A/74/20, annex II (2019); welcomed by UNGA Res 74/82 of 26 December 2019

UNOOSA (2021 publication reproducing A/74/20, annex II)

UN COPUOS guidelines; official UN document, freely reproducible with attribution.

English text of the COPUOS Guidelines for the Long-term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities (preamble/context and 21 guidelines A.1-D.2), adopted by the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space in 2019 (A/74/20, annex II) and welcomed by UNGA resolution 74/82. SOURCE: UNOOSA's 2021 official publication of the Guidelines, retrieved 2026-07-03 and text-extracted from PDF. original.txt is the raw extract; text.txt is cleaned (page numbers, inserted hyperlinks and doc numbers removed, soft hyphenation rejoined, spacing normalised, paragraphs reflowed). FIDELITY: extracted_unverified pending a cross-check against A/74/20 annex II.

Guidelines for the Long-term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities

Context of the guidelines for the long-term sustainability of outer space activities

Background

1. The Earth’s orbital space environment constitutes a finite resource that is being used by an increasing number of States, international intergovernmental organizations and non-governmental entities. The proliferation of space debris, the increasing complexity of space operations, the emergence of large constellations and the increased risks of collision and interference with the operation of space objects may affect the long-term sustainability of space activities. Addressing these developments and risks requires international cooperation by States and international intergovernmental organizations to avoid harm to the space environment and the safety of space operations.

2. Space activities are essential tools for realizing the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals. Hence, the long-term sustainability of outer space activities is of interest and importance for current and emerging participants in space activities, in particular for developing countries.

3. Over the years, the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space has considered different aspects of the long-term sustainability of outer space activities from various perspectives. Building on those previous efforts and other relevant related efforts, the Working Group on the Long-term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities of the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee has developed a set of voluntary guidelines with a view to setting out a holistic approach to promoting the long-term sustainability of outer space activities. The guidelines comprise a compendium of internationally recognized measures for, and commitments to, ensuring the long-term sustainability of outer space activities and, in particular, enhancing the safety of space operations.

4. The development of voluntary guidelines is premised on the understanding that outer space should remain an operationally stable and safe environment that is maintained for peaceful purposes and open for exploration, use and international

cooperation by current and future generations, in the interest of all countries, irrespective of their degree of economic or scientific development, without discrimination of any kind and with due regard for the principle of equity. The purpose of the guidelines is to assist States and international intergovernmental organizations, both individually and collectively, to mitigate the risks associated with the conduct of outer space activities so that present benefits can be sustained and future opportunities realized. Consequently, the implementation of the guidelines for the long-term sustainability for outer space activities should promote international cooperation in the peaceful use and exploration of outer space.

Definition, objectives and scope of the guidelines

5. The long-term sustainability of outer space activities is defined as the ability to maintain the conduct of space activities indefinitely into the future in a manner that realizes the objectives of equitable access to the benefits of the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes, in order to meet the needs of the present generations while preserving the outer space environment for future generations. This is consistent with, and supports, the objectives of the Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space and the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (Outer Space Treaty), as such objectives are integrally associated with a commitment to conducting space activities in a manner that addresses the basic need to ensure that the environment in outer space remains suitable for exploration and use by current and future generations. States understand that maintaining exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes is a goal to be pursued in the interest of all humankind.

6. The objective of ensuring and enhancing the long-term sustainability of outer space activities, as understood at the international level and as set out in the guidelines, entails the need to identify the general context of, and modalities for, continuous improvements in the way that States and international intergovernmental organizations, while developing, planning and executing their space activities, remain committed to the use of outer space for peaceful purposes, so as to ensure that the outer space environment is preserved for current and future generations.

7. These guidelines are grounded in the understanding that the exploration and use of outer space should be conducted in a way so as to ensure the long-term sustainability of outer space activities. Accordingly, they are intended to support States in engaging in activities aimed at preserving the space environment for the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes by all States and international intergovernmental organizations. In this regard, the guidelines also

reiterate the principles contained in article III of the Outer Space Treaty that the activities of States in the exploration and use of outer space shall be carried out in accordance with international law, including the Charter of the United Nations. Accordingly, States should build on these principles when developing and conducting their national activities in outer space.

8. The guidelines also promote international cooperation and understanding to address natural and man-made hazards that could compromise the operations of States and international intergovernmental organizations in outer space and the long-term sustainability of outer space activities. Preserving the use of outer space for current and future generations is consistent with upholding the long-standing principle contained in article I of the Outer Space Treaty that the exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries, irrespective of their degree of economic or scientific development, and shall be the province of all mankind.

9. The guidelines are intended to support the development of national and international practices and safety frameworks for conducting outer space activities while allowing for flexibility in adapting such practices and frameworks to specific national circumstances.

10. The guidelines are also intended to support States and international intergovernmental organizations in developing their space capabilities through cooperative endeavours, as appropriate, in a manner that reduces to a minimum or, as feasible, avoids causing harm to the outer space environment and the safety of space operations, for the benefit of current and future generations.

11. The guidelines address the policy, regulatory, operational, safety, scientific, technical, international cooperation and capacity-building aspects of space activities. They are based on a substantial body of knowledge, as well as the experiences of States, international intergovernmental organizations and relevant national and international non-governmental entities. Therefore, the guidelines are relevant to both governmental and non-governmental entities. They are also relevant to all space activities, whether planned or ongoing, as practicable, and to all phases of a space mission, including launch, operation and end-of-life disposal.

12. The guidelines are premised on the idea that the interests and activities of States and international intergovernmental organizations in outer space, as they have or may have defence or national security implications, should be compatible with preserving outer space for peaceful exploration and use, and safeguarding its status pursuant to the Outer Space Treaty and the relevant principles and norms of international law.

13. The guidelines duly take into account the relevant recommendations contained in the report of the Group of Governmental Experts on Transparency and Confidence-Building Measures in Outer Space Activities (A/68/189) and could be considered as potential transparency and confidence-building measures

Status of the guidelines

14. The existing United Nations treaties and principles on outer space provide the fundamental legal framework for the guidelines.

15. The guidelines are voluntary and not legally binding under international law, but any action taken towards their implementation should be consistent with the applicable principles and norms of international law. The guidelines are formulated in the spirit of enhancing the practice of States and international organizations in applying the relevant principles and norms of international law. Nothing in the guidelines should constitute a revision, qualification or reinterpretation of those principles and norms. Nothing in the guidelines should be interpreted as giving rise to any new legal obligation for States. Any international treaties referred to in the guidelines apply only to the States parties to those treaties.

Voluntary implementation of the guidelines

16. States and international intergovernmental organizations should voluntarily take measures, through their own national or other applicable mechanisms, to ensure that the guidelines are implemented to the greatest extent feasible and practicable, in accordance with their respective needs, conditions and capabilities, and with their existing obligations under applicable international law, including the provisions of applicable United Nations treaties and principles on outer space. States and international intergovernmental organizations are encouraged to administer existing and, if necessary, establish new procedures to meet requirements associated with the guidelines. In implementing these guidelines, States should be guided by the principle of cooperation and mutual assistance and should conduct all their activities in outer space with due regard for the corresponding interests of all other States.

17. The greater the technical and other relevant capabilities at the disposal of a particular State, the greater the emphasis that State should place on implementing the guidelines to the extent feasible and practicable. States without such capabilities are encouraged to take steps to develop their own capacity to implement the guidelines. In cases where the development and enactment of regulations, standards and procedures required for the implementation of the guidelines may prove to be a

difficult task, the States concerned are encouraged to seek the support of other States or international intergovernmental organizations to develop their own capacity to implement the guidelines and to enhance, by appropriate means, their level of engagement in following space operations safety requirements and in monitoring safety trends.

18. States and relevant international intergovernmental organizations in a position to support developing countries in developing their national capacities for the implementation of these guidelines, through appropriate and mutually agreed capacity-building mechanisms, are encouraged to do so as one of the means of ensuring and enhancing the long-term sustainability of outer space activities.

19. The widest implementation of these guidelines by States (at the level of both governmental agencies and non-governmental entities) and international intergovernmental organizations requires certain capacities and capabilities, which could be built and enhanced, inter alia, through international cooperation. As reflected in the 1996 Declaration on International Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for the Benefit and in the Interest of All States, Taking into Particular Account the Needs of Developing Countries, States and international intergovernmental organizations are free to determine all aspects of their cooperation on an equitable and mutually acceptable basis, and those aspects should be in full compliance with the legitimate rights and interests of the parties concerned as, for example, with intellectual property rights. Other relevant aspects also include addressing the issues of technology safeguard arrangements, multilateral commitments and relevant standards and practices, as applicable.

20. International cooperation is required to implement the guidelines effectively, to monitor their impact and effectiveness and to ensure that, as space activities evolve, they continue to reflect the most current state of knowledge of pertinent factors influencing the long-term sustainability of outer space activities, particularly with regard to the identification of factors that influence the nature and magnitude of risks associated with various aspects of space activities or that may give rise to potentially hazardous situations and developments in the space environment.

Review of implementation and updating of the guidelines

21. The relevant United Nations body serving as the principal forum for continued institutionalized dialogue on issues related to the implementation and review of the guidelines is the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. States and international intergovernmental organizations are encouraged to share their

practices and experiences in the Committee regarding the implementation of the present guidelines.

22. States and international intergovernmental organizations should also work within the Committee and the Office for Outer Space Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat, as appropriate, to address concerns raised with respect to the implementation of the guidelines. When issues arise regarding the practical implementation of the guidelines, States and international intergovernmental organizations are encouraged to raise the issues with other directly involved States and international intergovernmental organizations through appropriate channels. Without prejudice to the mechanism foreseen in article IX of the Outer Space Treaty, these exchanges on practical implementation may seek to achieve a mutual understanding of the situation and options for mutual resolution. The outcome of those exchanges and resulting solutions could be presented to the Committee, on the basis of the consent of the States involved, with a view to sharing relevant knowledge and experience with other States and international intergovernmental organizations.

23. The guidelines reflect a common understanding on existing and possible challenges to the long-term sustainability of outer space activities, the nature of those challenges, and the measures that could prevent or reduce their harmful impact, based on current knowledge and established practices. States and international intergovernmental organizations are encouraged to promote and/or conduct research on topics relevant to these guidelines and their implementation.

24. The Committee may periodically review and revise these guidelines to ensure that they continue to provide effective guidance to promote the long-term sustainability of outer space activities. Proposals for revising this set of guidelines may be submitted by a member State of the Committee, for consideration by the Committee.

II. Guidelines for the long-term sustainability of outer space activities

A. Policy and regulatory framework for space activities

Guideline A.1 Adopt, revise and amend, as necessary, national regulatory frameworks for outer space activities

1. States should adopt, revise and amend, as necessary, national regulatory frameworks for outer space activities, taking into account their obligations under the United Nations treaties on outer space as States responsible for national activities in outer space and as launching States. When adopting, revising, amending or implementing national regulatory frameworks, States should consider the need to ensure and enhance the long-term sustainability of outer space activities.

2. With the increase in outer space activities by governmental and non-governmental actors from around the world, and considering that States bear international responsibility for the space activities of non-governmental entities, States should adopt, revise or amend regulatory frameworks to ensure the effective application of relevant, generally accepted international norms, standards and practices for the safe conduct of outer space activities.

3. When developing, revising, amending or adopting national regulatory frameworks, States should consider the provisions of General Assembly resolution 68/74, on recommendations on national legislation relevant to the peaceful exploration and use of outer space. In particular, States should consider not only existing space projects and activities but also, to the extent practicable, the potential development of their national space sector, and envisage appropriate, timely regulation in order to avoid legal lacunae.

4. States, in enacting new regulations, or in revising or amending existing legislation, should bear in mind their obligations under article VI of the Outer Space Treaty. Traditionally, national regulations have been concerned with issues such as safety, liability, reliability and cost. As new regulations are developed, States should consider regulations that enhance the long-term sustainability of outer space activities. At the same time, regulations should not be so prescriptive as to prevent initiatives addressing the long-term sustainability of outer space activities.

Guideline A.2 Consider a number of elements when developing, revising or amending, as necessary, national regulatory frameworks for outer space activities

1. When developing, revising or amending, as necessary, regulatory measures applicable to the long-term sustainability of outer space activities, States and international intergovernmental organizations should implement international obligations, including those arising under the United Nations space treaties to which they are party.

2. In developing, revising or amending, as necessary, national regulatory frameworks, States and international intergovernmental organizations should:

(a) Consider the provisions of General Assembly resolution 68/74, on recommendations on national legislation relevant to the peaceful exploration and use of outer space;

(b) Implement space debris mitigation measures, such as the Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, through applicable mechanisms;

(c) Address, to the extent practicable, risks to people, property, public health and the environment associated with the launch, in-orbit operation and re-entry of space objects;

(d) Promote regulations and policies that support the idea of minimizing the impacts of human activities on Earth as well as on the outer space environment. They are encouraged to plan their activities based on the Sustainable Development Goals, their main national requirements and international considerations for the sustainability of space and the Earth;

(e) Implement the guidance contained in the Safety Framework for Nuclear Power Source Applications in Outer Space and satisfy the intent of the Principles

Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space through applicable mechanisms that provide a regulatory, legal and technical framework that sets out responsibilities and assistance mechanisms, prior to using nuclear power sources in outer space;

(f) Consider the potential benefits of using existing international technical standards, including those published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), the Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems and national standardization bodies. In addition, States should consider the utilization of recommended practices and voluntary guidelines proposed by the Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee and the Committee on Space Research;

(g) Weigh the costs, benefits, disadvantages and risks of a range of alternatives and ensure that such measures have a clear purpose and are implementable and practicable in terms of the technical, legal and management capacities of the State imposing the regulation. Regulations should also be efficient in terms of limiting the cost for compliance (e.g., in terms of money, time or risk) compared with feasible alternatives;

(h) Encourage advisory input from affected national entities during the process of developing regulatory frameworks governing space activities to avoid unintended consequences of regulation that might be more restrictive than necessary or that conflicts with other legal obligations;

(i) Examine and adapt existing relevant legislation to ensure its compliance with these guidelines, considering the need for transition periods appropriate to their level of technical development.

Guideline A.3 Supervise national space activities

1. In supervising space activities of non-governmental entities, States should ensure that entities under their jurisdiction and/or control that conduct outer space activities have the appropriate structures and procedures for planning and conducting space activities in a manner that supports the objective of enhancing the long-term sustainability of outer space activities, and that they have the means to comply with relevant national and international regulatory frameworks, requirements, policies and processes in this regard.

2. States bear international responsibility for national activities in outer space and for the authorization and continuing supervision of such activities, which are to be carried out in conformity with applicable international law. In fulfilling this responsibility, States should encourage each entity conducting space activities to:

(a) Establish and maintain all the necessary technical competencies required to conduct the outer space activities in a safe and responsible manner and to enable the entity to comply with the relevant governmental and intergovernmental regulatory frameworks, requirements, policies and processes;

(b) Develop specific requirements and procedures to address the safety and reliability of outer space activities under the entity’s control, during all phases of a mission life cycle;

(c) Assess all risks to the long-term sustainability of outer space activities associated with the space activities conducted by the entity, in all phases of the mission life cycle, and take steps to mitigate such risks to the extent feasible.

3. In addition, States are encouraged to designate a responsible entity or entities to plan, coordinate and assess space activities with the aim of promoting their effectiveness in supporting the Sustainable Development Goals and in supporting the objectives of the guidelines for the long-term sustainability of outer space activities in a broader perspective and vision.

4. States should ensure that the management of an entity that conducts outer space activities establishes structures and procedures for planning and conducting space activities in a manner that supports the objective of promoting the long-term sustainability of outer space activities. Appropriate measures to be taken by management in this regard should include:

(a) A commitment at the highest levels of the entity to promoting the long-term sustainability of outer space activities;

(b) Establishing and fostering an organizational commitment to promoting the long-term sustainability of outer space activities within the entity, as well as in relevant interactions with other entities;

(c) Urging, to the extent practicable, that the entity’s commitment to the long-term sustainability of outer space activities is reflected in its management structure and procedures for planning, developing and conducting outer space activities;

(d) Encouraging, as appropriate, the sharing of the experiences of the entity in the conduct of safe and sustainable outer space activities as a contribution by the entity to enhancing the long-term sustainability of outer space activities;

(e) Designating a contact point within the entity responsible for communication with relevant authorities to facilitate efficient and timely sharing of information and coordination of potentially urgent measures to promote the safety and sustainability of outer space activities.

5. States should ensure that appropriate communication and consultation mechanisms are in place within and among the competent bodies that oversee or conduct space activities. Communication within and among relevant regulatory bodies can promote regulations that are consistent, predictable and transparent so as to ensure that regulatory outcomes are as intended.

Guideline A.4 Ensure the equitable, rational and efficient use of the radio frequency spectrum and the various orbital regions used by satellites

1. In fulfilling their obligations under the Constitution and the Radio Regulations of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), States should pay particular attention to the long-term sustainability of space activities and sustainable development on Earth and to facilitating the prompt resolution of identified harmful radio frequency interference.

2. As provided for in article 44 of the ITU Constitution, radio frequencies and any associated orbits, including the geostationary-satellite orbit, are limited natural resources that must be used rationally, efficiently and economically, in conformity with the provisions of the Radio Regulations, so that countries or groups of countries may have equitable access to those orbits and frequencies, taking into account the special needs of developing countries and the geographical situation of particular countries.

3. Consistent with the purpose of article 45 of the ITU Constitution, States and international intergovernmental organizations should ensure that their space activities are conducted in such a manner as not to cause harmful interference with the reception and transmission of radio signals related to the space activities of other States and international intergovernmental organizations, as one of the means of promoting the long-term sustainability of outer space activities.

4. In their use of the electromagnetic spectrum, States and international intergovernmental organizations should consider the requirements for space-based Earth observation systems and other space-based systems and services in support of sustainable development on Earth, in accordance with the ITU Radio Regulations and the ITU Radiocommunication Sector (ITU-R) Recommendations.

5. States and international intergovernmental organizations should ensure the implementation of the radio regulation procedures established by ITU for space radio links. Moreover, States and international intergovernmental organizations

should encourage and support regional and international cooperation aimed at improving efficiency in decision-making and implementation of practical measures to eliminate identified harmful radio frequency interference in space radio links.

6. Spacecraft and launch vehicle orbital stages that have terminated their operational phases in orbits that pass through the low-Earth orbit (LEO) region should be removed from orbit in a controlled fashion. If this is not possible, they should be disposed of in orbits that avoid their long-term presence in the LEO region. Spacecraft and launch vehicle orbital stages that have terminated their operational phases in orbits that pass through the geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO) region should be left in orbits that avoid their long-term interference with the GEO region. For space objects in or near the GEO region, the potential for future collisions can be reduced by leaving objects at the end of their mission in an orbit above the GEO region such that they will not interfere with, or return to, the GEO region.

Guideline A.5 Enhance the practice of registering space objects

1. States and international intergovernmental organizations, acting in accordance with their obligations under article VIII of the Outer Space Treaty and the Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space and taking into consideration the recommendations contained in General Assembly resolutions 1721 B (XVI) and 62/101, should ensure the development and/or implementation of effective and comprehensive registration practices, as proper registration of space objects is a key factor in the safety and the long-term sustainability of space activities. Inadequate registration practices may have negative implications for ensuring the safety of space operations.

2. To that end, States and international intergovernmental organizations should adopt appropriate national or other relevant policies and regulations to harmonize and sustain over the long term such registration practices on the widest possible international basis. When registering space objects, States and international intergovernmental organizations should bear in mind the need to provide timely information that contributes to the long-term sustainability of outer space activities and should consider also providing information on space objects, their operation and their status, as set out in General Assembly resolution 62/101.

3. Prior to the launch of a space object, the State from whose territory or facility a space object will be launched should, in the absence of prior agreement, contact States or international intergovernmental organizations that could qualify as the

launching States of that space object to jointly determine how to proceed with the registration of that particular space object. Following the launch of a space object, and considering relevant criteria in the Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space (Registration Convention), States and/or international intergovernmental organizations that were involved in the launch should coordinate among themselves, to include those States and international intergovernmental organizations that may exercise jurisdiction and control over the non-registered space object, to register the space object.

4. In the event that a State or international intergovernmental organization receives, from another State or international intergovernmental organization, an enquiry seeking clarification about the registration/non-registration of a space object that could presumably be under its jurisdiction and/or control, that State or international intergovernmental organization should respond, as soon as practicable, in order to facilitate the clarification and/or resolution of a particular registration issue. In certain circumstances, a State may choose to communicate an enquiry through or copy an enquiry to the Office for Outer Space Affairs. In such cases, the requested State is encouraged to reply likewise.

5. The Office should be effectively engaged, within its standing responsibilities and existing resources, in executing integrated functions pertaining to: (a) the accumulation of information on orbital launches performed (i.e., completed launches resulting in the placement of objects into Earth orbit or beyond) and on orbital objects (i.e., space objects that have been launched into Earth orbit or beyond); and (b) the assignment of international designations to orbital launches and orbital objects in accordance with Committee on Space Research notation, as well as the provision of such designations to the States of registry. States and international intergovernmental organizations should support efforts by the Office to promote initiatives that would enable States to adhere to registration practices and consider implementing and sustaining the provision of registration information in furtherance of General Assembly resolution 62/101.

6. The launching States and, where appropriate, international intergovernmental organizations should request all necessary information from space launch service providers and users under their jurisdiction and/or control to meet all registration requirements under the Registration Convention and encourage their receptiveness to and consideration of the provision of expanded registration information. States and international intergovernmental organizations, having institutionalized the practice of providing expanded registration information, should strive to sustain such practice and identify circumstances complicating the achievement of that task.

7. States and international intergovernmental organizations should take into account General Assembly resolution 62/101 and consider providing information

on any change of status in operations (inter alia, when a space object is no longer functional) and, following the change in supervision of a space object in orbit, information about changes in the orbital position. States and international intergovernmental organizations should be aware of the importance of achieving and sustaining a practicable degree of coherence and uniformity in applying the provisions of this paragraph. Varying implementation practices, inasmuch as such may relate to the contents and attributes of information furnished, may necessitate addressing appropriate interpretative aspects. In such cases, States and international intergovernmental organizations should, through dedicated consultative process within the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, consider, acquire and develop shared positions with respect to providing information on any changes in space objects’ status of operations and in the orbital positions of space objects.

8. In cases where a launched space object contains other space objects planned for future separation and independent orbital flight, States and international intergovernmental organizations should, when entering these objects in their registry and when furnishing registration information to the Secretary-General of the United Nations, indicate (for example, in the form of side notes) the number and names of space objects that may, in the future, separate from the main space object, on the understanding that those space objects should not be given different or modified names when they are subsequently registered.

9. In accordance with article IV, paragraph 2, of the Registration Convention, and considering General Assembly resolution 62/101, on registration practices, as well as principle 4.3 of General Assembly resolution 47/68, States and international intergovernmental organizations should provide information to the Office through internationally accepted mechanisms on all space activities or objects that involve the use of nuclear power sources in outer space.

B. Safety of space operations

Guideline B.1 Provide updated contact information and share information on space objects and orbital events

1. States and international intergovernmental organizations should exchange, on a voluntary basis, and/or make readily available regularly updated contact information on their designated entities authorized to engage in exchanges of appropriate information on on-orbit spacecraft operations, conjunction assessments and the monitoring of objects and events in outer space, in particular those entities that are responsible for processing incoming incident reports and forecasts and adopting precautionary and response measures. This may be achieved either by providing such information to the Office for Outer Space Affairs so that the Office can make it available, within its standing mandate and existing resources, to other States and international intergovernmental organizations and/or by providing it directly to other States and international intergovernmental organizations, with the understanding that contact information for national focal points, at a minimum, will likewise be communicated to the Office.

2. States and international intergovernmental organizations should establish appropriate means to enable timely coordination to reduce the probability of and/ or to facilitate effective responses to orbital collisions, orbital break-ups and other events that might increase the probability of accidental collisions or may pose a risk to human lives, property and/or the environment, in the case of uncontrolled re-entries of space objects.

3. States and international intergovernmental organizations should exchange, on a voluntary basis and as mutually agreed, relevant information on space objects and information related to actual or potential situations in near-Earth space that may affect the safety of outer space operations. The information exchanged should, to the extent practicable, be reliable, accurate and complete, and be concluded to be so by the providing entity. The information to be exchanged, including time reference and period of applicability and other relevant information, should be provided in a timely manner and on a mutually agreed basis.

4. States and international intergovernmental organizations should, through a dedicated consultative process, preferably under the auspices of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, taking into account the work of relevant technical bodies, consider, acquire specific understanding of, and develop shared

positions on the practical issues and modalities, as appropriate, relating to the exchange of relevant information on space objects and events in near-Earth space obtained from different authorized sources, in order to achieve harmonized and standardized record-keeping on space objects and events in outer space.

5. States and international intergovernmental organizations should consider the options for effectively accumulating and providing access to information on objects and events in outer space on a timely basis and for achieving consistency in the understanding and use of such information as one of the means to support their activities aimed at maintaining the safety of space operations. The options for consideration could include: standards and formats for representing information to enable the interoperability of information shared on a voluntary basis; bilateral, regional or multilateral arrangements to exchange information; bilateral, regional or multilateral coordination among providers of information to enable cooperation and interoperability; and the establishment of a United Nations information platform. Those options could serve as a basis for a distributed international information system for multilateral cooperation in sharing and disseminating multi-source information on objects and events in near-Earth space.

Guideline B.2 Improve accuracy of orbital data on space objects and enhance the practice and utility of sharing orbital information on space objects

1. States and international intergovernmental organizations should promote the development and use of techniques and methods to improve the accuracy of orbital data for spaceflight safety and the use of common, internationally recognized standards when sharing orbital information on space objects.

2. Recognizing that spaceflight safety strongly depends upon the accuracy of orbital and other relevant data, States and international intergovernmental organizations should promote techniques and the investigation of new methods to improve such accuracy. Those methods could include national and international activities to improve the capabilities and geographical distribution of existing and new sensors, use of passive and active on-orbit tracking aids, and combining and validating data from different sources. Special attention should be paid to encouraging the participation and capacity-building of developing countries with emerging space capabilities in this domain.

3. When sharing orbital information on space objects, operators and other appropriate entities should be encouraged to use common, internationally recognized standards to enable collaboration and information exchange. Facilitating greater

shared awareness of the current and predicted location of space objects would enable timely prediction and prevention of potential collisions.

Guideline B.3 Promote the collection, sharing and dissemination of space debris monitoring information

States and international intergovernmental organizations should encourage the development and use of relevant technologies for the measurement, monitoring and characterization of the orbital and physical properties of space debris. States and international intergovernmental organizations should also promote the sharing and dissemination of derived data products and methodologies in support of research and international scientific cooperation on the evolution of the orbital debris population.

Guideline B.4 Perform conjunction assessment during all orbital phases of controlled flight

1. Conjunction assessment should be performed for all spacecraft capable of adjusting trajectories during orbital phases of controlled flight for current and planned spacecraft trajectories. States and international intergovernmental organizations should, through national mechanisms and/or international cooperation, perform conjunction assessments during all orbital phases of controlled flight for their current and planned spacecraft trajectories. With due consideration to article VI of the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, States should encourage entities, including spacecraft operators and conjunction assessment service providers under their jurisdiction and/or control to perform conjunction assessments through national mechanisms, when applicable. International intergovernmental organizations should perform such assessments through their respective mechanisms.

2. States and international intergovernmental organizations should develop and implement in an appropriate manner approaches to and methods for conjunction assessment that may include: (a) improving the orbit determination of relevant space objects; (b) screening current and planned trajectories of relevant space objects for potential collisions; (c) determining the risk of collision and whether an adjustment of trajectory is required to reduce the risk of collision; and (d) sharing information on the proper interpretation and usage of the conjunction assessment results, as appropriate. States and international intergovernmental organizations should, where applicable, encourage entities under their respective jurisdiction and/or control, including spacecraft operators and conjunction assessment service providers, to develop or help develop such approaches and methods to conjunction assessment.

3. Spacecraft operators, including those of non-governmental entities, that are unable to perform conjunction assessments should seek support, via State authorities, as necessary and in accordance with relevant applicable regulations, from appropriate around-the-clock conjunction assessment entities. International intergovernmental organizations that are unable to perform conjunction assessments should seek support through their respective mechanisms.

4. States and international intergovernmental organizations should, in a dedicated international consultative process, acting through their designated entities, as appropriate, share knowledge and experience related to the interpretation of conjunction assessment information with the objective of developing methods and consistent criteria for assessing probability of collisions and making avoidance manoeuvre decisions and agreeing on classes of methods applicable to different types of conjunctions. States and international intergovernmental organizations that have developed practical methods and approaches for conjunction assessments and collision avoidance manoeuvre decision-making processes should also share their expertise by, inter alia, providing training opportunities for emerging spacecraft operators and disseminating best practices, knowledge and experience.

5. States and international intergovernmental organizations should encourage conjunction assessment service providers under their jurisdiction and control to consult on screening criteria and notification thresholds with spacecraft operators and pertinent parties before providing conjunction assessment services, as practicable.

Guideline B.5 Develop practical approaches for pre-launch conjunction assessment

1. States and international intergovernmental organizations are encouraged to advise launch service providers under their jurisdiction and control to consider conducting pre-launch conjunction assessment for space objects to be launched. To facilitate and promote such pre-launch conjunction assessment practices, States and international intergovernmental organizations are encouraged, with the involvement of launch service providers and, as necessary, other relevant entities under their jurisdiction and control, to develop, implement and improve the corresponding methods and procedures.

2. States and international intergovernmental organizations are encouraged to advise launch service providers under their jurisdiction and control to seek support, as necessary, via designated entities authorized to engage in exchanges of

information on pre-launch conjunction assessment, as appropriate and in accordance with relevant applicable regulations, for pre-launch conjunction assessment from appropriate conjunction assessment entities.

3. When performing a specific pre-launch conjunction assessment, launch service providers are encouraged to coordinate, via designated entities authorized to engage in exchanges of information on pre-launch conjunction assessment, with pertinent States and international intergovernmental organizations concerning the given assessment, if necessary.

4. States and international intergovernmental organizations should, with the involvement of launch service providers and other relevant entities under their jurisdiction and control as necessary, develop common international standards for describing relevant information required for pre-launch conjunction assessment in order to facilitate the provision, as mutually agreed, of pre-launch conjunction assessment support.

5. States and international intergovernmental organizations are encouraged to exchange their analytical assessment of the trends in the change of the risk of collision of space objects to be launched with other space objects operating near the planned insertion orbit.

6. States and international intergovernmental organizations are encouraged to consider providing, using, as appropriate, applicable existing and/or new dedicated mechanisms, information on launch schedules useful for assessing changes in the future population of space objects, pre-launch notifications containing information on the launch plan that would be useful for assisting in the identification of newly launched space objects, and notices for mariners and pilots on restricted zones at sea and in airspace. The contents and attributes of such information should be appropriate for its intended use.

7. States and international intergovernmental organizations should, through a dedicated consultative process within the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, consider, acquire and develop shared positions on information to be provided for pre-launch conjunction assessment.

Guideline B.6 Share operational space weather data and forecasts

1. States and international intergovernmental organizations should support and promote the collection, archiving, sharing, intercalibration, long-term continuity and dissemination of critical space weather data and space weather model outputs

and forecasts, where appropriate in real time, as a means of enhancing the long-term sustainability of outer space activities.

2. States should be encouraged to monitor, to the extent feasible, space weather continuously and to share data and information with the aim of establishing an international space weather database network.

3. States and international intergovernmental organizations should support the identification of data sets critical for space weather services and research and should consider adopting policies for the free and unrestricted sharing of critical space weather data from their space- and ground-based assets. All governmental, civilian and commercial space weather data owners are urged to allow free and unrestricted access to and archiving of such data for mutual benefit.

4. States and international intergovernmental organizations should also consider sharing real-time and near-real-time critical space weather data and data products in a common format, promote and adopt common access protocols for their critical space weather data and data products, and promote the interoperability of space weather data portals, thus promoting ease of data access for users and researchers. The real-time sharing of these data could provide a valuable experience for sharing in real time other kinds of data relevant to the long-term sustainability of outer space activities.

5. States and international intergovernmental organizations should further undertake a coordinated approach to maintaining the long-term continuity of space weather observations and identifying and filling key measurement gaps, so as to meet critical needs for space weather information and/or data.

6. States and international intergovernmental organizations should identify highpriority needs for space weather models, space weather model outputs and space weather forecasts and adopt policies for free and unrestricted sharing of space weather model outputs and forecasts. All governmental, civilian and commercial space weather model developers and forecast providers are urged to allow free and unrestricted access to and archival of space weather model outputs and forecasts for mutual benefit, which will promote research and development in this domain.

7. States and international intergovernmental organizations should also encourage their space weather service providers to:

(a) Undertake comparisons of space weather model and forecast outputs with the goal of improved model performance and forecast accuracy;

(b) Openly share and disseminate historical and future critical space weather model outputs and forecast products in a common format;

(c) Adopt common access protocols for their space weather model outputs and forecast products to the extent possible, to promote their ease of use by users and researchers, including through interoperability of space weather portals;

(d) Undertake coordinated dissemination of space weather forecasts among space weather service providers and to operational end users.

Guideline B.7 Develop space weather models and tools and collect established practices on the mitigation of space weather effects

1. States and international intergovernmental organizations should undertake a coordinated approach to identifying and filling gaps in research and operational models and forecasting tools required to meet the needs of the scientific community and of the providers and users of space weather information services. Where possible, this should include coordinated efforts to support and promote research and development to further advance space weather models and forecasting tools, incorporating the effects of the changing solar environment and the evolving terrestrial magnetic field as appropriate, including within the context of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and its Subcommittees, as well as in collaboration with other entities such as the World Meteorological Organization and the International Space Environment Service.

2. States and international intergovernmental organizations should support and promote cooperation and coordination on ground- and space-based space weather observations, forecast modelling, satellite anomalies and reporting of space weather effects in order to safeguard space activities. Practical measures in this regard could include:

(a) Incorporating current and forecast space weather thresholds into space launch criteria;

(b) Encouraging satellite operators to cooperate with space weather service providers to identify the information that would be most useful to mitigate anomalies and to derive recommended specific guidelines for on-orbit operations. For example, if the radiation environment is hazardous, this might include actions to delay the uploading of software, implementation of manoeuvres, etc.;

(c) Encouraging the collection, collation and sharing of information relating to ground- and space-based space weather-related impacts and system anomalies, including spacecraft anomalies;

(d) Encouraging the use of a common format for reporting space weather information. In relation to the reporting of spacecraft anomalies, satellite operators are encouraged to take note of the template proposed by the Coordination Group for Meteorological Satellites;

(e) Encouraging policies promoting the sharing of satellite anomaly data related to space weather-induced effects;

(f) Encouraging training on and knowledge transfer relating to the use of space weather data, taking into account the participation of countries with emerging space capabilities.

3. It is acknowledged that some data may be subject to legal restrictions and/or measures for the protection of proprietary or confidential information, in accordance with national legislation, multilateral commitments, non-proliferation norms and international law.

4. States and international intergovernmental organizations should work towards the development of international standards and the collection of established practices applicable for the mitigation of space weather effects in satellite design. This could include the sharing of information on design practices, guidelines and lessons learned relating to mitigation of the effects of space weather on operational space systems, as well as documentation and reports relating to space weather user needs, measurement requirements, gap analyses, cost-benefit analyses and related space weather assessments.

5. States should encourage entities under their jurisdiction and/or control to:

(a) Incorporate in satellite designs the capability to recover from a debilitating space weather effect, such as by including a safe mode;

(b) Incorporate space weather effects into satellite designs and mission planning for end-of-life disposal in order to ensure that the spacecraft either reach their intended graveyard orbit or de-orbit appropriately, in accordance with the Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. This should include appropriate margin analysis.

6. International intergovernmental organizations should also promote such measures among their member States.

7. States should undertake an assessment of the risk and socioeconomic impacts of adverse space weather effects on the technological systems in their respective countries. The results from such studies should be published and made available to all States and used to inform decision-making relating to the long-term sustainability of outer space activities, particularly with regard to mitigating the adverse impacts of space weather on operational space systems.

Guideline B.8 Design and operation of space objects regardless of their physical and operational characteristics

1. States and international intergovernmental organizations are encouraged to promote design approaches that increase the trackability of space objects, regardless of their physical and operational characteristics, including small-size space objects, and those that are difficult to track throughout their orbital lifetime, as well as facilitate the accurate and precise determination of their position in orbit. Such design solutions could include the use of appropriate on-board technology.

2. States and international intergovernmental organizations should encourage manufacturers and operators of space objects, regardless of their physical and operational characteristics, to design such objects to implement applicable international and national space debris mitigation standards and/or guidelines in order to limit the long-term presence of space objects in protected regions of outer space after the end of their mission. States and international intergovernmental organizations are encouraged to share their experiences and information on the operation and end-of-life disposal of space objects, in furtherance of the long-term sustainability of space activities.

3. Due to the importance of small-size space objects to all space programmes, in particular, for developing countries and emerging spacefaring countries, the implementation of the present guideline supports the development of space programmes, including the launching and operation of small-size space objects or any other space objects that are difficult to track, in a way that promotes the long-term sustainability of outer space activities.

Guideline B.9 Take measures to address risks associated with the uncontrolled re-entry of space objects

1. States and international intergovernmental organizations should have in place procedures for furnishing to other States and/or the Secretary-General of the United Nations, via designated entities, as soon as practicable and with updates if necessary, information on the forecasted uncontrolled re-entry of potentially hazardous space objects that are under their jurisdiction and control, and communicating and coordinating the mitigation of risks associated with such events. States and international intergovernmental organizations without space object tracking capabilities should seek support from other States and international

intergovernmental organizations with such capabilities. If a State or international intergovernmental organization has early information on forecasted uncontrolled re-entry of potentially hazardous space objects that are under the jurisdiction and control of another State or international intergovernmental organization, it should share such information with that State or international intergovernmental organization via their designated entities. If a State or international intergovernmental organization has early information on the forecasted uncontrolled re-entry of potentially hazardous space objects whose jurisdiction and control is not identified, it should share such information with other States and/or the United Nations via designated entities.

2. States and international intergovernmental organizations with relevant technical capabilities and resources and/or States and international intergovernmental organizations which exercise jurisdiction over the objects forecast to re-enter the atmosphere should assist each other (in a proactive manner and/or in responding to a request) to improve the reliability of results when predicting the uncontrolled re-entry of potentially hazardous space objects, such as by tracking the objects and generating information on their trajectory. States and international intergovernmental organizations should cooperate to build capacity in the area of monitoring uncontrolled space object re-entries.

3. When feasible and without prejudice to furnishing preliminary information on possible hazardous events associated with the uncontrolled re-entry of space objects, the procedures referred to above should be employed during the final phase of the orbital flight of a space object. The procedures should be used until the termination of the ballistic flight of the space object has been confirmed, as well as in the event of the identification of the space object or its fragments that reach the surface of the Earth.

4. States and international intergovernmental organizations should furnish in a timely fashion relevant information they may have at their disposal, as practicable, to support addressing risks from uncontrolled re-entries. The contents and attributes of such information should, to the extent practicable, be relevant to raising awareness, where appropriate, of possible contingencies associated with high-risk uncontrolled re-entries. States and international intergovernmental organizations should designate appropriate entities that are authorized to provide, request and receive such information.

5. States and international intergovernmental organizations should consider applying design techniques to minimize the risk associated with fragments of space objects surviving uncontrolled re-entry.

6. Without prejudice to article 5 of the Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space, the State(s) having jurisdiction over the territory on which a space object or its component parts have been discovered or are presumed to have reached the surface of the Earth, should respond to any request for timely consultations by the State or international intergovernmental organization with jurisdiction and control over the object. In such consultations, the State or international intergovernmental organization exercising jurisdiction and control over the object should advise and, if mutually agreed, assist the potentially affected State(s) in the search for and identification, assessment, analysis, evacuation and return of the object or its fragments. State(s) on whose territory a space object or its component parts have been discovered or are presumed to have reached the surface of the Earth should respond to requests from the State or international intergovernmental organization with jurisdiction and control over the object to follow appropriate procedures for, inter alia, identification, assessment, and analysis of the space object or its component parts, to avoid the harmful effects of any hazardous materials which could have survived the uncontrolled re-entry.

Guideline B.10 Observe measures of precaution when using sources of laser beams passing through outer space

When governmental and/or non-governmental entities under the jurisdiction and control of States and international intergovernmental organizations use lasers that generate beams passing through near-Earth outer space, States and international intergovernmental organizations should analyse the probability of accidental illumination of passing space objects by laser beams; conduct a quantitative evaluation of the laser radiation power at the distance of crossing space objects; if possible, perform an assessment of the risk of malfunctioning of, damage to, and/or break-up of space objects due to such illumination; and, as necessary, observe appropriate measures of precaution.

C. International cooperation, capacity-building and awareness

Guideline C.1 Promote and facilitate international cooperation in support of the long-term sustainability of outer space activities

States and international intergovernmental organizations should promote and facilitate international cooperation to enable all countries, in particular developing and emerging spacefaring countries, to implement these guidelines. International cooperation should, where appropriate, involve the public, private and academic sectors, and may include, inter alia, the exchange of experience, scientific knowledge, technology and equipment for space activities on an equitable and mutually acceptable basis.

Guideline C.2 Share experience related to the long-term sustainability of outer space activities and develop new procedures, as appropriate, for information exchange

1. States and international intergovernmental organizations should share, as mutually agreed, experiences, expertise and information relating to the long-term sustainability of outer space activities, including with non-governmental entities, and develop and adopt procedures to facilitate the compilation and effective dissemination of information on the ways and means of enhancing the long-term sustainability of space activities. When further developing their information-sharing procedures, States and international intergovernmental organizations could take note of existing data-sharing practices used by non-governmental entities.

2. The experiences and expertise acquired by those engaged in space activities should be regarded as instrumental in the development of effective measures to enhance the long-term sustainability of outer space activities. States and international intergovernmental organizations should therefore share relevant experiences and expertise to enhance the long-term sustainability of space activities.

Guideline C.3 Promote and support capacity-building

1. States and international intergovernmental organizations with experience in space activities should encourage and support capacity-building in developing countries with emerging space programmes, on a mutually acceptable basis, through measures such as improving their expertise and knowledge on spacecraft design, flight dynamics and orbits, performing joint orbital calculations and conjunction assessments, and providing access to appropriate precise orbital data and appropriate tools for the monitoring of space objects through relevant arrangements as appropriate.

2. States and international intergovernmental organizations should support current capacity-building initiatives and promote new forms of regional and international cooperation and capacity-building that are in accordance with national and international law to assist countries in gathering human and financial resources and achieving efficient technical capabilities, standards, regulatory frameworks and governance methods that support the long-term sustainability of outer space activities and sustainable development on Earth.

3. States and international intergovernmental organizations should coordinate their efforts in space-related capacity-building and data accessibility in order to ensure efficiency in the use of available resources and, to the extent that it is reasonable and relevant, avoid unnecessary duplication of functions and efforts, taking into account the needs and interests of developing countries. Capacity-building activities include education, training and sharing of appropriate experience, information, data, tools and management methodologies and techniques, as well as the transfer of technology.

4. States and international intergovernmental organizations should also undertake efforts to make relevant space-based information and data accessible to countries affected by natural disasters or other catastrophes, guided by considerations of humanity, neutrality and impartiality, and to support capacity-building activities aimed at enabling the receiving countries to make optimal use of such data and information. These space-based data and information with appropriate spatial and temporal resolution should be freely, quickly and easily available for countries in crisis.

Guideline C.4 Raise awareness of space activities

1. States and international intergovernmental organizations should raise general public awareness of the important societal benefits of space activities and of the consequent importance of enhancing the long-term sustainability of outer space activities. To this end, States and international intergovernmental organizations should:

(a) Promote institutional and public awareness of space activities and their applications for sustainable development, environmental monitoring and assessment, disaster management and emergency response;

(b) Conduct outreach, capacity-building and education on regulations and established practices relevant to the long-term sustainability of space activities;

(c) Promote activities of non-governmental entities that will enhance the long-term sustainability of outer space activities;

(d) Raise awareness among relevant public institutions and non-governmental entities about national and international policies, legislation, regulations and best practices that are applicable to space activities.

2. States and international intergovernmental organizations should promote public awareness of space applications for sustainable development, environmental monitoring and assessment, disaster management and emergency response through information-sharing and joint efforts with public institutions and non-governmental entities, taking into account the needs of current and future generations. In designing space education programmes, States, international intergovernmental organizations and non-governmental entities should pay special attention to courses on enhancing knowledge and practice of the utilization of space applications to support sustainable development. States and international intergovernmental organizations should initiate the voluntary collection of information on public awareness and education tools and programmes with a view to facilitating the development and implementation of other initiatives with similar objectives.

3. States and international intergovernmental organizations should foster outreach activities by or with industry, academia and other relevant non-governmental entities. Outreach, capacity-building and educational initiatives could take the form of seminars (in person or broadcast over the Internet), published guidelines to complement national and international regulations or a website with basic information on a regulatory framework and/or a contact point within the Government for regulatory information. Appropriately targeted outreach and education can assist all entities engaged in space activities in gaining a better appreciation and

understanding of the nature of their obligations, in particular relating to implementation, which can lead to improved compliance with the existing regulatory framework and the practices currently being employed to enhance the long-term sustainability of outer space activities. This is particularly valuable where the regulatory framework has been changed or updated, resulting in new obligations for participants in space activities.

4. Cooperation between Governments and non-governmental entities should be encouraged and fostered. Non-governmental entities, including professional and industry associations and academic institutions, can play important roles in increasing international awareness of issues associated with space sustainability, as well as promoting practical measures to enhance space sustainability. Such measures could include adoption of the Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space; compliance with the ITU Radio Regulations related to space services; and the development of open, transparent standards for the exchange of data necessary to avoid collisions, harmful radio frequency interference or other harmful events in outer space. Non-governmental entities can also play important roles in bringing stakeholders together to develop common approaches to certain aspects of space activities that can collectively enhance the long-term sustainability of space activities.

D. Scientific and technical research and development

Guideline D.1 Promote and support research into and the development of ways to support sustainable exploration and use of outer space

1. States and international intergovernmental organizations should promote and support research into and the development of sustainable space technologies, processes and services and other initiatives for the sustainable exploration and use of outer space, including celestial bodies.

2. In their conduct of space activities for the peaceful exploration and use of outer space, including celestial bodies, States and international intergovernmental organizations should take into account, with reference to the outcome document of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (General Assembly resolution 66/288, annex), the social, economic and environmental dimensions of sustainable development on Earth.

3. States and international intergovernmental organizations should promote the development of technologies that minimize the environmental impact of manufacturing and launching space assets and that maximize the use of renewable resources and the reusability or repurposing of space assets to enhance the long-term sustainability of those activities.

4. States and international intergovernmental organizations should consider appropriate safety measures to protect the Earth and the space environment from harmful contamination, taking advantage of existing measures, practices and guidelines that may apply to those activities, and developing new measures as appropriate.

5. States and international intergovernmental organizations conducting research and development activities to support the sustainable exploration and use of outer space should also encourage the participation of developing countries in such activities.

Guideline D.2 Investigate and consider new measures to manage the space debris population in the long term

1. States and international intergovernmental organizations should investigate the necessity and feasibility of possible new measures, including technological solutions, and consider implementation thereof, in order to address the evolution of and manage the space debris population in the long term. These new measures, together with existing ones, should be envisaged so as not to impose undue costs on the space programmes of emerging spacefaring nations.

2. States and international intergovernmental organizations should take measures at the national and international levels, including international cooperation and capacity-building, to increase compliance with the Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space.

3. Investigation of new measures could include, inter alia, methods for the extension of operational lifetime, novel techniques to prevent collision with and among debris and objects with no means of changing their trajectory, advanced measures for spacecraft passivation and post-mission disposal and designs to enhance the disintegration of space systems during uncontrolled atmospheric re-entry.

4. Such new measures aimed at ensuring the sustainability of space activities and involving either controlled or uncontrolled re-entries should not pose an undue risk to people or property, including through environmental pollution caused by hazardous substances.

5. Policy and legal issues, such as ensuring that these new measures are compliant with the provisions of the Charter of the United Nations and applicable international law, may also need to be addressed.


961 UNTS 187; UNGA Res 2777 (XXVI); done at London, Moscow and Washington, 29 March 1972

UNOOSA (United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs)

Treaty text is a UN legal instrument, freely reproducible with attribution. Reproduced from UNOOSA. The UN asserts copyright over its website and compilations, not over the treaty text itself.

English authentic text of the Liability Convention. SOURCE: the UNOOSA page, which reproduces the adopting UN General Assembly resolution with the treaty as its Annex. RETRIEVAL: fetched 2026-07-02 via an automated web-fetch tool that returns a text rendering of the page (not byte-identical raw HTML and not the UN Treaty Series certified PDF). original.txt is the page capture as returned by the tool; text.txt is the extracted authentic treaty text (the Annex), programmatically sliced and stripped of markdown. FIDELITY: extracted_unverified pending human verification against the UNTS certified text; a byte-exact certified-PDF capture is a tracked follow-on.

Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects

The States Parties to this Convention,

Recognizing the common interest of all mankind in furthering the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes,

Recalling the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies,

Taking into consideration that, notwithstanding the precautionary measures to be taken by States and international intergovernmental organizations involved in the launching of space objects, damage may on occasion be caused by such objects,

Recognizing the need to elaborate effective international rules and procedures concerning liability for damage caused by space objects and to ensure, in particular, the prompt payment under the terms of this Convention of a full and equitable measure of compensation to victims of such damage,

Believing that the establishment of such rules and procedures will contribute to the strengthening of international co-operation in the field of the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes,

Have agreed on the following:

Article I

For the purposes of this Convention:

(a) The term "damage" means loss of life, personal injury or other impairment of health; or loss of or damage to property of States or of persons, natural or juridical, or property of international intergovernmental organizations;

(b) The term "launching" includes attempted launching;

(c) The term "launching State" means:

(i) A State which launches or procures the launching of a space object;

(ii) A State from whose territory or facility a space object is launched;

(d) The term "space object" includes component parts of a space object as well as its launch vehicle and parts thereof.

Article II

A launching State shall be absolutely liable to pay compensation for damage caused by its space object on the surface of the earth or to aircraft in flight.

Article III

In the event of damage being caused elsewhere than on the surface of the earth to a space object of one launching State or to persons or property on board such a space object by a space object of another launching State, the latter shall be liable only if the damage is due to its fault or the fault of persons for whom it is responsible.

Article IV

1. In the event of damage being caused elsewhere than on the surface of the earth to a space object of one launching State or to persons or property on board such a space object by a space object of another launching State, and of damage thereby being caused to a third State or to its natural or juridical persons, the first two States shall be jointly and severally liable to the third State, to the extent indicated by the following:

(a) If the damage has been caused to the third State on the surface of the earth or to aircraft in flight, their liability to the third State shall be absolute;

(b) If the damage has been caused to a space object of the third State or to persons or property on board that space object elsewhere than on the surface of the earth, their liability to the third State shall be based on the fault of either of the first two States or on the fault of persons for whom either is responsible.

2. In all cases of joint and several liability referred to in paragraph 1 of this article, the burden of compensation for the damage shall be apportioned between the first two States in accordance with the extent to which they were at fault; if the extent of the fault of each of these States cannot be established, the burden of compensation shall be apportioned equally between them. Such apportionment shall be without prejudice to the right of the third State to seek the entire compensation due under this Convention from any or all of the launching States which are jointly and severally liable.

Article V

1. Whenever two or more States jointly launch a space object, they shall be jointly and severally liable for any damage caused.

2. A launching State which has paid compensation for damage shall have the right to present a claim for indemnification to other participants in the joint launching. The participants in a joint launching may conclude agreements regarding the apportioning among themselves of the financial obligation in respect of which they are jointly and severally liable. Such agreements shall be without prejudice to the right of a State sustaining damage to seek the entire compensation due under this Convention from any or all of the launching States which are jointly and severally liable.

3. A State from whose territory or facility a space object is launched shall be regarded as a participant in a joint launching.

Article VI

1. Subject to the provisions of paragraph 2 of this Article, exoneration from absolute liability shall be granted to the extent that a launching State establishes that the damage has resulted either wholly or partially from gross negligence or from an act or omission done with intent to cause damage on the part of a claimant State or of natural or juridical persons it represents.

2. No exoneration whatever shall be granted in cases where the damage has resulted from activities conducted by a launching State which are not in conformity with international law including, in particular, the Charter of the United Nations and the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies.

Article VII

The provisions of this Convention shall not apply to damage caused by a space object of a launching State to:

(a) nationals of that launching State;

(b) foreign nationals during such time as they are participating in the operation of that space object from the time of its launching or at any stage thereafter until its descent, or during such time as they are in the immediate vicinity of a planned launching or recovery area as the result of an invitation by that launching State.

Article VIII

1. A State which suffers damage, or whose natural or juridical persons suffer damage, may present to a launching State a claim for compensation for such damage.

2. If the State of nationality has not presented a claim, another State may, in respect of damage sustained in its territory by any natural or juridical person, present a claim to a launching State.

3. If neither the State of nationality nor the State in whose territory the damage was sustained has presented a claim or notified its intention of presenting a claim, another State may, in respect of damage sustained by its permanent residents, present a claim to a launching State.

Article IX

A claim for compensation for damage shall be presented to a launching State through diplomatic channels. If a State does not maintain diplomatic relations with the launching State concerned, it may request another State to present its claim to that launching State or otherwise represent its interests under this Convention. It may also present its claim through the Secretary-General of the United Nations, provided the claimant State and the launching State are both Members of the United Nations.

Article X

1. A claim for compensation for damage may be presented to a launching State not later than one year following the date of the occurrence of the damage or the identification of the launching State which is liable.

2. If, however, a State does not know of the occurrence of the damage or has not been able to identify the launching State which is liable, it may present a claim within one year following the date on which it learned of the aforementioned facts; however, this period shall in no event exceed one year following the date on which the State could reasonably be expected to have learned of the facts through the exercise of due diligence.

3. The time-limits specified in paragraphs 1 and 2 of this Article shall apply even if the full extent of the damage may not be known. In this event, however, the claimant State shall be entitled to revise the claim and submit additional documentation after the expiration of such time-limits until one year after the full extent of the damage is known.

Article XI

1. Presentation of a claim to a launching State for compensation for damage under this Convention shall not require the prior exhaustion of any local remedies which may be available to a claimant State or to natural or juridical persons it represents.

2. Nothing in this Convention shall prevent a State, or natural or juridical persons it might represent, from pursuing a claim in the courts or administrative tribunals or agencies of a launching State. A State shall not, however, be entitled to present a claim under this Convention in respect of the same damage for which a claim is being pursued in the courts or administrative tribunals or agencies of a launching State or under another international agreement which is binding on the States concerned.

Article XII

The compensation which the launching State shall be liable to pay for damage under this Convention shall be determined in accordance with international law and the principles of justice and equity, in order to provide such reparation in respect of the damage as will restore the person, natural or juridical, State or international organization on whose behalf the claim is presented to the condition which would have existed if the damage had not occurred.

Article XIII

Unless the claimant State and the State from which compensation is due under this Convention agree on another form of compensation, the compensation shall be paid in the currency of the claimant State or, if that State so requests, in the currency of the State from which compensation is due.

Article XIV

If no settlement of a claim is arrived at through diplomatic negotiations as provided for in Article IX, within one year from the date on which the claimant State notifies the launching State that it has submitted the documentation of its claim, the parties concerned shall establish a Claims Commission at the request of either party.

Article XV

1. The Claims Commission shall be composed of three members: one appointed by the claimant State, one appointed by the launching State and the third member, the Chairman, to be chosen by both parties jointly. Each party shall make its appointment within two months of the request for the establishment of the Claims Commission.

2. If no agreement is reached on the choice of the Chairman within four months of the request for the establishment of the Commission, either party may request the Secretary-General of the United Nations to appoint the Chairman within a further period of two months.

Article XVI

1. If one of the parties does not make its appointment within the stipulated period, the Chairman shall, at the request of the other party, constitute a single-member Claims Commission.

2. Any vacancy which may arise in the Commission for whatever reason shall be filled by the same procedure adopted for the original appointment.

3. The Commission shall determine its own procedure.

4. The Commission shall determine the place or places where it shall sit and all other administrative matters.

5. Except in the case of decisions and awards by a single-member Commission, all decisions and awards of the Commission shall be by majority vote.

Article XVII

No increase in the membership of the Claims Commission shall take place by reason of two or more claimant States or launching States being joined in any one proceeding before the Commission. The claimant States so joined shall collectively appoint one member of the Commission in the same manner and subject to the same conditions as would be the case for a single claimant State. When two or more launching States are so joined, they shall collectively appoint one member of the Commission in the same way. If the claimant States or the launching States do not make the appointment within the stipulated period, the Chairman shall constitute a single-member Commission.

Article XVIII

The Claims Commission shall decide the merits of the claim for compensation and determine the amount of compensation payable, if any.

Article XIX

1. The Claims Commission shall act in accordance with the provisions of Article XII.

2. The decision of the Commission shall be final and binding if the parties have so agreed; otherwise the Commission shall render a final and recommendatory award, which the parties shall consider in good faith. The Commission shall state the reasons for its decision or award.

3. The Commission shall give its decision or award as promptly as possible and no later than one year from the date of its establishment, unless an extension of this period is found necessary by the Commission.

4. The Commission shall make its decision or award public. It shall deliver a certified copy of its decision or award to each of the parties and to the Secretary-General of the United Nations.

Article XX

The expenses in regard to the Claims Commission shall be borne equally by the parties, unless otherwise decided by the Commission.

Article XXI

If the damage caused by a space object presents a large-scale danger to human life or seriously interferes with the living conditions of the population or the functioning of vital centres, the States Parties, and in particular the launching State, shall examine the possibility of rendering appropriate and rapid assistance to the State which has suffered the damage, when it so requests. However, nothing in this article shall affect the rights or obligations of the States Parties under this Convention.

Article XXII

1. In this Convention, with the exception of Articles XXIV to XXVII, references to States shall be deemed to apply to any international intergovernmental organization which conducts space activities if the organization declares its acceptance of the rights and obligations provided for in this Convention and if a majority of the States members of the organization are States Parties to this Convention and to the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies.

2. States members of any such organization which are States Parties to this Convention shall take all appropriate steps to ensure that the organization makes a declaration in accordance with the preceding paragraph.

3. If an international intergovernmental organization is liable for damage by virtue of the provisions of this Convention, that organization and those of its members which are States Parties to this Convention shall be jointly and severally liable; provided, however, that:

(a) any claim for compensation in respect of such damage shall be first presented to the organization;

(b) only where the organization has not paid, within a period of six months, any sum agreed or determined to be due as compensation for such damage, may the claimant State invoke the liability of the members which are States Parties to this Convention for the payment of that sum.

4. Any claim, pursuant to the provisions of this Convention, for compensation in respect of damage caused to an organization which has made a declaration in accordance with paragraph 1 of this Article shall be presented by a State member of the organization which is a State Party to this Convention.

Article XXIII

1. The provisions of this Convention shall not affect other international agreements in force in so far as relations between the States Parties to such agreements are concerned.

2. No provision of this Convention shall prevent States from concluding international agreements reaffirming, supplementing or extending its provisions.

Article XXIV

1. This Convention shall be open to all States for signature. Any State which does not sign this Convention before its entry into force in accordance with paragraph 3 of this article may accede to it at any time.

2. This Convention shall be subject to ratification by signatory States. Instruments of ratification and instruments of accession shall be deposited with the Governments of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the United States of America, which are hereby designated the Depositary Governments.

3. This Convention shall enter into force on the deposit of the fifth instrument of ratification.

4. For States whose instruments of ratification or accession are deposited subsequent to the entry into force of this Convention, it shall enter into force on the date of the deposit of their instruments of ratification or accession.

5. The Depositary Governments shall promptly inform all signatory and acceding States of the date of each signature, the date of deposit of each instrument of ratification of and accession to this Convention, the date of its entry into force and other notices.

6. This Convention shall be registered by the Depositary Governments pursuant to Article 102 of the Charter of the United Nations.

Article XXV

Any State Party to this Convention may propose amendments to this Convention. Amendments shall enter into force for each State Party to the Convention accepting the amendments upon their acceptance by a majority of the States Parties to the Convention and thereafter for each remaining State Party to the Convention on the date of acceptance by it.

Article XXVI

Ten years after the entry into force of this Convention, the question of the review of this Convention shall be included in the provisional agenda of the United Nations General Assembly in order to consider, in the light of past application of the Convention, whether it requires revision. However, at any time after the Convention has been in force for five years, and at the request of one third of the States Parties to the Convention, and with the concurrence of the majority of the States Parties, a conference of the States Parties shall be convened to review this Convention.

Article XXVII

Any State Party to this Convention may give notice of its withdrawal from the Convention one year after its entry into force by written notification to the Depositary Governments. Such withdrawal shall take effect one year from the date of receipt of this notification.

Article XXVIII

This Convention, of which the English, Russian, French, Spanish and Chinese texts are equally authentic, shall be deposited in the archives of the Depositary Governments. Duly certified copies of this Convention shall be transmitted by the Depositary Governments to the Governments of the signatory and acceding States.

IN WITNESS WHEREOF the undersigned, duly authorized thereto, have signed this Convention.

DONE in triplicate, at the cities of London, Moscow and Washington, this twenty-ninth day of March, one thousand nine hundred and seventy-two.