metadata.json

{
  "virology": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 183712,
      "num_docs": 200,
      "example": " a German balneologist and pediatrician, Emil Pfeiffer, independently reported similar cases (some of lesser severity) that tended to cluster in families, for which he coined the term Drüsenfieber (\"glandular fever\").\nThe word mononucleosis has several senses, but today it usually is used in the sense of infectious mononucleosis, which is caused by EBV.\nAround the 1920s, infectious mononucleosis was unknown, and there were few tests to determine an infection. Before this, there were few cases disclosed, and one of these took place in 1896. This outbreak devastated an Ohio community. Epidemics seemed to keep reappearing here and there, including an outbreak that happened in which 87 people were infected in the Falcon Islands. Some other outbreaks that occurred around this time would include some nurseries and boarding schools, and also the U.S. Naval Base, Coronado, California, where hundreds were infected by this virus.\nThe term \"infectious mononucleosis\" was coined in 1920 by Thomas Peck Sprunt and Frank Alexander Evans in a classic clinical description of the disease published in the Bulletin of the Johns Hopkins Hospital, entitled \"Mononuclear leukocytosis in reaction to acute infection (infectious mononucleosis)\". A lab test for infectious mononucleosis was developed in 1931 by Yale School of Public Health Professor John Rodman Paul and Walls Willard Bunnell based on their discovery of heterophile antibodies in the sera of persons with the disease. The Paul-Bunnell Test or PBT was later replaced by the heterophile antibody test.\nThe Epstein–Barr virus was first identified in Burkitt's lymphoma cells by Michael Anthony Epstein and Yvonne Barr at the University of Bristol in 1964. The link with infectious mononucleosis was uncovered in 1967 by Werner and Gertrude Henle at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, after a laboratory technician handling the virus contracted the disease: comparison of serum samples collected from the technician before and after the onset revealed development of antibodies to the virus.\nYale School of Public Health epidemiologist Alfred E. Evans confirmed through testing that mononucleosis was transmitted mainly through kissing, leading to it being referred to colloquially as \"the kissing disease\".\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n Media related to Infectious mononucleosis at Wikimedia Commons<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 26025,
      "num_docs": 28,
      "example": "The basic symptoms that occur in pneumonia and that are never lacking are as follows: acute fever, sticking pleuritic pain in the side, short rapid breaths, serrated pulse and cough.\" This clinical description is quite similar to those found in modern textbooks, and it reflected the extent of medical knowledge through the Middle Ages into the 19th century.\nEdwin Klebs was the first to observe bacteria in the airways of persons having died of pneumonia in 1875. Initial work identifying the two common bacterial causes, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Klebsiella pneumoniae, was performed by Carl Friedländer and Albert Fraenkel in 1882 and 1884, respectively. Friedländer's initial work introduced the Gram stain, a fundamental laboratory test still used today to identify and categorize bacteria. Christian Gram's paper describing the procedure in 1884 helped to differentiate the two bacteria, and showed that pneumonia could be caused by more than one microorganism. In 1887, Jaccond demonstrated pneumonia may be caused by opportunistic bacteria always present in the lung.\nSir William Osler, known as \"the father of modern medicine\", appreciated the death and disability caused by pneumonia, describing it as the \"captain of the men of death\" in 1918, as it had overtaken tuberculosis as one of the leading causes of death at the time. This phrase was originally coined by John Bunyan in reference to \"consumption\" (tuberculosis). Osler also described pneumonia as \"the old man's friend\" as death was often quick and painless when there were much slower and more painful ways to die.\nViral pneumonia was first described by Hobart Reimann in 1938. Reimann, Chairman of the Department of Medicine at Jefferson Medical College, had established the practice of routinely typing the pneumococcal organism in cases where pneumonia presented. Out of this work, the distinction between viral and bacterial strains was noticed.\nSeveral developments in the 1900s improved the outcome for those with pneumonia. With the advent of penicillin and other antibiotics, modern surgical techniques, and intensive care in the 20th century, mortality from pneumonia, which had approached 30%, dropped precipitously in the developed world. Vaccination of infants against Haemophilus influenzae type B began in 1988 and led to a dramatic decline in cases shortly thereafter. Vaccination against Streptococcus pneumoniae in adults began in 1977, and in children in 2000, resulting in a similar decline.\n\n\n== Society and culture ==\n\n\n=== Awareness ===\nDue to the relatively low awareness of the disease, 12 November was declared in 2009 as the annual World Pneumonia Day, a day for concerned citizens and policy makers to take action against the disease.\n\n\n=== Costs ===\nThe global economic cost of community-acquired pneumonia has been estimated at $17 billion annually. Other estimates are considerably higher. In 2012 the estimated aggregate costs of treating pneumonia in the United States were $20 billion; the median cost of a single pneumonia-related hospitalization is over $15,000. According to data released by the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, average 2012 hospital charges for inpatient treatment of uncomplicated pneumonia in the U.S. were $24,549 and ranged as high as $124,000. The average cost of an emergency room consult for pneumonia was $943 and the average cost for medication was $66. Aggregate annual costs of treating pneumonia in Europe have been estimated at €10 billion.\n\n\n== References ==\nFootnotes\n\nCitations\n\n\n=== Bibliography ===\n\n\n== External links ==<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "computer_security": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 254807,
      "num_docs": 286,
      "example": ".\nPadding a message's payload before encrypting it can help obscure the cleartext's true length, at the cost of increasing the ciphertext's size and introducing or increasing bandwidth overhead. Messages may be padded randomly or deterministically, with each approach having different tradeoffs. Encrypting and padding messages to form padded uniform random blobs or PURBs is a practice guaranteeing that the cipher text leaks no metadata about its cleartext's content, and leaks asymptotically minimal \n  \n    \n      \n        O\n        (\n        log\n        ⁡\n        log\n        ⁡\n        M\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle O(\\log \\log M)}\n  \n information via its length.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nFouché Gaines, Helen (1939), Cryptanalysis: A Study of Ciphers and Their Solution, New York: Dover Publications Inc, ISBN 978-0486200972 {{citation}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)\nKahn, David (1967), The Codebreakers - The Story of Secret Writing (ISBN 0-684-83130-9)\nPreneel, Bart (2000), \"Advances in Cryptology – EUROCRYPT 2000\", Springer Berlin Heidelberg, ISBN 978-3-540-67517-4\nSinkov, Abraham (1966): Elementary Cryptanalysis: A Mathematical Approach, Mathematical Association of America. ISBN 0-88385-622-0\nTenzer, Theo (2021): SUPER SECRETO – The Third Epoch of Cryptography: Multiple, exponential, quantum-secure and above all, simple and practical Encryption for Everyone, Norderstedt, ISBN 978-3-755-76117-4.\nLindell, Yehuda; Katz, Jonathan (2014), Introduction to modern cryptography, Hall/CRC, ISBN 978-1466570269\nErmoshina, Ksenia; Musiani, Francesca (2022), Concealing for Freedom: The Making of Encryption, Secure Messaging and Digital Liberties (Foreword by Laura DeNardis)(open access) (PDF), Manchester, UK: matteringpress.org, ISBN 978-1-912729-22-7, archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-06-02\n\n\n== External links ==\n The dictionary definition of encryption at Wiktionary\n Media related to Cryptographic algorithms at Wikimedia Commons<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 42802,
      "num_docs": 46,
      "example": " handling less exhaustive assurance requirements for products and services in a cost and time efficient manner.\nIn early 2011, NSA/CSS published a paper by Chris Salter, which proposed a Protection Profile oriented approach towards evaluation. In this approach, communities of interest form around technology types which in turn develop protection profiles that define the evaluation methodology for the technology type. The objective is a more robust evaluation. There is some concern that this may have a negative impact on mutual recognition.\nIn Sept of 2012, the Common Criteria published a Vision Statement implementing to a large extent Chris Salter's thoughts from the previous year.  Key elements of the Vision included:\n\nTechnical Communities will be focused on authoring Protection Profiles (PP) that support their goal of reasonable, comparable, reproducible and cost-effective evaluation results\nEvaluations should be done against these PP's if possible; if not mutual recognition of Security Target evaluations would be limited to EAL2.\n\n\n== See also ==\nBell–LaPadula model\nChina Compulsory Certificate\nEvaluation Assurance Level\nFIPS 140-2\nInformation Assurance\nISO 9241\nISO/IEC 27001\nUsability testing\nVerification and validation\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nThe official website of the Common Criteria Project\nThe Common Criteria standard documents\nList of Common Criteria evaluated products\nList of Licensed Common Criteria Laboratories\nTowards Agile Security Assurance\nImportant Common Criteria Acronyms\nCommon Criteria Users Forum\nAdditional Common Criteria Information on Google Knol\nOpenCC Project – free Apache license CC docs, templates and tools\nCommon Criteria Quick Reference Card\nCommon Criteria process cheatsheet\nCommon Criteria process timeline<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "mathematics": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 4100524,
      "num_docs": 4102,
      "example": ": Efficient Algorithms), Cambridge: The MIT Press, ISBN 0-262-02405-5\nEdwards, Harold (1977), Fermat's Last Theorem, New York: Springer, ISBN 0-387-90230-9\nLemmermeyer, Franz (2000), Reciprocity Laws: From Euler to Eisenstein, Springer Monographs in Mathematics, Berlin: Springer-Verlag, doi:10.1007/978-3-662-12893-0, ISBN 3-540-66957-4, MR 1761696\nIreland, Kenneth; Rosen, Michael (1990), A Classical Introduction to Modern Number Theory (second edition), New York: Springer, ISBN 0-387-97329-X\n\n\n== External links ==\n\"Quadratic reciprocity law\", Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press, 2001 [1994]\nQuadratic Reciprocity Theorem from MathWorld\nA play comparing two proofs of the quadratic reciprocity law\nA proof of this theorem at PlanetMath\nA different proof at MathPages\nF. Lemmermeyer's chronology and bibliography of proofs of the Quadratic Reciprocity Law Archived 2021-05-07 at the Wayback Machine (332 proofs)<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 326044,
      "num_docs": 330,
      "example": "    =\n        x\n        −\n        ⌊\n        \n          |\n        \n        x\n        \n          |\n        \n        ⌋\n        ⋅\n        sgn\n        ⁡\n        (\n        x\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {frac} (x)=x-\\lfloor |x|\\rfloor \\cdot \\operatorname {sgn}(x)}\n  \n.\nThe \n  \n    \n      \n        x\n        −\n        ⌊\n        x\n        ⌋\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle x-\\lfloor x\\rfloor }\n  \n and the \"odd function\" definitions permit for unique decomposition of any real number x to the sum of its integer and fractional parts, where \"integer part\" refers to \n  \n    \n      \n        ⌊\n        x\n        ⌋\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\lfloor x\\rfloor }\n  \n or \n  \n    \n      \n        ⌊\n        \n          |\n        \n        x\n        \n          |\n        \n        ⌋\n        ⋅\n        sgn\n        ⁡\n        (\n        x\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\lfloor |x|\\rfloor \\cdot \\operatorname {sgn}(x)}\n  \n respectively. These two definitions of fractional-part function also provide idempotence.\nThe fractional part defined via difference from ⌊ ⌋ is usually denoted by curly braces:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        {\n        x\n        }\n        :=\n        x\n        −\n        ⌊\n        x\n        ⌋\n       .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\{x\\}:=x-\\lfloor x\\rfloor.}\n  \n\n\n== Relation to continued fractions ==\nEvery real number can be essentially uniquely represented as a simple continued fraction, namely as the sum of its integer part and the reciprocal of its fractional part which is written as the sum of its integer part and the reciprocal of its fractional part, and so on.\n\n\n== See also ==\nCircle group\nEquidistributed sequence\nOne-parameter group\nPisot–Vijayaraghavan number\nPoussin proof\nSignificand\n\n\n== References ==<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "physics": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 2064450,
      "num_docs": 2074,
      "example": " p. 835. arXiv:1401.8103. Bibcode:2014prpl.conf..835V. doi:10.2458/azu_uapress_9780816531240-ch036. ISBN 978-0-8165-3124-0. S2CID 55875067.\nVillard, Ray; Cook, Lynette R. (2005). Infinite Worlds: An Illustrated Voyage to Planets Beyond Our Sun. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-23710-0\nYaqoob, Tahir (2011). Exoplanets and Alien Solar Systems. New Earth Labs (Education and Outreach). ISBN 978-0-9741689-2-0. Paperback.\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nThe Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia (Paris Observatory)\nNASA Exoplanet Archive<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 277440,
      "num_docs": 276,
      "example": " sources, mostly quasars, distributed around the entire sky. Because they are so distant, they are apparently stationary to current technology, yet their positions can be measured with the utmost accuracy by very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI). The positions of most are known to 0.001 arcsecond or better, which is orders of magnitude more precise than the best optical measurements.\n\n\n== Multiple quasars ==\nA grouping of two or more quasars on the sky can result from a chance alignment, where the quasars are not physically associated, from actual physical proximity, or from the effects of gravity bending the light of a single quasar into two or more images by gravitational lensing.\nWhen two quasars appear to be very close to each other as seen from Earth (separated by a few arcseconds or less), they are commonly referred to as a \"double quasar\". When the two are also close together in space (i.e. observed to have similar redshifts), they are termed a \"quasar pair\", or as a \"binary quasar\" if they are close enough that their host galaxies are likely to be physically interacting.\nAs quasars are overall rare objects in the universe, the probability of three or more separate quasars being found near the same physical location is very low, and determining whether the system is closely separated physically requires significant observational effort. The first true triple quasar was found in 2007 by observations at the W. M. Keck Observatory in Mauna Kea, Hawaii. LBQS 1429-008 (or QQQ J1432-0106) was first observed in 1989 and at the time was found to be a double quasar. When astronomers discovered the third member, they confirmed that the sources were separate and not the result of gravitational lensing. This triple quasar has a redshift of z = 2.076. The components are separated by an estimated 30–50 kiloparsecs (roughly 97,000–160,000 light-years), which is typical for interacting galaxies. In 2013, the second true triplet of quasars, QQQ J1519+0627, was found with a redshift z = 1.51, the whole system fitting within a physical separation of 25 kpc (about 80,000 light-years).\nThe first true quadruple quasar system was discovered in 2015 at a redshift z = 2.0412 and has an overall physical scale of about 200 kpc (roughly 650,000 light-years).\nA multiple-image quasar is a quasar whose light undergoes gravitational lensing, resulting in double, triple or quadruple images of the same quasar. The first such gravitational lens to be discovered was the double-imaged quasar Q0957+561 (or Twin Quasar) in 1979.\nAn example of a triply lensed quasar is PG1115+08.\nSeveral quadruple-image quasars are known, including the Einstein Cross and the Cloverleaf Quasar, with the first such discoveries happening in the mid-1980s.\n\n\n== Gallery ==\n\n\n== See also ==\n\nGalaxy formation and evolution\nLarge quasar group\nList of microquasars\nList of quasars\nMicroquasar\nQuasi-star\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\n3C 273: Variable Star Of The Season\nSKY-MAP.ORG SDSS image of quasar 3C 273\nExpanding Gallery of Hires Quasar Images\nGallery of Quasar Spectra from SDSS\nSDSS Advanced Student Projects: Quasars\nBlack Holes: Gravity's Relentless Pull Award-winning interactive multimedia Web site about the physics and astronomy of black holes from the Space Telescope Science Institute\nAudio: Fraser Cain/Pamela L. Gay – Astronomy Cast. Quasars – July 2008\nMerrifield, Michael; Copland, Ed. \"z~1.3 – An implausibly large structure [in the Universe]\". Sixty Symbols. Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham.<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "chemistry": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 1453291,
      "num_docs": 1532,
      "example": "In chemistry, a heteroatom (from Ancient Greek  heteros 'different' and  atomos 'uncut') is, strictly, any atom that is not carbon or hydrogen.\n\n\n== Organic chemistry ==\nIn practice, the term is mainly used more specifically to indicate that non-carbon atoms have replaced carbon in the backbone of the molecular structure. Typical heteroatoms are nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), sulfur (S), phosphorus (P), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), and iodine (I), as well as the metals lithium (Li) and magnesium (Mg).\n\n\n== Proteins ==\nIt can also be used with highly specific meanings in specialised contexts. In the description of protein structure, in particular in the Protein Data Bank file format, a heteroatom record (HETATM) describes an atom as belonging to a small molecule cofactor rather than being part of a biopolymer chain.\n\n\n== Zeolites ==\nIn the context of zeolites, the term heteroatom refers to partial isomorphous substitution of the typical framework atoms (silicon, aluminium, and phosphorus) by other elements such as beryllium, vanadium, and chromium. The goal is usually to adjust properties of the material (e.g., Lewis acidity) to optimize the material for a certain application (e.g., catalysis).\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nJournal - Heteroatom Chemistry<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 133062,
      "num_docs": 143,
      "example": "-documented that mushrooms from contaminated forests accumulate radiocaesium (caesium-137) in the fungal sporocarps. Accumulation of caesium-137 in lakes has been a great concern after the Chernobyl disaster. Experiments with dogs showed that a single dose of 3.8 millicuries (140 MBq, 4.1 μg of caesium-137) per kilogram is lethal within three weeks; smaller amounts may cause infertility and cancer. The International Atomic Energy Agency and other sources have warned that radioactive materials, such as caesium-137, could be used in radiological dispersion devices, or \"dirty bombs\".\n\n\n== See also ==\nCaesium-137 § Incidents and accidents\nAcerinox accident, a caesium-137 contamination accident in 1998\nGoiânia accident, a major radioactive contamination incident in 1987 involving caesium-137\nKramatorsk radiological accident, a 137Cs lost-source incident between 1980 and 1989\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nCaesium or Cesium at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)\nView the reaction of Caesium (most reactive metal in the periodic table) with Fluorine (most reactive non-metal) courtesy of The Royal Institution.\nRogachev, Andrey Yu.; Miao, Mao-Sheng; Merino, Gabriel; Hoffmann, Roald (2015). \"Molecular CsF5 and CsF2+\". Angewandte Chemie. 127 (28): 8393–8396. Bibcode:2015AngCh.127.8393R. doi:10.1002/ange.201500402.<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "biology": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 1241468,
      "num_docs": 1339,
      "example": " Steven Pinker's and others' work in evolutionary psychology), in his 1975 Reflections on Language. Chomsky further hinted at the possible reconciliation of his anarchist political views and sociobiology in a discussion of Peter Kropotkin's Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution, which focused more on altruism than aggression, suggesting that anarchist societies were feasible because of an innate human tendency to cooperate.\nWilson has claimed that he had never meant to imply what ought to be, only what is the case. However, some critics have argued that the language of sociobiology readily slips from \"is\" to \"ought\", an instance of the naturalistic fallacy. Pinker has argued that opposition to stances considered anti-social, such as ethnic nepotism, is based on moral assumptions, meaning that such opposition is not falsifiable by scientific advances. The history of this debate, and others related to it, are covered in detail by Cronin (1993), Segerstråle (2000), and Alcock (2001).\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Sources ==\nAlcock, John (2001). The triumph of sociobiology. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514383-6.\nBarkow, Jerome, ed. (2006). Missing the Revolution: Darwinism for Social Scientists. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513002-7.\nCronin, Helena (1993). The ant and the peacock: Altruism and sexual selection from Darwin to today. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-45765-1.\nSegerstråle, Ullica (2000). Defenders of the truth: The sociobiology debate. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-286215-0.\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nEtcoff, Nancy (1999). Survival of the Prettiest: The Science of Beauty. Anchor Books. ISBN 978-0-385-47942-4.\nKaplan, Gisela; Rogers, Lesley J. (2003). Gene Worship: Moving Beyond the Nature/Nurture Debate over Genes, Brain, and Gender. Other Press. ISBN 978-1-59051-034-6.\nLerner, Richard M. (1992). Final Solutions: Biology, Prejudice, and Genocide. Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 978-0-271-00793-9.\nOvcharov, Dmitry (2023). \"The problem of biological and social in Russian philosophy of the second half of the XX — beginning of the XXI century: historical and philosophical analytical review\". Bulletin of the Chelyabinsk State University. 477 (7): 61–67. doi:10.47475/1994-2796-2023-477-7-61-67.\nRichards, Janet Radcliffe (2000). Human Nature After Darwin: A Philosophical Introduction. London: Routledge.\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nSociobiology (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)\nThe Sociobiology of Sociopathy, Mealey, 1995\nSpeak, Darwinists! – interviews with leading sociobiologists\nRace and creation by Richard Dawkins\nScientist at Work |Edward O. Wilson |Taking a Cue From Ants on Evolution of Humans by Nicholas Wade<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 153674,
      "num_docs": 167,
      "example": " its sclerotium and its Tilachlidiopsis racemosa conidia, Armillaria with their rhizomorphs, Hohenbuehelia with their Nematoctonus nematode infectious, state and the coffee leaf parasite, Mycena citricolor, and its Decapitatus flavidus propagules called gemmae.\n\n\n== See also ==\nForest pathology\nList of Basidiomycota families\nMating in fungi\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n=== Sources ===\nKirk, P. M.; Cannon, P. F.; Stalpers, J. A. (2008). Dictionary of the Fungi (10th ed.). CABI.\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nBasidiomycota Archived 2020-11-26 at the Wayback Machine at the Tree of Life Web Project<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "astronomy": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 2308415,
      "num_docs": 2417,
      "example": " along with expansion of included proofs and ample commentary. The book was developed as a textbook for classes at St. John's College and the aim of this translation is to be faithful to the Latin text.\n\n\n== Varia ==\n\nIn 1977, the spacecraft Voyager 1 and 2 left earth for the interstellar space carrying a picture of a page from Newton's Principia Mathematica, as part of the Golden Record, a collection of messages from humanity to extraterrestrials.\nIn 2014, British astronaut Tim Peake named his upcoming mission to the International Space Station Principia after the book, in \"honour of Britain's greatest scientist\". Tim Peake's Principia launched on 15 December 2015 aboard Soyuz TMA-19M.\n\n\n== See also ==\nAtomism\nElements of the Philosophy of Newton\nIsaac Newton's occult studies\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\n\n=== Latin versions ===\n\nFirst edition (1687)\n\nTrinity College Library, Cambridge High resolution digitised version of Newton's own copy of the first edition, with annotations.\nCambridge University, Cambridge Digital Library High resolution digitised version of Newton's own copy of the first edition, interleaved with blank pages for his annotations and corrections.\n1687: Newton's Principia, first edition (1687, in Latin). High-resolution presentation of the Gunnerus Library copy.\n1687: Newton's Principia, first edition (1687, in Latin).\nProject Gutenberg.\nETH-Bibliothek Zürich. From the library of Gabriel Cramer.\nPhilosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica From the Rare Book and Special Collection Division at the Library of Congress\nSecond edition (1713)\n\nETH-Bibliothek Zürich.\nETH-Bibliothek Zürich (pirated Amsterdam reprint of 1723).\nPhilosophiæ naturalis principia mathematica (Adv.b.39.2), a 1713 edition with annotations by Newton in the collections of Cambridge University Library and fully digitised in Cambridge Digital Library\nThird edition (1726)\n\nETH-Bibliothek Zürich.\nLater Latin editions\n\nPrincipia (in Latin, annotated). 1833 Glasgow reprint (volume 1) with Books 1 and 2 of the Latin edition annotated by Leseur, Jacquier and Calandrini 1739–42 (described above).\nArchive.org (1871 reprint of the 1726 edition)\n\n\n=== English translations ===\n\nAndrew Motte, 1729, first English translation of third edition (1726)\nWikiSource, Partial\nGoogle books, vol. 1 with Book 1.\nInternet Archive, vol. 2 with Books 2 and 3. (Book 3 starts at p.200.) (Google's metadata wrongly labels this vol. 1).\nPartial HTML\nRobert Thorpe 1802 translation\nN. W. Chittenden, ed., 1846 \"American Edition\" a partly modernised English version, largely the Motte translation of 1729.\nWikisource\nArchive.org #1\nArchive.org #2\neBooks@Adelaide  eBooks@Adelaide\nPercival Frost 1863 translation with interpolations Archive.org\nFlorian Cajori 1934 modernisation of 1729 Motte and 1802 Thorpe translations\nIan Bruce has made a complete translation of the third edition, with notes, on his website.\nCharles Leedham-Green 2021 has published a complete and heavily annotated translation. Cambridge; Cambridge University Press.\n\n\n=== Other links ===\nDavid R. Wilkins of the School of Mathematics at Trinity College, Dublin has transcribed a few sections into TeX and METAPOST and made the source, as well as a formatted PDF available at Extracts from the Works of Isaac Newton.<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 166444,
      "num_docs": 182,
      "example": " Two of the galaxies in the middle of the group have clearly moms to collide, sparking massive bursts of star formation and drawing off long \"tails\" of stars. Astronomers have predicted that all five galaxies may eventually merge into one large elliptical galaxy.\n\n\n== Namesakes ==\nUSS Pegasus (AK-48) and USS Pegasus (PHM-1) are United States navy ships named after the constellation \"Pegasus\".\nThe Beyblade top Storm Pegasus 105RF and its evolutions Galaxy Pegasus W105R2F and Cosmic Pegasus F:D are based on Pegasus constellation.\nPegasus Seiya, main character from the manga and anime Saint Seiya, was named after the constellation Pegasus.\n\n\n== See also ==\nPegasus (Chinese astronomy)\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n=== Cited texts ===\nSchlegel, Gustaaf (1967) [1875]. Uranographie Chinoise (in French). Taipei, Republic of China: Ch'eng Wen Publishing Company.\nStaal, Julius (1988). The New Patterns in the Night Sky: Myths and Legends of the Stars. Blacksburg: McDonald and Woodward Publishing Company. ISBN 0-939923-10-6.\nWagman, Morton (2003). Lost Stars: Lost, Missing and Troublesome Stars from the Catalogues of Johannes Bayer, Nicholas Louis de Lacaille, John Flamsteed, and Sundry Others. Blacksburg, Virginia: The McDonald & Woodward Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-939923-78-6.\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nThe Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Pegasus\nThe clickable Pegasus\nStar Tales – Pegasus\nWarburg Institute Iconographic Database (ca 160 medieval and early modern images of Pegasus)<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "geology": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 716295,
      "num_docs": 776,
      "example": " 2009–2011 (PDF) (Rev. to include the actions of the 110th Congress ending Jan. 3, 2009. ed.). Washington, D.C.: The Office of Public Affairs, and the Division of Publications, National Park Service. ISBN 978-0-912627-81-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 16, 2011. Retrieved June 11, 2011.\nZwinger, Ann (1986). Wind in the Rock. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. ISBN 978-0-8165-0985-0.\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nOfficial website by the National Park Service\nCanyonlands Field Institute (a non-profit support group)\nCanyonlands Natural History Association (a non-profit organization established to assist the scientific and educational efforts of the NPS)\nSpherical panoramas of Canyonlands\nDigitalCommons@USU (Canyonlands Research Publications from Utah State University)<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 71712,
      "num_docs": 78,
      "example": " the upper mantle in this region is inhomogeneous, with significant lateral variations in density.\n\n\n=== Ice sheets ===\n\nThe formation of ice sheets can cause Earth's surface to sink. Conversely, isostatic post-glacial rebound is observed in areas once covered by ice sheets that have now melted, such as around the Baltic Sea and Hudson Bay. As the ice retreats, the load on the lithosphere and asthenosphere is reduced and they rebound back towards their equilibrium levels.  In this way, it is possible to find former sea cliffs and associated wave-cut platforms hundreds of metres above present-day sea level. The rebound movements are so slow that the uplift caused by the ending of the last glacial period is still continuing.\nIn addition to the vertical movement of the land and sea, isostatic adjustment of the Earth also involves horizontal movements. It can cause changes in Earth's gravitational field and rotation rate, polar wander, and earthquakes.\n\n\n=== Lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary ===\nThe hypothesis of isostasy is often used to determine the position of the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary (LAB).\n\n\n== See also ==\nArchimedes' principle – Buoyancy principle in fluid dynamics\nWilliam Bowie (engineer) – American geodetic engineer\nLau, Gotland – District of the island of Gotland, Sweden\nMarine terrace – Emergent coastal landform\nGravity anomaly – Difference between ideal and observed gravitational acceleration at a location\nGravity map\nTimeline of the development of tectonophysics (before 1954)\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nLisitzin, Eugenie (1974). Sea-level changes. Amsterdam: Elsevier Scientific Pub. Co. ISBN 9780080870441. Retrieved 23 March 2022.\n\n\n== External links ==\nOldham, Richard Dixon (1922). \"Isostasy\". Encyclopædia Britannica (12th ed.).<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "ecology": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 491082,
      "num_docs": 518,
      "example": ". (2007). Introduction to planetary science: the geological perspective. Springer. ISBN 1-4020-5233-2.\nFogg, Martyn J. (1995). Terraforming: Engineering Planetary Environments. SAE International, Warrendale, PA. ISBN 1-56091-609-5.\nFogg, Martyn J. (1996). \"A Planet Dweller's Dream\". In Schmidt, Stanley; Zubrin, Robert (eds.). Islands in the Sky. New York: Wiley. pp. 143–67.\nFogg, Martyn J. (1998). \"Terraforming Mars: A Review of Current Research\" (PDF). Advances in Space Research. 2 (3). Committee on Space Research: 415–420. Bibcode:1998AdSpR..22..415F. doi:10.1016/S0273-1177(98)00166-5.\nFogg, Martyn J. (2000). The Ethical Dimensions of Space Settlement (PDF format). Space Policy, 16, 205–211. Also presented (1999) at the 50th International Astronautical Congress, Amsterdam (IAA-99-IAA.7.1.07).\nForget, François; Costard, François & Lognonné, Philippe (2007). Planet Mars: Story of Another World. Springer. ISBN 0-387-48925-8.\nKargel, Jeffrey Stuart (2004). Mars: a warmer, wetter planet. Springer. ISBN 1-85233-568-8.\nKnoll, Andrew H. (2008). \"Cyanobacteria and earth history\". In Herrero, Antonia; Flores, Enrique (eds.). The cyanobacteria: molecular biology, genomics, and evolution. Horizon Scientific Press. pp. 1–20. ISBN 978-1-904455-15-8.\nMacNiven, D. (1995). \"Environmental Ethics and Planetary Engineering\". Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 48: 441–44.\nMcKay Christopher P. & Haynes, Robert H. (1997). \"Implanting Life on Mars as a Long Term Goal for Mars Exploration\", in The Case for Mars IV: Considerations for Sending Humans, ed. Thomas R. Meyer (San Diego, California: American Astronautical Society/Univelt), Pp. 209–15.\nRead, Peter L.; Lewis, Stephen R. (2004). The Martian climate revisited: atmosphere and environment of a desert planet. Springer. ISBN 3-540-40743-X.\nSagan, Carl & Druyan, Ann (1997). Pale Blue Dot: A Vision of the Human Future in Space. Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-345-37659-5.\nSchubert, Gerald; Turcotte, Donald L.; Olson, Peter. (2001). Mantle convection in the Earth and planets. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-79836-1.\nTaylor, Richard L. S. (1992). \"Paraterraforming – The world house concept\". Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, vol. 45, no. 8, pp. 341–352. ISSN 0007-084X. Bibcode:1992JBIS...45..341T.\nThompson, J. M. T. (2001). Visions of the future: astronomy and Earth science. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-80537-6.\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nNew Mars forum\nTerraformers Society of Canada\nVisualizing the steps of Solar System terraforming\nResearch Paper: Technological Requirements for Terraforming Mars\nTerraformers Australia\nTerraformers UK\nThe Terraformation of Worlds Archived 2019-06-09 at the Wayback Machine\nTerraformation de Mars\nFogg, Martyn J. The Terraforming Information Pages\nBBC article on Charles Darwin's and Joseph Hooker's artificial ecosystem on Ascension Island that may be of interest to terraforming projects\nChoi, Charles Q. (November 1, 2010). \"Bugs in Space: Microscopic miners could help humans thrive on other planets\". Scientific American.\nRobotic Lunar Ecopoiesis Test Bed Principal Investigator: Paul Todd (2004)<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 39853,
      "num_docs": 44,
      "example": " ultimately took place in Montreal, Canada, from 5–17 December 2022. At the meeting, the Parties to the Convention adopted a new action plan, the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.\n\n\n=== 2024 COP 16 ===\nThe 16th meeting of the Parties is scheduled to be held in Cali, Colombia in 2024. Originally, Turkey was going to host it but after a series of earthquakes in February 2023 they had to withdraw.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n This article incorporates public domain material from The World Factbook (2008 ed.). CIA.\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nDavis, K. 2008. A CBD manual for botanic gardens English version, Italian version Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI)\n\n\n== External links ==\nThe Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) website\nText of the Convention from CBD website\nRatifications at depositary\nCase studies on the implementation of the Convention from BGCI website with links to relevant articles\nIntroductory note by Laurence Boisson de Chazournes, procedural history note and audiovisual material on the Convention on Biological Diversity in the Historic Archives of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "neuroscience": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 578700,
      "num_docs": 624,
      "example": ", and to give an appearance of solidity to pure wind\".\n\n\n== Education against doublespeak ==\nCharles Weingartner, one of the founding members of the NCTE committee on Public Doublespeak mentioned: \"people do not know enough about the subject (the reality) to recognize that the language being used conceals, distorts, misleads. Teachers of English should teach our students that words are not things, but verbal tokens or signs of things that should finally be carried back to the things that they stand for to be verified.\"\n\n\n== See also ==\nAesopian language\nCant (language)\nCode word (figure of speech)\nDouble entendre\nDoublespeak Award\nEuphemism\nObfuscation\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\nBaar, James (2004). Spinspeak II: The Dictionary Of Language Pollution. AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1-4184-2742-9.\nBennett, Michael (2015). Oscar Wilde's Society Plays. Springer. ISBN 9781137410931. Retrieved 3 November 2016.\nHerman, Edward S. (1992). Beyond Hypocrisy: Decoding the News in an Age of Propaganda : Including A Doublespeak Dictionary for the 1990s. Black Rose Books Ltd. ISBN 978-1-895431-48-3.\nHerron, Fred (2007). Combing the Tradition: Catholic Schools in the Era of Baptismal Consciousness. University Press of America. ISBN 9780761837985. Retrieved 3 November 2016.\nKilleen, Jarlath (2013). The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 9781409489832. Retrieved 3 November 2016.\nLutz, William. (1987). Doublespeak: From \"Revenue Enhancement\" to \"Terminal Living\": How Government, Business, Advertisers, and Others Use Language to Deceive You. New York: Harper & Row\nLutz, William (1989). Beyond 1984: Doublespeak in a Post-Orwellian Age. National Council of Teachers of English. ISBN 978-0-8141-0285-5.\nRaby, Peter (1997). The Cambridge Companion to Oscar Wilde. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107493803. Retrieved 3 November 2016.\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nBusiness Doublespeak A short essay by William Lutz\nDoubleSpeak Homepage by Michele Damron (1998)\nNational Council of Teachers of English Doublespeak Award Archived 2018-01-17 at the Wayback Machine established in 1974<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 62532,
      "num_docs": 66,
      "example": " predator (such as a cat) elicits defensive behaviors in laboratory rodents, even when the animal has never been exposed to a cat. In the hypothalamus, this exposure causes an increase in Fos-labeled cells in the anterior hypothalamic nucleus, the dorsomedial part of the ventromedial nucleus, and in the ventrolateral part of the premammillary nucleus (PMDvl). The premammillary nucleus has an important role in expression of defensive behaviors towards a predator, since lesions in this nucleus abolish defensive behaviors, like freezing and flight. The PMD does not modulate defensive behavior in other situations, as lesions of this nucleus had minimal effects on post-shock freezing scores. The PMD has important connections to the dorsal periaqueductal gray, an important structure in fear expression. In addition, animals display risk assessment behaviors to the environment previously associated with the cat. Fos-labeled cell analysis showed that the PMDvl is the most activated structure in the hypothalamus, and inactivation with muscimol prior to exposure to the context abolishes the defensive behavior. Therefore, the hypothalamus, mainly the PMDvl, has an important role in expression of innate and conditioned defensive behaviors to a predator.\n\nSocial defeat\nLikewise, the hypothalamus has a role in social defeat: nuclei in medial zone are also mobilized during an encounter with an aggressive conspecific. The defeated animal has an increase in Fos levels in sexually dimorphic structures, such as the medial pre-optic nucleus, the ventrolateral part of ventromedial nucleus, and the ventral premammilary nucleus. Such structures are important in other social behaviors, such as sexual and aggressive behaviors. Moreover, the premammillary nucleus also is mobilized, the dorsomedial part but not the ventrolateral part. Lesions in this nucleus abolish passive defensive behavior, like freezing and the \"on-the-back\" posture.\n\n\n=== Learning arbitrator ===\nRecent research has questioned whether the lateral hypothalamus's role is only restricted to initiating and stopping innate behaviors and argued it learns about food-related cues. Specifically, that it opposes learning about information what is neutral or distant to food. According this view, the lateral hypothalamus is \"a unique arbitrator of learning capable of shifting behavior toward or away from important events\".\n\n\n== Additional images ==\n\n\n== See also ==\nVentrolateral preoptic nucleus\nPeriventricular nucleus\nCopeptin\nHypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA axis)\nHypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis (HPG axis)\nHypothalamic–pituitary–thyroid axis (HPT axis)\nIncertohypothalamic pathway\nNeuroendocrinology\nNeuroscience of sleep\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nde Vries GJ, Södersten P (May 2009). \"Sex differences in the brain: the relation between structure and function\". Hormones and Behavior. 55 (5): 589–96. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2009.03.012. PMC 3932614. PMID 19446075.\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nStained brain slice images which include the \"Hypothalamus\" at the BrainMaps project\nThe Hypothalamus and Pituitary at endotexts.org\nNIF Search - Hypothalamus via the Neuroscience Information Framework\nSpace-filling and cross-sectional diagrams of hypothalamic nuclei: right hypothalamus, anterior, tubular, posterior.<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "genetics": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 588142,
      "num_docs": 640,
      "example": "displaystyle O(n^{2}\\log n)}\n  \n. Fionn Murtagh presented an \n  \n    \n      \n        O\n        (\n        \n          n\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle O(n^{2})}\n  \n time and space algorithm.\n\n\n== See also ==\nNeighbor-joining\nCluster analysis\nSingle-linkage clustering\nComplete-linkage clustering\nHierarchical clustering\nModels of DNA evolution\nMolecular clock\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nUPGMA clustering algorithm implementation in Ruby (AI4R)\nExample calculation of UPGMA using a similarity matrix\nExample calculation of UPGMA using a distance matrix<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 64530,
      "num_docs": 67,
      "example": " determining the Telomere-to-Single Copy Gene (T/S) ratio, which is demonstrated to be proportional to the average telomere length in a cell.\nTools have also been developed to estimate the length of telomere from whole genome sequencing (WGS) experiments. Amongst these are TelSeq, Telomerecat and telomereHunter. Length estimation from WGS typically works by differentiating telomere sequencing reads and then inferring the length of telomere that produced that number of reads. These methods have been shown to correlate with preexisting methods of estimation such as PCR and TRF. Flow-FISH is used to quantify the length of telomeres in human white blood cells. A semi-automated method for measuring the average length of telomeres with Flow FISH was published in Nature Protocols in 2006.\nWhile multiple companies offer telomere length measurement services, the utility of these measurements for widespread clinical or personal use has been questioned. Nobel Prize winner Elizabeth Blackburn, who was co-founder of one company, promoted the clinical utility of telomere length measures.\n\n\n== In wildlife ==\nDuring the last three decades, eco-evolutionary studies have investigated the relevance of life-history traits and environmental conditions on telomeres of wildlife. Most of these studies have been conducted in endotherms, i.e. birds and mammals. They have provided evidence for the inheritance of telomere length; however, heritability estimates vary greatly within and among species. Age and telomere length often negatively correlate in vertebrates, but this decline is variable among taxa and is influenced by the method used for estimating telomere length. In contrast, the available information shows no sex differences in telomere length across vertebrates. Phylogeny and life history traits such as body size or the pace of life can also affect telomere dynamics. For example, it has been described across species of birds and mammals. A meta-analysis has confirmed that exposure to various stressors (e.g. pathogen infection, competition, reproductive effort and high activity level) was associated with shorter telomeres across different animal taxa.\nStudies on ectotherms, and other non-mammalian organisms, show that there is no single universal model of telomere erosion; rather, there is wide variation in relevant dynamics across Metazoa, and even within smaller taxonomic groups these patterns appear diverse.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\nEpigenetic clock\nCentromere\nDNA damage theory of aging\nImmortality\nMaximum life span\nRejuvenation (aging)\nSenescence, biological aging\nTankyrase\nTelomere-binding protein\nG-quartet\nImmortal DNA strand hypothesis\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nTelomeres and Telomerase: The Means to the End Nobel Lecture by Elizabeth Blackburn, which includes a reference to the impact of stress, and pessimism on telomere length\nTelomerase and the Consequences of Telomere Dysfunction Nobel Lecture by Carol Greider\nDNA Ends: Just the Beginning Nobel Lecture by Jack Szostak<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "microbiology": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 392366,
      "num_docs": 425,
      "example": " mouth and safely placed on the skin are safe to use.  A number of toys are made of materials that are toxic and impossible to properly clean.  These cheap and poisonous materials often degrade quickly over time.  Some soft toys are made of medical grade silicone which is properly non-porous and non-reactive with the body.  Toys from unreputable sellers may be mis-labeled.  Other commonly recognized as safe materials include glass and titanium.  If the material has additives such as pigments or softeners, those may also be toxic.  The list of safe materials often overlaps with Body piercing materials.\nA sex toy should regularly be checked for scratches or breaks that can be breeding grounds for bacteria. It is best if the damaged sex toy is replaced by a new undamaged one. Even more hygiene protection should be considered by pregnant women when using sex toys. Sharing any type of sex toy that may draw blood, like whips or needles, is not recommended, and is not safe.\n\n\n== Abstinence ==\nSexual abstinence reduces STIs and pregnancy risks associated with sexual contact, but STIs may also be transmitted through non-sexual means, or by rape. HIV may be transmitted through contaminated needles used in tattooing, body piercing, or injections. Medical or dental procedures using contaminated instruments can also spread HIV, while some health-care workers have acquired HIV through occupational exposure to accidental injuries with needles. Evidence does not support the use of abstinence-only sex education. Abstinence-only sex education programs have been found to be ineffective in decreasing rates of HIV infection in the developed world and unplanned pregnancy. Abstinence-only sex education primarily relies on the consequences of character and morality while health care professionals are concerned about matters regarding health outcomes and behaviors.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\nBareback (sex)\nCelibacy\nHuman sexual activity\nJulio and Marisol\nMasturbation\nMisconceptions about HIV/AIDS\nParty and play\nPost-exposure prophylaxis\nSisters of Perpetual Indulgence\nTerrence Higgins Trust\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\n\"Prevention – Sexually Transmitted Disease, AGUM (Association of Genital Urinary Medicine) Archived 18 February 2020 at the Wayback Machine\n\"Guidelines\", British Association for Sexual health and HIV (BASHH)<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 49834,
      "num_docs": 53,
      "example": " release of chlorine gas.\nHypochlorite solutions are corrosive to common container materials such as stainless steel and aluminium. The few compatible metals include titanium (which however is not compatible with dry chlorine) and tantalum. Glass containers are safe. Some plastics and rubbers are affected too; safe choices include polyethylene (PE), high density polyethylene (HDPE, PE-HD), polypropylene (PP), some chlorinated and fluorinated polymers such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), and polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF); as well as ethylene propylene rubber, and Viton.\nContainers must allow the venting of oxygen produced by decomposition over time, otherwise, they may burst.\n\n\n=== Reactions with other common products ===\nMixing bleach with some household cleaners can be hazardous.\nSodium hypochlorite solutions, such as liquid bleach, will release toxic chlorine gas when mixed with an acid, such as hydrochloric acid or vinegar.\nA 2008 study indicated that sodium hypochlorite and organic chemicals (e.g., surfactants, fragrances) contained in several household cleaning products can react to generate chlorinated organic compounds. The study showed that indoor air concentrations significantly increase (8–52 times for chloroform and 1–1170 times for carbon tetrachloride, respectively, above baseline quantities in the household) during the use of bleach containing products.\nIn particular, mixing hypochlorite bleaches with amines (for example, cleaning products that contain or release ammonia, ammonium salts, urea, or related compounds and biological materials such as urine) produces chloramines. These gaseous products can cause acute lung injury. Chronic exposure, for example, from the air at swimming pools where chlorine is used as the disinfectant, can lead to the development of atopic asthma.\nBleach can react violently with hydrogen peroxide and produce oxygen gas:\n\nH2O2(aq) + NaOCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O + O2(g)\nExplosive reactions or byproducts can also occur in industrial and laboratory settings when sodium hypochlorite is mixed with diverse organic compounds.\n\n\n=== Limitations in health care ===\nThe UK's National Institute for Health and Care Excellence in October 2008 recommended that Dakin's solution should not be used in routine wound care.\n\n\n== Environmental impact ==\nIn spite of its strong biocidal action, sodium hypochlorite per se has limited environmental impact, since the hypochlorite ion rapidly degrades before it can be absorbed by living beings.\nHowever, one major concern arising from sodium hypochlorite use is that it tends to form persistent chlorinated organic compounds, including known carcinogens, that can be absorbed by organisms and enter the food chain. These compounds may be formed during household storage and use as well as during industrial use. For example, when household bleach and wastewater were mixed, 1–2% of the available chlorine was observed to form organic compounds. As of 1994, not all the byproducts had been identified, but identified compounds include chloroform and carbon tetrachloride. The exposure to these chemicals from use is estimated to be within occupational exposure limits.\n\n\n== See also ==\nCalcium hypochlorite Ca(OCl)2 (\"bleaching powder\")\nPotassium hypochlorite KOCl (the original \"Javel water\")\nLithium hypochlorite LiOCl\nMilton sterilizing fluid\nSodium hypochlorite washes\nMixed oxidant\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Bibliography ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nInternational Chemical Safety Card 0482 (solutions < 10% active Cl)\nInternational Chemical Safety Card 1119 (solutions > 10% active Cl)\nInstitut national de recherche et de sécurité (in French)\nHome and Leisure Accident Statistics 2002 (UK RoSPA)\nEmergency Disinfection of Drinking Water (United States Environmental Protection Agency)\nChlorinated Drinking Water (IARC Monograph)\nNTP Study Report TR-392: Chlorinated & Chloraminated Water (US NIH)\nGuidelines for the Use of Chlorine Bleach as a Sanitizer in Food Processing Operations (Oklahoma State University)<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "immunology": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 477074,
      "num_docs": 505,
      "example": "othane is an alkyl halide (not an ether like many other anesthetics). The structure has one stereocenter, so (R)- and (S)-optical isomers occur.\n\n\n== Synthesis ==\nThe commercial synthesis of halothane starts from trichloroethylene, which is reacted with hydrogen fluoride in the presence of antimony trichloride at 130 °C to form 2-chloro-1,1,1-trifluoroethane. This is then reacted with bromine at 450 °C to produce halothane.\n\n\n== Related substances ==\nAttempts to find anesthetics with less metabolism led to halogenated ethers such as enflurane and isoflurane. The incidence of hepatic reactions with these agents is lower. The exact degree of hepatotoxic potential of enflurane is debated, although it is minimally metabolized. Isoflurane is essentially not metabolized and reports of associated liver injury are quite rare. Small amounts of trifluoroacetic acid can be formed from both halothane and isoflurane metabolism and possibly accounts for cross sensitization of patients between these agents.\nThe main advantage of the more modern agents is lower blood solubility, resulting in faster induction of and recovery from anaesthesia.\n\n\n== History ==\n \nHalothane was first synthesized by C. W. Suckling of Imperial Chemical Industries in 1951 at the ICI Widnes Laboratory and was first used clinically by M. Johnstone in Manchester in 1956. Initially, many pharmacologists and anaesthesiologists had doubts about the safety and efficacy of the new drug. But halothane, which required specialist knowledge and technologies for safe administration, also afforded British anaesthesiologists the opportunity to remake their speciality as a profession during a period, when the newly established National Health Service needed more specialist consultants. In this context, halothane eventually became popular as a nonflammable general anesthetic replacing other volatile anesthetics such as trichloroethylene, diethyl ether and cyclopropane. In many parts of the world it has been largely replaced by newer agents since the 1980s but is still widely used in developing countries because of its lower cost.\n\nHalothane was given to many millions of people worldwide from its introduction in 1956 through the 1980s. Its properties include cardiac depression at high levels, cardiac sensitization to catecholamines such as norepinephrine, and potent bronchial relaxation. Its lack of airway irritation made it a common inhalation induction agent in pediatric anesthesia. \nIts use in developed countries has been mostly replaced by newer anesthetic agents such as sevoflurane. It is not commercially available in the United States.\n\n\n== Society and culture ==\n\n\n=== Availability ===\nIt is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. It is available as a volatile liquid, at 30, 50, 200, and 250 ml per container but in many developed nations is not available having been displaced by newer agents.\nIt is the only inhalational anesthetic containing bromine, which makes it radiopaque. It is colorless and pleasant-smelling, but unstable in light. It is packaged in dark-colored bottles and contains 0.01% thymol as a stabilizing agent.\n\n\n=== Greenhouse gas ===\nOwing to the presence of covalently bonded fluorine, halothane absorbs in the atmospheric window and is therefore a greenhouse gas. However, it is much less potent than most other chlorofluorocarbons and bromofluorocarbons due to its short atmospheric lifetime, estimated at only one year vis-à-vis over 100 years for many perfluorocarbons. Despite its short lifespan, halothane still has a global warming potential 50 times that of carbon dioxide, although this is over 100 times smaller than the most abundant fluorinated gases, and about 800 times smaller than the GWP of sulfur hexafluoride over 500 years. Halothane is believed to make a negligible contribution to global warming.\n\n\n=== Ozone depletion ===\nHalothane is an ozone depleting substance with an ODP of 1.56 and it is calculated to be responsible for 1% of total stratospheric ozone layer depletion. Unlike most ozone depleting substances, it is not governed under the Montreal Protocol.  \n\n\n== References ==<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 79509,
      "num_docs": 82,
      "example": "ium are commonly used as homologues of typhoid species. Many findings are transferable and it attenuates the danger for the researcher in case of contamination, but is also limited. For example, it is not possible to study specific typhoidal toxins using this model. However, strong research tools such as the commonly used mouse intestine gastroenteritis model build upon the use of Salmonella Typhimurium.\nFor genetics, S. Typhimurium has been instrumental in the development of genetic tools that led to an understanding of fundamental bacterial physiology. These developments were enabled by the discovery of the first generalized transducing phage P22 in S. Typhimurium, that allowed quick and easy genetic editing. In turn, this made fine structure genetic analysis possible. The large number of mutants led to a revision of genetic nomenclature for bacteria. Many of the uses of transposons as genetic tools, including transposon delivery, mutagenesis, and construction of chromosome rearrangements, were also developed in S. Typhimurium. These genetic tools also led to a simple test for carcinogens, the Ames test.\nAs a natural alternative to traditional antimicrobials, phages are being recognised as highly effective control agents for Salmonella and other foodborne bacteria.\n\n\n== Ancient DNA ==\nS. enterica genomes have been reconstructed from up to 6,500 year old human remains across Western Eurasia, which provides evidence for geographic widespread infections with systemic S. enterica during prehistory, and a possible role of the Neolithization process in the evolution of host adaptation. Additional reconstructed genomes from colonial Mexico suggest S. enterica as the cause of cocoliztli, an epidemic in 16th-century New Spain.\n\n\n== See also ==\n1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack\n2008 United States salmonellosis outbreak\nAmerican Public Health Association v. Butz\nBismuth sulfite agar\nFood testing strips\nHost–pathogen interaction\nList of foodborne illness outbreaks\n2008–2009 peanut-borne salmonellosis\nWright County Egg\nXLD agar\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nBackground on Salmonella from the Food Safety and Inspection Service of the United States Department of Agriculture\nSalmonella genomes and related information at PATRIC, a Bioinformatics Resource Center funded by NIAID\nQuestions and Answers about commercial and institutional sanitizing methods Archived 2017-06-29 at the Wayback Machine\nSalmonella as an emerging pathogen from IFAS\nNotes on Salmonella nomenclature\nSalmonella motility video\nAvian Salmonella Archived 2011-12-09 at the Wayback Machine\nOverview of Salmonellosis — The Merck Veterinary Manual<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "environmental_science": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 634746,
      "num_docs": 679,
      "example": " properly spaced and pruned trees can increase crop yields. The Humbo Assisted Regeneration Project which uses FMNR techniques in Ethiopia has received money from The World Bank's BioCarbon Fund, which supports projects that sequester or conserve carbon in forests or agricultural ecosystems.\nThe Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations launched the FAO Drylands Restoration Initiative in 2012 to draw together knowledge and experience on dryland restoration. In 2015, FAO published global guidelines for the restoration of degraded forests and landscapes in drylands, in collaboration with the Turkish Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs and the Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Agency.\nThe \"Green Wall of China\" is a high-profile example of one method that has been finding success in this battle with desertification. This wall is a much larger-scale version of what American farmers did in the 1930s to stop the great Midwest dust bowl. This plan was proposed in the late 1970s, and has become a major ecological engineering project that is not predicted to end until the year 2055. According to Chinese reports, there have been nearly 66 billion trees planted in China's great green wall. The green wall of China has decreased desert land in China by an annual average of 1,980 square km. The frequency of sandstorms nationwide have fallen 20% due to the green wall. Due to the success that China has been finding in stopping the spread of desertification, plans are currently being made in Africa to start a \"wall\" along the borders of the Sahara desert as well to be financed by the United Nations Global Environment Facility trust.\n\nIn 2007 the African Union started the Great Green Wall of Africa project in order to combat desertification in 20 countries. The wall is 8,000 km wide, stretching across the entire width of the continent and has 8 billion dollars in support of the project. The project has restored 36 million hectares of land, and by 2030 the initiative plans to restore a total of 100 million hectares. The Great Green Wall has created many job opportunities for the participating countries, with over 20,000 jobs created in Nigeria alone.\n\n\n=== Better managed grazing ===\nRestored grasslands store CO2 from the atmosphere as organic plant material. Grazing livestock, usually not left to wander, consume the grass and minimize its growth.  A method proposed to restore grasslands uses fences with many small paddocks, moving herds from one paddock to another after a day or two in order to mimic natural grazers and allowing the grass to grow optimally. Proponents of managed grazing methods claim that increasing this method could increase carbon content of the soils in the world's 3.5 billion hectares of agricultural grassland and offset nearly 12 years of CO2 emissions. However, many researchers have contested such claims and stated that it does not reverse desertification nor offset its emissions.\n\n\n== History ==\n\nThe world's most noted deserts have been formed by natural processes interacting over long intervals of time. During most of these times, deserts have grown and shrunk independently of human activities. Paleodeserts are large sand seas now inactive because they are stabilized by vegetation, some extending beyond the present margins of core deserts, such as the Sahara, the largest hot desert.\nHistorical evidence shows that the serious and extensive land deterioration occurring several centuries ago in arid regions had three centers: the Mediterranean, the Mesopotamian Valley, and the Loess Plateau of China, where population was dense.\nThe earliest known discussion of the topic arose soon after the French colonization of West Africa, when the Comité d'Etudes commissioned a study on desséchement progressif to explore the prehistoric expansion of the Sahara Desert. The modern study of desertification emerged from the study of the 1980s drought in the Sahel.\n\n\n== See also ==\nAridification\nOasification\nDeforestation and climate change\nSoil retrogression and degradation\nWater scarcity\nWorld Day to Combat Desertification and Drought\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n=== Sources ===\n This article incorporates public domain material from Desertification. United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 4 May 2021.\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nOfficial website of the Secretariat of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)\nProcedural history and related documents on the UNCCD, from the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law\nOfficial website of Action Against Desertification, a United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization initiative of the African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States\nGlobal Deserts Outlook (2006), thematic assessment report in the Global Environment Outlook (GEO) series of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP).<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 59062,
      "num_docs": 63,
      "example": " the Dutch oil, 1,2-dichloroethane; this discovery gave ethylene the name used for it at that time, olefiant gas (oil-making gas.) The term olefiant gas is in turn the etymological origin of the modern word \"olefin\", the class of hydrocarbons in which ethylene is the first member.\nIn the mid-19th century, the suffix -ene (an Ancient Greek root added to the end of female names meaning \"daughter of\") was widely used to refer to a molecule or part thereof that contained one fewer hydrogen atoms than the molecule being modified. Thus, ethylene (C2H4) was the \"daughter of ethyl\" (C2H5). The name ethylene was used in this sense as early as 1852.\nIn 1866, the German chemist August Wilhelm von Hofmann proposed a system of hydrocarbon nomenclature in which the suffixes -ane, -ene, -ine, -one, and -une were used to denote the hydrocarbons with 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8 fewer hydrogens than their parent alkane. In this system, ethylene became ethene. Hofmann's system eventually became the basis for the Geneva nomenclature approved by the International Congress of Chemists in 1892, which remains at the core of the IUPAC nomenclature. However, by that time, the name ethylene was deeply entrenched, and it remains in wide use today, especially in the chemical industry.\nFollowing experimentation by Luckhardt, Crocker, and Carter at the University of Chicago, ethylene was used as an anesthetic. It remained in use through the 1940s, even while chloroform was being phased out. Its pungent odor and its explosive nature limit its use today.\n\n\n=== Nomenclature ===\nThe 1979 IUPAC nomenclature rules made an exception for retaining the non-systematic name ethylene; however, this decision was reversed in the 1993 rules, and it remains unchanged in the newest 2013 recommendations, so the IUPAC name is now ethene. In the IUPAC system, the name ethylene is reserved for the divalent group -CH2CH2-. Hence, names like ethylene oxide and ethylene dibromide are permitted, but the use of the name ethylene for the two-carbon alkene is not. Nevertheless, use of the name ethylene for H2C=CH2 (and propylene for H2C=CHCH3) is still prevalent among chemists in North America.\n\n\n== Safety ==\nLike all hydrocarbons, ethylene is a combustible asphyxiant. It is listed as an IARC group 3 agent, since there is no current evidence that it causes cancer in humans.\n\n\n== See also ==\nRediRipe, an ethylene detector for fruits.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nInternational Chemical Safety Card 0475\nMSDS<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "medicine": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 1386108,
      "num_docs": 1498,
      "example": "Paraplegia\nParalysis\nParamyotonia congenita\nParesthesia\nParesis\nParkinson('s) disease\nParaneoplastic diseases\nParoxysmal attacks\nParry–Romberg syndrome\nPelizaeus–Merzbacher disease\nPeriodic paralyses\nPeripheral neuropathy\nPervasive developmental disorders\nPhantom limb / Phantom pain\nPhotic sneeze reflex\nPhytanic acid storage disease\nPick's disease\nPinched nerve\nPituitary tumors\nPolyneuropathy\nPMG\nPolio\nPolymicrogyria\nPolymyositis\nPorencephaly\nPost-polio syndrome\nPostherpetic neuralgia\nPosttraumatic stress disorder\nPostural hypotension\nPostural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome\nPrader–Willi syndrome\nPrimary lateral sclerosis\nPrion diseases\nProgressive hemifacial atrophy\nProgressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy\nProgressive supranuclear palsy\nProsopagnosia\nPseudotumor cerebri\n\n\n== Q ==\nQuadrantanopia\nQuadriplegia\n\n\n== R ==\nRabies\nRadiculopathy\nRamsay Hunt syndrome type I\nRamsay Hunt syndrome type II\nRamsay Hunt syndrome type III – see Ramsay–Hunt syndrome\nRasmussen encephalitis\nReflex neurovascular dystrophy\nRefsum disease\nREM sleep behavior disorder\nRepetitive stress injury\nRestless legs syndrome\nRetrovirus-associated myelopathy\nRett syndrome\nReye's syndrome\nRhythmic movement disorder\nRomberg syndrome\n\n\n== S ==\nSavant syndrome\nSaint Vitus dance\nSandhoff disease\nSanfilippo syndrome\nSchilder's disease (two distinct conditions)\nSchizencephaly\nSclerosis\nSeizures\nSensory processing disorder\nSepto-optic dysplasia\nShaken baby syndrome\nShingles\nShy–Drager syndrome\nSjögren's syndrome\nSleep apnea\nSleeping sickness\nSlurred speech\nSnatiation\nSotos syndrome\nSpasticity\nSpina bifida\nSpinal and bulbar muscular atrophy\nSpinal cord injury\nSpinal cord tumors\nSpinal muscular atrophy\nSpinal muscular atrophy with respiratory distress type 1 – see Distal spinal muscular atrophy type 1\nSpinocerebellar ataxia\nSplit-brain\nSteele–Richardson–Olszewski syndrome – see Progressive supranuclear palsy\nStiff-person syndrome\nStroke\nSturge–Weber syndrome\nStuttering\nSubacute sclerosing panencephalitis\nSubcortical arteriosclerotic encephalopathy\nSuperficial siderosis\nSydenham's chorea\nSyncope\nSynesthesia\nSyringomyelia\nSubstance use disorder\n\n\n== T ==\nTraumatic encephalopathy\nTardive dyskinesia\nTarlov cyst\nTarsal tunnel syndrome\nTay–Sachs disease\nTemporal arteritis\nTemporal lobe epilepsy\nTetanus\nTethered spinal cord syndrome\nThalamocortical dysrhythmia\nThomsen disease\nThoracic outlet syndrome\nTic Douloureux\nTinnitus\nTodd's paralysis\nTourette syndrome\nToxic encephalopathy\nTransient ischemic attack\nTransmissible spongiform encephalopathies\nTransverse myelitis\nTraumatic brain injury\nTremor\nTrichotillomania\nTrigeminal neuralgia\nTropical spastic paraparesis\nTrypanosomiasis\nTuberous sclerosis\n\n\n== U ==\nUnconsciousness\nUnverricht–Lundborg disease\n\n\n== V ==\nVestibular schwannoma\nVertigo\nViliuisk encephalomyelitis\nVisual Snow\nVon Hippel–Lindau disease\nVulpian-Bernhardt Syndrome\n\n\n== W ==\nWallenberg's syndrome\nWerdnig–Hoffmann disease – see Spinal muscular atrophy\nWernicke's encephalopathy\nWernicke Korsakoff syndrome\nWest syndrome\nWhiplash\nWilliams syndrome\nWilson's disease\nWitzelsucht\n\n\n== Y ==\nY-Linked hearing impairment\n\n\n== Z ==\nZellweger syndrome\n\n\n== See also ==\nList of mental disorders\n\n\n== References ==\nThe source of this list is from the NIH public domain [1]<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 149685,
      "num_docs": 162,
      "example": "Apoplexy (from Ancient Greek  ἀποπληξία (apoplexia) 'a striking away') refers to the rupture of an internal organ and the associated symptoms. Informally or metaphorically, the term apoplexy is associated with being furious, especially as \"apoplectic\". Historically, it described what is now known as a hemorrhagic stroke, typically involving a ruptured blood vessel in the brain; modern medicine typically specifies the anatomical location of the bleeding, such as cerebral apoplexy, ovarian apoplexy, or pituitary apoplexy.\n\n\n== Historical meaning ==\nFrom the late 14th to the late 19th century, the diagnosis apoplexy referred to any sudden death that began with abrupt loss of consciousness, especially when the victim died within seconds after losing consciousness. The word apoplexy was sometimes used to refer to the symptom of sudden loss of consciousness immediately preceding death. Strokes, ruptured aortic aneurysms, and even heart attacks were referred to as apoplexy in the past, because before the advent of biomedical science, the ability to differentiate abnormal conditions and diseased states was limited. Although physiology, as a medical field, dates back at least to the time of Hippocrates, until the late 19th century, physicians often had inadequate or inaccurate understandings of many of the human body's normal functions and abnormal presentations. Hence, identifying a specific cause of a symptom or of death often proved difficult or impossible.\n\n\n== Hemorrhage ==\nTo specify the site of bleeding, the term \"apoplexy\" is often accompanied by a descriptive adjective. For instance, bleeding within the pituitary gland is termed \"pituitary apoplexy\", and bleeding within the adrenal glands is referred to as \"adrenal apoplexy\".\nApoplexy also includes hemorrhaging within the gland and accompanying neurological problems, such as confusion, headache, and impairment of consciousness.\n\n\n== See also ==\nTransient ischemic attack\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n The dictionary definition of apoplexy at Wiktionary\n Texts on Wikisource:\nBlack, James Rush (6 April 1875). \"Apoplexy\". Popular Science Monthly. 6.\nMott, Frederick Walker (1911). \"Apoplexy\". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). pp. 195–196.<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "public_health": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 810694,
      "num_docs": 864,
      "example": ", some but not all of which, serve halal foods such as the Nando's, Brown's Chicken, and Crown Fried Chicken companies.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 112879,
      "num_docs": 117,
      "example": " worldwide.\nIn the past 20 years, other common bacteria including Staphylococcus aureus, Serratia marcescens and Enterococcus, have developed resistance to a wide range of antibiotics. Antibiotic-resistant organisms have become an important cause of healthcare-associated (nosocomial) infections.\n\n\n=== Climate change ===\n\nThere are two groups of infectious diseases that may be affected by climate change. The first group are vector-borne diseases which are transmitted via insects such as mosquitos or ticks. Some of these diseases, such as malaria, yellow fever, and dengue fever, can have potentially severe health consequences. Climate can affect the distribution of these diseases due to the changing geographic range of their vectors, with the potential to cause serious outbreaks in areas where the disease has not previously been known. The other group comprises water-borne diseases such as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid which may increase in prevalence due to changes in rainfall patterns.\n\n\n=== Encroaching into wildlands ===\n\nThe October 2020 'era of pandemics' report by the United Nations' Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, written by 22 experts in a variety of fields, said the anthropogenic destruction of biodiversity is paving the way to the pandemic era and could result in as many as 850,000 viruses being transmitted from animals—in particular birds and mammals—to humans. The \"exponential rise\" in consumption and trade of commodities such as meat, palm oil, and metals, largely facilitated by developed nations, and a growing human population, are the primary drivers of this destruction. According to Peter Daszak, the chair of the group who produced the report, \"there is no great mystery about the cause of the Covid-19 pandemic or any modern pandemic. The same human activities that drive climate change and biodiversity loss also drive pandemic risk through their impacts on our environment.\" Proposed policy options from the report include taxing meat production and consumption, cracking down on the illegal wildlife trade, removing high-risk species from the legal wildlife trade, eliminating subsidies to businesses that are harmful to the natural world, and establishing a global surveillance network.\nIn June 2021, a team of scientists assembled by the Harvard Medical School Center for Health and the Global Environment warned that the primary cause of pandemics so far, the anthropogenic destruction of the natural world through such activities including deforestation and hunting, is being ignored by world leaders.\n\n\n=== Melting permafrost ===\nPermafrost covers a fifth of the northern hemisphere and is made up of soil that has been kept at temperatures below freezing for long periods. Viable samples of viruses have been recovered from thawing permafrost, after having been frozen for many years, sometimes for millennia. There is a remote possibility that a thawed pathogen could infect humans or animals.\n\n\n=== Artificial intelligence ===\nExperts have raised concerns that advances in artificial intelligence could facilitate the design of particularly dangerous pathogens with pandemic potential. They recommended in 2024 that governments implement mandatory oversight and testing requirements.\n\n\n== Economic consequences ==\nIn 2016, the commission on a Global Health Risk Framework for the Future estimated that pandemic disease events would cost the global economy over $6 trillion in the 21st century—over $60 billion per year. The same report recommended spending $4.5 billion annually on global prevention and response capabilities to reduce the threat posed by pandemic events, a figure that the World Bank Group raised to $13 billion in a 2019 report. It has been suggested that such costs be paid from a tax on aviation rather than from, e.g., income taxes, given the crucial role of air traffic in transforming local epidemics into pandemics (being the only factor considered in state-of-the-art models of long-range disease transmission ).\nThe COVID-19 pandemic is expected to have a profound negative effect on the global economy, potentially for years to come, with substantial drops in GDP accompanied by increases in unemployment noted around the world. The slowdown of economic activity early in the COVID-19 pandemic had a profound effect on emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases. Analysis of ice cores taken from the Swiss Alps has revealed a reduction in atmospheric lead pollution over a four-year period corresponding to the years 1349 to 1353 (when the Black Death was ravaging Europe), indicating a reduction in mining and economic activity generally.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nWHO | World Health Organization\nPast pandemics that ravaged Europe\nPandemic Influenza at CDC\nEuropean Centre for Disease Prevention and Control\nTED-Education video How pandemics spread.<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "pharmacology": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 1529100,
      "num_docs": 1803,
      "example": "iologist Olivier Ameisen described how he treated his alcoholism with baclofen. Inspired by this book, an anonymous donor gave $750,000 to the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands to initiate a clinical trial of high-dose baclofen, which Ameisen had called for since 2004. The researchers concluded, \"In summary, the current study did not find evidence of a positive effect of either low or high doses of baclofen in AD patients. However, we cannot exclude the possibility that baclofen is an effective medication for the treatment of severe, heavy drinking AD patients not responding to or not accepting routine psychosocial interventions.\"\n\n\n== Society and culture ==\n\n\n=== Routes of administration ===\n\nBaclofen can be administered, orally, intrathecally (directly into the cerebral spinal fluid) using a pump implanted under the skin, or transdermally as part of a pain-relieving and muscle-relaxing topical cream mix (also containing gabapentin and clonidine) prepared at a compounding pharmacy.\nIntrathecal pumps offer much lower doses of baclofen because they are designed to deliver the medication directly to the spinal fluid rather than going through the digestive and blood system first. A drug concentration in the cerebrospinal fluid more than 10 times greater than when given orally is achieved with this route. At the same time the blood concentration levels are almost undetectable, thus minimizing side effects.\nBesides those with spasticity, intrathecal administration is also used in patients with cerebral palsy or multiple sclerosis who have severe painful spasms which are not controllable by oral baclofen. With pump administration, a test dose is first injected into the spinal fluid to assess the effect, and if successful in relieving spasticity, a chronic intrathecal catheter is inserted from the spine through the abdomen and attached to the pump which is implanted under the abdomen's skin, usually by the ribcage. The pump is computer-controlled for automatic dosage and its reservoir can be replenished by percutaneous injection. The pump also has to be replaced every five to seven years or so.\n\n\n=== Other names ===\nOther names include: Fleqsuvy, Gablofen, Kemstro, Lioresal, Lyvispah, Ozobax.\n\n\n== Research ==\nBaclofen is being studied for the treatment of alcoholism. Evidence as of 2019 is not conclusive enough to recommend its use for this purpose. In 2014, the French drug agency ANSM issued a three-year temporary recommendation allowing the use of baclofen in alcoholism. In 2018, baclofen received a Marketing Authorization for use in alcoholism treatment from the agency if all other treatments are not effective.\nIt is being studied along with naltrexone and sorbitol for Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease (CMT), a hereditary disease that causes peripheral neuropathy. It is also being studied for cocaine addiction. Baclofen and other muscle relaxants are being studied for potential use for persistent hiccups.\nFrom 2014 to 2017 baclofen misuse, toxicity and use in suicide attempts among adults in the US increased.\n\n\n== References ==<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 200847,
      "num_docs": 233,
      "example": "\nantibiotics, medical ingredients, additives.\nIndustrial\npaint pigments, ceramic materials, catalyst supports, microalgae.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Bibliography ==\nCharles Onwulata (2005). Encapsulated and powdered foods. CRC Press. p. 268. ISBN 978-0-8247-5327-6.\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nCook, E.M, and DuMont, H.D. (1991) Process Drying Practice, McGraw-Hill, Inc., ISBN 0-07-012462-0\nKeey, R.B., (1992). Drying of Loose and Particulate Materials 1st ed., Taylor & Francis, ISBN 0-89116-878-8\nNutritional evaluation of food processing second edition (1975), Robert S. Harris, Ph.D. and Endel Karmas Ph.D. (eds)\nFilková, I., & Mujumdar, A. S. (2020). Industrial spray drying systems. In Handbook of industrial drying (pp. 263-307). CRC Press.\nJafari, S. M., Arpagaus, C., Cerqueira, M. A., & Samborska, K. (2021). Nano spray drying of food ingredients; materials, processing and applications. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 109, 632-646.\nKlimša, V., Ruphuy, G., Jonáš, J., Mašková, L., Kašpar, O., Žvátora, P., & Štěpánek, F. (2023). Spray drying robot for high-throughput combinatorial fabrication of multicomponent solid dispersions. Powder Technology, 428, 118872.\n\n\n== External links ==\nAnimation of standard Spray Drying Concept\nSpray Drying trainings paper<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "computer_science": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 1490532,
      "num_docs": 1572,
      "example": " application was also removed in the update. Since macOS Catalina, iOS apps can run on macOS with Project Catalyst but requires the app to be made compatible unlike ARM-powered Apple silicon Macs that can run all iOS apps by default.\n\n\n=== macOS 11 Big Sur ===\nmacOS Big Sur was announced on June 22, 2020, during the WWDC20 keynote speech. It was released November 12, 2020. The major version number is changed, for the first time since \"Mac OS X\" was released, making it macOS 11. It brings ARM support, new icons, GUI changes to the system, and other bug fixes.\nSince macOS 11.2.3, it is no longer possible to install iOS apps by default from an IPA file instead of the Mac App Store on Apple silicon Macs, which now requires third-party software to unlock the functionality. Big Sur introduced Rosetta 2 to allow 64-bit Intel applications to run on Apple silicon Macs. However, Intel-based Macs are unable to run ARM-based applications, including iOS and iPadOS apps.\n\n\n=== macOS 12 Monterey ===\nmacOS Monterey was announced on June 7, 2021, during the WWDC21 keynote speech. It was released on October 25, 2021. macOS Monterey introduces new features such as Universal Control, which allows users to use a single keyboard and mouse to move between devices; AirPlay, which now allows users to present and share almost anything; the Shortcuts app, also introduced to macOS, gives users access to galleries of pre-built shortcuts, designed for Macs, a service brought from iOS, and users can now also set up shortcuts, among other things. macOS Monterey is the final version of macOS that officially supports macOS Server.\n\n\n=== macOS 13 Ventura ===\nmacOS Ventura was announced on June 6, 2022, during the WWDC22 keynote speech. It was released on October 24, 2022. macOS Ventura introduces Stage Manager, a new and optional window manager, a redesigned settings app, and Continuity Camera, which is a program that allows Mac users to use their iPhone as a camera, and several other new features. It is also the first version of macOS without macOS Server support.\n\n\n=== macOS 14 Sonoma ===\nmacOS Sonoma was announced on June 5, 2023, during the WWDC23 keynote speech. Key changes include a revamp of Widgets, the user lock screen, and a video wallpaper/screensaver feature using Apple TV's screen saver videos. It was released on September 26, 2023.\n\n\n=== macOS 15 Sequoia ===\nmacOS Sequoia was announced on June 10, 2024, during the WWDC24 keynote speech. This release introduced Apple Intelligence, with a limited initial feature set focused on basic writing and image generation tools complemented by ChatGPT integration. An iPhone Mirroring app for remotely controlling a user's iPhone was included, along with a password manager app, system support for tiling and resizing windows, and various other minor updates to Safari, Maps, Messages and Notes. It was released on September 16, 2024.\n\n\n=== macOS 26 Tahoe ===\nmacOS Tahoe was announced on June 9, 2025, during the WWDC25 keynote speech. It introduced a new design language, Liquid Glass, that's been applied universally on all Apple OSes and devices, added new Phone and Games apps, and improved integration with Apple Intelligence.\n\n\n== Timeline of Macintosh operating systems ==\n\n\n== See also ==\nMac operating systems\nArchitecture of macOS\nList of built-in macOS apps\niOS version history\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial website<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 136237,
      "num_docs": 145,
      "example": " system as a hard drive.\n\n\n=== ATA over Ethernet ===\nIn August 2004, Sam Hopkins and Brantley Coile of Coraid specified a lightweight ATA over Ethernet protocol to carry ATA commands over Ethernet instead of directly connecting them to a PATA host adapter. This permitted the established block protocol to be reused in storage area network (SAN) applications.\n\n\n=== Compact Flash ===\n\nCompact Flash (CF) in its IDE mode is essentially a miniaturized ATA interface, intended for use on devices that use flash memory storage. No interfacing chips or circuitry are required, other than to directly adapt the smaller CF socket onto the larger ATA connector. (Although most CF cards only support IDE mode up to PIO4, making them much slower in IDE mode than their CF capable speed)\nThe ATA connector specification does not include pins for supplying power to a CF device, so power is inserted into the connector from a separate source. The exception to this is when the CF device is connected to a 44-pin ATA bus designed for 2.5-inch hard disk drives, commonly found in notebook computers, as this bus implementation must provide power to a standard hard disk drive.\nCF devices can be designated as devices 0 or 1 on an ATA interface, though since most CF devices offer only a single socket, it is not necessary to offer this selection to end users. Although CF can be hot-pluggable with additional design methods, by default when wired directly to an ATA interface, it is not intended to be hot-pluggable.\n\n\n== See also ==\nAdvanced Host Controller Interface – Computer standard for SATA host controllers\nCompact Flash – Memory card formatPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets\nCE-ATA – Interface for small hard drives\nFATA (hard drive)\nINT 13H – BIOS interrupt call for disk access\nIT8212\nMaster/slave (technology) – Relationship between devices in which one controls the otherPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets\nList of device bandwidths\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nCE-ATA Workgroup<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "artificial_intelligence": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 502694,
      "num_docs": 532,
      "example": "interpreted predicate symbols). ATPs excel at problems with lots of quantifiers, whereas SMT solvers do well on large problems without quantifiers. The line is blurry enough that some ATPs participate in SMT-COMP, while some SMT solvers participate in CASC.\n\n\n== Benchmarks, competitions, and sources ==\nThe quality of implemented systems has benefited from the existence of a large library of standard benchmark examples—the Thousands of Problems for Theorem Provers (TPTP) Problem Library—as well as from the CADE ATP System Competition (CASC), a yearly competition of first-order systems for many important classes of first-order problems.\nSome important systems (all have won at least one CASC competition division) are listed below.\n\nE is a high-performance prover for full first-order logic, but built on a purely equational calculus, originally developed in the automated reasoning group of Technical University of Munich under the direction of Wolfgang Bibel, and now at Baden-Württemberg Cooperative State University in Stuttgart.\nOtter, developed at the Argonne National Laboratory, is based on first-order resolution and paramodulation. Otter has since been replaced by Prover9, which is paired with Mace4.\nSETHEO is a high-performance system based on the goal-directed model elimination calculus, originally developed by a team under direction of Wolfgang Bibel. E and SETHEO have been combined (with other systems) in the composite theorem prover E-SETHEO.\nVampire was originally developed and implemented at Manchester University by Andrei Voronkov and Kryštof Hoder. It is now developed by a growing international team. It has won the FOF division (among other divisions) at the CADE ATP System Competition regularly since 2001.\nWaldmeister is a specialized system for unit-equational first-order logic developed by Arnim Buch and Thomas Hillenbrand. It won the CASC UEQ division for fourteen consecutive years (1997–2010).\nSPASS is a first-order logic theorem prover with equality. This is developed by the research group Automation of Logic, Max Planck Institute for Computer Science.\nThe Theorem Prover Museum is an initiative to conserve the sources of theorem prover systems for future analysis, since they are important cultural/scientific artefacts. It has the sources of many of the systems mentioned above.\n\n\n== Popular techniques ==\n\nFirst-order resolution with unification\nModel elimination\nMethod of analytic tableaux\nSuperposition and term rewriting\nModel checking\nMathematical induction\nBinary decision diagrams\nDPLL\nHigher-order unification\nQuantifier elimination\n\n\n== Software systems ==\n\n\n=== Free software ===\nAlt-Ergo\nAutomath\nCVC\nE\nIsaPlanner\nLCF\nMizar\nNuPRL\nParadox\nProver9\nPVS\nSPARK (programming language)\nTwelf\nZ3 Theorem Prover\n\n\n=== Proprietary software ===\nCARINE\nWolfram Mathematica\nResearchCyc\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nA list of theorem proving tools<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 66651,
      "num_docs": 70,
      "example": " the amount of noise introduced through a lossy compression of the image, however, the subjective judgment of the viewer also is regarded as an important measure, perhaps, being the most important measure.\n\n\n== History ==\nEntropy coding started in the late 1940s with the introduction of Shannon–Fano coding, the basis for Huffman coding which was published in 1952. Transform coding dates back to the late 1960s, with the introduction of fast Fourier transform (FFT) coding in 1968 and the Hadamard transform in 1969.\nAn important development in image data compression was the discrete cosine transform (DCT), a lossy compression technique first proposed by Nasir Ahmed, T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao in 1973. JPEG was introduced by the Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) in 1992. JPEG compresses images down to much smaller file sizes, and has become the most widely used image file format. JPEG was largely responsible for the wide proliferation of digital images and digital photos, with several billion JPEG images produced every day as of 2015.\nLempel–Ziv–Welch (LZW) is a lossless compression algorithm developed by Abraham Lempel, Jacob Ziv and Terry Welch in 1984. It is used in the GIF format, introduced in 1987. DEFLATE, a lossless compression algorithm developed by Phil Katz and specified in 1996, is used in the Portable Network Graphics (PNG) format.\nThe JPEG 2000 standard was developed from 1997 to 2000 by a JPEG committee chaired by Touradj Ebrahimi (later the JPEG president). In contrast to the DCT algorithm used by the original JPEG format, JPEG 2000 instead uses discrete wavelet transform (DWT) algorithms. It uses the CDF 9/7 wavelet transform (developed by Ingrid Daubechies in 1992) for its lossy compression algorithm, and the Le Gall–Tabatabai (LGT) 5/3 wavelet transform (developed by Didier Le Gall and Ali J. Tabatabai in 1988) for its lossless compression algorithm. JPEG 2000 technology, which includes the Motion JPEG 2000 extension, was selected as the video coding standard for digital cinema in 2004.\nThe evolution of image compression technologies has led to continuous improvements in both efficiency and quality. From the early developments in entropy coding and transform coding to the introduction of JPEG and JPEG 2000, these innovations have significantly impacted the way digital images are stored, transmitted, and processed. Modern compression methods allow users to optimize image files for faster loading times and better storage utilization, while maintaining high image quality. As compression technologies advance, these methods continue to play a crucial role in various fields, including web development, digital media, and content management.\n\n\n== Notes and references ==<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "information_theory": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 318895,
      "num_docs": 325,
      "example": "\n              t\n              e\n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\rm {Data\\;Rate\\;Saving}}=1-{\\frac {\\rm {Compressed\\;Data\\;Rate}}{\\rm {Uncompressed\\;Data\\;Rate}}}}\n  \n\nFor example, uncompressed songs in CD format have a data rate of 16 bits/channel x 2 channels x 44.1 kHz ≅ 1.4 Mbit/s, whereas AAC files on an iPod are typically compressed to 128 kbit/s, yielding a compression ratio of 10.9, for a data-rate saving of 0.91, or 91%. \nWhen the uncompressed data rate is known, the compression ratio can be inferred from the compressed data rate.\n\n\n== Lossless vs. Lossy ==\nLossless compression of digitized data such as video, digitized film, and audio preserves all the information, but it does not generally achieve compression ratio much better than 2:1 because of the intrinsic entropy of the data. Compression algorithms which provide higher ratios either incur very large overheads or work only for specific data sequences (e.g. compressing a file with mostly zeros). In contrast, lossy compression (e.g. JPEG for images, or MP3 and Opus for audio) can achieve much higher compression ratios at the cost of a decrease in quality, such as Bluetooth audio streaming, as visual or audio compression artifacts from loss of important information are introduced. A compression ratio of at least 50:1 is needed to get 1080i video into a 20 Mbit/s MPEG transport stream.\n\n\n== Uses ==\nThe data compression ratio can serve as a measure of the complexity of a data set or signal. In particular it is used to approximate the algorithmic complexity. It is also used to see how much of a file is able to be compressed without increasing its original size.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nNondegrading lossy compression<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 36945,
      "num_docs": 39,
      "example": " algorithmic information, by Jürgen Schmidhuber<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "cryptography": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 308745,
      "num_docs": 330,
      "example": "-2096.\nBob, Yonah Jeremy (21 August 2021). \"Ex-IDF cyber intel. official reveals secrets behind cyber offense\". The Jerusalem Post.\nKim, Peter (2014). The Hacker Playbook: Practical Guide To Penetration Testing. Seattle: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. ISBN 978-1-4949-3263-3.\nLee, Newton (2015). Counterterrorism and Cybersecurity: Total Information Awareness (2nd ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-17243-9.\nMontagnani, Maria Lillà; Cavallo, Mirta Antonella (2018). \"Cybersecurity and Liability in a Big Data World\". Market and Competition Law Review. 2 (2). Elsevier BV: 71–98. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3220475. ISSN 1556-5068. S2CID 216704215. SSRN 3220475.\nShariati, Marzieh; Bahmani, Faezeh; Shams, Fereidoon (2011). \"Enterprise information security, a review of architectures and frameworks from interoperability perspective\". Procedia Computer Science. 3. Elsevier BV: 537–543. doi:10.1016/j.procs.2010.12.089. ISSN 1877-0509.\nSinger, P. W.; Friedman, Allan (2014). Cybersecurity and Cyberwar: What Everyone Needs to Know. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-991811-9.\nWu, Chwan-Hwa (John); Irwin, J. David (2013). Introduction to Computer Networks and Cybersecurity. Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4665-7213-3.\nCybersecurity Best Practices | Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency CISA. (n.d.). Retrieved April 24, 2024, from https://www.cisa.gov/topics/cybersecurity-best-practices\nSztyber-Betley, A., Syfert, M., Kościelny, J. M., & Górecka, Z. (2023). Controller Cyber-Attack Detection and Isolation †: Sensors (14248220). Sensors (14248220), 23(5), 2778. doi:10.3390/s23052778<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 29688,
      "num_docs": 33,
      "example": " Incident (PDF) (Report). Israel Defence Forces, History Department. June 1982. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 May 2008. Retrieved 16 May 2008.\nColonel Ram Ron (16 June 1967). Ram Ron Report (PDF) (Report). Israel Defense Forces Inquiry Commission Report.\nLenczowski, George (1990). American presidents and the Middle East. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-0963-5.\nOren, Michael B. (Spring 2000). \"The 'USS Liberty': Case Closed\". Azure. No. 9.\nScott, James (2009). The Attack on the Liberty: The Untold Story of Israel's Deadly 1967 Assault on a U.S. Spy Ship. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4165-5482-0.\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nThe Puzzle Palace, by James Bamford, Penguin Books, 1982, has a detailed description of the Israeli attack on the SIGINT ship USS Liberty, and the events leading up to it, on pages 279–293.\nBody of Secrets, by James Bamford, devotes a detailed chapter to the incident, and concludes it was deliberate. Doubleday, 2001 (ISBN 0-09-942774-5)\nBregman, Ahron (2002). A History of Israel. London: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-67631-9.\nCristol, A. Jay (2002). The Liberty Incident: The 1967 Israeli Attack on the U.S. Navy Spy Ship. Dulles, Virginia: Brassey's. ISBN 1-57488-414-X.\nPeter Hounam, Operation Cyanide: Why the Bombing of the USS Liberty Nearly Caused World War III, Vision Paperbacks. 2003, ISBN 1-904132-19-7,\nSix Days of War: June 1967 and the Making of the Modern Middle East, by Michael B. Oren, Oxford University Press (ISBN 0-19-515174-7)\nAnthony Pearson, Conspiracy of Silence: The Attack on the USS Liberty, 1979 ISBN 0-7043-2164-5\nScott, James M. \"The Spy Ship Left Out in the Cold\" Naval History Magazine (June 2017) 31#3 pp 28+ online\nThomas, Baylis (1999). How Israel Was Won: A Concise History of the Arab-Israeli Conflict. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books. ISBN 0-7391-0064-5. In Chapter 15 on \"The Six-Day War and Its Consequences\", dissects the sequence of events and concurrent attacks on Arab towns and explores the possibility that the attack on this U.S. spy ship was an intentional act to prevent U.S. monitoring of Israeli military actions, and that the intent was to kill all U.S. personnel on board before any kind of communications could be sent out.\n\n\n== External links ==\n Media related to USS Liberty incident (1967) at Wikimedia Commons\n Works related to Sources on the USS Liberty incident at Wikisource<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "statistics": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 381579,
      "num_docs": 393,
      "example": " questions on national censuses\nSocial research – Research conducted by social scientists\n\n\n== Sources ==\n This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO (license statement/permission). Text taken from World Programme for the Census of Agriculture 2020 Volume 1 – Programme, concepts and definitions​, FAO, FAO.  \n This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO (license statement/permission). Text taken from National agricultural census operations and COVID-19​, FAO, FAO.  \n This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO (license statement/permission). Text taken from Impact of COVID-19 on national censuses of agriculture (Status overview) (2020)​, FAO, FAO.  \n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\nAlterman, Hyman, (1969). Counting People: The Census in History. Harcourt, Brace & Company. \nBehrisch, Lars. (2016) \"Statistics and Politics in the 18th Century.\" Historical Social Research/Historische Sozialforschung (2016): 238–57.\nBielenstein, Hans, (1978). \"Wang Mang, the restoration of the Han dynasty, and Later Han.\" In The Cambridge History of China, vol. 1, eds. Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank, pp. 223–90, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.\nKrüger, Stephen, (Fall 1991). \"The Decennial Census\", 19 Western State University Law Review 1; available at HeinOnline (subscription required).\nEffects of UK 'Jedi' hoax on 2001 UK census from ONS.\nU.S. Census Press Release on 1930 Census.\nU.S. Census Press Release on Soundex and WPA.\nNishijima, Sadao (1986), \"The economic and social history of Former Han\", in Twitchett, Denis; Loewe, Michael (eds.), Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 545–607, ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8.\n\n\n== External links ==\n\n\"Census\". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). 1911.\nCensus of Ireland 1911.\nOnline Historical Population Reports Project (OHPR).\nPR as a function of census management: comparative analysis of fifteen census experiences<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 18667,
      "num_docs": 22,
      "example": " research, making significant stops at Berkeley, Princeton, and at the Research Triangle Institute of North Carolina.\nCramér received an Honorary Doctorate from Heriot-Watt University in 1972.\nHis academic career spanned over seven decades, from 1913 to 1982.\nHarald Cramér married Marta Hansson in 1918, and they remained together up until her death in 1973. He had often referred to her as his \"Beloved Marta\". Together they had one daughter, Marie-Louise, and two sons, Tomas and Kim.\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\nCramér, Harald (1936). \"Über eine Eigenschaft der normalen Verteilungsfunktion\". Mathematische Zeitschrift (in German). 41 (1): 405–414. doi:10.1007/BF01180430. S2CID 118420723. MR 1545629\nCramér, Harald (1938). \"Sur un nouveau théorème-limite de la théorie des probabilités\". Actualités Scientifiques et Industrielles (in French). 736: 5–23.\nWegman, Edward (1986-11-01). \"Some Personal Recollections of Harald Cramér on the Development of Statistics and Probability\". Statistical Science. 1 (4): 528–535. doi:10.1214/ss/1177013531. JSTOR 2245807.\nKingman, J. F. C. (1986). \"Harald Cramér, 1893-1985\". Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. 149 (2): 186. JSTOR 2981530.\nBlom, Gunnar (1987-12-01). \"Harald Cramér, 1893-1985\". The Annals of Statistics. 15 (4): 1335–1350. doi:10.1214/aos/1176350596. JSTOR 2241677.\nKendall, David (1983). \"A Tribute to Harald Cramér\". Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A. 146 (3): 211–212. JSTOR 2981652.\nHeyde, C.C.; Eugene Seneta (2001). Statisticians of the Centuries. New York, New York: Springer. pp. 439–443. ISBN 0-387-95283-7.\n\n\n== External links ==\nO'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., \"Harald Cramér\", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews\nphotographs of Harald Cramér at the Oberwolfach Photo Collection\nPhotograph with C. R. Rao from the PORTRAITS OF STATISTICIANS\nHarald Cramér at the Mathematics Genealogy Project<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "electrical_engineering": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 895995,
      "num_docs": 938,
      "example": " Hasok Chang and Sang Wook Yi (PDF file)\nReprint of papers on electrostatics and magnetism (gallica)\nThe Molecular Tactics of a Crystal (Internet Archive)\nQuotations - This collection includes sources for many quotes.\nKelvin Building Opening - The Leys School, Cambridge (1893)\nThe Kelvin Library<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 218755,
      "num_docs": 220,
      "example": " Metals in 2021, and the company was renamed Proterial in 2023.\n\n\n==== Hitachi Works ====\nSpin-off entities from Hitachi Works include Hitachi Cable (1956) and Hitachi Canadian Industries Limited (founded 1988 in Saskatoon and closed in 2016 as Mitsubishi-Hitachi Power Systems).\nAs Hitachi pulled out of MHPS and handed over the control to MHI, Hitachi Works was also transferred, becoming part of Mitsubishi Power.\n\n\n==== Others ====\nOther former businesses Hitachi had had include the following:\n\nAircraft\nHitachi T.2\nHitachi TR.2\nAircraft Engines\nHitachi Hatsukaze\nHitachi Zosen\nShips - Business merged with the shipbuilding operation of NKK corporation to form Universal Shipbuilding Corporation\nDisplays\nPlasma and LCD Televisions - Ceased production. Brand name continues to be licensed to Vestel for TVs sold at Argos in the UK.\nSmall LCDs - Divested to be part of Japan Display\nProjectors - Sold to Maxell\nMemory chips - Spun off to be part of Elpida Memory\nSystem LSIs - Spun off to be part of Renesas Technology\nPersonal computers(Basic Master) - Ceased production\nMobile phones - Merged with Casio's cellphone manufacturing business, then absorbed into NEC Mobile Communications\nBatteries - Sold to Maxell\nDrilling instruments (Hitachi Via Mechanics) - Sold to The Longreach Group\nHard disk drives - Separated division for this product line as Hitachi Global Storage Technologies, then HGST was purchased by Western Digital\nMainframe computer hardware - Stopped exporting in 2000; Ceased production in 2017 to focus on the operating system business.\nHitachi Kokusai Electric - Sold to KKR\nTelecommunication equipment\nChemical vapor deposition equipment\nPower tools (Hitachi Koki) - Sold to KKR and renamed Hikoki\nCar navigation system (Clarion) - Sold to Faurecia\nWind turbines - Ceased production\nChemical products (Hitachi Chemical) - Sold to Showa Denko and renamed Showa Denko Materials\nMedical diagnostic equipment - Sold to Fujifilm\nThermal power generation system (Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems) - Shares held by Hitachi transferred to Mitsubishi\nHitachi Transport System, Ltd. - sold to KKR\nProperty management\n\n\n=== Educational initiatives ===\nHitachi has research partnerships with several universities, and funds research centres within these universities. Hitachi-UTokyo Lab., which is a joint research centre with the Faculty of Engineering, University of Tokyo, focuses on the realisation of data-driven and more efficient society (Former Chairman and UTokyo alumnus Hiroaki Nakanishi coined the term Society 5.0 for this). Hitachi Cambridge Laboratory (HCL), a Hitachi-funded research centre within the University of Cambridge founded in 1985, now focuses on quantum computation and magnetism. Hitachi conducts similar initiatives with Kyoto University, Hokkaido University and National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology as well.\n\n\n== See also ==\nATM Industry Association (ATMIA)\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nOfficial website<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "mechanical_engineering": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 1861421,
      "num_docs": 1885,
      "example": " ball appears to rise steadily helps the player to position himself correctly to make the catch. If he is too close to the batsman who has hit the ball, it will appear to rise at an accelerating rate. If he is too far from the batsman, it will appear to slow rapidly, and then to descend.\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== See also ==\nAft-crossing trajectory\nDisplacement (geometry)\nGalilean invariance\nOrbit (dynamics)\nOrbit (group theory)\nOrbital trajectory\nPhugoid\nPlanetary orbit\nPorkchop plot\nProjectile motion\nRange of a projectile\nRigid body\nWorld line\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nProjectile Motion Flash Applet Archived 14 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine:)\nTrajectory calculator\nAn interactive simulation on projectile motion\nProjectile Lab, JavaScript trajectory simulator\nParabolic Projectile Motion: Shooting a Harmless Tranquilizer Dart at a Falling Monkey by Roberto Castilla-Meléndez, Roxana Ramírez-Herrera, and José Luis Gómez-Muñoz, The Wolfram Demonstrations Project.\nTrajectory, ScienceWorld.\nJava projectile-motion simulation, with first-order air resistance. Archived 3 July 2012 at the Wayback Machine\nJava projectile-motion simulation; targeting solutions, parabola of safety.<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 122377,
      "num_docs": 126,
      "example": " prevents water hammer effects from traveling up it. Its overall design would be determined by the allowable pressure drop based on the expected flow. Typically the pipe size will be about half that of the supply pipe, but for very long runs a larger size may be indicated. PVC pipe and any necessary valves are not a problem.\n\n\n=== Starting operation ===\nA ram newly placed into operation or which has stopped cycling should start automatically if the waste valve weight or spring pressure is adjusted correctly, but it can be restarted as follows: If the waste valve is in the raised (closed) position, it must be pushed down manually into the open position and released. If the flow is sufficient, it will then cycle at least once. If it does not continue to cycle, it must be pushed down repeatedly until it cycles continuously on its own, usually after three or four manual cycles. If the ram stops with the waste valve in the down (open) position it must be lifted manually and kept up for as long as necessary for the supply pipe to fill with water and for any air bubbles to travel up the pipe to the source. This may take some time, depending on supply pipe length and diameter. Then it can be started manually by pushing it down a few times as described above. Having a valve on the delivery pipe at the ram makes starting easier. Closing the valve until the ram starts cycling, then gradually opening it to fill the delivery pipe. If opened too quickly it will stop the cycle. Once the delivery pipe is full the valve can be left open.\n\n\n=== Common operational problems ===\nFailure to deliver sufficient water may be due to improper adjustment of the waste valve, having too little air in the pressure vessel, or simply attempting to raise the water higher than the level of which the ram is capable.\nThe ram may be damaged by freezing in winter, or loss of air in the pressure vessel leading to excess stress on the ram parts. These failures will require welding or other repair methods and perhaps parts replacement.\nIt is not uncommon for an operating ram to require occasional restarts. The cycling may stop due to poor adjustment of the waste valve, or insufficient water flow at the source.  Air can enter if the supply water level is not at least a few inches above the input end of the supply pipe.  Other problems are blockage of the valves with debris, or improper installation, such as using a supply pipe of non-uniform diameter or material, having sharp bends or a rough interior, or one that is too long or short for the drop, or is made of an insufficiently rigid material. A PVC supply pipe will work in some installations but a steel pipe is better.\n\n\n== See also ==\nBoost converter – electronic–hydraulic analog of the hydraulic ram.\nHeron's fountain\nPulser pump, a similar device made from a trompe connected to an airlift pump\nTesla valve\nWater rocket\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nRam pump complete blueprints<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "civil_engineering": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 2187091,
      "num_docs": 2355,
      "example": " allowing for accelerated economic growth. Forty years after its construction, the Interstate Highway system returned on investment, making $6 for every $1 spent on the project. According to research by the FHWA, \"from 1950 to 1989, approximately one-quarter of the nation's productivity increase is attributable to increased investment in the highway system.\"\nThe system had a particularly strong effect in Southern states, where major highways were inadequate. The new system facilitated the relocation of heavy manufacturing to the South and spurred the development of Southern-based corporations like Walmart (in Arkansas) and FedEx (in Tennessee).\nThe Interstate Highway System also dramatically affected American culture, contributing to cars becoming more central to the American identity. Before, driving was considered an excursion that required some amount of skill and could have some chance of unpredictability. With the standardization of signs, road widths and rules, certain unpredictabilities lessened. Justin Fox wrote, \"By making road more reliable and by making Americans more reliant on them, they took away most of the adventure and romance associated with driving.\"\nThe Interstate Highway System has been criticized for contributing to the decline of some cities that were divided by Interstates, and for displacing minority neighborhoods in urban centers. Between 1957 and 1977, the Interstate System alone displaced over 475,000 households and one million people across the country. Highways have also been criticized for increasing racial segregation by creating physical barriers between neighborhoods, and for overall reductions in available housing and population in neighborhoods affected by highway construction.  Other critics have blamed the Interstate Highway System for the decline of public transportation in the United States since the 1950s, which minorities and low-income residents are three to six times more likely to use. Previous highways, such as US 66, were also bypassed by the new Interstate system, turning countless rural communities along the way into ghost towns. The Interstate System has also contributed to continued resistance against new public transportation. \nThe Interstate Highway System had a negative impact on minority groups, especially in urban areas. Even though the government used eminent domain to obtain land for the Interstates, it was still economical to build where land was cheapest. This cheap land was often located in predominately minority areas. Not only were minority neighborhoods destroyed, but in some cities the Interstates were used to divide white and minority neighborhoods. These practices were common in cities both in the North and South, including Nashville, Miami, Chicago, Detroit, and many other cities. The division and destruction of neighborhoods led to the limitation of employment and other opportunities, which deteriorated the economic fabric of neighborhoods. Neighborhoods bordering Interstates have a much higher level of particulate air pollution and are more likely to be chosen for polluting industrial facilities.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\nHighway systems by country\nList of controlled-access highway systems\nNon-motorized access on freeways\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\n Geographic data related to Interstate Highway System at OpenStreetMap\nDwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways, Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)\nRoute Log and Finder List, FHWA\nState-by-state maps of the National Highway System of the FHWA include Interstate highways\nTurner-Fairbank Highway Research Center, FHWA\nInterstate Highway System, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum\n\"Keep on Trucking?: Would you pay more in taxes to fix roads and rail?\", NOW on PBS<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 259581,
      "num_docs": 279,
      "example": " have a relatively good thermal mass.\nNote that the above examples all use the U.S. (non-SI) definition for R-value.\n\n\n=== Typical R-values ===\n\nThis is a list of insulation materials used around the world. \nTypical R-values are given for various materials and structures as approximations based on the average of available figures and are sorted by lowest value. R-value at 1 m gives R-values normalised to a 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) thickness and sorts by median value of the range.\n\n\n=== Typical R-values for surfaces ===\n\n\n==== Non-reflective surface R-values for air films ====\nWhen determining the overall thermal resistance of a building assembly such as a wall or roof, the insulating effect of the surface air film is added to the thermal resistance of the other materials.\n\nIn practice the above surface values are used for floors, ceilings, and walls in a building, but are not accurate for enclosed air cavities, such as between panes of glass. The effective thermal resistance of an enclosed air cavity is strongly influenced by radiative heat transfer and distance between the two surfaces. See insulated glazing for a comparison of R-values for windows, with some effective R-values that include an air cavity.\n\n\n==== Radiant barriers ====\n\n\n=== R-value rule in the U.S. ===\nThe Federal Trade Commission (FTC) governs claims about R-values to protect consumers against deceptive and misleading advertising claims. It issued the R-value rule.\nThe primary purpose of the rule is to ensure that the home insulation marketplace provides this essential pre-purchase information to the consumer.  The information gives consumers an opportunity to compare relative insulating efficiencies, to select the product with the greatest efficiency and potential for energy savings, to make a cost-effective purchase and to consider the main variables limiting insulation effectiveness and realization of claimed energy savings.\nThe rule mandates that specific R-value information for home insulation products be disclosed in certain ads and at the point of sale.  The purpose of the R-value disclosure requirement for advertising is to prevent consumers from being misled by certain claims which have a bearing on insulating value.  At the point of transaction, some consumers will be able to get the requisite R-value information from the label on the insulation package.  However, since the evidence shows that packages are often unavailable for inspection prior to purchase, no labeled information would be available to consumers in many instances.  As a result, the Rule requires that a fact sheet be available to consumers for inspection before they make their purchase.\n\n\n==== Thickness ====\nThe R-value Rule specifies:\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nTable of Insulation R-values at InspectApedia includes original source citations\nInformation on the calculations, meanings, and inter-relationships of related heat transfer and resistance terms\nAmerican building material R-value table\nWorking with R-values Archived 2012-09-10 at the Wayback Machine\nInsulation R-value Explained\nUnderstanding R-value<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "chemical_engineering": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 671633,
      "num_docs": 695,
      "example": " Apparatus For Indicating The Intensity of Radiation\", published 12 September 1876 \n\n\n== External links ==\n\nCrooke's Radiometer applet\nHow does a light-mill work?-Physics FAQ\nThe Cathode Ray Tube site\nBell, Mary; Green, S. E. (1933). \"On Radiometer Action and the Pressure of Radiation\". Proceedings of the Physical Society. 45 (2): 320–357. Bibcode:1933PPS....45..320B. doi:10.1088/0959-5309/45/2/315.. 1933 Bell and Green experiment describing the effect of different gas pressures on the vanes.\nThe Properties of the Force Exerted in a Radiometer archived\nRadiometric clocks made by Marcel Bétrisey: \"Le Chronolithe\" and \"Conti\"<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 182515,
      "num_docs": 182,
      "example": " pressure inlet to the outlet while (in some configurations) preventing flow from one inlet to the other.\nSingle handle mixer valves produce a variable mixture of hot and cold water at a variable flow rate under control of a single handle.\nThermostatic mixing valves mix hot and cold water to produce a constant temperature in the presence of variable pressures and temperatures on the two input ports.\n\n\n=== Four-port valves ===\n\nA 4-port valve is a valve whose body has four ports equally spaced round the body and the disc has two passages to connect adjacent ports. It is operated with two positions.\nIt can be used to isolate and to simultaneously bypass a sampling cylinder installed on a pressurized water line. It is useful to take a fluid sample without affecting the pressure of a hydraulic system and to avoid degassing (no leak, no gas loss or air entry, no external contamination)....\n\n\n== Control ==\n\nMany valves are controlled manually with a handle attached to the stem. If the handle is turned ninety degrees between operating positions, the valve is called a quarter-turn valve. Butterfly, ball valves, and plug valves are often quarter-turn valves. If the handle is circular with the stem as the axis of rotation in the center of the circle, then the handle is called a handwheel. Valves can also be controlled by actuators attached to the stem. They can be electromechanical actuators such as an electric motor or solenoid, pneumatic actuators which are controlled by air pressure, or hydraulic actuators which are controlled by the pressure of a liquid such as oil or water. Actuators can be used for the purposes of automatic control such as in washing machine cycles, remote control such as the use of a centralised control room, or because manual control is too difficult such as when the valve is very large. Pneumatic actuators and hydraulic actuators need pressurised air or liquid lines to supply the actuator: an inlet line and an outlet line. Pilot valves are valves which are used to control other valves. Pilot valves in the actuator lines control the supply of air or liquid going to the actuators.\nThe fill valve in a toilet water tank is a liquid level-actuated valve. When a high water level is reached, a mechanism shuts the valve which fills the tank.\nIn some valve designs, the pressure of the flow fluid itself or pressure difference of the flow fluid between the ports automatically controls flow through the valve.\n\n\n== Other considerations ==\nValves are typically rated for maximum temperature and pressure by the manufacturer. The wetted materials in a valve are usually identified also. Some valves rated at very high pressures are available. When a designer, engineer, or user decides to use a valve for an application, he/she should ensure the rated maximum temperature and pressure are never exceeded and that the wetted materials are compatible with the fluid the valve interior is exposed to. In Europe, valve design and pressure ratings are subject to statutory regulation under the Pressure Equipment Directive 97/23/EC (PED).\nSome fluid system designs, especially in chemical or power plants, are schematically represented in piping and instrumentation diagrams. In such diagrams, different types of valves are represented by certain symbols.\nValves in good condition should be leak-free. However, valves may eventually wear out from use and develop a leak, either between the inside and outside of the valve or, when the valve is shut to stop flow, between the disc and the seat. A particle trapped between the seat and disc could also cause such leakage.\n\n\n== Images ==\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nISO-15926-4 Archived 2019-08-20 at the Wayback Machine – Nearly 500 valve base classifications and definitions from the ISO 15926 standard.\nAnimations showing Internal Function of Various Types of Valve, tlv.com\nFlow in known Design Types of Shut-off Valves Archived 2009-11-22 at the Wayback Machine, home.arcor.de\nValves: Piping and Instrumentation Diagram Standard Notation, controls.engin.umich.edu\nDepartment of Energy Fundamentals Handbook, Mechanical Science, Module 4 Valves Archived 2017-08-30 at the Wayback Machine<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "aerospace_engineering": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 779596,
      "num_docs": 801,
      "example": " moved to Grass Valley, California, after his retirement from the Air Force in 1975. The couple prospered as a result of Yeager's best-selling autobiography, speaking engagements, and commercial ventures. Glennis Yeager died of ovarian cancer in 1990. They had four children (Susan, Don, Mickey, and Sharon). Yeager's son Mickey (Michael) died unexpectedly in Oregon, on March 26, 2011.\nYeager appeared in a Texas advertisement for George H. W. Bush's 1988 presidential campaign.\nIn 2000, Yeager met actress Victoria Scott D'Angelo on a hiking trail in Nevada County. The pair started dating shortly thereafter, and married in August 2003. A bitter dispute arose between Yeager, his children, and D'Angelo. The children contended that she, at least 35 years Yeager's junior, had married him for his fortune. Yeager and D'Angelo both denied the charge. Litigation ensued, in which his children accused D'Angelo of \"undue influence\" on Yeager, and Yeager accused his children of diverting millions of dollars from his assets. In August 2008, the California Court of Appeal ruled for Yeager, finding that his daughter Susan had breached her duty as trustee.\nYeager lived in Grass Valley, Northern California and died in the afternoon of December 7, 2020 (National Pearl Harbor Remembrance Day), at age 97, in a Los Angeles hospital. Following his death, President Donald Trump issued a statement of condolences stating Yeager \"was one of the greatest pilots in history, a proud West Virginian, and an American original who relentlessly pushed the boundaries of human achievement\".\n\n\n== See also ==\nHistory of aviation\nList of firsts in aviation\nSociety of Experimental Test Pilots\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nOfficial website\nBiography from ChuckYeager.org\nU.S. Air Force: Chuck Yeager biography\nYeager in Biography.com\nBiography in the National Aviation Hall of Fame Archived January 17, 2021, at the Wayback Machine\nGeneral Chuck Yeager, USAF, Biography and Interview with the American Academy of Achievement\nBiographical sketch at the Wayback Machine (archived May 2, 2006)\nAirport Journals' \"Chuck Yeager: Booming And Zooming\" Part 1 and Part 2\n\"Chuck Yeager & the Sound Barrier\" in Aerospaceweb.org\nSpace.com: Chuck Yeager\nChuck Yeager at IMDb\nChuck Yeager discography at Discogs\nYeager obituary via The New York Times<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 81446,
      "num_docs": 84,
      "example": "23, a Boeing 747-412, retired from Lion Air, was turned into a steak restaurant in Bekasi, Indonesia. The aircraft had been sitting since 2018 but the construction of the restaurant was delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic.\nTwo used 747-400s were cannibalized to build the Scaled Composites Stratolaunch aircraft.\n\n\n== Specifications ==\n\n\n== Cultural impact ==\n\nFollowing its debut, the 747 rapidly achieved iconic status. The aircraft entered the cultural lexicon as the original Jumbo Jet, a term coined by the aviation media to describe its size, and was also nicknamed Queen of the Skies. Test pilot David P. Davies described it as \"a most impressive aeroplane with a number of exceptionally fine qualities\", and praised its flight control system as \"truly outstanding\" because of its redundancy.\nAppearing in over 300 film productions, the 747 is one of the most widely depicted civilian aircraft and is considered by many as one of the most iconic in film history. It has appeared in film productions such as the disaster films Airport 1975 and Airport '77, as well as Air Force One, Die Hard 2, and Executive Decision.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\nRelated development\n\nBoeing 747 LCF\nBoeing 747-8\nBoeing 747-400\nBoeing 747SP\nBoeing E-4\nBoeing VC-25\nShuttle Carrier Aircraft\n\nRelated lists\n\nList of aircraft\nList of jet airliners\nList of megaprojects\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n=== Notes ===\n\n\n=== Bibliography ===\n\n\n== Further reading ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\n\"747-8\". Boeing.\n\"747-100 cutaway\". FlightGlobal.\nDebut of Boeing 747. British Movietone News. October 1, 1968.\n\"Photos: Boeing 747-100 Assembly Line In 1969\". Aviation Week & Space Technology. April 28, 1969.\n\"Aircraft Owner's & Operator's Guide: 747-200/-300\" (PDF). Aircraft commerce. June 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 9, 2011.\n\"Boeing 747 Aircraft Profile\". FlightGlobal. June 3, 2007.\nNegroni, Christine (July 2014). \"747: The World's Airliner\". Air & Space Magazine.\n\"This Luxury Boeing 747-8 for the Super-Rich is a Palace in the Sky\". popular mechanics. February 24, 2015.\n\"How Boeing and Pan Am created an airliner legend\". flightglobal. April 15, 2016.\n\"Boeing 747: Evolution of a Jumbo, As Featured On Aviation Week's Covers\". Aviation Week. August 2016.\n\"Boeing's Jumbo jet celebrates golden jubilee\". FlightGlobal. February 8, 2019.\nGuy Norris (February 8, 2019). \"Boeing's Queen of the Skies Marks 50th Anniversary Of First Flight\". Aviation Week & Space Technology.\nGuy, Norris. \"Evolution of a Widebody: 50 Years of the Boeing 747\". Aviation Week & Space Technology.\n\"The 747 Takes Off: The Dawn of the Jumbo Jet Age\". Digital Exhibit. Northwestern University Transportation Library. January 2020.\nJens Flottau (January 26, 2023). \"How Boeing's 747 Revolutionized Air Travel\". Aviation Week & Space Technology.<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "materials_science": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 1485052,
      "num_docs": 1509,
      "example": "ene chloride. Another viable solvent for removing cured cyanoacrylate is gamma-butyrolactone. Commercial debonders are also available, many based on propylene carbonate.\n\n\n== Shelf life ==\nCyanoacrylate adhesives have a short shelf life. Date-stamped containers help to ensure that the adhesive is still viable. One manufacturer supplies the following information and advice: When kept unopened in a cool, dry location such as a refrigerator at a temperature of about 55 °F (13 °C), the shelf life of cyanoacrylate will be extended from about one year from manufacture to at least 15 months. If the adhesive is to be used within six months, it is not necessary to refrigerate it. Cyanoacrylates are moisture-sensitive, and moving from a cool to a hot location will create condensation; after removing from the refrigerator, it is best to let the adhesive reach room temperature before opening. After opening, it should be used within 30 days. Open containers should not be refrigerated. Another manufacturer says that the maximum shelf life of 12 months is obtained for some of their cyanoacrylates if the original containers are stored at 35 to 40 °F (2 to 4 °C). One manufacturer has given a very detailed explanation in answer to a question about shelf life, including the fact that cyanoacrylate adhesives contain an inhibitor to slow curing in the bottle; the amount of inhibitor affects shelf life (but a glue with more inhibitor can require accelerant to be applied for some applications).\nPolymerization is nearly stopped, leading to an almost unlimited shelf life, by storing unopened at −4 °F (−20 °C), the typical temperature of a domestic freezer, and allowing the contents to reach room temperature before use. Opening a container while chilled may cause moisture from the air to condense in the container.\nAs cyanoacrylates age, they polymerize, become thicker, and cure more slowly. They can be thinned with a cyanoacrylate of the same chemical composition with lower viscosity.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nWas Super Glue invented to seal battle wounds in Vietnam? (from The Straight Dope)\nCyanoacrylate Toxicity\nCyanoacrylate Adhesive / Super Glue Safety Data Sheets\nSafety in the Home: Super Glue - Queensland Health\nCyanoacrylate Technical Data Sheet\n3M Activators, Primers and Debonder\nApplication note on measuring cure kinetics of cyanoacrylate glues<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 75269,
      "num_docs": 81,
      "example": " Colorado United States: Design Center.\nGraz, Austria: NFC Competence Center.\nPisa, Italy: A design center employing more than 50 people. R&D, analog and digital design.\n\n\n=== Closing sites ===\nThe Phoenix, Arizona 8 inch (200 mm) fab, the Carrollton, Texas 6 inch (150 mm) fab, and the Ain Sebaa, Morocco fab were beginning rampdown plans, and were destined to close by 2010.\nThe Casablanca, Morocco site consists of two assembly parts (Bouskoura and Aïn Sebaâ) and totals around 4000 employees. It was opened in the 1960s by Thomson.\nThe Bristol, United Kingdom site employing well over 300 at its peak (in 2001/2) but was ramped down to approx. 150 employees at close by early 2014.\nThe Ottawa, Ontario, Canada plant (approx. 450 employees) was to be close down by 2013 end.\n\n\n=== Closed sites ===\nRennes, France hosted a 6-inch (150 mm) fab and was closed in 2004\nRancho Bernardo, California, US a 4-inch (100 mm) fab created by Nortel and purchased by SGS-Thomson in 1994, after which it was converted into a 6-inch (150 mm) fab in 1996.\nSGS's first presence in the US was a sales office based in Phoenix in the early 1980s. Later, under SGS-Thomson, an 8-inch (200 mm) fab was completed in Phoenix in 1995. The company's second 8\" fab after Crolles 1, the site was first dedicated to producing microprocessors for Cyrix. On 10 July 2007, ST said that it would close this site, and in July 2010 the shell of the Phoenix PF1 FAB was bought by Western Digital Corporation.\nThe Carrollton, Texas, US site was built in 1969 by Mostek, an American company founded by former employees of Texas Instruments. In 1979, Mostek was acquired by United Technologies, which sold it to Thomson Semiconducteurs in 1985. Initially equipped with a 4-inch (100 mm) fab, it was converted into a 6-inch (150 mm) fab in 1988. The activities of INMOS in the US were transferred to Carrollton in 1989 following its acquisition by SGS Thomson. It was closed in 2010.\nBristol, UK This R&D site housed Inmos, which in 1978 began development of the Transputer microprocessor. The site was acquired with Inmos in 1989, and was primarily involved with the design of home video and entertainment products (e.g. Set-Top Box), GPS chips, and accompanying software. At its peak the site employed more than 250 employees. The site closed in 2014.\n\n\n=== Future locations ===\nOn 8 August 2007, ST bought Nokia's microchip development team and plans to invest heavily in development of cellular ASIC applications. The purchase included Nokia's ASIC team in Southwood (UK) and the company plans several sites in Finland.\nIn June 2023, ST announced its partnership with GlobalFoundries to build a new factory in Crolles, France.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\nAltitude SEE Test European Platform (ASTEP)\nInteruniversity Microelectronics Centre (IMEC)\nNumonyx\nST-Ericsson\nList of semiconductor fabrication plants\nSTM8\nSTM32\nSTMicroelectronics Small Shareholders' Group (STM.S.S.G.)\n(in French) Collectif Autonome et Démocratique de STMicroelectronics (CAD-ST)\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial website<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "robotics": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 169199,
      "num_docs": 182,
      "example": " a robot brothel for the Soviet elite. The character CHAR-les also jokes about the main antagonist, Dmitry Sechenov, using the Twins for sexual intercourse, sparking a conversation between Sergey Nechayev, the player character, and CHAR-les over robosexuality.\n\n\n== See also ==\nDoll fetishism\nGynoid\nSex robot\nSexual objectification\nUncanny valley\nMechanophilia\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 22963,
      "num_docs": 24,
      "example": " Captain Whisker, Emerl, Metal Sonic, Mecha Sonic, Metal Knuckles, EggRobo, the Shadow Androids, Cubot, and Orbot from the Sonic the Hedgehog series\nMonitor Kernel Access / Monika.chr / Monika, from Doki Doki Literature Club!\nThe Reploids of the Mega Man X and Mega Man Zero series, and Mega Man ZX, robots with the ability to think, feel, and make their own decisions, along with Mega Man X, the successor to the original Mega Man and the original basis for most Reploid's designs, and Zero, X's partner and the only Reploid not based on X.\nShamus\nCyber Sub-Zero, Cyrax, Sektor and Smoke from the Mortal Kombat series\nRobo (serial number R-66Y) from Chrono Trigger\nThe Cyberdisc and Sectopod species in X-COM: UFO Defense\nAlisa Bosconovitch, Combot, Jacks and NANCY-MI847J from the Tekken series\nCait Sith, a fortune-telling robotic cat controlled via remote by a man named Reeve Teusti, from Final Fantasy VII. By extension, Cait Sith rides atop a giant, robotic Moogle to which Cait Sith relays commands through a megaphone.\nROB 64 from the Star Fox series, starting with Star Fox 64\nThe Servbots from Mega Man Legends\nThe Robo-Kys from the Guilty Gear series\nCortana, 343 Guilty Spark and 2401 Penitent Tangent, from the Halo series\nClank, Doctor Nefarious, and countless others in the Ratchet & Clank series\nKOS-MOS, MOMO and the Realians from the Xenosaga trilogy\nHK-47 from Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic, part of the Star Wars expanded universe\nDog from Half-Life 2\nRobot enemies from Journey to Silius (Raf World)\nChibi-Robo, a tiny robot housekeeper that is the main playable character in the game of the same name\nMike, a \"karaoke robot\" from WarioWare: Touched!; its creator, Dr. Crygor used him as a janitor\nSeveral Protoss units from StarCraft are robotic.\nThe various classes of Forerunner Sentinels from Halo\nWheatley from Portal 2\nFrobot from the eponymous Wii game\nThe Androids from Detroit: Become Human\nAigis and Metis from Persona 3; also Labrys from Persona 4 Arena\nEDI  (an artificial intelligence operating an android formerly named Dr. Eva), Harbinger, Sovereign, the Reapers, and the Geth, including Legion, from the Mass Effect series\nThe Servo series of domestic robots from The Sims: Livin' Large, The Sims 2: Open for Business and The Sims 4: Discover University. They make a cameo appearance as a statue within the science facility in The Sims 3, and have been made available in that game by fan creators.\nThe Mr. Handy, Mr. Gutsy, Sentry Bot, Assaultron, Eyebot and Securitron robots from the Fallout series.\nAmy Amania and Roscoe the Space Dog are rumored to be androids, from the Space Channel 5 series.\n2B, 9S and A2, the entirety of YoRHa as well as Devola and Popola from NieR: Automata\n\n\n== See also ==\nList of fictional computers\nList of fictional cyborgs\nList of fictional gynoids\nList of fictional military robots\nList of robots\nAndroid\nGynoid\nMecha\nRobot\nRobotic police officer\nArtificial intelligence in fiction\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nAMC Filmsite – Robots in Film – A Complete Illustrated History of Robots in the Movies\nRobots in Movies – over 600 movies with robots, androids, cyborgs and AI\nRobots on TV – over 300 TV series with robots, androids, cyborgs and AI\nRobot Hall of Fame at CMU – with fictional inductees HAL-9000 and R2-D2\nRound-up of fictional TV and movie robots at Den Of Geek\nAnalysis of the greatest evil robots in fiction\nMr ZED The Robot Comedian, David Kirk Taylor<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "psychology": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 814109,
      "num_docs": 858,
      "example": "== See also ==\nList of topics characterized as pseudoscience\nOneiromancy: Divination using dreams.\nRemote viewing\nRetrocognition: Direct knowledge of past events at which one was not present.\nThird eye: Organ of mystical vision.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n=== Notes ===\n\n\n=== Bibliography ===\nDunne, J. W. (1927). An Experiment With Time. A. C. Black.\nFlieger, Verlyn; A Question of Time: JRR Tolkien's Road to Faërie, Kent State University Press, 1997.\nHines, Terence (2003). Pseudoscience and the Paranormal. Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1-57392-979-0.\nHyman, Ray (2007). \"Evaluating Parapsychological Claims\". In Robert J. Sternberg; Henry L. Roediger; Diane F. Halpern (eds.). Critical Thinking in Psychology. Cambridge University Press. pp. 219–223. ISBN 978-0-521-60834-3.\nInglis, Brian. (1986). The Paranormal: An Encyclopedia of Psychic Phenomena. Paladin (Grafton) 1986. (1st Edition Granada 1985)\nPriestley, J.B. Man and Time. Aldus 1964, 2nd Edition Bloomsbury 1989.\nWynn, Charles M., and Wiggins, Arthur W. (2001). Quantum Leaps in the Wrong Direction: Where Real Science Ends...and Pseudoscience Begins. Joseph Henry Press. ISBN 978-0-309-07309-7\n\n\n== Further reading ==\n\nChris French. (2012). \"Precognition Studies and the Curse of the Failed Replications\". The Guardian.\nDavid Marks. (2000). The Psychology of the Psychic (2nd Edition). Prometheus Books. ISBN 1-57392-798-8<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 76503,
      "num_docs": 81,
      "example": ":\n\nengstrom.de/KRAEPELINBIOGRAPHY.pdf\nuni-leipzig.de/~psy/eng/kraep-e.html\nBurkhart Brückner, Julian Schwarz: Biography of Emil Wilhelm Georg Magnus Kraepelin in: Biographical Archive of Psychiatry (BIAPSY).\nFor English translations of Kraepelin's work see:\n\nOn Uprootedness (1921)\nEmil Kraepelin's Clinical Self-Assessment (1920)\nPsychiatric Observations on Contemporary Issues (1919)\nOn the Question of Degeneration (1908)\nThe Directions of Psychiatric Research (1887)<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "sociology": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 381815,
      "num_docs": 412,
      "example": "Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform of the UN\nSustainable Development Solutions Network<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 40870,
      "num_docs": 45,
      "example": " Former exhibits ==\n\n\n=== Bear Habitat ===\n\nThe Robert R. McCormick Bear Habitat, or \"Bear Line\", sat directly next to Regenstein African Journey, and housed many carnivores over the years in a number of naturalistic exhibits with trees, water falls, rocky grottos and climbing structures for bears and wolves to use. At the north end is the 266,000-gallon polar bear pool and underwater window, one of the largest polar bear habitats in the world. The zoo received two polar bears, brother and sister Lee and Anana, in 2001, but currently only Anana remains, as Lee was sent to the Detroit Zoo to assist in a breeding program. The only other remaining member of the bear line is a single Malayan sun bear. The zoo was also home to two elderly spectacled bears, Goliath and Manny that have since been sent to another zoo, as have the spotted hyenas. The exhibit used to house the maned wolf and Mexican wolf but both species were removed when the Pritzer Family Children's Zoo opened its own red wolf habitat in 2005.\nThe exhibit closed in winter 2014 as work began on the new polar bear and penguin habitats over the same site. The habitat re-opened in late 2016.\n\n\n=== Penguin-Seabird Exhibit ===\nFirst opened in 1981/1982, the zoo's historic Aquatic Bird House featured two main theater-style galleries. The first featured three species of penguin—the rockhopper, chinstrap and king penguins, all in an 18,000-gallon, temperature-controlled pool, with a chilly temperature of around forty degrees Fahrenheit for the air and water, while a computer system imitates the natural daylight cycle penguins experience in the wild. The second gallery featured tufted puffins, common murres and razorbills swimming in a 10,000-gallon pool based on the North Atlantic coast, where the birds made their homes on rocky cliffs. The historic building closed on December 5, 2011, and has been replaced with Regenstein Macaque Forest. The sixty-six birds that lived in the previous exhibit were moved to eleven other locations, including the Shedd Aquarium, the St. Louis Zoo, the Detroit Zoo, the Central Park Zoo and the Oregon Coast Aquarium A new African penguin habitat was built by the current site of the Robert McCormick Bear Habitat, and opened in 2016.\n\n\n== Gallery ==\n\n\n== See also ==\nList of museums and cultural institutions in Chicago\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nOfficial website\nHistorical media of the Lincoln Park Zoo<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "economics": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 868243,
      "num_docs": 904,
      "example": "A lead–lag effect, especially in economics, describes the situation where one (leading) variable is cross-correlated with the values of another (lagging) variable at later times.\nIn nature and climate, bigger systems often display more pronounced lag effects. The Arctic Sea Ice minimum is on September 17, three months after the peak in daylight (sunshine) hours in the northern hemisphere, according to NASA.\nFor example, economists have found that in some circumstances there is a lead-lag effect between large-capitalization and small-capitalization stock-portfolio prices.\n(A loosely related concept is that of lead-lag compensators in control theory, but this is not generally referred to specifically as a \"lead-lag effect.\")\n\n\n== References ==<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 83028,
      "num_docs": 88,
      "example": "cite book}}:  CS1 maint: location (link)\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nWorks by Auguste Comte in eBook form at Standard Ebooks\nWorks by Auguste Comte at Project Gutenberg\nWorks by or about Auguste Comte at the Internet Archive\nWorks by Auguste Comte at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) \nAuguste Comte: Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy\nReview materials for studying Auguste Comte\nJ.H. Bridges, The Seven New Thoughts of the Positive Polity 1915\nHenri Gouhier, \"Final Chapter – Life in the anticipation of the Grave\", from The Life of Auguste Comte (1931). In Comte's last years, practicing his own religion.\nAuguste Comte quotes\nPositivist Church of Brazil\nThe Three Cs and the Notion of Progress: Copernicus, Condorcet, Comte by Caspar J M Hewett\nThe positive philosophy, Auguste Comte / freely translated and selected by Harriet Martineau, Cornell University Library Historical Monographs Collection – downloadable version\nSome selections from first lecture of Course of Positive Philosophy\nAuguste Comte – High Priest of Positivism by Caspar Hewett\nMaison d'Auguste Comte<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "philosophy": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 610283,
      "num_docs": 638,
      "example": " prior probabilities.\nIndeed, some Bayesians have argued the prior state of knowledge defines the (unique) prior probability-distribution for \"regular\" statistical problems; cf. well-posed problems. Finding the right method for constructing such \"objective\" priors (for appropriate classes of regular problems) has been the quest of statistical theorists from Laplace to John Maynard Keynes, Harold Jeffreys, and Edwin Thompson Jaynes. These theorists and their successors have suggested several methods for constructing \"objective\" priors (Unfortunately, it is not always clear how to assess the relative \"objectivity\" of the priors proposed under these methods):\n\nMaximum entropy\nTransformation group analysis\nReference analysis\nEach of these methods contributes useful priors for \"regular\" one-parameter problems, and each prior can handle some challenging statistical models (with \"irregularity\" or several parameters). Each of these methods has been useful in Bayesian practice. Indeed, methods for constructing \"objective\" (alternatively, \"default\" or \"ignorance\") priors have been developed by avowed subjective (or \"personal\") Bayesians like James Berger (Duke University) and José-Miguel Bernardo (Universitat de València), simply because such priors are needed for Bayesian practice, particularly in science. The quest for \"the universal method for constructing priors\" continues to attract statistical theorists.\nThus, the Bayesian statistician needs either to use informed priors (using relevant expertise or previous data) or to choose among the competing methods for constructing \"objective\" priors.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Bibliography ==<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 88476,
      "num_docs": 92,
      "example": "\nThe Consolation of Philosophy, many translations and commentaries from Internet Archive\nThe Consolation of Philosophy, Translated by: W.V. Cooper : J.M. Dent and Company London 1902 The Temple Classics, edited by Israel Golancz M.A. Online reading and multiple ebook formats at Ex-classics.<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "history": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 1435524,
      "num_docs": 1504,
      "example": " surgical techniques, advanced during antiquity. An early very important development that allowed for further advancement was writing, which allowed humans to record information for later use.\nThe characteristics of ancient Egyptian technology are indicated by a set of artifacts and customs that lasted for thousands of years. The Egyptians invented and used many basic machines, such as the ramp and the lever, to aid construction processes. The Egyptians also played an important role in developing Mediterranean maritime technology, including ships. The Babylonians and Egyptians were early astronomers who recorded their observations of the night sky.\nWater managing Qanats which likely emerged on the Iranian plateau and possibly also in the Arabian peninsula sometime in the early 1st millennium BC spread from there slowly west- and eastward.\nThe Hindu–Arabic numeral system with the concept of zero was developed in India, while modern forms of paper were invented in China in the first century AD.\n\n\n== See also ==\nOutline of ancient history\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n=== Notes ===\n\n\n=== Citations ===\n\n\n=== Sources ===\n\n\n== Further reading ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\n\n=== Websites ===\nWorld History Encyclopedia\nAncient Civilizations – British Museum's website on various topics of ancient civilisation\nAncient history sourcebook\nThe Perseus digital library\nBarrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman world\n\n\n=== Directories ===\nAncient History – Academic Info: directory of online resources for the study of ancient history.\nAncient History Resources : Ancient history research links for high school and college students.<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 194412,
      "num_docs": 200,
      "example": " in Slaughterhouse-Five reflect the views of the author, and Brian Stableford characterizes the different Tralfamadorian races in that book and The Sirens of Titan as \"tiny-minded smartasses.\"\n\n\n=== Awards and nominations ===\n\n\n== Works ==\n\nUnless otherwise cited, items in this list are taken from Thomas F. Marvin's 2002 book Kurt Vonnegut: A Critical Companion, and the date in parentheses is the date the work was published:\n\n\n== See also ==\nList of peace activists\n\n\n== Explanatory notes ==\n\n\n== Citations ==\n\n\n== General and cited sources ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\n\nCraig, Cairns (1983), \"An Interview with Kurt Vonnegut\", in Hearn, Sheila G. (ed.), Cencrastus No. 13, Summer 1983, pp. 29–32, ISSN 0264-0856.\nOltean-Cîmpean, A. A. (2016). \"Kurt Vonnegut's Humanism: An Author's Journey Towards Preaching for Peace\". Studii De Ştiintă Şi Cultură, 12(2), 259–266.\nPárraga, J. J. (2013). \"Kurt Vonnegut's Quest for Identity\". Revista Futhark, 8185–8199.\nThe Moral Clarity of ‘Slaughterhouse-Five’ at 50. Kevin Powers, March 6, 2019, The New York Times.\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nWorks by Kurt Vonnegut at Project Gutenberg\nWorks by or about Kurt Vonnegut at the Internet Archive\nWorks by Kurt Vonnegut at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) \nKurt Vonnegut Jr. at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database\nKurt Vonnegut at IMDb\nAppearances on C-SPAN\nKurt Vonnegut, Jr. at the Science Fiction Awards Database\nGreat Lives – Kurt Vonnegut\n\"The Making of Kurt Vonnegut’s Cat’s Cradle\" at The Atlantic, July 2, 2025<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "linguistics": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 751947,
      "num_docs": 817,
      "example": "] in explications and cultural scripts. Some molecules are proposed to be universal or near-universal, while others are culture- or area-specific.\nExamples of proposed universal molecules:\n\n\n== Applications ==\n\n\n=== Minimal English ===\nMinimal English is a derivative of the natural semantic metalanguage research, with the first major publication in 2018. It is a reduced form of English designed for non-specialists to use when requiring clarity of expression or easily translatable materials. Minimal English uses an expanded set of vocabulary to the semantic primes. It includes the proposed universal and near-universal molecules, as well as non-universal words which can assist in clarity.  As such, it already has counterparts targeted at speakers of other natural languages, e.g. Minimal French, Minimal Polish, 65 Sanaa (Minimal Finnish) and so on. Minimal English differs from other simple Englishes (such as Basic English) as it has been specifically designed for maximal cross-translatability.\n\n\n=== Language engineering ===\nApplications of NSM have also been proposed for natural-language processing, natural-language understanding and artificial intelligence.\n\n\n=== Revivalistics ===\nGhil'ad Zuckermann suggests that NSM can be of benefit in revivalistics (language revitalization) as it \"can neutralize the Western semantic bias involved in reconnecting with ancient Aboriginal traditions using English, and may allow a fuller understanding of the original meaning of the Aboriginal lexical items.\"\n\n\n== See also ==\nMetalanguage\nSemantic decomposition\nUpper ontology\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Sources ==\nGoddard, Cliff. 1998. Semantic Analysis: A practical introduction. Oxford. Oxford University Press.\nGoddard, Cliff (ed.) 2006. Ethnopragmatics – Understanding discourse in cultural context. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.\nGoddard, Cliff (ed.) 2008. Cross-Linguistic Semantics. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.\nGoddard, Cliff and Wierzbicka, Anna (eds.). 1994. Semantic and Lexical Universals – Theory and Empirical Findings. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.\nGoddard, Cliff and Wierzbicka, Anna (eds.). 2002. Meaning and Universal Grammar:  Theory and Empirical Findings (2 volumes). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.\nHarkins, Jean & Anna Wierzbicka. 2001. Emotions in Crosslinguistic Perspective. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.\nPeeters, Bert (ed.) 2006. Semantic Primes and Universal Grammar: Empirical evidence from the Romance languages. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.\nWierzbicka, Anna. 1972. Semantic Primitives. Frankfurt: Athenäum.\nWierzbicka, Anna. 1992. Semantics, Culture, and Cognition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.\nWierzbicka, Anna. 1996. Semantics: Primes and Universals. Oxford: Oxford University Press.\nWierzbicka, Anna. 1997. Understanding Cultures Through Their Key Words. Oxford: Oxford University Press.\nWierzbicka, Anna. 1999. Emotions Across Languages and Cultures. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.\nWierzbicka, Anna. 2003 (1991). Cross-cultural Pragmatics: The semantics of human interaction. 2nd edition. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.\nWierzbicka, Anna. 2006. English: Meaning and culture. New York: Oxford University Press.\n\n\n== External links ==\nA resource base of publications using the Natural Semantic Metalanguage approach<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 83754,
      "num_docs": 92,
      "example": " (Sorbonne), David C.C. Li (National Taiwan Normal University), and Ming Liu (Chinese University of Hong Kong).\n\n\n== Bibliography ==\nSee Complete list of Pike's publications (over 250)\n1943: Phonetics, a Critical Analysis of Phonetic Theory and a Technique for the Practical Description of Sounds (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press)\n1967: Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of the Structure of Human Behavior. The Hague: Mouton. 1954 – via Internet Archive.\n1970: Rhetoric: Discovery and Change, with Richard E. Young and Alton L. Becker (New York: Harcourt, Brace, & World)\n\n\n== See also ==\nAmericanist phonetic notation § Pike\nWycliffe Global Alliance\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nBrend, Ruth M. 1987. Kenneth Lee Pike Bibliography. Bloomington, IN: Eurasian Linguistics Association.\nEmily A. Denning, \"Kenneth L. Pike\", in Encyclopedia of Anthropology ed. H. James Birx (2006, SAGE Publications; ISBN 0-7619-3029-9)\nHeadland, Thomas N. 2001. \"Kenneth Lee Pike (1912-2000).\" American Anthropologist 103(2): 505–509.\nHildebrandt, Martha. 2003. \"A Portrait of Kenneth L. Pike,\" in Language and Life: Essays in Memory of Kenneth L. Pike. (eds.) Mary Ruth Wise, Thomas N. Headland, and Ruth M. Brend. Arlington: University of Texas at Arlington, pp. 3–10.\nPike, Eunice V. 1981. Ken Pike: Scholar and Christian.  Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics.\nMakkai, Adam. Languages for Peace: Tribute to Kenneth L. Pike. 1985. Lake Bluff, IL: Jupiter Press.\nWise, Mary Ruth, Thomas N. Headland, and Ruth M. Brend, (eds.) 2003. Language and Life: Essays in Memory of Kenneth L. Pike. Arlington: University of Texas at Arlington.\n\n\n== External links ==\nwww.sil.org/klp/ Biographical profile at SIL, with autobiographical essays by Pike\nDetailed chronology of Pike's life at SIL\nLangmaker profile of Kalaba-X\nThomas N. Headland, \"Kenneth Lee Pike\", Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences (2004)\nLanguage By Gesture, a televised 1966 example of one of Pike's \"monolingual demonstrations\"\nThe Nature of Field Work in a Monolingual Setting, article that describes his method\nPike's Phonetics at Archive.org\nWorks by or about Kenneth Lee Pike at the Internet Archive<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "anthropology": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 2263328,
      "num_docs": 2763,
      "example": "Shaniqua is a female given name, originating in the African-American community, gaining popularity beginning in the 1970s and peaking in the early 1990s. It is often given as the prototypical example of a \"ghetto name\", i.e. a name likely to belong to low-income African-Americans, and has been used in racism-related incidents to stereotype \"rude\" Black women.\n\n\n== People with the name Shaniqua or close variations ==\nChamique Holdsclaw (born 1977), American WNBA player\nChanequa Walker-Barnes, American theologian and psychologist\nChanique Rabe (born 1997), Namibian model and fashion designer\nLinda Miles (born 1978), American professional wrestler who went by the name Shaniqua\nShanica Knowles (born 1990), American actress and singer\nShaniqua Okwok, British actress\nShaniqua Tompkins, former partner of rapper 50 Cent\nShanique Dessing (born 2000), Dutch footballer\nShanique Speight (born 1978), American politician\nSheniqua Ferguson (born 1989), Bahamian sprinter\nSheniqua \"Nikki\" Greene (born 1990), American basketball player\nSheniqua Thomas (born 1998), Barbadian netball player\nShenique Fortune, Antigua and Barbuda politician\nShinique Smith (born 1971), American visual artist\n\n\n== Other uses ==\n\"Shaniqua\" (song), a 2001 hip-hop song that achieved minor commercial success.\nThe name was the namesake of the 2016 documentary Searching for Shaniqua, directed by an Old Dominion University English language professor. According to Vibe magazine journalist Shenequa Golding, the documentary was well-received, exploring the stereotypes surrounding this name often given to Black children and the difficulties faced by those bearing the name. It won the 2016 HBO Best Documentary at Martha's Vineyard African American Film Festival.\n\n\n== See also ==\nChanika (disambiguation)\nShanika\n\n\n== References ==<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 345246,
      "num_docs": 394,
      "example": " Europe. Held in Romania\nThe Old European Script: Further evidence – Shan M. M. Winn<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "political_science": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 1082305,
      "num_docs": 1139,
      "example": ". These agreements can deal with any subject matter, also in policy areas that are not yet covered by cooperation in the framework of the Benelux Union.\nThese are in fact traditional treaties, with the same direct legally binding force towards both authorities and citizens or companies. The negotiations do however take place in the established context of the Benelux working groups and institutions, rather than on an ad hoc basis.\n3. Recommendations\nRecommendations are non-binding orientations, adopted at ministerial level, which underpin the functioning of the Benelux Union. These (policy) orientations may not be legally binding, but given their adoption at the highest political level and their legal basis vested directly in the Treaty, they do entail a strong moral obligation for any authority concerned in the Benelux countries.\n4. Directives\nDirectives of the Committee of Ministers are mere inter-institutional instructions towards the Benelux Council and/or the Secretariat-General, for which they are binding. This instrument has so far only been used occasionally, basically in order to organize certain activities within a Benelux working group or to give them impetus.\nAll four instruments require the unanimous approval of the members of the Committee of Ministers (and, in the case of agreements, subsequent signature and ratification at national level).\n\n\n== Characteristics ==\n\n\n=== Countries ===\n\n\n== See also ==\nAdmiral Benelux\nEU Med Group\nBaltic Assembly\nInner Six\nLow Countries\nNordic Council\nUnited Kingdom of the Netherlands\nVisegrád Group\nPolish–Czechoslovak confederation\nProposed United Kingdom Confederation\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nKersten, A.E. (1982). Maken drie kleinen een grote? De politieke invloed van de Benelux, 1945-1955. Bussum: Van Holkema & Warendorf. OCLC 63269615.\nWilly van Ryckeghem : Benelux in: The European Economy - Growth and Crisis, Andrea Boltho, Editor, Oxford University Press, 1982, ISBN 0-19-877118-5.\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nOfficial sites\nOfficial website  (in Dutch and French)\nBenelux Court of Justice Archived 25 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine\nBenelux Office for Intellectual Property Archived 2 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 155471,
      "num_docs": 162,
      "example": "chaczewski (2008). The Sultan and the Mermaid Queen: Surprising Asian People, Places, and Things That Go Bump in the Night. Singapore: Editions Didier Millet. pp. 69–164. ISBN 9789814217743. OCLC 259252939. Contains a long chapter on how Burmese generals tried to use the white elephant to consolidate power, also looks at the cosmological origins of the animal.\n\n\n== External links ==\n\n Media related to White elephants at Wikimedia Commons<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "law": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 1333191,
      "num_docs": 1416,
      "example": "ingly rapidly when moving) due to the capture effect, while AM stations (including TV video) may overlay or fade with each other.\nFM stereo will tend to get static more quickly than the monophonic sound due to its use of subcarriers, so stations may choose to extend the usable part of their range by disabling the stereo generator.  Listeners can also choose to disable stereo decoding on the receiver, though loss of the stereo pilot tone causes this to happen automatically.  Because this tends to turn on and off when at the threshold of reception, and the threshold is often set too low by the manufacturer's product design, manually disabling this when at the edge of the broadcast range prevents the annoying noisy-stereo/quiet-mono switching.\nThe same is true of analog TV stereo and second audio programs, and even for color TV, all of which use subcarriers.  Radio reading services and other subcarrier services will also tend to suffer from dropouts sooner than the main station.\nTechnologies are available that allow for switching to a different signal carrying the same radio program when leaving the broadcast range of a station.  Radio Data System allows for switching to a different FM or station with the same identifier, or even to (but not necessarily from) an AM station.  Satellite radio also is designed to switch seamlessly between repeaters and/or satellite when moving outside the range of one or the other.  HD Radio switches back to the analog signal as a fallback when the edge of the digital range is encountered, but the success of this from the listener's perspective depends on how well the station's broadcast engineer has synchronized the two.\n\n\n== Digital versus analog ==\nDigital transmissions require less power to be received clearly than analog ones.  The exact figure for various modes depends on how robust the signal is made to begin with, such as modulation, guard interval, and forward error correction.  In each of these three factors, the caveat is that a higher data signaling rate means a tradeoff with reduced broadcast range.  The hierarchical modulation used on DVB is a unique case, which reduces the range of the full-definition signal, in exchange for an increase in the usable range of the lower-definition part of the video.\nDigital stations in North America usually are operated by the same groups as the analog side, and thus operate their own independent facilities.  Because of this, the FCC requires U.S. TV stations to replicate their analog coverage with their digital signal as well.  However, ATSC digital TV only requires about one-fifth the amount of power to reach the same area on the same channel as analog does.  For HD Radio, the figure is only one percent of the station's analog wattage, in part because it is an in-band on-channel method, which uses sidebands that must prevent interference to adjacent channels, especially for older or cheaper receivers which have insufficient sensitivity and/or selectivity.\n\n\n== References ==<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 190656,
      "num_docs": 201,
      "example": " Brussels-Capital Region)\nParliament of the French Community\nParliament of the German-speaking Community\nParliament of Wallonia\nParliament of the Brussels-Capital Region (within the capital's regional assembly, however, there also exist two Community Commissions, a Dutch-speaking one and a Francophone one, for various matters split up by linguistic community but under Brussels' regional competence, and even \"joint community commissions\" consisting of both for certain institutions that could be split up but are not.\n\n\n=== Brazil ===\n\n\n=== Canada ===\n\nCanada's provinces and territories:\n\nParliament of Ontario\nQuebec Legislature\nGeneral Assembly of Nova Scotia\nNew Brunswick Legislature\nManitoba Legislature\nParliament of British Columbia\nGeneral Assembly of Prince Edward Island\nSaskatchewan Legislature\nAlberta Legislature\nGeneral Assembly of Newfoundland and Labrador\nLegislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories\nYukon Legislative Assembly\nLegislative Assembly of Nunavut\n\n\n=== China ===\nLegislative Council of Hong Kong\nLegislative Assembly of Macau\n\n\n=== Denmark ===\nInatsisartut\nLøgting\n\n\n=== Finland ===\n\nÅland\n\n\n=== Germany ===\nState legislatures of Germany\nExcept for the city-states of Berlin, Bremen and Hamburg, where the city council is also the state parliament, all state parliaments are called Landtag:\n\nAbgeordnetenhaus of Berlin\nBremische Bürgerschaft\nBürgerschaft der Freien und Hansestadt Hamburg\nLandtag of Baden-Württemberg\nLandtag of Bavaria\nLandtag of Brandenburg\nLandtag of Hesse\nLandtag of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern\nLandtag of Lower Saxony\nLandtag of North Rhine-Westphalia\nLandtag of Rhineland-Palatinate\nLandtag of Saarland\nLandtag of Saxony\nLandtag of Saxony-Anhalt\nLandtag of Schleswig-Holstein\nLandtag of Thuringia\n\n\n=== India ===\n\n\n==== Indian states and territorial legislative assemblies ====\n\n\n==== Indian states legislative councils ====\n\nAndhra Pradesh Legislative Council\nBihar Legislative Council\nKarnataka Legislative Council\nMaharashtra Legislative Council\nTelangana Legislative Council\nUttar Pradesh Legislative Council\n\n\n=== Malaysia ===\n\n\n=== Netherlands ===\nProvincial council (Netherlands)\nStates General of the Netherlands\n\n\n=== Norway ===\n\n\n=== Philippines ===\nParliament of the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region\n\n\n=== Portugal ===\nLegislative Assembly of the Azores\nLegislative Assembly of Madeira\n\n\n=== Spain ===\n\n\n=== Sri Lanka ===\nProvincial Councils (Sri Lanka)\n\n\n=== Switzerland ===\n\n\n=== Trinidad and Tobago ===\nTobago House of Assembly\n\n\n=== United Kingdom ===\nNorthern Ireland Assembly\nScottish Parliament\nSenedd (Welsh Parliament)\n\n\n== Other parliaments ==\n\n\n=== Contemporary supranational parliaments ===\n\nList is not exhaustive\nPan-African Parliament\nCentral American Parliament\nLatin American Parliament\nEuropean Parliament\n\n\n=== Equivalent national legislatures ===\nMajlis, e.g. in Iran\nin Indonesia: People's Consultative Assembly, consists of People's Representative Council (elected, legislative lower house) and Regional Representative Council (elected, legislative upper house with limited powers)\n\n\n=== Defunct ===\nDiet of Galicia and Lodomeria (1861–1918)\nParliament of Southern Ireland (1921–1922)\nPeople's Parliament (1940s)\nSilesian Parliament (1922–1945)\nParliament of Northern Ireland (1921–1973)\nBatasang Pambansâ (1978–1986)\nNational Assembly of the Republic of China (1913–2005)\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nComparative Legislators Database. A dataset on over 67,000 legislators from 16 countries.\nChisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Parliament\". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.\nUnited Kingdom Parliament<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "education": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 958593,
      "num_docs": 1049,
      "example": " opposite sex, students have social issues that may impact adolescent development. They argue that the absence of the opposite sex creates an unrealistic environment not duplicated in the real world. Some studies show that in classes that are separated by gender, male and female students work and learn on the same level as their peers, the stereotypical mentality of the teacher is removed, and girls are likely to have more confidence in the classroom than they would in a coeducational class. In a 2022 study published in the British Educational Research Journal which examined the Irish educational system, the authors stated that the existing \"empirical evidence is somewhat ambiguous, with some studies finding a positive impact of single-sex schooling on education achievement [...] but others finding average null effects\"; they concluded that after controlling for \"individual, parental and school-level factors [...] on average, there is no significant difference in performance for girls or boys who attend single-sex schools compared to their mixed-school peers in science, mathematics or reading.\"\n\n\n== Discussions in the Muslim world ==\nThe Muslim world has the most pronounced premodern history of coeducation in the world. Both coeducation and gender segregated education were prevalent throughout Islamic history in every century. However, modern scholars have discussions and different opinions about the issue of modern gender coeducation due to the rising intrusions of Western culture and postcolonialism which bring with them objectification of women and the degeneration of family values. Many scholars opine that as long as the educational setting is safe, solemn, and prevents immorality between the genders among both students and teachers, then there is no impediment to coeducation. Other issues brought up are the fact that in some countries, certain norms of decency, modesty, and morality are not commonly understood or observed, so the Muslim is expected to be extra cautious while attending these institutions, as long as attending them does not lead to sin. Other scholars opine that it is best to avoid coeducation to prevent corruption, based on the principle of \"blocking the means\". Others consider the modern coeducation environment to be against the laws of hijab and thus are forbidden, unless the genders are separated by a curtain. Many Islamic schools and traditional madrasas have coeducational environments, but the genders are separated by a curtain.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nFennell, Shailaja, and Madeleine Arnot. Gender Education and Equality in a Global Context: Conceptual frameworks and policy perspectives (Routledge, 2007)\nGoodman, Joyce, James C. Albisetti, and Rebecca Rogers, eds. Girls' Secondary Education in the Western World: From the 18th to the 20th Century (Palgrave Macmillan, 2010)\nKarnaouch, Denise. \"Féminisme et coéducation en Europe avant 1914.\" Clio. Femmes, genre, histoire 18 (2003): 21–41.\n\n\n=== England ===\nAlbisetti, James C. \"Un-learned lessons from the New World? English views of American coeducation and women's colleges, c. 1865–1910.\" History of Education 29.5 (2000): 473–489.\nJackson, Carolyn, and Ian David Smith. \"Poles apart? An exploration of single-sex and mixed-sex educational environments in Australia and England.\" Educational Studies 26.4 (2000): 409–422.\n\n\n=== United States ===\nHansot, Elisabeth, and David Tyack. \"Gender in American public schools: Thinking institutionally.\" Signs (1988): 741–760. in JSTOR\nLasser, Carol, ed. Educating men and women together: Coeducation in a changing world (1987), colleges\nTyack, David, and Elizabeth Hansot. Learning together: A history of coeducation in American public schools (Russell Sage Foundation, 1992) on K-12 schools\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nRosenberg: Coeducation History\nAmerican Council for CoEducational Schooling<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 147434,
      "num_docs": 157,
      "example": " great influence on the decision making process. Unless caretakers identify the need, in most cases an IQ test is not given to a child, which may result in some children who for various secondary reasons do not function well at school, but who do have the academic ability to learn at the higher levels, mistakenly being sent to the lower levels of education. Within a few years these children can fall far behind in development compared to their peers who were sent to the higher levels.\nIt is possible for students to move up (or down) from one level to another level. If there is doubt early on about the level chosen, an orientation year may be offered. Moving up a level later on may require a lot of extra effort, motivation and time resulting in some students not reaching their full potential.\nResearch has shown that 30% of gifted children are (mistakenly) advised to attend the VMBO, the lower level to which 60% of twelve-year-olds are initially sent. In this particular group of children there is a higher than normal percentage of drop-outs (leaving school without any diploma).\nAlthough IQ testing may aid to reduce mistakes in choosing levels, research has also shown that IQ is not fixed at the age of 12 and may still improve with exposure to the proper educational stimuli, which the current Dutch system by design (early separation into levels) may fail to provide.\nAnother area of concern is that although parents have the right to have their voice heard in the school's decision making process, not all parents make use of this right equally, resulting in unequal opportunities for children.\nA recent study by the University of Groningen has also shown strong correlation between lower parental income and advice given to students to follow lower education.\nThe Programme for International Student Assessment has found that the Netherlands' educational standing compared to other nations has been declining since 2006, and is now only slightly above average. School inspectors are warning that reading standards among primary school children are lower than 20 years ago, and the Netherlands has now dropped down the international rankings. A similar trend is seen in arithmetic, maths and science.\n\n\n== See also ==\nAcademic grading in the Netherlands\nComprehensive school\nOpen access in the Netherlands\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Sources ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nPassow, A. Harry et al. The National Case Study: An Empirical Comparative Study of Twenty-One Educational Systems.  (1976) online\nMinisterie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap. Algemene informatie over de leerplicht, retrieved June 23, 2006.\n\n\n== External links ==\nNetherlands Organisation for Internationalisation of Higher Education\nDutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science\nInformation on education in Netherlands, OECD - Contains indicators and information about Netherlands and how it compares to other OECD and non-OECD countries\nVocational education in the Netherlands, UNESCO-UNEVOC(2012) - Overview of the vocational system\nDiagram of Dutch education system, OECD - Using 1997 ISCED classification of programmes and typical ages. Also in Dutch\nEducation in the Netherlands, a webdossier of Education Worldwide, a portal of the German Education Server<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "art": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 961601,
      "num_docs": 1024,
      "example": "pper, Origins and Development of Kinetic Art, New York Graphic Society/Studio Vista, 1968\nFrank Popper, From Technological to Virtual Art, Leonardo Books, MIT Press, 2007\nSeitz, William C. (1965). The Responsive Eye (PDF). New York: Museum of Modern Art. Exhibition catalog.{{cite book}}:  CS1 maint: postscript (link)\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nOpartica - online op art making tool<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 142197,
      "num_docs": 147,
      "example": ", to Mannerism, to Baroque (or Rococo), to Neo-Classicism, and to Eclecticism. While Renaissance style and motifs were largely purged from Modernism, they have been reasserted in some Postmodern architecture. The influence of Renaissance architecture can still be seen in many of the modern styles and rules of architecture today.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\nList of Renaissance structures\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Bibliography ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nAlberti, Leon Battista. 1988. On the Art of Building in Ten Books. Translated by Joseph Rykwert. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.\nAnderson, Christy. 2013. Renaissance Architecture. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.\nBuddensieg, Tilmann. 1976. \"Criticism of Ancient Architecture in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries.\" In Classical Influences on European Culture A.D. 1500–1700, 335–348. Edited by R. R. Bolgar. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.\nHart, Vaughan, and Peter Hicks, eds. 1998. Paper Palaces: The Rise of the Architectural Treatise in the Renaissance. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.\nJokilehto, Jukka. 2017. A History of Architectural Conservation. 2d ed. New York: Routledge.\nKoortbojian, Michael. 2011. \"Renaissance Spolia and Renaissance Antiquity (One Neighborhood, Three Cases).\" In Reuse Value: Spolia and Appropriation in Art and Architecture, from Constantine to Sherrie Levine. Edited by Richard Brilliant and Dale Kinney, 149–165. Farnham, UK: Ashgate.\nSerlio, Sebastiano. 1996–2001. Sebastiano Serlio on Architecture. 2 vols. Translated by Vaughan Hart and Peter Hicks. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.\nSmith, Christine. 1992. Architecture in the Culture of Early Humanism: Ethics, Aesthetics, and Eloquence 1400–1470. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.\nWaters, Michael J. 2012. \"A Renaissance Without Order Ornament, Single-Sheet Engravings, and the Mutability of Architectural Prints.\" Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 71:488–523.\nTafuri, Manfredo. 2006. Interpreting the Renaissance: Princes, Cities, Architects. New Haven: Yale University Press.\nWittkower, Rudolf. 1971. Architectural Principles In the Age of Humanism. New York: Norton.\nYerkes, Carolyn. 2017. Drawing after Architecture: Renaissance Architectural Drawings and their Reception. Venice: Marsilio.\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nRenaissance Architecture in Great Buildings Online\nArchitecture in the Classical Tradition<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "music": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 1214154,
      "num_docs": 1312,
      "example": "\" named Mose claims authorship of \"Alexander's Ragtime Band.\"\n\n\n== Lyrical implications ==\n\nAlthough the 1911 sheet music cover drawn by artist John Frew depicts the band's musicians as either white or biracial, Berlin's \"Alexander's Ragtime Band\"—and his earlier 1910 composition \"Alexander and His Clarinet\"—employ certain idiomatic expressions (\"oh, ma honey\", \"honey lamb\") and vernacular English (\"bestest band what am\") in the lyrics to indicate to the listener that the characters in the song should be understood to be African-American.\nFor example, an often-omitted and risqué second verse identifies the race of Alexander's clarinet player:\n\nThere's a fiddle with notes that screeches\nLike a chicken—like a chicken—\nAnd the clarinet is a colored pet.\n\n\n== Sheet music ==\n\n\n== Recorded versions ==\nBessie Smith and Her Blue Boys recorded Alexander's Ragtime Band on Columbia Records in 1927.\n\n\n== See also ==\nRagtime\nScott Joplin\nList of pre-1920 jazz standards\nWhen Alexander Takes His Ragtime Band to France\nList of best-selling sheet music\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n=== Notes ===\n\n\n=== Citations ===\n\n\n=== Works cited ===\n\n\n== External links ==\n\n\"Alexander's Ragtime Band\" (Centennial Tribute)\n\"Alexander's Ragtime Band\" Sheet Music (David M. Rubenstein Manuscript Library)\n\"Alexander's Ragtime Band\" by Billy Murray (Cylinder Preservation and Digitization Project)<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 115146,
      "num_docs": 128,
      "example": " male door in rock and roll and proving that a female musician... and this is a point I am extremely concerned about... could play as well if not better than the boys\".\n\n\n== See also ==\n\nBand (rock and pop)\nAll-female band\nBoy band\nGirl group\nPop duo\nLive band karaoke\nMusic industry\nPercussion ensemble\nMusical collective\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\n\"Music\". NYPL Digital Gallery.\nHelmut Kallmann; Patricia Wardrop; Jack Kopstein; Barclay Mcmillan (December 16, 2013). \"Music Bands\". Encyclopedia of Music in Canada. Historica Canada. Retrieved August 19, 2019.<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "literature": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 1862399,
      "num_docs": 2001,
      "example": " Press. pp. 362−363.\nManning, Robert Douglas Wandering Jew and Wandering Jewess ISBN 978-1-895507-90-4\nSabine Baring-Gould, Curious Myths of the Middle Ages (1894)\n\n\n== External links ==\nWandering Jew and Jewess dramatic screenplays\n\n The Wandering Jew, by Eugène Sue at Project Gutenberg\nDavid Hoffman, Hon. J.U.D. of Gottegen (1852). Chronicles of the Wandering Jew selected from the originals of Carthaphilus, embracing a period of nearly XIX centuries—detailed description of facts related to Jesus's preaching from a Pharisees coverage\nCatholic Encyclopedia entry\nThe (presumed) End of the Wandering Jew from The Golden Calf by Ilf and Petrov\nIsrael's First President, Chaim Weizmann, \"A Wandering Jew\" Shapell Manuscript Foundation\n\"The Wandering Image: Converting the Wandering Jew\" Iconography and visual art. Archived 9 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine\n\"The Wandering Jew\" and \"The Wandering Jew's Chronicle\" English Broadside Ballad Archive\nFull text: The autobiography of Goethe: Truth and poetry, from my own life. Vol. II: Books XIV-XX. London: George Bell. 1881 – via Internet Archive. [Alternative format]<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 263361,
      "num_docs": 274,
      "example": "cha Gentz and Stefan Kramer (eds.) Globalization, Cultural Identities and Media Representations Albany, NY: State University of New York Press: 2006. ISBN 0-7914-6684-1.\nStephen Flacassier: \"Muscles, Myths and Movies\": Rabbit's Garage: 1994. ISBN 0-9641643-0-2.\n\n\n== External links ==\nFilms\nThe Avenger by Georgia Rivalta. Steve Reeves stars as Aeneas.\nHercules Unchained (Pietro Francisci, director.)\nThe Giant of Metropolis (starring Gordon Mitchell; Umberto Scarpelli, director)\nHercules and the Tyrants of Babylon (Domenico Paolella, dir.)\nImages and discussion\nThe Many Faces of Hercules at Brian's Drive-In Theatre\nPEPLVM - Images de l'Antiquité, par Michel Eloy (in French)\nCinéma & Histoire: L'Antiquité au Cinéma (in French), by Hervé Dumont.\nVincent Price, B Movies, Film Noir, Bela Lugosi, Boris Karloff, Peter Cushing,Christopher Lee,Barbara Steele,horror,sci-fi,B westerns,sword & sandal (source of peplum DVD's)\nSomething Weird Video (source of peplum DVD's)\nSanto And Friends (filmography of Mexican muscleman films)<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "architecture": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 1293728,
      "num_docs": 1394,
      "example": " From 1991 to 2004, it was owned by various Norwegian investment firms and flew the flag of Norway.\nIn 2004, the tanker was purchased by First Olsen Tankers, renamed Knock Nevis, and converted into a permanently moored storage tanker in the Qatar Al Shaheen Oil Field in the Persian Gulf.\nKnock Nevis was renamed Mont and reflagged to Sierra Leone by new owners Amber Development for a final voyage to India where it was scrapped by Priya Blue Industries at Alang. The vessel was beached on 22 December 2009. Due to the vessel extreme size, scrapping took until the end of 2010. The ship's 36 tonne anchor was saved and donated to the Hong Kong Maritime Museum in 2010. It was later moved to a Hong Kong Government Dockyard building on Stonecutters Island.\n\n\n== Size record ==\n\nSeawise Giant was the longest ship ever constructed, at 458.45 m (1,504.1 ft), longer than the height of many of the world's tallest buildings, including the 451.9 m (1,483 ft) Petronas Towers.\nDespite its length, Seawise Giant was not the largest ship by gross tonnage, ranking sixth at 260,941 GT, behind the crane ship Pioneering Spirit and the four 274,838 to 275,276 GT Batillus-class supertankers. It was the longest and largest by deadweight at 564,763 tonnes.\nSeawise Giant was featured on the BBC series Jeremy Clarkson's Extreme Machines while sailing as Jahre Viking. According to the captain S. K. Mohan, the ship could reach up to 16.5 knots (30.6 km/h) in good weather. It took 9 km (5+1⁄2 miles) for the ship to stop from that speed, and the turning circle in clear weather was about 3 km (2 miles).\n\n\n=== Gallery ===\n\n\n== See also ==\nList of longest ships\nTI-class supertanker\nFreedom Ship\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nWatt, Nick (4 January 2007). \"Skipper Shortage: Supply Not Keeping Pace\". ABC News Nightline. Retrieved 5 April 2008.\nClarkson Research Studies Ltd. (1987). Tanker Register 1987. International Publication Service. ISBN 0-8002-4143-6.\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nVideo of Jahre Viking Video on YouTube\nSeawise Giant-launch in 1979 on YouTube\nThe Jahre Viking<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 161968,
      "num_docs": 171,
      "example": " Wisconsin, and Iowa, which are home to large populations of Swedish and particularly Finnish Americans. Duluth, Minnesota, at its peak, had as many as 14 public saunas. Indeed, among Finnish farms in Great Lakes \"sauna country\", the cultural geographer Matti Kaups, found that 90% had sauna structures - more even than the farms in Finland. Elsewhere, sauna facilities are normally provided at health clubs and hotels, but there is no tradition or ritual to their use. To avoid liability, many saunas operate at only moderate temperatures and do not allow pouring water on the rocks. A wider range of sauna etiquette is usually acceptable in the United States compared to other countries, with the exception that most mixed-sex saunas usually require some clothing such as a bathing suit to be worn. These are uncommon, however, as most saunas are either in small private rooms or in the changing rooms of health clubs or gyms. There are few restrictions and their use is casual; bathers may enter and exit the sauna as they please, be it nude, with a towel, dripping wet in swimsuits, or even in workout clothes (the latter being very unusual). Like many aspects of US culture, there are few prescribed conventions and the bather should remain astute to \"read\" the specific family or community's expectations. Besides the Finnish Americans, the older generation of Korean Americans still uses the saunas as it is available to them. Sauna societies are beginning to emerge in colleges across America, with the first one being formed at Gustavus Adolphus College.\nA cultural legacy of Eastern European Jews in America is the culture of'shvitz', which used to be widespread on the East Coast and occasionally on the Pacific West Coast.\nThe sweat lodge, used by several Native American and First Nations traditional ceremonial cultures, is a location for a spiritual ceremony. The focus is on the ceremony, and the sweating is only secondary. Unlike sauna traditions, and most forcefully in the case of the Inipi, the sweat lodge ceremonies have been robustly defended as an exclusively Native expression of spirituality rather than a recreational activity.\n\n\n== Traditions and old beliefs ==\n\nThe Finnish word löyly [ˈløyly] is strictly connected to the sauna. It can be translated as \"sauna steam\" and refers to the steam vapour created by splashing water on the heated rocks. In many languages related to Finnish, there is a word corresponding to löyly. The same approximate meaning is used across the Finnic languages such as in Estonian leil. Originally this word meant \"spirit\" or \"life\", as in e. g. Hungarian lélek and Khanty lil, which both mean \"soul\", referring to the sauna's old, spiritual essence. The same dual meaning of both \"spirit\" and \"(sauna) steam\" is also preserved in the Latvian word gars. There is an old Finnish saying, \"saunassa ollaan kuin kirkossa\",—one should behave in the sauna as in church.\nSaunatonttu, literally translated as \"sauna elf\", is a little gnome or tutelary spirit that was believed to live in the sauna. He was always treated with respect, otherwise, he might have caused much trouble for people. It was customary to warm up the sauna just for the tonttu every now and then, or to leave some food outside for him. It is said that he warned the people if a fire was threatening the sauna or punished people who behaved improperly in it—for example, slept, played games, argued, were generally noisy, or behaved otherwise immorally there. Such creatures are believed to exist in different cultures. The Russian banya has an entirely corresponding character called a bannik.\nIn Thailand, women spend hours in a makeshift sauna tent during the month following childbirth. The steam is typically infused with several herbs. It is believed that the sauna helps the new mother's body return to its normal condition more quickly.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "oceanography": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 506624,
      "num_docs": 544,
      "example": " 31.\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nCase Study – The Cod War\nMV Miranda Site Website of the MV Miranda, a Trawler support vessel\nBritain's Small Wars – The Cod War\nBBC Archived 20 March 2005 at the Wayback Machine Video footage from the BBC\nFiskveiðideilur Íslendinga við erlendar þjóðir, by Guðni Jóhannesson (in Icelandic)\nBBC 'On this Day' 1973: Royal Navy moves to protect trawlers\nBBC 'On this Day' 1975: \"Attack on British vessels heightens Cod War\"\nHenry Kissinger talking about cod war between Iceland and the United Kingdom, AP Archive, 2 February 1973<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 84382,
      "num_docs": 87,
      "example": "ton for water purification, bioplastics, fertilizers, and animal feed to support sustainable industries.\nPolicy integration: Urging governments, United Nations agencies, and businesses to include plankton in climate and biodiversity frameworks, with endorsements sought at COP29, COP16, and the 2025 United Nations Ocean Conference.\nPublic awareness: Fostering “plankton literacy” through education and interdisciplinary initiatives to highlight their role in food security and ecosystem health.\nCollaboration: Encouraging cross-sectoral partnerships among academia, industry, and governments to fund research and protect plankton from threats like nutrient pollution and ocean warming.\n\n\n== See also ==\nParadox of the plankton\nSeston\nVeliger\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nKirby, Richard R. (2010). Ocean Drifters: A Secret World Beneath the Waves. Studio Cactus Ltd, UK. ISBN 978-1-904239-10-9.\nDusenbery, David B. (2009). Living at Micro Scale: The Unexpected Physics of Being Small. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts ISBN 978-0-674-03116-6.\nKiørboe, Thomas (2008). A Mechanistic Approach to Plankton Ecology. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J. ISBN 978-0-691-13422-2.\nDolan, J.R., Agatha, S., Coats, D.W., Montagnes, D.J.S., Stocker, D.K., eds. (2013).Biology and Ecology of Tintinnid Ciliates: Models for Marine Plankton. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, UK ISBN 978-0-470-67151-1.\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nOcean Drifters – Short film narrated by David Attenborough about the varied roles of plankton\nPlankton Chronicles Archived 2020-07-28 at the Wayback Machine – Short documentary films and photos\nCOPEPOD: The Global Plankton Database – Global coverage database of zooplankton biomass and abundance data\nPlankton*Net Archived 2006-08-21 at the Wayback Machine – Taxonomic database of images of plankton species\nGuide to the marine zooplankton of south-eastern Australia – Tasmanian Aquaculture and Fisheries Institute\nSir Alister Hardy Foundation for Ocean Science – Continuous Plankton Recorder Survey\nAustralian Continuous Plankton Recorder Project – Integrated Marine Observing System\nSea Drifters – BBC Audio slideshow\nAquaparadox: the diversity of planktonic microorganisms – Images of planktonic microorganisms\nPlankton, planktic, planktonic – Essays on nomenclature\nJournal of Plankton Research – Scientific periodical devoted to plankton<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "meteorology": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 365816,
      "num_docs": 383,
      "example": " today: an introduction to weather, climate, and the environment. West Pub. Co. ISBN 978-0-314-80905-6.\nCorton, Christine L. London Fog: The Biography (2015)\nRiddle, Laurence G.; Cayan, Daniel R.; Filonczuk, Maria K. (1 July 1995). \"Variability of Marine Fog Along the California Coast\". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)\nLu, Chunsong; Liu, Yangang; Niu, Shengjie; Zhao, Lijuan; Yu, Huaying; Cheng, Muning (30 January 2014). \"Examination of microphysical relationships and corresponding microphysical processes in warm fogs\". Acta Meteorologica Sinica. 27 (6): 832–848. doi:10.1007/s13351-013-0610-0. S2CID 2471958.\nLu, Chunsong; Niu, Shengjie; Tang, Lili; Lv, Jingjing; Zhao, Lijuan; Zhu, Bin (July 2010). \"Chemical composition of fog water in Nanjing area of China and its related fog microphysics\". Atmospheric Research. 97 (1–2): 47–69. Bibcode:2010AtmRe..97...47L. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2010.03.007.\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nSocial & Economic Costs of Fog from \"NOAA Socioeconomics\" website initiative\nUnited States' current dense fog advisories from NOAA\nCurrent Western US fog satellite pictures from NOAA<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 33936,
      "num_docs": 37,
      "example": "The Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Concerning the Control of Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds or Their Transboundary Fluxes (known as the Volatile Organic Compounds Protocol or the VOC Protocol) is a protocol to the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution which aims to provide for the control and reduction of emissions of volatile organic compounds in order to reduce their transboundary fluxes so as to protect human health and the environment from adverse effects. The protocol was concluded at Geneva, Switzerland.\nOpened for signature - November 18, 1991\nEntered into force - September 29, 1997\nParties - (24) Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Republic of Macedonia, Monaco, Netherlands, Norway, Slovakia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom\nCountries that have signed, but not yet ratified - (6) Canada, European Union, Greece, Portugal, Ukraine, United States\n\n\n== See also ==\nEnvironmental agreements\nVapor Intrusion\n\n\n== References ==\n\n This article incorporates public domain material from The World Factbook (2025 ed.). CIA. (Archived 2003 edition.)\n\n\n== External links ==\nRatification status<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "geography": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 1905168,
      "num_docs": 2121,
      "example": "Flattening (derived constant): 1/299.3249646\n\n\n== See also ==\nOrdnance Datum Newlyn\nInternational Map of the World § Map Indexing System\nIrish grid reference system\nMaidenhead Locator System\nUnited States National Grid\nWorld Geodetic System\nCustom units of measure\n\nTetrad\nHectad\nMyriad\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOrdnance Survey A guide to coordinate systems in Great Britain: An introduction to mapping coordinate systems and the use of GPS datasets with Ordnance Survey mapping; Version 3.6, 2020 [Retrieved 19 February 2022].\nOrdnance Survey's Grid script: a brief introduction to the National Grid Reference; Version November 2011 [Retrieved 13 February 2014].\n\"The National Grid FAQs\". Ordnance Survey. Retrieved 13 February 2014.\n\"Ordnance Survey Guide to the National Grid\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 August 2019. Retrieved 20 February 2021.\n\"Ordnance Survey Guide to coordinate systems\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 April 2019. Retrieved 20 February 2021.\n\"Interactive Ordnance Survey Mapping showing grid references\". Retrieved 20 February 2021.\n\"Co-ordinate Converter\". Retrieved 20 February 2021. - Multiple-format co-ordinate transformer for Great Britain & Channel Islands\n\"Programs to convert Ordnance Survey grid references\". Retrieved 20 February 2021.\n\"Open Source Javascript Conversion Library\". Retrieved 20 February 2021.\n\"GPL Java Conversion Library\". Archived from the original on 18 January 2008. Retrieved 20 February 2021.\n\"Perl Conversion Library\". Retrieved 20 February 2021.\n\"The sole part of Great Britain that lies in the OV square\". Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 20 February 2021.\n\"Convert between Latitude/Longitude & OS National Grid References\". Retrieved 20 February 2021. (JavaScript source code)\n\".Net library to convert between lat/lon in various coordinate systems and grid reference\". Retrieved 20 February 2021.\n\"UK Grid Reference\". Retrieved 20 February 2021. Web utility to find a UK grid reference\nLatLong <> OS Grid Ref converts & presents in many formats, generates specific links to that location for several useful map web pages - 1840–present. LatLong WSG84 <> GB, Ireland (inc NI) and Chanel Islands (30U) GR formats recognised. Distance measure for dog-leg routes & area calculations.\n\"OS British National Grids\". GitHub. Retrieved 15 August 2021. Open source dataset (in GeoPackage format) of the British National Grids at various resolutions, available for download from Ordnance Survey's GitHub.<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 202118,
      "num_docs": 224,
      "example": " Years War ===\nPrince, A. E. (1933). \"The Indenture System under Edward III\". Historical essays in honour of James Tait. Manchester: Manchester University Press. pp. 283–297.\nSherborne, James (1994). \"Indentured Retinues and English Expeditions to France, 1369–80\". War, Politics and Culture in Fourteenth-Century England. London: Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 1–28. ISBN 978-1-8528-5086-9.\n\n\n=== English Navy ===\nSherborne, James (1994). \"The English Navy: Shipping and Manpower, 1369–89\". War, Politics and Culture in Fourteenth-Century England. London: Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 29–40. ISBN 978-1-8528-5086-9.\nSherborne, James (1994). \"The Battle of La Rochelle and the War at Sea, 1372–75\". War, Politics and Culture in Fourteenth-Century England. London: Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 41–54. ISBN 978-1-8528-5086-9.\n\n\n=== Other ===\nAllen, Robert C. Enclosure and the Yeoman (1992) Oxford U. Press 376p.\nBroad, John. \"The Fate of the Midland Yeoman: Tenants, Copyholders, and Freeholders as Farmers in North Buckinghamshire, 1620–1800\", Continuity and Change 1999 14(3): 325–347.\nCampbell, Mildred. The English Yeoman\nGenovese, Eugene D. (April 1975). \"Yeomen Farmers in a Slaveholders' Democracy\". Agricultural History. 49 (2): 331–342. JSTOR 3741274.\nHallas, Christine S. \"Yeomen and Peasants? Landownership Patterns in the North Yorkshire Pennines c. 1770–1900\", Rural History 1998 9(2): 157–176.\nVinje, Victor Condorcet: The Versatile Farmers of the North; The Struggle of Norwegian Yeomen for Economic Reforms and Political Power, 1750–1814 (2014).\n\n\n== External links ==\n\n Media related to Yeomen of the Guard at Wikimedia Commons\n\n The dictionary definition of yeoman at Wiktionary\nKnight's Yeoman Archived 2006-09-07 at the Wayback Machine\nThe Soldier in Later Medieval England, online database of all known service records from 1369 until conclusion of Hundred Years War in 1453<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "nuclear_weapons": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 188684,
      "num_docs": 205,
      "example": "\"  New York: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2017  ISBN 978-1-60819-670-8.\nDolan, Edward F. Jr. Hollywood Goes to War. London: Bison Books, 1985. ISBN 0-86124-229-7.\nHardwick, Jack and Schnepf, Ed. \"A Viewer's Guide to Aviation Movies.\" The Making of the Great Aviation Films, General Aviation Series, Volume 2, 1989.\nHenriksen, Margot A. (1987). Dr. Strangelove's America: Society and Culture in the Atomic Age. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-08310-3. Retrieved December 7, 2009.\nOriss, Bruce. When Hollywood Ruled the Skies: The Aviation Film Classics of World War II. Hawthorne, California: Aero Associates Inc., 1984. ISBN 0-9613088-0-X.\nRice, Julian (2008). Kubrick's Hope: Discovering Optimism from 2001 to Eyes Wide Shut. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-8108-6206-7.\nWheeler Winston Dixon  Dr. Strangelove essay at National Film Registry\nDaniel Eagan Dr. Strangelove essay in America's Film Legacy: The Authoritative Guide to the Landmark Movies in the National Film Registry, A&C Black, 2010 ISBN 0826429777, pages 598–600\nGolden, Mike (June 7, 2010). La Force, Thessaly (ed.). \"Terry Southern In Full\". The Paris Review. We ran an excerpt from an interview Mike Golden conducted with Southern that appeared in the spring of 1996 (issue 138). After the jump is, as promised, the exchange in full, where Southern discusses making Easy Rider with Dennis Hopper, and the missing pie-fight scene from Dr. Strangelove:\nSouthern, Terry (1962). \"Notes from The War Room\". Grand Street. No. 49. Archived from the original on June 18, 2003.\nSouthern, Terry (1962). \"An Interview with Stanley Kubrick, Director of Lolita\". Esquire. Archived from the original on April 12, 2008. unpublished\nSouthern, Terry; Southern, Nile (Fall 2004). \"Check-Up With Dr. Strangelove\". Filmmaker Magazine.\nDon't Panic covers Dr. Strangelove (archived)\nBrian Siano \"Commentary on Dr. Strangelove\" at visual-memory.co.uk\nGrant B. Stillman \"Last Secrets of Strangelove Revealed\" at visual-memory.co.uk\nDr. Strangelove Study Guide by Dan Lindley. See also:\nDr. Strangelove notes longer version by Dan Lindley\n\"Dr. Strangelove: The Darkest Room\", an essay by David Bromwich at the Criterion Collection\nAnn Hornaday, \"The 34 best political movies ever made\", ranked No. 6, The Washington Post (January 23, 2020)\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nPapers\n\nContinuity transcript\nAnnotated bibliography on Dr. Strangelove from the Alsos Digital Library\nMetadata\n\nDr. Strangelove at the AFI Catalog of Feature Films\nDr. Strangelove at the TCM Movie Database\nDr. Strangelove at Rotten Tomatoes\nDr. Strangelove at IMDb<|endoftext|>"
    },
    "test": {
      "total_tokens": 38304,
      "num_docs": 39,
      "example": " of proliferation as these technologies can produce fissile materials that are directly usable in nuclear weapons.\n\nAccording to critics, those states which possess nuclear weapons, but are not authorized to do so under the NPT, have not paid a significant price for their pursuit of weapons capabilities. Also, the NPT has been explicitly weakened by a number of bilateral deals made by NPT signatories, notably the United States.\nBased on concerns over the slow pace of nuclear disarmament and the continued reliance on nuclear weapons in military and security concepts, doctrines and policies, the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons was adopted in July 2017 and was subsequently opened for signature on 20 September 2017. Entering into force on 22 January 2021, it prohibits each state party from the development, testing, production, stockpiling, stationing, transfer, use and threat of use of nuclear weapons, as well as assistance to those activities. It reaffirms in its preamble the vital role of the full and effective implementation of the NPT.\nIneffective enforcement of territorial integrity and rule of law in the 21st century could undermine the credibility of the security assurances that are part of the current global nuclear order.\n\n\n== See also ==\n13 steps (an important section in the Final Document of the 2000 Review Conference of the Treaty)\nChemical Weapons Convention\nComprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT)\nHumanitarian Initiative\nGlobal Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism (GICNT)\nInternational Day for the Total Elimination of Nuclear Weapons\nMissile Technology Control Regime (MTCR)\nNew Agenda Coalition (NAC)\nNon-Proliferation and Disarmament Initiative (NPDI)\nNuclear armament\nNuclear warfare\nNuclear weapons convention\nNuclear-weapon-free zone\nMulti-country zones\nAfrican Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty (Treaty of Pelindaba)\nCentral Asian Nuclear Weapon Free Zone (Treaty of Semei)\nSouth Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty (Treaty of Rarotonga)\nSoutheast Asian Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty (Treaty of Bangkok)\nTreaty for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean (Treaty of Tlatelolco)\nOther UN-recognized zones\nMongolian Nuclear-Weapons-Free Zone\nOuter Space Treaty\nSeabed Arms Control Treaty\nNuclear terrorism\nProliferation Security Initiative (PSI)\nStrategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT)\nStrategic Offensive Reductions Treaty (SORT)\nTreaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (also known as the Nuclear Weapon Ban Treaty)\nWeapon of Mass Destruction (WMD)\nZangger Committee\nList of states with nuclear weapons\nList of weapons of mass destruction treaties\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nNuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (PDF) – IAEA\nUN Office of Disarmament Affairs NPT section\nProcedural history, related documents and photos on the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) in the Historic Archives of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law\nMembership/Signatories\nAnnotated Bibliography on the NPT from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues\nCompilation of speeches and papers relevant to NPT Review Cycle, U.S. Department of State\nAnnotated bibliography for the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues<|endoftext|>"
    }
  },
  "chemical_weapons": {
    "train": {
      "total_tokens": 106055,
      "num_docs": 109,
      "example": ", studies failed to convincingly demonstrate whether the drug or the therapeutic interaction was responsible for any beneficial effects.\nIn recent years, organizations like the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS) have renewed clinical research of LSD.\nIt has been proposed that LSD be studied for use in the therapeutic setting, particularly in anxiety. In 2024, the FDA designated a form of LSD as a breakthrough therapy to treat generalized anxiety disorder which is being developed by MindMed.\n\n\n=== Other uses ===\nIn the 1950s and 1960s, some psychiatrists (e.g., Oscar Janiger) explored the potential effect of LSD on creativity. Experimental studies attempted to measure the effect of LSD on creative activity and aesthetic appreciation. In 1966 Dr. James Fadiman conducted a study with the central question \"How can psychedelics be used to facilitate problem solving?\" This study attempted to solve 44 different problems and had 40 satisfactory solutions when the FDA banned all research into psychedelics. LSD was a key component of this study.\nSince 2008 there has been ongoing research into using LSD to alleviate anxiety for terminally ill cancer patients coping with their impending deaths.\nA 2012 meta-analysis found evidence that a single dose of LSD in conjunction with various alcoholism treatment programs was associated with a decrease in alcohol abuse, lasting for several months, but no effect was seen at one year. Adverse events included seizure, moderate confusion and agitation, nausea, vomiting, and acting in a bizarre fashion.\nLSD has been used as a treatment for cluster headaches with positive results in some small studies.\nLSD is a potent psychoplastogen, a compound capable of promoting rapid and sustained neural plasticity that may have wide-ranging therapeutic benefit. LSD has been shown to increase markers of neuroplasticity in human brain organoids and improve memory performance in human subjects.\nLSD may have analgesic properties related to pain in terminally ill patients and phantom pain and may be useful for treating inflammatory diseases including rheumatoid arthritis.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nAlbert Hofmann (1980). LSD: My Problem Child. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-029325-0.\n\n\n== External links ==\n\n\"Lysergide (LSD)\". European Union Drugs Agency (EUDA).\n\n\n=== Documentaries ===\nHofmann's Potion Archived June 16, 2021, at the Wayback Machine a documentary on the origins of LSD, 2002\nInside LSD National Geographic Channel, 2009\nHow to Change Your Mind Archived June 16, 2022, at the Wayback Machine Netflix docuseries, 2022<|endoftext|>"
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      "example": " in the plasma samples taken from alleged casualties\". The chemical agent used in the attack was later identified as elemental chlorine.\nJuly 2023: The U.S. destroyed the last of its declared chemical weapons, a sarin nerve agent-filled M55 rocket, on July 7, 2023.\n\n\n== See also ==\nChlorosarin\nEthylsarin\nThiosarin\nGulf War syndrome\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nMaterial Safety Data Sheet\nCIA memo: The Stability of Iraq's Chemical Weapons Stockpile\nCDC Sarin fact sheet\nCDC Sarin Emergency Response Card<|endoftext|>"
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      "example": "... based on documents from France, Vienna and the American University in Beirut.\"\nIn 2003, the Egyptian newspaper Al-Ahram published a series of articles by Osama El-Baz, a senior advisor to the then Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak. Among other things, Osama El-Baz explained the origins of the blood libel against the Jews. He said that Arabs and Muslims have never been antisemitic, as a group, but he accepted the fact that a few Arab writers and media figures attack Jews \"on the basis of the racist fallacies and myths that originated in Europe\". He urged people not to succumb to \"myths\" such as the blood libel.\nNevertheless, on many occasions in modern times, blood libel stories have appeared in the state-sponsored media of a number of Arab and Muslim nations, as well as on their television shows and websites, and books which allege instances of Jewish blood libels are not uncommon there.\nThe blood libel was featured in a scene in the Syrian TV series Ash-Shatat, shown in 2003.\nIn 2007, Lebanese poet Marwan Chamoun, in an interview aired on Télé Liban, referred to the \"... slaughter of the priest Tomaso de Camangiano... in 1840... in the presence of two rabbis in the heart of Damascus, in the home of a close friend of this priest, Daud Al-Harari, the head of the Jewish community of Damascus. After he was slaughtered, his blood was collected, and the two rabbis took it.\" A novel, Death of a Monk, based on the Damascus affair, was published in 2004.\n\n\n== See also ==\nBlood atonement\nBlood curse\nBlood ritual\nCake of Light\nConspiracy theory\nHuman cannibalism\nKiddush § History of using white wine\nMoral panic\nOpIndia § Bihar human sacrifice claims\nQAnon § Child sex trafficking and satanic sacrifice\nSalem witch trials\nSatanic ritual abuse\nSefer HaRazim\nStatute of Kalisz, 13th-century Polish ducal decree offering Jews protection against blood libel, among others\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n=== Works cited ===\nStacey, Robert (2001). \"Anti-Semitism and the Medieval English State\". In Maddicott, J. R.; Pallister, D. M. (eds.). The Medieval State: Essays Presented to James Campbell. London: The Hambledon Press. pp. 163–177. Retrieved 5 August 2025.\nStocker, David (1986). \"The Shrine of Little St Hugh\". Medieval Art and Architecture at Lincoln Cathedral. British Archaeological Association. pp. 109–117. ISBN 978-0-907307-14-3.\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nBemporad, Elissa (2019). Legacy of Blood: Jews, Pogroms, and Ritual Murder in the Lands of the Soviets. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-046647-3.\nHsia, R. Po-chia (1998) The Myth of Ritual Murder: Jews and Magic in Reformation Germany. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-04120-9\nKieval, Hillel J. (2022). Blood Inscriptions: Science, Modernity, and Ritual Murder at Europe's Fin de Siecle. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-9838-3.\nO'Brien, Darren (2011) The Pinnacle of Hatred: The Blood Libel and the Jews. Jerusalem: Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism, Hebrew University Magnes Press. ISBN 978-9654934770\nRose, E. M. (2015) The Murder of William of Norwich: The Origins of the Blood Libel in Medieval Europe. Oxford University Press ISBN 9780190219628\nTeter, Magda (2020). Blood Libel: On the Trail of an Antisemitic Myth. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-24355-2.\nYuval, Israel Jacob (2006) Two Nations in Your Womb: Perceptions of Jews and Christians in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 135–204\n\n\n== External links ==<|endoftext|>"
    },
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      "example": "The Floodgates of Anarchy\" in 1970, and in the Rampart Journal of Individualist Thought by Maurice C. Bryson and William R. McDill in 1968.\nIn 2017, students at Peking University launched the Chinese Political Compass, which they modeled on The Political Compass's approach. The program collects data at the IP level of cities and has been used by data analysts to measure dimensions of political ideology among respondents.\n\n\n=== Reddit ===\nr/PoliticalCompassMemes is a subreddit dedicated to humorous criticism of ideologies, where users identify their ideologies with user flairs based on The Political Compass. In June 2022, the subreddit was used in a study by researchers at Monash University to predict users' political ideologies based on their digital footprints.\n\n\n== See also ==\nCleavage (politics)\nF-scale (personality test)\nLeft–right political spectrum\nList of political ideologies\nNationStates\nSemiotic square\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nThe Political Compass, official website<|endoftext|>"
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