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anchor-primary"href=#preview-section-references><span class=anchor-text-container><span class=anchor-text>References (79)</span></span></a></ul></div></div><article class="col-lg-12 col-md-16 pad-left pad-right"lang=en><div class=Publication id=publication><div class="publication-brand u-display-block-from-sm"><a class="anchor u-display-flex anchor-primary"title="Go to Journal of Hydrology on ScienceDirect"href=/journal/journal-of-hydrology><span class=anchor-text-container><span class=anchor-text><img alt=Elsevier class=publication-brand-image src=https://sdfestaticassets-us-east-1.sciencedirectassets.com/prod/f56b203fcd0dc2e4674b85fef00b5ca6488d8b95/image/elsevier-non-solus.svg></span></span></a></div><div class="publication-volume u-text-center"><h2 class="publication-title u-h3"id=publication-title><a class="anchor anchor-secondary publication-title-link"title="Go to Journal of Hydrology on ScienceDirect"href=/journal/journal-of-hydrology><span class=anchor-text-container><span class=anchor-text>Journal of Hydrology</span></span></a></h2><div class=text-xs>Available online 28 March 2025, 133200</div><div class=text-xs><span class=publication-aip-text><a class="anchor publication-aip-link anchor-primary"href=/journal/journal-of-hydrology/articles-in-press><span class=anchor-text-container><span class=anchor-text><span>In Press, Journal Pre-proof</span></span></span></a></span><button class="button-link button-link-secondary u-margin-s-left button-link-icon-left button-link-underline"title="What are Journal Pre-proof articles?"data-sd-ui-side-panel-opener=true type=button><svg class="icon icon-help"viewbox="0 0 114 128"focusable=false height=20><path d="M57 8C35.69 7.69 15.11 21.17 6.68 40.71c-8.81 19.38-4.91 43.67 9.63 59.25 13.81 15.59 36.85 21.93 56.71 15.68 21.49-6.26 37.84-26.81 38.88-49.21 1.59-21.15-10.47-42.41-29.29-52.1C74.76 10.17 65.88 7.99 57 8zm0 10c20.38-.37 39.57 14.94 43.85 34.85 4.59 18.53-4.25 39.23-20.76 48.79-17.05 10.59-40.96 7.62-54.9-6.83-14.45-13.94-17.42-37.85-6.83-54.9C26.28 26.5 41.39 17.83 57 18zm-.14 14C45.31 32.26 40 40.43 40 50v2h10v-2c0-4.22 2.22-9.66 8-9.24 5.5.4 6.32 5.14 5.78 8.14C62.68 55.06 52 58.4 52 69.4V76h10v-5.56c0-8.16 11.22-11.52 12-21.7.74-9.86-5.56-16.52-16-16.74-.39-.01-.76-.01-1.14 0zM52 82v10h10V82H52z"></path></svg><span class=button-link-text-container><span class=button-link-text>What’s this?</span></span></button></div></div><div class="publication-cover u-display-block-from-sm"><a class="anchor u-display-flex anchor-primary"href=/journal/journal-of-hydrology><span class=anchor-text-container><span class=anchor-text><img alt="Journal of Hydrology"class=publication-cover-image src=https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/S00221694.gif></span></span></a></div></div><div class=PageDivider></div><h1 class="Head u-font-serif u-h2 u-margin-s-ver"id=screen-reader-main-title><span class=title-text>Atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> sink caused by enhanced chemical weathering in the Rongbuk glacier runoff at the initial ablation, Mt. Qomolangma (Everest)</span></h1><div class=Banner id=banner><div class="wrapper truncated"><div aria-live=polite></div><div class=AuthorGroups><div class=author-group id=author-group><span class=sr-only>Author links open overlay panel</span><button class="button-link button-link-secondary button-link-underline"data-sd-ui-side-panel-opener=true data-xocs-content-id=au005 data-xocs-content-type=author type=button><span class=button-link-text-container><span class=button-link-text><span class=react-xocs-alternative-link><span class=given-name>Haiying</span> <span class="text surname">Qiu</span> </span><span class=author-ref id=baf005><sup>a</sup></span></span></span></button>, <button class="button-link button-link-secondary button-link-underline"data-sd-ui-side-panel-opener=true data-xocs-content-id=au010 data-xocs-content-type=author type=button><span class=button-link-text-container><span class=button-link-text><span class=react-xocs-alternative-link><span class=given-name>Guangjian</span> <span class="text surname">Wu</span> </span><span class=author-ref id=baf005><sup>a</sup></span><svg class="icon icon-person react-xocs-author-icon u-fill-grey8"title="Correspondence author icon"viewbox="0 0 106 128"focusable=false height=20><path d="M11.07 120l.84-9.29C13.88 91.92 35.25 87.78 53 87.78c17.74 0 39.11 4.13 41.08 22.84l.84 9.38h10.04l-.93-10.34C101.88 89.23 83.89 78 53 78S4.11 89.22 1.95 109.73L1.04 120h10.03M53 17.71c-9.72 0-18.24 8.69-18.24 18.59 0 13.67 7.84 23.98 18.24 23.98S71.24 49.97 71.24 36.3c0-9.9-8.52-18.59-18.24-18.59zM53 70c-15.96 0-28-14.48-28-33.67C25 20.97 37.82 8 53 8s28 12.97 28 28.33C81 55.52 68.96 70 53 70"></path></svg><svg class="icon icon-envelope react-xocs-author-icon u-fill-grey8"title="Author email or social media contact details icon"viewbox="0 0 102 128"focusable=false height=20><path d="M55.8 57.2c-1.78 1.31-5.14 1.31-6.9 0L17.58 34h69.54L55.8 57.19zM0 32.42l42.94 32.62c2.64 1.95 6.02 2.93 9.4 2.93s6.78-.98 9.42-2.93L102 34.34V24H0zM92 88.9L73.94 66.16l-8.04 5.95L83.28 94H18.74l18.38-23.12-8.04-5.96L10 88.94V51.36L0 42.9V104h102V44.82l-10 8.46V88.9"></path></svg></span></span></button>, <button class="button-link button-link-secondary button-link-underline"data-sd-ui-side-panel-opener=true data-xocs-content-id=au015 data-xocs-content-type=author type=button><span class=button-link-text-container><span class=button-link-text><span class=react-xocs-alternative-link><span class=given-name>Zhengliang</span> <span class="text surname">Yu</span> </span><span class=author-ref id=baf005><sup>a</sup></span></span></span></button>, <button class="button-link button-link-secondary button-link-underline"data-sd-ui-side-panel-opener=true data-xocs-content-id=au020 data-xocs-content-type=author type=button><span class=button-link-text-container><span class=button-link-text><span class=react-xocs-alternative-link><span class=given-name>Jianhong</span> <span class="text surname">Li</span> </span><span class=author-ref id=baf010><sup>b</sup></span></span></span></button>, <button class="button-link button-link-secondary button-link-underline"data-sd-ui-side-panel-opener=true data-xocs-content-id=au025 data-xocs-content-type=author type=button><span class=button-link-text-container><span class=button-link-text><span class=react-xocs-alternative-link><span class=given-name>Boyi</span> <span class="text surname">Liu</span> </span><span class=author-ref id=baf015><sup>c</sup></span></span></span></button>, <button class="button-link button-link-secondary button-link-underline"data-sd-ui-side-panel-opener=true data-xocs-content-id=au030 data-xocs-content-type=author type=button><span class=button-link-text-container><span class=button-link-text><span class=react-xocs-alternative-link><span class=given-name>Huabiao</span> <span class="text surname">Zhao</span> </span><span class=author-ref id=baf005><sup>a</sup></span> <span class=author-ref id=baf020><sup>d</sup></span></span></span></button>, <button class="button-link button-link-secondary button-link-underline"data-sd-ui-side-panel-opener=true data-xocs-content-id=au035 data-xocs-content-type=author type=button><span class=button-link-text-container><span class=button-link-text><span class=react-xocs-alternative-link><span class=given-name>Kyra A. 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This study reveals that the Rongbuk Glacier meltwater runoff (RBM) acts as a significant CO<sub>2</sub> sink (−13.73 ± 9.56 mmol/m<sup>2</sup>/d) on the north slope of the Mountain Qomolangma (Everest), using floating chamber from 66 field observations at five sites conducted in May 2023, during the early ablation stage, primarily driven by chemical weathering processes. Both the CO<sub>2</sub> efflux rate (FCO<sub>2</sub>, mmol/m<sup>2</sup>/d) and the partial pressure of CO<sub>2</sub> (<em>p</em>CO<sub>2</sub>, μatm) exhibited significant spatial and temporal variation. Under the influence of glacial microbial metabolisms and hydrological processes, FCO<sub>2</sub> (−6.62 ± 7.01 mmol/m<sup>2</sup>/d) was significantly higher at night than during the day (−14.85 ± 9.22 mmol/m<sup>2</sup>/d). As the meltwater flows downstream, the CO<sub>2</sub> sink capacity gradually diminishes due to reduced glacial influence and increased external carbon sources. Additionally, the FCO<sub>2</sub> (−1.3 to −28.8 mmol/m<sup>2</sup>/d) in Rongbuk Glacier-fed runoff falls within the range observed for glacier-fed freshwater globally, although significant spatial heterogeneity was observed (−93.6 mmol/m<sup>2</sup>/d to 44.54 mmol/m<sup>2</sup>/d). To appropriately scale up carbon fluxes regionally and globally, it is crucial to improve sampling methods to capture the significant spatiotemporal variations in CO<sub>2</sub> fluxes within glacier-fed freshwater.</div></div></div><div class="abstract graphical"id=ab005 lang=en><h2 class="section-title u-h4 u-margin-l-top u-margin-xs-bottom">Graphical abstract</h2><div id=as005><div class=u-margin-s-bottom id=sp0005><span class=display><figure class="figure text-xs"id=f0040><span><img alt height=200 src=https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S0022169425005384-ga1.jpg><ol class=u-margin-s-bottom><li><a class="anchor download-link u-font-sans anchor-primary"title="Download high-res image (96KB)"download href=https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S0022169425005384-ga1_lrg.jpg target=_blank><span class=anchor-text-container><span class=anchor-text>Download: <span class=download-link-title>Download high-res image (96KB)</span></span></span></a><li><a class="anchor download-link u-font-sans anchor-primary"title="Download full-size image"download href=https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S0022169425005384-ga1.jpg target=_blank><span class=anchor-text-container><span class=anchor-text>Download: <span class=download-link-title>Download full-size image</span></span></span></a></ol></span></figure></span></div></div></div></div></div><div id=preview-section-introduction><div class=PageDivider></div><div class="Introduction u-font-serif u-margin-l-ver"><h2 class="u-h4 u-margin-s-bottom">Introduction</h2><section id=s0005><div class=u-margin-s-bottom id=p0010>River networks convey carbon (C) from terrestrial ecosystems to the ocean and function as processors that transfer and emit C into the water (Cole et al., 2007, Hotchkiss et al., 2015, Ran et al., 2021). C fluxes in inland waterways include contributions from terrestrial inputs, aquatic primary production, burial, emissions, and export to oceans (Pilla et al., 2022). Carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) emissions occurring at the interface between water and air play a crucial role in the aquatic C cycle. The CO<sub>2</sub> emission from rivers and streams into the atmosphere is estimated between 0.56 and 3.56 petagrams (Pg) of C per year (Cole et al., 2007, Raymond et al., 2013, Sawakuchi et al., 2017).</div><div class=u-margin-s-bottom id=p0015>Although this range is notable, it exceeds the amount of C transported from land to the ocean by rivers (0.70–0.95 Pg C yr<sup>−1</sup>) and is in equal proportion to the amount of organic carbon (OC) burial (0.6–3.6 Pg C yr<sup>−1</sup>) (Cole et al., 2007, Aufdenkampe et al., 2011, Raymond et al., 2013, Drake et al., 2018, Pilla et al., 2022). Land-based C inputs and strong biological processes are the main causes of high CO<sub>2</sub> concentrations in rivers. However, in alpine rivers fed by glaciers, which are ubiquitous globally, biological processes are far less active than those in the tropics and subtropics due to low temperatures and high mineral sediment loads (St. Pierre et al., 2019). The freshwaters supplied by glaciers primarily flow through mineral-rich terrain where the lack of terrestrial vegetation and fertile soils restrict the amount of OC emitted into the rivers. A high erosion rate and fine-textured sediment cause glacier erosion to become a veritable mineral surface area production factory, which accelerates the process of chemical weathering (Anderson, 2007).</div><div class=u-margin-s-bottom id=p0020>Glacier meltwater harbors multiple potential C sources, such as the dissolution of atmospheric gases, C trapped in ice bubbles, mechanical grinding and organic matter (OM) remineralization (Pain et al., 2021). Controlled by basin lithology, carbonate and silicate weathering turn glacier-fed freshwaters into an atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> sink (Yan et al., 2023, Zhu et al., 2024), while sulfide oxidation coupled with carbonate weathering (SO − CW) or organic matter oxidation makes it an atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> source (Sharma et al., 2019, Shukla et al., 2023). However, modeling the magnitude of C exchange in meltwater remains challenging due to the coupling of biotic and abiotic processes (Christiansen et al., 2021). Investigating C cycles comprehensively in glacierized regions demands focusing on chemical weathering and biological processes in diverse geological settings. The glaciers ecosystem is dominated by cryophilic and cold-tolerant microorganisms inhabiting unique habitats with distinctive organisms and biogeochemical activity (Kohler et al., 2024). Microbial communities from different glacier habitats, interacting via meltwater, participate in ecological processes such as C sequestration and release, and are important in regional and global elemental biogeochemical cycles (Margesin and Collins, 2019, Zhang et al., 2024). Thus, the unique microbial community in the glacial environment, along with the low temperatures and chemical weathering processes, indicates that glaciers could play a role in the global C cycle and should not be overlooked.</div><div class=u-margin-s-bottom id=p0025>Inland waters are of crucial importance in C cycling and greenhouse gas emissions. However, the role of glacier-fed rivers in terms of CO<sub>2</sub> emissions or absorption remains unclear (Song et al., 2024). Current research on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions at the water–air interface of rivers primarily focuses on large, high-order rivers, with limited studies conducted on small, low-order headwater rivers (Butman and Raymond, 2011, Teodoru et al., 2014, Liu and Raymond, 2018). Due to substantial exposed bedrock and a lack of OC, the CO<sub>2</sub> emissions (−15.1 to 132 mmol CO<sub>2</sub> m<sup>2</sup>/d) from high-elevation streams in the Rocky Mountains were significantly reduced (Crawford et al., 2015). Similar findings were also reported in Alpine catchments in Switzerland (Robison et al., 2023).</div><div class=u-margin-s-bottom id=p0030>Research on the hydrochemistry and C emission processes of glacial meltwater mainly focuses on periods of intense ablation (Zhang et al., 2021, Konya et al., 2024), while little is known about initial glacial-fed runoff since the initial ablation stage marks the crucial transition from frozen to the liquid phase. The C sink properties of glacier-fed rivers change dramatically at different stages of ablation. According to Meire et al. (2015), meltwater in the Greenland Ice Sheet is often CO<sub>2</sub> undersaturated, ranging from 74 μatm to 350 μatm, particularly during the summer season when there is high discharge. The measured CO<sub>2</sub> sink strength of Canada’s Lake Hazen watershed is –33.33 mmol/m<sup>2</sup>/d during the ablation season from June to August, while it is only −2.5 mmol/m<sup>2</sup>/d based on annual median fluxes in the Valsorey Basin, southwestern Switzerland (St. Pierre et al., 2019, Robison et al., 2023). The difference of one order of magnitude might partly result from the different measuring seasons. Therefore, extrapolating the exchange volume during periods of intense ablation to the whole year might induce considerable uncertainty. Observations of exchange fluxes at the beginning and end of glacial melting can provide reliable data to support the exploration of annual CO<sub>2</sub> emissions from meltwater.</div><div class=u-margin-s-bottom id=p0035>The Tibetan Plateau (TP) contains extensive glaciers (97,605 km<sup>2</sup>) in the middle and low latitudes, averaging over 4000 m a.s.l. (Yao et al., 2012, RGI Consortium Randolph Glacier Inventory - A Dataset of Global Glacier Outlines, 2023). These glaciers feed over ten major Asian rivers, supplying drinking water to billions (Qu et al., 2017). Research on the C biogeochemical cycle of glacial-fed freshwaters has largely focused on high-latitude environments, which exhibit different diurnal or seasonal cycles as glacierized watersheds in more temperate climates (Christiansen and Jørgensen, 2018, Lamarche-Gagnon et al., 2019, St. Pierre et al., 2019, Konya et al., 2024; Table 1). Global warming is causing various changes in the TP ecosystems (Yao et al., 2022). Previous research has extensively examined the chemical composition of stream water in glacier basins, including the dynamics of organic and inorganic carbon (Li et al., 2019, Zhou et al., 2019). However, there is a lack of studies on the dynamics of CO<sub>2</sub> in glacier-fed rivers on the TP (Wang et al., 2014, Yan et al., 2023, Shukla et al., 2023), with few continuous direct CO<sub>2</sub> flux measurements and unclear underlying drivers. Research on TP glacier-fed rivers indicates that C (mostly in the form of CO<sub>2</sub>) emissions can exhibit significant spatial and temporal variations, ranging from −21.65 mmol/m<sup>2</sup>/d in the southeast to 71.0 mmol/m<sup>2</sup>/d in the north (Zhang et al., 2021, Du et al., 2022; Table 1). These spatial variations complicate accurate CO<sub>2</sub> release/uptake estimation and its integration into TP carbon models</div><div class=u-margin-s-bottom id=p0040>Glaciers on the TP are facing substantial melting. Glacier-fed freshwaters significantly influence downstream aquatic ecosystems and are vital components of regional C cycles (Wadham et al., 2019, Du et al., 2024). Conducting observational research on the C cycle of glacial meltwater across the TP is essential. The Himalayas are the center of glacier distribution in the southern TP, and the Rongbuk Glacier on the north slope of Qomolangma (Everest) is representative of glaciers in this region. In this study, we selected the Rongbuk Glacier meltwater runoff (RBM), a typical glacial-fed river, to investigate the emission characteristics of CO<sub>2</sub> in the initial stage of ablation. The main aims of this study were (1) to explore the temporal and spatial variations of the partial pressure of CO<sub>2</sub> (<em>p</em>CO<sub>2</sub>) and the CO<sub>2</sub> efflux rate (FCO<sub>2</sub>) at the water–air interface, and (2) to examine the impact of biogeochemical processes on glacial-fed runoff <em>p</em>CO<sub>2</sub> and FCO<sub>2</sub>. This study will improve our understanding of C cycling in glacier meltwater runoff and provide support for more accurate estimates of regional and global C budgets from the Rongbuk Glacier and other high-altitude glaciers on the TP.</div></section></div></div><div id=preview-section-snippets><div class=PageDivider></div><div class="Snippets u-font-serif"><h2 class="u-h4 u-margin-l-ver">Section snippets</h2><section><section id=s0010><section id=s0015><h2 class="section-title u-h4 u-margin-l-top u-margin-xs-bottom">Study area</h2><div class=u-margin-s-bottom id=p0045>The Rongbuk Glacier (27.98°N, 86.92°E) is located on the northern slope of Mt. Qomolangma (Everest) (Fig. 1), with an elevation ranging from 5300 to 6300 m above sea level and a length of 22.4 km. The total area of the glacier is 85 km<sup>2</sup>, according to the Second Chinese Glacial Inventory (V1.0). Along the main flowline of the East Rongbuk Glacier, the maximum ice thickness is 320 m, while the average ice thickness is 190 m (Zhang et al., 2013). The final terminal of the exposed glaciers was</div></section></section></section><section><section id=s0030><section id=s0035><h2 class="section-title u-h4 u-margin-l-top u-margin-xs-bottom">Physical and biochemical characteristics across RBM</h2><div class=u-margin-s-bottom id=p0115>Throughout the monitoring period at RB3, water temperature (WT) varied from −0.1°C to 5.6°C, with a mean value of 2.0 ± 1.5°C (Fig. 2 and Table 2). DO had a mean of 7.5 ± 0.3 mg/L and showed a declining trend with diurnal fluctuations. EC averaged 117.1 ± 1.4 μs/cm and varied between day and night (p < 0.05). pH ranged from 7.6 to 8.0, with a mean value of 7.9, indicating a weakly alkaline condition. A significant diurnal variation was identified for pH between day and night (F = 145.4,</div></section></section></section><section><section id=s0050><section id=s0055><h2 class="section-title u-h4 u-margin-l-top u-margin-xs-bottom">A comparison of the CO<sub>2</sub> sink with other glacier-fed freshwater</h2><div class=u-margin-s-bottom id=p0150>Our research indicated that the meltwater of the Rongbuk Glacier behaved as a sink for atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub>. This result differed from emerging glacier-fed lakes and streams on the southern slope of the Himalayas, which behaved as sources of atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> (Shukla et al., 2023; Table 1). Sulfuric acid-mediated reactions maintained high concentrations of DIC and lead the CO<sub>2</sub> emissions from glacial lakes and streams. Compared with the higher pH value (7.6–8.0) of meltwater from Rongbuk Glacier, the</div></section></section></section><section><section id=s0075><h2 class="section-title u-h4 u-margin-l-top u-margin-xs-bottom">Conclusion</h2><div class=u-margin-s-bottom id=p0240>Our observations confirmed that the intensified mineral weathering process across Rongbuk Glacier meltwater runoff (RBM) has the potential to act as an atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> sink under glacier-fed conditions. The CO<sub>2</sub> sink rates varied between −27.56 mmol/m<sup>2</sup>/d and −2.71 mmol/m<sup>2</sup>/d, with a median value of −11.20 mmol/m<sup>2</sup>/d. This highlights the crucial role of chemical weathering in the biogeochemical processes of glacier meltwater runoff.</div><div class=u-margin-s-bottom id=p0245>The meltwater runoff from Rongbuk Glacier exhibited notable</div></section></section><section><section id=s0080><h2 class="section-title u-h4 u-margin-l-top u-margin-xs-bottom">CRediT authorship contribution statement</h2><div class=u-margin-s-bottom id=p0255><strong>Haiying Qiu:</strong> Writing – original draft, Methodology, Investigation, Conceptualization. <strong>Guangjian Wu:</strong> Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Conceptualization. <strong>Zhengliang Yu:</strong> Writing – review & editing, Methodology. <strong>Jianhong Li:</strong> Writing – review & editing, Methodology. <strong>Boyi Liu:</strong> Writing – review & editing, Methodology. <strong>Huabiao Zhao:</strong> Data curation. <strong>Kyra A. St. Pierre:</strong> Writing – review & editing.</div></section></section><section><section id=coi005><h2 class="u-h4 u-margin-l-top u-margin-xs-bottom"id=st105>Declaration of competing interest</h2><div class=u-margin-s-bottom id=p0260>The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.</div></section></section><section><section id=ak005><h2 class="u-h4 u-margin-l-top u-margin-xs-bottom"id=st110>Acknowledgments</h2><div class=u-margin-s-bottom id=p0265>The field work was greatly supported by the Qomolangma Station and South-East Tibetan Plateau Station, <span id=gp015>Chinese Academy of Sciences</span>. This work is sponsored by the <span id=gp010>National Key R&D Program of China</span> [Grant No. <span>2024YFF0808601</span>], the TAR Scientific Program [Grant No. XZ202401JD0002], and the <span id=gp005>National Natural Science Foundation of China</span> [Grant No. <span>U23A2011</span> and <span>42203060</span>].</div></section></section></div></div><div class="related-content-links u-display-none-from-md"><button class="button-link button-link-primary button-link-small"type=button><span class=button-link-text-container><span class=button-link-text>Recommended articles</span></span></button></div><div class=Tail></div><div id=preview-section-references><div class="paginatedReferences u-font-serif"><div class=PageDivider></div><header><h2 class="u-h4 u-margin-l-ver"><span>References</span><span> (79)</span></h2></header><ul><li class="bib-reference u-margin-s-bottom"><span class=u-font-sans><span class="author u-font-sans"><span>S.P. </span>Anderson</span><em> et al.</em></span><h3><a class="anchor title anchor-primary"href=/science/article/pii/S0016703799003580><span class=anchor-text-container><span class=anchor-text>Chemical weathering in the foreland of a retreating glacier</span></span></a></h3><span class="host u-clr-grey6 u-font-sans"><div class=series><h3 class=title>Geochim. 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