Old Course at St Andrews The Old Course at St Andrews is considered the oldest golf course in the world , a public course over common land in St Andrews , Fife , Scotland . It is held in trust by The St Andrews Links Trust under an act of Parliament . The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews club house sits adjacent to the first tee , although it is but one of many clubs that have playing privileges on the course , along with the general public . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Governance 1.2 Influence on modern golf 1.3 Old Course and Bobby Jones 2 Features 3 The Open Championship 4 Scorecard 5 Women 's British Open 6 Senior Open Championship 7 See also 8 References 9 External links History ( edit ) The Old Course at St Andrews is considered by many to be the `` home of golf '' because the sport was first played on the Links at St Andrews in the early 15th century . Golf was becoming increasingly popular in Scotland until in 1457 , when James II of Scotland banned golf because he felt that young men were playing too much golf instead of practising their archery . The ban was upheld by the following kings of Scotland until 1502 , when King James IV became a golfer himself and removed the ban . Governance ( edit ) In 1552 , Archbishop John Hamilton gave the townspeople of St. Andrews the right to play on the links . In 1754 , 22 noblemen , professors , and landowners founded the Society of St Andrews Golfers . This society would eventually become the precursor to the Royal and Ancient which is the governing body for golf everywhere outside of the United States and Mexico . St Andrews Links had a scare when they went bankrupt in 1797 . The Town Council of St. Andrews decided to allow rabbit farming on the golf course to challenge golf for popularity . Twenty years of legal battling between the golfers and rabbit farmers ended in 1821 when a local landowner and golfer named James Cheape of Strathtyrum bought the land and is credited with saving the links for golf . The course evolved without the help of any one architect for many years , though notable contributions to its design were made by Daw Anderson in the 1850s and Old Tom Morris ( 1865 -- 1908 ) , who designed the 1st and 18th holes . Originally , it was played over the same set of fairways out and back to the same holes . As interest in the game increased , groups of golfers would often be playing the same hole , but going in different directions . Influence on modern golf ( edit ) The Old Course was pivotal to the development of how the game is played today . For instance , in 1764 , the course had 22 holes . The members would play the same hole going out and in with the exception of the 11th and 22nd holes . The members decided that the first four and last four holes on the course were too short and should be combined into four total holes ( two in and two out ) . St Andrews then had 18 holes and that was how the standard of 18 holes was created . Around 1863 , Old Tom Morris had the 1st green separated from the 17th green , producing the current 18 - hole layout with seven double greens and four single greens . The Old Course is home of The Open Championship , the oldest of golf 's major championships . The Old Course has hosted this major 29 times since 1873 , most recently in 2015 . The 29 Open Championships that the Old Course has hosted is more than any other course , and The Open is currently played there every five years . Old Course and Bobby Jones ( edit ) Bobby Jones ( who later founded Augusta National ) first played St Andrews in the 1921 Open Championship . During the third round , he infamously hit his ball into a bunker on the 11th hole . After he took four swings at the ball and still could not get out , after losing his temper , he continued the round , but did not turn in score card , thus disqualifying himself . However , he did continue to play in the fourth round . Six years later , when the Open Championship returned to St Andrews , Jones also returned . Not only did he win , he also became the first amateur to win back - to - back Open Championships . He won wire - to - wire , shooting a 285 ( 7 - under - par ) , which was the lowest score at either a U.S. Open or Open Championship at the time . He ended up winning the tournament by a decisive six strokes . In 1930 , Jones returned to St Andrews for the British Amateur . He won , beating Roger Wethered by a score of 7 and 6 in the final match . He subsequently won the other three majors , making him the only man in the history of the sport to win the Grand Slam . Jones went on to fall in love with the Old Course for the rest of his life . Years later , he said `` If I had to select one course upon which to play the match of my life , I should have selected the Old Course . '' In 1958 the town of St Andrews gave Jones the key to the city ; he was only the second American to receive the honour ( after Benjamin Franklin in 1759 ) . After he received the key , he said `` I could take out of my life everything but my experiences here in St. Andrews and I would still have had a rich and full life . '' Features ( edit ) `` I 'm very sentimental and the place gets to me every time I go there . St Andrews was always where I wanted to finish my major career . '' -- Jack Nicklaus on finishing his career at St Andrews , 2005 . The Swilcan Bridge is one of the most iconic attractions in golf The 18th hole towards the clubhouse of the R&A in 2006 . A largely unchanged view in 1891 . One of the unique features of the Old Course are the large double greens . Seven greens are shared by two holes each , with hole numbers adding up to 18 ( 2nd paired with 16th , 3rd with 15th , all the way up to 8th and 10th ) . The Swilcan Bridge , spanning the first and 18th holes , has become a famous icon for golf in the world . Everyone who plays the 18th hole walks over this 700 - year - old bridge , and many iconic pictures of the farewells of the most iconic golfers in history have been taken on this bridge . A life - size stone replica of the Bridge is situated at the World Golf Hall of Fame museum in St. Augustine , Florida . Only the 1st , 9th , 17th and 18th holes have their own greens . Another unique feature is that the course can be played in either direction , clockwise or anti-clockwise . Along with that , the Old Course has 112 bunkers which are all individually named and have their own unique story and history behind them . The two most famous are the 10 ft deep `` Hell Bunker '' on the 14th hole , and the `` Road Bunker '' on the 17th hole . Countless professional golfers have seen their dreams of winning the Open Championship squandered by hitting their balls into those bunkers . The Old Course is also home of The Road Hole , the par - 4 17th , one of the world 's most famous golf holes . Among its unique features are : Players using the back tees can not see where their tee shots land . This is not unusual except that they must take aim over a corner of replica railway sheds which lie beyond the out of bounds wall . The original sheds were torn down when the rail line running next to the course closed , and after several Opens were played without the tee shot being blind , replicas of the sheds were created in preparation for the 1984 Open . Other than rough , the primary hazard in front of the green is a sand trap known as the `` Road Bunker . '' Over the back of the green , hazards include a tarmac roadway , as well as an old stone wall . Both are in play ; a wayward shot can lead a player to take their next stroke off the roadway or to hit the face of the wall and take their chances with the ensuing bounce . The general method of play today is counterclockwise , although clockwise play has been permitted on one day each year in recent years , and for several special one off events since . Originally , the course was reversed every week in order to let the grass recover better . One other unusual thing about the Old Course is that it is closed on Sundays to let the course rest . On some Sundays , the course turns into a park for all the townspeople who come out to stroll , picnic and otherwise enjoy the grounds . As a general rule , Sunday play is allowed on the course on only four occasions : The final day of the Dunhill Links Championship , an annual event on the European Tour . The final day of any R&A sanctioned Open Championships -- men and women , and the men over 50 when it is held at the Old Course ; this happens roughly once every five years for the men ; the women 's championship began its turn on the rotation in 2007 , and the over-50 championship began in 2018 . The final day of two top amateur events , the St Andrews Links Trophy and the St Rule Trophy . Sunday play may also occur when the Old Course hosts other major events ; for example , when it hosted the Curtis Cup in 2008 . While winning the Open Championship is a crowning achievement for any golfer , a win at St Andrews is considered particularly important due to the course 's long tradition . Past winners at St Andrews include Tiger Woods ( twice ) , Louis Oosthuizen , John Daly , Zach Johnson ( first Monday finish since 1988 ) , Nick Faldo , Seve Ballesteros , Jack Nicklaus ( twice ) , Tony Lema , Kel Nagle , Bobby Locke , Peter Thomson , Sam Snead , Dick Burton , Denny Shute , Bobby Jones , Jock Hutchison , James Braid ( twice ) , John Henry Taylor ( twice ) , Hugh Kirkaldy , Jack Burns , Bob Martin ( twice ) , Jamie Anderson , Tom Kidd , Lorena Ochoa , and most recently Stacy Lewis at the 2013 Women 's British Open . In 2005 the Old Course was ranked as the greatest golf course outside the United States , by Golf Digest . Since 1990 , the Old Course has been unique on the Open roster in holding the Championship every five years . However , this sequence has been broken with the announcement that the 2020 Championship will be at Royal St. George 's . The reason for this is that the 2021 Championship will be the 150th , and is expected to be played on the Old Course although no official announcement has yet been made . The Open Championship ( edit ) The `` road bunker '' at the 17th hole . R&A Clubhouse on the Old Course . The Open Championship has been staged at the Old Course at St Andrews 29 times . The following is a list of the champions : Year Winner Score Notes R1 R2 R3 R4 Total 1873 Tom Kidd 91 88 -- -- 179 This was the first time the Open Championship was played on an 18 - hole course . Instead of three rounds of 12 holes , there were two rounds of 18 . Kidd won £ 11 . 1876 Bob Martin 86 90 -- -- 176 Due to a controversial ruling , Bob Martin finished in a tie for first . In protest , his opponent Davie Strath refused to participate so Martin walked the course and became the Open Champion . He won £ 10 . 1879 Jamie Anderson 84 85 -- -- 169 With this win , Jamie Anderson became the first person to break 170 in the Open Championship . He won £ 10 . 1882 Bob Ferguson 83 88 -- -- 171 This was the third straight Open Championship for Ferguson . He won £ 12 . 1885 Bob Martin 84 87 -- -- 171 The second of Martin 's Open Championship wins , he won £ 10 . 1888 Jack Burns 86 85 -- -- 171 Burns won after his score was re-added , giving him a one - stroke victory . The winners share was £ 8 . 1891 Hugh Kirkaldy 83 83 -- -- 166 Kirkaldy set the tournament record with his 166 . This was also the last Open Championship that was 36 holes . The winners share was £ 10 . 1895 J.H. Taylor 86 78 80 78 322 This was the first Open to be played over two days ( 36 holes a day ) and a total of 72 holes at St Andrews . He shot the first sub-80 rounds at St Andrews . The winners share was £ 30 . 1900 J.H. Taylor 79 77 78 75 309 This open marked the first time the `` Great Triumvirate '' finished 1 - 2 - 3 . That was the name given to the three golfers who dominated the game in the late 19th century to the early 20th century . From 1894 to 1914 , J.H. Taylor , Harry Vardon , and James Braid combined to win 16 Open Championships . This was Taylor 's third of five Open Championships . The winners share was £ 50 . 1905 James Braid 81 78 78 81 318 This was the first Open to be played over three days , with 36 holes on the last day . This was Braid 's second of five Open Championships . The winners share was £ 50 . 1910 James Braid 76 73 74 76 299 This Open was the last of Braid 's five Open Championships . With this win he became the first person to break 300 in a four - round Open at St Andrews , and was the first to win five Open Championships . The winners share was £ 50 . 1921 Jock Hutchison 72 75 79 70 296 Born in Scotland , Hutchison was the first American citizen to win the Open Championship with this win . This was also the first time Bobby Jones played St Andrews . He ended up walking off the course after he took four shots to get out of a bunker on the 11th hole . The winners share was £ 75 . 1927 Bobby Jones ( a ) 68 72 73 72 285 ( − 3 ) This win marked Bobby Jones ' first Open championship win at St Andrews , his second straight Open Championship , fourth professional major , and his 7th career major ( he was a three - time winner of the U.S. Amateur ) . As an amateur , Jones received no prize money . Aubrey Boomer and Fred Robson finished in a tie for second , and the winners and second place share of £ 75 for first place and £ 50 for second place were combined and divided into two , so each player earned 62 pounds and 10 shillings . 1933 Denny Shute 73 73 73 73 292 ( + 4 ) Shute won the Open title by five strokes in a playoff against Craig Wood . Leo Diegel could have joined them but he whiffed a putt on the 72nd hole , finishing one shot off the lead . The winners share was £ 100 . 1939 Dick Burton 70 72 77 71 290 ( − 2 ) The 1939 Open was the last Open until 1946 because of World War II . The Royal Air Force used the fairways of the Old Course as runways . Burton held the Claret Jug the longest ( 7 years ) , until the tournament resumed in 1946 , also at St Andrews . The winners share was £ 100 . 1946 Sam Snead 71 70 74 75 290 ( − 2 ) Even though Sam Snead won the first Open Championship to be played since 1939 , he still lost money because of the high travel expenses ; his winner 's share was £ 150 . When taking the train into St Andrews , Sam Snead is quoted for looking out of the window and saying `` Say , that looks like an old abandoned golf course '' about the Old Course . 1955 Peter Thomson 71 68 70 72 281 ( − 7 ) This was the second of Thomson 's three straight Open titles , and five overall . His winner 's share was £ 1,000 . 1957 Bobby Locke 69 72 68 70 279 ( − 9 ) Between 1949 and 1957 , Locke won the Open title four times . He survived a possible disqualification when he marked his ball on the 72nd green , and played his ball without replacing his ball mark . The R&A decided that because he had a three shot lead , and he did n't gain an advantage , that in the spirit of the game , he should not be disqualified . The winner 's share was £ 1,000 . 1960 Kel Nagle 69 67 71 71 278 ( − 10 ) This was the 100th anniversary of the Open Championship , although due to wars it was n't the 100th Open Championship to be played . Arnold Palmer finished second and is credited with returning the Open to the eyes of Americans . The winner 's share was £ 1,250 . 1964 Tony Lema 73 68 68 70 279 ( − 9 ) From 1962 to 1966 , Lema won 12 times on tour , but this was his only major . He beat Jack Nicklaus by five strokes , and his winner 's share was £ 1,500 . Tragically , Lema and his pregnant wife were killed in a plane crash two years later . 1970 Jack Nicklaus 68 69 73 73 283 ( − 5 ) Doug Sanders missed a tough two and a half - foot ( 0.75 m ) putt on the 72nd hole , bogeyed , and ended up tied with Nicklaus . The playoff the next day came down to 18th hole and Nicklaus birdied to win ; it was his second Open title and eighth overall major ; the winner 's share was £ 5,250 . 1978 Jack Nicklaus 71 72 69 69 281 ( − 7 ) Nicklaus completed the career Grand Slam ( winning all four majors in your career at least once ) for the third time making it his third Open Championship . The winner 's share was £ 12,500 1984 Seve Ballesteros 69 68 70 69 276 ( − 12 ) The leaderboard for the final day was full of the best golfers in the world at the time . Ballesteros beat Bernhard Langer , Tom Watson , Fred Couples , Lanny Wadkins , Nick Faldo , and Greg Norman to make an epic final round at St Andrews . Ballesteros birdied the 72nd hole to win by two , and his fist pump is an iconic image to this day . His winner 's share was £ 50,000 . Nick Faldo 67 65 67 71 270 ( − 18 ) Faldo set the Open championship scoring record shooting 18 under par , winning his second major of the year , his second Open Championship and his fourth overall major . The winner 's share was £ 85,000 . 1995 John Daly 67 71 73 71 282 ( − 6 ) This Open was significant because it was the first that Tiger Woods played in , and the last that Arnold Palmer played in , getting to have his farewell at St Andrews . John Daly beat Costantino Rocca in a four - hole playoff to win the Open title and £ 125,000 . 2000 Tiger Woods 67 66 67 69 269 ( − 19 ) Winning the 2000 British Open was Tiger Woods ' second consecutive major championship , completing the career grand slam ; he would win the next two major championships as well for four consecutive major victories - the `` Tiger Slam '' . He did n't hit a single bunker the entire tournament , won by eight strokes , and set the new Open Championship scoring record with 19 under par . The winner 's share was £ 500,000 . 2005 Tiger Woods 66 67 71 70 274 ( − 14 ) This was Jack Nicklaus 's last Open Championship and like Arnold Palmer , he finished on the Old Course . This was also Tiger 's 10th major championship and the fourth one he had won by five or more strokes , and the winner 's share was £ 720,000 . Louis Oosthuizen 65 67 69 71 272 ( − 16 ) On the 150th anniversary of the first Open Championship , Oosthuizen played consistently well , winning the Open title by shooting a 16 under par 272 and winning by seven strokes . Rory McIlroy shot a 63 in the opening round and the winner 's share was £ 850,000 . 2015 Zach Johnson 66 71 70 66 273 ( − 15 ) In the 144th playing of the Open Championship , Zach Johnson emerged from a three - man playoff to win the tournament . Tom Watson was given a special exemption by the R & A in order that he could finish his Open career at the Old Course . The tournament finished on Monday due to the extremely high winds that arose during Saturday 's round . Johnson defeated Louis Oosthuizen and Marc Leishman in a four - hole playoff . Note : Multiple winners of The Open Championship have superscript ordinal designating which in their respective careers . ( a ) denotes amateur Sources : Scorecard ( edit ) Main article : 2015 Open Championship Hole Name Yards Par Hole Name Yards Par Burn 376 10 Bobby Jones 386 Dyke 453 11 High ( In ) 174 Cartgate ( Out ) 397 12 Heathery ( In ) 348 Ginger Beer 480 13 Hole O'Cross ( In ) 465 5 Hole O'Cross ( Out ) 568 5 14 Long 618 5 6 Heathery ( Out ) 412 15 Cartgate ( In ) 455 7 High ( Out ) 371 16 Corner of the Dyke 423 8 Short 175 17 Road 495 9 End 352 18 Tom Morris 357 Out 3,584 36 In 3,721 36 Source : Total 7,305 72 Old Course Tee Rating / Slope 5 6 7 8 9 Out 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 In Total White 73.1 / 132 376 411 370 419 514 374 359 166 347 3336 340 174 316 418 530 414 381 455 357 3385 6721 Yellow 71.4 / 129 355 395 337 411 514 360 349 154 289 3164 311 164 304 388 523 391 345 436 361 3223 6387 Par 5 36 5 36 72 Ladies ' 75.6 / 138 339 375 321 401 454 325 335 145 261 2956 296 150 304 377 487 369 325 426 342 3076 6032 Par Ladies ' 5 5 5 38 5 5 5 38 76 Women 's British Open ( edit ) Winners of the Women 's British Open at the Old Course at St Andrews : Year Winner Score 2007 Lorena Ochoa 287 ( − 5 ) 2013 Stacy Lewis 280 ( -- 8 ) Senior Open Championship ( edit ) Winners of the Senior Open Championship at the Old Course at St Andrews : Year Winner Score 2018 See also ( edit ) Golf in Scotland St Andrews Links The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` St Andrews Link Trust appointment '' . Scottish Government website . 14 January 2002 . Retrieved 24 June 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Scottish Golf History -- Oldest Golf Sites '' . Retrieved 19 February 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` St Andrews -- The Old Course '' . Archived from the original on 21 September 2012 . Retrieved 19 February 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Old Course Experience -- A Brief History of The Links '' . Retrieved 19 February 2013 . Jump up ^ Andrew Leibs ( 2004 ) . `` Sports and Games of the Renaissance '' . p. 69 . Greenwood Publishing Group , ^ Jump up to : `` St Andrews -- A Brief History of The Links '' . Archived from the original on 4 July 2012 . Retrieved 19 February 2013 . Jump up ^ Forrest L. Richardson ( 2002 ) . `` Routing the Golf Course : The Art & Science That Forms the Golf Journey '' . p. 46 . John Wiley & Sons Jump up ^ Kelly , Morgan ( 14 June 2005 ) . `` Jones ' 1930 feat still stands test of time '' . USA Today . Retrieved 19 February 2013 . Jump up ^ DiMeglio , Steve ( 15 July 2010 ) . `` History , mythology combine at St Andrews , the home of golf '' . USA Today . Retrieved 19 February 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Nicklaus set for St Andrews bow '' . BBC Sport. 3 July 2005 . Jump up ^ Hauser , Melanie ( 9 July 2010 ) . `` Old Course 's humble Swilcan Bridge one of golf 's great attractions '' . PGA of America . ^ Jump up to : Ross , Helen ( 12 July 2010 ) . `` Swilcan Bridge replica a true World Golf Hall of Fame highlight '' . PGA of America . Jump up ^ Prunty , Brendan ( 15 July 2010 ) . `` At the British Open at St Andrews , it 's the bunkers ( in addition to everything else ) that will drive players mad '' . NJ.com . Retrieved 19 February 2013 . Jump up ^ Borden , Sam ( 12 June 2015 ) . `` Sundays on the Old Course at St. Andrews : No Golfers Allowed '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 14 June 2015 . Ground staff ask that people avoid greens and bunkers . On Sundays , locals and tourists explore the Old Course at St. Andrews as it enjoys a weekly rest . Jump up ^ `` British Open : Event 's history at St Andrews '' . USA Today . 11 July 2010 . Retrieved 19 February 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Prize Money at the Major Championships '' . Golf Today . Retrieved 4 March 2014 . External Links ( edit ) Golf Course Histories -- comparison of 1932 v 2012 course aerials ( nb. 2012 aerial dates prior to November 2012 changes ) BBC Golf on the Old Course -- a review by former European Tour player Ken Brown and several supporting features . St Andrews Links Trust The Old Course Hotel , Golf Resort & Spa Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews St Andrews Open Golf Club Atlas Guide St Andrews Golf Development Group -- info on Old Course and online booking for other St Andrews courses 3D Course Planner at ProVisualizer Topics on St Andrews Entertainment Barron Theatre Byre Theatre New Picture House Golf Ladies ' Golf Union Links Old Course Swilken Bridge The Royal and Ancient Strathtyrum Monuments St Andrews Sarcophagus Museums British Golf Museum Museum of the University of St Andrews St Andrews Castle St Andrews Cathedral St Andrews Museum Religious houses , past and present All Saints Blackfriars Greyfriars Holy Trinity Church Hospital of St Leonard Hospital of St Nicholas St Andrews Cathedral Priory St Leonard 's Chapel St Mary 's Collegiate Church St Salvator 's Chapel Schools Madras College St Leonards School New Park School University colleges , past and present St Leonard 's College St Mary 's College The Pedagogy St Salvator 's College United College Miscellaneous East Sands Kinness burn West Sands Siege of St Andrews Castle The Open Championship rota courses Current rota courses St Andrews Carnoustie Muirfield Turnberry Royal Troon Royal St George 's ( Sandwich ) Royal Birkdale Royal Lytham & St Annes Royal Liverpool ( Hoylake ) Royal Portrush Former rota courses Prestwick Musselburgh Royal Cinque Ports Prince 's Golf Overview History Glossary Outline Rules penalties playoffs etiquette Stroke play scoring handicap Match play four - ball alternate shot Golf course links teeing ground hazards Equipment golf clubs golf ball tee Technical Golf stroke mechanics Instruction Drive Golfers Professional golfer tours Male golfers Female golfers Men 's major winners Women 's major winners Senior major winners Olympic medalists Most wins Asian Tour Australasia Tour Challenge Tour European Tour European Senior Tour Japan Golf Tour Ladies European Tour LPGA Tour PGA Tour PGA Tour Champions Sunshine Tour Web.com Tour Majors Men Masters Tournament U.S. Open The Open Championship PGA Championship Women ANA Inspiration U.S. Women 's Open Women 's PGA Championship Women 's British Open The Evian Championship Senior The Tradition Senior PGA Championship U.S. Senior Open Senior Players Championship Senior Open Championship Senior Women 's Senior LPGA Championship U.S. Senior Women 's Open International events Multi-sport event Asian Games Inter-Allied Games Island Games Pacific Games Pan American Games Summer Olympics Summer Universiade Youth Olympic Games Team Curtis Cup EurAsia Cup International Crown Presidents Cup Ryder Cup Solheim Cup Walker Cup Rankings Men Women Amateur Countries Australia China India Ireland Philippines Russia Scotland Thailand United States Venues Driving range Lists of golf courses Canada Hawaii India North Dakota Philippines Portugal United Kingdom links courses designed by Jack Nicklaus Years 1353 -- 1850 1851 -- 1945 1945 -- 99 2000 -- 05 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Governing bodies International Golf Federation The R&A United States Golf Association Professional Golfers ' Association ( Great Britain and Ireland ) Professional Golfers ' Association of America LPGA PGA Tour PGA European Tour American Society of Golf Course Architects World Golf Teachers Federation Variations Beach golf GolfCross Hickory golf Indoor golf Long drive Miniature golf Park golf Pitch and putt Shotgun start Skins game Snow golf Speed golf Urban golf Miscellaneous Awards Architects Caddie Greenskeeper World Golf Hall of Fame British Golf Museum USGA Museum Jack Nicklaus Museum Caddie Hall of Fame Evans Scholars Foundation Media Golf Channel personalities Golf Digest Golf Magazine Golf World Golfweek Links Travel + Leisure Golf Video games Commons WikiProject Portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_Course_at_St_Andrews&oldid=812721619 '' Categories : Golf clubs and courses in Fife The Open Championship venues Curtis Cup venues Walker Cup venues Sports venues in Fife Tourist attractions in Fife St Andrews 1552 establishments in Scotland 16th century in sports 1550s in Scotland Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Dansk Deutsch Español Euskara Français 日本 語 Norsk Português Scots Svenska 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 29 November 2017 , at 13 : 53 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia


Germanium Germanium is a chemical element with symbol Ge and atomic number 32 . It is a lustrous , hard , grayish - white metalloid in the carbon group , chemically similar to its group neighbors tin and silicon . Pure germanium is a semiconductor with an appearance similar to elemental silicon . Like silicon , germanium naturally reacts and forms complexes with oxygen in nature . Because it seldom appears in high concentration , germanium was discovered comparatively late in the history of chemistry . Germanium ranks near fiftieth in relative abundance of the elements in the Earth 's crust . In 1869 , Dmitri Mendeleev predicted its existence and some of its properties from its position on his periodic table , and called the element ekasilicon . Nearly two decades later , in 1886 , Clemens Winkler found the new element along with silver and sulfur , in a rare mineral called argyrodite . Although the new element somewhat resembled arsenic and antimony in appearance , the combining ratios in compounds agreed with Mendeleev 's predictions for a relative of silicon . Winkler named the element after his country , Germany . Today , germanium is mined primarily from sphalerite ( the primary ore of zinc ) , though germanium is also recovered commercially from silver , lead , and copper ores . Germanium `` metal '' ( isolated germanium ) is used as a semiconductor in transistors and various other electronic devices . Historically , the first decade of semiconductor electronics was based entirely on germanium . Today , the amount of germanium produced for semiconductor electronics is one fiftieth the amount of ultra-high purity silicon produced for the same . Presently , the major end uses are fibre - optic systems , infrared optics , solar cell applications , and light - emitting diodes ( LEDs ) . Germanium compounds are also used for polymerization catalysts and have most recently found use in the production of nanowires . This element forms a large number of organometallic compounds , such as tetraethylgermane , useful in organometallic chemistry . Germanium is not thought to be an essential element for any living organism . Some complex organic germanium compounds are being investigated as possible pharmaceuticals , though none have yet proven successful . Similar to silicon and aluminum , natural germanium compounds tend to be insoluble in water and thus have little oral toxicity . However , synthetic soluble germanium salts are nephrotoxic , and synthetic chemically reactive germanium compounds with halogens and hydrogen are irritants and toxins . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Characteristics 2.1 Chemistry 2.2 Isotopes 2.3 Occurrence 3 Production 4 Applications 4.1 Optics 4.2 Electronics 4.3 Other uses 4.4 Germanium and health 5 Precautions for chemically reactive germanium compounds 6 Future 7 See also 8 Footnotes 9 References 10 External links History ( edit ) See also : History of the transistor Samples of germanium compounds prepared by Clemens Winkler , discoverer of the element In his report on The Periodic Law of the Chemical Elements in 1869 , the Russian chemist Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev predicted the existence of several unknown chemical elements , including one that would fill a gap in the carbon family in his Periodic Table of the Elements , located between silicon and tin . Because of its position in his Periodic Table , Mendeleev called it ekasilicon ( Es ) , and he estimated its atomic weight to be about 72.0 . In mid-1885 , at a mine near Freiberg , Saxony , a new mineral was discovered and named argyrodite because of the high silver content . The chemist Clemens Winkler analyzed this new mineral , which proved to be a combination of silver , sulfur , and a new element . Winkler was able to isolate the new element in 1886 and found it similar to antimony . Before Winkler published his results on the new element , he decided that he would name his element neptunium , since the recent discovery of planet Neptune in 1846 had been preceded by mathematical predictions of its existence . However , the name `` neptunium '' had already been given to another proposed chemical element ( though not the element that today bears the name neptunium , which was discovered in 1940 ) . So instead , Winkler named the new element germanium ( from the Latin word , Germania , for Germany ) in honor of his homeland . Argyrodite proved empirically to be Ag GeS . Because this new element showed some similarities with the elements arsenic and antimony , its proper place in the periodic table was under consideration , but its similarities with Dmitri Mendeleev 's predicted element `` ekasilicon '' confirmed that place on the periodic table . With further material from 500 kg of ore from the mines in Saxony , Winkler confirmed the chemical properties of the new element in 1887 . He also determined an atomic weight of 72.32 by analyzing pure germanium tetrachloride ( GeCl 4 ) , while Lecoq de Boisbaudran deduced 72.3 by a comparison of the lines in the spark spectrum of the element . Winkler was able to prepare several new compounds of germanium , including fluorides , chlorides , sulfides , dioxide , and tetraethylgermane ( Ge ( C H ) ) , the first organogermane . The physical data from those compounds -- which corresponded well with Mendeleev 's predictions -- made the discovery an important confirmation of Mendeleev 's idea of element periodicity . Here is a comparison between the prediction and Winkler 's data : Property Ekasilicon Germanium atomic mass 72.64 72.59 density ( g / cm ) 5.5 5.35 melting point ( ° C ) high 947 color gray gray oxide type refractory dioxide refractory dioxide oxide density ( g / cm ) 4.7 4.7 oxide activity feebly basic feebly basic chloride boiling point ( ° C ) under 100 86 ( GeCl ) chloride density ( g / cm ) 1.9 1.9 Until the late 1930s , germanium was thought to be a poorly conducting metal . Germanium did not become economically significant until after 1945 when its properties as an electronic semiconductor were recognized . During World War II , small amounts of germanium were used in some special electronic devices , mostly diodes . The first major use was the point - contact Schottky diodes for radar pulse detection during the War . The first silicon - germanium alloys were obtained in 1955 . Before 1945 , only a few hundred kilograms of germanium were produced in smelters each year , but by the end of the 1950s , the annual worldwide production had reached 40 metric tons . The development of the germanium transistor in 1948 opened the door to countless applications of solid state electronics . From 1950 through the early 1970s , this area provided an increasing market for germanium , but then high - purity silicon began replacing germanium in transistors , diodes , and rectifiers . For example , the company that became Fairchild Semiconductor was founded in 1957 with the express purpose of producing silicon transistors . Silicon has superior electrical properties , but it requires much greater purity that could not be commercially achieved in the early years of semiconductor electronics . Meanwhile , the demand for germanium for fiber optic communication networks , infrared night vision systems , and polymerization catalysts increased dramatically . These end uses represented 85 % of worldwide germanium consumption in 2000 . The US government even designated germanium as a strategic and critical material , calling for a 146 ton ( 132 t ) supply in the national defense stockpile in 1987 . Germanium differs from silicon in that the supply is limited by the availability of exploitable sources , while the supply of silicon is limited only by production capacity since silicon comes from ordinary sand and quartz . While silicon could be bought in 1998 for less than $10 per kg , the price of germanium was almost $800 per kg . Characteristics ( edit ) Under standard conditions , germanium is a brittle , silvery - white , semi-metallic element . This form constitutes an allotrope known as α - germanium , which has a metallic luster and a diamond cubic crystal structure , the same as diamond . At pressures above 120 kbar , it becomes the allotrope β - germanium with the same structure as β - tin . Like silicon , gallium , bismuth , antimony , and water , germanium is one of the few substances that expands as it solidifies ( i.e. freezes ) from the molten state . Germanium is a semiconductor . Zone refining techniques have led to the production of crystalline germanium for semiconductors that has an impurity of only one part in 10 , making it one of the purest materials ever obtained . The first metallic material discovered ( in 2005 ) to become a superconductor in the presence of an extremely strong electromagnetic field was an alloy of germanium , uranium , and rhodium . Pure germanium spontaneously extrudes very long screw dislocations , and this is one of the primary reasons for the failure of older diodes and transistors made from germanium ; depending on what they eventually touch , they may lead to an electrical short . Chemistry ( edit ) See also : Category : Germanium compounds . Elemental germanium oxidizes slowly to GeO at 250 ° C. Germanium is insoluble in dilute acids and alkalis but dissolves slowly in hot concentrated sulfuric and nitric acids and reacts violently with molten alkalis to produce germanates ( ( GeO 3 ) 2 − ) . Germanium occurs mostly in the oxidation state + 4 although many + 2 compounds are known . Other oxidation states are rare : + 3 is found in compounds such as Ge Cl , and + 3 and + 1 are found on the surface of oxides , or negative oxidation states in germanes , such as − 4 in GeH 4 . Germanium cluster anions ( Zintl ions ) such as Ge , Ge , Ge , ( ( Ge ) ) have been prepared by the extraction from alloys containing alkali metals and germanium in liquid ammonia in the presence of ethylenediamine or a cryptand . The oxidation states of the element in these ions are not integers -- similar to the ozonides O . Two oxides of germanium are known : germanium dioxide ( GeO 2 , germania ) and germanium monoxide , ( GeO ) . The dioxide , GeO can be obtained by roasting germanium disulfide ( GeS 2 ) , and is a white powder that is only slightly soluble in water but reacts with alkalis to form germanates . The monoxide , germanous oxide , can be obtained by the high temperature reaction of GeO with Ge metal . The dioxide ( and the related oxides and germanates ) exhibits the unusual property of having a high refractive index for visible light , but transparency to infrared light . Bismuth germanate , Bi Ge O , ( BGO ) is used as a scintillator . Binary compounds with other chalcogens are also known , such as the di sulfide ( GeS 2 ) , di selenide ( GeSe 2 ) , and the monosulfide ( GeS ) , selenide ( GeSe ) , and telluride ( GeTe ) . GeS forms as a white precipitate when hydrogen sulfide is passed through strongly acid solutions containing Ge ( IV ) . The disulfide is appreciably soluble in water and in solutions of caustic alkalis or alkaline sulfides . Nevertheless , it is not soluble in acidic water , which allowed Winkler to discover the element . By heating the disulfide in a current of hydrogen , the monosulfide ( GeS ) is formed , which sublimes in thin plates of a dark color and metallic luster , and is soluble in solutions of the caustic alkalis . Upon melting with alkaline carbonates and sulfur , germanium compounds form salts known as thiogermanates . Germane is similar to methane . Four tetra halides are known . Under normal conditions GeI is a solid , GeF a gas and the others volatile liquids . For example , germanium tetrachloride , GeCl , is obtained as a colorless fuming liquid boiling at 83.1 ° C by heating the metal with chlorine . All the tetrahalides are readily hydrolyzed to hydrated germanium dioxide . GeCl is used in the production of organogermanium compounds . All four dihalides are known and in contrast to the tetrahalides are polymeric solids . Additionally Ge Cl and some higher compounds of formula Ge Cl are known . The unusual compound Ge Cl has been prepared that contains the Ge Cl unit with a neopentane structure . Germane ( GeH ) is a compound similar in structure to methane . Polygermanes -- compounds that are similar to alkanes -- with formula Ge H containing up to five germanium atoms are known . The germanes are less volatile and less reactive than their corresponding silicon analogues . GeH reacts with alkali metals in liquid ammonia to form white crystalline MGeH which contain the GeH anion . The germanium hydrohalides with one , two and three halogen atoms are colorless reactive liquids . Nucleophilic addition with an organogermanium compound . The first organogermanium compound was synthesized by Winkler in 1887 ; the reaction of germanium tetrachloride with diethylzinc yielded tetraethylgermane ( Ge ( C 5 ) 4 ) . Organogermanes of the type R Ge ( where R is an alkyl ) such as tetramethylgermane ( Ge ( CH 3 ) 4 ) and tetraethylgermane are accessed through the cheapest available germanium precursor germanium tetrachloride and alkyl nucleophiles . Organic germanium hydrides such as isobutylgermane ( ( CH 3 ) 2CHCH 2GeH 3 ) were found to be less hazardous and may be used as a liquid substitute for toxic germane gas in semiconductor applications . Many germanium reactive intermediates are known : germyl free radicals , germylenes ( similar to carbenes ) , and germynes ( similar to carbynes ) . The organogermanium compound 2 - carboxyethylgermasesquioxane was first reported in the 1970s , and for a while was used as a dietary supplement and thought to possibly have anti-tumor qualities . Using a ligand called Eind ( 1 , 1 , 3 , 3 , 5 , 5 , 7 , 7 - octaethyl - s - hydrindacen - 4 - yl ) germanium is able to form a double bond with oxygen ( germanone ) . Isotopes ( edit ) Main article : Isotopes of germanium Germanium occurs in 5 natural isotopes : 70 Ge , 72 Ge , 73 Ge , 74 Ge , and 76 Ge . Of these , 76 Ge is very slightly radioactive , decaying by double beta decay with a half - life of 7028561725280000000 ♠ 1.78 × 10 years . 74 Ge is the most common isotope , having a natural abundance of approximately 36 % . 76 Ge is the least common with a natural abundance of approximately 7 % . When bombarded with alpha particles , the isotope 72 Ge will generate stable 77 Se , releasing high energy electrons in the process . Because of this , it is used in combination with radon for nuclear batteries . At least 27 radioisotopes have also been synthesized , ranging in atomic mass from 58 to 89 . The most stable of these is 68 Ge , decaying by electron capture with a half - life of 7007234100800000000 ♠ 270.95 days . The least stable is 60 Ge , with a half - life of 6998300000000000000 ♠ 30 ms . While most of germanium 's radioisotopes decay by beta decay , 61 Ge and 64 Ge decay by β + delayed proton emission . 84 Ge through 87 Ge isotopes also exhibit minor β − delayed neutron emission decay paths . Occurrence ( edit ) See also : Category : Germanium minerals . Germanium is created by stellar nucleosynthesis , mostly by the s - process in asymptotic giant branch stars . The s - process is a slow neutron capture of lighter elements inside pulsating red giant stars . Germanium has been detected in some of the most distant stars and in the atmosphere of Jupiter . Germanium 's abundance in the Earth 's crust is approximately 1.6 ppm . Only a few minerals like argyrodite , briartite , germanite , and renierite contain appreciable amounts of germanium , and none in mineable deposits . Some zinc - copper - lead ore bodies contain enough germanium to justify extraction from the final ore concentrate . An unusual natural enrichment process causes a high content of germanium in some coal seams , discovered by Victor Moritz Goldschmidt during a broad survey for germanium deposits . The highest concentration ever found was in Hartley coal ash with as much as 1.6 % germanium . The coal deposits near Xilinhaote , Inner Mongolia , contain an estimated 1600 tonnes of germanium . Production ( edit ) Renierite About 118 tonnes of germanium was produced in 2011 worldwide , mostly in China ( 80 t ) , Russia ( 5 t ) and United States ( 3 t ) . Germanium is recovered as a by - product from sphalerite zinc ores where it is concentrated in amounts as great as 0.3 % , especially from low - temperature sediment - hosted , massive Zn -- Pb -- Cu ( -- Ba ) deposits and carbonate - hosted Zn -- Pb deposits . A recent study found that at least 10,000 t of extractable germanium is contained in known zinc reserves , particularly those hosted by Mississippi - Valley type deposits , while at least 112,000 t will be found in coal reserves . In 2007 35 % of the demand was met by recycled germanium . While it is produced mainly from sphalerite , it is also found in silver , lead , and copper ores . Another source of germanium is fly ash of power plants fueled from coal deposits that contain germanium . Russia and China used this as a source for germanium . Russia 's deposits are located in the far east of Sakhalin Island , and northeast of Vladivostok . The deposits in China are located mainly in the lignite mines near Lincang , Yunnan ; coal is also mined near Xilinhaote , Inner Mongolia . Year Cost ( $ / kg ) 1999 1,400 2000 1,250 890 2002 620 2003 380 600 2005 660 2006 880 2007 1,240 2008 1,490 2009 950 940 2011 1,625 2012 1,680 2013 1,875 2014 1,900 2015 1,760 2016 950 The ore concentrates are mostly sulfidic ; they are converted to the oxides by heating under air in a process known as roasting : GeS + 3 O → GeO + 2 SO Some of the germanium is left in the dust produced , while the rest is converted to germanates , which are then leached ( together with zinc ) from the cinder by sulfuric acid . After neutralization , only the zinc stays in solution while germanium and other metals precipitate . After removing some of the zinc in the precipitate by the Waelz process , the residing Waelz oxide is leached a second time . The dioxide is obtained as precipitate and converted with chlorine gas or hydrochloric acid to germanium tetrachloride , which has a low boiling point and can be isolated by distillation : GeO + 4 HCl → GeCl + 2 H O GeO + 2 Cl → GeCl + O Germanium tetrachloride is either hydrolyzed to the oxide ( GeO ) or purified by fractional distillation and then hydrolyzed . The highly pure GeO is now suitable for the production of germanium glass . It is reduced to the element by reacting it with hydrogen , producing germanium suitable for infrared optics and semiconductor production : GeO + 2 H → Ge + 2 H O The germanium for steel production and other industrial processes is normally reduced using carbon : GeO + C → Ge + CO Applications ( edit ) A typical single - mode optical fiber . Germanium oxide is a dopant of the core silica ( Item 1 ) . 1 . Core 8 μm 2 . Cladding 125 μm 3 . Buffer 250 μm 4 . Jacket 400 μm The major end uses for germanium in 2007 , worldwide , were estimated to be : 35 % for fiber - optics , 30 % infrared optics , 15 % polymerization catalysts , and 15 % electronics and solar electric applications . The remaining 5 % went into such uses as phosphors , metallurgy , and chemotherapy . Optics ( edit ) The notable properties of germania ( GeO ) are its high index of refraction and its low optical dispersion . These make it especially useful for wide - angle camera lenses , microscopy , and the core part of optical fibers . It has replaced titania as the dopant for silica fiber , eliminating the subsequent heat treatment that made the fibers brittle . At the end of 2002 , the fiber optics industry consumed 60 % of the annual germanium use in the United States , but this is less than 10 % of worldwide consumption . GeSbTe is a phase change material used for its optic properties , such as that used in rewritable DVDs . Because germanium is transparent in the infrared wavelengths , it is an important infrared optical material that can be readily cut and polished into lenses and windows . It is especially used as the front optic in thermal imaging cameras working in the 8 to 14 micron range for passive thermal imaging and for hot - spot detection in military , mobile night vision , and fire fighting applications . It is used in infrared spectroscopes and other optical equipment that require extremely sensitive infrared detectors . It has a very high refractive index ( 4.0 ) and must be coated with anti-reflection agents . Particularly , a very hard special antireflection coating of diamond - like carbon ( DLC ) , refractive index 2.0 , is a good match and produces a diamond - hard surface that can withstand much environmental abuse . Electronics ( edit ) Silicon - germanium alloys are rapidly becoming an important semiconductor material for high - speed integrated circuits . Circuits utilizing the properties of Si - SiGe junctions can be much faster than those using silicon alone . Silicon - germanium is beginning to replace gallium arsenide ( GaAs ) in wireless communications devices . The SiGe chips , with high - speed properties , can be made with low - cost , well - established production techniques of the silicon chip industry . Solar panels are a major use of germanium . Germanium is the substrate of the wafers for high - efficiency multijunction photovoltaic cells for space applications . High - brightness LEDs , used for automobile headlights and to backlight LCD screens , are an important application . Because germanium and gallium arsenide have very similar lattice constants , germanium substrates can be used to make gallium arsenide solar cells . The Mars Exploration Rovers and several satellites use triple junction gallium arsenide on germanium cells . Germanium - on - insulator substrates are seen as a potential replacement for silicon on miniaturized chips . Other uses in electronics include phosphors in fluorescent lamps and solid - state light - emitting diodes ( LEDs ) . Germanium transistors are still used in some effects pedals by musicians who wish to reproduce the distinctive tonal character of the `` fuzz '' - tone from the early rock and roll era , most notably the Dallas Arbiter Fuzz Face . Other uses ( edit ) A PET bottle Germanium dioxide is also used in catalysts for polymerization in the production of polyethylene terephthalate ( PET ) . The high brilliance of this polyester is especially favored for PET bottles marketed in Japan . In the United States , germanium is not used for polymerization catalysts . Due to the similarity between silica ( SiO ) and germanium dioxide ( GeO ) , the silica stationary phase in some gas chromatography columns can be replaced by GeO . In recent years germanium has seen increasing use in precious metal alloys . In sterling silver alloys , for instance , it reduces firescale , increases tarnish resistance , and improves precipitation hardening . A tarnish - proof silver alloy trademarked Argentium contains 1.2 % germanium . Semiconductor detectors made of single crystal high - purity germanium can precisely identify radiation sources -- for example in airport security . Germanium is useful for monochromators for beamlines used in single crystal neutron scattering and synchrotron X-ray diffraction . The reflectivity has advantages over silicon in neutron and high energy X-ray applications . Crystals of high purity germanium are used in detectors for gamma spectroscopy and the search for dark matter . Germanium crystals are also used in X-ray spectrometers for the determination of phosphorus , chlorine and sulfur . Germanium is emerging as an important material for spintronics and spin - based quantum computing applications . In 2010 , researchers demonstrated room temperature spin transport and more recently donor electron spins in germanium has been shown to have very long coherence times . Germanium and health ( edit ) Germanium is not considered essential to the health of plants or animals . Germanium in the environment has little or no health impact . This is primarily because it usually occurs only as a trace element in ores and carbonaceous materials , and the various industrial and electronic applications involve very small quantities that are not likely to be ingested . For similar reasons , end - use germanium has little impact on the environment as a biohazard . Some reactive intermediate compounds of germanium are poisonous ( see precautions , below ) . Germanium supplements , made from both organic and inorganic germanium , have been marketed as an alternative medicine capable of treating leukemia and lung cancer . There is , however , no medical evidence of benefit ; some evidence suggests that such supplements are actively harmful . Some germanium compounds have been administered by alternative medical practitioners as non-FDA - allowed injectable solutions . Soluble inorganic forms of germanium used at first , notably the citrate - lactate salt , resulted in some cases of renal dysfunction , hepatic steatosis , and peripheral neuropathy in individuals using them over a long term . Plasma and urine germanium concentrations in these individuals , several of whom died , were several orders of magnitude greater than endogenous levels . A more recent organic form , beta - carboxyethylgermanium sesquioxide ( propagermanium ) , has not exhibited the same spectrum of toxic effects . U.S. Food and Drug Administration research has concluded that inorganic germanium , when used as a nutritional supplement , `` presents potential human health hazard '' . Certain compounds of germanium have low toxicity to mammals , but have toxic effects against certain bacteria . Precautions for chemically reactive germanium compounds ( edit ) Some of germanium 's artificially - produced compounds are quite reactive and present an immediate hazard to human health on exposure . For example , germanium chloride and germane ( GeH ) are a liquid and gas , respectively , that can be very irritating to the eyes , skin , lungs , and throat . Future ( edit ) As of the year 2000 , about 15 % of United States consumption of germanium was used for infrared optics technology and 50 % for fiber - optics . Over the past 20 years , infrared use has consistently decreased ; fiber optic demand , however , is slowly increasing . In America , 30 -- 50 % of current fiber optic lines are unused dark fiber , sparking discussion of over-production and a future reduction in demand . Worldwide , demand is increasing dramatically as countries such as China are installing fiber optic telecommunication lines throughout the country . See also ( edit ) Transistor Vitrain Books View or order collections of articles Germanium Period 4 elements Carbon group Chemical elements ( sorted alphabetically ) Chemical elements ( sorted by number ) Portals Access related topics Chemistry portal Find out more on Wikipedia 's Sister projects Media from Commons Definitions from Wiktionary Footnotes ( edit ) Jump up ^ From Greek , argyrodite means silver - containing . Jump up ^ Just as the existence of the new element had been predicted , the existence of the planet Neptune had been predicted in about 1843 by the two mathematicians John Couch Adams and Urbain Le Verrier , using the calculation methods of celestial mechanics . They did this in attempts to explain the fact that the planet Uranus , upon very close observation , appeared to be being pulled slightly out of position in the sky . James Challis started searching for it in July 1846 , and he sighted this planet on September 23 , 1846 . Jump up ^ R. Hermann published claims in 1877 of his discovery of a new element beneath tantalum in the periodic table , which he named neptunium , after the Greek god of the oceans and seas . However this metal was later recognized to be an alloy of the elements niobium and tantalum . The name `` neptunium '' was much later given to the synthetic element one step past uranium in the Periodic Table , which was discovered by nuclear physics researchers in 1940 . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Meija , J. ; et al. ( 2016 ) . `` Atomic weights of the elements 2013 ( IUPAC Technical Report ) '' . Pure Appl . Chem. 88 ( 3 ) : 265 -- 91 . doi : 10.1515 / pac - 2015 - 0305 . Jump up ^ Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds , in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition , CRC press . Jump up ^ Weast , Robert ( 1984 ) . CRC , Handbook of Chemistry and Physics . Boca Raton , Florida : Chemical Rubber Company Publishing . pp. E110 . ISBN 0 - 8493 - 0464 - 4 . ^ Jump up to : `` Properties of Germanium '' . Ioffe Institute . Jump up ^ Kaji , Masanori ( 2002 ) . `` D.I. Mendeleev 's concept of chemical elements and The Principles of Chemistry '' ( PDF ) . Bulletin for the History of Chemistry . 27 ( 1 ) : 4 -- 16 . Retrieved 2008 - 08 - 20 . Jump up ^ Argyrodite -- Ag 8GeS 6 ( PDF ) ( Report ) . Mineral Data Publishing . Retrieved 2008 - 09 - 01 . ^ Jump up to : Winkler , Clemens ( 1887 ) . `` Mittheilungen über des Germanium . Zweite Abhandlung '' . J. Prak . Chemie ( in German ) . 36 ( 1 ) : 177 -- 209 . doi : 10.1002 / prac. 18870360119 . Retrieved 2008 - 08 - 20 . ^ Jump up to : Winkler , Clemens ( 1887 ) . `` Germanium , Ge , a New Nonmetal Element '' . Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft ( in German ) . 19 ( 1 ) : 210 -- 211 . doi : 10.1002 / cber. 18860190156 . Archived from the original on December 7 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Adams , J.C. ( November 13 , 1846 ) . `` Explanation of the observed irregularities in the motion of Uranus , on the hypothesis of disturbance by a more distant planet '' . Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society . Blackwell Publishing . 7 : 149 -- 152 . Bibcode : 1846MNRAS ... 7 ... 149A . doi : 10.1093 / mnras / 7.9. 149 . Jump up ^ Challis , Rev. J. ( November 13 , 1846 ) . `` Account of observations at the Cambridge observatory for detecting the planet exterior to Uranus '' . Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society . Blackwell Publishing . 7 : 145 -- 149 . Bibcode : 1846MNRAS ... 7 ... 145C . doi : 10.1093 / mnras / 7.9. 145 . Jump up ^ Sears , Robert ( July 1877 ) . `` Scientific Miscellany '' . The Galaxy . Columbus , O ( hio ) : Siebert & Lilley. 24 ( 1 ) : 131 . ISBN 0 - 665 - 50166 - 8 . OCLC 16890343 . Jump up ^ `` Editor 's Scientific Record '' . Harper 's new monthly magazine . 55 ( 325 ) : 152 -- 153 . June 1877 . Jump up ^ van der Krogt , Peter . `` Elementymology & Elements Multidict : Niobium '' . Retrieved 2008 - 08 - 20 . Jump up ^ Westgren , A. ( 1964 ) . `` The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1951 : presentation speech '' . Nobel Lectures , Chemistry 1942 -- 1962 . Elsevier . Jump up ^ `` Germanium , a New Non-Metallic Element '' . The Manufacturer and Builder : 181 . 1887 . Retrieved 2008 - 08 - 20 . Jump up ^ Brunck , O. ( 1886 ) . `` Obituary : Clemens Winkler '' . Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft ( in German ) . 39 ( 4 ) : 4491 -- 4548 . doi : 10.1002 / cber. 190603904164 . Jump up ^ de Boisbaudran , M. Lecoq ( 1886 ) . `` Sur le poids atomique du germanium '' . Comptes rendus ( in French ) . 103 : 452 . Retrieved 2008 - 08 - 20 . ^ Jump up to : Haller , E.E. `` Germanium : From Its Discovery to SiGe Devices '' ( PDF ) . Department of Materials Science and Engineering , University of California , Berkeley , and Materials Sciences Division , Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , Berkeley . Retrieved 2008 - 08 - 22 . Jump up ^ W.K. ( 1953 - 05 - 10 ) . `` Germanium for Electronic Devices '' . NY Times . Retrieved 2008 - 08 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` 1941 -- Semiconductor diode rectifiers serve in WW II '' . Computer History Museum . Retrieved 2008 - 08 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` SiGe History '' . University of Cambridge . Archived from the original on 2008 - 08 - 05 . Retrieved 2008 - 08 - 22 . ^ Jump up to : Halford , Bethany ( 2003 ) . `` Germanium '' . Chemical & Engineering News . American Chemical Society . Retrieved 2008 - 08 - 22 . Jump up ^ Bardeen , J. ; Brattain , W.H. ( 1948 ) . `` The Transistor , A Semi-Conductor Triode '' . Physical Review . 74 ( 2 ) : 230 -- 231 . Bibcode : 1948PhRv ... 74 ... 230B . doi : 10.1103 / PhysRev. 74.230 . Jump up ^ `` Electronics History 4 -- Transistors '' . National Academy of Engineering . Retrieved 2008 - 08 - 22 . ^ Jump up to : U.S. Geological Survey ( 2008 ) . `` Germanium -- Statistics and Information '' . U.S. Geological Survey , Mineral Commodity Summaries . Retrieved 2008 - 08 - 28 . Select 2008 Jump up ^ Teal , Gordon K. ( July 1976 ) . `` Single Crystals of Germanium and Silicon - Basic to the Transistor and Integrated Circuit '' . IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices . ED - 23 ( 7 ) : 621 -- 639 . Bibcode : 1976ITED ... 23 ... 621T . doi : 10.1109 / T - ED. 1976.18464 . ^ Jump up to : Emsley , John ( 2001 ) . Nature 's Building Blocks . Oxford : Oxford University Press . pp. 506 -- 510 . ISBN 0 - 19 - 850341 - 5 . ^ Jump up to : Holleman , A.F. ; Wiberg , E. ; Wiberg , N. ( 2007 ) . Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie ( 102nd ed . ) . de Gruyter . ISBN 978 - 3 - 11 - 017770 - 1 . OCLC 145623740 . ^ Jump up to : `` Germanium '' . Los Alamos National Laboratory . Retrieved 2008 - 08 - 28 . Jump up ^ Chardin , B. ( 2001 ) . `` Dark Matter : Direct Detection '' . In Binetruy , B . The Primordial Universe : 28 June -- 23 July 1999 . Springer . p. 308 . ISBN 3 - 540 - 41046 - 5 . Jump up ^ Lévy , F. ; Sheikin , I. ; Grenier , B. ; Huxley , A. ( August 2005 ) . `` Magnetic field - induced superconductivity in the ferromagnet URhGe '' . Science . 309 ( 5739 ) : 1343 -- 1346 . Bibcode : 2005Sci ... 309.1343 L . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1115498 . PMID 16123293 . Jump up ^ Tabet , N ; Salim , Mushtaq A. ( 1998 ) . `` KRXPS study of the oxidation of Ge ( 001 ) surface '' . Applied Surface Science . 134 ( 1 -- 4 ) : 275 -- 282 . Bibcode : 1998ApSS ... 134 ... 275T . doi : 10.1016 / S0169 - 4332 ( 98 ) 00251 - 7 . ^ Jump up to : Greenwood , Norman N. ; Earnshaw , Alan ( 1997 ) . Chemistry of the Elements ( 2nd ed . ) . Butterworth - Heinemann . ISBN 0 - 08 - 037941 - 9 . Jump up ^ Tabet , N ; Salim , M.A. ; Al - Oteibi , A.L. ( 1999 ) . `` XPS study of the growth kinetics of thin films obtained by thermal oxidation of germanium substrates '' . Journal of Electron Spectroscopy and Related Phenomena. 101 -- 103 : 233 -- 238 . doi : 10.1016 / S0368 - 2048 ( 98 ) 00451 - 4 . Jump up ^ Xu , Li ; Sevov , Slavi C. ( 1999 ) . `` Oxidative Coupling of Deltahedral ( Ge ) Zintl Ions '' . J. Am. Chem. Soc. 121 ( 39 ) : 9245 -- 9246 . doi : 10.1021 / ja992269s . Jump up ^ Bayya , Shyam S. ; Sanghera , Jasbinder S. ; Aggarwal , Ishwar D. ; Wojcik , Joshua A. ( 2002 ) . `` Infrared Transparent Germanate Glass - Ceramics '' . Journal of the American Ceramic Society . 85 ( 12 ) : 3114 -- 3116 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1151 - 2916.2002. tb00594. x . Jump up ^ Drugoveiko , O.P. ; Evstrop'ev , K.K. ; Kondrat'eva , B.S. ; Petrov , Yu . A. ; Shevyakov , A.M. ( 1975 ) . `` Infrared reflectance and transmission spectra of germanium dioxide and its hydrolysis products '' . Journal of Applied Spectroscopy. 22 ( 2 ) : 191 -- 193 . Bibcode : 1975JApSp ... 22 ... 191D . doi : 10.1007 / BF00614256 . Jump up ^ Lightstone , A.W. ; McIntyre , R.J. ; Lecomte , R. ; Schmitt , D. ( 1986 ) . `` A Bismuth Germanate - Avalanche Photodiode Module Designed for Use in High Resolution Positron Emission Tomography '' . IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science . 33 ( 1 ) : 456 -- 459 . Bibcode : 1986ITNS ... 33 ... 456L . doi : 10.1109 / TNS. 1986.4337142 . Jump up ^ Johnson , Otto H. ( 1952 ) . `` Germanium and its Inorganic Compounds '' . Chem. Rev. 51 ( 3 ) : 431 -- 469 . doi : 10.1021 / cr60160a002 . Jump up ^ Fröba , Michael ; Oberender , Nadine ( 1997 ) . `` First synthesis of mesostructured thiogermanates '' . Chemical Communications ( 18 ) : 1729 -- 1730 . doi : 10.1039 / a703634e . Jump up ^ Beattie , I.R. ; Jones , P.J. ; Reid , G. ; Webster , M. ( 1998 ) . `` The Crystal Structure and Raman Spectrum of Ge Cl GeCl and the Vibrational Spectrum of Ge Cl '' . Inorg . Chem. 37 ( 23 ) : 6032 -- 6034 . doi : 10.1021 / ic9807341 . PMID 11670739 . Jump up ^ Satge , Jacques ( 1984 ) . `` Reactive intermediates in organogermanium chemistry '' . Pure Appl . Chem. 56 ( 1 ) : 137 -- 150 . doi : 10.1351 / pac198456010137 . Jump up ^ Quane , Denis ; Bottei , Rudolph S. ( 1963 ) . `` Organogermanium Chemistry '' . Chemical Reviews . 63 ( 4 ) : 403 -- 442 . doi : 10.1021 / cr60224a004 . ^ Jump up to : Tao , S.H. ; Bolger , P.M. ( June 1997 ) . `` Hazard Assessment of Germanium Supplements '' . Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology . 25 ( 3 ) : 211 -- 219 . doi : 10.1006 / rtph. 1997.1098 . PMID 9237323 . Jump up ^ Broadwith , Phillip ( 25 March 2012 ) . `` Germanium - oxygen double bond takes centre stage '' . Chemistry World . Retrieved 2014 - 05 - 15 . ^ Jump up to : Audi , G. ; Bersillon , O. ; Blachot , J. ; Wapstra , A.H. ( 2003 ) . `` Nubase2003 Evaluation of Nuclear and Decay Properties '' . Nuclear Physics A. Atomic Mass Data Center . 729 ( 1 ) : 3 -- 128 . Bibcode : 2003NuPhA. 729 ... 3A . doi : 10.1016 / j. nuclphysa. 2003.11. 001 . ^ Jump up to : Perreault , Bruce A. `` Alpha Fusion Electrical Energy Valve '' , US Patent 7800286 , issued September 21 , 2010 . PDF copy at the Wayback Machine ( archived October 12 , 2007 ) . Jump up ^ Sterling , N.C. ; Dinerstein , Harriet L. ; Bowers , Charles W. ( 2002 ) . `` Discovery of Enhanced Germanium Abundances in Planetary Nebulae with the Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer '' . The Astrophysical Journal Letters. 578 ( 1 ) : L55 -- L58 . arXiv : astro - ph / 0208516 . Bibcode : 2002ApJ ... 578L ... 55S . doi : 10.1086 / 344473 . Jump up ^ Cowan , John ( 2003 - 05 - 01 ) . `` Astronomy : Elements of surprise '' . Nature . 423 ( 29 ) : 29 . Bibcode : 2003Natur. 423 ... 29C . doi : 10.1038 / 423029a . PMID 12721614 . Jump up ^ Kunde , V. ; Hanel , R. ; Maguire , W. ; Gautier , D. ; Baluteau , J.P. ; Marten , A. ; Chedin , A. ; Husson , N. ; Scott , N. ( 1982 ) . `` The tropospheric gas composition of Jupiter 's north equatorial belt / NH , PH , CH D , GeH , H O / and the Jovian D / H isotopic ratio '' . Astrophysical Journal . 263 : 443 -- 467 . Bibcode : 1982ApJ ... 263 ... 443K . doi : 10.1086 / 160516 . ^ Jump up to : Höll , R. ; Kling , M. ; Schroll , E. ( 2007 ) . `` Metallogenesis of germanium -- A review '' . Ore Geology Reviews . 30 ( 3 -- 4 ) : 145 -- 180 . doi : 10.1016 / j. oregeorev. 2005.07. 034 . Jump up ^ `` The distribution of gallium , germanium and indium in conventional and non-conventional resources - Implications for global availability ( PDF Download Available ) '' . ResearchGate . doi : 10.13140 / rg. 2.2. 20956.18564 . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 10 . ^ Jump up to : Goldschmidt , V.M. ( 1930 ) . `` Ueber das Vorkommen des Germaniums in Steinkohlen und Steinkohlenprodukten '' . Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen , Mathematisch - Physikalische Klasse : 141 -- 167 . ^ Jump up to : Goldschmidt , V.M. ; Peters , Cl. ( 1933 ) . `` Zur Geochemie des Germaniums '' . Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen , Mathematisch - Physikalische Klasse : 141 -- 167 . Jump up ^ Bernstein , L ( 1985 ) . `` Germanium geochemistry and mineralogy '' . Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 49 ( 11 ) : 2409 -- 2422 . Bibcode : 1985GeCoA ... 49.2409 B . doi : 10.1016 / 0016 - 7037 ( 85 ) 90241 - 8 . Jump up ^ Frenzel , Max ; Hirsch , Tamino ; Gutzmer , Jens ( July 2016 ) . `` Gallium , germanium , indium and other minor and trace elements in sphalerite as a function of deposit type -- A meta - analysis '' . Ore Geology Reviews . Elsevier . 76 : 52 -- 78 . doi : 10.1016 / j. oregeorev. 2015.12. 017 . Jump up ^ Frenzel , Max ; Ketris , Marina P. ; Gutzmer , Jens ( 2013 - 12 - 29 ) . `` On the geological availability of germanium '' . Mineralium Deposita. 49 ( 4 ) : 471 -- 486 . Bibcode : 2014MinDe ... 49 ... 471F . doi : 10.1007 / s00126 - 013 - 0506 - z . ISSN 0026 - 4598 . Jump up ^ Frenzel , Max ; Ketris , Marina P. ; Gutzmer , Jens ( 2014 - 01 - 19 ) . `` Erratum to : On the geological availability of germanium '' . Mineralium Deposita. 49 ( 4 ) : 487 -- 487 . Bibcode : 2014MinDe ... 49 ... 487F . doi : 10.1007 / s00126 - 014 - 0509 - 4 . ISSN 0026 - 4598 . ^ Jump up to : Naumov , A.V. ( 2007 ) . `` World market of germanium and its prospects '' . Russian Journal of Non-Ferrous Metals. 48 ( 4 ) : 265 -- 272 . doi : 10.3103 / S1067821207040049 . Jump up ^ R.N. Soar ( 1977 ) . `` USGS Minerals Information '' . U.S. Geological Survey Mineral Commodity Summaries . U.S. Geological Survey . January 2003 , January 2004 , January 2005 , January 2006 , January 2007 , January 2010 . ISBN 0 - 85934 - 039 - 2 . OCLC 16437701 . ^ Jump up to : Moskalyk , R.R. ( 2004 ) . `` Review of germanium processing worldwide '' . Minerals Engineering . 17 ( 3 ) : 393 -- 402 . doi : 10.1016 / j. mineng. 2003.11. 014 . Jump up ^ Rieke , G.H. ( 2007 ) . `` Infrared Detector Arrays for Astronomy '' . Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. 45 ( 1 ) : 77 -- 115 . Bibcode : 2007ARA&A ... 45 ... 77R . doi : 10.1146 / annurev. astro. 44.051905. 092436 . ^ Jump up to : Brown , Jr. , Robert D. ( 2000 ) . `` Germanium '' ( PDF ) . U.S. Geological Survey . Retrieved 2008 - 09 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` Chapter III : Optical Fiber For Communications '' ( PDF ) . Stanford Research Institute . Retrieved 2008 - 08 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` Understanding Recordable & Rewritable DVD '' ( PDF ) ( First ed . ) . Optical Storage Technology Association ( OSTA ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2009 - 04 - 19 . Retrieved 2008 - 09 - 22 . Jump up ^ Lettington , Alan H. ( 1998 ) . `` Applications of diamond - like carbon thin films '' . Carbon. 36 ( 5 -- 6 ) : 555 -- 560 . doi : 10.1016 / S0008 - 6223 ( 98 ) 00062 - 1 . Jump up ^ Gardos , Michael N. ; Bonnie L. Soriano ; Steven H. Propst ( 1990 ) . Feldman , Albert ; Holly , Sandor , eds . `` Study on correlating rain erosion resistance with sliding abrasion resistance of DLC on germanium '' . Proc. SPIE . SPIE Proceedings . 1325 ( Mechanical Properties ) : 99 . doi : 10.1117 / 12.22449 . Jump up ^ Washio , K. ( 2003 ) . `` SiGe HBT and BiCMOS technologies for optical transmission and wireless communication systems '' . IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices . 50 ( 3 ) : 656 -- 668 . Bibcode : 2003ITED ... 50 ... 656W . doi : 10.1109 / TED. 2003.810484 . Jump up ^ Bailey , Sheila G. ; Raffaelle , Ryne ; Emery , Keith ( 2002 ) . `` Space and terrestrial photovoltaics : synergy and diversity '' . Progress in Photovoltaics : Research and Applications. 10 ( 6 ) : 399 -- 406 . doi : 10.1002 / pip. 446 . Jump up ^ Crisp , D. ; Pathare , A. ; Ewell , R.C. ( 2004 ) . `` The performance of gallium arsenide / germanium solar cells at the Martian surface '' . Acta Astronautica. 54 ( 2 ) : 83 -- 101 . Bibcode : 2004AcAau ... 54 ... 83C . doi : 10.1016 / S0094 - 5765 ( 02 ) 00287 - 4 . Jump up ^ Szweda , Roy ( 2005 ) . `` Germanium phoenix '' . III - Vs Review . 18 ( 7 ) : 55 . doi : 10.1016 / S0961 - 1290 ( 05 ) 71310 - 7 . ^ Jump up to : Thiele , Ulrich K. ( 2001 ) . `` The Current Status of Catalysis and Catalyst Development for the Industrial Process of Poly ( ethylene terephthalate ) Polycondensation '' . International Journal of Polymeric Materials. 50 ( 3 ) : 387 -- 394 . doi : 10.1080 / 00914030108035115 . Jump up ^ Fang , Li ; Kulkarni , Sameer ; Alhooshani , Khalid ; Malik , Abdul ( 2007 ) . `` Germania - Based , Sol - Gel Hybrid Organic - Inorganic Coatings for Capillary Microextraction and Gas Chromatography '' . Anal . Chem. 79 ( 24 ) : 9441 -- 9451 . doi : 10.1021 / ac071056f . PMID 17994707 . Jump up ^ Keyser , Ronald ; Twomey , Timothy ; Upp , Daniel . `` Performance of Light - Weight , Battery - Operated , High Purity Germanium Detectors for Field Use '' ( PDF ) . Oak Ridge Technical Enterprise Corporation ( ORTEC ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on October 26 , 2007 . Retrieved 2008 - 09 - 06 . Jump up ^ Ahmed , F.U. ; Yunus , S.M. ; Kamal , I. ; Begum , S. ; Khan , Aysha A. ; Ahsan , M.H. ; Ahmad , A.A.Z. ( 1996 ) . `` Optimization of Germanium for Neutron Diffractometers '' . International Journal of Modern Physics E. 5 ( 1 ) : 131 -- 151 . Bibcode : 1996IJMPE ... 5 ... 131A . doi : 10.1142 / S0218301396000062 . Jump up ^ Diehl , R. ; Prantzos , N. ; Vonballmoos , P. ( 2006 ) . `` Astrophysical constraints from gamma - ray spectroscopy '' . Nuclear Physics A. 777 : 70 -- 97 . arXiv : astro - ph / 0502324 . Bibcode : 2006NuPhA. 777 ... 70D . doi : 10.1016 / j. nuclphysa. 2005.02. 155 . Jump up ^ Eugene P. Bertin , Principles and practice of X-ray spectrometric analysis , Chapter 5.4 - Analyzer crystals , Table 5.1 , p. 123 ; Plenum Press , 1970 Jump up ^ Shen , C. ; Trypiniotis , T. ; Lee , K.Y. ; Holmes , S.N. ; Mansell , R. ; Husain , M. ; Shah , V. ; Li , X.V. ; Kurebayashi , H. ( 2010 - 10 - 18 ) . `` Spin transport in germanium at room temperature '' . Applied Physics Letters. 97 ( 16 ) : 162104 . Bibcode : 2010ApPhL ... 97p2104S . doi : 10.1063 / 1.3505337 . ISSN 0003 - 6951 . Jump up ^ Sigillito , A.J. ; Jock , R.M. ; Tyryshkin , A.M. ; Beeman , J.W. ; Haller , E.E. ; Itoh , K.M. ; Lyon , S.A. ( 2015 - 12 - 07 ) . `` Electron Spin Coherence of Shallow Donors in Natural and Isotopically Enriched Germanium '' . Physical Review Letters. 115 ( 24 ) : 247601 . arXiv : 1506.05767 . Bibcode : 2015PhRvL. 115x7601S . doi : 10.1103 / PhysRevLett. 115.247601 . PMID 26705654 . Jump up ^ Brown Jr. , Robert D. Commodity Survey : Germanium ( PDF ) ( Report ) . US Geological Surveys . Retrieved 2008 - 09 - 09 . Jump up ^ Ades TB , ed. ( 2009 ) . `` Germanium '' . American Cancer Society Complete Guide to Complementary and Alternative Cancer Therapies ( 2nd ed . ) . American Cancer Society . pp. 360 -- 363 . ISBN 9780944235713 . Jump up ^ Baselt , R. ( 2008 ) . Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man ( 8th ed . ) . Foster City , CA : Biomedical Publications . pp. 693 -- 694 . Jump up ^ Gerber , G.B. ; Léonard , A. ( 1997 ) . `` Mutagenicity , carcinogenicity and teratogenicity of germanium compounds '' . Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology . 387 ( 3 ) : 141 -- 146 . doi : 10.1016 / S1383 - 5742 ( 97 ) 00034 - 3 . Jump up ^ `` Germanium '' Mineral Commodity Profile , U.S. Geological Survey , 2005 . External links ( edit ) Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Germanium . Germanium at The Periodic Table of Videos ( University of Nottingham ) ( hide ) Periodic table ( Large cells ) 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 He Li Be O Ne Na Mg Al Si Cl Ar Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr 5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te Xe 6 Cs Ba La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn 7 Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal Lanthanide Actinide Transition metal Post -  transition metal Metalloid Polyatomic nonmetal Diatomic nonmetal Noble gas Unknown chemical properties Germanium compounds Ge ( II ) GeCl GeF GeI GeO Ge ( OH ) GeS GeSe GeTe Ge ( IV ) GeF GeCl GeO GeS LCCN : sh85054449 GND : 4135644 - 5 BNF : cb122010330 ( data ) NDL : 00562424 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Germanium&oldid=811553754 '' Categories : Germanium Chemical elements Metalloids Infrared sensor materials Optical materials Group IV semiconductors Chemical elements predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev Hidden categories : CS1 German - language sources ( de ) CS1 French - language sources ( fr ) Webarchive template wayback links Wikipedia indefinitely move - protected pages Featured articles Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés Armãneashti Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Bân - lâm - gú Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца )  भोजपुरी Български བོད ་ ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Corsu Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gàidhlig Galego ગુજરાતી 客家 語 / Hak - kâ - ngî Хальмг 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Коми Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Livvinkarjala La . lojban . Lumbaart Magyar Македонски മലയാളം मराठी Bahasa Melayu Mìng - dĕ̤ng - ngṳ̄ Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本 語 Nordfriisk Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ पालि پنجابی Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский संस्कृतम् Scots Seeltersk Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Basa Sunda Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vepsän kel ' Tiếng Việt 文言 Winaray ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 中文 Kabɩyɛ Edit links This page was last edited on 22 November 2017 , at 10 : 40 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia


At the Center of the Storm At the Center of the Storm : My Years at the CIA is a memoir co-written by former Director of the Central Intelligence Agency George Tenet with Bill Harlow , former CIA Director of Public Affairs . The book was released on April 30 , 2007 and outlines Tenet 's version of 9 / 11 , the War on Terrorism , the 2001 War in Afghanistan , the run - up to the 2003 Iraq war , rough interrogation and other events . Contents ( hide ) 1 60 Minutes interview 2 Criticism 3 Erratum 4 See also 5 Related memoirs 6 References 7 External links 60 Minutes interview ( edit ) On April 29 , 2007 , Tenet was interviewed about his memoir on 60 Minutes . Tenet outlined the content of his book including allegations that are contrary to the George W. Bush administration positions . Criticism ( edit ) Tenet faced accusations of hypocrisy from former espionage officials on the book 's release date , for not speaking out earlier against the White House 's push to invade Iraq . Former Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice disputes Tenet 's claim that the Bush administration , before the U.S. led invasion of Iraq in March 2003 , never had a serious debate about whether Iraq posed an imminent threat or whether to tighten existing sanctions . CIA veteran , Michael Scheuer , states , `` Sadly but fittingly , ' At the Center of the Storm ' is likely to remind us that sometimes what lies at the center of a storm is a deafening silence . '' Robert Baer , author and former CIA field officer assigned to the Middle East states , `` It 's not that Tenet is responsible for getting us into Iraq . It 's that he failed in not making a full disclosure to Congress and the White House that we were taking a leap into a bottomless black abyss . He should have resigned when he realized Bush would use bad intelligence to deceive the American people . This is what we get when we have a politicized CIA director . '' Douglas Feith , the former Under Secretary of Defense for Policy , whom Tenet criticizes in his book , states : `` The problem with George Tenet is that he does n't seem to care to get his facts straight . He is not meticulous . He is willing to make up stories that suit his purposes and to suppress information that does not . '' In reference to Tenet 's error regarding Richard Perle ( see below ) , Feith wrote that `` The date , the physical descriptions , the quotation marks are all , in the words of Gilbert and Sullivan 's ' Mikado , ' merely corroborative detail , intended to give artistic verisimilitude to an otherwise bald and unconvincing narrative . '' The memoir , Feith said , `` ... does offer insight into Mr. Tenet . It allows you to hear the way he talked -- fast , loose , blustery , emotional , imprecise , from the ' gut . ' Mr. Tenet proudly refers to the guidance of his ' gut ' several times in the book -- a strange boast from someone whose stock - in - trade should be accuracy and precision . '' Erratum ( edit ) A key conversation with then Pentagon advisor Richard Perle on September 12 , 2001 , in which Tenet claims Perle told him that `` Iraq had to pay for the attack '' could not have occurred as Perle was stranded in Paris and did not return to Washington , D.C. until three days later ; however , in an interview with CNN 's Wolf Blitzer during an episode of The Situation Room Perle admitted that the two men indeed crossed each other one morning , as claimed by Tenet , but only later in the same week and not on September 12 . See also ( edit ) 2001 anthrax attacks Abu Ghraib prison Command responsibility Extraordinary rendition Governments ' positions pre-2003 invasion of Iraq Guantanamo Bay detention camp Homeland Security Act Iraq and weapons of mass destruction Iraq disarmament crisis Legitimacy of the 2003 invasion of Iraq Plausible deniability Public relations preparations for 2003 invasion of Iraq UN Security Council and the Iraq war Unlawful combatant USA PATRIOT Act Views on the 2003 invasion of Iraq Waterboarding Related memoirs ( edit ) A Journey by Tony Blair Decision Points by George W. Bush In My Time : A Personal and Political Memoir by Dick Cheney Known and Unknown : A Memoir by Donald Rumsfeld Spoken from the Heart by Laura Bush References ( edit ) Jump up ^ HarperCollins - Official homepage Jump up ^ CBS News ( 2007 - 04 - 25 ) . `` George Tenet : At The Center Of The Storm '' . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 29 . Jump up ^ Fox News . `` Ex-CIA director faces criticism over memoir '' . Reuters . Archived from the original on 2007 - 05 - 18 . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 30 . ^ Jump up to : Associated Press . `` Tenet Memoir Draws Heat From Key Players '' . Retrieved 2015 - 11 - 16 . Jump up ^ The Washington Post ( 2007 - 04 - 29 ) . `` Tenet Tries to Shift the Blame . Do n't Buy It '' . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 29 . Jump up ^ TIME . `` George Tenet 's Real Failure '' . Retrieved 2007 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ The Wall Street Journal . `` Inside the Inside Story '' . Archived from the original on 2007 - 05 - 08 . Retrieved 2007 - 05 - 04 . External links ( edit ) Wikinews has related news : Ex-CIA Director George Tenet 's memoir published Excerpt of 60 Minutes interview with George Tenet at YouTube . HarperCollins book description . Reviews Bloomberg . `` Tenet Attacks Woodward 's ` Slam Dunk ' Story , Lets Bush Off Hook '' . Retrieved 2007 - 05 - 02 . MSNBC . `` Tenet claims CIA was a scapegoat for war '' . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 30 . ABC News . `` Former CIA Director Breaks Ranks With Bush , Rattles Washington '' . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 30 . The New York Times ( 2007 - 04 - 28 ) . `` An Ex-C.I.A. Chief on Iraq and the Slam Dunk That Was n't '' . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 28 . BBC News ( 2007 - 04 - 27 ) . `` Ex-CIA chief pens critical memoir '' . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 27 . Reuters . `` Ex-CIA chief says ' slam dunk ' Iraq quote misused '' . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 26 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=At_the_Center_of_the_Storm&oldid=823413557 '' Categories : American memoirs Political memoirs 2007 non-fiction books War on Terror books War in Afghanistan ( 2001 -- present ) books Books about the 2003 invasion of Iraq Books on anti-terrorism policy of the United States Books about George W. Bush Books about the Central Intelligence Agency Books about the September 11 attacks HarperCollins books Hidden categories : Pages to import images to Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia فارسی Edit links This page was last edited on 1 February 2018 , at 02 : 43 . About Wikipedia