producer\n1932 – Howard Hodgkin, English painter (died 2017)\n1932 – Charles Wood, English playwright and screenwriter (died 2020)\n1933 – A. G. Kripal Singh, Indian cricketer (died 1987)\n1934 – Piers Anthony, English-American soldier and author\n1934 – Chris Bonington, English mountaineer and author\n1934 – Billy Boston, Welsh rugby player and soldier\n1935 – Fortunato Baldelli, Italian cardinal (died 2012)\n1935 – Octavio Getino, Spanish-Argentinian director and screenwriter (died 2012)\n1937 – Baden Powell de Aquino, Brazilian guitarist and composer (died 2000)\n1937 – Charlie Haden, American bassist and composer (died 2014)\n1937 – Barbara Windsor, English actress (died 2020)\n1938 – Paul Bartel, American actor, director, and screenwriter (died 2000)\n1938 – Peter Bonerz, American actor and director\n1938 – Bert Yancey, American golfer (died 1994)\n1940 – Mukhu Aliyev, Russian philologist and politician, 2nd President of Dagestan\n1940 – Egil Kapstad, Norwegian pianist and composer (died 2017)\n1940 – Louise Sorel, American actress\n1941 – Ray Culp, American baseball player\n1942 – Byard Lancaster, American saxophonist and flute player (died 2012)\n1943 – Jon Postel, American computer scientist and academic (died 1998)\n1944 – Inday Badiday, Filipino journalist and actress (died 2003)\n1944 – Michael Mingos, English chemist and academic\n1944 – Martin Wharton, English bishop\n1945 – Ron Jones, English director and production manager (died 1993)\n1946 – Allan Holdsworth, English guitarist, songwriter, and producer (died 2017)\n1947 – Radhia Cousot, French computer scientist and academic (died 2014)\n1949 – Dino Bravo, Italian-Canadian wrestler (died 1993)\n1950 – Dorian Harewood, American actor\n1951 – Catherine Hicks, American actress\n1951 – Daryl Somers, Australian television host and singer\n1952 – Pat MacDonald, American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n1952 – David McLetchie, Scottish lawyer and politician (died 2013)\n1952 – Ton Scherpenzeel, Dutch keyboard player, songwriter, and producer\n1954 – Mark Hughes, English-Australian rugby league player\n1956 – Bill Emmott, English journalist and author\n1957 – Bob Horner, American baseball player (died 2026)\n1957 – Jim McGreevey, American lawyer and politician, 52nd Governor of New Jersey\n1958 – Randy DeBarge, American singer-songwriter and bass player\n1959 – Rajendra Singh, Indian environmentalist\n1959 – Joyce Sims, American singer (died 2022)\n1960 – Dale Ellis, American basketball player\n1961 – Mary Ann Sieghart, English journalist and radio host\n1962 – Michelle Yeoh, Malaysian-Hong Kong actress and producer\n1963 – Charles Ingram, English soldier, author, and game show contestant\n1963 – Kevin Mitnick, American computer security consultant, author, and convicted hacker (died 2023)\n1964 – Kemi Omololu-Olunloyo, Nigerian journalist, activist, social media expert, and pharmacist\n1965 – Stéphane Peterhansel, French racing driver\n1965 – Yuki Kajiura, Japanese pianist and composer\n1965 – David Robinson, American basketball player and lieutenant\n1966 – Regina Carter, American jazz and classical violinist, and composer\n1968 – Jack de Gier, Dutch footballer\n1969 – Simon Doull, New Zealand cricketer and sportscaster\n1969 – Elliott Smith, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (died 2003)\n1970 – M. Night Shyamalan, Indian-American director, producer, and screenwriter\n1972 – Geri Halliwell, English singer-songwriter, dancer, and actress\n1972 – Jason O'Mara, Irish actor\n1973 – Vera Farmiga, American actress\n1973 – Stuart O'Grady, Australian cyclist\n1975 – Jason Crump, English-Australian motorcycle racer\n1975 – Renate Götschl, Austrian skier\n1975 – Víctor Zambrano, Venezuelan baseball player\n1976 – Soleil Moon Frye, American actress\n1976 – Melissa George, Australian-American actress\n1977 – Leandro Amaral, Brazilian footballer\n1977 – Jimmy Nielsen, Danish footballer and manager\n1977 – Luciano Zavagno, Argentinian footballer\n1979 – Francesco Bellotti, Italian cyclist\n1979 – Jaime Correa, Mexican footballer\n1979 – Travis Reed, American basketball player\n1981 – Leslie Odom Jr., American actor and singer\n1981 – Diána Póth, Hungarian figure skater\n1983 – Robin van Persie, Dutch footballer\n1984 – Vedad Ibišević, Bosnian footballer\n1984 – Maja Ognjenović, Serbian volleyball player\n1984 – Jesse Ryder, New Zealand cricketer\n1985 – Mickaël Delage, French cyclist\n1985 – Bafétimbi Gomis, French footballer\n1985 – Garrett Weber-Gale, American swimmer\n1986 – Raphael Pyrasch, German rugby player\n1987 – Leanne Crichton, Scottish footballer\n1991 – Wilmer Flores, Venezuelan baseball player\n1991 – Jiao Liuyang, Chinese swimmer\n1995 – Rebecca Peterson, Swedish tennis player\n1999 – Hunter Greene, American baseball player\n1999 – Rebeka Masarova, Spanish-Swiss tennis player\n2002 – Nessa Barrett, American singer-songwriter\n2004 – Takhmina Ikromova, Uzbekistani rhythmic gymnast\nDeaths\nPre-1600\n258 – Pope Sixtus II\n523 – Pope Hormisdas (born 450)\n750 – Marwan II, Umayyad general and caliph (born 688)\n1027 – Richard III, Duke of Normandy\n1162 – Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona (born 1113)\n1195 – Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria (born 1129)\n1221 – Saint Dominic, Spanish priest, founded the Dominican Order (born 1170)\n1272 – Stephen V of Hungary (born 1239)\n1384 – Francesco I of Lesbos\n1412 – Margherita of Durazzo, Queen consort of Charles III of Naples (born 1347)\n1414 – Ladislaus of Naples (born 1377)\n1458 – Pope Callixtus III (born 1378)\n1530 – Jacopo Sannazaro, Italian poet (born 1458)\n1553 – Girolamo Fracastoro, Italian physician (born 1478)\n1588 – Josias I, Count of Waldeck-Eisenberg, Count of Waldeck-Eisenberg (1578–1588) (born 1554)\n1601–1900\n1628 – Johannes Junius, German lawyer and politician (born 1573)\n1637 – Ben Jonson, English poet and playwright (born 1572)\n1645 – Lionel Cranfield, 1st Earl of Middlesex, English merchant and politician (born 1575)\n1657 – Bohdan Khmelnytsky, Ukrainian soldier and politician, 1st Hetman of Zaporizhian Host (born 1595)\n1660 – Diego Velázquez, Spanish painter and educator (born 1599)\n1666 – Tjerk Hiddes de Vries, Frisian naval hero and commander (born 1622)\n1679 – John Snell, Scottish-English soldier and philanthropist, founded the Snell Exhibition (born 1629)\n1694 – Antoine Arnauld, French mathematician and philosopher (born 1612)\n1695 – François de Harlay de Champvallon, French archbishop (born 1625)\n1753 – Georg Wilhelm Richmann, Estonian-Russian physicist and academic (born 1711)\n1757 – Ádám Mányoki, Hungarian painter (born 1673)\n1794 – Henry Bathurst, 2nd Earl Bathurst, English lawyer and politician, Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain (born 1714)\n1815 – James A. Bayard, American lawyer and politician (born 1767)\n1828 – Konstantin von Benckendorff, Russian general and diplomat (born 1785)\n1850 – Edward Walsh, Irish poet (born 1805)\n1866 – John Mason Neale, English priest, scholar, and hymnwriter (born 1818)\n1881 – James Springer White, American religious leader, co-founded the Seventh-day Adventist Church (born 1821)\n1893 – Jean-Jacques Challet-Venel, Swiss lawyer and politician (born 1811)\n1901–present\n1904 – Eduard Hanslick, Austrian author and critic (born 1825)\n1906 – George Waterhouse, English-New Zealand politician, 7th Prime Minister of New Zealand (born 1824)\n1915 – Jennie de la Montagnie Lozier, American physician (born 1841)\n1920 – Stefan Bastyr, Polish pilot and author (born 1890)\n1925 – Surendranath Banerjee, Indian academic and politician (born 1848)\n1925 – Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro, Italian mathematician (born 1853)\n1931 – Bix Beiderbecke, American cornet player, pianist, and composer (born 1903)\n1945 – Richard Bong, American soldier and pilot, Medal of Honor recipient (born 1920)\n1945 – Hiram Johnson, American lawyer and politician, 23rd Governor of California (born 1866)\n1946 – Tony Lazzeri, American baseball player and coach (born 1903)\n1952 – Betty Allan, Australian statistician and biometrician (born 1905)\n1959 – Preston Sturges, American director, screenwriter, and playwright (born 1898)\n1964 – Cedric Hardwicke, English actor and director (born 1893)\n1968 – Ye Gongchuo, Chinese politician, poet, and calligrapher (born 1881)\n1969 – Theodor W. Adorno, German sociologist and philosopher (born 1903)\n1970 – Nikos Tsiforos, Greek director and screenwriter (born 1912)\n1973 – Fulgencio Batista, Cuban colonel and politician, 9th President of Cuba (born 1901)\n1976 – Gregor Piatigorsky, Russian-American cellist and educator (born 1903)\n1978 – Pope Paul VI (born 1897)\n1978 – Edward Durell Stone, American architect, designed Radio City Music Hall and the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts (born 1902)\n1979 – Feodor Felix Konrad Lynen, German biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (born 1911)\n1983 – Klaus Nomi, German singer-songwriter and actor (born 1944)\n1985 – Forbes Burnham, Guyanese politician, 2nd President of Guyana (born 1923)\n1986 – Emilio Fernández, Mexican actor, director, and screenwriter (born 1904)\n1987 – Ira C. Eaker, American general (born 1896)\n1990 – Jacques Soustelle, French anthropologist and politician (born 1912)\n1991 – Shapour Bakhtiar, Iranian soldier and politician, 74th Prime Minister of Iran (born 1915)\n1991 – Roland Michener, Canadian lawyer and politician, 20th Governor General of Canada (born 1900)\n1991 – Harry Reasoner, American journalist, co-created 60 Minutes (born 1923)\n1992 – Leszek Błażyński, Polish boxer (born 1949)\n1993 – Tex Hughson, American baseball player (born 1916)\n1994 – Domenico Modugno, Italian singer-songwriter and politician (born 1928)\n1997 – Shin Ki-ha, South Korean lawyer and politician (born 1941)\n1998 – André Weil, French-American mathematician and academic (born 1906)\n2001 – Jorge Amado, Brazilian novelist and poet (born 1912)\n2001 – Adhar Kumar Chatterji, Indian Naval officer (born 1914)\n2001 – Wilhelm Mohnke, German general (born 1911)\n2001 – Shan Ratnam, Sri Lankan physician and academic (born 1928)\n2001 – Dorothy Tutin, English actress (born 1930)\n2002 – Edsger W. Dijkstra, Dutch physicist, computer scientist, and academic (born 1930)\n2003 – Julius Baker, American flute player and educator (born 1915)\n2004 – Rick James, American singer-songwriter and producer (born 1948)\n2004 – Donald Justice, American poet and academic (born 1925)\n2005 – Robin Cook, Scottish educator and politician, Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs (born 1946)\n2005 – Creme Puff, tabby domestic cat, oldest recorded cat (born 1967)\n2007 – Zsolt Daczi, Hungarian guitarist (born 1969)\n2008 – Angelos Kitsos, Greek lawyer and author (born 1934)\n2009 – Riccardo Cassin, Italian mountaineer and author (born 1909)\n2009 – Willy DeVille, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (born 1950)\n2009 – John Hughes, American director, producer, and screenwriter (born 1950)\n2011 – Fe del Mundo, Filipino pediatrician and educator (born 1911)\n2012 – Richard Cragun, American-Brazilian ballet dancer and choreographer (born 1944)\n2012 – Marvin Hamlisch, American pianist, composer, and conductor (born 1944)\n2012 – Robert Hughes, Australian-American author and critic (born 1938)\n2012 – Bernard Lovell, English physicist and astronomer (born 1913)\n2012 – Mark O'Donnell, American playwright (born 1954)\n2012 – Ruggiero Ricci, American violinist and educator (born 1918)\n2012 – Dan Roundfield, American basketball player (born 1953)\n2013 – Stan Lynde, American author and illustrator (born 1931)\n2013 – Mava Lee Thomas, American baseball player (born 1929)\n2013 – Jerry Wolman, American businessman (born 1927)\n2014 – Ralph Bryans, Northern Irish motorcycle racer (born 1941)\n2014 – Ananda W.P. Guruge, Sri Lankan scholar and diplomat (born 1928)\n2014 – John Woodland Hastings, American biochemist and academic (born 1927)\n2015 – Ray Hill, American football player (born 1975)\n2015 – Orna Porat, German-Israeli actress (born 1924)\n2017 – Betty Cuthbert, Australian sprinter (born 1938)\n2017 – Darren Daulton, American baseball player (born 1962)\n2018 – Joël Robuchon, French Chef (born 1945)\n2018 – Margaret Heckler, American politician (born 1931)\n2018 – Anya Krugovoy Silver, American poet (born 1968)\n2020 – Vern Rumsey, American bass guitarist (born 1973)\n2024 – Billy Bean, American baseball player (born 1964)\n2024 – Connie Chiume, South African actress and filmmaker (born 1952)\n2024 – James Bjorken, American theoretical physicist (born 1934)\nHolidays and observances\nChristian holidays and observances\nTransfiguration of Jesus\nAnna Maria Rubatto\nFelicissimus and Agapitus\nPope Hormisdas\nJustus and Pastor\nPope Sixtus II\nAugust 6 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\nSheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan's Accession Day. (United Arab Emirates)\nIndependence Day (Bolivia), celebrates the independence of Bolivia from Spain in 1825.\nIndependence Day (Jamaica), celebrates the independence of Jamaica from the United Kingdom in 1962.\nHiroshima Peace Memorial Ceremony (Hiroshima, Japan)\nRussian Railway Troops Day (Russia)\nReferencesExternal links","text_chars":24350,"text_sha256":"1752300b4487aa22552da38b049f165ad32f8768678318fdaf5ad669fdc640ea","text_utf8_bytes":25055,"title":"August 6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_6","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"4dae927974f94fd3f3b11573ada6b3bda96efac1b03fd1378a0ccf7a6187a89d"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1167&action=history","id":"1167","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":28568,"raw_text_sha256":"4b278521f900f816daba031e173c6f4082e6c89168cf963cb2c3aaf37cfaad4e","raw_text_utf8_bytes":28875,"revision_id":"1324017708","revision_timestamp":"2025-11-25T02:39:35Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1324017708","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"This page lists some links to ancient philosophy, namely philosophical thought extending as far as early post-classical history .\nOverview\nGenuine philosophical thought, depending upon original individual insights, arose in many cultures roughly contemporaneously. Karl Jaspers termed the intense period of philosophical development beginning around the 7th century BCE and concluding around the 3rd century BCE an Axial Age in human thought.\n\nIn Western philosophy, the spread of Christianity in the Roman Empire marked the ending of Hellenistic philosophy and ushered in the beginnings of medieval philosophy, whereas in the Middle East, the spread of Islam through the Arab Empire marked the end of Old Iranian philosophy and ushered in the beginnings of early Islamic philosophy.\nAncient Greek and Roman philosophyPhilosophersPre-Socratic philosophers\nMilesian School\nThales (624 – c 546 BCE)\nAnaximander (610 – 546 BCE)\nAnaximenes of Miletus (c. 585 – c. 525 BCE)\nPythagoreans\nPythagoras (582 – 496 BCE)\nPhilolaus (470 – 380 BCE)\nAlcmaeon of Croton\nArchytas (428 – 347 BCE)\nHeraclitus (535 – 475 BCE)\nEleatic School\nXenophanes (570 – 470 BCE)\nParmenides (510 – 440 BCE)\nZeno of Elea (490 – 430 BCE)\nMelissus of Samos (c. 470 BCE – ?)\nPluralists\nEmpedocles (490 – 430 BCE)\nAnaxagoras (500 – 428 BCE)\nAtomists\nLeucippus (first half of 5th century BCE)\nDemocritus (460 – 370 BCE)\nMetrodorus of Chios (4th century BCE)\nPherecydes of Syros (6th century BCE)\nSophists\nProtagoras (490 – 420 BCE)\nGorgias (487 – 376 BCE)\nAntiphon (480 – 411 BCE)\nProdicus (465/450 – after 399 BCE)\nHippias (middle of the 5th century BCE)\nThrasymachus (459 – 400 BCE)\nCallicles\nCritias\nLycophron\nDiogenes of Apollonia ( – ?)\nClassical Greek philosophers\nSocrates (469 – 399 BCE)\nEuclid of Megara (450 – 380 BCE)\nAntisthenes (445 – 360 BCE)\nAristippus (435 – 356 BCE)\nPlato (428 – 347 BCE)\nSpeusippus (407 – 339 BCE)\nDiogenes of Sinope (400 – 325 BCE)\nXenocrates (396 – 314 BCE)\nAristotle (384 – 322 BCE)\nStilpo (380 – 300 BCE)\nTheophrastus (370 – 288 BCE)\nHellenistic philosophy\nPyrrho (365 – 275 BCE)\nEpicurus (341 – 270 BCE)\nMetrodorus of Lampsacus (the younger) (331 – 278 BCE)\nZeno of Citium (333 – 263 BCE)\nCleanthes ( – )\nTimon (320 – 230 BCE)\nArcesilaus (316 – 232 BCE)\nMenippus (3rd century BCE)\nArchimedes ( – 212 BCE)\nChrysippus (280 – 207 BCE)\nCarneades (214 – 129 BCE)\nClitomachus (187 – 109 BCE)\nMetrodorus of Stratonicea (late 2nd century BCE)\nPhilo of Larissa (160 – 80 BCE)\nPosidonius (135 – 51 BCE)\nAntiochus of Ascalon (130 – 68 BCE)\nAenesidemus (1st century BCE)\nAgrippa (1st century CE)\nHellenistic schools of thought\nAcademic skepticism\nCynicism\nCyrenaicism\nEclecticism\nEpicureanism\nMiddle Platonism\nNeo-Platonism\nNeopythagoreanism\nPeripatetic School\nPyrrhonism\nStoicism\nSophism\nEarly Roman and Christian philosophy\nNeoplatonism in Christianity\nSchool of the Sextii\nPhilosophers during Roman times\nCicero (106 – 43 BCE)\nLucretius (94 – 55 BCE)\nSeneca (4 BCE – 65 CE)\nMusonius Rufus (30 – 100 CE)\nPlutarch (45 – 120 CE)\nEpictetus (55 – 135 CE)\nFavorinus ( – )\nMarcus Aurelius (121 – 180 CE)\nClement of Alexandria (150 – 215 CE)\nAlcinous (philosopher) (2nd century CE)\nSextus Empiricus (3rd century CE)\nAlexander of Aphrodisias (3rd century CE)\nAmmonius Saccas (3rd century CE)\nPlotinus (205 – 270 CE)\nPorphyry (232 – 304 CE)\nIamblichus (242 – 327 CE)\nThemistius (317 – 388 CE)\nAmbrose (340 – 397 CE)\nHypatia of Alexandria (350 – 415 CE)\nAugustine of Hippo (354 – 430 CE)\nProclus (411 – 485 CE)\nDamascius (462 – 540 CE)\nBoethius (472 – 524 CE)\nSimplicius of Cilicia (490 – 560 CE)\nJohn Philoponus (490 – 570 CE)\nAncient Iranian philosophy\nSee also: Dualism, Dualism (philosophy of mind)\n\nWhile there are ancient relations between the Indian Vedas and the Iranian Avesta, the two main families of the Indo-Iranian philosophical traditions were characterized by fundamental differences in their implications for the human being's position in society and their view of man's role in the universe. The first charter of human rights by Cyrus the Great as understood in the Cyrus cylinder is often seen as a reflection of the questions and thoughts expressed by Zarathustra and developed in Zoroastrian schools of thought of the Achaemenid Era of Iranian history.\nSchools of thought\nIdeas and tenets of Zoroastrian schools of Early Persian philosophy are part of many works written in Middle Persian and of the extant scriptures of the Zoroastrian religion in Avestan language. Among these are treatises such as the Shikand-gumanic Vichar by Mardan-Farrux Ohrmazddadan, selections of Denkard, Wizidagīhā-ī Zātspram (\"Selections of Zātspram\") as well as older passages of the book Avesta, the Gathas which are attributed to Zarathustra himself and regarded as his \"direct teachings\".\nZoroastrianism\nZarathustra\nJamasp\nOstanes\nMardan-Farrux Ohrmazddadan\nAdurfarnbag Farroxzadan\nAdurbad Emedan\nAvesta\nGathas\nAnacharsis\nPre-Manichaean thought\nBardesanes\nManichaeism\nMani ( – 276 CE)\nAmmo\nMazdakism\nMazdak the Elder\nMazdak (died c. 524 or 528 CE)\nZurvanism\nAesthetic Zurvanism\nMaterialist Zurvanism\nFatalistic Zurvanism\nPhilosophy and the Empire\nPolitical philosophy\nTansar\nUniversity of Gundishapur\nBorzouye\nBakhtshooa Gondishapuri\nEmperor Khosrau's philosophical discourses\nPaul the Persian\nLiterature\nPahlavi literature\nAncient Jewish philosophy\nQohelet\nPseudo-Aristeas\nBen Sira (fl. 180–175 BCE)\nAristobulus of Alexandria (181–124 BCE)\nPhilo of Alexandria (30 BCE – 45 CE)\nWisdom of Solomon\n4 Maccabees\nRabbi Akiva ( – )\nAncient Indian philosophy\nThe ancient Indian philosophy is a fusion of two ancient traditions: the Vedic tradition and the śramaṇa tradition.\nVedic philosophy\nIndian philosophy begins with the Vedas wherein questions pertaining to laws of nature, the origin of the universe, and the place of man in it are asked. In the famous Rigvedic Hymn of Creation (Nasadiya Sukta) the poet asks:\n\"Whence all creation had its origin,\nhe, whether he fashioned it or whether he did not,\nhe, who surveys it all from highest heaven,\nhe knows—or maybe even he does not know.\"\n\nIn the Vedic view, creation is ascribed to the self-consciousness of the primeval being (Purusha). This leads to the inquiry into the one being that underlies the diversity of empirical phenomena and the origin of all things. Cosmic order is termed rta and causal law by karma. Nature (prakriti) is taken to have three qualities (sattva, rajas, and tamas).\nVedas\nUpanishads\nHindu philosophy\nSramana philosophy\nJainism and Buddhism are a continuation of the Sramana school of thought. The Sramanas cultivated a pessimistic worldview of the samsara as full of suffering and advocated renunciation and austerities. They laid stress on philosophical concepts like Ahimsa, Karma, Jnana, Samsara and Moksa. Cārvāka (Sanskrit: चार्वाक) (atheist) philosophy, also known as Lokāyata, it is a system of Hindu philosophy that assumes various forms of philosophical skepticism and religious indifference. It is named after its founder, Cārvāka, author of the Bārhaspatya-sūtras.\nClassical Indian philosophy\nIn classical times, these inquiries were systematized in six schools of philosophy. Some of the questions asked were:\nWhat is the ontological nature of consciousness?\nHow is cognition itself experienced?\nIs mind (chit) intentional or not?\nDoes cognition have its own structure?\n\nThe six schools of Indian philosophy are:\nNyaya\nVaisheshika\nSamkhya\nYoga\nMimamsa (Purva Mimamsa)\nVedanta (Uttara Mimamsa)\nAncient Indian philosophers1st millennium BCE\nParashara – writer of Viṣṇu Purāṇa.\nPhilosophers of Vedic Age (c. 1500 – c. 600 BCE)\nRishi Narayana – seer of the Purusha Sukta of the Rig Veda.\nSeven Rishis – Atri, Bharadwaja, Gautama, Jamadagni, Kasyapa, Vasishtha, Viswamitra.\nOther Vedic Rishis – Gritsamada, Sandilya, Kanva etc.\nRishaba – Rishi mentioned in Rig Veda and later in several Puranas, and believed by Jains to be the first official religious guru of Jainism, as accredited by later followers.\nYajnavalkya – one of the Vedic sages, greatly influenced Buddhistic thought.\nLopamudra\nGargi Vachaknavi\nMaitreyi\nParshvanatha\nGhosha\nAngiras – one of the seers of the Atharva Veda and author of Mundaka Upanishad.\nUddalaka Aruni – an Upanishadic sage who authored major portions of Chāndogya Upaniṣad.\nAshvapati – a King in the Later Vedic age who authored Vaishvanara Vidya of Chāndogya Upaniṣad.\nAshtavakra – an Upanishadic Sage mentioned in the Mahabharata, who authored Ashtavakra Gita.\nPhilosophers of Axial Age (600–185 BCE)\nGotama , logician, author of Nyaya Sutra\nKanada , founded the philosophical school of Vaisheshika, gave theory of atomism\nMahavira (599–527 BCE) – heavily influenced Jainism, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism.\nPurana Kassapa\nAjita Kesakambali\nPayasi\nMakkhali Gośāla\nSañjaya Belaṭṭhiputta\nMahavira\nDandamis\nNagasena\nLakulisha\nPakudha Kaccayana\nPāṇini (520–460 BCE), grammarian, author of Ashtadhyayi\nKapila , proponent of the Samkhya system of philosophy.\nBadarayana (lived between 500 BCE and 400 BCE) – Author of Brahma Sutras.\nJaimini , author of Purva Mimamsa Sutras.\nPingala , author of the Chandas shastra\nGautama Buddha ( – ), founder of Buddhist school of thought\nŚāriputra\nChanakya ( – ), author of Arthashastra, professor (acharya) of political science at the Takshashila University\nPatañjali , developed the philosophy of Raja Yoga in his Yoga Sutras.\nShvetashvatara – Author of earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of Shaivism.\nPhilosophers of Golden Age (184 BCE – 600 CE)\nAśvaghoṣa, believed to have been the first Sanskrit dramatist, and is considered the greatest Indian poet before Kālidāsa\nVatsyana, known for \"Kama Sutra\"\nSamantabhadra, a proponent of the Jaina doctrine of Anekantavada\nIsvarakrsna\nAryadeva, a student of Nagarjuna and contributed significantly to the Madhyamaka\nDharmakirti\nHaribhadra\nPujyapada\nBuddhaghosa\nKamandaka\nMaticandra\nPrashastapada\nBhāviveka\nDharmapala\nUdyotakara\nGaudapada\nValluvar , wrote the Kural text, a Tamil-language treatise on morality and secular ethics\nDignāga , one of the founders of Buddhist school of Indian logic\nAsanga , exponent of the Yogacara\nBhartrihari (–510 CE), early figure in Indic linguistic theory\nBodhidharma (–528 CE), founder of the Zen school of Buddhism\nSiddhasenadivākarasuri (5th century CE), Jain logician and author of important works in Sanskrit and Prakrit, such as Nyāyāvatāra (on logic) and Sanmatisūtra (dealing with the seven Jaina standpoints, knowledge and the objects of knowledge)\nVasubandhu , one of the main founders of the Indian Yogacara school\nKundakunda (2nd century CE), exponent of Jain mysticism and Jain nayas dealing with the nature of the soul and its contamination by matter, author of Pañcāstikāyasāra (Essence of the Five Existents), the Pravacanasāra (Essence of the Scripture) and the Samayasāra (Essence of the Doctrine)\nNagarjuna ( – 250 CE), the founder of the Madhyamaka (Middle Path) school of Mahāyāna Buddhism\nUmāsvāti or Umasvami (2nd century CE), author of first Jain work in Sanskrit, Tattvārthasūtra, expounding the Jain philosophy in a most systematized form acceptable to all sects of Jainism\nAdi Shankara – philosopher and theologian, most renowned exponent of the Advaita Vedanta school of philosophy\nAncient Chinese philosophy\nChinese philosophy is the dominant philosophical thought in China and other countries within the East Asian cultural sphere that share a common language, including Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.\nSchools of thoughtHundred Schools of Thought\nThe Hundred Schools of Thought were philosophers and schools that flourished from the 6th century to 221 BCE, an era of significant cultural and intellectual expansion in China. Even though this period – known in its earlier part as the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period – in its latter part was fraught with chaos and bloody battles, it is also known as the Golden Age of Chinese philosophy because a broad range of thoughts and ideas were developed and discussed freely. The thoughts and ideas discussed and refined during this period have profoundly influenced lifestyles and social consciousness up to the present day in East Asian countries. The intellectual society of this era was characterized by itinerant scholars, who were often employed by various state rulers as advisers on the methods of government, war, and diplomacy. This period ended with the rise of the Qin dynasty and the subsequent purge of dissent. The Book of Han lists ten major schools, they are:\nConfucianism, which teaches that human beings are teachable, improvable, and perfectible through personal and communal endeavors, especially including self-cultivation and self-creation. The main idea of Confucianism is the cultivation of virtue and the development of moral perfection. Confucianism holds that one should give up one's life, if necessary, either passively or actively, for the sake of upholding the cardinal moral values of ren and yi.\nLegalism. Often compared with Machiavelli, and foundational for the traditional Chinese bureaucratic empire, the Legalists examined administrative methods, emphasizing a realistic consolidation of the wealth and power of autocrat and state.\nTaoism (also called Daoism), a philosophy which emphasizes the Three Jewels of the Tao: compassion, moderation, and humility, while Taoist thought generally focuses on nature, the relationship between humanity and the cosmos; health and longevity; and wu wei (action through inaction). Harmony with the Universe, or the source thereof (Tao), is the intended result of many Taoist rules and practices.\nMohism, which advocated the idea of universal love: Mozi believed that \"everyone is equal before heaven\" and that people should seek to imitate heaven by engaging in the practice of collective love. His epistemology can be regarded as primitive materialist empiricism; he believed that human cognition ought to be based on one's perceptions – one's sensory experiences, such as sight and hearing – instead of imagination or internal logic, elements founded on the human capacity for abstraction. Mozi advocated frugality, condemning the Confucian emphasis on ritual and music, which he denounced as extravagant.\nNaturalism, the School of Naturalists or the Yin-yang school, which synthesized the concepts of yin and yang and the Five Elements; Zou Yan is considered the founder of this school.\nAgrarianism, or the School of Agrarianism, which advocated peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism. The Agrarians believed that Chinese society should be modeled around that of the early sage king Shen Nong, a folk hero which was portrayed in Chinese literature as \"working in the fields, along with everyone else, and consulting with everyone else when any decision had to be reached.\"\nThe Logicians or the School of Names, which focused on definition and logic. It is said to have parallels with that of the Ancient Greek sophists or dialecticians. The most notable Logician was Gongsun Longzi.\nThe School of Diplomacy or School of Vertical and Horizontal [Alliances], which focused on practical matters instead of any moral principle, stressed political and diplomatic tactics, debate, and lobbying skills. Scholars from this school were good orators, debaters, and tacticians.\nThe Miscellaneous School, which integrated teachings from different schools; for instance, Lü Buwei found scholars from different schools to write a book called Lüshi Chunqiu cooperatively. This school tried to integrate the merits of various schools and avoid their perceived flaws.\nThe School of \"Minor-talks\" was not a unique school of thought but a philosophy constructed of all the thoughts discussed by and originated from ordinary people on the street.\nAnother group is the School of the Military that studied strategy and the philosophy of war; Sunzi and Sun Bin were influential leaders. However, this school was not one of the \"Ten Schools\" defined by Hanshu.\nEarly Imperial China\nThe founder of the Qin dynasty, who implemented Legalism as the official philosophy, quashed Mohist and Confucianist schools. Legalism remained influential until the emperors of the Han dynasty adopted Daoism and later Confucianism as official doctrine. These latter two became the determining forces of Chinese thought until the introduction of Buddhism.\n\nConfucianism was particularly strong during the Han dynasty, whose greatest thinker was Dong Zhongshu, who integrated Confucianism with the thoughts of the Zhongshu School and the theory of the Five Elements. He also was a promoter of the New Text school, which considered Confucius as a divine figure and a spiritual ruler of China, who foresaw and started the evolution of the world towards the Universal Peace. In contrast, there was an Old Text school that advocated the use of Confucian works written in ancient language (from this comes the denomination Old Text) that were so much more reliable. In particular, they refuted the assumption of Confucius as a godlike figure and considered him as the greatest sage, but simply a human and mortal.\n\nThe 3rd and 4th centuries saw the rise of the Xuanxue (mysterious learning), also called Neo-Taoism. The most influential philosophers of this movement were Wang Bi, Xiang Xiu and Guo Xiang. The main question of this school was whether Being came before Not-Being (in Chinese, ming and wuming). A peculiar feature of these Taoist thinkers, like the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, was the concept of feng liu (lit. wind and flow), a sort of romantic spirit which encouraged following the natural and instinctive impulse.\n\nBuddhism arrived in China around the 1st century AD, but it was not until the Northern and Southern, Sui and Tang dynasties that it gained considerable influence and acknowledgement. In the beginning, it was considered a sort of Taoist sect, and there was even a theory about Laozi, founder of Taoism, who went to India and taught his philosophy to Buddha. Mahayana Buddhism was far more successful in China than its rival Hinayana, and both Indian schools and local Chinese sects arose from the 5th century. Two chiefly important monk philosophers were Sengzhao and Daosheng. But probably the most influential and original of these schools was the Chan sect, which had an even stronger impact in Japan as the Zen sect.\nPhilosophers\nTaoism\nLaozi (5th–4th century BCE)\nZhuangzi (4th century BCE)\nZhang Daoling\nZhang Jue (died 184 CE)\nGe Hong (283 – 343 CE)\nConfucianism\nConfucius\nMencius\nXun Zi ( – 230 BCE)\nLegalism\nLi Si\nLi Kui\nHan Fei\nMi Su Yu\nShang Yang\nShen Buhai\nShen Dao\nMohism\nMozi\nSong Xing\nLogicians\nDeng Xi\nHui Shi (380–305 BCE)\nGongsun Long ( – )\nAgrarianism\nXu Xing\nNaturalism\nZou Yan (305 – 240 BCE)\nNeotaoism\nWang Bi\nGuo Xiang\nXiang Xiu\nSchool of Diplomacy\nGuiguzi\nSu Qin (380 – 284 BCE)\nZhang Yi (bef. 329 – 309 BCE)\nYue Yi\nLi Yiji (268 – 204 BCE)\nMilitary strategy\nSunzi\nSun Bin (died 316 BCE)\nSee also\nIndex of ancient philosophy articles\nWisdom literature\nAxial Age\nReferencesFurther reading\nLuchte, James, Early Greek Thought: Before the Dawn, in series Bloomsbury Studies in Ancient Philosophy, Bloomsbury Publishing, London, 2011.\nExternal links","text_chars":19170,"text_sha256":"ecd3547c81d6e79f2c84a14b4198d4564e0f743a972bb03b815f24a9c78baa3a","text_utf8_bytes":19469,"title":"Ancient philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_philosophy","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"9c48a297ceb10cf3affd7c2efb61aba2c432cab7ba3ddc10258aa68c09747cde"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3205&action=history","id":"3205","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":7132,"raw_text_sha256":"4d67b890f27b88974bcc38c800cea0cc5cbfb47d05cbb50b4c128d82cc12a350","raw_text_utf8_bytes":7135,"revision_id":"1297033654","revision_timestamp":"2025-06-23T20:03:55Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1297033654","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"In economics, adaptive expectations is a hypothesized process by which people form their expectations about what will happen in the future based on what has happened in the past. For example, if people want to create an expectation of the inflation rate in the future, they can refer to past inflation rates to infer some consistencies and could derive a more accurate expectation the more years they consider.\n\nOne simple version of adaptive expectations is stated in the following equation, where is the next year's rate of inflation that is currently expected; is this year's rate of inflation that was expected last year; and is this year's actual rate of inflation:\nwhere is between 0 and 1. This says that current expectations of future inflation reflect past expectations and an \"error-adjustment\" term, in which current expectations are raised (or lowered) according to the gap between actual inflation and previous expectations. The error-adjustment term, also called partial adjustment, allows for variations in inflation rates over the previous years, especially years that have abnormally high or low rates.\nThe above term is the partial adjustment error term, this term allows for variances that occur between actual values and expected values. The importance of considering the error prevents over and under expecting values of in the above example inflation rates. The adjustment means that the expectation can tend toward the direction of the future expected value that would be closer to the actual value, this allows a prediction to be made and consideration to be added or removed so as to be accurate of the future expectation. This consideration or error term is what allows the predicted value to be adaptable, thus creating an equation that is adaptive of the expectation being inferred.\n\nThe theory of adaptive expectations can be applied to all previous periods so that current inflationary expectations equal:\nwhere equals actual inflation years in the past. The adding of a time series portion to the expectation equations accounts for multiple previous years and their respective rates in forecasting like the above example of the future inflation rate. Thus, current expected inflation reflects a weighted average of all past inflation rates, where the weights get smaller and smaller as we move further in to the past. The initial previous year has the highest weighting and the subsequent years take lesser weighting the further back the equation accounts for.\n\nWhen an agent makes a forecasting error (as in incorrectly recording a value or mistyping), the stochastic shock will cause the agent to incorrectly forecast the price expectation level again even if the price level experiences no further shocks, since the previous expectations only ever incorporates part of their errors. The backward nature of expectation formulation and the resultant systematic errors made by agents (see cobweb model) had become unsatisfactory to economists such as John Muth, who was pivotal in the development of an alternative model of how expectations are formed, called rational expectations. The use of rational expectations have largely replaced adaptive expectations in macroeconomic theory since its assumptions rely on an optimal expectations approach which is consistent with economic theory. However, it must be stressed that confronting adaptive expectations and rational expectations aren't necessarily justified by either use, in other words, there are situations in which following the adaptive scheme is a rational response.\n\nThe first use adaptive expectations hypothesis was to describe agent behavior in The Purchasing Power of Money by Irving Fisher (1911), then later used to describe models such as hyperinflation by Philip Cagan (1956). Adaptive expectations were instrumental in the consumption function (1957) and Phillips curve outlined by Milton Friedman. Friedman suggests that workers form adaptive expectations of the inflation rate, the government can easily surprise them through unexpected monetary policy changes. As agents are trapped by the money illusion, they are unable to correctly perceive price and wage dynamics, so based on Friedman's theory, unemployment can always be reduced through monetary expansions. If the government chooses to fix a low unemployment rate the result is an increasing level of inflation for an extended period of time. However, in this framework, it is clear why and how adaptive expectations are problematic. Agents are arbitrarily supposed to ignore sources of information which, otherwise, would affect their expectations. For example, government announcements are such sources. Agents are expected to modify their expectations and break with the former trends when changes in economic policy necessitate it. This is the reason why the theory of adaptive expectations is often regarded as a deviation from the rational tradition of economics.\nSee also\nPolicy ineffectiveness proposition\nProblem of induction\nRational expectations\nSelf-fulfilling prophecy\nCobweb model\nPhillips curve\nConsumption function\nReferencesGeneral references","text_chars":5120,"text_sha256":"3a45a516b5260301721318daa6d4e4b49d40c7156ec7058916576f0f2ca32a9c","text_utf8_bytes":5120,"title":"Adaptive expectations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_expectations","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"fb7e0e745314d0a15f1c942602f78074ad69b328dcc6aea2105253859026c8b0"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=924&action=history","id":"924","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":52928,"raw_text_sha256":"756d29b0c1cb8665fd1dd99db69b04d049a2fdf55d47697c4af8f2ea7783bb10","raw_text_utf8_bytes":52983,"revision_id":"1371328319","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-25T22:52:25Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1371328319","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Alan Alexander Milne (; 18 January 1882 – 31 January 1956) was an English writer best known for his books about the teddy bear Winnie-the-Pooh, as well as children's poetry. Milne was primarily a playwright before the huge success of Winnie-the-Pooh overshadowed his previous work. He served as a lieutenant in the Royal Warwickshire Regiment in the First World War and as a captain in the Home Guard in the Second World War.\n\nMilne was the father of bookseller Christopher Robin Milne, upon whom the character Christopher Robin is based. It was during a visit to London Zoo, where Christopher became enamoured of the tame and amiable bear Winnipeg, that Milne was inspired to write the story of Winnie-the-Pooh for his son. Milne bequeathed the original manuscripts of the Winnie-the-Pooh stories to the Wren Library at Trinity College, Cambridge, his alma mater.\nEarly life and military career\nAlan Alexander Milne was born in Kilburn, London, to John Vine Milne, who was born in Jamaica, and Sarah Marie Milne (née Heginbotham), on 18 January 1882. He grew up at Henley House School, 6/7 Mortimer Road (now Crescent), Kilburn, a small independent school run by his father. He taught himself to read at the age of two. One of his teachers was H. G. Wells, who taught there in 1889–90. Milne attended Westminster School and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he studied on a mathematics scholarship, graduating with a Bachelor of Arts in Mathematics in 1903, though he was always interested in writing. He edited and wrote for Granta, a student magazine. He collaborated with his brother Kenneth and their articles appeared over the initials AKM. Milne's work came to the attention of the leading British humour magazine Punch, where Milne was to become a contributor and later an assistant editor. Considered a talented cricket fielder, Milne played for two amateur teams that were largely composed of British writers: the Allahakbarries and the Authors XI. His teammates included fellow writers J. M. Barrie, Arthur Conan Doyle and P. G. Wodehouse.\n\nMilne joined the British Army during World War I and served as an officer in the Royal Warwickshire Regiment. He was commissioned into the 4th Battalion, Royal Warwickshire Regiment, on 1 February 1915 as a second lieutenant (on probation). His commission was confirmed on 20 December 1915. He served on the Somme as a signals officer from July–November 1916, but caught trench fever and was invalided back to England. Having recuperated, he worked as a signals instructor, before being recruited into military intelligence to write propaganda articles for MI7 (b) between 1917 and 1918. He was discharged on 14 February 1919, and settled in Mallord Street, Chelsea. He relinquished his commission on 19 February 1920, retaining the rank of lieutenant.\n\nAfter the war, he wrote a denunciation of war titled Peace with Honour (1934), which he retracted somewhat with 1940's War with Honour. During World War II, Milne was one of the most prominent critics of fellow English writer (and Authors XI cricket teammate) P. G. Wodehouse, who was captured at his country home in France by the Nazis and imprisoned for a year. Wodehouse made radio broadcasts about his internment, which were broadcast from Berlin. Although the light-hearted broadcasts made fun of the Germans, Milne accused Wodehouse of committing an act of near treason by cooperating with his country's enemy. Wodehouse got some revenge on his former friend (e.g. in The Mating Season) by creating fatuous parodies of the Christopher Robin poems in some of his later stories, and claiming that Milne \"was probably jealous of all other writers.... But I loved his stuff.\"\n\nMilne married Dorothy \"Daphne\" de Sélincourt (1890–1971) in 1913 and their son Christopher Robin Milne was born in 1920. In 1925, Milne bought a country home, Cotchford Farm, in Hartfield, East Sussex.\n\nDuring World War II, Milne was a captain in the British Home Guard in Hartfield & Forest Row, insisting on being plain \"Mr. Milne\" to the members of his platoon. He retired to the farm after a stroke and brain surgery in 1952 left him an invalid; and by August 1953, \"he seemed very old and disenchanted.\" Milne died in January 1956, aged 74.\nLiterary career\n1903 to 1925\nAfter graduating from Cambridge University in 1903, A. A. Milne contributed humorous verse and whimsical essays to Punch, joining the staff in 1906 and becoming an assistant editor.\n\nDuring this period he published 18 plays and three novels, including the murder mystery The Red House Mystery (1922). His son was born in August 1920 and in 1924 Milne produced a collection of children's poems, When We Were Very Young, which were illustrated by Punch staff cartoonist E. H. Shepard. A collection of short stories for children A Gallery of Children, and other stories that became part of the Winnie-the-Pooh books, were first published in 1925.\n\nMilne was an early screenwriter for the nascent British film industry, writing four stories filmed in 1920 for the company Minerva Films (founded in 1920 by the actor Leslie Howard and his friend and story editor Adrian Brunel). These were The Bump, starring Aubrey Smith; Twice Two; Five Pound Reward; and Bookworms. Some of these films survive in the archives of the British Film Institute. Milne had met Howard when the actor starred in Milne's play Mr Pim Passes By in London.\n\nLooking back on this period (in 1926), Milne observed that when he told his agent that he was going to write a detective story, he was told that what the country wanted from a \"Punch humorist\" was a humorous story; when two years later he said he was writing nursery rhymes, his agent and publisher were convinced he should write another detective story; and after another two years, he was being told that writing a detective story would be in the worst of taste given the demand for children's books. He concluded that \"the only excuse which I have yet discovered for writing anything is that I want to write it; and I should be as proud to be delivered of a Telephone Directory con amore as I should be ashamed to create a Blank Verse Tragedy at the bidding of others.\"\n1926 to 1928\nMilne is most famous for his two Pooh books about a boy named Christopher Robin after his son, Christopher Robin Milne (1920–1996), and various characters inspired by his son's stuffed animals, most notably the bear named Winnie-the-Pooh. Christopher Robin Milne's stuffed bear, originally named Edward, was renamed Winnie after a Canadian black bear named Winnie (after Winnipeg), which was used as a military mascot in World War I, and left to London Zoo during the war. \"The Pooh\" comes from a swan the young Milne named \"Pooh\". E. H. Shepard illustrated the original Pooh books, using his own son's teddy Growler (\"a magnificent bear\") as the model. The rest of Christopher Robin Milne's toys, Piglet, Eeyore, Kanga, Roo and Tigger, were incorporated into A. A. Milne's stories, and two more characters – Rabbit and Owl – were created by Milne's imagination. Christopher Robin Milne's own toys are now on display in New York where 750,000 people visit them every year.\nThe fictional Hundred Acre Wood of the Pooh stories derives from Five Hundred Acre Wood in Ashdown Forest in East Sussex, South East England, where the Pooh stories were set. Milne lived on the northern edge of the forest at Cotchford Farm, , and took his son on walking trips there. E. H. Shepard drew on the landscapes of Ashdown Forest as inspiration for many of the illustrations he provided for the Pooh books. The adult Christopher Robin commented: \"Pooh's Forest and Ashdown Forest are identical.\" Popular tourist locations at Ashdown Forest include: Galleon's Lap, The Enchanted Place, the Heffalump Trap and Lone Pine, Eeyore's Sad and Gloomy Place, and the wooden Pooh Bridge where Pooh and Piglet invented Poohsticks.\n\nNot yet known as Pooh, he made his first appearance in a poem, \"Teddy Bear\", published in Punch magazine in February 1924 and republished that year in When We Were Very Young. Pooh first appeared in the London Evening News on Christmas Eve, 1925, in a story called \"The Wrong Sort of Bees\". Winnie-the-Pooh was published in 1926, followed by The House at Pooh Corner in 1928. A second collection of nursery rhymes, Now We Are Six, was published in 1927. All four books were illustrated by E. H. Shepard. Milne also published four plays in this period. He also \"gallantly stepped forward\" to contribute a quarter of the costs of dramatising P. G. Wodehouse's A Damsel in Distress. The World of Pooh won the Lewis Carroll Shelf Award in 1958.\n1929 onward\nThe success of his children's books was to become a source of considerable annoyance to Milne, whose self-avowed aim was to write whatever he pleased and who had, until then, found a ready audience for each change of direction: he had freed pre-war Punch from its ponderous facetiousness; he had made a considerable reputation as a playwright (like his idol J. M. Barrie) on both sides of the Atlantic; he had produced a witty piece of detective writing in The Red House Mystery (although this was severely criticised by Raymond Chandler for the implausibility of its plot in his essay The Simple Art of Murder in the eponymous collection that appeared in 1950). But once Milne had, in his own words, \"said goodbye to all that in 70,000 words\" (the approximate length of his four principal children's books), he had no intention of producing any reworkings lacking in originality, given that one of the sources of inspiration, his son, was growing older.\n\nAnother reason Milne stopped writing children's books, and especially about Winnie-the-Pooh, was that he felt \"amazement and disgust\" over the immense fame his son was exposed to, and said that \"I feel that the legal Christopher Robin has already had more publicity than I want for him. I do not want CR Milne to ever wish that his name were Charles Robert.\"\n\nIn his literary home, Punch, where the When We Were Very Young verses first appeared, Methuen continued to publish whatever Milne wrote, including the long poem \"The Norman Church\" and an assembly of articles entitled Year In, Year Out (which Milne likened to a benefit night for the author).\n\nIn 1929, Milne adapted Kenneth Grahame's novel The Wind in the Willows for the stage as Toad of Toad Hall. The title was an implicit admission that such chapters as Chapter 7, \"The Piper at the Gates of Dawn,\" could not survive translation to the theatre. A special introduction written by Milne is included in some editions of Grahame's novel. It was first performed at the Playhouse Theatre, Liverpool, on 21 December 1929 before it made its West End debut the following year at the Lyric Theatre on 17 December 1930. The play was revived in the West End from 1931 to 1935, and since the 1960s there have been West End revivals during the Christmas season; actors who have performed in the play include Judi Dench and Ian McKellen.\n\nMilne and his wife became estranged from their son, who came to resent what he saw as his father's exploitation of his childhood and came to hate the books that had thrust him into the public eye. Christopher's marriage to his first cousin, Lesley de Sélincourt, distanced him still further from his parents – Lesley's father and Christopher's mother had not spoken to each other for 30 years.\nDeath and legacy\nCommemoration\nMilne died at his home in Hartfield, Sussex, on 31 January 1956, 13 days after his 74th birthday. A memorial service took place on 10 February at All Hallows-by-the-Tower church in London.\n\nThe rights to A. A. Milne's Pooh books were left to four beneficiaries: his family, the Royal Literary Fund, Westminster School and the Garrick Club. After Milne's death in 1956, his widow sold her rights to the Pooh characters to Stephen Slesinger, whose widow sold the rights after Slesinger's death to Walt Disney Productions, which has made many Pooh cartoon movies, a Disney Channel television show, as well as Pooh-related merchandise. In 2001, the other beneficiaries sold their interest in the estate to the Disney Corporation for $350m. Previously Disney had been paying twice-yearly royalties to these beneficiaries. The estate of E. H. Shepard also received a sum in the deal. The UK copyright on the text of the original Winnie the Pooh books expires on 1 January 2027; at the beginning of the year after the 70th anniversary of the author's death (PMA-70), and has already expired in those countries with a PMA-60 rule. This applies to all of Milne's works except those first published posthumously. The illustrations in the Pooh books will remain under copyright until the same amount of time after the illustrator's death has passed; in the UK, this will be 1 January 2047.\n\nIn the US, copyright on the four children's books (including the illustrations) expired 95 years after publication of each of the books. Specifically: copyright on the book When We Were Very Young expired in 2020; copyright on the book Winnie-the-Pooh expired in 2022; copyright on the book Now We Are Six expired in 2023; and copyright on the book The House at Pooh Corner expired in 2024.\n\nIn 2008, a collection of original illustrations featuring Winnie-the-Pooh and his animal friends sold for more than £1.2 million at auction at Sotheby's, London. Forbes magazine ranked Winnie the Pooh the most valuable fictional character in 2002; Winnie the Pooh merchandising products alone had annual sales of more than $5.9 billion. In 2005, Winnie the Pooh generated $6 billion, a figure surpassed only by Mickey Mouse.\n\nA memorial plaque in Ashdown Forest, unveiled by Christopher Robin in 1979, commemorates the work of A. A. Milne and Shepard in creating the world of Pooh. The inscription states they \"captured the magic of Ashdown Forest, and gave it to the world\". Milne once wrote of Ashdown Forest: \"In that enchanted place on the top of the forest a little boy and his bear will always be playing.\"\n\nIn 2003, Winnie-the-Pooh was ranked number 7 on the BBC's The Big Read poll which determined the UK's \"best-loved novels\". In 2006, Winnie-the-Pooh received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, marking the 80th birthday of Milne's creation.\n\nMarking the 90th anniversary of Milne's creation of the character, and the 90th birthday of Queen Elizabeth II, Winnie-the-Pooh Meets the Queen (2016) sees Pooh meet the Queen at Buckingham Palace. The illustrated and audio adventure is narrated by the actor Jim Broadbent. Also in 2016, a new character, a Penguin, was unveiled in The Best Bear in All the World, which was inspired by a long-lost photograph of Milne and his son Christopher with a toy penguin.\n\nAn exhibition entitled Winnie-the-Pooh: Exploring a Classic appeared at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London from 9 December 2017 to 8 April 2018.\n\nThe composer Harold Fraser-Simson, a near neighbour, produced six books of Milne songs between 1924 and 1932. The poems have been parodied many times, including in the books When We Were Rather Older and Now We Are Sixty. The 1963 film The King's Breakfast was based on Milne's poem of the same name.\n\nMilne has been portrayed in television and film. Domhnall Gleeson plays him in Goodbye Christopher Robin, a 2017 biographical drama film. In the 2018 fantasy film Christopher Robin, an extension of the Disney Winnie the Pooh franchise, Tristan Sturrock plays Milne, and filming took place at Ashdown Forest.\n\nAn elementary school in Houston, Texas, operated by the Houston Independent School District (HISD), is named after Milne. The school, A. A. Milne Elementary School in Brays Oaks, opened in 1991.\nArchive\nThe original manuscripts for Winnie-the-Pooh and The House at Pooh Corner are archived at Trinity College Library, Cambridge.\n\nThe bulk of A. A. Milne's papers are housed at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin. The collection, established at the centre in 1964, consists of manuscript drafts and fragments for over 150 of Milne's works, as well as correspondence, legal documents, genealogical records, and some personal effects. The library division holds several books formerly belonging to Milne and his wife Dorothy. The center also has small collections of correspondence from Christopher Robin Milne and Milne's frequent illustrator E. H. Shepard.\nReligious views\nMilne did not speak out much on the subject of religion, although he used religious terms to explain his decision, while remaining a pacifist, to join the British Home Guard. He wrote: \"In fighting Hitler we are truly fighting the Devil, the Anti-Christ ... Hitler was a crusader against God.\"\n\nHis best known comment on the subject was recalled on his death:\n\nHe wrote in the poem \"Explained\":\n\nHe also wrote in the poem \"Vespers\":\nWorks\nNovels\nLovers in London (1905. Some consider this more of a short story collection; Milne did not like it and considered The Day's Play as his first book.)\nOnce on a Time (1917)\nMr. Pim (1921) (A novelisation of his 1919 play Mr. Pim Passes By)\nThe Red House Mystery (1922). Serialised: London (Daily News), serialised daily from 3 to 28 August 1921\nTwo People (1931) (Inside jacket claims this is Milne's first attempt at a novel.)\nFour Days' Wonder (1933)\nChloe Marr (1946)\nNon-fiction\nPeace With Honour (1934)\nIt's Too Late Now: The Autobiography of a Writer (1939)\nWar With Honour (1940)\nWar Aims Unlimited (1941)\nYear In, Year Out (1952) (illustrated by E. H. Shepard)\nPunch articles\nThe Day's Play (1910)\nThe Holiday Round (1912)\nOnce a Week (1914)\nThe Sunny Side (1921)\nThose Were the Days (1929) [The four volumes above, compiled]\nNewspaper articles and book introductions\nThe Chronicles of Clovis by \"Saki\" (1911) [Introduction to]\nNot That It Matters (1919)\nIf I May (1920)\nBy Way of Introduction (1929)\nWomen and Children First!. John Bull, 10 November 1934\nIt Depends on the Book (1943, in September issue of Red Cross Newspaper The Prisoner of War)\nStory collections for children\nA Gallery of Children (1925)\nWinnie-the-Pooh (1926) (illustrated by Ernest H. Shepard)\nThe House at Pooh Corner (1928) (illustrated by E. H. Shepard)\nShort Stories\nPoetry collections for children\nWhen We Were Very Young (1924) (illustrated by E. H. Shepard)\nNow We Are Six (1927) (illustrated by E. H. Shepard)\nStory collections\nThe Secret and other stories (1929)\nThe Birthday Party (1948)\nA Table Near the Band (1950)\nPoetry\nWhen We Were Very Young (1924) (illustrated by E. H. Shepard)\nFor the Luncheon Interval (1925) [poems from Punch]\nNow We Are Six (1927) (illustrated by E. H. Shepard)\nBehind the Lines (1940)\nThe Norman Church (1948)\nScreenplays and plays\nWurzel-Flummery (1917)\nBelinda (1918)\nThe Boy Comes Home (1918)\nMake-Believe (1918) (children's play)\nThe Camberley Triangle (1919)\nMr. Pim Passes By (1919)\nThe Red Feathers (1920)\nThe Romantic Age (1920)\nThe Stepmother (1920)\nThe Truth About Blayds (1920)\nThe Bump (1920, Minerva Films), starring C. Aubrey Smith and Faith Celli\nTwice Two (1920, Minerva Films)\nFive Pound Reward (1920, Minerva Films)\nBookworms (1920, Minerva Films)\nThe Great Broxopp (1921)\nThe Dover Road (1921)\nThe Lucky One (1922)\nThe Truth About Blayds (1922)\nThe Artist: A Duologue (1923)\nGive Me Yesterday (1923) (a.k.a. Success in the UK)\nAriadne (1924)\nThe Man in the Bowler Hat: A Terribly Exciting Affair (1924)\nTo Have the Honour (1924)\nPortrait of a Gentleman in Slippers (1926)\nSuccess (1926)\nMiss Marlow at Play (1927)\nWinnie the Pooh. Written specially by Milne for a 'Winnie the Pooh Party' in aid of the National Mother-Saving Campaign, and performed once at Seaford House on 17 March 1928\nThe Fourth Wall or The Perfect Alibi (1928) (later adapted for the film Birds of Prey (1930), directed by Basil Dean)\nThe Ivory Door (1929)\nToad of Toad Hall (1929) (adaptation of The Wind in the Willows)\nMichael and Mary (1930)\nOther People's Lives (1933) (a.k.a. They Don't Mean Any Harm)\nMiss Elizabeth Bennet (1936) [based on Pride and Prejudice]\nSarah Simple (1937)\nGentleman Unknown (1938)\nThe General Takes Off His Helmet (1939) in The Queen's Book of the Red Cross\nThe Ugly Duckling (1941)\nBefore the Flood (1951).\nMarvellous Milne Reprints\nBetween August 2023 and February 2024, Farrago Books reprinted A. A. Milne's classic works for grownups, including material not previous collected/published. These were available both in paperback and as ebooks.\nMr Pim (originally published 1921) published 10 August 2023, (p/b); (ebook)\nTwo People (originally published 1931) published 7 September 2023, (p/b); (ebook)\nFour Days' Wonder (originally published 1933) published 26 October 2023, (p/b); (ebook)\nChloe Marr (originally published 1946) published 16 November 2023, (p/b); (ebook)\nThe Rabbits (originally published 6 June 1909 - 15 April 1914 in Punch, portions subsequently appearing in The Day's Play (1910), The Holiday Round (1912), Once a Week (1914) and The Sunny Side (1921)) published 29 February 2024, (p/b); (ebook)\nThis was the first time that the entire series was published in a collection in its entirety (the portions in the publications listed did not include all of the stories between them) apart from a PDF/EPUB-only publication by Jonathan Bogart, available on Gumroad and Patreon\n\nAlso included were the following books, although these were not part of the 'numbered' Marvelous Milne Collection:\nIt's Too Late Now: The Autobiography of a Writer (originally published 1939), published 27 July 2023, (p/b); (ebook)\nThe Complete Short Stories of A. A. Milne (the first time published in one book), published 29 February 2024, (p/b); (ebook); (audiobook)\nPortions of this work appeared, sometimes in different form, in different publications between 1914 and 1951. Four stories were published in this collection for the first time, indicated below by a dagger . An introduction was written by Gyles Brandreth.\nThe Woman (1914)\nRosemary for Remembrance (1915)\nMullins (1918)\nBad Lord Blight (1920)\nThe Return (1922)\nThe End of the Peer of Wotherspoon (1923)\nThe Green Door (1925)\nThe Secret (1926)\nIn Vino Veritas (1943)\nThe Lost Diary of Shakespeare (1946)\nThe Birthday Party (1948)\nThe Dear, Dead Past (1948)\nA.V. and R.V. (1948)\nAnne-Marie (1948)\nBreitenstein (1948)\nC.O.D. (1948)\nDear Old George (1948)\nThe General Takes off his Helmet (1948)\nLuck Nothing (1948)\nNight at the Aldwinckles (1948)\nSpring Song (1948)\nTristram (1948)\nA Table Near the Band (1949)\nThe Three Dreams of Mr Findlater (1949)\nThe Prettiest Girl in the Room (1949)\nBefore the Flood (1949)\nA Man Greatly Beloved (1950)\nThe Rise and Fall of Mortimer Scrivens (1950)\nPortrait of Lydia (1950)\nThe Balcony (1950)\nChristmas Party (1950)\nMurder at Eleven (1950)\nA Rattling Good Yarn (1950)\nThe River (1950)\nThe Wibberley Touch (1950)\nA Savage Game (1950)\nBread Upon the Waters (1950)\nCall me Sally (1953)\nHappy Ever After (Undated)\nThe Southey Manuscript (Undated)\nIn It Together (fragment) (Undated)\nMy Dear Vincent (fragment) (Undated)\nReferencesFurther reading\nLast, Kevin J. Remembering Christopher Robin: Escaping Winnie-the-Pooh. Lewes (UK), Unicorn. 2023.\nSwann, Thomas Burnett. A.A. Milne. Twayne's English Authors Series (1971)\nThwaite, Ann. A.A. Milne: His Life. London: Faber and Faber, 1990.\nToby, Marlene. A.A. Milne, Author of Winnie-the-Pooh. Chicago: Children's Press, 1995.\nExternal links\nA. A. Milne Collection at the Harry Ransom Center\nAnn Thwaite Collection of A. A. Milne at the Harry Ransom Center\nincludes the complete text of the four Pooh books\nPortraits of A. A. Milne in the National Portrait Gallery, London\nEssays by Milne at Quotidiana.org\nMilne extract in The Guardian\nProfile at Just-Pooh.com\nA. A. Milne at poeticous.com\nAA Milne Books The Guardian\nFinding aid to the A.A. Milne letters at Columbia University Rare Book & Manuscript Library","text_chars":23791,"text_sha256":"528a47f25b2ea76f7ce9c5c56539bddf0903f36bb50345444881a97295264007","text_utf8_bytes":23811,"title":"A. A. Milne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._A._Milne","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"b8eb7bd1c21b7857819da36194da03e12a0535dba36ca106d643a868dae999bc"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1135&action=history","id":"1135","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":32540,"raw_text_sha256":"a06c33719546e28654a42fcb53b557078fafdde3b62e05738485db794dfddeac","raw_text_utf8_bytes":32568,"revision_id":"1366380485","revision_timestamp":"2026-07-27T18:03:56Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1366380485","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Abner Doubleday (June 26, 1819 – January 26, 1893) was a career United States Army officer and Union major general in the American Civil War. He fired the first shot in defense of Fort Sumter, the opening battle of the war, and had a pivotal role in the early fighting at the Battle of Gettysburg. Gettysburg was his finest hour, but his relief by Maj. Gen. George G. Meade caused lasting enmity between the two men. In San Francisco, after the war, he obtained a patent on the cable car railway that still runs there. In his final years in New Jersey, he was a prominent member and later president of the Theosophical Society.\n\nAlthough he never made such a claim, Doubleday was declared to have invented the game of baseball in 1908, fifteen years after his death, by the Mills Commission. This claim has been thoroughly debunked by baseball historians.\nEarly years\nDoubleday, the son of Ulysses F. Doubleday and Hester Donnelly, was born in Ballston Spa, New York, in a small house on the corner of Washington and Fenwick streets. As a child, Abner was very short. The family all slept in the attic loft of the one-room house. His paternal grandfather, also named Abner, had fought in the American Revolutionary War. His maternal grandfather Thomas Donnelly had joined the army at 14 and was a mounted messenger for George Washington. His great-grandfather Peter Donnelly was a Minuteman. His father, Ulysses F., fought in the War of 1812, published newspapers and books, and represented Auburn, New York, for four years in the United States Congress. Abner spent his childhood in Auburn and later was sent to Cooperstown to live with his uncle and attend a private preparatory high school. He practiced as a surveyor and civil engineer for two years before entering the United States Military Academy in 1838. He graduated in 1842, 24th in a class of 56 cadets, and was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the 3rd U.S. Artillery. In 1852, he married Mary Hewitt of Baltimore, the daughter of a local lawyer.\nEarly commands and Fort Sumter\nFile:Abner Doubleday at Fort Sumter, SC IMG 4534.JPG|200px|right|thumb|Doubleday photo displayed at Fort Sumter National Monument in Charleston harbor\n\nDoubleday initially served in coastal garrisons and then in the Mexican–American War from 1846 to 1848 and the Seminole Wars from 1856 to 1858. In 1858, he was transferred to Fort Moultrie in Charleston Harbor serving under Colonel John L. Gardner. By the start of the Civil War, he was a captain and second in command in the garrison at Fort Sumter, under Major Robert Anderson. He aimed the cannon that fired the first return shot in answer to the Confederate bombardment on April 12, 1861. He subsequently referred to himself as the \"hero of Sumter\" for this role. Of note, although Doubleday did not invent baseball, by sheer coincidence the Fort Sumter Garrison Flag (or Storm Flag) has the star pattern arranged in a diamond shape, which by that time in history, was the shape of the baseball infield.\nBrigade and division command in Virginia\nDoubleday was promoted to major on May 14, 1861, and commanded the Artillery Department in the Shenandoah Valley from June to August, and then the artillery for Major General Nathaniel Banks's division of the Army of the Potomac. He was appointed brigadier general of volunteers on February 3, 1862, and was assigned to duty in northern Virginia while the Army of the Potomac conducted the Peninsula Campaign. His first combat assignment was to lead the 2nd Brigade, 1st Division, III Corps of the Army of Virginia during the Northern Virginia Campaign. In the actions at Brawner's farm, just before the Second Battle of Bull Run, he took the initiative to send two of his regiments to reinforce Brigadier General John Gibbon's brigade against a larger Confederate force, fighting it to a standstill. Personal initiative was required since his division commander, Brig. Gen. Rufus King, was incapacitated by an epileptic seizure at the time. He was replaced by Brigadier General John P. Hatch. His men were routed when they encountered Major General James Longstreet's corps, but by the following day, August 30, he took command of the division when Hatch was wounded, and he led his men to cover the retreat of the Union Army.\n\nDoubleday again led the division, now assigned to the I Corps of the Army of the Potomac, after South Mountain, where Hatch was wounded again. At Antietam, he led his men into the deadly fighting in the Cornfield and the West Woods, and one colonel described him as a \"gallant officer ... remarkably cool and at the very front of battle.\" He was wounded when an artillery shell exploded near his horse, throwing him to the ground in a violent fall. He received a brevet promotion to lieutenant colonel in the regular army for his actions at Antietam and was promoted in March 1863 to major general of volunteers, to rank from November 29, 1862. At Fredericksburg in December 1862, his division mostly sat idle. During the winter, the I Corps was reorganized and Doubleday assumed command of the 3rd Division. At Chancellorsville in May 1863, the division was kept in reserve.\nGettysburg\nAt the start of the Battle of Gettysburg, July 1, 1863, Doubleday's division was the second infantry division on the field to reinforce the cavalry division of Brigadier General John Buford. When his corps commander, Major General John F. Reynolds, was killed very early in the fighting, Doubleday found himself in command of the corps at 10:50 am. His men fought well in the morning, putting up a stout resistance, but as overwhelming Confederate forces massed against them, their line eventually broke and they retreated back through the town of Gettysburg to the relative safety of Cemetery Hill south of town. It was Doubleday's finest performance during the war, five hours leading 9,500 men against ten Confederate brigades that numbered more than 16,000. Seven of those brigades sustained casualties that ranged from 35 to 50 percent, indicating the ferocity of the Union defense. On Cemetery Hill, however, the I Corps could muster only a third of its men as effective for duty, and the corps was essentially destroyed as a combat force for the rest of the battle; it would be decommissioned in March 1864, its surviving units consolidated into other corps.\n\nOn July 2, 1863, Army of the Potomac commander Maj. Gen. George G. Meade replaced Doubleday with Major General John Newton, a more junior officer from another corps. The ostensible reason was a false report by XI Corps commander Major General Oliver O. Howard that Doubleday's corps broke first, causing the entire Union line to collapse, but Meade also had a long history of disdain for Doubleday's combat effectiveness, dating back to South Mountain. Doubleday was humiliated by this snub and held a lasting grudge against Meade, but he returned to division command and fought well for the remainder of the battle. He was wounded in the neck on the second day of Gettysburg and received a brevet promotion to colonel in the regular army for his service. He formally requested reinstatement as I Corps commander, but Meade refused, and Doubleday left Gettysburg on July 7 for Washington.\n\nDoubleday's staff nicknamed him \"Forty-Eight Hours\" as a compliment to recognize his tendency to avoid reckless or impulsive actions and his thoughtfulness and deliberateness in considering circumstances and possible responses. In recent years, biographers have turned the nickname into an insult, incorrectly claiming \"Forty-Eight Hours\" was coined to highlight Doubleday's supposed incompetence and slowness to act.\nWashington\nDoubleday assumed administrative duties in the defenses of Washington, D.C., where he was in charge of courts martial, which gave him legal experience that he used after the war. His only return to combat was directing a portion of the defenses against the attack by Confederate Lieutenant General Jubal A. Early in the Valley Campaigns of 1864. Also while in Washington, Doubleday testified against George Meade at the United States Congress Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, criticizing him harshly over his conduct of the Battle of Gettysburg. While in Washington, Doubleday remained a loyal Republican and staunch supporter of President Abraham Lincoln. Doubleday rode with Lincoln on the train to Gettysburg for the Gettysburg Address and Col. and Mrs. Doubleday attended events with Mr. and Mrs. Lincoln in Washington.\nPostbellum career\nDoubleday mustered out of the volunteer service after the Civil War on August 24, 1865, reverted to the rank of lieutenant colonel, and in September 1867 became the colonel of the 35th U.S. Infantry. He was stationed in San Francisco from 1869 through 1871 and he took out a patent for the cable car railway that still runs there and received a charter for its operation, but signed away his rights when he was reassigned. In 1871, he commanded the 24th U.S. Infantry, an all African-American regiment with headquarters at Fort McKavett, Texas. He retired in 1873.\n\nHe was listed in the New York business directory as a lawyer in the 1870s.\n\nDoubleday spent much of his time writing. He published two important works on the Civil War: Reminiscences of Forts Sumter and Moultrie (1876), and Chancellorsville and Gettysburg (1882), the latter being a volume of the series Campaigns of the Civil War.\nTheosophy\nIn the summer of 1878, Doubleday lived in Mendham Township, New Jersey, and became a prominent member of the Theosophical Society. When Helena Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott, two of the founders of that society, moved to India at the end of that year, he was constituted as the president of the American body.\nDeath\nDoubleday died of heart disease in Mendham Township on January 26, 1893. Doubleday's body was laid in state in New York's City Hall and then was taken to Washington by train from Mendham, and was buried in Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington County, Virginia. He was survived by his wife.\nBaseball\nAlthough Doubleday achieved minor fame as a competent combat general with experience in many important Civil War battles, he is more widely known as the supposed inventor of the game of baseball, supposed to have invented the game in 1839 in Elihu Phinney's cow pasture in Cooperstown, New York.\n\nThe Mills Commission, chaired by Abraham G. Mills, the fourth president of the National League, was appointed idiosyncratically in 1905 to determine the origin of baseball. On December 30, 1907, the committee's final report, in part, stated that \"the first scheme for playing baseball, according to the best evidence obtainable to date, was devised by Abner Doubleday at Cooperstown, New York, in 1839.\" It concluded by saying, \"in the years to come, in the view of the hundreds of thousands of people who are devoted to baseball, and the millions who will be, Abner Doubleday's fame will rest evenly, if not quite as much, upon the fact that he was its inventor ... as upon his brilliant and distinguished career as an officer in the Federal Army.\"\n\nHowever, there is considerable evidence to dispute this claim. Baseball historian George B. Kirsch has described the results of the Mills Commission as a \"myth\", writing that \"Robert Henderson, Harold Seymour, and other scholars have since debunked the Doubleday-Cooperstown myth, which nonetheless remains powerful in the American imagination because of the efforts of Major League Baseball and the Hall of Fame in Cooperstown.\" At his death, Doubleday left many letters and papers, none of which describe baseball or give any suggestion that he considered himself a prominent person in the evolution of the game, and his New York Times obituary did not mention the game at all. Chairman Mills himself, who had been a Civil War colleague of Doubleday and a member of the honor guard for Doubleday's body as it lay in state in New York City, never recalled hearing Doubleday describe his role as the inventor. Doubleday was a cadet at West Point in the year of the alleged invention and his family had moved away from Cooperstown the prior year. Furthermore, the primary testimony to the commission that connected baseball to Doubleday was that of Abner Graves, whose credibility is questionable. In the years after he gave his testimony, Graves shot his wife to death and was committed to an institution for the criminally insane for the rest of his life. Part of the confusion could stem from there being another man by the same name in Cooperstown in 1839.\n\nDespite the lack of solid evidence linking Doubleday to the origins of baseball, Cooperstown, New York, became the new home of what is today the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum in 1937.\n\nThere may have been some relationship to baseball as a national sport and Abner Doubleday. While the modern rules of baseball were formulated in New York during the 1840s, it was the scattering of New Yorkers exposed to these rules throughout the country that spread not only baseball, but also the \"New York Rules\" in particular, thereby harmonizing the rules, and being a catalyst for its growth. In his capacity as a high-ranking officer, whose duties included seeing to provisions for the U.S. Army fighting throughout the South and border states, Doubleday is said to have provisioned balls and bats for the morale of the men.\nNamesakes and honors\nDoubleday's men, admirers, and the state of New York erected a monument to him at Gettysburg. There is a obelisk monument at Arlington National Cemetery where he is buried.\n\nDoubleday Field is a 9,791-seat baseball stadium named for Abner Doubleday, located in Cooperstown, New York, near the Baseball Hall of Fame. It hosted the annual Hall of Fame Game, an exhibition game between two major league teams that was played from 1940 until 2008, and has hosted the Hall of Fame Classic since 2009.\n\nThe Auburn Doubledays are a collegiate summer baseball team based in Doubleday's hometown of Auburn, New York.\n\nAt the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, where the Army Black Knights play at Johnson Stadium, Doubleday Field is named in Doubleday's honor.\n\nIn Ballston Spa, New York, the town of his birth, Doubleday Fields are named for Doubleday. The house of his birth still stands in the middle of town and there is a monument to him on Front Street.\n\nAt the Doubleday Hill Monument, a sign to commemorate Doubleday's occupation of a hill in Williamsport, Maryland during the Civil War claims he invented the game in 1835.\n\nFor numerous years, Mendham Borough and Mendham Township, New Jersey has held a municipal holiday known as \"Abner Doubleday Day\" in the General's honor and in 1998 commissioned a plaque near the site of his home in the borough, even though the borough was known as Mendham Township back then.\n\nThe Abner Doubleday Society erected a monument to Doubleday in Iron Spring Park near his birthplace in Ballston Spa in 2004.\nDates of rank\nUnited States ArmyUnited States VolunteersNotesSee also\nList of American Civil War generals (Union)\nWilliam Webb Ellis, sometimes apocryphally credited with inventing rugby football\nNotesReferences\nGomes, Michael. \"Abner Doubleday and Theosophy in America: 1879–1884\". Sunrise, April/May 1991.\n\"Doubleday, Abner\" in The Handbook of Texas.\nFurther reading\nSilkenat, David. Raising the White Flag: How Surrender Defined the American Civil War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2019. .\nExternal links\nDefense of Madame Blavatsky\nBaseball Hall of Fame\nPhoto of Abner Doubleday and wife Mary, taken by Mathew Brady, owned by University of Michigan Museum of Art\nUlysses Freeman Doubleday – McLean County Museum of History","text_chars":15703,"text_sha256":"e28e00fbfe629d82db0d8a129cd6479075e2af6488001821ab137ab9a559b2bc","text_utf8_bytes":15711,"title":"Abner Doubleday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abner_Doubleday","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"95ab97203830c0555122166e0d1765da7cf61e730c17cae154fee473cb7264e5"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=967&action=history","id":"967","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":51674,"raw_text_sha256":"81479eca81087ab1e08d3e3720ec3982d7b70c38c2bcd29a610e4cea7bc75c87","raw_text_utf8_bytes":51847,"revision_id":"1371932782","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-29T12:25:40Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1371932782","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM), or acute demyelinating encephalomyelitis, is a rare autoimmune disease marked by a sudden, widespread attack of inflammation in the brain and spinal cord. As well as causing the brain and spinal cord to become inflamed, ADEM also attacks the nerves of the central nervous system and damages their myelin insulation, which, as a result, destroys the white matter. The cause is often a trigger such as from viral infection or, in extraordinarily rare cases, vaccinations.\n\nADEM's symptoms resemble those of multiple sclerosis (MS), so the disease itself is sorted into the classification of the multiple sclerosis borderline diseases. However, ADEM has several features that distinguish it from MS. Unlike MS, ADEM occurs usually in children and is marked with rapid fever, although adolescents and adults can get the disease too. ADEM consists of a single flare-up, whereas MS is marked with several flare-ups (or relapses) over a long period of time. Relapses following ADEM are reported in up to a quarter of patients. However, the majority of these 'multiphasic' presentations following ADEM likely represent MS. ADEM is also distinguished by a loss of consciousness, coma and death, which is very rare in MS, except in severe cases.\n\nIt affects about 8 per 1,000,000 people per year. Although it occurs in all ages, most reported cases are in children and adolescents, with the average age around 5 to 8 years old. The disease affects males and females almost equally. ADEM shows seasonal variation with higher incidence in winter and spring months which may coincide with higher viral infections during these months. The mortality rate may be as high as 5%; however, full recovery is seen in 50 to 75% of cases with increase in survival rates up to 70 to 90% with figures including minor residual disability as well. The average time to recover from ADEM flare-ups is one to six months.\n\nADEM produces multiple inflammatory lesions in the brain and spinal cord, particularly in the white matter. Usually these are found in the subcortical and central white matter and cortical gray-white junction of both cerebral hemispheres, cerebellum, brainstem, and spinal cord, but periventricular white matter and gray matter of the cortex, thalami and basal ganglia may also be involved.\n\nWhen a person has more than one demyelinating episode of ADEM, the disease is then called recurrent disseminated encephalomyelitis or multiphasic disseminated encephalomyelitis (MDEM). Also, a fulminant course in adults has been described.\nSigns and symptoms\nADEM has an abrupt onset and a monophasic course. Symptoms usually begin 1–3 weeks after infection. Major symptoms include fever, headache, nausea and vomiting, confusion, vision impairment, drowsiness, seizures and coma. Although initially the symptoms are usually mild, they worsen rapidly over the course of hours to days, with the average time to maximum severity being about four and a half days. Additional symptoms include hemiparesis, paraparesis, and cranial nerve palsies.\nADEM in COVID-19\nNeurological symptoms were the main presentation of COVID-19, which did not correlate with the severity of respiratory symptoms. The high incidence of ADEM with hemorrhage is striking. Brain inflammation is likely caused by an immune response to the disease rather than neurotropism. Cerebrospinal fluid analysis was not indicative of an infectious process, neurological impairment was not present in the acute phase of the infection, and neuroimaging findings were not typical of classical toxic and metabolic disorders. The finding of bilateral periventricular relatively asymmetrical lesions allied with deep white matter involvement, that may also be present in cortical gray-white matter junction, thalami, basal ganglia, cerebellum, and brainstem suggests an acute demyelination process. Additionally, hemorrhagic white matter lesions, clusters of macrophages related to axonal injury and ADEM-like appearance were also found in subcortical white matter.\nCauses\nSince the discovery of the anti-MOG specificity against multiple sclerosis diagnosis, it is considered that ADEM is one of the possible clinical causes of anti-MOG associated encephalomyelitis.\n\nThere are several theories about how the anti-MOG antibodies appear in the patient's serum:\nA preceding antigenic challenge can be identified in approximately two-thirds of people. Some viral infections thought to induce ADEM include influenza virus, dengue, enterovirus, measles, mumps, rubella, varicella zoster, Epstein–Barr virus, cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex virus, hepatitis A, coxsackievirus and COVID-19. Bacterial infections include Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Borrelia burgdorferi, Leptospira, and beta-hemolytic Streptococci.\nExposure to vaccines: The only vaccine proven related to ADEM is the Semple form of the rabies vaccine, but hepatitis B, pertussis, diphtheria, measles, mumps, rubella, pneumococcus, varicella, influenza, Japanese encephalitis, and polio vaccines have all been associated with the condition. The majority of the studies that correlate vaccination with ADEM onset use only small samples or are case studies. Large-scale epidemiological studies (e.g., of MMR vaccine or smallpox vaccine) do not show increased risk of ADEM following vaccination. An upper bound for the risk of ADEM from measles vaccination, if it exists, can be estimated to be 10 per million, which is far lower than the risk of developing ADEM from an actual measles infection, which is about 1 per 1,000 cases. For a rubella infection, the risk is 1 per 5,000 cases. Some early vaccines, later shown to have been contaminated with host animal central nervous system tissue, had ADEM incidence rates as high as 1 in 600.\nIn rare cases, ADEM seems to follow from organ transplantation.\nDiagnosis\nThe term ADEM has been inconsistently used at different times. Currently, the commonly accepted international standard for the clinical case definition is the one published by the International Pediatric MS Study Group, revision 2007.\n\nGiven that the definition is clinical, it is currently unknown if all the cases of ADEM are positive for anti-MOG autoantibody; in any case, it appears to be strongly related to ADEM diagnosis.\nDifferential diagnosis\nMultiple sclerosis\nWhile ADEM and MS both involve autoimmune demyelination, they differ in many clinical, genetic, imaging, and histopathological aspects. Some authors consider MS and its borderline forms to constitute a spectrum, differing only in chronicity, severity, and clinical course, while others consider them discretely different diseases.\n\nTypically, ADEM appears in children following an antigenic challenge and remains monophasic. Nevertheless, ADEM does occur in adults, and can also be clinically multiphasic.\n\nProblems for differential diagnosis increase due to the lack of agreement on a definition of multiple sclerosis. If MS were defined only by the separation in time and space of the demyelinating lesions as McDonald did, it would not be enough to make a difference, as some cases of ADEM satisfy these conditions. Therefore, some authors propose to establish the dividing line as the shape of the lesions around the veins, being therefore \"perivenous vs. confluent demyelination\".\n\nThe pathology of ADEM is very similar to that of MS, with some differences. The pathological hallmark of ADEM is perivenous inflammation with limited \"sleeves of demyelination\". Nevertheless, MS-like plaques (confluent demyelination) can appear\n\nPlaques in the white matter in MS are sharply delineated, while the glial scar in ADEM is smooth. Axons are better preserved in ADEM lesions. Inflammation in ADEM is widely disseminated and ill-defined, and finally, lesions are strictly perivenous, while in MS they are disposed around veins, but not so sharply.\n\nNevertheless, the co-occurrence of perivenous and confluent demyelination in some individuals suggests pathogenic overlap between acute disseminated encephalomyelitis and multiple sclerosis and misclassification even with biopsy or even postmortem ADEM in adults can progress to MS\nMultiphasic disseminated encephalomyelitis\nWhen the person has more than one demyelinating episode of ADEM, the disease is then called recurrent disseminated encephalomyelitis or multiphasic disseminated encephalomyelitis (MDEM).\n\nIt has been found that anti-MOG auto-antibodies are related to this kind of ADEM\n\nAnother variant of ADEM in adults, also related to anti-MOG auto-antibodies, has been named fulminant disseminated encephalomyelitis, and it has been reported to be clinically ADEM, but showing MS-like lesions on autopsy. It has been classified inside the anti-MOG associated inflammatory demyelinating diseases.\nAcute hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis\nAcute hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis (AHL, or AHLE), acute hemorrhagic encephalomyelitis (AHEM), acute necrotizing hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis (ANHLE), Weston-Hurst syndrome, or Hurst's disease, is a hyperacute and frequently fatal form of ADEM. AHL is relatively rare (less than 100 cases have been reported in the medical literature ), it is seen in about 2% of ADEM cases, and is characterized by necrotizing vasculitis of venules and hemorrhage, and edema. Death is common in the first week and overall mortality is about 70%, but increasing evidence points to favorable outcomes after aggressive treatment with corticosteroids, immunoglobulins, cyclophosphamide, and plasma exchange. About 70% of survivors show residual neurological deficits, but some survivors have shown surprisingly little deficit considering the extent of the white matter affected.\n\nThis disease has been occasionally associated with ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease, malaria, sepsis associated with immune complex deposition, methanol poisoning, and other underlying conditions. Also, anecdotal association with MS has been reported\n\nLaboratory studies that support the diagnosis of AHL are: peripheral leukocytosis, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pleocytosis associated with normal glucose and increased protein. On magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), lesions of AHL typically show extensive T2-weighted and fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR) white matter hyperintensities with areas of hemorrhage, significant edema, and mass effect.\nTreatment\nNo controlled clinical trials have been conducted on ADEM treatment, but aggressive treatment aimed at rapidly reducing inflammation of the CNS is standard. The widely accepted first-line treatment is high doses of intravenous corticosteroids, such as methylprednisolone or dexamethasone, followed by 3–6 weeks of gradually lower oral doses of prednisolone. Patients treated with methylprednisolone have shown better outcomes than those treated with dexamethasone. Oral tapers of less than three weeks duration show a higher chance of relapsing, and tend to show poorer outcomes. Other anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive therapies have been reported to show beneficial effect, such as plasmapheresis, high doses of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg), mitoxantrone and cyclophosphamide. These are considered alternative therapies, used when corticosteroids cannot be used or fail to show an effect.\n\nThere is some evidence to suggest that patients may respond to a combination of methylprednisolone and immunoglobulins if they fail to respond to either separately\nIn a study of 16 children with ADEM, 10 recovered completely after high-dose methylprednisolone, one severe case that failed to respond to steroids recovered completely after IV Ig; the five most severe cases – with ADAM and severe peripheral neuropathy – were treated with combined high-dose methylprednisolone and immunoglobulin, two remained paraplegic, one had motor and cognitive handicaps, and two recovered. A recent review of IVIg treatment of ADEM (of which the previous study formed the bulk of the cases) found that 70% of children showed complete recovery after treatment with IVIg, or IVIg plus corticosteroids. A study of IVIg treatment in adults with ADEM showed that IVIg seems more effective in treating sensory and motor disturbances, while steroids seem more effective in treating impairments of cognition, consciousness, and rigor. This same study found one subject, a 71-year-old man who had not responded to steroids, who responded to an IVIg treatment 58 days after disease onset.\nPrognosis\nFull recovery is seen in 50 to 70% of cases, ranging to 70 to 90% recovery with some minor residual disability (typically assessed using measures such as mRS or EDSS), average time to recover is one to six months. The mortality rate may be as high as 5–10%. Poorer outcomes are associated with unresponsiveness to steroid therapy, unusually severe neurological symptoms, or sudden onset. Children tend to have more favorable outcomes than adults, and cases presenting without fevers tend to have poorer outcomes. The latter effect may be due to either the protective effects of fever or the fact that diagnosis and treatment are sought more rapidly when fever is present.\n\nADEM can progress to MS. It will be considered MS if some lesions appear in different times and brain areas\nMotor deficits\nResidual motor deficits are estimated to remain in about 8 to 30% of cases, the range in severity from mild clumsiness to ataxia and hemiparesis.\nNeurocognitive\nPatients with demyelinating illnesses, such as MS, have shown cognitive deficits even when there is minimal physical disability. Research suggests that similar effects are seen after ADEM, but that the deficits are less severe than those seen in MS. A study of six children with ADEM (mean age at presentation 7.7 years) were tested for a range of neurocognitive tests after an average of 3.5 years of recovery. All six children performed in the normal range on most tests, including verbal IQ and performance IQ, but performed at least one standard deviation below age norms in at least one cognitive domain, such as complex attention (one child), short-term memory (one child) and internalizing behaviour/affect (two children). Group means for each cognitive domain were all within one standard deviation of age norms, demonstrating that, as a group, they were normal. These deficits were less severe than those seen in similar aged children with a diagnosis of MS.\n\nAnother study compared nineteen children with a history of ADEM, of which 10 were five years of age or younger at the time (average age 3.8 years old, tested an average of 3.9 years later), and nine were older (mean age 7.7 years at time of ADEM, tested an average of 2.2 years later), to nineteen matched controls. Scores on IQ tests and educational achievement were lower for the young onset ADEM group (average IQ 90) compared to the late onset (average IQ 100) and control groups (average IQ 106), while the late onset ADEM children scored lower on verbal processing speed. Again, all group means were within one standard deviation of the controls, meaning that while effects were statistically reliable, the children as a whole were still within the normal range. There were also more behavioural problems in the early onset group, although there is some suggestion that this may be due, at least in part, to the stress of hospitalization at a young age.\nResearch\nThe relationship between ADEM and anti-MOG-associated encephalomyelitis is currently under research. A new entity called MOGDEM has been proposed.\n\nAbout animal models, the main animal model for MS, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is also an animal model for ADEM. Being an acute monophasic illness, EAE is far more similar to ADEM than MS.\nSee also\nOptic neuritis\nTransverse myelitis\nMeningitis-retention syndrome\nVictoria Arlen\nReferencesExternal links\nAcute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis, Siegel Rare Neuroimmune Association\n, Great Ormond Street Hospital","text_chars":15896,"text_sha256":"0a2d8294755be51cfd748da62c6e632935aabef9caad6cffe790b9b439e94cf3","text_utf8_bytes":15908,"title":"Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_disseminated_encephalomyelitis","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"62c9fe61ee425e66015b1530a68acabd9a5cac42ad38f5ba4016d5a314685142"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1765&action=history","id":"1765","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":2511,"raw_text_sha256":"b459ea915f7854315d99ae5d80a0de54446d2c1e9d49e9450564c5ff7d5c1366","raw_text_utf8_bytes":2548,"revision_id":"1349179933","revision_timestamp":"2026-04-16T04:07:54Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1349179933","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"Andronicus or Andronikos is a classical Greek name. The name has the sense of \"male victor, warrior\". Its female counterpart is Andronikè (Ἀνδρονίκη). Notable bearers of the name include:\nPeople\nAndronicus of Olynthus, Greek general under Demetrius in the 4th century BC\nLivius Andronicus , Greco-Roman dramatist and epic poet who introduced drama to the Romans and produced the first formal play in Latin\nAndronicus ben Meshullam, Jewish scholar of the 2nd century BC\nAndronicus of Pergamum, 2nd-century BC diplomat\nAndronicus of Macedonia, Macedonian governor of Ephesus in 2nd century BC\nAndronicus of Cyrrhus (fl. ), Greek astronomer\nAndronicus of Rhodes (fl. ), Greek philosopher\nAndronicus of Pannonia (Saint Andronicus), Christian apostle of the seventy mentioned in Romans 16:7\nAndronicus (physician), Greek physician of the 2nd century\nAndronicus (poet), Greek writer of the 4th century\nSaint Andronicus, 4th-century Christian martyr\nAndronicus of Alexandria, soldier, martyr, saint and companion of Faustus, Abibus and Dionysius of Alexandria\nCoptic Pope Andronicus of Alexandria (reigned 616–622)\nAndronikos I Komnenos (–1185), Byzantine emperor\nAndronikos II Palaiologos (1258–1332)\nAndronikos III Palaiologos (1297–1341)\nAndronikos IV Palaiologos (1348–1385)\nAndronikos V Palaiologos , co-emperor with his father, John VII Palaiologos\nAndronikos Palaiologos (son of Manuel II) (1403–1429), Byzantine prince and governor\nAndronikos I of Trebizond , emperor of Trebizond\nAndronikos II of Trebizond\nAndronikos III of Trebizond\nAndronicus of Veszprém, 13th-century Hungarian cleric\nAndronikos Euphorbenos , Byzantine aristocrat and military commander\nAndronikos Kakoullis (born 2001), Cypriot footballer\nFictional characters\nTitus Andronicus, a play by William Shakespeare, possibly inspired by one of the above-listed emperors\nAndronicus, or the Unfortunate Politician, a 1646 satire by Thomas Fuller\nSee also\nAndronikos Komnenos (disambiguation)\nAndronikos Palaiologos (disambiguation)","text_chars":1996,"text_sha256":"a741c7be70ba3385a9295c8a7265343572093ae4482d9a330ff586f05cff7633","text_utf8_bytes":2020,"title":"Andronicus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andronicus","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"e20d6fa88bff1f7f5f6282022db36340e17610c10c067b20a351fd8111eb183b"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3172&action=history","id":"3172","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":18168,"raw_text_sha256":"441096af5143319a7b11ef8603b7c2ac920a493d29911b7c994b34be6b0d8a41","raw_text_utf8_bytes":18174,"revision_id":"1351013851","revision_timestamp":"2026-04-25T12:29:17Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1351013851","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"ANSI C, ISO C, and Standard C are successive standards for the C programming language published by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 22/WG 14 of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). Historically, the names referred specifically to the original and best-supported version of the standard (known as C89 or C90). Software developers writing in C are encouraged to conform to the standards, as doing so helps portability between compilers.\nHistory and outlook\nThe first standard for C was published by ANSI. Although this document was subsequently adopted by ISO/IEC and subsequent revisions published by ISO/IEC have been adopted by ANSI, \"ANSI C\" is still used to refer to the standard. While some software developers use the term ISO C, others are standards-body neutral and use Standard C.\nInformal specification: K&R C (C78)\nInformal specification in 1978 (Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie book The C Programming Language).\nStandardizing C\nIn 1983, the American National Standards Institute formed a committee, X3J11, to establish a standard specification of C. In 1985, the first Standard Draft was released, sometimes referred to as C85. In 1986, another Draft Standard was released, sometimes referred to as C86. The prerelease Standard C was published in 1988, and sometimes referred to as C88.\nC89\nThe ANSI standard was completed in 1989 and ratified as ANSI X3.159-1989 \"Programming Language C.\" This version of the language is often referred to as \"ANSI C\". Later on sometimes the label \"C89\" is used to distinguish it from C90 but using the same labeling method.\nC90\nThe same standard as C89 was ratified by ISO/IEC as ISO/IEC 9899:1990, with only formatting changes, which is sometimes referred to as C90. Therefore, the terms \"C89\" and \"C90\" refer to a language that is virtually identical.\n\nThis standard has been withdrawn by both ANSI/INCITS and ISO/IEC.\nC94/C95\nIn 1995, the ISO/IEC published an extension, called Amendment 1, for the C standard. Its full name finally was ISO/IEC 9899:1990/AMD1:1995, nicknamed C94 or C95. Aside from error correction there were further changes to the language capabilities, such as:\nImproved multi-byte and wide character support in the standard library, introducing and as well as multi-byte I/O\nAddition of digraphs to the language\nSpecification of standard macros for the alternative specification of operators, e.g. and for &&\nSpecification of the standard macro __STDC_VERSION__.\n\nThis was both the first standard with a __STDC_VERSION__ value (199409L) and the first version in which the year in that value did not match the year of publication (1995), leading to common names of both C94 and C95. This would happen again in C17 (2018) and C23 (2024), but they are more commonly known by their earlier years, while this standard is often referred to by its later year.\n\nIn addition to the amendment, two technical corrigenda were published by ISO for C90:\nISO/IEC 9899:1990/Cor 1:1994 TCOR1 in 1994\nISO/IEC 9899:1990/Cor 2:1996 in 1996\nPreprocessor test for C95 compatibilityC99\nIn March 2000, ANSI adopted the ISO/IEC 9899:1999 standard. This standard is commonly referred to as C99. Some notable additions to the previous standard include:\nNew built-in data types: long long, _Bool, _Complex, and _Imaginary\nSeveral new core language features, including static array indices, designated initializers, compound literals, variable-length arrays, flexible array members, variadic macros, and restrict keyword\nSeveral new library headers, including stdint.h, <tgmath.h>, fenv.h, <complex.h>\nImproved compatibility with several C++ features, including inline functions, single-line comments with //, mixing declarations and code, and universal character names in identifiers\nRemoved several dangerous C89 language features such as implicit function declarations and implicit int\n\nThree technical corrigenda were published by ISO for C99:\nISO/IEC 9899:1999/Cor 1:2001(E)\nISO/IEC 9899:1999/Cor 2:2004(E)\nISO/IEC 9899:1999/Cor 3:2007(E), notable for deprecating the standard library function gets\n\nThis standard has been withdrawn by both ANSI/INCITS and ISO/IEC in favour of C11.\nC11\nC11 was officially ratified and published on December 8, 2011. Notable features include improved Unicode support, type-generic expressions using the new _Generic keyword, a cross-platform multi-threading API (threads.h), and atomic types support in both core language and the library (stdatomic.h).\n\nOne technical corrigendum has been published by ISO for C11:\nISO/IEC 9899:2011/Cor 1:2012\nC17\nC17 was published in June 2018. Rather than introducing new language features, it only addresses defects in C11.\nC23\nC23 was published in October 2024, and is the current standard for the C programming language.\nC2Y\nC2Y is an informal name for the next revision of the C programming language that is hoped to be released in the later 2020s.\nOther related ISO publications\nAs part of the standardization process, ISO/IEC also publishes technical reports and specifications related to the C language:\nISO/IEC TR 19769:2004, on library extensions to support Unicode transformation formats, integrated into C11\nISO/IEC TR 24731-1:2007, on library extensions to support bounds-checked interfaces, integrated into C11\nISO/IEC TR 18037:2008, on embedded C extensions\nISO/IEC TR 24732:2009, on decimal floating point arithmetic, superseded by ISO/IEC TS 18661-2:2015\nISO/IEC TR 24747:2009, on special mathematical functions,\nISO/IEC TR 24731-2:2010, on library extensions to support dynamic allocation functions\nISO/IEC TS 17961:2013, on secure coding in C\nISO/IEC TS 18661-1:2014, on IEC 60559:2011-compatible binary floating-point arithmetic\nISO/IEC TS 18661-2:2015, on IEC 60559:2011-compatible decimal floating point arithmetic\nISO/IEC TS 18661-3:2015, on IEC 60559:2011-compatible interchange and extended floating-point types\nISO/IEC TS 18661-4:2015, on IEC 60559:2011-compatible supplementary functions\nMore technical specifications are in development and pending approval, including the fifth and final part of TS 18661, a software transactional memory specification, and parallel library extensions.\nSupport from major compilers\nANSI C is supported by almost all the widely used compilers. GCC and Clang are two major C compilers popular today, both based on the C11 with updates including changes from later specifications such as C17. Any source code written only in standard C and without any hardware dependent assumptions is virtually guaranteed to compile correctly on any platform with a conforming C implementation. Without such precautions, most programs may compile only on a certain platform or with a particular compiler, due, for example, to the use of non-standard libraries, such as GUI libraries, or to the reliance on compiler- or platform-specific attributes such as the exact size of certain data types and byte endianness.\nCompliance detectability\nTo mitigate the differences between K&R C and the ANSI C standard, the (\"standard c\") macro can be used to split code into ANSI and K&R sections.\n\nIn the above example, a prototype is used in a function declaration for ANSI compliant implementations, while an obsolescent non-prototype declaration is used otherwise. Those are still ANSI-compliant as of C99. Note how this code checks both definition and evaluation: this is because some implementations may set to zero to indicate non-ANSI compliance.\nCompiler support\nList of compilers supporting ANSI C:\nAcornsoft ANSI C (first version in 1988, revised in 1989)\nAmsterdam Compiler Kit (C K&R and C89/90)\nARM RealView\nClang (full C89/C90 and C99, partial C11, C17, C23 and C2y), using LLVM backend\nGCC (full C89/90, C99, C11, C17, C23 and some of experimental/incomplete C2y)\nHP C/ANSI C compiler (C89 and C99)\nIBM XL C/C++ (C11, starting with version 12.1)\nIntel's ICC (later versions are based on clang, and have its support)\nLabWindows/CVI\nLCC\nOracle Developer Studio\nOpenWatcom (C89/90 and some C99)\nPelles C (C99 and C11. Windows only.)\nvbcc (C89/90 and C99)\nTiny C Compiler (C89/90 and some C99)\nSee also\nBehavioral Description Language\nCompatibility of C and C++\nReferencesFurther reading\nExternal links\nISO C working group\nDraft ANSI C Standard (ANSI X3J11/88-090) (May 13, 1988), Third Public Review\nDraft ANSI C Rationale (ANSI X3J11/88-151) (Nov 18, 1988)\nC Information Bulletin #1 (ANSI X3J11/93-007) (May 27, 1992)\nANSI C Yacc grammar\nANSI C grammar, Lex specification","text_chars":8546,"text_sha256":"130a7f6ca37621d8c765a03e703a7a84396a5d78c42ba5506ae8ed41089707df","text_utf8_bytes":8546,"title":"ANSI C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANSI_C","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"624f7d2fd317ffec436def984fd6351ad2926e6087b28162c1c42453a1497a57"}
{"attribution":"English Wikipedia contributors (see revision_url and history_url)","history_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2782&action=history","id":"2782","license":"CC-BY-SA-4.0","raw_text_chars":75778,"raw_text_sha256":"bcfaa1d2f82a041ba720821f3328a525062005ada7b703d78b0c4067f25abbcd","raw_text_utf8_bytes":75849,"revision_id":"1371086335","revision_timestamp":"2026-08-24T14:01:37Z","revision_url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1371086335","source_snapshot":"enwiki-20260901","text":"The Atari Jaguar is a home video game console developed by Atari Corporation and released in North America in November 1993. Atari marketed it as the world's first 64-bit game system, drawing controversy as some argued that this configuration did not meet the definition of a 64-bit system. The Jaguar launched with Cybermorph as the pack-in game. A total of 63 licensed games (50 on cartridge, 13 on CD-ROM) were released for the system prior to its discontinuation in 1996.\n\nDevelopment started in the early 1990s by Flare Technology, which focused on the system after cancellation of the Panther console. The Jaguar became a more important system for Atari after discontinuing Atari ST computers in favor of video games. However, game development was complicated by the complex multi-chip architecture, hardware bugs, and poor programming tools. Underwhelming sales further eroded third-party support.\n\nThe Jaguar launched as part of the fifth generation of video game consoles, but like other early fifth generation consoles, it struggled to capture major market share from the dominant last generation consoles, the Genesis and Super NES. Atari attempted to extend the system's lifespan by releasing the Jaguar CD add-on, and emphasizing the Jaguar's price, which was more than less than that of its fifth generation competitors, among them the Sega Saturn and Sony PlayStation, which both launched in 1995. However, the Jaguar failed to find its niche. Atari internally abandoned the system by the end of that year, liquidating its inventory by 1996. The commercial failure of the Jaguar prompted Atari to leave the console market and restructure itself as a third-party developer. After Hasbro Interactive acquired all of Atari Corporation's properties, it released the Jaguar patents into the public domain in 1999 and declared it an open platform. Since its discontinuation, the Jaguar has gained a cult following, with new games being released for the system by a large homebrew community.\nHistory\nDevelopment\nAtari Corporation's previous home video game console, the Atari 7800, was released in 1986. It was considered an \"also-ran\" and far behind rival Nintendo. Around 1989, development began on a new console leveraging technology from Atari ST computers. It was originally named the Super XE, following the XE Game System, and eventually became the Panther using either 16 or 32-bit architecture. Development also began on a more advanced system, codenamed Jaguar.\n\nBoth the Jaguar and Panther were developed by the members of Flare Technology, a company formed by Martin Brennan and John Mathieson. The team had claimed that they could not only make a console superior to the Genesis or the Super NES, but they could also be cost-effective.\n\nWork on the Jaguar design progressed faster than expected, so Atari canceled the Panther project in 1991 to focus on the more promising Jaguar. Rumors were already circulating of a 1992 launch and its 32-bit or even 64-bit architecture. By this time, the Atari ST had long been surpassed in popularity by the Amiga, and Atari and Commodore became victims of Wintel, which became the dominant computer platform. In January 1992, Atari dropped support for their legacy 8-bit products, and ST computers were canceled during the Jaguar's release in 1993.\n\nThe Jaguar was unveiled in August 1993 at the Chicago Consumer Electronics Show (CES), and was later showcased during CES 1994 and 1995.\nLaunch\nThe Jaguar was launched on November 23, 1993, at , under a manufacturing deal with IBM. The system was initially available only in the test markets of New York City and San Francisco, with the slogan \"Get bit by Jaguar\", claiming superiority over competing 16-bit and 32-bit systems. During this test launch, Atari sold all units hoping it would rally support for the system. A nationwide release followed six months later, in early 1994. The Jaguar struggled to attain a substantial user base. Atari reported shipping 17,000 units as part of the test market in 1993. By the end of 1994, it reported that it had sold approximately 100,000 units.\n\nComputer Gaming World wrote in January 1994 that the Jaguar was \"a great machine in search of a developer/customer base\", as Atari had to \"overcome the stigma of its name (lack of marketing and customer support, as well as poor developer relations in the past)\". Atari had \"ventured late into third-party software support\" for the Jaguar, but competing console 3DO's \"18 month public relations blitz\" resulted in \"an avalanche of software support\". The small size and poor quality of the Jaguar's game library became the most commonly cited reason for tepid adoption, because early releases like Trevor McFur in the Crescent Galaxy, Raiden, and Evolution: Dino Dudes also received poor reviews, the latter two for failing to take full advantage of the Jaguar's hardware. Jaguar eventually earned praise with games such as Tempest 2000, Doom, and Wolfenstein 3D. The most successful game during the Jaguar's first year was Alien vs. Predator. However, these occasional successes were seen as insufficient while the Jaguar's competitors were receiving a continual stream of critically acclaimed software; GamePro concluded its rave review of Alien vs. Predator by remarking \"If Atari can turn out a dozen more games like AvP, Jaguar owners could truly rest easy and enjoy their purchase.\" Next Generation commented that \"thus far, Atari has spectacularly failed to deliver on the software side, leaving many to question the actual quality and capability of the hardware. With only one or two exceptions – Tempest 2000 is cited most frequently – there have just been no truly great games for the Jaguar up to now.\" It further noted that though Atari is well known by older gamers, the company had much less overall brand recognition than Sega, Sony, Nintendo, or even The 3DO Company. However, they argued that with its low price point, the Jaguar might still compete if Atari could improve the software situation.\n\nIn Japan, Mumin Corporation distributed the console rather than Atari Japan. Starting in December 1994, Mumin sold the Jaguar at 25 Toys \"R\" Us locations bundled with Alien vs Predator.\nBit-count controversy\nAtari tried to downplay competing consoles by proclaiming the Jaguar was the only \"64-bit\" system; in its marketing in the American market the company used the tagline \"Do the math!\", in reference to the 64 number. This claim was widely derided as misleading, because the Motorola 68000 CPU and the Tom and Jerry coprocessors execute 32-bit instruction sets. Atari's reasoning that the 32-bit Tom and Jerry chips work in tandem to add up to a 64-bit system was ridiculed in a mini-editorial by Electronic Gaming Monthly, which commented that \"If Sega did the math for the Sega Saturn the way Atari did the math for their 64-bit Jaguar system, the Sega Saturn would be a 112-bit monster of a machine.\" Next Generation, in a mostly negative review of the Jaguar, maintained that it is a true 64-bit system, because the data path from the DRAM to the CPU and Tom and Jerry chips is 64 bits wide.\nArrival of Saturn and PlayStation\nIn early 1995, Atari announced that it had dropped the price of the Jaguar to , to be more competitive. Atari ran infomercials with enthusiastic salesmen touting the game system for most of 1995, but did not sell the remaining stock. The major shortcoming of presenting the Jaguar as the low-cost next-generation system was that the Jaguar did not measure up to the other next-generation systems in other respects, and consumers who were simply looking for an inexpensive video game console favored the Super NES and Genesis, since in addition to having a massive selection of games, they were priced at less than $100.\n\nIn a 1995 interview with Next Generation, CEO Sam Tramiel declared the Jaguar at least as powerful than the newly launched Saturn, and slightly weaker than the upcoming PlayStation. Next Generation received a deluge of letters in response to Tramiel's comments, particularly his threat to bring Sony to court for price dumping if the PlayStation entered the U.S. market at a retail price below $300. Many readers found this threat hollow and hypocritical, since Tramiel noted in the same interview that Atari was selling the Jaguar at a loss. The editor responded that price dumping does not have to do with a product being priced below cost, but its being priced much lower in one country than anotherwhich, as Tramiel said, is illegal. Tramiel and Next Generation agreed that the PlayStation's Japanese price converts to approximately $500. His remark, that the small number of third party Jaguar games was good for Atari's profitability, angered Jaguar owners already frustrated at the small library.\n\nAtari's 1995 annual report noted: In addition, Atari had severely limited financial resources, and so could not create the level of marketing which has historically backed successful gaming consoles.\nDecline\nFigures from the NPD Group showed that at the end of year 1995, the Jaguar had statistically a share of zero percent of the \"sold through\" units (which are systems purchased by consumers) in the 32-bit market, which was also lower than the one percent held by its struggling rival 3DO.\n\nBy November 1995, mass layoffs and insider statements were fueling journalistic speculation that Atari had ceased both development and manufacturing for the Jaguar and was simply trying to sell off existing stock before exiting the video game industry. Although Atari continued to deny these theories going into 1996, core Jaguar developers such as High Voltage Software and Beyond Games stated that they were no longer receiving communications from Atari regarding future Jaguar projects.\n\nIn its 10-K405 SEC Filing, filed April 12, 1996, Atari informed stockholders that its revenues had declined by more than half, from $38.7 million in 1994 to $14.6 million in 1995, then gave them the news on the truly dire nature of the Jaguar:\n\nThe filing confirmed that Atari had abandoned the Jaguar in November 1995 and in the subsequent months was concerned chiefly with liquidating its inventory of Jaguar products. On April 8, 1996, Atari Corporation agreed to merge with JTS, Inc. in a reverse takeover, thus forming JTS Corporation. The merger was finalized on July 30.\n\nAfter the merger, the bulk of Jaguar inventory remained unsold and was finally moved out to Tiger Software, a private liquidator, on December 23, 1996. On March 13, 1998, JTS sold the Atari name and properties to Hasbro Interactive. Telegames continued to publish games for the Jaguar after it was discontinued, and for a time was the only company to do so.\n\nAfter Hasbro Interactive acquired all of Atari Corporation's properties, on May 14, 1999, Hasbro Interactive announced that it had released all Jaguar patents to the public domain, declaring it an open platform, and enabling extensive homebrew development without licensing or fees. Following the announcement, Songbird Productions joined Telegames in releasing unfinished Jaguar games alongside new games to satisfy the cult following. Hasbro Interactive, along with all the Atari properties, was sold to Infogrames on January 29, 2001.\n\nIn the United Kingdom in 2001, Telegames and retailer Game made a deal to bring the Jaguar to Game's retail outlets. It was initially sold for £29.99 new and software ranged between £9.99 for more common games such as Doom and Ruiner Pinball and £39.99 for rarer releases such as Defender 2000 and Checkered Flag. The machine had a presence in the stores until 2007, when remaining consoles were sold off for £9.99 and games were sold for as low as 97p.\n\nIn 2022, the compilation Atari 50 was released with a collection of Jaguar games, as one of the first instances of Jaguar software being officially re-released by Atari. Due to the unique design of the original Jaguar controller, the games feature reworked control layouts to allow them to work with modern hardware.\nTechnical specifications\nFrom the Jaguar Software Reference manual, page 1:\n\nThe Atari Jaguar has a Motorola 68000 CPU and two custom 32-bit coprocessors named Tom and Jerry. Design specs for the console allude to the GPU or DSP being capable of acting as a CPU, leaving the Motorola 68000 to read controller inputs. Atari's Leonard Tramiel also specifically suggested that the 68000 not be used by developers. In practice, however, many developers use the Motorola 68000 to drive gameplay logic due to the greater developer familiarity of the 68000 and the adequacy of the 68000 for certain types of games. Most critically, a flaw in the memory controller means that certain obscure conventions must be followed for the RISC chips to be able to execute code from RAM.\n\nThe system is notoriously difficult to program for, because its multi-processor design is complex, development tools were released in an unfinished state, and the hardware has crippling bugs. The Tom and Jerry chips operate independently, and hardware bugs are triggered when software attempts to synchronize those chips. This conflict forced developers to rely on the slower Motorola 68000 CPU to manage data flow, creating a bottleneck that limited the console's performance.\n\nThe Jaguar has two distinct versions that are discernable by the first letter of the serial number on the bottom of the system. Most Jaguars have a \"K\" serial (manufactured by IBM), while others have an \"M\" serial (manufactured by JVC). Early \"K\" serial systems have an ADC chip, which supports analog control. Later \"K\" serial (shown right) and \"M\" serial systems fixed the crippling hardware bugs found in earlier models but lack the ADC chip as a result of cost-cutting.\nProcessors\nTom chip @ 26.591 MHz\nGraphics processing unit (GPU) – 32-bit RISC architecture, 4 KB internal RAM, all graphical effects are software-based, with additional instructions intended for 3D operations\nObject Processor – 64-bit fixed-function video processor with 64-bit internal registers, converts display lists to video output at scan time.\nBlitter – 64-bit high speed logic operations, z-buffering and Gouraud shading, with 64-bit internal registers.\nDRAM controller, 8-, 16-, 32- and 64-bit memory management\nJerry chip @ 26.591 MHz\nDigital Signal Processor – 32-bit RISC architecture, 8 KB internal RAM\nSimilar RISC core as the GPU, additional instructions intended for audio operations\nCD-quality sound (16-bit stereo)\nNumber of sound channels limited by software\nTwo DACs (stereo) convert digital data to analog sound signals\nFull stereo capabilities\nWavetable synthesis and AM synthesis\nA clock control block, incorporating timers, and a UART\nJoystick control\nMotorola 68000 @ 13.295 MHz\nGeneral purpose 16-bit control processor with 32-bit wide registers, \"used as a manager\"\nOther features\nRAM: 2 MB on a 64-bit bus using 4 16-bit fast-page-mode DRAMs (80 ns)\nStorage: ROM cartridges – up to 6 MB\nADC chip - allows for analog control, only found in early \"K\" models\nDSP-port (JagLink)\nMonitor-port (composite/S-Video/RGB) - proprietary connector\nAntenna-port (UHF/VHF) - fixed at 591 MHz in Europe; not present on French model\nSupport for ComLynx I/O\nNTSC/PAL machines can be identified by their power LED colour, Red: NTSC; Green: PAL.\nAtari CoJag\nAtari Games licensed the Jaguar's chipset for use in its arcade games. The system, named CoJag (for \"Coin-Op Jaguar\"), replaced the 68000 with a 68020 or MIPS R3000-based CPU (depending on the board version), added more RAM, a full 64-bit wide ROM bus (Jaguar ROM bus is 32-bit), and optionally a hard drive (some games such as Freeze are ROM only). It runs the lightgun games Area 51 and Maximum Force, which were released as dedicated cabinets or as the Area 51 and Maximum Force combo machine. Other games were developed but never released: 3 On 3 Basketball, Fishin' Frenzy, Freeze, and Vicious Circle.\nPeripherals\nPrior to the launch of the console in November 1993, Atari had announced a variety of peripherals to be released over the console's lifespan. This included a CD-ROM-based console, dial-up Internet access with support for online games, a virtual reality headset, and an MPEG-2 video card. However, due to the poor sales and eventual commercial failure of the Jaguar, most of the peripherals in development were canceled. The only peripherals and add-ons released by Atari for the Jaguar are a redesigned controller, an adapter for four players, a CD console add-on, and a link cable for local area network (LAN) gaming.\nControllers\nThe Jaguar was bundled with one controller, the PowerPad. It is a 17-button controller with three face buttons, a 12-button keypad, pause and option buttons, and a directional pad. Many games released for the system utilize the keypad to add extra functionality and gameplay elements, such as quickly selecting weapons in Doom, and quicksaving in Wolfenstein 3D. Plastic overlays can be slotted over the keypad in order to better label what each button does in specific games.\n\nTo cut costs later on in the Jaguar's life, Atari released a slightly revised version of the PowerPad controller. Notable differences between this version and the original are a thinner cord, black buttons instead of gray, and a cheapened, internally-simplified directional pad. The connector that plugs into the console also has fewer pins that connect compared to the original.\n\nLater on in the system's life, Atari released a second controller, the Pro Controller, which added three more face buttons and two triggers, and lengthened the wire that connects to the console. It was created in response to the criticism of the original controller, said to lack enough buttons for fighting games in particular. It was never bundled with the system and was only sold separately.\nMultiplayer\nThe Team Tap multitap adds 4-controller support, compatible only with the optionally bundled White Men Can't Jump and NBA Jam Tournament Edition. Eight player gameplay with two Team Taps is possible but not supported by either of the compatible games. For LAN multiplayer support, the Jaglink Interface links two Jaguar consoles through a modular extension and a UTP phone cable. It is compatible with three games: Doom, AirCars, and BattleSphere.\nJaguar CD\nThe Jaguar CD is a CD-ROM peripheral for games. It was released in September 1995, two years after the Jaguar's launch. Eleven CD games were released for the Jaguar CD during its manufacturing lifetime, with more being made later by homebrew developers. Each Jaguar CD unit has a Virtual Light Machine, which displays light patterns corresponding to music, if the user inserts an audio CD into the console. It was developed by Jeff Minter, after experimenting with graphics during the development of Tempest 2000. The program was deemed a spiritual successor to the Atari Video Music, a visualizer released in 1976.\n\nThe Memory Track is a cartridge accessory for the Jaguar CD, providing Jaguar CD games with 128 K EEPROM for persistent storage of data such as preferences and saved games. The Jaguar Duo (codenamed Jaguar III) was a proposal to integrate the Jaguar CD to make a new console, a concept similar to the TurboDuo and Genesis CDX. A prototype, described by journalists as resembling a bathroom scale, was unveiled at the 1995 Winter Consumer Electronics Show, but the console was canceled before production.\nUnlicensed peripherals\nAn unofficial expansion peripheral for the Jaguar dubbed the \"Catbox\" was released by the Rockford, Illinois company ICD. It was originally slated to be released early in the Jaguar's life, in the second quarter of 1994, but was not actually released until mid-1995. The ICD CatBox plugs directly into the AV/DSP connectors located in the rear of the Jaguar console and provides three main functions. These are audio, video, and communications. It features six output formats, three for audio (Line level stereo, RGB monitor, headphone jack with volume control) and three for video (composite, S-Video, and RGB analog component video) making the Jaguar compatible with multiple high quality monitor systems and multiple monitors at the same time. It is capable of communications methods known as CatNet and RS-232 and DSP pass through, allowing the user to connect two or more Jaguars together for multiplayer games either directly or with modems. The ICD CatBox features a polished stainless steel casing and red LEDs in the jaguar's eyes on the logo that indicate communications activity. An IBM AT-type null modem cable may be used to connect two Jaguars together. The CatBox is also compatible with Atari's Jaglink Interface peripheral.\nUnreleased peripherals\nJaguar VR\nA virtual reality headset compatible with the console, tentatively titled the Jaguar VR, was unveiled by Atari at the 1995 Winter Consumer Electronics Show. The development of the peripheral was a response to Nintendo's tabletop portable console, the Virtual Boy, which had been announced the previous year. The headset was developed in cooperation with Virtuality, which had previously created many virtual reality arcade systems, and was already developing a similar headset for practical purposes, named Project Elysium, for IBM. The peripheral was targeted for a commercial release before Christmas 1995. However, the deal with Virtuality was abandoned in October 1995. After Atari's merger with JTS in 1996, all prototypes of the headset were allegedly destroyed. However, two working units, one low-resolution prototype with red and grey-colored graphics and one high-resolution prototype with blue and grey-colored graphics, have since been recovered, and are regularly showcased at retrogaming-themed conventions and festivals. Only one game was developed for the Jaguar VR prototype: a 3D-rendered version of the 1980 arcade game Missile Command, titled Missile Command 3D. A demo of Virtuality's Zone Hunter was created.\n\nIn 2022, developer Rich Whitehouse released BigPEmu, the first emulator to run the Jaguar's entire library, and in 2023 updated it to run Jaguar VR games on modern headsets after he reverse-engineered the communication protocols from Missile Command 3D.\nModem\nAt CES 1994, Atari announced that it had partnered with Phylon to create the Jaguar Voice/Data Communicator. The unit was delayed. An estimated 100 units were produced, but in 1995, it was canceled. The Jaguar Voice Modem or JVM utilizes a 19.9 kbit/s dial up modem to answer incoming phone calls and store up to 18 phone numbers. Players directly dial each other for online play, only compatible with Ultra Vortek.\nGame libraryReception\nReviewing the Jaguar just a few weeks prior to its launch, GamePro gave it a \"thumbs sideways\". They praised the power of the hardware but criticized the controller, and were dubious of how the software lineup would turn out, commenting that Atari's failure to secure support from key third party publishers such as Capcom was a bad sign. They concluded: \"Like the 3DO, the Jaguar is a risky investment – just not quite as expensive.\"\n\nThe Jaguar won GameFans \"Best New System\" award for 1993.\n\nThe small size and poor quality of the Jaguar's game library became the most commonly cited reason for its failure in the marketplace. The pack-in game Cybermorph was one of the first polygon-based games for consoles, but was criticized for design flaws and a weak color palette, and compared unfavorably with the SNES's Star Fox. Other early releases like Trevor McFur in the Crescent Galaxy, Raiden, and Evolution: Dino Dudes also received poor reviews, the latter two for failing to take full advantage of the Jaguar's hardware. The Jaguar did eventually earn praise with games such as Tempest 2000, Doom and Wolfenstein 3D. The most successful title during the Jaguar's first year was Alien vs. Predator. However, these occasional successes were seen as insufficient, while the Jaguar's competitors were receiving a continual stream of critically acclaimed software; GamePro concluded its rave review of Alien vs. Predator by remarking: \"If Atari can turn out a dozen more games like AvP, Jaguar owners could truly rest easy and enjoy their purchase.\" In a late 1995 review of the Jaguar, Game Players remarked: \"The Jaguar suffers from several problems, most importantly the lack of good software.\" Next Generation likewise commented that \"thus far, Atari has spectacularly failed to deliver on the software side, leaving many to question the actual quality and capability of the hardware. With only one or two exceptions – Tempest 2000 is cited most frequently – there have just been no truly great games for the Jaguar up to now.\" They further noted that though Atari is well known by older gamers, the company had much less overall brand recognition than Sega, Sony, Nintendo, or even The 3DO Company. However, they argued that with its low price point, the Jaguar might still compete if Atari could improve the software situation. They gave the system two out of five stars. Game Players also stated though it is 64-bit, the Jaguar is much less powerful than the 3DO, Saturn, and PlayStation, even when supplemented with the Jaguar CD. With such a small library of games to challenge the incumbent 16-bit game consoles, the Jaguar's appeal never grew beyond a small gaming audience. Digital Spy commented: \"Like many failed hardware ventures, it still maintains something of a cult following but can only be considered a misstep for Atari.\"\n\nIn 2006, IGN editor Craig Harris rated the original Jaguar controller as the worst game controller ever, criticizing the unwarranted recycling of the 1980s \"phone keypad\" format and the small number of action buttons, which he found particularly unwise given that Atari was actively trying to court fighting game fans to the system. In an overview of the Jaguar's launch, Andrew McNamara of Game Informer said that the controller \"is better than we suspected, but is still behind the times\", arguing that by this time a controller with at least six action buttons was essential, if not as a pack-in, then at least as a peripheral available at launch. Ed Semrad of Electronic Gaming Monthly commented that many Jaguar games gratuitously used all of the controller's phone keypad buttons, making the controls much more difficult than they needed to be. GamePros The Watch Dog remarked: \"The controller usually doesn't use the keypad, and for games that use the keypad extensively (Alien vs. Predator, Doom), a keypad overlay is used to minimize confusion. But yes, it is a lot of buttons for nuttin'.\" Atari added more action buttons for its Pro Controller, to improve performance in fighting games in particular.\nLegacy\nOn May 14, 1999, Hasbro Interactive announced that it had released all patents to the Jaguar, declaring it an open platform, and enabling extensive homebrew development without licensing or fees. The console's complex architecture obstructed homebrew and accurate emulation for decades. In 2022, developer Rich Whitehouse released BigPEmu, the first emulator to run the entire Jaguar library, and in 2023 this included Jaguar VR games on modern headsets.\nMolds\nIn 1997, Steve Mortensen, a developer of dental imaging equipment, purchased the Jaguar cartridge and console factory molds, including the molds for the CD add-on, from JTS. With minor modification, they fit its HotRod camera, and the cartridge molds were reused to create an optional memory expansion card. In a retrospective, Imagin founder Steve Mortenson praised the design, but admitted that their device came at the time of the dental industry's transition to USB, and apart from a few prototypes, the molds went unused.\n\nIn December 2014, the molds were purchased from Imagin Systems by Mike Kennedy, owner of the Kickstarter funded Retro Videogame Magazine, to propose a new crowdfunded video game console, the Retro VGS, later rebranded the Coleco Chameleon with a licensing agreement with Coleco. The purchase of the molds was far cheaper than designing and manufacturing entirely new molds, and Kennedy described their acquisition as \"the entire reason [the Retro VGS] is possible\". However, the project was terminated in March 2016 following criticism of Kennedy and doubts regarding demand for the proposed console. Two \"prototypes\" were discovered to be fakes and Coleco withdrew from the project. After the project's termination, the molds were sold to Albert Yarusso, the founder of the AtariAge website.\nSee also\nContiki, portable operating system, including GUI, TCP/IP, and web browser for the Jaguar\nReferencesExternal links\nAtari Jaguar review, 1994\nAtari Corp. press released related to Jaguar, 1993-1997 (archived)","text_chars":28686,"text_sha256":"d927b7d300a0a1fa0ae9825df73489afd4860bc489de2b278b144d431506a406","text_utf8_bytes":28710,"title":"Atari Jaguar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_Jaguar","whitespace_normalized_sha256":"fe55e545dad7fdeae13974c663983b4db4c0844b4150c56bd6317a7916d15b85"}