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The wingspan (or just span) of a bird or an airplane is the distance from one wingtip to the opposite wingtip. For example, the Boeing 777–200 has a wingspan of 60.93 metres (199 ft 11 in), and a wandering albatross (Diomedea exulans) caught in 1965 had a wingspan of 3.63 metres (11 ft 11 in), the official record for a... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
in)
Jet: Bede BD-5 – 4.27 m (14 ft 0 in)
Twin engine: Colomban Cri-cri – 4.9 m (16 ft 1 in)
Bat: Bumblebee bat – 16 cm (6.3 in)
Bird: Bee hummingbird – 6.5 cm (2.6 in)
Insect: Tanzanian parasitic wasp (Fairyfly) – 0.2 mm (0.0079 in)
Reptile: Nemicolopterus (Tapejaromorph pterosaur) – Approximately 25 cm (10 in)
== S... | aerospace_engineering | 175 |
Nitromethane, sometimes shortened to simply "nitro", is an organic compound with the chemical formula CH3NO2. It is the simplest organic nitro compound. It is a polar liquid commonly used as a solvent in a variety of industrial applications such as in extractions, as a reaction medium, and as a cleaning solvent. As an ... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
renewed interest in nitromethane as safer replacement of hydrazine monopropellant. The following equation describes this process:
2 CH3NO2 → 2 CO + 2 H2O + H2 + N2
Nitromethane has a laminar combustion velocity of approximately 0.5 m/s, somewhat higher than gasoline, thus making it suitable for high-speed engines. ... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
. government report.
=== Explosive properties ===
Nitromethane was not known to be a high explosive until a railroad tank car loaded with it exploded on June 1, 1958. After much testing, it was realized that nitromethane was a more energetic high explosive than TNT, although TNT has a higher velocity of detonation (V... | aerospace_engineering | 849 |
Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky (; Russian: Константин Эдуардович Циолковский, IPA: [kənstɐnʲˈtʲin ɪdʊˈardəvʲɪtɕ tsɨɐlˈkofskʲɪj] ; 17 September [O.S. 5 September] 1857 – 19 September 1935) was a Russian rocket scientist who pioneered astronautics. Along with Hermann Oberth and Robert H. Goddard, he is one of the pio... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
-metal balloon (airship), streamlined airplanes and trains, hovercraft, and rockets for interplanetary travel.
In 1892, he was transferred to a new teaching post in Kaluga where he continued to experiment. During this period, Tsiolkovsky began working on a problem that would occupy much of his time during the coming ye... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
m
f
{\displaystyle m_{f}}
) mass of the rocket
Δ
v
=
v
e
ln
m
... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
been later used in rockets. They include: gas rudders (graphite) for controlling a rocket's flight and changing the trajectory of its center of mass, the use of components of the fuel to cool the outer shell of the spacecraft (during re-entry to Earth) and the walls of the combustion chamber and nozzle, a pump system ... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
The main part of the monument is a giant obelisk topped by a rocket and resembling in shape the exhaust plume of the rocket. A statue of Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, the precursor of astronautics, is located in front of the obelisk.
The State Museum of the History of Cosmonautics in Kaluga now bears his name. His residence... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
sky, Konstantin E., “Beings of Different Evolutionary Stages of the Universe” (1902), (PDF), English.
Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin E., “Is There a God?” (1932), (PDF), English.
Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin E., “Are There Spirits?” (1932), (PDF), English.
Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin E., “Planets are Inhabited by Living Creatures” (1... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
�ни Циолковского (in Russian). Ленинград: Лениздат. p. 8.
== External links ==
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky. The collection of philosophical works. Biography, books, audiobooks, articles, photographs, video. Russian, English.
“The Theory of Cosmic Eras” The text is an interview between Alexander Leonidovich Chizhevsky and... | aerospace_engineering | 299 |
The Boeing 767 is an American wide-body airliner developed and manufactured by Boeing Commercial Airplanes.
The aircraft was launched as the 7X7 program on July 14, 1978, the prototype first flew on September 26, 1981, and it was certified on July 30, 1982. The initial 767-200 variant entered service on September 8, 19... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
high-density markets. As such, it was intended to transport large numbers of passengers between major cities. Advancements in civil aerospace technology, including high-bypass-ratio turbofan engines, new flight deck systems, aerodynamic improvements, and more efficient lightweight designs were to be applied to the 7X7... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
after a short conversion course, and adding incentive for airlines to purchase both types.
=== Production and testing ===
To produce the 767, Boeing formed a network of subcontractors which included domestic suppliers and international contributions from Italy's Aeritalia and Japan's CTDC. The wings and cabin floor ... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
, Boeing announced the stretched 767-300 in 1983 and the extended-range 767-300ER in 1984. Both models offered a 20 percent passenger capacity increase, while the extended-range version was capable of operating flights up to 5,990 nautical miles (11,090 km; 6,890 mi). Japan Airlines placed the first order for the -300 ... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
. Launched with an order in October 2002 from the Italian Air Force, the KC-767 was intended for the dual role of refueling other aircraft and carrying cargo. The Japanese government became the second customer for the type in March 2003. In May 2003, the United States Air Force (USAF) announced its intent to lease KC-7... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
67-300Fs to increase the total on order to 63.
With its successor, the Boeing New Midsize Airplane, that was planned for introduction in 2025 or later, and the 787 being much larger, Boeing could restart a passenger 767-300ER production to bridge the gap. A demand for 50 to 60 aircraft could have to be satisfied. Havin... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
31.5 degrees and optimized for a cruising speed of Mach 0.8 (533 mph or 858 km/h). Each wing features a supercritical airfoil cross-section and is equipped with six-panel leading edge slats, single- and double-slotted flaps, inboard and outboard ailerons, and six spoilers. The airframe further incorporates Carbon-fibe... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
767s, the Signature Interior features even larger overhead bins, indirect lighting, and sculpted, curved panels. The 767-400ER also received larger windows derived from the 777. Older 767s can be retrofitted with the Signature Interior. Some operators have adopted a simpler modification known as the Enhanced Interior,... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
WA on February 1, 1985, under 90-minute diversion rules. Deliveries for the variant totaled 128 aircraft. There were 52 examples of the model in commercial service as of July 2018, almost entirely as freighter conversions. The type's competitors included the Airbus A300 and A310.
The 767-200 was produced until 1987 whe... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
Frankfurt.
The combination of increased capacity and range for the -300ER has been particularly attractive to both new and existing 767 operators. It is the most successful 767 version, with more orders placed than all other variants combined. As of November 2017, 767-300ER deliveries stand at 583 with no unfilled ord... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
flew on August 21, 1987. Alterations included a large "cupola" or hump on the top of the aircraft from above the cockpit to just behind the trailing edge of the wings, and a pair of ventral fins below the rear fuselage. Inside the cupola was a suite of infrared seekers used for tracking theater ballistic missile launc... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
The airliner's first fatal crash, Lauda Air Flight 004, occurred near Bangkok on May 26, 1991, following the in-flight deployment of the left engine thrust reverser on a 767-300ER. None of the 223 onboard survived. As a result of this accident, all 767 thrust reversers were deactivated until a redesign was implemented... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
that ordered inspections of the elevators on more than 400 767s beginning in March 2014; the focus was on fasteners and other parts that can fail and cause the elevators to jam. The issue was first identified in 2000 and has been the subject of several Boeing service bulletins. The inspections and repairs are required... | aerospace_engineering | 573 |
Apparent retrograde motion is the apparent motion of a planet in a direction opposite to that of other bodies within its system, as observed from a particular vantage point. Direct motion or prograde motion is motion in the same direction as other bodies.
While the terms direct and prograde are equivalent in this conte... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
to move from east to west on a nightly basis in response to the rotation of Earth, the outer planets generally drift slowly eastward relative to the stars. Asteroids and Kuiper Belt objects (including Pluto) exhibit apparent retrograde motion. This motion is normal for the planets, and so is considered direct motion. ... | aerospace_engineering | 844 |
A jet engine is a type of reaction engine, discharging a fast-moving jet of heated gas (usually air) that generates thrust by jet propulsion. While this broad definition may include rocket, water jet, and hybrid propulsion, the term jet engine typically refers to an internal combustion air-breathing jet engine such as ... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
the government in his invention, and development continued at a slow pace.
In Spain, pilot and engineer Virgilio Leret Ruiz was granted a patent for a jet engine design in March 1935. Republican president Manuel Azaña arranged for initial construction at the Hispano-Suiza aircraft factory in Madrid in 1936, but Leret... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
== Uses ==
Jet engines power jet aircraft, cruise missiles and unmanned aerial vehicles. In the form of rocket engines they power model rocketry, spaceflight, and military missiles.
Jet engines have propelled high speed cars, particularly drag racers, with the all-time record held by a rocket car. A turbofan powered ... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
similar to gas turbine engines in so far as they both use the Brayton cycle. Gas turbine and ram compression engines differ, however, in how they compress the incoming airflow. Whereas gas turbine engines use axial or centrifugal compressors to compress incoming air, ram engines rely only on air compressed in the inle... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
I
sp,vac
{\displaystyle I_{\text{sp,vac}}}
is the specific impulse,
g
0
{\displaystyle g_{0}}
is a standard gravity,
... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
and flight speed this is seldom the case. Also at supersonic speeds the divergent area is less than required to give complete internal expansion to ambient pressure as a trade-off with external body drag. Whitford gives the F-16 as an example. Other underexpanded examples were the XB-70 and SR-71.
The nozzle size, tog... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
η
c
o
m
b
u
s
t
i
o
n
{\displaystyle \eta _{combustion}}
and
η
t
... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
η
o
=
η
p
η
t
h
{\displaystyle \eta _{o}=\eta _{p}\eta _{th}}
.
The
... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
o
=
η
p
η
t
h
η
T
{\displaystyle \eta _{o}=\eta _{p}\eta _{th... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
h
{\displaystyle \eta _{o}=\eta _{p}\eta _{th}}
for all jet engines the propulsive efficiency is highest as the exhaust jet velocity gets closer to the vehicle speed as this gives the smallest residual kinetic energy. For an airbreathing engine an exhaust velocity equa... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
(
v
v
e
)
1
+
... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
ant consumption in jet engines is measured by specific fuel consumption, specific impulse, or effective exhaust velocity. They all measure the same thing. Specific impulse and effective exhaust velocity are strictly proportional, whereas specific fuel consumption is inversely proportional to the others.
For air-breathi... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
h
e
−
m
˙
o
v
o
+
... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
have no particular speed limit.
=== Noise ===
The noise emitted by a jet engine has many sources. These include, in the case of gas turbine engines, the fan, compressor, combustor, turbine and propelling jet/s.
The propelling jet produces jet noise which is caused by the violent mixing action of the high speed jet w... | aerospace_engineering | 772 |
The RQ-3 DarkStar (known as Tier III- or "Tier three minus" during development) is an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). Its first flight was on March 29, 1996. The Department of Defense terminated DarkStar in January 1999, after determining the UAV was not aerodynamically stable and was not meeting cost and performance o... | aerospace_engineering | 901 |
Free-space optical communication (FSO) is an optical communication technology that uses light propagating in free space to wirelessly transmit data for telecommunications or computer networking over long distances. "Free space" means air, outer space, vacuum, or something similar. This contrasts with using solids such ... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
to FSO communications and field a system with a better quality of service. DARPA has sponsored over US$130 million in research toward this effort, with the ORCA and ORCLE programs.
Other non-government groups are fielding tests to evaluate different technologies that some claim have the ability to address key FSO adop... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
operational users is the Integrated LCRD Low-Earth Orbit User Modem and Amplifier Terminal (ILLUMA-T), on the International Space Station. The terminal will receive high-resolution science data from experiments and instruments on board the space station and then transfer this data to LCRD, which will then transmit it ... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
bit error rates
Immunity to electromagnetic interference
Full-duplex operation
Protocol transparency
Increased security when working with narrow beam(s)
No Fresnel zone necessary
Reference open source implementation
Reduced size, weight, and power consumption compared to RF antennas
=== Range-limiting factors ===
Fo... | aerospace_engineering | 726 |
A gravity assist, gravity assist maneuver, swing-by, or generally a gravitational slingshot in orbital mechanics, is a type of spaceflight flyby which makes use of the relative movement (e.g. orbit around the Sun) and gravity of a planet or other astronomical object to alter the path and speed of a spacecraft, typical... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
ем, кто будет читать, чтобы строить"), published in 1938 but dated 1918–1919, Yuri Kondratyuk suggested that a spacecraft traveling between two planets could be accelerated at the beginning and end of its trajectory by using the gravity of the two planets' moons. The portion of his manuscript considering gravity-assist... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
the closest approach is set by the constraint that the trajectory must not intersect the surface. For planets with atmosphere, as a spacecraft gets deep into the atmosphere, the energy lost to drag can exceed that gained from the planet's velocity. (On the other hand, this drag can be used to accomplish a different d... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
of the Sun. Thus, to enter an orbit passing over the poles of the Sun, the spacecraft would have to eliminate the speed it inherited from the Earth's orbit around the Sun and gain the speed needed to orbit the Sun in the pole-to-pole plane. It was achieved by a gravity assist from Jupiter on February 8, 1992.
MESSEN... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
orbits about 60° ahead of Jupiter), where it will fly by four Trojans, 3548 Eurybates (with its satellite), 15094 Polymele, 11351 Leucus, and 21900 Orus. After these flybys, Lucy will return to Earth in 2031 for another gravity assist toward the L5 Trojan cloud (the Trojan camp which trails about 60° behind Jupiter), ... | aerospace_engineering | 470 |
The Antonov An-22 "Antei" (Russian: Ан-22 Антей, romanized: An-22 Antey; lit. 'Antaeus'; NATO reporting name: "Cock") is a heavy military transport aircraft designed by the Antonov Design Bureau in the Soviet Union. Powered by four turboprop engines, each driving a pair of contra-rotating propellers, the design was the... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
wing centre sections or outer wings of Antonov An-124 or An-225 externally above fuselage. Fitted with third centreline fin.
Several other An-22 variants were projected and constructed by Antonov but never entered serial production, notably a nuclear-powered aircraft and a ballistic missile platform.
== Operational ... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
-5-13
Empty weight: 114,000 kg (251,327 lb)
Max takeoff weight: 250,000 kg (551,156 lb)
Fuel capacity: 43,000 kg (94,799 lb) maximum
Powerplant: 4 × Kuznetsov NK-12MA turboprop engines, 11,000 kW (15,000 shp) each (equivalent)
Propellers: 8-bladed contra-rotating constant-speed reversible-pitch propeller
Performance
... | aerospace_engineering | 830 |
Hang gliding is an air sport or recreational activity in which a pilot flies a light, non-motorised, fixed-wing heavier-than-air aircraft called a hang glider. Most modern hang gliders are made of an aluminium alloy or composite frame covered with synthetic sailcloth to form a wing. Typically the pilot is in a harness ... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
generally results in stiffer and less responsive handling, and polyester laminated fabrics are generally not as durable or long-lasting as the woven fabrics.
=== Triangle control frame ===
In most hang gliders, the pilot is ensconced in a harness suspended from the airframe, and exercises control by shifting body we... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
, tow-launching from a ground-based tow system, aerotowing (behind a powered aircraft), powered harnesses, and being towed up by a boat. Modern winch tows typically utilize hydraulic systems designed to regulate line tension, this reduces scenarios for lock out as strong aerodynamic forces will result in additional rop... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
results from the convergence of air masses, as with a sea-breeze front. More exotic forms of lift are the polar vortices which the Perlan Project hopes to use to soar to great altitudes. A rare phenomenon known as Morning Glory has also been used by glider pilots in Australia.
== Performance ==
With each generation... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
frame of the glider or occasionally strapped to the pilot's forearm.
=== Variometer ===
Gliding pilots are able to sense the acceleration forces when they first hit a thermal, but have difficulty gauging constant motion. Thus it is difficult to detect the difference between constantly rising air and constantly sink... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
-hill skiing.
=== Classes ===
For competitive purposes, there are three classes of hang glider:
Class 1 The flexible wing hang glider, having flight controlled by virtue of the shifted weight of the pilot. This is not a paraglider. Class 1 hang gliders sold in the United States are usually rated by the Hang Gliders... | aerospace_engineering | 771 |
Standard temperature and pressure (STP) or standard conditions for temperature and pressure are various standard sets of conditions for experimental measurements used to allow comparisons to be made between different sets of data. The most used standards are those of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistr... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
, density, and speed of sound at each altitude. At standard mean sea level it specifies a temperature of 15 °C (59 °F), pressure of 101,325 pascals (14.6959 psi) (1 atm), and a density of 1.2250 kilograms per cubic meter (0.07647 lb/cu ft). It also specifies a temperature lapse rate of −6.5 °C (−11.7 °F) per km (approx... | aerospace_engineering | 963 |
National missile defense (NMD) refers to the nationwide antimissile program the United States has had under development since the 1990s. After the renaming in 2002, the term now refers to the entire program, not just the ground-based interceptors and associated facilities.
Other elements that could potentially be inte... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
was canceled in 1968.
=== Sentinel Program ===
In 1967, U.S. Defense Secretary Robert McNamara announced the Sentinel Program, providing a defense against attack for most of the continental United States. The system consisted of a long range Spartan missile, the short range Sprint missile, and associated radar and ... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
sophisticated command and control systems. Unlike the previous Sentinel program, the goal was to totally defend against a robust, all out nuclear attack by the USSR.
A partisan debate ensued in Congress, with Democrats questioning the feasibility and strategic wisdom of such a program, while Republicans talked about i... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
(DDG-75) were upgraded. USS Cole (DDG-67), USS McFaul (DDG-74) and USS Porter (DDG-78) were to be upgraded in fiscal 2013. The goal of the program was to have 21 ships upgraded by the end of 2010; 24 in 2012; and 27 around 2013.
All ships equipped with the Aegis combat system possess the SM-2 surface-to-air missile wh... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
X-Band radar provides images that can be used to pinpoint rockets in flight.
U.S. official also stated that the U.S. military's Central Command, which is overseeing the buildup to counter Iran, also wants to deploy the Army's first Terminal High Altitude Area Defense missile-interceptor system, known as THAAD, to the ... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
United States announced that the US military will station a powerful radar and a space telescope in Australia as part of its strategic shift towards Asia. "It will give us visibility into things that are leaving the atmosphere, entering the atmosphere, really all throughout Asia", including China's rocket and missile ... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
malfunctioning American spy satellite.
The Ustka-Wicko base (54.553748°N 16.620255°E / 54.553748; 16.620255) of the Polish Army was mentioned as a possible site of US missile interceptors. Russia objected; its suspension of the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe may be related.
Russia threatened to place s... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
kill vehicle's ability to detect them.
In April 2004, a General Accounting Office report concluded that "MDA does not explain some critical assumptions—such as an enemy’s type and number of decoys—underlying its performance goals." It recommended that "DOD carry out independent, operationally realistic testing of ea... | aerospace_engineering | 963 |
A geostationary orbit, also referred to as a geosynchronous equatorial orbit (GEO), is a circular geosynchronous orbit 35,786 km (22,236 mi) in altitude above Earth's equator, 42,164 km (26,199 mi) in radius from Earth's center, and following the direction of Earth's rotation.
An object in such an orbit has an orbital ... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
Uses ==
Most commercial communications satellites, broadcast satellites and SBAS satellites operate in geostationary orbits.
=== Communications ===
Geostationary communication satellites are useful because they are visible from a large area of the earth's surface, extending 81° away in latitude and 77° in longitude... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
ostationary orbit must all occupy a single ring above the equator. The requirement to space these satellites apart, to avoid harmful radio-frequency interference during operations, means that there are a limited number of orbital slots available, and thus only a limited number of satellites can be operated in geostatio... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
{\displaystyle T=2\pi {\sqrt {a^{3} \over \mu }}}
where:
a is the length of the orbit's semi-major axis
μ is the standard gravitational parameter of the central body
=== Eccentricity ===
The eccentricity is zero, which produces a circular orbit. This ensures that the satellite does not move close... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
m
s
r
2
{\displaystyle F_{\text{g}}=G{\frac {M_{\text{E}}m_... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
m
s
v
2
r
=
G
M
... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
2
π
r
T
)
2
=
G
M
E
... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
{\displaystyle r={\sqrt[{3}]{\frac {GM_{\text{E}}T^{2}}{4\pi ^{2}}}}}
The product GME is known with much greater precision than either factor alone; it is known as the geocentric gravitational constant μ = 398600.4418±0.0008 km3 s−2. Hence
r
=
... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
References ==
This article incorporates public domain material from Federal Standard 1037C. General Services Administration. Archived from the original on January 22, 2022. (in support of MIL-STD-188).
== External links ==
How to get a satellite to geostationary orbit
Orbital Mechanics (Rocket and Space Technology... | aerospace_engineering | 141 |
The World Geodetic System (WGS) is a standard used in cartography, geodesy, and satellite navigation including GPS. The current version, WGS 84, defines an Earth-centered, Earth-fixed coordinate system and a geodetic datum, and also describes the associated Earth Gravitational Model (EGM) and World Magnetic Model (WMM)... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
, results from the extension of triangulation and trilateration networks, and large amounts of Doppler and optical satellite data had become available since the development of WGS 60. Using the additional data and improved techniques, WGS 66 was produced which served DoD needs for about five years after its implementat... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
orientation stations were included in the various solutions. Based on these results and other related studies accomplished by the committee, an a-value of 6378135 m and a flattening of 1/298.26 were adopted.
In the development of local-to WGS 72 datum shifts, results from different geodetic disciplines were investigat... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
updated to use the reference frame G2296, which was released on 7 January 2024 as an update to G2139, now aligned to both the ITRF2020, the most recent ITRF realization, and the IGS20, the frame used by the International GNSS Service (IGS). G2139 was aligned with the IGb14 realization of the International Terrestrial ... | aerospace_engineering | 450 |
Hawker Pacific Aerospace (HPA) is an aircraft maintenance company which offers landing gear and hydraulic maintenance, repair and overhaul services for all major aircraft types, including all current Airbus, Boeing, Bombardier and Embraer models, as well as helicopters.
Lufthansa Technik (LHT), a subsidiary of Lufthan... | aerospace_engineering | 391 |
Aluminium (the Commonwealth and preferred IUPAC name) or aluminum (the North American name) is a chemical element; it has symbol Al and atomic number 13. It has a density lower than other common metals, about one-third that of steel. Aluminium has a great affinity towards oxygen, forming a protective layer of oxide on ... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
4-coordinated atom or 53.5 pm for a 6-coordinated atom. At standard temperature and pressure, aluminium atoms (when not affected by atoms of other elements) form a face-centered cubic crystal system bound by metallic bonding provided by atoms' outermost electrons; hence aluminium (at these conditions) is a metal. This... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
reaction. A fine powder of aluminium reacts explosively on contact with liquid oxygen; under normal conditions, however, aluminium forms a thin oxide layer (~5 nm at room temperature) that protects the metal from further corrosion by oxygen, water, or dilute acid, a process termed passivation. Aluminium is not attacke... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
higher temperatures those increasingly dissociate into trigonal planar AlCl3 monomers similar to the structure of BCl3. Aluminium tribromide and aluminium triiodide form Al2X6 dimers in all three phases and hence do not show such significant changes of properties upon phase change. These materials are prepared by trea... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
O, has been detected in the gas phase after explosion and in stellar absorption spectra. More thoroughly investigated are compounds of the formula R4Al2 which contain an Al–Al bond and where R is a large organic ligand.
=== Organoaluminium compounds and related hydrides ===
A variety of compounds of empirical formul... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
iors of certain volcanoes. Native aluminium has been reported in cold seeps in the northeastern continental slope of the South China Sea. It is possible that these deposits resulted from bacterial reduction of tetrahydroxoaluminate Al(OH)4−.
Although aluminium is a common and widespread element, not all aluminium miner... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
ares. In 1954, production of aluminium surpassed that of copper, historically second in production only to iron, making it the most produced non-ferrous metal. During the mid-20th century, aluminium emerged as a civil engineering material, with building applications in both basic construction and interior finish work, ... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
the start.
The French have used the spelling aluminium from the start. However, in England and Germany Davy's spelling aluminum was initially used; until Wöhler published his account of the Wöhler process in 1827 in which he used the spelling aluminium, which caused that spelling's largely wholesale adoption in Englan... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
to alumina by heating; the excess solution is removed by evaporation, (if needed) purified, and recycled.
=== Hall–Héroult process ===
The conversion of alumina to aluminium is achieved by the Hall–Héroult process. In this energy-intensive process, a solution of alumina in a molten (940 and 970 °C (1,720 and 1,780 ... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
wide range of household items, from cooking utensils to furniture. Low density, good appearance, ease of fabrication, and durability are the key factors of aluminium usage;
Machinery and equipment (processing equipment, pipes, tools). Aluminium is used because of its corrosion resistance, non-pyrophoricity, and mechan... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
in Camelford had their drinking water contaminated with aluminium sulfate for several weeks. A final report into the incident in 2013 concluded it was unlikely that this had caused long-term health problems.
Aluminium has been suspected of being a possible cause of Alzheimer's disease, but research into this for over ... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
. R. (1999). Corrosion of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys. ASM International. ISBN 978-1-61503-238-9.
Dean, J. A. (1999). Lange's handbook of chemistry (15 ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-016384-3. OCLC 40213725.
Drozdov, A. (2007). Aluminium: The Thirteenth Element. RUSAL Library. ISBN 978-5-91523-002-5.
King, R. B. (19... | aerospace_engineering | 478 |
Gerald Vincent Bull (March 9, 1928 – March 22, 1990) was a Canadian engineer who developed long-range artillery. He moved from project to project in his quest to economically launch a satellite using a huge artillery piece, to which end he designed the Project Babylon "supergun" for Saddam Hussein's government in Iraq.... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
pushed harder, and the wind tunnel worked perfectly.
Bull had largely finished his PhD thesis on the same topic in 1950, when a request from the DRB asking that the Institute provide an aerodynamicist to help on their Velvet Glove Missile project arrived. It was to be an unpaid position on which the volunteer would re... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
its performance. Bull then moved on to hypersonics research and the study of infrared and radar cross sections for detection. As the UK's research efforts wound down in the post-war political environment, CARDE's joint UK-Canadian funding was dramatically cut back, with the project eventually being handed over to the ... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
smooth bore. The entire contract, excluding shipping, was only $2,000.
The performance of the gun was so great that the Highwater site was too small to support it. McGill had long been running a meteorological station on Barbados and had close connections with the new Democratic Labour Party (DLP), and suggested that... | aerospace_engineering | 1,024 |
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