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https://www.verywellhealth.com/how-much-does-a-vasectomy-cost-906900
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How Much Does a Vasectomy Cost? Costs can vary, depending on insurance and other factors By Dawn Stacey, PhD, LMHC Updated on September 03, 2025 Medically reviewed by Jamin Brahmbhatt, MD Table of Contents View All Table of Contents Effectiveness Cost Comparing Birth Control Cost Insurance Coverage Cost of Reversal Key Takeaways The average cost of a vasectomy (male sterilization) in the U.S. is about $1,000, but prices can vary based on factors including insurance coverage.As a form of long-term contraception, vasectomy is more than 99% effective at preventing pregnancy and is cheaper than tubal ligation in females.Talk to your healthcare provider about pregnancy prevention, vasectomy, and considerations like the cost of a reversal procedure before planning your procedure. Getting a vasectomy in the United States costs about $1,000 on average. Private insurance companies may cover the cost of a vasectomy, but it is not an essential health benefit under the Affordable Care Act (ACA). As a permanent form of birth control, a vasectomy is more than 99% effective at preventing pregnancy. It can be a cost-effective method of birth control for many people over the long term. This article discusses the cost of a vasectomy. It also explains the procedure, its effectiveness, and other factors to consider before getting a vasectomy. Maskot / Maskot / Getty Images How Effective Is a Vasectomy? A vasectomy (male sterilization) is a permanent birth control method. In the United States, over 500,000 vasectomies are done each year. However, in some parts of the world, the number of people having a vasectomy has dropped significantly since the mid-2000s. One study from the United Kingdom found that the number of vasectomies performed in 2015-2016 was 62.21% lower than it had been a decade earlier. The failure rate for vasectomy is very low. Rates of pregnancy six months after a vasectomy are between 0.04% and 0.08%. The rate can be higher (0.3% to 9%) in under six months. A vasectomy is more than 99.9% effective in preventing pregnancy once a semen analysis shows that sperm is no longer present in a person’s semen. A vasectomy is a surgical procedure that can be done in an outpatient setting (meaning you do not have to be admitted to the hospital). The cost of a vasectomy is less than the cost of tubal ligation (female sterilization). Before you seek a vasectomy, ask your provider about any laws or rules that apply in your state. In some places, there are age restrictions, waiting periods, required counseling, or spousal consent that must be considered before a vasectomy can be done. Factors that Affect the Cost of a Vasectomy The cost of vasectomy will typically cover: Initial consultationThe vasectomy procedure itselfAnesthesia (local or general)Follow-up semen analyses Most healthcare providers or clinics will include all of these costs in one price. Others may charge for each individual service. You’ll want to clarify the cost breakdown with your provider. A semen analysis can be done at home or in the provider’s office to be analyzed for sperm. While doing it at home might be more convenient, you’ll usually have to pay to mail your sample to a lab. In most cases, the cost is the same for both types of vasectomy procedures: the no-scalpel vasectomy (sometimes called keyhole) versus a traditional vasectomy. Vasectomy costs may differ depending on where the procedure is performed. A vasectomy is usually done by a board-certified urologist in a healthcare provider’s office, a clinic (including at Planned Parenthood), or an outpatient surgical facility or hospital. Your vasectomy may cost more if it takes place in an outpatient medical building because they may charge a separate facility fee. Side effects or complications can also add to the cost of a vasectomy. Vasectomy Cost vs. Yearly Costs for Other Birth Control If you’re sure that you want long-term protection against pregnancy, you’ll want to weigh the cost of a vasectomy against the potential costs of not having one. That means looking at how much you’d have to spend on other birth control methods. For example, a lifetime supply of condoms may or may not cost more than a vasectomy—it depends on your preferences and how often you use them. Birth control options like the pill are usually purchased monthly and can be costly if they’re not covered by insurance. The average cost of a vasectomy in the U.S. is $1,000 (according to Medicare). The widely available, traditional scalpel procedure is the least expensive, which can range from a few hundred dollars up to around $1200. The procedure can also cost up to several thousand dollars for less invasive, more sophisticated techniques. Here’s an example of how much different types of birth control could cost a year if you have to pay for them out of pocket compared to the cost of a vasectomy. The average annual cost of different forms of birth control: Birth Control Yearly Cost Comparison Type of Birth Control Annual Average Cost External condoms $52 (+ $75 for spermicide) Internal condoms $531 Contraceptive pills, prescription $1,200 Contraceptive pills, over-the-counter $340 Patches $1,800 Vaginal ring $2,000 IUD $200 Implant $320 When you’re comparing the cost of a vasectomy with other birth control methods, you’ll also want to factor in the potential costs of handling an unplanned pregnancy (which could include the costs of abortion, raising a child, or adoption fees). Does Insurance Cover Vasectomies? Most private health insurance companies will cover vasectomy costs when they are done as an outpatient procedure. Check with your insurance provider first to make sure that they include vasectomy benefits in your plan. Usually, health insurance companies will cover most or all of your vasectomy cost after your yearly deductible has been met. If you qualify, Medicaid or other state programs in your area may also cover the cost of a vasectomy. Some providers or clinics may offer a sliding scale fee if you do not have a health insurance plan. In this case, the cost of a vasectomy will be based on your income level. Make sure you ask about the payment options your provider accepts. You can ask if they can offer you a discount on your vasectomy if you pay in cash or if you could set up a payment plan instead of paying the full cost upfront. The Affordable Care Act (ACA) does not require health insurance plans to cover the cost of vasectomy, as is the case with many forms of birth control. Each health plan will have its own coverage and deductible for the procedure. How Much Are Vasectomy Reversals? Another question to ask yourself is whether you are sure that you want to undergo permanent sterilization. A vasectomy reversal is possible if you change your mind, but it’s expensive and does not always work. The cost to reverse a vasectomy is between $5,000 and $15,000. In addition, most health insurance companies will not cover the procedure. It’s also important to know that the success rate varies greatly when a reversal is done to restore fertility and achieve pregnancy. In general, the more time that passes between a vasectomy and a reversal procedure and the higher the age of the partner who could become pregnant, the lower the chance of achieving pregnancy. Read more: Health A-Z Sexual Health Birth Control Permanent Methods 13 Sources Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read our editorial process to learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy. Medicare.org. Does Medicare cover vasectomy?. Healthcare.gov. Birth control benefits. Zini A, Grantmyre J, Chan P. CUA guideline: vasectomy. Can Urol Assoc J. 2016;10(7-8):E274-E278. doi:10.5489/cuaj.4017 Planned Parenthood. How do I get a tubal ligation?. Ostrowski KA, Holt SK, Haynes B, Davies BJ, Fuchs EF, Walsh TJ. Evaluation of vasectomy trends in the United States. Urology. 2018;118:76-79. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2018.03.016 Wydera S, Wilson A. A 16-year overview of vasectomy and vasectomy reversal in the United Kingdom. AJOG Glob Rep. 2022;2(4):100105. doi:10.1016/j.xagr.2022.100105 Urology Care Foundation. How vasectomy compares to other forms of birth control. Trussell J, Lalla A, Doan QV, Reyes E, Pinto L, Gricar J. Cost effectiveness of contraceptives in the United States. Contraception. 2009;79(1):5-14. doi:10.1016/j.contraception.2008.08.003 GoodRx. The annual cost of birth control. Lee AL. Segesterone acetate and ethinyl estradiol vaginal ring (Annovera) for contraception. Am Fam Physician. 2020;101(10):618-620. Healthcare.gov. Birth control benefits. Vasectomy.com. How much does a vasectomy reversal cost? Patel A, Smith R. Vasectomy reversal: a clinical update. Asian J Androl. 2016;18(3):365-371. doi:10.4103/1008-682X.175091 By Dawn Stacey, PhD, LMHC Dawn Stacey, PhD, LMHC, is a published author, college professor, and mental health consultant with over 15 years of counseling experience. See Our Editorial Process Meet Our Medical Expert Board Share Feedback Was this page helpful? Thanks for your feedback! What is your feedback? Helpful Report an Error Other Submit By clicking “Accept All Cookies”, you agree to the storing of cookies on your device to enhance site navigation, analyze site usage, and assist in our marketing efforts. Cookies Settings Accept All Cookies
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https://www.nbcnews.com/better/pop-culture/your-weird-dreams-actually-make-lot-sense-according-neuroscience-psychology-ncna913436
|
An ax murderer is attacking you. You find yourself in bed with a coworker. You’re walking down a road and suddenly your feet leave the ground and you’re flying.
Our dreams are the Wild West of our minds where rules and order don’t exist.
Or do they?
The scientists who study dreaming say it isn’t really as strange a phenomenon as it might otherwise seem — and even the really weird dreams probably don’t come out of the blue.
The brain thinks, makes memories, and solves problems. It observes new information. It processes that information by determining what’s important, what’s not, and what’s connected to something you already know. And then the brain either stores that information or dumps what’s not useful, explains Robert Stickgold, PhD, Associate Professor of Psychiatry at Harvard Medical School’s Center for Sleep and Cognition, who studies the role of cognition in sleep.
And you can’t do all of that at the same time, he tells NBC News BETTER. “You can’t both think about something and listen to people at the same time.”
Our brains need offline time for processing and learning new things — and they do this during sleep. (And there’s a whole lot of evidence to support the idea that sleep makes learning and memory storing possible.)
And it might be that dreaming plays a role in that process, Stickgold says — “where the brain is trying to solve problems and complete processes that were going on during waking that it — in its waking hours — didn’t complete.”
The dreaming brain can build stories better than a brain that’s awake
There are certain questions that come up for which we plot a potential course of action or think through a future scenario to solve, Stickgold explains.
That’s what our brains can’t do in the background when we’re awake. But that type of narrative construction (building a story) still requires us to be consciously aware, Stickgold says — which is one feature of dreams. We know they’re happening.
“It might be that you need to bring that sleep-dependent memory processing into consciousness to be able to solve those kinds of problems that require the development of a plan or a narrative or a plot,” Stickgold says — that you need to dream to do that kind of thinking .
Several studies show (what nearly everyone has probably experienced on their own) that our waking experiences show up in our dreams. Other research shows that we are more likely to remember something if we dream about it. (Erin Wamsley, PhD, an assistant professor in the Psychology Department at Furman University in Greenville, South Carolina, explains all of those studies in further depth in a review article in a 2014 issue of Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports.)
And more research suggests that dreaming does actually help us problem solve.
A set of experiments conducted by Wamsley’s and Stickgold’s group (when Wamsley was at Harvard) showed that when a group of 99 individuals were given the task of navigating a complex maze, those whose performance on the task improved the most when re-tested after a five-hour period were those individuals given the opportunity to take a nap — and more specifically those who reported dreaming about the maze during that nap — compared to when they were simply awake during that time (even if they reported thinking about the maze during that period of being awake).
And perhaps more interesting still, research that looks at the mechanical changes in the brain during sleep and during dreaming align with this thinking, too.
During dreaming, the visual and emotional processing areas of the brain are active
Researchers have measured brain activity during sleep and during dreaming. “And it does match the psychology in some interesting ways,” says Benjamin Baird, PhD, a researcher at the Center for Sleep and Consciousness at University of Wisconsin-Madison, whose work focuses on understanding the neural mechanisms of consciousness.
Studies going back to the 1990s suggest the amygdala (a part of our brain that plays a role in emotional processing) appear to be very active during dreaming. And more recent work from Baird’s group suggests that areas of the brain known to be involved in visual processing (the regions that appear to allow us to register colors, motion, and faces) are active during dreaming.
On the flip side, other parts of the brain (the frontal and prefrontal cortices, which are involved with our ability to plan, think through things and apply logic and order) are less active during dreaming compared with other parts of sleep and wakefulness (that research also goes back to the late 1990s). “That doesn’t mean they’re totally off, but it means activity is suppressed to a very large extent,” Baird says.
All of that seems to fit our understanding of dreaming, Baird says — that we are visually and emotionally processing things, but certain executive processing functions (like being able to plan out the future or weigh the past against a present scenario) don’t really happen during dreaming.
The big caveat, however, is that nearly all of those studies have come to those conclusions using rapid eye movement (REM) sleep to measure dream sleep, Baird says — “which is a big (and actually a wrongful) assumption.”
We dream in the non-REM stages of sleep as well as in the REM stages of sleep, and we spend some of our time in REM sleep not dreaming.
But, Baird adds, REM sleep can be useful for approximating what’s happening during dreaming because it’s during REM sleep that we tend to have the most vivid, story-like dreams. And data suggests that we spend the vast majority of our time in REM sleep (as much as 95 percent of it, according to research from Baird and his colleagues published in 2017 in the journal Nature Neuroscience) dreaming.
“So looking at the brain during REM sleep can still give us some clues about what’s happening,” Baird says.
And it’s not actually that difficult to understand that when this type of brain activity happens, we dream, he adds.
“What the brain is doing at all times is trying to construct a model of the world around us from the best input it has,” Baird says. When we’re awake the input comes from our environment (what we see, taste, smell, hear, and feel). But when we’re asleep, it may be trying to do the same thing — but the input comes from within.
“During sleep — and particularly during REM sleep when the brain is becoming activated again — the brain tries to do what it always does: it tries to construct a reasonable model of the world,” he says.
So, why do we dream the truly wacky dreams?
But some dreams are very far from reasonable. Some dreams are really weird.
Even the really weird dreams may just be part of the brain’s process of elimination-approach to problem solving, according to Stickgold.
A lot of memory processing happens during sleep, he says. The brain is filing away new memories, deciding which ones to store and which ones not to. If we presume the brain is indeed problem solving during dreaming, it’s going to look through all of those files (sometimes the ones you just put there and sometimes the really old, dusty ones from a while back) and try to find something useful.
“Your brain is looking for associated memories that are relevant to recent events,” Stickgold explains.
And remember the emotional centers of the brain are more active during REM, and the parts responsible for logical thinking are less active. So it would make sense that the memories the brain uses during dreaming may be the more emotionally charged ones, and ones that may not fit the logical narrative.
This is when your brain is trying the out-of-the-box solutions, Stickgold says. It’s not necessarily looking for something reliable that works every time.
“The brain is acting like a venture capitalist,” he says. It’s intentionally throwing a lot of spaghetti against the wall to see what sticks, knowing that some of it won’t.
MORE "THIS IS YOUR BRAIN ON"
- What the beach does to your brain
- Your brain on a diet
- Smiling can trick your brain into happiness (and boost your health)
- Your brain on prayer and meditiation
- The science behind being 'hangry'
Want more tips like these? NBC News BETTER is obsessed with finding easier, healthier and smarter ways to live. Sign up for our newsletter.
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https://www.health.com/condition/acne/stress-acne
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How To Get Rid of Stress Pimples By Colleen Murphy Colleen Murphy Colleen Murphy is a senior editor at Health. She has extensive experience with interviewing healthcare providers, deciphering medical research, and writing and editing health articles in an easy-to-understand way so that readers can make informed decisions about their health. health's editorial guidelines Updated on October 12, 2025 Medically reviewed by Susan Bard, MD Medically reviewed by Susan Bard, MD Susan Bard, MD, is a board-certified general and procedural dermatologist with the American Board of Dermatology and a Fellow of the American College of Mohs Surgery. learn more Close Arisara_Tongdonnoi / Getty Images Stress management and acne treatments can help reduce stress pimples.Cortisol and androgen production in response to stress can worsen acne.Cleaning your skin gently and removing makeup can help prevent acne. Stress acne causes breakouts due to increased cortisol and androgen production. You can manage stress and use skincare products to help clear pimples. Symptoms of Stress Pimples Research hasn't identified stress acne as appearing any differently than regular acne. It has the potential to look like: Blackheads: A type of breakout with widened pores due to oil or dead skin building up, making a black spot because of oxygen reacting with the buildup Nodules or cysts: Breakouts with deep skin swelling as the result of oil, dead skin, and bacteria buildup Papules: Blemishes that appear as small, red bumps due to bacteria, dead skin cells, and oil going further into the skin Pimples: Breakouts that lead to swelling in the skin where bacteria has accumulated in a pore Pustules: A breakout similar to papules, where blemishes contain a yellow or white center and yellowish fluid Whiteheads: A type of breakout where raised, white or flesh-colored blemishes form due to oil and dead skin buildup In addition, stress acne is a flare or worsening of preexisting acne in response to a psychological stressor, Allison K. Truong, MD, an American Academy of Dermatology (AAD) fellow and dermatologist at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles, told Health. For instance, if someone typically only has one or two pimples, they might suddenly have 10, 20, or 30 pimples during a stressful time. Does Stress Cause Acne? Stress isn't an actual cause of acne, though there's a link between acne severity and stress. One review, which analyzed several acne studies, found that emotional stress worsens acne for 50% to 80% of people. Angela Lamb, MD, associate professor of dermatology at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai in New York, told Health that people with more acne-prone skin, such as people who have larger pores or tend to have more oily skin, are a bit more sensitive to stress acne. Some researchers have proposed a few theories as to why the link between stress and acne exists. For example, an increase in specific hormones is one of the most widely agreed-upon causes. One of those hormones is cortisol, the "fight-or-flight" hormone. Bodies also increase androgen (male sex hormone) production in response to stress. These hormones stimulate the skin oil glands and hair follicles, resulting in acne. Other Acne Causes The exact cause of acne remains unknown, but you may end up with acne as a result of the following things happening in your pores: Bacterial growthDead skin buildupExcess or high oil production How To Treat Stress Pimples Recognizing if and when stress is contributing to acne development is important for managing it. Of course, the first step to getting rid of acne is to try to destress. You can achieve this by trying stress-relieving activities such as: Doing breathing exercisesGetting enough sleepListening to musicMeditatingReadingTrying yoga or tai chiWalking Other treatments vary from person to person. For instance, someone with mild acne who wants something a little stronger may try some of the following cleansers: Benzoyl peroxide Glycolic acid Salicylic acid Another person with mild acne may use a gentle cleanser with a topical antibiotic regimen, such as topical azelaic acid, dapsone, or clindamycin. In that case, Dr. Truong recommended adding a low topical retinoid, such as an over-the-counter (OTC) adapalene gel (like Differin) or a prescription tretinoin cream. The treatment approach could also depend on how quickly someone wants their acne to clear up. Regardless of what products you use to manage acne, Dr. Truong said that "the most important thing is you have to treat the cause. And that would be treating the stress—if there is a way that we could do that." Prevention Though it may not always be possible, you may be able to prevent stress pimples by avoiding or limiting your stress. Whether your breakouts are related to stress or not, you can also do the following to help prevent and manage acne in general: Clean your skin gently, which includes not scrubbing it and using a soap that doesn't dry your skin out. Keep your hair out of your face and limit how much you touch your face. Limit any pimple-picking, rubbing, scratching, or squeezing. Remove any dirt or makeup on your face, especially before going to sleep at night. Stick to your acne treatment plan. Wash your face up to twice daily and always after exercising. Other Skin Conditions Triggered by Stress Stress can also trigger or worsen other skin conditions, including: Atopic dermatitis: A subtype of eczema, a skin disorder characterized by itchy, scaly rashesPsoriasis: A condition that results in irritated skin that may be red and have whitish-silver scalesRosacea: A skin disorder where a person's face may turn red or have swelling and acne-like sores When To Contact a Healthcare Provider You'll want to contact a healthcare provider or dermatologist if you: Develop scarring when your acne is resolvingExperience stress because of your acneHave acne that gets worse or is painfulHave treated your acne with self-care or over-the-counter medications, and they are not working or no longer work See a healthcare provider if you have sudden breakouts but are unsure of the cause. A sudden breakout could also be due to an infection or rash. For instance, your acne may be due to folliculitis or allergic contact dermatitis. Folliculitis is a bacterial or fungal infection of the hair follicles, while allergic contact dermatitis is a rash from an allergy. Follow us to see more of our stories on Google. Follow Us On It may also be helpful to see a mental health professional if you find your acne is due to stress. They can provide you with guidance regarding stress relief or stress management techniques. Read more: Wellness Skincare Acne Was this page helpful? Thanks for your feedback! Tell us why! Other Submit 14 Sources Health.com uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read our editorial process to learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy. American Academy of Dermatology. Acne: signs and symptoms. American Academy of Dermatology. How to treat different types of acne. Jović A, Marinović B, Kostović K, Čeović R, Basta-Juzbašić A, Bukvić Mokos Z. The impact of pyschological stress on acne. Acta Dermatovenerol Croat. 2017;25(2):1133-1141. Zari S, Alrahmani D. The association between stress and acne among female medical students in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Clin Cosmet Investig Dermatol. 2017;10:503-506. American Academy of Dermatology. Adult acne. National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases. Acne - overview, symptoms, & causes. MedlinePlus. Acne - also called: pimples, zits. MedlinePlus. Learn to manage stress. American Academy of Dermatology. Feeling stressed? It can show in your skin, hair, and nails. American Academy of Dermatology. Acne: diagnosis and treatment. MedlinePlus. Acne - self care. MedlinePlus. Atopic dermatitis. MedlinePlus. Psoriasis. MedlinePlus. Rosacea.
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https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/rhubarb
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Rhubarb is a good source of antioxidants, vitamin K, and fiber. It’s also rich in calcium oxalate, so if you’re prone to kidney stones, it might be best to avoid. More importantly, the leaves are toxic and should never be eaten.
Rhubarb is a vegetable known for its reddish stalks and sour taste.
In Europe and North America, it’s cooked and often sweetened. In Asia, its roots are used medicinally.
This article provides a detailed overview of rhubarb, including its uses and potential health benefits.
Rhubarb is renowned for its sour taste and thick stalks, which are usually cooked with sugar.
The stalks range in color from red to pink to pale green and have a consistency that’s similar to celery.
This vegetable requires cold winters to grow. As a result, it’s mainly found in mountainous and temperate regions around the world, especially in Northeast Asia. It’s also a common garden plant in North America and Northern Europe.
Several varieties and species exist. In the West, the most common variety is called culinary or garden rhubarb (Rheum x hybridum).
Rhubarb is an unusual vegetable because it’s very sour and slightly sweet.
In fact, it’s easily mistaken for a fruit. Adding to the confusion, rhubarb is officially classified as a fruit by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA).
Due to its sour taste, it’s rarely eaten raw. Instead, it’s normally cooked — either sweetened with sugar or used as an ingredient.
It wasn’t until the 18th century, when sugar became cheap and readily available, that rhubarb became a popular food.
Before that, it was mainly used medicinally. In fact, its dried roots have been utilized in traditional Chinese medicine for thousands of years.
Only the stalks are eaten, most commonly in sweet soups, jams, sauces, pies, tarts, crumbles, cocktails, and rhubarb wine.
As sweet rhubarb pies are a traditional dessert in the United Kingdom and North America, this vegetable is sometimes called “pie plant.”
Rhubarb is not especially rich in essential nutrients, and its calorie content is low.
However, it is a very good source of vitamin K1, providing around
Like other fruits and vegetables, it’s also high in fiber, providing similar amounts as oranges, apples, or celery.
A 3.5-ounce (100-gram) serving of cooked rhubarb with added sugar
- Calories: 116
- Carbs: 31.2 grams
- Fiber: 2 grams
- Protein: 0.4 grams
- Vitamin K1: 18% of the DV
- Calcium: 11% of the DV
- Vitamin C: 4% of the DV
- Potassium: 2% of the DV
- Folate: 1% of the DV
Although there are decent amounts of calcium in rhubarb, it’s mainly in the form of the antinutrient calcium oxalate. In this form, your body can’t absorb it efficiently.
It is also moderately high in vitamin C, boasting 4% of the DV in a 3.5-ounce (100-gram) serving.
Studies on the health benefits of rhubarb are limited.
However, a few studies have examined the effects of isolated rhubarb stalk components, such as its fiber.
May lower cholesterol levels
A
Rhubarb stalks are also a good source of fiber, which may affect your cholesterol. This beneficial effect is not exclusive to rhubarb fiber. Many other fiber sources are equally effective.
Provides antioxidants
Rhubarb is also a rich source of antioxidants.
One
The antioxidants in rhubarb include anthocyanins, which are responsible for its red color and thought to provide health benefits. Rhubarb is also high in proanthocyanidins, also known as condensed tannins.
These antioxidants may be responsible for some of the health benefits of fruits, red wine, and cocoa.
Rhubarb is probably the most sour-tasting vegetable you can find.
Its acidity is mainly due to its high levels of malic and oxalic acid. Malic acid is one of the most abundant acids in plants and contributes to the sour taste of many fruits and vegetables.
Interestingly, growing rhubarb in darkness makes it less sour and more tender. This variety is known as forced rhubarb, which is grown in spring or late winter.
Rhubarb is among the richest dietary sources of calcium oxalate, the most common form of oxalic acid in plants.
In fact, according to folk tradition, rhubarb should not be harvested past late June, as oxalic acid levels are said to rise from spring to summer.
This substance is particularly abundant in the leaves, but the stalks may also contain high amounts, depending on the variety.
Too much calcium oxalate can lead to hyperoxaluria, a serious condition characterized by the accumulation of calcium oxalate crystals in various organs.
These crystals may form kidney stones. Sustained hyperoxaluria
Not everyone responds to dietary oxalate in the same way. Some people are genetically predisposed to health problems associated with oxalates.
Vitamin B6 deficiency and high vitamin C intake may also increase your risk.
Additionally, growing evidence suggests this problem is worse for those who lack certain beneficial gut bacteria. Interestingly, some gut bacteria, such as Oxalobacter formigenes,
Although reports of rhubarb poisoning are rare, make sure you consume it in moderation and avoid the leaves. What’s more, cooking your rhubarb may reduce its oxalate content by 65.9% to 74.5%.
Rhubarb can be eaten in a number of ways. It is usually used in jams and desserts, which contain plenty of added sugar. Make sure to cut off the tops and bottoms of the stalks and discard the leaves before cooking.
That said, it’s easy to use in low-sugar recipes — or even cooked with no sugar at all.
A few creative ideas include rhubarb salad and healthy rhubarb crumble. You can also add this vegetable or its jam to your morning oatmeal.
Try this rhubarb crisp recipe.
Rhubarb is a unique vegetable that people use in cooking and baking.
Since it may be high in oxalate, you should avoid eating too much of it and try to select stalks from low-oxalate varieties. If you are prone to kidney stones, it might be best to avoid rhubarb altogether.
On the bright side, rhubarb is a good source of antioxidants, vitamin K, and fiber.
Additionally, its sour taste makes it a perfect ingredient in jams, crumbles, pies, and other desserts.
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The internet is full of “miracle cures” for cancer and alleged surefire ways to prevent it, and well-meaning people may urge cancer patients to just try them out in hopes of eliminating their disease. Some patients, worried that conventional treatments won’t work or pose significant side effects, seek a treatment whose effectiveness isn’t actually supported by scientific evidence or may even prove dangerous. During a time of uncertainty and anxiety, it’s understandable that any hope for a cure — even if it isn’t medically proven — is tempting.
“Amid the growing preference for natural products to bolster general health, patients often confront a myriad of misinformation,” explains Jason Hou, a pharmacist and herbalist at Memorial Sloan Kettering. “Despite this, they seek natural remedies to combat or prevent cancer recurrence. Often, advocates of such products lack medical or oncological expertise.” Dr. Hou is especially concerned when patients delay conventional treatment to explore such therapies. “They may later don’t discover, when they do seek out conventional treatment, that their cancer has already metastasized.”
Dr. Hou manages both the About Herbs database, and the Herbal Oncology Program (HOP), created and maintained by MSK’s Integrative Medicine Service. The service provides complementary therapies such as acupuncture, music therapy, and massage that are used in addition to — not as alternatives to — standard cancer treatments including chemotherapy, radiation, and surgery.
Here, Dr. Hou explains the hype and the scientific evidence surrounding four highly publicized but unproven therapies: Cannabis oil, castor oil, Laetrile, and a pH-manipulation (also known as alkaline) diet.
Cannabis Oil
The hype: Cannabis oil is often heralded as a treatment to destroy or shrink cancerous tumors, as well as a cure for diabetes, ulcers, arthritis, migraines, insomnia, infections, and many other diseases. Also called marijuana oil or hemp oil, it’s extracted from marijuana plants, often with higher proportion of a compound known as CBD (cannabidiol), which has less of a psychoactive effect than the more-famous THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) compound that gets marijuana users high.
Cannabis oil is available in several forms with different potencies. It can be infused into cooking oil that users squirt under the tongue or mix into food. Its vapors can also be inhaled. By federal law, cannabis products are illegal, though several states have enacted laws to legalize their medical use.
The evidence: While commercially available cannabis compounds are FDA-approved to reduce cancer treatment–related side effects such as nausea and vomiting and to improve appetite, no clinical trials have shown that cannabis products can treat cancer.
Claims that cannabis oil cures cancer are anecdotal and largely unsupportable, based on scant research done in mice and in labs. Side effects can include memory and attention loss. Perhaps most important, there is evidence that cannabis compounds may inhibit enzymes that patients need to metabolize other anticancer drugs, thereby increasing their toxicity or reducing their effectiveness.
The verdict: “Thus far, there haven’t been any human studies demonstrating that cannabis oil can effectively treat cancer,” Dr. Hou explains. “If patients are using it, or any other form of cannabis, it’s important to inform their doctors so they can provide appropriate guidance.” According to a 2024 American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) guideline, “Clinicians should recommend against using cannabis or cannabinoids as a cancer-directed treatment unless within the context of a clinical trial.”
Castor Oil
The hype: Castor oil has been recently promoted as a cancer cure over the Internet and social media, particularly on TikTok with claims that it can treat breast cancer by topical application. Recently, we began receiving requests for information about the benefits of castor oil.
The evidence: There is no evidence that castor oil can fight cancer. This underscores the importance of About Herbs in providing trustworthy information while helping to debunk false claims, especially given how easily they get shared and amplified on social media.
The verdict: “We consistently warn patients that ‘natural doesn’t always mean safe.” Dr. Hou explains. “But with social media emerging as a means of disseminating information, we should add that videos that go viral, should not always be trusted!”
Laetrile
The hype: Laetrile, first popularized as a cancer therapy in Russia and the United States more than a century ago, is the trade name for a purified form of amygdalin, an extract derived from apricot pits and some nuts and plants. Intestinal enzymes break down Laetrile to produce cyanide, which proponents claim kills cancer cells and leaves normal tissue unharmed. Some also claim that Laetrile is actually a vitamin called B-17 and that deficiencies can cause certain cancers. Banned in the United States, an oral form of Laetrile is available in other countries.
The evidence: Laetrile indeed breaks down into cyanide, but the poison doesn’t just selectively strike cancer cells — it can sicken or kill patients as well. Clinical studies done in the 1970s and 1980s, including those sponsored by the National Institutes of Health, indicated that Laetrile didn’t reduce malignant tumors’ size or growth, but some patients experienced cyanide poisoning.
The verdict: “Laetrile hasn’t been shown to combat cancer and can pose the risk of cyanide poisoning,” Dr. Hou emphasizes. “If amygdalin is ever considered for use in an anticancer medication, it would need to be in a modified form, as the oral version is toxic to normal human cells and too hazardous for use.”
Manipulating pH Levels through Diet
The hype: Based on the scientific observation that cancer cells thrive in an acidic environment — meaning low pH levels — some people contend that highly “acidic” foods such as meat, cheese, and grain products raise the risk of cancer by reducing pH levels in the blood. They claim that eating “alkaline” foods such as fruit, green vegetables, and other plant-based products discourages the growth of cancer cells by raising blood pH levels and tout the benefits of the alkaline diet (also known as the alkaline ash diet or alkaline acid diet).
The evidence: Cancer cells create an acidic microenvironment due to a high metabolic rate. Cancer cells can’t live in a highly alkaline environment, but neither can healthy cells. Your body works to keep pH levels constant, and changing your diet is not going to substantially change the pH levels of your blood, which are tightly regulated by the kidneys and lungs regardless of foods consumed.
The pH of bodily fluids, such as saliva and urine, does change temporarily depending on the foods you eat, but that doesn’t affect blood pH levels (or, hence, the environment of cancer cells in the body). In fact, any significant deviation in blood pH levels can cause serious, even life-threatening conditions known as acidosis (low pH) or alkalosis (high pH)
The verdict: “There is no evidence to support the notion that altering your diet can alter blood pH levels, let alone impact cancer growth,” Dr. Hou states. “The science behind this has been misconstrued. Modifying the pH of your saliva doesn’t influence the pH of your blood. Some patients may attempt to adjust their blood pH using chemicals, but this can pose serious risks.”
The Bottom Line
“Natural” cancer therapies should be regarded with great caution because most are unsupported by evidence. Many people offering testimonials to the effectiveness of such treatments may attribute benefits to them simply because their condition improved after using them — when the actual cause for the improvement is unrelated.
The good news is that mainstream cancer therapies are safer and more effective than ever. New chemotherapies work better with fewer side effects, and novel drugs target specific mutations in cancer cells to minimize harm to healthy cells. Highly precise forms of radiation therapy destroy tumors while sparing normal tissue. New approaches harness the body’s own immune powers to destroy cancer cells. And new surgical techniques are making it possible to remove tumors more safely while minimizing both risk of recurrence and recovery times.
If you’re considering using a complementary therapy in addition to your traditional cancer treatments, always check with a reputable source such as our About Herbs database or the National Cancer Institute, and always tell your doctor.
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Should You Keep a Russian Red Fox as a Pet? Characteristics, Housing, Diet, and Other Information By Adrienne Kruzer Adrienne Kruzer Adrienne Kruzer is a veterinary technician with more than 15 years of experience providing healthcare to domestic and exotic animals. She is trained as a Fear Free Certified Professional to prevent and alleviate fear, anxiety, and stress in pets. Learn more about The Spruce Pets' Editorial Process Updated on 09/25/25 Credit: James Warwick / Stone / Getty Images In This Article Expand Is it OK to Own a Russian Red Fox? Behavior and Temperament Housing Diet Vet Care Purchasing Similar Pets and Breeds Key Takeaways The Russian red fox is a unique, selectively bred domesticated fox, suitable for pet ownership under specific conditions.Owning a Russian red fox requires a significant commitment in terms of legality, care, and financial investment.Russian red foxes need ample exercise, mental stimulation, and a carefully controlled diet. The tame Russian red fox is the only domesticated breed of fox, developed through selective breeding experiments conducted in Russia. These foxes behave similarly to dogs and can make wonderful pets for those who can afford to buy and care for them, as they tend to be expensive. Curious, intelligent, and animated, a red fox requires attentive supervision to keep it out of trouble, but its cuddles and companionship may make the challenge worthwhile. Foxes can live in your home like a dog, but they will require an enclosure for unsupervised periods. They also need daily outdoor time for exercise. Foxes do not require a specialized diet; high-quality dog food works well, with supplementary fruits and vegetables. Grooming foxes can be one of the most demanding aspects of ownership because their long coats require frequent brushing, especially during shedding seasons. Species Overview Common Names: Russian red fox, Siberian foxScientific Name: Vulpes vulpesAdult Size: About 30 to 50 inches (head to tail); up to 30 poundsLifespan: Up to 14 years in captivity Can You Own a Pet Russian Red Fox? Legality Before buying or adopting a fox, it's important to determine whether or not ownership is legal in your area. As of 2022, most states prohibit keeping foxes as pets. Sixteen states allow residents to own a fox, although regulations vary and often require obtaining unique permits. For example, in North Carolina, residents can own a fox as long as they obtain an exhibition license and use the animal for educational purposes. Check state and local regulations to ensure legal ownership, which also helps in securing proper veterinary care. Even exotic pet veterinarians will not treat illegally owned animals. Ethics Legally owning a domesticated Russian red fox does not pose ethical issues among people who understand that these tame animals have been bred to live with humans, not in the wild. Domesticated red foxes, particularly those of Russian descent, have been handled by humans for enough generations that they are content living the domestic life of a pet. Things to Consider If owning a Russian red fox is legal in your area, you may find this animal to be a delightful companion. These foxes are relatively well adapted to living alongside humans and behave similarly to domestic dogs, making their care familiar and manageable for people accustomed to owning dogs. All things considered, a Russian red fox makes a better pet than most other exotic species. However, foxes are intelligent, high-energy creatures that need plenty of exercise and stimulation. Expect to spend considerable time with your fox to keep it engaged, as boredom can lead to destructive behavior. A secure enclosure is essential when your fox is unsupervised, due to its natural inclination to urine-mark its territory. Russian Red Fox Behavior and Temperament Although sharing the same scientific name, Russian red foxes have been selectively bred for traits that distinguish them from wild foxes, rendering them domesticated. They have lower adrenaline levels and are less agitated in captivity, rarely showing aggression towards humans or the inclination to bite. Tame foxes tend to be friendly, with behaviors like tail wagging, licking, or whimpering with excitement similar to those of dogs. Like their wild relatives, Russian red foxes are athletic, nimble, and possess abundant energy. They can leap over six feet high, enjoy digging, and are adept swimmers. Capable of running up to 30 miles per hour, they require ample playtime and environmental enrichment to stay happy and healthy. A bored fox may become unhappy and potentially destructive, engaging in digging and chewing household objects, or displaying an increased drive to scent-mark with urine. This territorial behavior intensifies if the fox is left ignored for prolonged periods. Domestic foxes enjoy being part of a human family, including children, and get along well with other household pets, especially if raised with them. Many foxes appreciate being petted, held, and snuggled, making them comforting companions compared to many other exotic species. 1:09 8 Things to Know Before Adopting a Pet Fox Housing A large enclosure (approximately 10 by 20 feet) is suitable for a pet fox. Ensure the pen is secure, with a buried fence to prevent your pet from digging out and to keep predators from getting in. The fence should be a minimum of seven feet high to contain these agile animals. A roof is recommended for protection against the elements. The enclosure should also include an indoor area with bedding, straw, or wood chips where your fox can comfortably nap. Supervise your fox closely if it roams indoors. Secure breakables and valuables (including car keys) as pet foxes often grab and hide small objects. Keep electrical cords out of reach and consider childproof locks on cabinets. If your home is toddler-proofed, it should be relatively safe for a fox to explore. How to Train Your Dog to Pee in One Spot: A Step-by-Step Guide What Do Russian Red Foxes Eat and Drink? In the wild, red foxes are omnivores that eat small rodents, birds, raccoons, insects, reptiles, and plant materials, including fruits. In captivity, their diet can include grain-free dog food supplemented with fruit and vegetables. Purchase high-quality brands from pet stores, feeding your fox as per package directions for its weight, twice daily. Adjust portions if your fox is losing or gaining weight improperly. Use standard dog dishes for food and water. Fruits and vegetables should only constitute a small portion of your fox's total diet. Typically, 1/4 cup daily works well as a supplement. They enjoy strawberries, blueberries, apples, carrots, and mushrooms. Some breeders recommend raw meat, eggs, and taurine supplements as well. Consult your breeder and veterinarian to establish the optimal diet for your fox. What to Feed Your Pet Fox Common Health Problems Pet foxes are susceptible to most canine diseases, including rabies and distemper. It is crucial to research vaccines thoroughly and discuss options with your exotic pet veterinarian before deciding to vaccinate your pet fox, as some domestic foxes may react adversely to conventional vaccines. You're required to accept the risk and consequences if your unvaccinated fox contracts a disease or bites someone. Depending on local laws, your fox might be euthanized due to the rabies risk in any unvaccinated animal. Foxes can also contract livestock diseases like bovine tuberculosis, and they can transmit certain illnesses to humans and other pets. Credit: The Spruce/Wenjia Tang Exercise Pet foxes require substantial exercise. If you have a large yard, daily romps and ball-fetching games can help keep your fox fit and content. Without much outdoor space, you will need to walk your fox, provided it accepts a harness and leash. Your fox will be happiest with opportunities to run, jump, and play off-leash several times weekly. Grooming Like long-haired dogs, foxes need occasional baths. Use a gentle shampoo suitable for dog's skin and fur, bathing your fox in a sink or tub. Only bathe your fox when it seems particularly dirty from outdoor activities, or if its coat appears oily. Frequent bathing can dry out your fox's coat and skin, making it more susceptible to irritation and infections. Shedding Foxes have thick coats that require regular brushing, especially during the heavy shedding periods in spring and fall. Use a dog brush for daily grooming and a fur "rake" to reach and remove loose undercoat clumps that can become matted during shedding. Handle your fox gently during grooming to avoid causing pain or building distrust. Nail Trimming Your fox needs nail trimming, just like a dog. The need for trimming depends on your fox's access to hard surfaces like concrete. Start the trimming routine early and handle your pet gently to minimize anxiety as it ages. Size Information The Russian red fox is approximately the size of a small to medium-sized dog, featuring a large, fluffy tail. Generally, females are smaller than males, which can weigh up to about 30 pounds. Foxes appear larger in winter when their full coat develops. Training Your Russian Red Fox Begin house training your fox as soon as possible using dog potty-training pads. Ideally, train it to eliminate in a designated area. Both male and female foxes tend to mark territory and food with urine, which may be challenging to train out of the animal. Fox urine has a strong odor, so be prepared. Avoid leaving your fox unsupervised indoors, as separation anxiety might lead to marking. Pros and Cons of Keeping a Russian Red Fox as a Pet Russian red foxes are visually stunning animals that appear wild but behave similarly to domestic dogs. They can be friendly and affectionate, providing delightful companionship to the right owner. Nevertheless, sourcing a fox can be challenging and costly, and legality may be an issue depending on where you live. A fox comes with responsibilities similar to those of a furry, active dog in terms of exercise, nutrition, and grooming. However, foxes tend to mark their territory with pungent urine and may cause damage due to digging or chewing when they feel lonely or agitated. Purchasing Your Russian Red Fox Importing Russian red foxes can exceed $10,000 in costs. A few domestic breeders might exist in the U.S., but you should ensure that the breed offered is genuinely a domesticated Russian red fox. Some unscrupulous breeders may sell wild American red fox kits under the guise of Russian red foxes. These will display untamed traits such as skittishness, aggression, and compulsive marking. They do not make suitable pets for most individuals. Similar Pets to the Russian Red Fox If you find the Russian red fox intriguing, consider these similar options: Fennec Fox Species Profile Best Foxes to Keep as Pets 10 Dog Breeds That Look the Most Like Foxes FAQ Do Russian red foxes like to be touched? These foxes are bred to be tame and well-adjusted to human contact, so they tend to be friendly and enjoy petting, playing, and even snuggling with people. Are Russian red foxes the same as wild red foxes in the U.S.? Although they share the same genus and species, these foxes are quite different as a result of selective breeding programs in Russia. Behavioral characteristics such as friendliness and trainability have been selected throughout generations of foxes so that they behave much more like tame dogs than wild foxes do. Do Russian red foxes shed? They shed a lot. Red foxes grow a thick coat of fur for the winter, and they shed it in the spring; they also experience a lighter shedding period in the fall as their winter coat comes in. Explore more: Small Pets Exotic Pets Exotic Pet Care
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https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2017/jan/23/traditional-folk-sports-in-karnataka-remain-on-the-horns-of-a-dilemma-1562469.html
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Traditional sports and rituals involving animals are an integral part of many communities in rural parts of Karnataka. Today, many of these events are banned under the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, but are widely practised. The protests over the ban on Jallikattu in Tamil Nadu, followed by an ordinance allowing groups to conduct the event has led to demands for revoking the ban on such sports. Express takes a look at traditional sporting events held across state
Yadgir - Tossing lambs over palanquin of village deity
For over a century, villagers in Mailapur in Yadgir taluk have performed the ritual of tossing lambs over the palanquin of the village deity Mallaiah. This is practised during the annual fair of Mailapur Mallaiah on the day of Sankranti (January 14) every year.
Members of the Kuruba community sacrifice the lamb as a gesture of devotion to the deity. Apart from Kurubas, members of Gonda community also participate in the ritual. Keshava Motagi, president of Nandi Animal Welfare Society, Kalaburagi, said the tradition is mere fashion today and is cruelty to animals.
“In this modern era, such practices should be prohibited,” Motagi said. Thousands of devotees arrive from parts of Yadgir, Kalaburagi, Vijayapura, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Maharashtra to take part in the fair. The ritual has been banned for the past three years by the Yadgir district administration.
However, despite the ban, some devotees have continued the practice. This year, six devotees tossed sheep over the palanquin. Police later arrested three people.
Status: Banned
Old Mysuru region
Cattle made to jump across fire or Kichchu Haisodu
Kichchu Haisodu is a ritual associated with farming in old Mysuru region.
The ritual is observed during Makara Sankranti every year when cattle are made to jump over fire. The cattle - bull and cow - are bathed, their horns painted and decorated. Later in the evening, they are made to jump over the fire. The ritual is still practised in villages around Bengaluru, Mandya, Ramanagara,
The ritual is still practised in villages around Bengaluru, Mandya, Ramanagara, Mysuru and Hassan. Farmers believe that the practice of making cattle jump over fire will kill small insects present on their body.
Status: Practised
Hubbali
Ram Fight of Savji Community
Somavansha Sahasrajun Kshatriya Samaj members also known as Savji community hold ram fights during Dasara. The community has been practising this for hundreds of years. Earlier, such fights were organised in district stadiums. But as crowds swelled, it attracted animal rights activists who vehemently opposed it.
At present, it is only held in areas where members of the Savji community live, mostly in Dajibanpet and Kamaripet in Hubballi. Organisers say the sport is part of their culture and courts should respect the sentiments of the people. Many Muslim families in Hubballi too organise ram fights annually.
Status: Banned, illegally practised
Hubbali
Kobri Hori competition
Kobri Hori Sparde translated as catch a running bull is among the state’s most popular rural sport. The event is held during Diwali when farmers, agricultural workers and youngsters try to subdue a bull and then tie dry coconuts around its horns.
The bulls are then taken in a procession around the village or town. Farmers usually sharpen the animal’s horn before the event. Over the years, stories of competitors losing their lives or suffering injuries has marred the event.
Status: Banned, illegally practised
Mangaluru, Udupi
Cock fighting or kori katte
Although a banned sport, cock fighting still thrives illegally in parts of Karnataka. However, the scale of the event pales in comparison with Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana where it is a huge betting sport, running to crores. Dakshin Kannada and Udupi districts still follow this age old tradition.
A special breed of cocks/fowls which are known as game cocks are bred and trained for fighting purposes. Blades are tied to the roosters spurs. Farmers engage in this activity before and after harvesting paddy crops.
The event is held after festivals like Sankranti and Diwali and is organised a few times a year in the vicinity of temples around Mangaluru and Udupi.
“The sport is held secretively as it is banned by High Courts and the Supreme Court. The cost of roosters varies from `20,000-`25,000 while the betting may go up to a few lakhs,” said activist Ravi.
According to PeTA India, cock fighting community rear, the roosters and trains them in such a way that these birds become killers.
Status: Banned, illegally practised
North Karnataka
Bullock cart racing
Bullock cart racing has been a traditional sport practised for more than hundred years. The event which was widely held across the state is now restricted to parts of north Karnataka. The races are held during Dasara and Diwali. Participants race in bullock carts and winners receive prize money.
Status: No ban
Udupi
Buffalo racing or kambala
Kambala is an annual buffalo race organised by agrarian families after the harvest of Rabi crop. Kambala season lasts from November to March, before the onset of summer when Kolke crop is cultivated. The animals race in paddy fields filled with slush. Locals believe this practice prepares the land for the Kolke crop.
In the last 50 years, Kambala’s mandate has changed and the folk sport has turned into a money spinner with audiences placing huge bets on the animals. The game has become an organised rural sport with committees setting up schedules and cash prizes.
The game is conducted across Dakshina Kannada, Udupi and even parts of Kasaragod in Kerala. However, the sport has been put on hold due to an interim ban by the High Court, following opposition by animal rights activists.
Previously, despite a petition for a ban on the event by People for Ethical Treatment of Animals (PeTA), the races were held with regulations issued by local district administration.
status: Interim ban
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https://novoresume.com/career-blog/job-scams
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Did you see a job ad on the internet and thought that it’s too good to be true?
Well, chances are, it is.
Job scams are rampant all over the internet and anyone can be tricked into one.
Of course, scammers have always existed, but the ever-increasing use of technology has enabled them to get creative and affect more people.
Want to learn whether that work-from-home job you found is a scam, or actually legit? In this article, we’re going to teach you all you need to know about job scams (and how to avoid them).
Read on to learn:
- 7 Common Types of Job Scams
- 9+ Warning Signs of a Job Scam
- 7+ Tips to Protect Yourself From a Job Scam
- FAQs on Job Scams
7 Common Types of Job Scams
Job scams have always existed in one way or another, be it in the form of a fake job ad in the newspaper, on TV, or on the radio.
But with more and more people turning to the internet to find jobs, job scams have both moved online and become more frequent. According to the FBI’s Internet Crime Complaint Center, 16,012 people reported being victims of employment scams in 2020, with losses amounting to more than $59 million.
As a rule of thumb, scammers are our for two things:
- Your money
- Your personal information
But they use many ways to get to them. That’s why we have compiled a list of the most common types of job scams to help you identify them.
#1. Work-From-Home Job Scams
Generating income from the comfort of home has always been appealing to job-seekers worldwide…
And job scammers know this.
That’s why one of the most common job scams is placing ads (often online, but scammers could always reach you by phone, or text) that promise great pay in exchange for work from home.
Work-from-home job scams have been around for decades, but statistics show that job scams increased during the COVID-19 crisis, as many Americans were left unemployed and needed to work from home.
These types of scams seek to take your money in various ways, such as by making you pay enrollment fees, for training, or for useless certifications, among others.
Some examples of fake work-from-home job offers include:
- Stuffing envelopes, which involves signing up by paying a fee to stuff envelopes from home. The only commission you may ever receive, however, is by signing others up to pay the non-refundable registration fee.
- Reselling merchandise, which involves buying luxury products less than their retail price and reselling them at a higher price.
- Data entry scams that, unlike legitimate data entry jobs, promise great pay but require an upfront registration/training fee.
- Reshipping scams, which consist of receiving packages at home, getting rid of the original receipts, repackaging the products, and reshipping them. However, the “employer” never sends you a paycheck.
- Rebate processor, a job that promises high income for processing rebates from home for a non-refundable training fee, but actually involves placing ads online and getting a small commission every time a product gets sold.
- Assembling crafts/products, where the company hires you after paying the enrollment fee and purchasing the products’ materials, but later rejects the finished products.
#2. Emailed Fake Job Offers
Another popular job scam is receiving a job offer through email.
The email usually comes from a “recruiter/employer” who claims they found your resume on a job board, or that you applied for the position (and you’re the perfect candidate!).
Although you might not remember applying (because you didn’t) and the sender’s email might not ring a bell, you could still be tempted to accept the offer.
Now, the types of fake jobs offered via email are countless but, generally, the scammer will ask you to provide personal information such as:
- Your driver’s license (which lets them know your birthday)
- Your Social Security Number (with the pretense they need it to hire you)
- Your bank account information (“to transfer your paychecks”)
Once they have such sensitive information, they could harm you in various ways, from stealing your money all the way to stealing your identity.
#3. Fake Jobs on Social Media
Since 53.6% of the population uses social media platforms, they’ve become a popular place for scammers to share fake job ads.
Commonly, they create Facebook pages or LinkedIn profiles to advertise fake job opportunities, but real accounts can also be advertising fake postings.
And although both platforms try to block both fake profiles and fake job ads, sometimes, some slip through the cracks.
Twitter is another social media platform that’s not entirely guarded against fake or real accounts advertising fake jobs. For example, job scams can be shared around Twitter through shortened URL links (bit.ly or ow.ly) that lead to unverified sources outside of the platform.
When it comes to job scams taking place on social media, it’s important to always verify the recruiter/employer’s social media account is legit.
For example, if the account on Twitter has a small number of followers, it’s most likely a fake account. Similarly, if you google the employer’s name and more than one profile comes up, you have reason to be cautious.
#4. Government and postal service job scams
Some job scams work by promising a job with the federal government or the US Postal Service (USPS).
However, if the website/employer asks you to pay a fee to get the job or to pay for study materials so that you get a high score and qualify for the position, the job offer is a scam.
All federal jobs are free to apply for, so if you hear or see the contrary, you have reason to be cautious.
Want to know, for sure, if a federal job ad is legit? Only apply for federal jobs on the following websites:
💡
Quick Tip
Looking to land a federal job, but not sure where to stop? The first step is to create a convincing federal resume. Learn more with our article!
#5. Job Scams on Verified Job Sites
Even verified and popular job search sites like Indeed, CareerBuilder, or Craigslist are not 100% immune to fake job ads.
These kinds of job sites work by collecting listings from company websites, recruiting agencies, newspapers, or by companies uploading job offers directly on the platform. But, although the job boards might be verified, the employers and job offers are not always.
And yes, scam job ads are present even on the paid job boards, so don’t let your guard down.
#6. Job placement service scams
Another common type of job scam involves scammers impersonating job placement services such as staffing agencies, headhunters, etc.
Thankfully, spotting such scams is pretty simple.
Headhunters or placement professionals (the ones that come to you with an offer, anyway) will never ask you to pay for their services.
In such cases, it’s always the employer that foots the bill.
So, if a job placement service asks for money for a job offer, chances are, it’s a job scam.
#7. Fake Employment or Recruitment Websites
At times, scammers go as far as to create fake employment or recruitment websites.
This type of job scam can be harder to spot than the rest, particularly because some of these sites do a good job passing as legitimate recruitment sites. However, in reality, the job offer or recruiter doesn’t really exist outside of the website.
Usually, this type of job scam will ask for sensitive information such as your SSN or your bank details under the pretense of a pre-screening, or to start depositing your paychecks immediately.
💡
Quick Tip
Have you found a legitimate job but you don’t know how to get started writing the resume? Check out our guide on how to write a resume to make things easier!
9+ Warning Signs of a Job Scam
Now, although job scams come in many forms, there are still some warning signs that can help you identify one.
So, if you notice any of the following when you receive an offer or see a tempting listing, then it’s most likely a job scam:
- You are contacted through non-company email domains and teleconference applications (e.g. an actual IBM recruiter would contact you using a company email such as johndoe@ibm.com, as opposed to johndoeibm@gmail.com)
- You are required to purchase start-up equipment from the company, such as is the case with assembling products work-from-home job scams.
- You are asked to pay a non-refundable registration fee.
- You are required to provide your bank account information (before you start working).
- You receive an employment contract to sign in advance, asking for Personal Identifiable Information such as your SSN and your bank details.
- Job postings appear on job boards, but not on the companies’ websites.
- Your potential employer is using a slightly altered website, such as www.2micro-soft.com and not www.microsoft.com
- The email or job ad is full of errors and the job description and requirements are vague.
- The potential employer shows a sense of urgency to hire you, such as listings that hire immediately, or within the same week of application.
- The job requirements apply to literally any candidate but offer very good pay.
💡
Quick Tip
Finding a good job that you enjoy can be challenging. Our article listing 35+ essential job search tips could make the process much easier for you!
7+ Tips to Protect Yourself from a Job Scam
Unfortunately, you can never be 100% safe from job scams—no matter how familiar you are with the different types and the signs they come with.
After all, scammers are constantly “re-inventing” job scams, but you might also find yourself in a position where you really need a job and fall prey to a scam.
For this reason, any time you come across a listing that seems sketchy, make sure that you:
- Do an online search. Google the company, the employer, or the recruiter, and see what pops up. For example, if you get emailed a job offer from say from a random name claiming they’re a recruiter, search up their name online (or on LinkedIn) to see if their claim stands.
- Talk to someone you trust. If you come across a job offer that just seems too good to be true (e.g. it promises great pay in exchange for minimal skills), then show the listing to someone you know and trust. They might give you a valuable second opinion on whether it’s a job scam or the real deal.
- Don't pay for the promise of a job. If you are required to pay for a job, it’s guaranteed to be a scam. In normal circumstances, you can’t just pay for a job - you have to deserve it. So, if you get an offer saying you can just pay for a position, you can rest assured it’s a scam.
- Connect with the company. Did you see a job offer on social media supposedly from a company? Don’t take everything at face value. Shoot the company an email asking if the offer is legit or, at least, check the company’s website to see if the listing is there. If the job opening is real, it should definitely be on the website.
- Never agree to a wire transfer of any sort. Wire transfers are common among thieves. They consist of moving money quickly from one account to another and it’s almost impossible to recover those funds. So, if you get an email supposedly from a company executive asking you to wire money for lack of an easier payment method, that’s your sign that it's a job scam.
- Reject job offers that require no experience. As we said before, a job that pays any decent amount of money will require a certain level of knowledge or experience in the field. So, if the job offer promises decent/easy money for an easy job, it’s probably a no-no.
- Don't agree to provide your bank details to a potential employer. Obviously, you will need to provide sensitive information such as your bank details to your employer eventually. However, no legit employer will ever ask for your bank details before you actually settle into the job.
- Don’t interact with potential employers who urge you to act fast. A typical sign of a job scam is when the scammer urges you to act fast to “seal the deal” and give them your money or your personal information. A normal hiring process takes at least 1-3 weeks, depending on the company procedure. So, any employer who guarantees a super fast hiring process is guaranteed to be a scammer.
- Don’t accept an offer when you didn’t apply. Sometimes, scammers will contact you out of nowhere, saying you’re hired for a job that you didn’t apply for. This is, of course, a scam.
Do you still have some questions about job scams? We’ll answer them here!
Key Takeaways
And that’s a wrap! We hope that you found the article on job scams helpful.
Here are the key takeaways of the information we just covered:
- Job scams consist of criminals posing as employers/recruiters reaching out to victims with a fake job offer and require their money or personal information, such as SSN or bank details.
- The most popular types of job scams include work-from-home scams, emailed job offers, fake jobs on social media, government and postal service job scams, job scams on verified job sites, job placement service scams, and fake employment/recruitment websites.
- To protect yourself from a job scam, make sure to do research on the company, talk to someone you trust, reject any offer that asks for your money and sensitive information, or promises you great pay for only a little professional experience.
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https://lionstale.org/11370/opinion/pro-con-should-the-voting-age-be-lowered/
|
Pro/Con: Should the voting age be lowered?
January 24, 2023
Pro
Although amending a concrete institution in our democracy may seem daunting at first, the voting system and its rules regarding eligibility for citizens have evolved with the nation. Due to the changing political landscape as well as younger people getting more involved in the systems of our country, it is a logical step to reduce the voting age from 18 to 16 in the United States.
First, we need to test out this change in local counties and other municipalities. By doing so, it will become clearer if people between ages 16 and 18 participate in voting. Although many dismiss people in this age range as being too immature or uneducated on political issues to vote, there is ample evidence to prove that teenage advocacy for political issues and overall turnout will increase if younger people are able to vote.
Allowing some high school students to vote will help get them introduced to and involved in the voting process but also advocacy for issues that they care about. On a local scale, people could vote on topics that affect them, like electing the members of the public school board and each member’s agenda.
Also, 16 year olds are able to drive, pay taxes and work. So why not let those who are affected by these laws vote on potential changes to them along with other issues?
In Austria, which is the only country that allows 16 year olds to vote in all elections, voter turnout for that age range was lower than that of other age groups. However, their vote “quality,” meaning the issues they voted for combined with the reason for voting, was equal to that of the majority of the voting population. For example, teens voted for people whose political beliefs aligned with theirs as opposed to voting for candidates who were not qualified or had a legitimate agenda.
However, allowing younger people to vote wouldn’t just increase turnout for themselves. According to a study by Tufts University, allowing 16 and 17 year olds to get involved in politics and their civic duty to vote also increased turnout in older groups of citizens. Based on the research, children would start conversations with their families about local issues more often, causing more people of all ages to be involved in the political system.
If more teenagers were able to vote, it may help cause change in our government, particularly regarding the issue of gun violence and school shootings.
In 2022 alone, there were 300 school shootings, according to the K-12 School Shooting Database. Why shouldn’t students, who are most affected by this violence, be able to make their voices heard by voting to create new laws that prevent more tragedies from happening in the classroom?
High school students and teenagers are a group that is doubted by the rest of the population. Many believe that they are unable or unwilling to make rational decisions when it comes to voting, and that is simply untrue. With teens being directly impacted by government decisions, it is imperative that they are able to take action by participating in our political system.
Con
In the past decade, some towns in Maryland, such as Takoma Park and Hyattsville, have chosen to lower the voting age to 16. These cities’ main goal in doing so is to promote civic engagement in the youth, however, this may be wishful thinking. 16 and 17 year olds are not mature enough to take on the significant task of voting because they aren’t mature or have the knowledge of many of the issues that politicians discuss.
According to the Alcohol Pharmacology Education Partnership (APEP) at Duke, At the age of 16 and 17, the brain is developed with an exception of the prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal cortex is critical to a person’s decision making. Without the prefrontal cortex fully developed, how can we be sure that these newer, younger voters won’t make careless and uninformed decisions when voting?
16 and 17 year olds may be turned off from voting due to their lack of knowledge when it comes to economic issues. In the 2020 presidential election, the most popular issue that politicians run on is the economy. Many of the sub-issues that are in the economic debate – such as lowering taxes and reducing inflation – can be best understood by those who are directly affected by these economic changes, which is mainly people over 18.
“Today, just over one-third, or 35%, of teens between the ages of 16 and 19 are part of the workforce,” CNBC reported. “Those who are still on the family dole and don’t pay bills can’t fully appreciate the implications of politicians’ platforms on the economy.”
Another concern is the already low turnout for those of the younger generation. According to the United States Census Bureau, the voter turnout in the 2020 election for citizens ages 18-34 was 57%, which was 12% less than citizens ages 35-64 and was 17% less than citizens ages 65 and up. As seen in this pattern, the younger generations are less likely to vote, which would be even more exacerbated in the 16-17 age category. Allowing 16 and 17 year olds to cast a ballot is already risky, so why risk allowing them to vote if they won’t even want to go to vote.
Looking more inwards, 16 and 17 year olds at CESJDS are faced with an additional issue: school on election day. As a result of people having the day off, many students won’t be able to vote because election day is usually when most people remember to vote.
While encouraging civic participation from the younger generation is laudable, it would not serve our country well to allow 16 and 17 year olds to vote. They are simply not mature enough to grasp the complexities of American politics and to cast a meaningful ballot.
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http://meng.house.gov/media-center/press-releases/meng-reintroduces-legislation-to-lower-the-voting-age-in-america-to-16-0
|
Meng Reintroduces Legislation To Lower The Voting Age In America To 16 Years Old
January 26, 2023
WASHINGTON, D.C. – U.S. Rep. Grace Meng (D-NY) announced today that she reintroduced her legislation that would lower the voting age in the United States to 16-years-old.
The Congresswoman's measure seeks to replace the 26th amendment of the U.S. Constitution with a new amendment that would allow 16- and 17-year-olds the right to vote.
"Over the past few years, we have seen the influence young people in our nation have on trends, political movements, and elections," said Meng. "They continue to advocate for many crucial issues for which they are deeply passionate about. It is time to give them a voice in our democracy and reward their passion so that their voices are heard at the ballot box. 16- and 17-year-olds are legally permitted to work, drive and they also pay federal income taxes. They are contributing members of our society and I believe it is right and fair to allow them to vote in our elections. I am proud and honored to stand by our nation's young people in introducing this legislation and hope my colleagues in the House support it."
"We're excited to see momentum in states across the country for the common-sense policy reform of lowering the voting age to 16," said Andrew Wilkes, Generation Citizen's Chief Policy and Advocacy Officer. "Congresswoman Meng's national leadership in putting forward this legislation is aligned with the research: 16 is the right age to establish the habit of voting. This bill also supports young people's journey of informed participation and having a say on the issues which directly affect their lives."
"18by Vote deeply supports Representative Meng's proposed legislation to lower the U.S. voting age to 16-years-old," said Ava Mateo, Executive Director of 18by Vote. "As countries around the world have extended voting rights to 16-year-olds, research has found that lowering the voting age increases youth voter participation. Furthermore, studies have found that 16-year-olds hold equivalent levels of civic competence to 18-year-olds. Through their youth-led activism and advocacy, 16- and 17-year-olds across the nation have demonstrated their readiness to make their voices heard through their vote and to put in the work to be active, informed, and engaged citizens."
"Congresswoman Meng's record demonstrates a long-standing commitment to engaging young people in the civic process. As our democracy faces unprecedented attacks and as our country grapples with great, imminent challenges, it is critical we ensure those whose futures are most impacted and who will be responsible for resolving these issues for years to come are empowered to take action and have a voice today," said Carolyn DeWitt, President and Executive Director of Rock The Vote. "Any effort to make young people's voices heard on a local, state, and federal level is an important one."
"As a coalition of young and future voters, Voters of Tomorrow is thrilled to support Representative Meng's legislation to lower the voting age to 16-years-old," said Jack Lobel, Press Secretary for Voters of Tomorrow. "Young Americans like us have perhaps the most at stake in our nation's future. We deserve a direct say in electing the lawmakers who have the power to shape it. Sixteen- and seventeen-year-old Americans are students, workers, taxpayers, and engaged constituents. They will soon be the citizens responsible for upholding the ideals of our representative democracy, and we must include them in the quintessential civic process of voting."
"We at FairVote Action have always supported the importance of the right to vote, and we thank Representative Meng for leading this important conversation about the most appropriate voting age," said Rob Richie, President and CEO of FairVote Action. "It's time for our nation to embrace this conversation. Early uses of a lower voting age in some cities and state primaries have been promising, with positive impacts on voter participation and involvement of young people in the political process."
"The National Youth Rights Association strongly supports Representative Meng's constitutional amendment to lower the voting age to 16," said Neil Bhateja, a National Youth Rights Association Board Member. "When the government makes decisions about education, the environment, and war and peace, young people are affected for more years of their lives than any other age demographic. They work and are subject to taxation without representation: income tax, sales tax, payroll taxes, and more. In Scotland, Brazil, Austria, and Argentina, 16-year-olds have shown that they're ready to vote and deserve to shape their own futures. The United States should continue its democratic tradition of extending voting rights. Thank you Representative Meng for your leadership on this issue in Congress!"
"As an organization that builds youth political power, our communities face a glaring issue: 16 and 17-year-olds have no say in who will best represent their values and priorities even though they will disproportionately bear the brunt of decisions in the present and future," said Elona J Wilson, Executive Director at Next Up Action Fund. "Lowering the voting age to 16 is a bold idea to strengthen our democracy, and we strongly support Congresswoman Meng's proposed constitutional amendment to lower the voting age."
Constitutional amendments require passage by two-thirds of the House and Senate, and ratification by three-fourths of the nation's state legislatures. If enacted, the voting age would be lowered for federal, state, and local elections. The last time that the voting age was lowered was when it went from 21 to 18 in 1971.
Meng's legislation (H.J.res.16), can be viewed here.
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https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2020/02/09/nato-seen-favorably-across-member-states/
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This analysis focuses on views of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) among 16 member nations and three nonmember nations in Europe and North America. In all, the analysis covers over 90% of the population living in NATO countries.
Pew Research Center has been tracking views of NATO since 2007. This report also includes views of Article 5 obligations, which state that an attack on one NATO country is an attack on all; preferences for close relations with the U.S. versus with Russia; support for the use of military force to maintain order in the world; and agreement with the sentiment that parts of neighboring countries belong to another country.
For this report, we used data from a survey conducted across 19 countries from May 13 to Aug. 12, 2019, among 21,029 respondents. The surveys were conducted face-to-face in Central and Eastern Europe, Greece, Italy, Russia and Ukraine. Surveys were conducted over the phone in North America and Western Europe.
Here are the questions used for the report, along with responses, and its methodology.
NATO is generally seen in a positive light across publics within the alliance, despite lingering tensions between the leaders of individual member countries. A median of 53% across 16 member countries surveyed have a favorable view of the organization, with only 27% expressing a negative view. But opinions of NATO and related issues vary widely across the countries surveyed, especially regarding the obligations of Article 5 of the 70-year-old Washington Treaty, which declares that an attack against one member nation is considered an attack against all members.
Positive ratings of NATO among members range from a high of 82% in Poland to 21% in Turkey, with the United States and Germany in the middle at 52% and 57%, respectively. And in the three nonmember states surveyed, Sweden and Ukraine see the alliance positively (63% and 53%, respectively), but only 16% of Russians say the same.
Favorable views of the organization have fluctuated over time among both NATO member and nonmember countries. Since the late 2000s, favorable opinions of NATO are up 10 percentage points or more in Ukraine, Lithuania and Poland. However, positive opinions of NATO are down significantly in Bulgaria, Russia, Germany and France over the past decade, with double-digit percentage point declines in each of these countries. Favorable views of the organization are also down significantly in Spain and the Czech Republic.
In addition, across several countries surveyed, favorable views of the organization are related to ideological orientation, with those on the right sharing a more positive view than those on the ideological left.
NATO serves as a political and military alliance for its 29 member states spanning Europe and North America. Founded in 1949 to provide collective defense against the Soviet Union, the alliance seeks to balance Russian power and influence, in addition to a host of other operations.
Despite the organization’s largely favorable ratings among member states, there is widespread reluctance to fulfill the collective defense commitment outlined in Article 5 of NATO’s founding treaty. When asked if their country should defend a fellow NATO ally against a potential attack from Russia, a median of 50% across 16 NATO member states say their country should not defend an ally, compared with 38% who say their country should defend an ally against a Russian attack.
Publics are more convinced that the U.S. would use military force to defend a NATO ally from Russia. A median of 60% say the U.S. would defend an ally against Russia, while just 29% say the U.S. would not do so. And in most NATO member countries surveyed, publics are more likely to say the U.S. would defend a NATO ally from a Russian attack than say their own country should do the same.
In terms of transatlantic relations, some Western European publics prefer a close relationship with the U.S., but many others prefer a close relationship with both the U.S. and Russia. Nevertheless, few want to prioritize their relationship with Russia over their U.S. relations. Ideology also relates to views of potential allies: Those on the right in several countries are more likely than those on the left to prefer a relationship with the U.S.
Despite the reservations many have about NATO’s Article 5 commitments, half or more in nearly every country surveyed agree it is sometimes necessary to use military force to maintain order in the world. In most countries surveyed, those who say military force is sometimes necessary are also more likely to agree that their country should use military force to defend a fellow NATO ally.
These views have changed significantly over the past decade in some countries. In Ukraine, Russia, Slovakia and Germany, more say military force is sometimes necessary than said the same in 2007. And in Italy, Spain and the Czech Republic, publics have grown less inclined to agree.
On the topic of territorial ambitions, when asked if there are parts of neighboring countries that really belong to their country, relatively few surveyed agree. However, among NATO member states, majorities in Hungary, Greece, Turkey and Bulgaria agree that parts of other countries belong to them. In many European countries, those with a favorable view of right-wing populist parties are more likely to support this statement.
These are among the key findings from a Pew Research Center survey of 19 countries, including 16 NATO member states, Sweden, Russia and Ukraine. The survey was conducted among 21,029 people from May 13 to Aug. 12, 2019. Throughout this report, German results are occasionally sourced from a series of surveys conducted in Germany by Körber-Stiftung, in partnership with Pew Research Center.
NATO viewed favorably across member states, though opinions have shifted over time
Across the 16 NATO member countries surveyed, NATO is generally seen in a positive light. A median of 53% across these countries have a favorable view of the organization, while a median of 27% have an unfavorable opinion. In 13 of these countries, roughly half or more have a positive view of NATO.
Among NATO member countries, positive views of the organization range from 82% in Poland to 21% in Turkey. Majorities of people in Poland, Lithuania, Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Italy and Germany rate NATO positively in Europe. Opinions are also relatively positive in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, France, Spain, Hungary and Bulgaria.
Canadians and Americans hold positive views of NATO, with 66% in Canada and 52% in the U.S. expressing favorable opinions.
In Turkey and Greece, publics are particularly unfavorable toward the alliance: Roughly half or more express a negative opinion.
Among the three non-NATO countries surveyed, views of the alliance are mixed. In Sweden and Ukraine, more than half have a favorable view of NATO. But in Russia, 60% have an unfavorable view of the organization, while just 16% view it favorably, the smallest share across all countries surveyed.
Views of NATO have fluctuated since Pew Research Center began asking this question in 2007. In non-NATO-member Ukraine, for example, 34% said they had a favorable view of the organization in 2007. In 2019, 53% said the same, an increase of 19 percentage points. Lithuanians and Poles have also grown more favorable toward NATO over the past 10 to 12 years (increases of 18 and 10 points, respectively).
Several countries have soured on the alliance over that period. In France, favorable views of NATO dropped from 71% in 2009 to 49% in 2019, a decrease of 22 percentage points. In Germany, favorable views of the organization declined by 16 points, and in Bulgaria favorable views are down by 12 points. In nonmember Russia, positive views have been nearly cut in half: In 2007, 30% had a favorable view of NATO. By 2019, just 16% expressed the same sentiment.
In U.S., views of NATO differ among Democrats and Republicans
Americans’ views of NATO differ by political party affiliation. Democrats and Democratic-leaning independents have been more likely to have a favorable opinion of NATO than Republicans and Republican-leaning independents across most years. That remained true in 2019, as 61% of Democrats had a positive view of the alliance, compared with 45% of Republicans.
Both Democratic and Republican views of NATO remained generally stable until 2017, when Democrats grew much more likely to support NATO than their counterparts, a difference that has not changed significantly since. In 2017, 74% of Democrats and 48% of Republicans had a favorable opinion of the alliance, a difference of 26 percentage points. Since 2018, U.S. views of NATO have declined among supporters of both parties. Positive views among Democrats fell 15 points, while views among Republicans dropped 7 points.
Those on the right tend to have a more positive view of NATO
Ideology is a factor when it comes to views of NATO in several countries. In six countries, those placing themselves on the right side of the ideological spectrum are more favorable toward NATO than those on the left. In Sweden, for example, 79% of those on the ideological right have a positive opinion of NATO, compared with 38% of those on the left, a difference of 41 percentage points. Significant differences between those on the right and the left are also seen in Bulgaria (38 percentage points), the Czech Republic (36 points), Spain (25), Greece (19) and Slovakia (16).
Public reluctance on Article 5 obligations across NATO member countries
Article 5 of the NATO treaty is “at the very heart of NATO’s founding treaty,” according to the organization. The article states that “an attack against one Ally is considered as an attack against all Allies.”
When asked whether their country should or should not use military force to defend a NATO ally from a hypothetical attack by Russia, in only five of the 16 member states surveyed – the Netherlands, the U.S., Canada, the UK and Lithuania – do half or more say that they should use such force. Across the 16 countries, a median of 50% say that their country should not defend a NATO ally in the event of an attack by Russia, while 38% say they should.
Larger shares in 10 NATO member countries surveyed say their country should not use force to defend a NATO ally should there be an attack by Russia. This includes majorities in Bulgaria, Italy, Greece, Germany and Spain. In Poland, sentiment is divided.
The belief that their country should respond to a hypothetical Russian attack on a NATO ally has become less common over time in a handful of countries. For example, in Italy, only a quarter in 2019 say that their country should defend a NATO ally, down from four-in-ten in 2015. Similar declines over this time period occurred in Poland (-8 percentage points), Spain (-7) and France (-6). However, support for protecting a fellow NATO nation has increased in the UK since 2015 (+6).
In eight of the countries polled, men are significantly more likely than women to say that their country should defend a NATO ally. For example, in Germany, 43% of men say that in the case of a Russian attack on a fellow NATO member their country should respond with force, compared with only a quarter of women. Similar double-digit differences occur in Spain, Hungary, the Czech Republic, the Netherlands and Poland.
Ideology also plays a role in people’s views about coming to an ally’s aid. In six countries, those who place themselves on the right end of the ideological spectrum are more willing to say they should defend a NATO ally than those on the right. This includes double-digit differences between right and left in all six countries: Spain (30 percentage points), the Czech Republic and Slovakia (21 points), Greece (14), and the UK and Italy (both 13 points).
Views on defending an ally from a potential Russian attack are related to general attitudes toward the use of military force. Across most of the NATO member countries surveyed, those who agree that military force is sometimes necessary to maintain order in the world are more likely to say that they would defend a fellow NATO member from an armed incursion than those who disagree that a military solution is the best choice for keeping order. For example, in Spain, 53% of those who agree that military force is sometimes necessary say they would come to the aid of a NATO ally, versus only 26% of those who disagree with the principle of military force – a 27 percentage point difference.
In contrast to skeptical opinions on whether their own country should come to the defense of a NATO ally, people are much more likely to think the U.S. would take military action in response to a Russian attack.
A median of 60% across the member countries say the U.S. would use military force to defend a NATO country that was subject to a Russian incursion. Only 29% across these countries believe the U.S. would not defend the country that was attacked.
Roughly two-thirds or more in Italy, the UK, Spain, Canada, the Netherlands and Greece say the U.S. would defend a NATO ally. Majorities in Germany, Slovakia, Lithuania and France agree.
Poles, on balance, say the U.S. would help out should Russia use military force against a neighboring NATO country, but sentiment is more divided in Turkey, the Czech Republic and Hungary.
Since 2015, there has been some change in a few countries on this question. The belief that the U.S. would defend a NATO ally is down 8 percentage points in France but up 7 points in the UK and Spain. These sentiments are also up 6 points in Turkey.
In Hungary, views that the U.S. would help out in the event of a Russia attack are down significantly since 2017, falling 16 percentage points.
Young adults in Spain, France, Slovakia, Canada and Germany are more likely to believe the U.S. would defend a NATO ally against a Russian attack. For example, in Spain, 84% of 18- to 29-year-olds say the U.S. would uphold their Article 5 obligations, compared with 68% of those 50 and older.
In almost every country surveyed, people are significantly more likely to say the U.S. would defend an ally from a Russia attack than say their own country should take such action.
The biggest difference measured is in Italy, where three-quarters say the U.S. would use such military force in such a scenario, compared with only a quarter who say Italy should defend that NATO ally, a 50 percentage point difference. Similar differences are seen in Greece (40 points), Spain (31), Germany (29), Slovakia (25), the UK (18), France (16), Turkey (14) and Canada (13).
Many NATO countries in Europe value a close relationship with both the U.S. and Russia
In nearly every country surveyed, larger shares support close ties with the U.S. than with Russia, with the exceptions of Bulgaria and Slovakia. And in many countries polled, publics tend to volunteer that a close relationship with both the U.S. and Russia is important.
Particularly in Western Europe, the share of the public that says a relationship with the U.S. is more important is substantial. For example, in the UK and the Netherlands, about eight-in-ten support ties with the U.S. over Russia or both. And in Sweden, a non-NATO state, 71% support closer ties with the U.S. than with Russia (11%) or both countries (9%).
Choosing a close relationship with Russia over the U.S. is considerably less widespread across the countries surveyed. Bulgarians are the most prone to this point of view, but just 28% say a close relationship with Russia is more important for their country. A quarter of Germans say it is important for their country to have a close relationship with Russia, compared with 39% who favor a close relationship with the U.S. Three-in-ten Germans volunteer that a close relationship with both countries would be preferable.
Central and Eastern European publics tend to volunteer their preference for a close relationship with both the U.S. and Russia. In Hungary, Poland, Slovakia and Bulgaria, roughly half or more say a relationship with both countries is important. And in Italy, Greece, the Czech Republic and Lithuania, about four-in-ten or more say the same.
Ideology is linked to views of closer relations with the U.S. In 11 of 14 countries, those on the ideological right are more likely to support a close relationship with the U.S. than those on the left. In the Czech Republic, for example, 40% of those on the right say a close relationship with the U.S. is more important, compared to 15% of those on the left, a difference of 25 percentage points.
Hungary is an exception. Hungarians on the left (40%) are almost twice as likely as their counterparts on the right (21%) to support close U.S. relations.
Most NATO and non-NATO countries believe military force is sometimes necessary
There is widespread support across most of the NATO countries surveyed for the use of military force to maintain order in the world. A median of 57% across 16 member countries agree that military force is sometimes necessary, while a median of 36% disagree.
Across most countries surveyed – both members of NATO and those that do not belong to the organization – about half or more support the use of military force to maintain order. And in seven countries (Sweden, the U.S., Canada, the UK, Turkey, Russia and Hungary) seven-in-ten or more hold this view.
Germans are more divided, with 47% saying that military force is sometimes necessary and a similar 52% disagreeing with that statement. In Bulgaria, only 38% say military force is sometimes necessary.
Support for military force has changed since Pew Research Center asked this question in 2007.
For example, in both Ukraine and Russia, two countries engaged in conflict since 2014, publics increasingly say military force is sometimes necessary (by 11 and 9 percentage points, respectively). This opinion has also become more common in Slovakia and Germany.
Yet in several European countries, support for military force has waned. This is the case in Italy (a decrease of 21 percentage points), Spain (10 points) and the Czech Republic (9).
In 12 countries, people on the right of the ideological spectrum are more apt than those on the left to agree that military force can be justified. In Spain, for example, those on the right are about twice as likely to support military force as their counterparts on the left.
In the U.S., conservatives are 25 percentage points more likely than liberals to say military force is sometimes needed. Similarly, 91% of Republicans and Republican-leaning independents say military force is sometimes necessary, while 71% of Democrats and Democratic-leaning independents agree.
Gender also shapes views of military action. Across most of the NATO and non-NATO countries surveyed, men are more likely than women believe in the need for military force. In the Czech Republic, for example, 63% of men say military force is sometimes necessary, compared with 45% of women. And in Ukraine, 71% of men support military force, versus 56% of women. Double-digit gender differences are also present in Germany (14 points), Poland (12), Bulgaria (12), Hungary (11), Italy (11) and Spain (10).
Are there parts of neighboring countries that really belong to us?
Across NATO and non-NATO countries, there is disagreement over whether parts of neighboring countries really belong to them. A median of 45% across the 16 NATO countries surveyed disagree, while a median of 35% agree (in several countries, the share who did not express an opinion is relatively high).
The shares who agree with this statement are highest in Central and Eastern European countries surveyed. About two-thirds of Hungarians (67%) agree that parts of neighboring countries belong to them, including 40% who completely agree. In Turkey, 58% agree that parts of nearby countries belong to them. And in neighboring Greece, 60% say the same.
In Western European countries, sentiments tend to run in the opposite direction. In Sweden (82%), the Netherlands (74%), the UK (72%), Germany (62%), Spain (60%) and France (59%), majorities disagree that there are parts of other countries that belong to them.
In both the U.S. and Canada, publics overwhelmingly disagree that parts of other countries belong to them (73% and 65%, respectively). However, a quarter of Canadians and roughly one-in-five Americans say the opposite and agree that there are parts of neighboring countries that belong to them.
Russians and Ukrainians tend to agree that parts of neighboring countries belong to them (53% and 47%, respectively).
In Europe, supporters of right-wing populist parties tend to be more likely to say parts of neighboring countries belong to their country. Supporters of right-wing populist parties are more likely to agree with this statement for nearly every European right-wing populist party included in the survey. In Spain, for example, those who have a favorable view of Vox are 27 percentage points more likely to say parts of another country belong to Spain than those who do not have a favorable view of the party.
Correction (February 12, 2020): This post has been updated with the proper characterization of NATO’s founding treaty and revised a significant difference in Lithuania. The changes due to these adjustments do not materially change the analysis of the report.
| 21,364
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politics
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Should NATO's policy in Eastern Europe have been different over the last 30 years?
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d49ff0981ce5
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https://www.aclu.org/news/immigrants-rights/five-things-to-know-about-the-right-to-seek-asylum
|
Five Things to Know About the Right to Seek Asylum
Although our laws provide a clear right for people fleeing persecution to seek asylum in the United States, anti-immigration lawmakers have purposefully sown confusion about the law, the process of applying for asylum, and what is really needed to ensure a fair and orderly system for considering the claims of people seeking protection at the border. Instead of seeking solutions, they have tried to undermine the right to seek asylum at every turn.
Here’s what you need to know:
Seeking asylum is a human right protected under our laws.
The right to seek asylum — or safety from persecution — in another country was born out of the tragedies of World War II and the horrors of the Holocaust. In its aftermath, dozens of nations committed to never again slam the door on people in need of protection. The right to asylum was enshrined in 1948’s Universal Declaration of Human Rights and then again in the Refugee Convention of 1951 and its 1967 Protocol.
The United States passed its own federal law in the Refugee Act of 1980, for people who are fleeing persecution on “account of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion.” The Refugee Act is meant to ensure that individuals who seek asylum from within the U.S. or at its border are not sent back to places where they face persecution.
In today’s world, these protections remain critical, with more people forcibly displaced from their homes due to conflict, violence, and human rights violations than at any other point since World War II.
To be granted asylum, people must come to the U.S. or the border and must prove their case.
Elected officials and news outlets often mischaracterize those seeking asylum at the border as breaking the law or failing to seek protection “the right way.” However, under U.S. law, a person seeking asylum may do so by arriving at the border and asking to be screened by U.S. officials at a “port of entry,” or by entering the U.S. without prior inspection and then declaring their fear of persecution.
In either case, people seeking asylum at the border are subjected to a criminal background and security check. They must then navigate a complex and lengthy process, involving multiple government agencies, in order to prove that they have a well founded fear of persecution. Those who lose their cases and any appeals are ordered removed and are deported. Since March of 2020, most people seeking asylum at the border have been denied the right to do so under normal rules, and have instead been expelled from the U.S. under Title 42, described below.
Many policies threaten the right to seek asylum, but none actually stop people from trying to seek protection at the border.
President Trump implemented multiple policies in an attempt to end asylum at the border. President Biden promised to restore a fair and humane asylum system, but has been slow to fully reverse Trump’s policies. For example, Title 42, which uses the COVID-19 pandemic as a pretext for expelling asylum seekers without offering them any opportunity to seek protection, remains in effect. The policy has led to thousands of documented cases of violent attacks against individuals who the U.S. has expelled, including rape, torture, and abduction.
Elected officials in both parties have sought to justify restrictive asylum policies for their “deterrence” value, claiming that they discourage migrants from coming to the border. But these policies do not stop people from seeking safety and ultimately create more disorder. Title 42, for example, has encouraged people seeking protection to try multiple times to cross. Even after imposing the strictest and most punitive rules against asylum seekers, President Trump faced sharp increases in the numbers of migrants seeking asylum at the border, the highest numbers in over a decade.
Despite obstacles, asylum-seekers become integral members of our communities.
People seeking asylum in the U.S. must overcome many challenges. They leave their homes behind and endure grueling journeys in pursuit of safety. When they arrive, they are often unnecessarily detained by ICE in abusive conditions, even though they have family members or friends they could stay with while their cases proceed.
Despite these obstacles, asylum-seekers are eager to provide for their families and contribute to their communities. They have gone on to open their own businesses, work in jobs that help feed our communities, care for sick people, and advocate for people’s rights, contributing billions in taxes and revenue. One recent study estimated that on average, an asylum seeker contributes over $19,000 per year to the U.S. economy, and that a 25 percent reduction in the number of all people seeking asylum in the country would cause an economic loss of $20.5 billion over a five-year period.
Excess money spent on policing the border would be better spent on creating a fair, orderly, and welcoming system.
We need a more efficient, humane, and welcoming system at the border for people seeking asylum. Much of the money Congress currently spends on a bloated Border Patrol police force should be spent instead on making sure our immigration agencies and federal courts have enough employees and judges to adjudicate asylum claims in a fair and orderly manner, and to ensure that people are supported in their efforts to join their family members and sponsors in their destination locations. The sooner people are able to integrate into their new homes and are issued work permits, the sooner they’ll be able to support themselves and their families and contribute in other ways to their new communities.
| 5,705
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politics
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Should refugees be allowed to seek asylum in other countries?
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e4079838c257
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https://www.npr.org/2022/01/29/1076193616/ukraine-russia-nato-explainer
|
How NATO's expansion helped drive Putin to invade Ukraine
Russian military forces and Russian-backed separatists have invaded Ukraine. NATO Secretary-General Jens Stoltenberg says NATO allies condemn in "strongest possible terms" Russia's "horrifying attack" on Ukraine. With the invasion, a 30-year-old foreign policy debate has made a return to center stage.
The question: Should NATO, the mutual defense pact formed in the wake of World War II that has long served to represent Western interests and counter Russia's influence in Europe, expand eastward?
NATO's founding articles declare that any European country that is able to meet the alliance's criteria for membership can join. This includes Ukraine. The U.S. and its allies in Europe have repeatedly said they are committed to that "open-door" policy.
But in the words of Russian President Vladimir Putin, NATO's eastward march represents decades of broken promises from the West to Moscow.
"You promised us in the 1990s that [NATO] would not move an inch to the East. You cheated us shamelessly," Putin said at a news conference in December.
The U.S. says a ban on expansion was never on the table. But Russia insists it was — and now, Putin is demanding a permanent ban on Ukraine from joining the pact.
"Unsurprisingly, when you look at the evidence, what happened is somewhere in between," said Mary Sarotte, a post-Cold War historian whose book about those negotiations, Not One Inch: America, Russia, and the Making of Post-Cold War Stalemate, was published last fall.
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What is the origin of Putin's "not move an inch" claim?
For the first four decades of NATO's existence, the treaty represented the U.S., Canada and America's closest allies in Western and southern Europe. On the other side of the Iron Curtain were the Soviet Union and its allies in Central and Eastern Europe, including the former East Germany.
But that long-standing divide was challenged in 1989 when anti-communist protests spread across East Germany and other countries in Central and Eastern Europe.
Early in the effort to reunify Germany, U.S. officials wrestled with the question of Soviet control of the east: What could entice Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev to withdraw?
"The Americans guess that maybe what Gorbachev wants in exchange for letting Germany unify is a promise that NATO will not expand eastward," Sarotte said. "And so Secretary of State [James] Baker, in a speculative way in an early stage of negotiations, says to Gorbachev, 'How about this idea: How about you let your half of Germany go, and we agree to move that one piece forward?' "
But President George H.W. Bush rejected the idea, and when more formal negotiations began later in 1990, a ban on NATO expansion was never actually offered, Sarotte said.
There is some disagreement about what took place during the Baker-Gorbachev talks in February 1990. Some say that when Baker suggested that NATO shift not "one inch" to the east, he intended to refer only to East Germany, because neither side had begun to think about NATO expansion beyond that.
Seemingly conflicting comments from U.S. officials and Gorbachev made years later do not help clear this up. (Former U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice said as recently as Friday that "nobody was even imagining Czechoslovakia or Poland or Hungary at that time.")
The historical record shows otherwise, according to Sarotte. Contemporaneous notes, letters, speeches and interviews show that Western leaders were, in fact, already contemplating NATO enlargement by the time the February 1990 talks took place, she says.
What is not in dispute: Gorbachev later agreed to withdraw from East Germany in exchange for financial concessions, in a treaty that did not place limits on the future expansion of NATO.
"But there's this residual bitterness afterwards. Still, to this day, Putin is saying, 'Look, there was this other offer on the table, right?' " Sarotte said. "And that's sort of factually accurate in a narrow sense, but it doesn't reflect the reality of the treaty."
Why did the West want to enlarge NATO, and how did Russia react?
When the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, the NATO expansion question became more urgent — both for the U.S. looking to cement its influence in Europe and for countries emerging from communist control, like Poland, Hungary and the Czech Republic.
"They believed that the United States could bring them into the West, which was what they wanted. And they believed that the United States could protect them if Russia ever became aggressive again," said James Goldgeier, an American University professor who has written extensively about NATO.
From the beginning, Russia strongly objected to NATO's borders creeping closer to its territory. In 1997, Russian President Boris Yeltsin tried to secure a guarantee from President Bill Clinton that NATO would not add any former Soviet republics. Clinton refused.
The U.S. hoped that its financial support, along with diplomatic overtures from NATO, could be enough to counterbalance Russia's displeasure over expansion — but ultimately, that didn't work, Goldgeier said.
Over the course of the 1990s and early 2000s, NATO expanded three times: first to add the Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland; then seven more countries even farther east, including the former Soviet republics of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania; and finally with Albania and Croatia in 2009.
"Obviously, the more it did to stabilize the situation in central and Eastern Europe and bring them into the West, the more it antagonized the Russians," he said.
Why is Ukraine important?
Ukraine, as the largest former Soviet republic in Europe besides Russia itself, has been a key part of alliance talks since it declared independence from the USSR in 1991. In the three decades since, NATO expansion has put four members on Ukraine's borders.
"The Russians were always concerned about how far NATO enlargement was going to go. It's one thing for Poland to come in, or the Czech Republic to come in. That's not such a big deal. But there was always a concern about Ukraine," Goldgeier said.
Putin himself has long said that he believes Ukrainians and Russians to be a single people, unified by language, culture and religion. In July 2021, he wrote a long essay about the "historical unity" between the two nations.
For the U.S. and its Western allies, a successful and independent Ukraine was a potent potential symbol that Russia's time as a powerful empire had come to an end.
During the early 2000s, President George W. Bush pushed for Ukraine to become a NATO member. France and Germany opposed it, fearing escalation with Russia.
The result was a "worst of all worlds" compromise in 2008, Goldgeier said: a promise that Ukraine would eventually join NATO, but without any concrete timeline or pathway to do so.
When the compromise was announced, some analysts were surprised that "there was not this major temper tantrum" from Putin and Russia, said Rose Gottemoeller, an American diplomat who served as deputy secretary general of NATO from 2016 to 2019.
"It needed another 15 years before the major temper tantrum ensued. Unfortunately, we're experiencing it now," Gottemoeller said.
Why has this come up again now?
Ukraine cannot imminently join NATO. Aspiring members are asked to meet various conditions before they are allowed to begin the process of joining via a "Membership Action Plan." NATO allies have not yet granted that to Ukraine — and have long appeared uninterested in offering, in part because of political complications with Russia.
Now, Russia's protests over Ukraine's future membership have put the U.S. and NATO in a difficult spot over NATO's "open-door" policy.
"The louder Moscow protested, the more determined western capitals became to deny Russia what was seen as a veto over alliance decision-making," Samuel Charap, a Russia specialist at Rand Corp., wrote in the Financial Times earlier this month.
And the more Putin has tried to control Ukraine and its foreign policy, the more he has pushed Ukrainians themselves to look toward the West, experts said.
Russia's annexation of Crimea from Ukraine in 2014 was a major turning point. Afterward, popular support for joining NATO rose among Ukrainians, who had once been more ambivalent about the alliance.
"Putin has constructed in his head and in his heart, perhaps, the idea that NATO is encircling him, that that has always been the intention," said Rice, speaking at a Council on Foreign Relations panel on Friday. "Ukraine is moving closer to the West — but it's doing it because the Russians have been annexing Ukrainian territory and threatening the Ukrainians."
(In annexing Crimea, Russia itself broke a promise: In the Budapest Memorandum, a treaty Russia signed with the U.S. and U.K. in 1994, it committed "to respect the independence and sovereignty and the existing borders of Ukraine" in exchange for Ukraine's denuclearization.)
None of that has deterred Putin, for whom Ukraine is "personal," says Andrea Kendall-Taylor, a former senior U.S. intelligence officer now with the Center for a New American Security.
"Putin, over his 22 years now in power, has tried and failed repeatedly to bring Ukraine back into the fold. And I think he senses that now is his time to take care of this unfinished business," she told NPR's Weekend Edition Sunday.
With the U.S. internally divided over domestic politics and Germany's new government not yet settled on policy positions after the departure of longtime Chancellor Angela Merkel, Putin "senses that this is a good time to push matters," said Sarotte.
"He's basically holding Ukraine hostage to force a do-over of these NATO expansion battles," she said.
| 9,730
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politics
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Should NATO's policy in Eastern Europe have been different over the last 30 years?
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009aa6dab659
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https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/refugees
|
The definition of a refugee is someone who:
"owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence, is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it"
At the end of June 2024, 122.6 million people worldwide were forcibly displaced from their homes due to persecution, conflict, violence, human rights violations and events seriously disturbing public order.
Among those were 43.7 million refugees, (32 million refugees under UNHCR's mandate, and 6 million Palestine refugees under UNRWA's mandate). There were also 72.1 million internally displaced people and 8 million asylum seekers.
In the first half of 2024, the primary factors driving the increase in refugee numbers were ongoing displacements from Sudan and Ukraine. As of mid-2024, just over one-third of all refugees under the UNHCR's mandate, along with others in need of international protection, are hosted in the Islamic Republic of Iran, Türkiye, Colombia, Germany, and Uganda.
New internal displacements occurred in 16 countries, with six of them – Sudan, Myanmar, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ukraine, Haiti and Mozambique – accounting for 90 per cent of people who were forced to flee within their own country in 2024.
There are diminishing prospects for refugees when it comes to hopes of any quick end to their plight. In the 1990s, on average 1.5 million refugees were able to return home each year. Over the past decade that number has fallen to around 385,000, meaning that growth in displacement is today far outstripping solutions.
UNHCR, the UN Refugee Agency
People fleeing persecution and conflict have been granted asylum in foreign lands for thousands of years. The UN agency that helps refugees is UNHCR (also known as the UN Refugee Agency), which emerged in the wake of World War II to help Europeans displaced by that conflict.
UNHCR was established on December 14, 1950 by the UN General Assembly with a three-year mandate to complete its work and then disband. The following year, on July 28, the legal foundation of helping refugees and the basic statute guiding UNHCR's work, the United Nations Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, was adopted. So instead of ending its work after three years, UNHCR has been working ever since to help refugees.
In the 1960s, the decolonization of Africa produced the first of that continent's numerous refugee crises needing UNHCR intervention. Over the following two decades, UNHCR had to help with displacement crises in Asia and Latin America. By the end of the century there were fresh refugee problems in Africa and, turning full circle, new waves of refugees in Europe from the series of wars in the Balkans.
UNHCR in the field
The UN Refugee Agency has its Headquarters in Geneva, but about 89 per cent of staff are in the field. Today, our staff provides protection and assistance to millions of refugees, returnees, internally displaced and stateless people in 136 countries. The largest portion of UNHCR staff are based in countries in Asia and Africa, the continents that both host and generate the most refugees and internally displaced people. Many are in isolated locations where staff work in difficult - and often dangerous - conditions.
Nansen Refugee Award
The UNHCR Nansen Refugee Award is given to individuals, groups, and organizations that demonstrate exceptional commitment to protecting refugees, displaced and stateless people.
The award was established in 1954 to honor the legacy of Fridtjof Nansen, a Norwegian scientist, polar explorer, diplomat, and the first High Commissioner for Refugees for the League of Nations.
The first Nansen Refugee Award was presented in 1954 to Eleanor Roosevelt, the first Chair of the UN Human Rights Commission and First Lady of the United States alongside President Franklin D. Roosevelt.
Since then, over 60 individuals, organizations or groups have been honored with the Award, for their exceptional work and service towards people who are compelled to leave their homes.
Global Compact on Refugees
On 17 December 2018, the United Nations General Assembly approved the Global Compact on Refugees, a framework for more predictable and equitable responsibility-sharing, recognizing that a sustainable solution to refugee situations cannot be achieved without international cooperation.
The four key objectives of the Global Compact are:
- Ease the pressures on host countries
- Enhance refugee self-reliance.
- Expand access to third-country solutions.
- Support conditions in countries of origin for return in safety and dignity.
The 2023 Global Refugee Forum, an event designed to support the practical implementation of the four objectives and the world’s largest international gathering on refugees, resulted in more than 1,600 pledges in support of refugees and their host communities, including 43 multi-partner commitments led by governments.
An estimated $2.2 billion in new financial commitments were announced by States and other actors, with some $250 million pledged by the private sector. These outcomes offer a source of hope for the more than 36 million refugees displaced worldwide.
UNRWA
The United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA), was mandated by the UN General Assembly in 1949 to provide services to registered Palestine refugees in the Middle East. When the Agency began operations in 1950, it was responding to the needs of about 750,000 Palestine refugees.
UNRWA is a direct service provider, delivering primary and secondary education, health care, relief and social services, camp infrastructure and improvement, microfinance, and emergency aid to Palestine refugees, now numbering almost 6 million, in the Agency’s five mandated areas of operation: the Gaza Strip, West Bank, including East Jerusalem, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria.
UNRWA mandate
Definitions of refugees under the 1951 Refugee Convention and of Palestine refugees per the UN General Assembly are complementary.
For UNRWA’s mandate, ‘Palestine refugee’ relates to people whose normal place of residence was Palestine between 1 June 1946 and 15 May 1948 and who lost both home and means of livelihood as a result of the 1948 conflict. Palestine refugees and their descendants can register with UNRWA to receive services in UNRWA’s mandated areas of operation.
The Member States, through the UN General Assembly, have tasked UNRWA to provide assistance and protection to Palestine refugees until a just and lasting political solution is found that addresses their plight.
Aftermath of 7 October 2023 attack
Since the beginning of the Israeli military operation in Gaza in response to the attack on Israel by Palestinian armed groups, almost two million people have been internally displaced in Gaza and 92% of the housing units have been either destroyed, or partially damaged preventing people from returning home
Following allegations that 12 UNRWA staff were involved in the attacks, the Secretary-General opened an investigation, the results of which were made public later in the year. The decision by various Member States to suspend funding to UNRWA over the allegations prompted a statement by the heads of the Inter-Agency Standing Committee, the UN System’s highest-level humanitarian coordination forum, warning that “pausing funds from UNRWA will have catastrophic consequences for the people of Gaza”.
Descendants of refugees retain refugee status
Under international law and the principle of family unity, the children of refugees and their descendants are also considered refugees until a durable solution is found. Both UNRWA and UNHCR recognize descendants as refugees on this basis, a practice that has been widely accepted by the international community, including both donors and refugee hosting countries.
Palestine refugees are not distinct from other protracted refugee situations such as those from Afghanistan or Somalia, where there are multiple generations of refugees, considered by UNHCR as refugees and supported as such. Protracted refugee situations are the result of the failure to find political solutions to their underlying political crises.
Support for refugee camps
UN peacekeepers are often there to protect the camps in which refugees must live. When they are left without access to such basic necessities as food, water, sanitation and health care, the UN family provides it. Much of this support is provided through the United Nations humanitarian action machinery. The Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC), through its “cluster approach”, brings together all major humanitarian agencies, both within and outside the UN system, for coordinated action.
UNHCR is the lead agency with respect to the protection of refugees and the internally displaced. Along with the International Organization for Migration (IOM), it is the lead agency for camp coordination and management. And it shares the lead with respect to emergency shelter with the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies.
The Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees has twice been the recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize — in 1954 and most recently in 1981.
Climate change, natural disasters and displacement
In addition to persecution and conflict, in the 21st century, natural disaster (sometimes due to climate change) can also force people to seek refuge in other countries. Such disasters – floods, earthquakes, hurricanes, mudslides – are increasing in frequency and intensity. While most of the displacement caused by these events is internal, they can also cause people to cross borders. None of the existing international and regional refugee law instruments, however, specifically addresses the plight of such people.
Displacement caused by the slow-onset effects of climate change is largely internal as well. But through its acceleration of drought, desertification, the salinization of ground water and soil, and rising sea levels, climate change, too, can contribute to the displacement of people across international frontiers.
Other human-made calamities, such as severe socio-economic deprivation, can also cause people to flee across borders. While some may be escaping persecution, most leave because they lack any meaningful option to remain. The lack of food, water, education, health care and a livelihood would not ordinarily and by themselves sustain a refugee claim under the 1951 Convention. Nevertheless, some of these people may need some form of protection.
All of these circumstances - conflict, natural disasters, and climate change - pose enormous challenges for the international humanitarian community.
Climate change and conflict
An increasing numbers of people fleeing persecution, violence and human rights violations linked to the adverse effects of climate change and disasters require international protection.
In 2022, 84% of refugees and asylum seekers fled from countries highly vulnerable to climate change, whereas it was only 61% in 2010. The possibility of finding long-term solutions for these refugees is becoming increasingly limited. In 2020, only 1% of refugees were able to return home, which is a worrying trend, as the impact of climate change worsens the living conditions and opportunities for development in their countries of origin.
Moreover, a considerable percentage of forcibly displaced and stateless people are currently living in the most climate-vulnerable environments across the world. These people, along with their host communities, lack the resources and resilience necessary to cope with the impacts of climate change.
Women, girls, and other groups with specific needs often face greater challenges and burdens from the effects of climate change, due to existing cultural norms, roles, and responsibilities.
Events
As proclaimed by the General Assembly, World Refugee Day is observed annually on 20 June.
The UN General Assembly hosted a high-level meeting on 19 September 2016 to address large movements of refugees and migrants, with the aim of bringing countries together behind a more humane and coordinated approach.
| 12,420
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Should refugees be allowed to seek asylum in other countries?
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https://www.jrf.org.uk/report/universal-basic-income-good-idea
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Is Universal Basic Income a good idea?
Universal Basic Income (UBI) could be designed to reduce poverty, improve income security and boost well-being, but could be expensive and challenging to introduce. Many of its goals could be achieved through changes to the existing social security system and addressing the underlying causes of insecurity in the labour and housing markets.
Universal Basic Income (UBI, Citizens’ Basic Income – CBI, or simply Basic Income) is an idea whose time appears to have come. The Welsh Government has committed to trialling it, the Scottish Government has invested in the feasibility of pilots, several English cities are keen to test it out and a number of political parties included UBI trials in their manifestos. But is it really the right basis on which to build a post-pandemic society? What problems is it trying to solve? Is it the only or the best solution to those issues?
What exactly is Universal Basic Income?
There are many models but at its heart it is a regular cash payment every individual receives, without any reference to their other income or wealth and without any conditions. Payment amounts can vary according to broad demographic characteristics, such as a different payment for working-age adults, children and pensioners.
It is important to distinguish UBI from a Minimum Income Guarantee, which at its most basic is simply a set of policies designed to ensure no one falls below a set income level.
What problems are intended to be solved by UBI?
Some argue that Universal Basic Income is part of a radical rethinking of our economy and society, that provides a level of economic security to everyone and destigmatises the social security system. It is also seen as a potential solution to insecurity in the labour market.
The social security problems which UBI could help to address include -
- Coverage. Too many people locked out of the support they need, due to:
Policy design - for example, deficiencies in maternity and paternity pay, support whilst training, and low-earning workers without Statutory Sick Pay.
Non-take up - due to stigma, lack of awareness, mistakes, the difficulty or unpleasantness of the system.
Dropping out of the system - because of conditions or treatment.
Sanctions - losing part or all of your benefits because you are deemed not to have met the conditions of receipt.
Delays, errors and problems with benefits - which can result in people having to go for long periods of time with little or no income.
- Adequacy. High poverty rates for some groups even when they receive social security and are meeting work or activity requirements, demonstrate its current inadequacy. Official food insecurity statistics show 4 in 10 Universal Credit claimants can’t even afford food. Providing a high enough universal payment could ensure everyone has the resources to meet basic standards of living, preventing poverty or destitution.
- Uncertainty. Many people, particularly those on low incomes, emphasise the importance of having predictable and stable payments. Yet people often experience variable and unpredictable fluctuations in benefit payments.
- Complexity. Any system which tailors support to individual circumstances will entail some complexity. Introducing ever more means-testing and conditions attached to various benefits requires more complex systems and processes.
- Dignity, respect and well-being. Not all benefit claimants experience problems or feel they are treated poorly. But some find the culture of our social security system suspicious, disrespectful and undignified. There is evidence of the negative impact of these experiences on people’s mental health. Over many years, the ramping up of conditionality and means testing has been accompanied by a narrative of ‘scroungers and skivers’, a presumption that there are large numbers of people trying to game the system, and a drive to reduce claimant numbers.
Some advocates also argue that UBI could improve work incentives, if it was either not withdrawn at all as people earned more or was withdrawn at a lower rate than in the current benefit system. (Although others worry that the incentive to enter work at all might be reduced if people could rely on a high enough income outside it, discussed further below).
Alongside problems in our social security system, many advocates also see UBI as a response to increasing insecurity in our labour market. Too often low-paid jobs are unpredictable and insecure. Workers don’t know what shifts or hours they will be working from one week to the next or how long the job will last. People cycle in and out of low-paid, temporary jobs, never able to rely on a steady income. UBI could provide a fixed income stream to offset this earnings volatility. In addition, some argue that UBI would free people to choose whether to take paid work or care for others, train or do other activities, and would recognise the value to society of such activities. In this scenario, it might bring wider benefits through better job matches and people holding out for better quality work, creating pressure on employers to pay more and achieve greater productivity. There are also wider debates about the extent to which automation may lead to significantly fewer jobs or climate change may necessitate such major economic changes that there will be a new norms of people doing much less paid work. For some, UBI is a necessary accompaniment to such radical economic changes.
Finally, there are a range of other arguments put forward for UBI which do not relate to poverty, social security or labour market insecurity, such as the idea it would reduce the level of state involvement in people’s lives. In this piece, we focus on the arguments relating to poverty and insecurity. There are, of course, versions of UBI which would significantly increase poverty by reducing the support provided to those on low incomes, but we assume these would not be proposed by those aiming to reduce poverty.
UBI: costs and impacts
Most UBI proposals now include two features, in contrast to some earlier proposals which intended to replace all benefits with UBI or introduce UBI without accompanying tax changes. Alongside flat payments, there would continue to be a system of benefits linked to costs. A system of flat payments alone could not offer adequate support with varying costs of housing, childcare or disability. This means that there would continue to be a degree of complexity and means-testing even if UBI was introduced (sometimes known as UBI+), and that efforts to improve the existing system must continue. Second, UBI would replace parts of the tax system as well as social security. Most likely, the tax-free personal allowance would be removed, so people would pay tax on the entirety of their earned income. Depending on the design, many on lower- to middle-incomes would more than recoup this in the universal payment.
Costs and poverty impacts
A key design question is obviously the level at which UBI is set. Would it be based below, at, or just above current benefit levels? Or provide much higher payments, for instance at the level of JRF’s Minimum Income Standard?* This would be the main determinant of both the cost of UBI and its immediate impact on poverty levels.
A recent study by the Fraser of Allander Institute, Manchester Metropolitan University and IPPR Scotland, examined the costs and benefits of a Citizen’s Basic Income in Scotland at current benefit or at Minimum Income Standard level. These costs relate to introducing the scheme in Scotland; those for a UK-wide version would be much higher. However, estimates of necessary tax rate increases would be similar whether in Scotland or across the whole country.
A UBI based on current benefit levels would bring clear gains for those who are currently ineligible, where they are on a low income but are shut out, or fall out, of the existing system; it would probably bring smaller gains for many of those successfully claiming current benefits. Fraser of Allander et al estimates the costs and impacts of introducing this kind of UBI in Scotland. This scheme would require £7 billion in net additional funding (after existing benefits have been reduced and the tax-free personal allowance eliminated), paid for by increasing all tax rates by eight percentage points. UBI at this level would deliver lower levels of poverty and greater income security (reducing the number of people in poverty in Scotland by a quarter and child poverty by a third). However, it seems unlikely to achieve wider goals of significantly reducing insecurity and allowing more people to choose whether to care, train, or hold out for better jobs.
Introducing a higher level of UBI, for instance at Minimum Income Standard level, would potentially achieve these benefits and almost eradicate poverty in Scotland, but would be extremely expensive. Fraser of Allander et al estimates this would require £38 billion in net additional funding (again, after existing benefits have been reduced and the tax-free personal allowance eliminated). If funded through income tax it would require tax rates to start at 58p for the first £1 earned and rise to 85p for the higher and top rates. The Minimum Income Standard is significantly higher than the poverty line. An alternative would be to set UBI rates at or around the poverty line. This would be less costly than a version based on the Minimum Income Standard but still very expensive.
The specific design of UBI significantly impacts the distribution of winners and losers, and increases or decreases in poverty amongst different groups. Some proposals result in higher poverty for some groups than under the current social security system. One version with UBI payments based mainly on current benefit levels (funded by increasing tax rates by three percentage points and abolishing the tax-free personal allowance and National Insurance thresholds) would reduce poverty overall but lead to higher poverty rates for children and lone parents. Around 20% of people in the poorest fifth would lose more than 5% of their income (despite the scheme being highly redistributive overall).
Other proposals avoid big losses for people on low incomes. Malcolm Torry proposed a UBI payment of £60 per week, funded by raising the basic, higher and top rates of tax by two, three and four percentage points respectively (and substantially reducing – though not eliminating - the tax-free personal allowance and National Insurance threshold). This reduces the number of people in poverty by 16% and children in poverty by 13%, while fewer than 2% of the poorest fifth of households lose more than 5% of their income. Compass proposed a scheme that reduces working-age poverty by a fifth and child poverty by a third, with only around 1% of people in the bottom fifth losing more than 5% of their income. It raises existing tax rates by three percentage points, abolishes the tax-free personal allowance and National Insurance thresholds, and introduces a starter tax rate of 15% on the first £11,850 of earnings. However, that leaves a funding gap of £28 billion.
These models provide only illustrative examples of how UBI might be funded by income tax. In reality, such radical changes might require a more balanced tax response (such as wealth or carbon taxes) but there is no doubt that significant tax rises would be necessary.
Employment and work incentives
Would giving people an income regardless of work lead to many more people deciding not to take paid employment, valuing the unpaid work of carers and contributions to society other than paid jobs? If so, would that damage or improve our economy and society? Alternatively, UBI could increase work incentives by reducing the rate at which income from it was reduced as someone earned more. For example, Universal Credit is reduced by 63p in every pound earned above a set level; under some versions of UBI this would change to someone losing only 20p for every pound earned.
Economic models estimate employment effects purely through a financial lens. Work incentives are calculated according to the net financial gain from taking a job or increasing earnings. Most modelling suggests that UBI (accompanied by higher taxes on earnings to pay for it) would have a complex mix of impacts. Some groups see increased work incentives because their benefits are reduced by less as they move into work or earn more. Others have lower work incentives due to unearned income and higher tax rates. Under the version of UBI modelled by Fraser of Allander et al, the overall result was that UBI reduced financial incentives to work and so could lead to a lower labour supply and a smaller economy. By contrast, Martinelli and Pearce found that several UBI schemes strengthened work incentives on average for low- and middle-income households.
A change on the scale of UBI would be likely to affect other aspects of our economy, for instance how wages were set. It is hard to predict how individuals and businesses might react to such changes. In addition, in the real world we don’t make decisions purely on the basis assumed in economic modelling. There is limited evidence about how people respond to UBI in practice. So far, trials suggest that providing an unconditional payment may not have the negative employment effects found in some modelling. Finland is the only country to have carried out a nationwide, randomised control trial of UBI. The evaluation found that people receiving basic income were more likely to be in work than those in the control group. This is not conclusive, due to the introduction of other unemployment policies at the same time, although the signs from other smaller trials have also been positive, such as those in Stockton (USA) and the Netherlands. However, these trials have not examined the potential employment effects of changes to tax rates or other measures to fund such a system.
Health and well-being
One of the potential benefits of UBI is the removal of stress caused by means-tests, conditionality and uncertainty about whether support will be withdrawn, coupled with destigmatisation of social security support. This could lead to better mental and physical health. It is easy to see the well-being advantages of a system providing a reliable income, uncoupled from complex conditions, shorn of the fear of failing and the feeling of being seen as a scrounger or having to continually prove your eligibility. The limited evidence from trials backs up this theory. In Finland, people on basic income reported higher life satisfaction, better health and lower levels of depression and loneliness.
So, is UBI a good idea or not?
Some versions of UBI could reduce poverty and improve recipients’ mental health and well-being. But it would be expensive. It would require significant increases in tax rates, which people may be reluctant to accept, even if many of those on low- to middle-incomes would be better off overall once receipt of their UBI payment is accounted for. The principle of offering payments without conditions might well also meet resistance among the public.
Public attitudes towards welfare have been softening in recent years, with increasing support for raising benefit levels. There has also been rising willingness to pay more tax to fund more public spending. However, when asked what kind of public spending additional taxes should be spent on, very few people prioritise social security. When asked directly about UBI, some studies show a sizeable minority of the public are receptive to the idea, at least of a pilot, but with no majority in favour and significant concerns about cost and use of the money, even among supporters; other studies suggest around half may be in favour. JRF polling in Scotland found a majority in favour of the Minimum Income Guarantee and significant minorities receptive to the idea of UBI, but no majority for that, or for increasing unemployment benefits. Willingness to personally pay more tax to fund UBI may well also be much lower than such polling implies. YouGov polling in 2020 examined whether the British public would be willing to pay more in tax to deal with the costs of the pandemic. It found that the public did support tax rises, but not for themselves. Only a quarter would back a tax rise that affected everyone.
A second barrier to introducing UBI nationally is the potential complexity and disruption of introducing large-scale changes to the social security and tax systems. The roll-out of Universal Credit has shown just how challenging such a change can be, for claimants, staff and civil society. Many of those who rely on social security feel extremely fearful about transferring from one benefit to another, or from one system to another. The extent of potential disruption does depend on the details of the scheme. The addition of a small simple new universal payment while maintaining the rest of the existing benefit system around it might be less challenging.
Is this really necessary? Is it the only way to solve the problems in our social security system and labour market?
It is undoubtedly true that our social security system is failing to protect people from destitution and hardship. We need better coverage and to invest more in the system. But a multitude of changes to the existing system would go a long way to achieving those goals, without the expense and disruption of a new system. We could remove the benefit cap, the two-child limit and the five-week wait; extend sick pay to all; boost support for those at most risk of poverty; run national take up campaigns and reform council tax. A range of other measures, such as these, could be taken to fulfil other goals or principles of UBI. None of these individual changes would eradicate poverty, as a generous UBI system would. They would all require money and political will. But pursuing such improvements could transform the system for a fraction of the cost and difficulty of that kind associated with UBI.
Our current system fails to ensure that all those within it are treated with dignity and respect. It causes unnecessary and harmful stress for too many people and the sanctions regime is unnecessarily punitive. Again, however, we could roll back the complexity and harshness of conditionality and refocus the current system on maximising take up, valuing caring and supporting people to move into high-quality work.
Changing the public and media narrative is necessary to achieving greater and more sustainable investment in our social security system, whether that is to improve the existing system or put a new UBI in place. The question is whether couching the debate in terms of introducing UBI will be more or less effective in building that support compared to focusing more specifically on the different elements that are needed, such as greater understanding of the purpose of social security, greater empathy for those relying on it, the need for adequate support and dignity.
And what about the underlying issue of insecurity in work (and housing for that matter)? Our social security system needs to do more to counter the volatility in earned income that many low-earning workers face. For some, Universal Credit is exaggerating that volatility rather than counterbalancing it. This is a difficult policy challenge, but UBI is not the only way to solve it. Smaller changes could achieve significant improvements such as strengthening more universal elements of the system (like Child Benefit) and contributory benefits; more infrequent reassessments of eligibility for some benefits; run-ons when circumstances change, and disregard when incomes rise or fall by small amounts. Clearer incentives to move into work and increase earnings could be achieved by allowing people to earn more before they started to lose benefits and reducing the ‘taper rate’ so benefits reduce more slowly. All of these would require additional investment, so the argument about funding still needs to be won, but they would probably be less expensive and might be less challenging to achieve than UBI.
Addressing insecurity also requires wider changes to our economy and society – no social security system can or should do the whole job. We must redesign the labour market to offer greater security as well as better pay, training and treatment at work. We need more low-cost rented homes and better rights for private sector renters so that people on low incomes can be freed from the constant fear of homelessness.
UBI is not a silver bullet that would immediately and straightforwardly solve poverty. It could not replace the whole social security system. It is beyond doubt that a UBI that radically reduced poverty levels would require enormous increases in public spending and be a very significant redistribution across society. A smaller, less radical but potentially more immediately achievable, partial UBI payment could achieve some valuable outcomes but would fall short of some of the bigger aims of UBI. There are more targeted ways of achieving similar outcomes, although these might not bring some of the wider impacts of a very generous UBI.
The debate about ambitious interventions to reduce poverty is welcome, underlining the growing consensus that the current social security system is inadequate and does not provide the effective public service we need to protect people from poverty. A social security system that provides adequate support, reduces poverty and removes the indignities and stigma associated with the present system is a vital part of ending the injustice of poverty in the UK. A Minimum Income Guarantee could provide a positive framework within which to make progress. Whatever form it takes, it will require significant investment, for which we must build public support.
*The Minimum Income Standard (MIS) is funded by the Joseph Rowntree Foundation and carried out by Loughborough University. It involves research which produces budgets for different household types, based on what members of the public think you need for a minimum acceptable standard of living in the UK.
This report is part of the social security topic.
Find out more about our work in this area.
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Universal Basic Income (UBI)
Universal basic income (UBI) is an unconditional cash payment given at regular intervals by the government to all residents, regardless of their earnings or employment status. It is intended to create a financial floor or base, for reducing poverty and income inequalities and for ensuring that everyone has the resources to acquire basic needs. [45]
UBI remains largely theoretical and, thus, does not have much of a history.
Pilot UBI or more limited basic income programs that give a base income to a smaller group of people instead of an entire population have taken place or are ongoing on in many countries, including Brazil, Canada, China, Finland, Germany, India, Iran, Japan, Kenya, Namibia, Spain, and The Netherlands. Many U.S. cities—including Chicago, Stockton (CA), Cambridge (MA), Los Angeles, Denver, Oakland, among others—have also directed a “guaranteed basic income” (called GBI) to targeted groups such as low-income families and the unhoused; the guaranteed income has frequently been a monthly payment, for a specified amount of time, of $50 to $2,000.[46][61]
In the United States the Alaska Permanent Fund (AFP), created in 1976, is funded by oil revenue. AFP provides dividends to permanent residents of the state. The amount varies each year based on the stock market and other factors and has ranged from $331.29 (1984) to $2,072 (2015). The payout for 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, was $992.00, the smallest check received since 2013. The most recent payment was $1,312 for 2023. [46][47][48][49][58]
UBI popped up in American news thanks to the 2020 presidential campaign of Andrew Yang, whose continued promotion of a UBI resulted in the formation of a nonprofit, Humanity Forward. UBI continues to occasionally surface in the news thanks to local campaigns such as the 2025 New York City mayoral race in which Adrienne Adams proposed a UBI for those experiencing homelessness. [53][60]
Some consider the stimulus payments from the federal government during the COVID-19 pandemic to be a sort of “emergency UBI.” Those payments, however, were not unconditional but instead were calculated based on individual or family income. [59]
So, should the U.S. implement a UBI? Explore the debate below.
Pros and Cons at a Glance
| PROS | CONS |
|---|---|
| Pro 1: UBI reduces poverty and income inequality and improves physical and mental health. Read More. | Con 1: UBI increases poverty by giving to everyone instead of targeting the poor. Read More. |
| Pro 2: UBI leads to positive job growth and a better educated citizenry. Read More. | Con 2: UBI is too expensive. Read More. |
| Pro 3: UBI reduces gender inequality. Read More. | Con 3: UBI removes the incentive to work. Read More. |
Pro Arguments
(Go to Con Arguments)Pro 1: UBI reduces poverty and income inequality and improves physical and mental health.
A UBI set at $1,000 per adult per month and $300 per child per month would entirely eradicate poverty in the U.S., according to Scott Santens, founding member of the Economic Security Project. [12]
Case in point: the poverty rate in Brazil fell to its lowest level in 40 years in just six months in 2020 after $110 (600 reais) per month was distributed to about 25% of the population as a pandemic relief program called Bolsa Família. [51]
Namibia’s UBI program trial, the Basic Income Grant, reduced household poverty rates from 76% of residents before the trial started to 37% after one year. Child malnutrition rates also fell from 42% to 17% in six months. [7]
Participants in India’s UBI trial said that UBI helped improve their health by enabling them to afford medicine, improve sanitation, gain access to clean water, eat more regularly, and reduce their anxiety levels. [14]
Mincome, a UBI trial in Manitoba, Canada, found that hospitalizations for accidents, injuries, and mental health diagnoses declined during the trial. [1]
Kenya’s ongoing UBI trial has reportedly led to increased happiness and life satisfaction and to reduced stress and depression, proving that UBI could improve a range of mental health concerns and stressful situations proven to deteriorate mental health. [2]
“Recent research has linked the stress of poverty with inflammation in the brain…UBI could be set at a level to ensure that everyone’s basic needs are met. This would reduce much of the stress faced by the working poor or families on benefits…UBI would also help people, usually women and children, to leave abusive relationships. Domestic abuse occurs more often in poorer households, where victims lack the financial means to escape. Similarly, UBI might prevent the negative childhood experiences believed to lead to mental illness and other problems later in life. These include experiencing violence or abuse, or having parents with mental health, substance abuse and legal problems. Behind these problems are often poverty, inequality and social isolation,” says Matthew Smith, professor in health history at the University of Strathclyde. [50]
Pro 2: UBI leads to positive job growth and a better educated citizenry.
The guarantee of UBI protects people from sluggish wage growth, low wages, and the lack of job security caused by the effects of the growing gig economy, as well as increased automation in the workplace. [42][5][10]
Researchers from the Roosevelt Institute created three models for American implementation of UBI and found that under all scenarios, UBI would grow the economy by increasing output, employment, prices, and wages. [44]
Since implementation of the Alaska Permanent Fund, for example, the increased purchasing power of UBI recipients has resulted in 10,000 additional jobs for the state. [6]
UBI would also give employees the financial security to leave a bad job or wait until a good job comes along to (re)join the job market. People won’t have to take an awful job just to pay the bills. [54]
Further, UBI enables people to stay in school longer, reducing drop-out rates, and to participate in training to improve skills or learn a trade, improving their chances of getting a good job. Uganda’s UBI trial, the Youth Opportunities Program, enabled participants to invest in skills training as well as tools and materials, resulting in an increase of business assets by 57%, work hours by 17%, and earnings by 38%. [8]
The Canadian Mincome trial found that participants of the trial were more likely to complete high school than counterparts not involved in the trial. [1]
The Basic Income Grant trial in Namibia (2007–12) enabled parents to afford school fees, buy school uniforms, and encourage attendance. As a result, school dropout rates fell from almost 40% in Nov. 2007 to 5% in June 2008 to almost 0% in Nov. 2008. [7]
Pro 3: UBI reduces gender inequality.
UBI makes all forms of work, including child care and elder care, “equally deserving” of payment. “Almost definitionally, a properly designed basic income system will reduce gender-based inequality, because on average the payment will represent a higher share of women’s income,” says Guy Standing, professor of development studies at the University of London. [25][56]
A UBI also allows working parents to reduce their working hours in order to spend more time with their children or help with household chores. [26][27]
Reviewing the UBI trial in India, SEWA Bharat (an organization related to women’s employment) and UNICEF (a children’s rights organization) concluded that “women’s empowerment was one of the more important outcomes of this experiment,” noting that women receiving a UBI participated more in household decision making, and benefited from improved access to food, healthcare, and education. [14]
The Basic Income Grant Coalition trial in Namibia found that UBI “reduced the dependency of women on men for their survival” and reduced the pressure to engage in transactional sex. [7]
Mincome, the Canadian UBI trial, found that emergency room visits as a result of domestic violence reduced during the period of the trial, possibly because of the reduction in income-inequality between women and men. [28]
Con Arguments
(Go to Pro Arguments)Con 1: UBI increases poverty by giving to everyone instead of targeting the poor.
UBI takes money from the poor and gives it to everyone, increasing poverty and depriving the poor of much needed targeted support.
People experiencing poverty face a variety of hardships that are addressed with existing antipoverty measures such as food stamps, medical aid, and child assistance programs. UBI programs often use funds from these targeted programs for distribution to everyone without regard for need. [15]
“If you take the dollars targeted on people in the bottom fifth or two-fifths of the population and convert them to universal payments to people all the way up the income scale, you’re redistributing income upward. That would increase poverty and inequality rather than reduce them,” according to Robert Greenstein, president of the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. [15]
Luke Martinelli, research associate at the University of Bath, created three models of UBI implementation and concluded that all three would lead to a significant number of individuals and households being worse off. He notes, “these losses are not concentrated among richer groups; on the contrary, they are proportionally larger for the bottom three income quintiles.” [37]
“Rather than reducing the overall headcount of those in poverty, a BI [basic income] would change the composition of the income-poor population” and thus “would not prove to be an effective tool for reducing poverty,” concludes research by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in Finland, France, Italy, and the U.K. [39]
UBI does not cure addiction, poor health, lack of skills, or other factors that contribute to and exacerbate poverty, making UBI less cost-effective than targeted welfare programs. [19][24]
There is “the danger of UBI entrenching low pay and precarious work. It could effectively subsidise employers who pay low wages and—by creating a small cushion for workers on short-term and zero-hours contracts—help to normalise precarity,” explains Anna Coote of the New Economics Foundation and Edanur Yazici, Ph.D. student. UBI could become another American tipping system in which employers pay low wages and count on customers to fill in the gap with tips. [52]
Con 2: UBI is too expensive.
A $2,000 a month per head of household UBI would cost an estimated $2.275 trillion annually, says Marc Joffe, director of policy research at the California Policy Center. Some of this cost could be offset by eliminating federal, state, and local assistance programs; however, by Joffe’s calculation, “these offsets total only $810 billion…[leaving] a net budgetary cost of over $1.4 trillion for a universal basic income program.” [23]
A 2018 study found that a $1,000 a month stipend to every adult in the United States would cost about $3.81 trillion per year, or about 21% of the 2018 GDP, or about 78% of 2018 tax revenue. [57]
The UBI trial in Finland provided participants with €560 ($673 USD) a month for two years. Finland’s UBI model is “impossibly expensive, since it would increase the government deficit by about 5 percent,” explains lkka Kaukoranta, chief economist of the Central Organization of Finnish Trade Unions (SAK). [20][21]
Former U.K. Minister of State for Employment Damian Hinds rejected the idea of UBI during parliamentary debate, saying that the estimated implementation costs ranging from £8.2–160 billion ($10.8–211 billion USD) are “clearly unaffordable.” [38]
Economist John Kay, research fellow at the University of Oxford, studied proposed UBI levels in Finland, France, Germany, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States, and concludes that, in all of these countries, UBI at a level that can guarantee an acceptable standard of living is “impossibly expensive…Either the level of basic income is unacceptably low, or the cost of providing it is unacceptably high.” [41]
Con 3: UBI removes the incentive to work.
Earned income motivates people to work, be successful, work cooperatively with colleagues, and gain skills. However, “if we pay people, unconditionally, to do nothing…they will do nothing,” and this leads to a less effective economy, says Charles Wyplosz, professor of international economics at the Graduate Institute in Geneva. [33]
The Swiss government opposed implementation of UBI, stating that it would entice fewer people to work and thus exacerbate the current labor and skills shortages.[34]
A strong economy relies on people being motivated to work hard, and in order to motivate people there needs to be an element of uncertainty for the future. UBI, providing guaranteed security, removes this uncertainty, according to economist Allison Schrager. [36]
UBI would cause people “to abjure work for a life of idle fun … [and would] depress the willingness to produce and pay taxes of those who resent having to support them,” says Elizabeth Anderson, professor of philosophy and women’s studies at the University of Michigan. In fact, guaranteed income trials in the United States in the 1960s and 1970s found that the people who received payments worked fewer hours. [9][17]
“The daily routines of existing work-free men should make proponents of the UBI think long and hard. Instead of producing new community activists, composers, and philosophers, more paid worklessness in America might only further deplete our nation’s social capital at a time when good citizenship is already in painfully short supply,” according to Nicholas Eberstadt and Evan Abramsky, both at American Enterprise Institute (AEI). [55]
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Discussion Questions
- Should the United States implement a Universal Basic Income? Why or why not?
- Should cities or states implement Universal Basic Income? Why or why not?
- What other economic polices to reduce poverty would you enact? Explain your answers.
Take Action
- Investigate the World Bank’s report, “Exploring Universal Basic Income: A Guide to Navigating Concepts, Evidence, and Practices.”
- Explore Stanford University’s Basic Income Lab.
- Examine where a basic income has been implemented and the results at Vox.
- Consider how you felt about the issue before reading this article. After reading the pros and cons on this topic, has your thinking changed? If so, how? List two to three ways. If your thoughts have not changed, list two to three ways your better understanding of the “other side of the issue” now helps you better argue your position.
- Push for the position and policies you support by writing U.S. senators and representatives.
Sources
- Evelyn L. Forget, “The Town with No Poverty,” public.econ.duke.edu, Feb. 2011
- Johannes Haushofer and Jeremy Shapiro, “The Short-Term Impact of Unconditional Cash Transfers to the Poor: Experimental Evidence from Kenya,” princeton.edu, Apr. 25, 2016
- John McArthur, “How Many Countries Could End Extreme Poverty Tomorrow?,” brookings.edu, June 1, 2017
- Caroline Lucas, “These Are the Simple Reasons Why a Basic Income for All Could Transform Our Society for the Better,” independent.co.uk, Jan. 15, 2016
- May Bulman, “French Socialist Presidential Candidates Back Universal Basic Income of £655 a Month for All Citizens,” independent.co.uk, Jan.17, 2017
- Luke Kingma, “Universal Basic Income: The Answer to Automation?,” futurism.com (accessed July 6, 2017)
- Basic Income Grant Coalition, “Pilot Project,” bignam.org, 2014
- Christopher Blattman et al., “Generating Skilled Self-Employment in Developing Countries: Experimental Evidence from Uganda,” ssrn.com, Nov. 14, 2013
- Alicia H. Munnell, “Lessons from the Income Maintenance Experiments: An Overview,” bostonfed.org, Sep. 1986
- Robert B. Reich, “Why We’ll Need a Universal Basic Income,” robertreich.org, Sep. 29, 2016
- Greg Mankiw, “News Flash: Economists Agree,” gregmankiw.blogspot.co.uk, Feb. 14, 2009
- Scott Santens, “Universal Basic Income as the Social Vaccine of the 21st Century,” medium.com, Feb. 5, 2015
- Oren Cass, “Why a Universal Basic Income Is a Terrible Idea,” nationalreview.com, June 15, 2016
- SEWA Bharat, “A Little More, How Much It Is... Piloting Basic Income Transfers in Madhya Pradesh, India,” unicef.in, Jan. 2014
- Robert Greenstein, “Commentary: Universal Basic Income May Sound Attractive But, If It Occurred, Would Likelier Increase Poverty Than Reduce It,” cbpp.org, May 31, 2016
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- Robert Whaples, “Skeptical Thoughts on a Taxpayer-Funded Basic Income Guarantee,” The Independent Review, Spring 2015
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- Raine Tiessalo, “Free Money Provokes Some Finns to Slam Basic Income as ‘Useless’,” bloomberg.com, Feb. 8, 2017
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- Marc Joffe, “Universal Basic Income: An Idea Whose Time Should Never Come,” thefiscaltimes.com, Apr. 3, 2017
- Andreas Mogensen, “Why We (Still) Don’t Recommend GiveDirectly,” givingwhatwecan.org, Feb. 27, 2014
- Guy Standing, “How Cash Transfers Promote the Case for Basic Income,” guystanding.com, Apr. 2008
- Philippe Van Parijs, “A Basic Income for All,” bostonreview.net, 2000
- Olivia Goldhill, “All of the Problems Universal Basic Income Can Solve That Have Nothing to Do with Unemployment,” qz.com, Apr. 24, 2016
- Canadian Medical Association, “National Support for a Basic Income Guarantee,” cloudfront.net, 2015
- Malcolm Torry, Money for Everyone, 2013
- Philippe Van Parijs, “Basic Income and Social Justice: Why Philosophers Disagree,” jrf.org.uk, Mar. 13, 2009
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- Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), “Basic Income as a Policy Option: Technical Background Note Illustrating Cost and Distributional Implications for Selected Countries,” oecd.org, May 2017
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- Thomas A. Husted, “Changes in State Income Inequality from 1981 to 1987,” journal.srsa.org (accessed Sep. 5, 2017)
- Kirby B. Posey, “Household Income: 2015,” census.gov, Sep. 2016
- Michalis Nikiforos et al., “Modeling the Macroeconomic Effects of a Universal Basic Income,” rooseveltinsitute.org, Aug. 2017
- Kimberly Amadeo, “What Is Universal Basic Income?,” thebalance.com, Aug. 19, 2021
- Sigal Samuel, “Everywhere Basic Income Has Been Tried, in One Map,” vox.com, Oct. 20, 2020
- Robyn Sundlee, “Alaska’s Universal Basic Income Problem,” vox.com, Sep. 5, 2019
- Alaska Department of Revenue Permanent Fund Dividend Division, “Summary of Dividend Applications and Payments,” pfd.alaska.gov (accessed Feb. 22, 2021)
- Genevieve Wojtusik, “Department of Revenue Announces 2020 Permanent Fund Dividend,” alaska-native-news.com, June 13, 2020
- Matthew Smith, “Universal Basic Income Could Improve the Nation’s Mental Health,” theconversation.com, Apr. 27, 2020
- Salil B Patel and Joel Kariel, “Universal Basic Income and Covid-19 Pandemic,” bmj.com, Jan. 26, 2021
- Anna Coote and Edanur Yazici, “Universal Basic Income: A Union Perspective,” world-psi.org, Apr. 2019
- Yelena Dzhanova, “Why Andrew Yang’s Push for a Universal Basic Income Is Making a Comeback,” cnbc.com, July 29, 2020
- David Tal, “Universal Basic Income Cures Mass Unemployment,” quantumrun.com, Sept. 14, 2020
- Nicholas Eberstadt and Evan Abramsky, “What Do Prime-Age ‘NILF’ Men Do All Day? A Cautionary on Universal Basic Income,” ifstudies.org, Feb. 8, 2021
- Guy Standing, “Gender Inequality in Times of COVID-19—Give Women Cash,” en.unesco.org, Apr. 17, 2020
- Ryan Hughes, “Universal Basic Income Is a Bad Idea,” bulloakcapital.com, July 26, 2020
- State of Alaska: Department of Revenue, “Permanent Fund Dividend,” pfd.alaska.gov (accessed Apr. 2, 2024)
- Logan Ward, “The Pros and Cons of Universal Basic Income,” college.unc.edu, Mar. 10, 2021
- Emma G. Fitzsimmons, “N.Y.C. Mayor Candidate Pitches Largest Guaranteed Income Program in U.S.” (April 7, 2025), nytimes.com
- Allie Kelly, “Universal Basic Income in the US Isn’t Yet Reality, but 16 States Have UBI-like Programs that Give Residents Cash,” businessinsider.com, Dec. 2, 2024
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Did you know that culturally diverse teams produce more creative and innovative results than culturally homogenous groups?
This is a result of the fact that people from different cultural groups approach challenges and problems in different ways. Different cultures think and react differently to the same situations. They get the job done in different ways.
By combining those different approaches and mindsets, a culturally diverse team not only expands their skills and knowledge pool, but has the power to think in more abstract terms and find solutions on various levels.
Of course, this only works if the team works well together — and that tends to be the tricky part. Cultural differences can lead to barriers between team members, when their different styles of approach are misunderstood, misinterpreted or not accepted.
Global leaders face not only the challenge of making a multi-cultural team work well together despite their differences, but often also of doing this while the team members are based in different international locations.
In today’s globalized world, global leaders have to learn to understand a wider, richer array of work styles. They must be able to determine what aspects of an interaction are a result of personality and which are a result of differences in cultural perspective.
Five causes of cultural barriers
Let’s get on the same page here first: what exactly is culture?
Culture is all socially transmitted and shared behaviors, manners, customs, rituals, beliefs, ideas, arts, knowledge, values, morals and ideals that are learned in a group of the same nationality, religion or ethnicity. It is handed down from generation to generation, slowly evolving, and creating many subcultures in the process.
Cultural diversity can make communication difficult, especially in the workplace, where a misunderstanding can cause costly problems. When people from different cultures work together, several factors can become barriers. We’ll be taking a look at these factors first, and then dive into how to overcome them in a global team.
1. Language
Not speaking the same language (well) can cause a myriad of misunderstandings and is considered the most crucial barrier in cross-cultural communication.
Verbal communication is important in every context, but the meaning of words can literally get lost in translation. If one person isn’t aware of the exact meaning of a word, it may be misunderstood or misinterpreted by the other person and lead to a conflict of ideas.
2. Stereotypes and prejudices
Stereotypes are mostly negative images or preconceived notions about a specific community, group or culture. The basis of stereotyping can be many things, though the most common are nationality, gender, race, religion or age.
Popular stereotypes, for example, are that all Germans are punctual and very direct, or that all Asians are good at math.
This creates prejudice among people of different cultures and causes judgmental attitudes towards one another. People look at other cultures with certain stereotypes as “bad” or “difficult to work with”, or “incomprehensible” and treat them with contempt and disrespect. If things get this far on a team or in a company, working together effectively can become extremely difficult between people who resent and disrespect each other.
3. Signs and symbols
Non-verbal communication like signs and symbols differ from culture to culture and can therefore not be relied upon in communication. For example, the “thumbs up”, known in the Western world as a sign of approval, is seen as an insult in Bangladesh.
While not quite as easily misconstrued in a team environment as the other factors, it can still lead to cultural faux-pas that may take time to smooth over and could be avoided in the first place.
4. Behaviors and belief
Cultural differences cause behavioral and personality differences like body language, gestures, mindsets, communication, manners, and norms, which may lead to miscommunication. Eye contact, for example, is very important in some cultures, but rude and disrespectful in others.
People’s varied religious or spiritual beliefs can also lead to conflict and cross-cultural barriers.
Different cultures also have different understandings of time. Some countries like Germany, Netherlands, Scandinavia, Switzerland or the United States tend to view time as linear. Time is money, and punctuality is a great value. Things tend to be done one at a time, to be able to focus on it and finish the task within a fixed time frame.
Other countries, for example many Southern European countries like Spain or Italy, see time as multi-active; this means that the more things they do at the same time, the happier and more fulfilled they feel. Present reality and especially personal relationships are more important and valued than schedules or punctuality.
5. “Us” versus “them” (ethnocentrism)
From an evolutionary standpoint, belonging to a group made you stronger and more likely to survive in a hostile world. Strangers or other groups were “the enemy”, competing for food, safety and territory.
This us- versus them-thinking is ingrained in our subconscious and can lead to a sense of alienation if someone behaves in a way we don’t understand or aren’t expecting — if they don’t fit in.
A person’s standard is his or her own culture; the more another person’s culture, behavior, language, and beliefs deviate from it, the more “other” they are labeled. This affects the understanding of message and creates hostility.
How to overcome cross-cultural barriers
Successful and effective cross-cultural management can be a daunting task — and even more so for teams with members scattered across the globe. People who are constantly interacting with each other face-to-face for eight hours every day will bond and find common ground faster than people who only interact with each other online at certain times.
As a global leader you not only have to be aware of the cultural barriers within your team, but actively strive to overcome them.
Embrace diversity and accommodate cultural differences
As a global leader, you must make your team members and employees understand that culturally diverse teams produce more innovative and and creative results as opposed to homogenous groups. Therefore, cultural differences should be appreciated, openly discussed and utilized to support each other, rather than creating barriers. You want a team to work well because of their differences, not in spite of them.
Create opportunities for your employees to learn about their colleagues’ perspectives and ways of life to build open-mindedness and appreciation. Focus on the strengths that each culture brings to the mix and discuss how these strengths can be integrated in the way your team works together, handles challenges and tackles projects.
Promote open communication
Open communication is the only way that culturally diverse teams can work through and overcome their differences to make them work well together. As global leader, it’s up to you to promote that culture of open communication within your company or team.
Don’t let resentment, problems, or misunderstandings between team members fester; address them as soon as they arise and give all parties the opportunity to present and discuss their grievances in a safe and open environment.
If your team members’ or employees’ problems are with you, listen closely to what they have to say. Thank them for their honesty, and try to find a good solution or compromise that everyone agrees with.
A company culture of open communication is grown from the top down. As global leader, you must lead by example and value everyone’s opinion equally to ensure openness and honesty between your team members.
Lead open discussions about team norms and shared company culture
When your team members differ on a cultural level, you can unite them by creating a new common culture: your company or team culture.
Unlike leading by example to promote open communication, this won’t happen in a top-down approach, though. A company or team culture must be cultivated together and include all members. As the team leader, it’s important to allot specific times for the team to discuss differences and air grievances, find common ground and decide together how to proceed.
This becomes more important, but also more challenging, with a team that isn’t just culturally diverse, but situated in various locations. Where people don’t interact personally, it becomes more difficult to look beyond the cultural stereotypes and get to know the person behind them. But this is crucial to foster understanding of each other and building a company- or team culture together.
Rally the team around a shared vision or common cause
Bringing people together around a shared vision or common cause can be a powerful thing to unite the team and have all members pulling together in the same direction.
Maybe the product or technology you’re developing and producing together will save lives or help people in need? Or you might run regular fundraisers to support local charities in your team members’ locations. Or maybe you’re all working together towards that 20% more revenue to ensure a raise for all team members this year.
Leading cultural diversity as a global leader
As a global leader, it is your responsibility to ensure that your team members or employees work together through their cultural differences. Be aware of the stereotypes and prejudices you may yourself have and try to consciously overwrite them. Understand the differences your team members deal with among each other and foster a company culture of open communication.
But the ability to lead your team or company through cultural barriers is only one of the challenges a global leader faces every day. Find out more about global leadership on this Global Leadership Magazine, or make it even easier by signing up for our weekly news on all things Global Leadership:
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https://positivelypresent.com/2015/12/happiness-is-not-a-choice.html
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You’ve probably heard quotes like “happiness is a choice” or “if you want to be happy, be” or “people are as happy as they make up their minds to be.” (I’m probably guilty of using these words. Scroll through my Instagram feed and I bet you’ll find “choose happy” or something along those lines amidst my many quote-themed photos.) In theory, these quotes come from a good place. They’re meant to highlight the notion that, though you don’t always have control of your circumstances, you have control over how you feel.
Except… that’s not true.
Quotes like “choose happiness” or “think happy thoughts” aim to convey the idea that, no matter what happens, you have control over what you think, but what they actually convey is that you have control over what you feel. But there’s a big difference between what you think and how you feel, and the idea that thoughts and feelings are interchangeable is potentially very damaging because, much as you might want to, you can’t control how you feel. And you can’t control happiness because happiness is a feeling. You can’t just choose to be happy when your dog just died or your wife just left or you’re suffering from depression. You can’t choose to be happy when you just found out your child has cancer or your parents are abusive or your doctor just diagnosed you with a chronic illness.
If you’ve ever experienced any of these things (or any other heart-breaking, painful, or sad situation), you know this is the truth. No matter how much you want to be happy, sometimes you just cannot be. This is normal and to be expected because happiness is a way of feeling, not a way of thinking.
While feeling isn’t something you can control, thinking is. The literal definition of to feel is “to experience an emotion.” To think is defined as “to direct one’s mind toward someone or something.” Experiencing an emotion just happens. You feel sad when something saddens you. You feel happy when something (or someone!) makes you happy. You can (sometimes) decide whether or not you get carried away with your emotions, but you can’t control whether you have them in the first place.
You feel how you feel when you feel it, and feelings can’t be changed by words like “be happy!” or “think happy thoughts!” As anyone who’s faced serious trauma or heartbreak knows, in the midst of true pain and loss, happy thoughts are not an option. But what is an option is thinking positively. Happiness is not always an option, but positive thinking always is. Let’s take a closer look at how they’re different…
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN POSITIVITY + HAPPINESS
You might be saying to yourself right about now, Aren’t positivity and happiness basically the same thing? Aren’t “positive thoughts” and “happy thoughts” the same? No, they are not the same, and the difference between them is very, very important (especially for anyone striving to live a positively present life!).
Fleeting Emotion vs. Logical Choice
As I said before, happiness is an emotion. Emotions, as a rule, are fleeting. Some last longer than others, but there are very rarely entire days when you are happy. Even when things are going incredibly well and you’re having an amazing day, you’re not actually experiencing true happiness and joy that entire day. (Same goes for negative emotions too — no matter how difficult the situation, you usually experience a range of emotions, not just “sad,” and even in the most challenging of times, positive feelings like hope and even happiness can be experienced.)
On the other hand, positive thinking is an active choice — the decision to focus on the possibility of good results or seek out the goodness in any situation or person (good or bad). Positive thinking is logical, not emotional. It’s more about using your head than it is about using your heart. It’s about taking whatever you experience (and feel) and trying your best to make the most of the situation (even if the situation is terrible).
Experiencing vs. Learning
Happiness must be experienced. Positivity, on the other hand, is something that can be learned and practiced by everyone. No matter what’s going on in your life, you can strive for a positive attitude. You can also practice it (and get better at it!), which is something you can’t do with happiness. You can fake happiness, but that’s not the same as practicing it. You’re either happy or you’re not. You can’t learn to be happier, and you certainly can’t force yourself to feel (truly) happy when you just don’t feel that way.
A lot of people struggle because of the notion that you can somehow become happier overall by doing something external (getting a better job, falling in love, buying the newest gadget) but those kinds of things only provide a burst of happiness that will eventually fade until we find that next “happiness high.” Happiness can be gained from external things, but it won’t last because it’s merely an emotion. Instead of focusing on experiences, it’s much more useful to spend time and energy learning how to find the good in any situation (rather that striving for short bursts of happiness).
Unique Feeling vs. Similar Thinking
Another major difference between happiness and positivity is this: happiness is incredibly unique. (This is why it’s such a hard topic to study and deeply comprehend.) What fills your heart with joy might not even register on my happiness radar. It’s kind of like love in a way (except it usually doesn’t last as long): it’s something we all experience at some point, but it’s hard to put it into words because we all experience it so differently and for such different reasons.
Also, because happiness is a feeling, it’s experienced in unique ways too. If you and I were both to think of a time when we were incredibly happy, we might have very different reactions to that memory even if we both labeled it as a “happy” time. From a mental and a physical standpoint, we all experience happiness differently. However, when it comes to positive thinking, we can all practice similar techniques. We all know what it means to try to find the good in a situation (even if we find different kinds of goodness). Positive thinking is a logical, thought-driven experience. It’s something we can all understand and, most of the time, experience in a similar way. For this reason, it’s much easier to share and teach to others. (And, as an added bonus, the more someone practices positive thinking, the more happiness s/he is likely to experience.)
Big Picture vs. Present Moment
Whatever you experience (good and bad) can impact your happiness levels. It’s hard to be happy if aspects of your life (some of which might be out of your control) aren’t going well. For example, let’s say you’re having a really great day at work and you receive an unexpected promotion. This should make you really happy, right? It might — but it might not make you happy for very long if something really unhappy is happening in another area of life. You can’t experience true happiness when certain areas of your life are negative, uncertain, or unhappy. Happiness focuses on the big picture. This isn’t a bad thing, but it’s an important difference from positivity, which isn’t at all concerned with (or impacted by) the big picture.
Positive thinking focuses on the current moment and determining what you can gain from that experience or interaction. It’s about making the most of whatever is happening to you right now. It should not tainted by what has already happened or what could happen (unless you’re recalling a time in which you struggled with a difficult situation and overcame it, reminding yourself that you’re strong enough to survive whatever you’re currently going through). Positivity is about taking whatever’s happening and trying to make it as good as it can possibly be, regardless of what’s going on in other areas of your life or what might happen in the future.
There are some major differences between happiness and positivity, but making the differentiation between happiness and positivity isn’t meant to make “positive” seem better than “happy,” or to put down happiness in anyway. It’s only meant to show that there is a big difference. Here’s why this difference matters…
WHY THE DIFFERENCE MATTERS
After reading about the differences between happiness and positivity you might be thinking, So what? Why does this matter? It matters because so many people use these very different terms as if they are interchangeable, and this can lead to damaging beliefs in those who read/hear phrases like “if you want to be happy, be happy!” or “choose to be happy!”
Because happiness is not a choice, when people are told to be happy and they’re unable to achieve a happy state (because they’re in a bad situation, because they have a chemical imbalance that doesn’t allow them to be happy often, or for any other reason), they feel like failures. If happiness is promoted as something that can just be chosen, like pulling an item off a store’s shelf, those who cannot seem to “choose” it feel as though there is something wrong with them. On the other hand, if you were to suggest to someone who is struggling that s/he “think positively” (accompanied by suggestions for how to actually do it), those words might actually be useful and encouraging. Happiness is not an action that can simply be chosen, and suggesting it is can actually cause feelings of frustration, confusion, and even self-loathing.
And speaking of self-loathing, one of the other reasons using happiness and positive thinking are used interchangeably is: it causes a lot of people (most of us, in fact!) to strive for something that is unattainable: a lasting, permanent state of happiness. Due to many popular culture messages about happiness, many of us believe we should strive for happiness most of the time, even when we’re sad or struggling, even when we’re stressed or heartbroken.
As Dan Harris writes in 10% Happier, the “pursuit of happiness becomes the source of our unhappiness.” If you’re striving for a constant state of happiness — a fleeting emotion that rarely lasts for an extended period of time and that sometimes comes from negative sources, like abused substances, the approval of negative people, unhealthy activities, etc. — you’re bound to be, at the very least, disappointed a good deal of the time. You might feel guilty when you don’t feel happy when everything is going well or confused when you experience happiness during difficult times.
Making an emotion (happiness) a life-long goal is a pretty great way to set yourself up for a lot of disappointment and stress. While there will (hopefully!) be many, many moments of happiness in your life, no one is happy every single moment of every single day, and striving for that is like spending your life hoping to find an actual pot of gold at the end of a rainbow. This isn’t meant to leave you feeling as if happiness is some crazy dream that’ll never be made real; it’s only meant to show how the pursuit of happiness isn’t what leads to true fulfillment. Happiness comes in amazing, fleeting moments that we’re all lucky to experience from time to time. And the best way to keep an eye out for these moments (and make the most of them when they happen!) is to focus on positive thinking, on seeking out the good in your life, no matter where you find yourself.
Rather that focusing on choosing happiness, what we should be focusing on is thinking positively. Remember: we can’t choose how we feel, but we can choose how we think about those feelings (and whatever it was that caused us to feel that way). Instead of focusing so much being happy, what we should be focusing on is how we can make the most of our lives (both the happy and the sad parts).
When we see something that tells us to simply “be happy,” we should question that request and think about how the notion of happiness-as-a-choice is actually impacting our lives. Of course, there’s absolutely nothing wrong with thinking happy thoughts or gravitating toward things that make you happy, but it’s important to keep in mind that happiness (no matter how great!) is fleeting. If you’re looking for lasting contentment, learning the art of positive thinking is the best place to put your time and energy.
Positive thinking can be tough when it comes to self-contemplation, which is why it’s so important to focus on self-love. Want to empower yourself with some serious self-love and acceptance? Start loving yourself (or increase the love you already have for yourself!) with the inspiration and motivation found in Loving Your Self: An Empowering Workbook for Increasing Self-Love. Filled with uplifting encouragement, thought-provoking questions, and engaging exercises, Loving Your Self is an essential tool for mastering the art of self-love. Learn more about the workbook here and purchase your own copy here.
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Does "Thou Shalt Not Kill" Only Apply to Murder?
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The Ten Commandments came down from God to the recently liberated Hebrews at Mount Sinai, showing them the basics of living as a godly people, a shining light on a hill for the world to look towards and see the way of the one true God. He began with the ten, and then elaborated more with the Levitical law.
Often, people look at these rules and believe they are easy to follow or can be selectively followed and ignored in certain circumstances. The sixth commandment is one that people feel they can avoid easily. However, God prioritized this law as one of the ten most important.
When God said, “You shall not murder” in Exodus 20:13, He meant no one could take the life of another. But Jesus clarified that one should not harbor hatred, murderous thoughts, or wicked feelings for a neighbor either.
Why Did God Send the 10 Commandments?
The Ten Commandments were the foundations of the Law that Israel would build itself on. As a nation, these rules were important because Israel was meant to show the world the way of the one, true God. The Bible says that, “The Lord was pleased, for his righteousness' sake, to magnify his law and make it glorious” (Isaiah 41:21). He chose to magnify His law through the descendants of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.
God also handed down the Ten Commandments so that no one could claim to be ignorant of right and wrong. Paul wrote to the Galatian church, “Now it is evident that no one is justified before God by the law, for ‘The righteous shall live by faith.’ But the law is not of faith, rather ‘The one who does them shall live by them’” (Galatians 3:11-12).
The law created an impossible standard for sinful individuals, highlighting the need for a Savior; “There is therefore now no condemnation for those who are in Christ Jesus. For the law of the Spirit of life has set you free in Christ Jesus from the law of sin and death” (Romans 8:1-2). The Holy Spirit helps those who have become disciples of Jesus Christ grow more like Jesus, becoming more righteous through their lives.
Where Does "Thou Shalt Not Kill" Command Appear?
Before their time in Egypt, the people who became the nation of Israel were tribal shepherd people. God brought them out of Egypt to make them a nation modeled after His rules and His ways, and “...a kingdom of priests and a holy nation” (Exodus 19:6b). When they gathered at Mount Sinai, God descended upon the mountain and gave Moses the basis of the laws the nation of Israel was to live by, with the first ten being carved into stone by God’s own finger.
While God handed down more laws on Mount Sinai, only the first ten were written in stone. The first four focus on man’s relationship with God, codifying the way man should interact with a Holy God. The last six deal with man’s interactions with other people. In a perfect world, the sixth commandment would be easy to follow, requiring that no one take the life of another.
What Does the Bible Say about Killing?
If this world was perfect, then it would be easy to follow the sixth commandment. But sin entered the world, making killing a part of life, and justice harder to enforce. The Book of Deuteronomy outlines the ways of upholding justice and obeying the law. One such moral complication is manslaughter, when someone accidentally kills another. God instituted Refugee Cities for the displaced, the dispossessed, and for those who have committed manslaughter:
“This is the provision for the manslayer, who by fleeing there may save his life. If anyone kills his neighbor unintentionally without having hated him in the past — as when someone goes into the forest with his neighbor to cut wood, and his hand swings the axe to cut down a tree, and the head slips from the handle and strikes his neighbor so that he dies — he may flee to one of these cities and live, lest the avenger of blood in hot anger pursue the manslayer and overtake him, because the way is long, and strike him fatally, though the man did not deserve to die, since he had not hated his neighbor in the past” (Deuteronomy 19:4-6).
Here, the law makes allowance for grace in the case of accidents. It is important to note that part of this allowance is the individual’s heart, with the provision in verse six being, “...he had not hated his neighbor in the past.” God sees the heart of each person, and asks the law to do it as much as possible. Such grace is not to be extended under man’s justice for the intentional killing of another person, with Old Testament law requiring, “then the elders of his city shall send and take him from there, and hand him over to the avenger of blood, so that he may die” (Deuteronomy 19:12). Life is sacred, and killing is a violation of the order God intended and must be dealt with.
Photo credit: ©Getty Images
In Biblically based approaches to the law, killing must be met with a firm hand of justice. The reason why God – and by extension the Law – takes this so seriously is because, “Whoever sheds the blood of man, by man shall his blood be shed, for God made man in his own image” (Genesis 9:6). God gave man body, soul, and a will, a level of conscience and awareness that means man can create, invent, build, and know right from wrong. God endowed man with a unique mark of His own nature, and every human bears that mark, meaning each person is loved uniquely by God. To dishonor that image is blasphemous before the Creator of that image.
Does This Verse Just Cover Murder?
For many, the control over their actions is enough to feel they have not violated the sixth commandment. Not taking a life is enough for some. When Jesus came, He clarified the law, teaching what God truly desired from His people. The Law did not just dictate what actions people should or should not take, but also what the condition of the heart ought to be.
The Lord wants people to be like Him, holy and righteous, which is an internal condition as much as it is external action. Of killing, Jesus said, “You have heard that it was said to those of old, ‘You shall not murder; and whoever murders will be liable to judgment.’ But I say to you that everyone who is angry with his brother will be liable to judgment; whoever insults his brother will be liable to the council; and whoever says, ‘You fool!’ will be liable to the hell of fire” (Matthew 5:21).
Hating one’s neighbor, harboring the feelings and thoughts that can lead to murder is sinful as well, and is failing to live up to the righteousness of Holy God. John the Beloved Apostle elaborated further on this internal state of sin, “Everyone who hates his brother is a murderer, and you know that no murderer has evil thoughts and intentions, even if they are not acted on, as sinful” (1 John 3:15).
Is Exodus 20:13 Still Relevant for Us Today?
Until the end of days, there will be death, murder, accidents, and hate in people’s hearts. Jesus came and released Christians from the burdens of the law, because He served as the final sacrifice in atonement for the sins of the world. But He also came to uphold and fulfill the law, including the Ten Commandments.
People struggle to live upright lives that line up with their values, set by the first ten rules. Understanding that “you shall not murder” is both refusing to take a life, and not to harbor hateful feelings toward others can serve as a reminder to cling to Jesus for peace. When there is division, rather than caving into malicious thoughts, vitriolic words, and violent actions, Christians should look to their Savior’s example, and remember that God is love.
Sources
Baxter, J. Sidlow. Explore the Book. Grand Rapids: Academie Books, 1960.
Ryrie, Charles C. Basic Theology. Chicago: Moody Press, 1999.
Wilmington, H.L. Wilmington’s Guide to the Bible. Wheaton: Tyndale House Publishers Inc., 1981.
Photo credit: ©Getty Images/fergregory
Bethany Verrett is a freelance writer who uses her passion for God, reading, and writing to glorify God. She and her husband have lived all over the country serving their Lord and Savior in ministry. She has a blog on graceandgrowing.com.
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If "Thou shalt not kill" is one of the ten commandments, why do people still kill others in the name of religion?
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https://bestlifeonline.com/scandalous-things-100-years-ago/
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25 Things That Were Considered Scandalous 100 Years Ago But Are Totally Normal Now
Human beings have come a long way in the last 100 years. Sure, we managed to beat Hitler, plant a flag on the moon, and invent that whole Internet thing, but we accomplished other things, too. For instance, did you know that we got over our collective fear of seeing women wearing pants? It’s true! Also, we finally learned that tomatoes aren’t “poison apples,” cleaning ourselves on a daily basis wasn’t so bad, and those newfangled “horseless carriages” might not be a passing fad, after all. And that’s just the beginning. Here are 25 things that humans found to be scandalous or outré a century ago that are completely normal today. And for an even closer look at how quickly things change, here are 20 Present-Day Facts No One Could Have Predicted Five Years Ago.
1
Reading in bed
Is there anything more soothing than curling up in bed with a good book at the end of the day? Not according to an 1832 editorial in The Family Monitor, which called bedside reading “little less than tempting God, to sport with the most awful danger and calamity which can affect ourselves and others.” It likely had something to do with candles, which had a tendency to set a sleepy reader ablaze. Now for more blasts from the past, read about the 9 Times Politicians Totally Lost It and Things Got Physical.
2
Speeding
Like Tom Cruise in Top Gun, we all feel the “need for speed.” But the lust to reach dangerous and ill-advised speeds for a thrill is a fairly new impulse. The world’s first speeding ticket, given to a speed-devil Ohio motorist in 1904, was for going a mere 12 miles per hour. Some people were so terrified of machines propelling us forward at mild speeds that they predicted it could result in everything from immediate asphyxiation to a moral and intellectual decline. “Veracious people will turn into the most immeasurable liars,” one anxious anti-train zealot wrote in an 1830 op-ed. “All their conceptions will be exaggerated by their magnificent notions of distance.” But since speeding is still illegal, make sure you know the 10 Ways to Speed Without Getting a Ticket.
3
Women in pants
In Gold Rush-era San Francisco, a woman in pants had to lobby her local alderman for permission to not be arrested for not dressing like a prostitute or maid. So yeah, it was frowned upon. The first women’s trouser was introduced in 1918, with the ridiculous name “Freedom-Alls.” They included a belted tunic over harem pants. So basically, the costume of a very uncomfortable lady genie. Ironically, we may have come full circle: harem pants are currently one of the 40 Things No Woman Over 40 Should Own.
4
Teenagers with cars
These days, the biggest concern about teenagers and cars is that they might be tempted to text and drive, thus killing themselves. But back in the 1920s, a teenager with a car could mean only one thing: They want to bone your daughter. While we’re on the subject of cars, check out The Best New Cars for 2018.
5
Using an umbrella
When a British wool merchant named Jonas Hanway tried to walk the streets of London in the mid-18th century with an umbrella, stunned onlookers “would pelt him with rubbish” and even tried to run him over with their cars. He’s still remembered by some history books as “the courageous citizen who first carried an umbrella.” However, these days an umbrella is an essential part of The Rain Gear Every Man Needs.
6
Electricity
In the early 20th century, many people’s first exposure to electricity was Thomas Edison electrocuting an elephant. So forgive them if they weren’t super-excited about filling their homes with the stuff. Even if they didn’t think their family would be fried like an egg, there were other concerns. “If you electrify homes you will make women and children and vulnerable,” claimed one naysayer. “Predators will be able to tell if they are home because the light will be on, and you will be able to see them.” If there’s anything worse than a home invasion while being electrocuted, we’d like to hear it.
7
Sending children to school
In 1900, only about half of all U.S. kids between the ages of five and 19-year-olds were enrolled in any kind of school, and those who did show up usually dropped out around the eighth grade. Resentment about compulsory education had been festering for awhile. One Democratic representative from Iowa grumbled in 1876 that forcing kids to go to school was “anti-American, anti-Republican, anti-Democratic. … It may do in a Monarchy where all is force and compulsory, but in a free society… it is unjust, wrong and .. . unconstitutional.” And speaking of school: if you’re rocking the schoolyard backpack look, here’s how to know whether to single-strap or double-strap it.
8
Singing the National Anthem before a sporting event
The “Star-Spangled Banner” didn’t become our official National Anthem until 1931. If you stood up before a ballgame 100 years ago, it was just to get the hotdog vendor’s attention.
9
Drugs as anything but a solution to all your problems
Tell anybody 100 years ago that drugs like cocaine and heroin might not be the best substances to put inside your body, and they definitely wouldn’t agree with you. It wasn’t merely okay to do heroin, doctors were regularly prescribing it. It was an ingredient in cough syrup. As for cocaine, Sigmund Freud, a widely respected psychologist and neurologist, claimed it helped him with “depression and against indigestion and with the most brilliant of success.” While we’re on the subject of drugs, here are the 20 Craziest Side Effects of Over-the-Counter Drugs.
10
Lack of pubic hair
Aside from the Ancient Greeks and Romans, a bushy nether region has typically been the culturally accepted norm. It was such an accepted look that when prostitutes in 1450 had to shave for STD-reason they replaced the hair with used merkins (or lower-body “wigs”). Imagine what they’d think of modern women, 84% of whom remove some or all of their pubic hair? And while we’re on the subject: here is the New Grooming Tech You Need Right Now.
11
Tomatoes
During the late 1700s, tomatoes were dubbed “poison apples” because some aristocrats got lead poisoning while eating tomatoes on pewter plates—which were especially high in lead. But the reputation (though undeserved) stuck, and even 19th-century poet Ralph Waldo Emerson considered them (or at least the worms that purportedly lived in tomatoes) “an object of much terror, it being currently regarded as poisonous and imparting a poisonous quality to the fruit if it should chance to crawl upon it.” Now, of course, we know that tomatoes are one of the 25 Foods That’ll Keep You Young Forever.
12
Bikinis
When French inventor Louis Réard tried to introduce his latest fashion creation, the bikini—made from just 30 inches of fabric—he couldn’t find a single model willing to wear it in public. So he hired a 19-year-old stripper, for whom wearing anything at all was a career step up. Modern Girl magazine responded that it was “inconceivable that any girl with tact and decency would ever wear such a thing.” Fast forward to today, and you’ve got Instagram, quite possibly the world’s largest repository of bikini photos.
13
Horseless carriages
This newspaper ad from 1915 pretty much say it all. Compare the price of a harness with automobile tires, and the choice is obvious. What kind of dummy buys a car when a horse “will take you through snow and mud as well as on good roads and his carburetor is never out of order?” Now, if you’re in the market for a new set of wheels, here are The Best New Cars for 2018.
14
The color purple
No, not the 1985 movie starring Whoopi Goldberg. The actual color. A 1903 Boston Globe story, with the (presumably unironic) title “Colors That Will Drive the Brain to Madness,” pegged purple as “the most dangerous color there is.” Hold on, because it gets so much better. “If purple walls and a red tinted window surrounded you for a month with no color but purple around you, by the end of that time you would be a madman,” the author wrote. “No matter how strong your brain might be it would not stand the strain, and it is doubtful if you would ever recover your reason.”
15
Radiation (as something you shouldn’t consume)
Wait, wait, hold on a minute, you’re saying that radiation isn’t something you should put on your skin and drink like a health smoothie? Well, color everybody from 100 years ago embarrassed. Especially Eben Byers, a steel mogul who drank three bottles of radiation a day until his death, which was reported in a Wall Street Journal story from 1932 with the sublime headline “The Radium Water Worked Fine Until His Jaw Came Off.” And for more foods you should ingest, here are the 10 Best Foods for Your Heart.
16
Daily showers
A century ago, baths were a special occasion—the kind of thing you did on the weekends. (It was like “date night,” but with more loofahs.) Regular bathing didn’t become a thing until the mid-20th century, thanks to magazine ads for grooming products, with aggressive pitches like “There’s self-respect in SOAP & WATER.” Today, a matching towel set is one of The 40 Things Every Man Over 40 Should Own.
17
Coffee
You might think of coffee as a delicious morning beverage that keeps you alert and productive when you’d rather be sleeping. But to early 17th century Catholics it was a “bitter invention of Satan” and a “(delicious) devil’s drink.” Can’t we all be right? Now coffee is probably an inescapable part of your morning routine, so check out The 15 Best Coffee Makers on the Planet.
18
Bicycles
The problem with bicycles is that sometimes women insist on riding them. And then they forget to do things, like the bullet points outlined in this 1896 article. A woman on a bicycle should never coast (too dangerous), wear tight garters or heavy jewelry, refuse assistance from a man who’s felt pity for their dainty lady legs and wants to push them up a steep hill, or worst of all, makes a “bicycle face,” described as a “haggard, worried expression” in this 1895 newspaper story. And speaking of bikes, here are 17 Insanely Cool Luxury Bicycles.
19
Living to 100
In 1900, the average life expectancy for an American man was 48.3. And that was if he was lucky. Today, it’s around 78.7, and the chances of hitting 100 aren’t as laughably rare anymore. In just the last decade and a half, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Americans living to 100 have increased by more than 43 percent. Becoming a Supercentenarian will always be amazing, but it no longer makes you look like a biblical character. Still, you should check out these 100 Ways to Live to 100.
20
Smoking bans
Even up to the 1950s and 60s, you could smoke pretty much anywhere. Restaurants, movie theaters, airplanes, even hospitals. The only places where cigarettes were frowned upon were elevators, churches, and high school classrooms (and you could probably smoke there too if you were nice about it.) If you told a smoker from 1917 that a hundred years in the future, nobody can smoke in bars anymore, he would be just slightly less alarmed than if you told him about a zombie apocalypse.
21
Public transportation
Those hanging straps on a subway that passengers can hold onto to keep from falling? According to this 1912 editorial in the Chicago Sunday Tribune, they could cause “a frightful strain upon [your] internal organs.”
22
Soda
Not because of the excessive sugar, or how soda consumption could lead to a 26% increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes. Soda was once considered dangerous because it turned women into harlots. Okay, fine, we’re paraphrasing. But when the US Food and Drug Administration seized forty barrels of Coca-Cola in 1911, they explained that the beverage was a danger to college girls, capable of causing “wild nocturnal freaks, violations of college rules and female proprieties, and even immoralities.” We’re a bit more enlightened now, and we know that cola ain’t great for different reasons. Chiefly, it’s one of The 40 Unhealthiest Foods if You’re Over 40.
23
Women with tattoos
At the beginning of the 20th century, tattoos “were associated with criminality and underground, seedy things,” says Anni Irish, a Brooklyn writer who has written extensively about the social history of tattooing in America. “It was tied to sailors, prostitution, and crime.” Unless a woman worked for the circus, or sold her body for money, getting inked just wasn’t socially acceptable. Well, it definitely is today. In fact, according to a Harris Poll, women with tattoos (23%) now outnumber men (19%). Before you get yourself inked though, consider that tattoos are one of The 7 Most Surprising Everyday Exercise Killers.
24
Making a five-figure salary with benefits
In 1915, the average salary for a U.S. worker was in the ballpark of $687 a year, according to Census Bureau data. That’s about $16,063 in modern dollars. Also, expecting your job to come with health benefits didn’t become typical until the 40s, when the IRS began offering tax breaks for employer-based health care. Try asking an employer in the early 1900s if “this job comes with dental,” and he would never have stopped laughing.
25
Dancing
Long before the movie Footloose warned of the dangers of dancing, The Washington Post reported on a girl, just 17 years-old, who died in 1926 after attempting the Charleston. According to her doctor, her untimely death was caused by the “extreme physical exercise” involved in all the kicking and hand gestures of a dance, which he warned was “particularly dangerous for young women.” How we haven’t lost a young woman yet to twerking is nothing short of a miracle.
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In the early 17th century, craftsmen and scientists introduced a new tool for studying the heavens. The telescope, one of the central instruments of the Scientific Revolution, soon became the astronomer's most essential tool. Now the astronomer could see countless stars and other faint objects never before visible. Suddenly the universe was no longer limited to what the naked eye could see. As telescopes improved, astronomers continued to push back the boundaries of the known universe, peering ever deeper into the surrounding sea of stars known as the Milky Way. |
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| The
Invention
The manufacture and properties of lenses were known since the time of the Greeks. Islamic scholars such as the Egyptian physician Alhazen (born in the 10th century) made important contributions to the study of optics. However, lenses were not introduced to Europe until around the 13th century. By 1300, the first eyeglasses were available in cities such as Venice and Florence, and advances in lens making and polishing soon followed. The tools for making a telescope were therefore available but, for reasons that are not clear, the invention of the telescope had to wait. The telescope first appeared in the Netherlands. In October 1608, the national government in The Hague discussed a patent application for a device that aided "seeing faraway things as though nearby." It consisted of a convex and concave lens in a tube. The combination magnified objects three or four times. The government found the device too easy to copy and did not award a patent, but it voted a small award to Jacob Metius and employed Hans Lipperhey to make several binocular versions, for which he was well paid. |
|
| The telescope (along with the microscope, another 17th century invention) demonstrated that ordinary observers could see things that the Greek philosophers had not dreamed of. It helped shift authority in the observation of nature from men to instruments. News of the telescope's invention spread rapidly through Europe. By April 1609, three-powered spyglasses could be bought in spectacle-makers' shops on the Pont Neuf in Paris, and four months later there were several in Italy. They were made famous by an Italian professor and experimenter named Galileo Galilei in the summer of 1609 at the University of Padua near Venice. While Galileo did not invent the telescope, he did design and build telescopes with increasingly higher magnifying power for his own use and to present to his patrons. He was a skilled instrument maker, and his telescopes were known for their high quality. Galileo's first telescope was basically a tube containing two lenses. His first attempt was a three-power instrument; this was followed by one that magnified objects approximately nine times. He showed the latter device to the Venetian senate, hoping to impress them with its commercial and military potential. Observations with Galileo's telescope strengthened the new idea that the Earth and the planets circled the Sun. It also revealed multitudes of stars in the Milky Way and elsewhere. One seemed to see not a fixed sphere of stars, but a universe of stars extending outward to some vast and unknown distance, perhaps to infinity. Like the earlier Dutch versions, Galileo's refracting telescopes ("refractors") used lenses to bend, or refract, light. They featured a concave eyepiece lens and a convex objective lens. The telescope was fairly simple to make. Galileo, however, faced difficulties finding clear and homogenous glass for his lenses. The glass was full of little bubbles and had a greenish tinge (caused by the presence of iron impurities). This was a problem that troubled telescope makers for centuries. It was also hard to shape the lenses perfectly. The images of stars were blurry, and surrounded by color haloes. The limiting factor of these early refractors was their small field of view. Only part of the full Moon, for example, could be seen at one time. Galileo himself continued to improve his devices until they were over four feet long and could magnify up to thirty times. |
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One disadvantage of the astronomical telescope suggested by Kepler and advocated by Scheiner was that its higher magnification was accompanied by more spherical and chromatic aberration - geometric distortion and false colors. Over the next several decades, lens-grinding and polishing techniques improved gradually. A specialized craft community of telescope makers slowly developed. These craftsmen worked to produce better spherical lenses with decreased curvature (and a longer focal length) which improved the quality of telescopes but made them longer. |
An even larger "long-focus" telescope was described by the German astronomer Johannes Hevelius in his 1673 book Machinae Coelestis. He made telescopes with focal lengths as long as 150 feet and lenses up to 8 inches in diameter. Their value as research tools was questionable, however, since the telescope's frame flexed and vibrated in the slightest breeze.
The Huygens brothers also developed "aerial telescopes." These featured an objective lens mounted in an iron tube at the top of a tall pole. The astronomer raised and lowered this and found the image by trial and error. A compound eyepiece on a little stand was then positioned to receive the image cast by the objective. Although astronomers made some discoveries with these telescopes, their usefulness was limited - alignment on windy nights, for example, was difficult - and their design cumbersome. By the beginning of the 18th century, very long refracting telescopes were rarely used any more. Further increases of power came, beginning in the mid-17th century, from a new form of telescope - the reflecting telescope. |
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Copyright ©. Brought to you by the Center for History of Physics, a Division of the American Institute of Physics |
See also: (IDEAS) The Start of Scientific Cosmology
*Click on images and links above for more information. |
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Table of Contents
Atmospheric water generators (AWGs) are an emerging technology designed to extract water from the atmosphere and produce a potable supply of drinking water.
These machines typically operate by passing air through a series of filters, cooling coils, and humidifiers, which condense the vapor into liquid form.
With many areas suffering from limited access to clean and drinkable water, AWGs offer an innovative solution for producing safe drinking water in remote or arid regions.
But do atmospheric water generators work? This article will explore how AWGs work in practice, the pros, and cons associated with using them to produce drinking water, as well as their potential applications in different climates.
By understanding more about this technology we can evaluate whether it's a viable option for providing clean and safe drinking water in places where traditional sources are unavailable or unreliable.
What is an Atmospheric Water Generator?
Atmospheric water generators are a relatively new technology that has been gaining popularity recently. An atmospheric water generator is an appliance that extracts moisture from the atmosphere and turns it into drinking water.
It can be used as an alternative to purchasing bottled water or using traditional filtration systems, making it an attractive choice for many people. But do atmospheric water generators work?
To understand how these devices work, it's important to know what they are. Atmospheric water generators use a process known as condensation to extract moisture from the air and turn it into liquid form – essentially creating “fresh” drinking water!
The device works by cooling hot, humid air until moisture condenses on its surface and then collects droplets of pure liquid which can then be purified for drinking.
Advantages: Pros of AWG
Atmospheric Water Generators (AWGs) are becoming increasingly popular, as more people look for ways to create clean drinking water without relying on traditional sources.
AWGs are machines that generate drinking water from the humidity in the air. They provide an affordable and sustainable option for creating clean, safe drinking water with minimal effort.
AWGs offer a range of advantages over traditional water sources. First, they require no outside source – just electricity – to generate pure drinkable water. This makes them ideal for remote locations or areas prone to natural disasters where access to clean water may be limited or disrupted.
In addition, by using nothing more than air, AWGs eliminate the need for expensive filtration systems or additional purification processes often required when sourcing tap water from municipal systems.
This makes AWGs an ideal solution for environmentally conscious households who prefer natural over artificial water.
AWGs are also highly energy-efficient and cost-effective. By harnessing the power of wind, they require no additional fuel source or generator to produce drinking water. In addition, the technology used in AWGs is designed to operate for long periods without maintenance.
This means that AWGs can be deployed and left to work autonomously in remote locations, providing residents with safe drinking water from wind-generated electricity.
Disadvantages: Cons of AWG
Atmospheric water generators (AWG) are devices that produce water from the air. They have become popular in recent years, but are they worth the cost? This article will explore the disadvantages of AWG and discuss whether or not they work.
AWGs typically require a substantial amount of energy to operate, making them more expensive than other traditional sources of clean drinking water. Additionally, there may be significant maintenance costs associated with owning an AWG due to the complexity of their components and the need for regular filter changes.
Furthermore, since these machines pull moisture out of humid air, their efficiency can vary greatly depending on local weather conditions. Consequently, areas with drier climates or extreme temperatures may find it difficult to generate enough quality drinking water using an AWG system.
How Do AWGs Work?
Atmospheric Water Generators (AWGs) is a revolutionary technology designed to extract water from the air. But how do they work? This article takes a closer look at AWGs and outlines how they can generate clean drinking water with minimal energy consumption.
The process of generating potable water with an AWG is relatively simple, yet highly effective. The machine creates condensation by cooling the air in its internal chamber until the vapor turns into liquid droplets which are then collected by special filters, ensuring that no pollutants come along for the ride.
This process allows users to collect clean drinking water from the atmosphere without having to rely on external sources such as wells or reservoirs. Additionally, these machines only require a small amount of electricity for operation, making them efficient and cost-effective solutions for anyone looking to supplement their existing sources of freshwater.
The machine is not only capable of collecting water from the air, but it can also be used to dehumidify and cool the air in a room. This means that it can be used to create an environment that is conducive to the storage and preservation of food, among other things.
Efficiency: How Efficient Are AWGs?
Atmospheric water generators (AWGs) are gaining popularity as sustainable sources of water. AWGs use the air in our environment to capture moisture and condense it into freshwater. But how efficient are they? This article examines the effectiveness of AWGs and whether they can provide an adequate and reliable source of clean drinking water.
AWGs have several advantages over traditional methods of gathering freshwater, such as being more cost-efficient, requiring less energy, and producing no harmful emissions. However, there is still some debate about their efficiency in terms of providing enough quality drinking water for large populations. Studies show that while AWG systems can produce up to 5 gallons per day depending on conditions, this may not be enough for areas with higher population densities or limited access to other sources of clean drinking water.
💰 Practicality: Is an AWG Practical?
Atmospheric water generators (AWGs) are a type of technology used to extract clean, fresh water from the air. While there has been some debate about whether or not AWGs are effective, the consensus is that they do work. The question then becomes: is an AWG practical for everyday use?
To answer this question, it’s important to understand how an AWG works and what its advantages and disadvantages are. In general, AWGs work by cooling down the air to condense it into liquid water form. This process uses electricity but produces no pollutants or wastewater in doing so. On top of that, the resulting water is usually free of contaminants like bacteria and heavy metals. It’s also conveniently portable so you can take it anywhere with you.
On the other hand, there are drawbacks to using an AWG as well. First of all, the electricity needed to run it can get pretty expensive. If you have a relatively large household, using an AWG for drinking water might not be the best idea. Another potential problem is the size of the unit that you need to buy. While there are smaller models available, they don t have as much capacity as their bigger counterparts. And finally, it s worth noting that not all AWGs are created equal. Some of them are not designed to purify your water as thoroughly as others. So if you're looking for a reliable AWG, make sure you do some research on the features of each model before making a decision.
🤔 Summary & Final Thoughts
In conclusion, atmospheric water generators are an innovative and eco-friendly way to generate clean drinking water. The technology behind the generators relies on air moisture being condensed into liquid form, creating usable drinking water. After assessing the numerous benefits of using atmospheric water generators, it is possible to conclude that they are a great alternative for those who live in areas with limited access to clean drinking water.
Atmospheric water generators can be used both indoors and outdoors, making them versatile and convenient. Additionally, AWG units come in a variety of sizes and designs, so you can easily find one that fits your needs perfectly. While there may be some drawbacks associated with these devices—such as cost—overall these systems provide a sustainable solution for those looking for an alternative source of clean drinking water.
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Lung volumes
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WikiDoc Resources for Lung volumes |
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Most recent articles on Lung volumes Most cited articles on Lung volumes |
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Evidence Based Medicine |
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Ongoing Trials on Lung volumes at Clinical Trials.gov Clinical Trials on Lung volumes at Google
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US National Guidelines Clearinghouse on Lung volumes
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]
Lung volumes refer to physical differences in lung volume, while lung capacities represent different combinations of lung volumes, usually in relation to respiration and exhalation.
The average pair of human lungs can hold about 6 liters of air, but only a small amount of this capacity is used during normal breathing.
Breathing mechanism in mammals is called "tidal breathing". Tidal breathing means that air goes into the lungs the same way that it comes out.
Factors affecting lung volume
Several factors affect lung volumes, some that can be controlled and some that can not. These factors include:
| Larger volumes | Smaller volumes |
| males | females |
| taller people | shorter people |
| non-smokers | heavy smokers |
| athletes | non-athletes |
| people living at high altitudes | people living at low altitudes |
A person who is born and lives at sea level will develop a slightly smaller lung capacity than a person who spends their life at a high altitude. This is because the atmosphere is less dense at higher altitude, and therefore, the same volume of air contains fewer molecules of all gases, including oxygen. In response to higher altitude, the body's diffusing capacity increases in order to be able to process more air.
When someone living at or near sea level travels to locations at high altitudes (eg. the Andes, Denver, Colorado, Tibet, the Himalayas, etc.) they can develop a condition called altitude sickness because their lungs cannot respirate sufficiently in the thinner air.
Measurement and values
These values vary with the age and height of the person; the values that follow are for a 70 kg (154 lb), average-sized adult male [1]:
| Measurement | Value | Calculation | Description |
| Total lung capacity (TLC) | = 6.0 L | = IRV + TV + ERV + RV | The volume of gas contained in the lung at the end of maximal inspiration. The total volume of the lung (i.e.: the volume of air in the lungs after maximum inspiration). |
| Vital capacity (VC) | = 4.6 L | = IRV + TV + ERV | The amount of air that can be forced out of the lungs after a maximal inspiration. Emphasis on completeness of expiration. The maximum volume of air that can be voluntarily moved in and out of the respiratory system.[2][3] |
| Forced vital capacity (FVC) | = 4.8 L | measured | The amount of air that can be maximally forced out of the lungs after a maximal inspiration. Emphasis on speed.[4][5][6] |
| Tidal volume (TV) | = 500 mL | measured | The amount of air breathed in or out during normal respiration. The volume of air an individual is normally breathing in and out. |
| Residual volume (RV) | = 1.2 L | measured | The amount of air left in the lungs after a maximal exhalation. The amount of air that is always in the lungs and can never be expired (i.e.: the amount of air that stays in the lungs after maximum expiration). |
| Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) | = 1.2 L | measured | The amount of additional air that can be breathed out after the end expiratory level of normal breathing. (At the end of a normal breath, the lungs contain the residual volume plus the expiratory reserve volume, or around 2.4 litres. If one then goes on and exhales as much as possible, only the residual volume of 1.2 litres remains). |
| Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) | = 3.6 L | measured IRV=VC-(TV+ERV) | The additional air that can be inhaled after a normal tidal breath in. The maximum volume of air that can be inspired in addition to the tidal volume. |
| Functional residual capacity (FRC) | = 2.4 L | = ERV + RV | The amount of air left in the lungs after a tidal breath out. The amount of air that stays in the lungs during normal breathing. |
| Inspiratory capacity (IC) | = 4.1 L | = TV + IRV | The volume that can be inhaled after a tidal breathe-out. |
| Anatomical dead space | = 150 mL | measured | The volume of the conducting airways. Measured with Fowler method.[7] |
| Physiologic dead volume | = 155 mL | <math> V_\mathrm{T} \,\frac{P_\mathrm{A\,CO_2}-P_\mathrm{E\,CO_2}}{P_\mathrm{A\,CO_2}} </math> | The anatomic dead space plus the alveolar dead space. |
The tidal volume, vital capacity, inspiratory capacity and expiratory reserve volume can be measured directly with a spirometer. Determination of the residual volume can be done by radiographic planemetry, body plethysmography, closed circuit dilution and nitrogen washout.
These are the basic elements of a ventilatory pulmonary function test. The results (in particular FEV1/FVC and FRC) can be used to distinguish between restrictive and obstructive pulmonary diseases:
| Type | Examples | Description | FEV1/FVC |
| restrictive diseases | pulmonary fibrosis | volumes are decreased | often in a normal range (0.8 - 1.0) |
| obstructive diseases | asthma or COPD | volumes are essentially normal but flow rates are impeded | often low (Asthma can reduce the ratio to 0.6, Emphysema can reduce the ratio to 0.3 - 0.4) |
Other
The largest human lung capacity recorded is that of British rower Peter Reed at 11.68 litres, roughly twice that of an average person.
References
- ↑ Palsson, et al. Tissue Engineering (2003). CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-1812-2. page 7-7.
- ↑ Template:GPnotebook
- ↑ Template:Dorlands
- ↑ Template:GPnotebook
- ↑ Template:Dorlands
- ↑ Chhabra S (1998). "Forced vital capacity, slow vital capacity, or inspiratory vital capacity: which is the best measure of vital capacity?". J Asthma. 35 (4): 361–5. PMID 9669830.
- ↑ Essentials of Human Physiology by Thomas M. Nosek. Section 4/4ch3/s4ch3_17.
External links
- "Respiratory Calculations" - University of St.Thomas by Rex Njoku and Dr.Anthony Steyermark
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Milky Way galaxy: Everything you need to know about our cosmic neighborhood
We are living in a golden age of Milky Way research and exploration.
The Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy around 13.6 billion years old with large pivoting arms stretching out across the cosmos.
– Galaxy type: Barred spiral
– Age: 13.6 billion years (and counting)
– Size: 100,000 light-years across
– Number of stars: about 200 billion
– Rotation time: 250 million years
Our home galaxy's disk is about 100,000 light-years in diameter and just 1000 light-years thick, according to Las Cumbres Observatory.
Just as Earth orbits the sun, the solar system orbits the center of the Milky Way. Despite hurtling through space at speeds of around 515,000mph (828,000kmph) our solar system takes approximately 250 million years to complete a single revolution, according to Interesting Engineering. The last time our planet was in this position, dinosaurs were just emerging and mammals were yet to evolve.
If the center of the Milky Way were a city, we would be living in suburbia, about 25,000 to 30,000 light-years from the city center. Life in the outskirts is good; we find ourselves nestled in one of the smaller neighborhoods, the Orion-Cygnus Arm, sandwiched between larger Perseus and Carina-Sagittarius arms. If we were to travel inwards towards the city center, we would find the Scutum-Centaurus and Norma arms.
Related: How to photograph the Milky Way: A guide for beginners and enthusiasts
On a clear night, void of light pollution, we can catch a glimpse of the bright lights of the galactic city streaking across the night sky. Our window into the universe, this milky white band of stars, dust and gas is where our galaxy gets its name.
Lying at the very heart of the Milky Way is a supermassive black hole called Sagittarius A*. About 4 million times the mass of the sun, this beast consumes anything that strays too close, gorging on an ample supply of stellar material enabling it to grow into a giant. In 2022, we imaged this glutton at the core of our galaxy for the very first time, through an innovative technique allowing us to view the shadow of the black hole.
Breaking space news, the latest updates on rocket launches, skywatching events and more!
Why is our galaxy called the Milky Way?
According to the American Museum of Natural History (AMNH), our galactic home is called the Milky Way after its apparent milky white appearance as it stretches across the night sky. In Greek mythology, this milky band appeared because the goddess Hera sprayed milk across the sky.
Around the world, the Milky Way is known by different names. For example in China it is called "Silver River" and in the Kalahari Desert in South Africa it's called the "Backbone of Night".
Milky Way FAQS answered by an expert
We asked Rory Bentley, astronomer at the University of California, Los Angeles, a few frequently asked questions about the Milky Way.
Astronomer and graduate student at the University of California, Los Angeles, specializing in high-mass stars and studies of the Milky Way's core.
Where is Earth in the Milky Way?
Earth is located roughly halfway to the edge of the Milky Way, at a distance of about 26,000 light years from the center. We reside in a feature known as the Orion Spur (sometimes also called the Orion Arm), which is an offshoot between the larger Sagittarius and Perseus Arms that lie inwards and outwards of our location.
What type of Galaxy is the Milky Way?
The Milky Way is a large barred spiral galaxy, with a relatively small bar compared to most galaxies of a similar size. A central bar (or central bulge) is a circular to oval shaped structure of old stars which lies at the center of spiral galaxies.
What is the biggest planet in the Milky Way?
The biggest known planet in the Milky Way may be HD 100546 b, which is a very large gas giant in the process of forming with a diameter roughly 6.9 times that of Jupiter, or 77 times that of Earth.
The radius measurement is highly uncertain, as some of the material surrounding the planet may be masquerading as being part of the planet itself. The largest planets whose sizes are known for certain are HAT-P-67 b and XO-6b, both with diameters around 2.1 times that of Jupiter. Both of these planets have had their diameters measured directly as they transit their parent star.
The Milky Way: Size, structure and mass
Studying the Milky Way used to be notoriously difficult. Astronomers sometimes compare the effort to attempting to describe the size and structure of a forest while being lost in the middle of it. From our position on Earth, we simply lack an overview. But two ground-breaking space telescopes launched since the 1990s have helped usher in the golden age of Milky Way research. Major strides have been made, especially since the 2013 launch of the European Space Agency's (ESA) Gaia mission.
Telescopes enabled astronomers to distinguish the basic shape and structure of some of the closest galaxies before they knew they were looking at galaxies. But reconstructing the shape and structure of our own galactic home was slow and tedious. The process involved building catalogs of stars, charting their positions in the sky and determining how far from Earth they are.
Dutch astronomer Jan Oort, sometimes dubbed the master of the galactic system, was the first to realize that the Milky Way isn't motionless but rotates, and he calculated speeds at which stars at various distances orbit around the galactic center. It also was Oort who determined the position of our sun in the vast galaxy. (The Oort Cloud, a repository of trillions of comets far from the sun, was named after him.)
Gradually, a complex picture emerged of a spiral galaxy that appears quite ordinary.
At the center of the Milky Way sits a supermassive black hole called Sagittarius A*. With a mass equal to that of four million suns, the black hole, discovered in 1974, can be observed in the sky with radio telescopes close to the constellation Sagittarius.
Everything else in the galaxy revolves around this powerful gateway to nothingness. In its immediate surroundings is a tightly packed region of dust, gas and stars called the galactic bulge. In the case of the Milky Way, this bulge is peanut-shaped, measuring 10,000 light-years across, according to ESA. It harbors 10 billion stars (out of the Milky Way's total of about 200 billion), mostly old red giants, which formed in the early stages of the galaxy's evolution.
Related: 'Weird signal' hails from the Milky Way. What's causing it?
Beyond the bulge extends the galactic disk. This feature is 100,000 light-years across and 1,000 light-years thick, and it's home to the majority of the galaxy's stars, including our sun. Stars in the disk are dispersed in clouds of stellar dust and gas. When we look up to the sky at night, it's the edge-on view of this disk extending toward the galactic center that takes our breath away.
Stars in the disk orbit around the galactic center, forming swirling streams that appear to emanate like arms from the galactic bulge. Research into the mechanisms that drive the creation of spiral arms is still in its infancy, but the latest studies suggest that these arms form and disperse within relatively short periods of up to 100 million years (out of the galaxy's 13 billion years of evolution).
Inside those arms, stars, dust and gas are more tightly packed than in the more loosely filled areas of the galactic disk, and this increased density triggers more intense star formation. As a result, stars in the galactic disk tend to be much younger than those in the bulge.
"Spiral arms are like traffic jams in that the gas and stars crowd together and move more slowly in the arms. As material passes through the dense spiral arms, it is compressed and this triggers more star formation," Denilso Camargo, of the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil, said in a statement.
The Milky Way currently has four spiral arms, according to the National Science Foundation (NSF). There are two main arms — Perseus and Scutum-Centaurus — and the Sagittarius and Local Arm, which are less pronounced. Scientists still discuss the exact position and shape of these arms using Gaia data.
The Milky Way disk is not flat but warped, according to ESA. As it rotates, it precesses like a wobbling spinning top. This wobble, essentially a giant ripple, circles the galactic center much more slowly than the stars in the disk, completing a full rotation in about 600 to 700 million years. Astronomers think this ripple may be a result of a past collision with another galaxy.
Sprinkled around the disk and the bulge are globular clusters, collections of ancient stars, as well as approximately 40 dwarf galaxies that are either orbiting or colliding with the larger Milky Way according to a statement from ESA.
All of that is surrounded by a spherical halo of dust and gas, which is twice as wide as the disk. Astronomers believe that the entire galaxy is embedded in an even larger halo of invisible dark matter. Since dark matter doesn't emit any light, its presence can only be inferred indirectly by its gravitational effects on the motions of stars in the galaxy. Calculations suggest that this puzzling stuff makes up to 90% of the galaxy's mass.
The mass of the Milky Way, dark matter included, equals 1.5 trillion solar masses, according to recent NASA estimates. The galaxy's visible matter is distributed between its 200 billion stars, their planets and the massive clouds of dust and gas that fill the interstellar space. Astronomers aren't quite sure how many planets are in the Milky Way, given we have only found a few thousand all told, but one NASA estimate suggests it's more than 100 billion planets. How many solar systems there are in the Milky Way is also a mystery, as we are still looking for the planets.
Where is the sun in the Milky Way?
The sun orbits about 26,000 light-years from the black hole Sagittarius A*, roughly in the middle of the galactic disk. Traveling at the speed of 515,000 mph (828,000 kph), the sun takes 230 million years to complete a full orbit around the galactic center.
The sun sits near the edge of the Local Arm of the Milky Way, one of the two smaller spiral arms of the galaxy. In 2019, using data from the Gaia mission, astronomers found that the sun is essentially surfing a wave of interstellar gas that's 9,000 light-years long, 400 light-years wide and undulates 500 light-years above and below the galactic disk according to ESA.
Planets of the solar system do not orbit in the plane of the galaxy but are tipped by about 63 degrees.
"It's almost like we're sailing through the galaxy sideways," Merav Opher, an astrophysicist at George Mason University in Virginia, told Space.com.
What is the black hole in the Milky Way?
The black hole in the Milky Way is called Sagittarius A*. The black hole is mostly dormant, which makes it very challenging to observe. Sagittarius A* has a mass 4.3 million times that of the sun, astronomers Reinhard Genzel and Andrea Ghez discovered it in 2008. The approximate diameter is 14.6 million miles (23.5 million kilometers) . By comparison, the Milky Way itself is roughly 100,000 light-years wide and 1,000 light-years thick.
A huge disk of gas around Sagittarius A* billows out as far as 5 to 30 light-years from the supermassive black hole. It is this huge, but tenuous, area of gas that gives a bit of material for Sagittarius A* activity. The region is known to emit X-rays due to feeding on the gas, or because of friction within the disk as temperatures soar to as much as 18 million degrees Fahrenheit (10 million degrees Celsius).
Scientists would love to have more information about this supermassive black hole to figure out more about how it was formed and the conditions that made its growth possible. A couple of possibilities include smaller black holes getting quite large as they eat up dust and gas in the environment nearby; alternatively, smaller black holes may merge together and create something more monstrous.
Generally, scientists do have improving models for stellar-mass black holes and intermediate-mass black holes. These objects form when huge stars, many times the mass of our sun, collapse after stopping nuclear fusion. Since they are no longer able to stop the gravitational collapse, they shrink to a gravitationally powerful object that can warp time and space around it so much that light no longer can escape.
We're gradually learning more about Sagittarius A* through efforts such as the first-ever image of the black hole, which was obtained on May 12, 2022. The image captured faint amounts of light caused by heated matter moving super-fast towards the center of the black hole; the image is a high-definition shadow. This imaging required a big set of observatories around the world, approximately the size of Earth — which was possible through the Event Horizon Telescope (EHT).
Related: Here's How Scientists Turned the World Into a Telescope (to See a Black Hole)
Milky Way galaxy type and the great debate of 1920
We are constantly building on our wealth of knowledge of the Milky Way, though up until relatively recently astronomers believed that all the stars in the sky belonged to our galaxy.
"The Great Debate" in 1920 saw astronomers Herber Curtis and Harlow Shapley argue the scale of the universe and the prospect of "island universes" (galaxies), according to the National Academy of Sciences.
On one side of the debate, Shapley believed the Milky Way was much larger than previous estimates and that we weren't at the center. He also claimed that "spiral nebulae" such as Andromeda were a part of the Milky Way. On the other side of the debate, Curtis did not dispute Shapley's claims of a far larger Milky Way, he did however argue that there were large island universes (galaxies) such as Andromeda, that lay beyond the boundaries of the Milky Way.
The dispute was resolved when Edwin Hubble's measurements of Cepheid variable stars proved Andromeda was located far outside the Milky Way. Modern estimates suggest the Andromeda galaxy, our nearest galaxy neighbor is 2.5 million light-years away.
More recently, astronomers have been trying to figure out what type of galaxy the Milky Way is. Our best estimates these days suggest that it is a barred spiral, meaning that there is a bar structure across the center. Astronomers can estimate the shape of the Milky Way by looking at its population of stars, as well as their movements across the sky.
A future collision of galactic proportions
We now know that the Milky Way resides within the Local Group of galaxies, made up of over 30 galaxies including Andromeda, Triangulum and Leo I to name but a few. It turns out that it's pretty good to know who your neighbors are, as they may be closer than you think. The Milky Way is currently hurtling towards Andromeda at 250,000mph (400,000 km/h). Though there is no need to worry just yet, this crash of cosmic proportions is not due for another 4 billion years.
NASA and other space entities have been observing distant galaxy collisions for decades now to get a sense of what we might be facing when Andromeda and the Milky Way collide. The short story is there is little to worry about; the longer tale is the process is an interesting one as it shows how galaxies may evolve.
For example, observations of a three-way galactic collision in 2022 using the famed Hubble Space Telescope gave some intriguing insights. The largest of the group, as it got into a tight orbit with the other two, snagged some material with its relatively stronger gravity. This created an intriguing streak of gas, dust and other materials flowing into the larger galaxy, visible even from Earth.
While the arms of the Milky Way will surely be ripped up by this process, individual stars are relatively safe as the spaces between them are quite large. In other words, don't look for star collisions, as they will be practically non-existent. Starbirth, however, will accelerate due to the amount of gas being pumped into our galaxy, causing our galaxy to brighten and for its population to expand in the coming millions of years following the collision.
Our own solar system, therefore, should be relatively safe due to the low risk of star collision. That said, we may find ourselves thrown into a completely different path around the new galactic center as the merger pushes through.
One practical effect is that the constellations we observe from Earth may change as star orbits alter or new stars are added into the mix; that said, the collision is happening so far in the future that the constellations we see today may be altered in any case, due to natural starbirth and star death outside of the collision. This Milky Way timelapse shows how the night sky will shift over time.
Mapping the Milky Way's history
The evolution of the Milky Way began when clouds of gas and dust started collapsing, pushed together by gravity. First stars sprung up from the collapsed clouds, those that we see today in the globular clusters. The spherical halo emerged soon after, followed by the flat galactic disk. The galaxy started small and grew as the inescapable force of gravity pulled everything together.
The galaxy's evolution is, however, still shrouded in mystery. A discipline called galactic archaeology is slowly unraveling some of the puzzles of the Milky Way's life thanks to the Gaia mission, which released its first catalog of data in 2018.
Gaia measures the exact positions and distances of more than 1 billion stars, as well as their light spectra, which enables scientists to understand the stars' composition and age, according to ESA. The position data allow astronomers to determine the speeds and directions in which the stars move in space. As things in space follow predictable trajectories, astronomers can reconstruct the paths of the stars billions of years into the past and future. Combining these reconstructed trajectories into one stellar movie captures the evolution of the galaxy over eons.
There is also evidence that the Milky Way collided with several smaller galaxies during its evolution. In 2018, a team of Dutch astronomers found a group of 30,000 stars moving in sync through the sun's neighborhood in the opposite direction to the rest of the stars in the data set. The motion pattern matched what scientists had previously seen in computer simulations of galactic collisions. These stars also differed in color and brightness, which suggested they came from a different galaxy.
Remnants of another, slightly younger, collision were spotted a year later. The Milky Way continues devouring smaller galaxies to this day. A galaxy called Sagittarius (not to be mistaken with the black hole) currently orbits close to the Milky Way and has likely smashed through its disk several times in the past 7 billion years. Using Gaia data, scientists found that these collisions triggered periods of intense star formation in the Milky Way and may even have something to do with the galaxy's trademark spiral shape. The study suggests that our sun was born during one of those periods some 4.6 billion years ago.
Photographing the Milky Way
Photographing the Milky Way requires a dark sky, a good "season" (generally between February and October), some distance from light pollution, and the ability to use photographic equipment to catch its faint light. Luckily, the Milky Way is visible in both the northern and southern hemispheres and it is possible to capture it using standard amateur photography items.
If you can, get to your site in the daytime as you will likely want to scout the area for the best angles. Good Milky Way images tend to make use of the landscape in creative ways, so look for interesting and prominent natural features like mountains, boulders or rock shapes.
Next comes the photo shoot. Generally speaking, use a tripod, set your equipment for a timelapse mode and be prepared to experiment with different focuses and different lenses. For beginners, we also have a full guide on how to photograph the Milky Way.
The future of the Milky Way research
Since the beginning of its operations, the Gaia mission has provided three updates to its massive stellar catalog. Astronomers from all over the world continue analyzing the data in search of new patterns and revelations.
Gaia data currently generates more research papers than even the famous Hubble Space Telescope. Gaia will continue charting the galaxy until at least 2025, as long as the spacecraft remains in good health, and the catalog it has compiled will keep astronomers busy for decades to come.
Before Gaia, the largest dataset about positions and distances of stars in the Milky Way came from a mission called Hipparcos, after an ancient Greek astronomer who began charting the night sky 150 years before Christ. Hipparcos only saw about 100,000 of the brightest stars in the sun's neighborhood, compared to Gaia's one billion. The data was also less precise.
Even though Gaia sees less than 1% of stars in the galaxy, astronomers can expand their findings and model the behavior of the entire Milky Way.
Additional resources
Discover more about the Milky Way and other galaxies with this free learning material from the Open University. Explore the Milky Way in virtual reality with ESA's Gaia mission. Tour the Milky Way with Gaia Sky, a real-time, 3D, astronomy visualization software that uses ESA's Gaia mission data. Learn why it was so difficult to study the Milky Way before Gaia in this article from ESA.
Bibliography
Xiang, M., Rix, HW. "A time-resolved picture of our Milky Way's early formation history". Nature 603, 599–603 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-04496-5
Robin, Annie C., et al. "A synthetic view on structure and evolution of the Milky Way." Astronomy & Astrophysics 409.2 (2003): 523-540.
Dehnen, Walter, and James Binney. "Mass models of the Milky Way." Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 294.3 (1998): 429-438.
Helmi, Amina. "Streams, substructures, and the early history of the Milky Way." Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 58 (2020): 205-256.
Tereza is a London-based science and technology journalist, aspiring fiction writer and amateur gymnast. She worked as a reporter at the Engineering and Technology magazine, freelanced for a range of publications including Live Science, Space.com, Professional Engineering, Via Satellite and Space News and served as a maternity cover science editor at the European Space Agency.
- Nola Taylor TillmanContributing Writer
- Elizabeth HowellContributing Writer
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Nicky Furlong, Director, Public Sector, Health & Life Sciences at SAS UK, describes how new developments in analytics can support the fight against global human trafficking
One of the most disturbing things about global human trafficking is just how pervasive it is.
According to the International Labour Organisation (ILO), an agency of the UN, 49.6 million people were trapped in some form of human slavery in 2021 – 27.6 million of whom were in forced labour and 22 million in forced marriage.
Of the 27.6 million in forced labour, 6.3 million people were the victims of commercial sexual exploitation. The ILO also points out that the problem of global human trafficking has “risen significantly” in recent years – and occurs in almost every country of the world.
Tackling global human trafficking is a major challenge because of the complex network of elusive gangs operating across borders
Tackling global human trafficking is a major challenge for national and international crime agencies because of the complex network of elusive gangs operating across borders. As the World Economic Forum (WEF) says in its own literature on the subject, “around 172 countries form part of the chain of exploitation … it’s a daunting picture”.
But the WEF also identifies a real and, we believe, powerful solution. It says: “The only way to drill down into what’s really going on and to develop intervention strategies is for data to be shared.”
Untangling the web to dismantle organised crime networks
While there’s an urgent need to dismantle serious organised crime networks, doing so is a resource-heavy task.
But innovations in analytics – driven by AI and machine learning – now promise to lead crime agencies to the perpetrators far quicker than relying on victims and witnesses to come forward. Victims are, after all, extremely vulnerable and may be understandably reluctant to speak to the authorities, certainly without compelling evidence to support a successful prosecution.
We’re already seeing how analytics could help to tackle global human trafficking and other crimes. Working with a major police department in the US, we developed a sophisticated text analytics-based system capable of extracting actionable textual and geospatial patterns from raw crime data. The data is processed and analysed in a single system and then presented to enforcement teams on visual dashboards – enabling them to uncover patterns indicative of large-scale criminal activity from seemingly isolated incidents such as a drug offence.
Applying Natural Language Processing (NLP) to text analytics enables officers to auto-categorise data by keywords, set their own search criteria and make sense of the vast amounts of data generated through text messages and social media interactions using data visualisation tools. In the case of the US police department, this method allowed investigators to identify trends in global human trafficking, theft and violence for 45,000 police incident narratives in a matter of minutes.
Geocoding to filter data locations
Geocoding and reverse geocoding are also highly effective ways of filtering data to reveal locations that may be of interest.
The lessons learned through this project can be applied to the fight against global human trafficking in the UK and beyond. With textual and geospatial insights, police forces can not only monitor activity locally and nationally but also collaborate with colleagues in other agencies, NGOs, and international organisations to tackle cross-border global human trafficking.
We have also worked closely with Peace-Work, part of the global Data for Good movement, empowering volunteers by providing them with the SAS Analytics data and meta-analysis tools they need to do their invaluable work.
By supplying this data, Peace-Work’s activist volunteers were able to identify new patterns in raw data supplied by various agencies tracking the movement of exploited people.
Where else can we look to tackle global human trafficking?
There are other data sources crime agencies can tap into as well, including financial data. Ruthless gangs and traffickers are ultimately driven by money, which is usually laundered and deposited in legitimate accounts.
However, while transactions might look legal, applying advanced analytics can highlight patterns and anomalies in large amounts of data that would have otherwise gone undetected. Banks are the gatekeepers for this data, so it’s vital that they work with organisations like the National Economic Crime Centre to report suspicious transactions.
Traffickers also need the means of transporting people around the world. These are often underworld and highly dangerous methods of forced travel. But humans are often trafficked by legitimate, mainstream means, in plain sight, including commercial flights. And certain routes are more heavily used by traffickers than others. Accordingly, border forces and airlines can be empowered with the right data tools to monitor potential illegal activity on certain routes and flag any concerns quickly.
Ultimately, every new pattern spotted means that potential action can be taken to turn the tide of global human trafficking, enabling victims to rebuild their lives and sending a clear message to perpetrators that they will be caught.
This piece was written and provided by Nicky Furlong, Director, Public Sector, Health & Life Sciences at SAS UK.
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An important aspect of pruning is knowing when to prune plants. Proper timing helps to insure attractive, healthy, productive plants. The proper time to prune trees, shrubs, and vines in Iowa is indicated below.
Deciduous Trees | Evergreen Trees | Deciduous Shrubs | Evergreen Shrubs | Fruit | Roses | Vines | Clematis | Additional Information
Deciduous Trees
February through March is generally regarded as the best time to prune most deciduous trees. The absence of foliage at this time of year gives the individual a clear view of the tree and allows the selection and removal of appropriate branches. Also, when pruned in late winter, the walling-off or compartmentalization of wounds can begin immediately with the onset of growth in spring. Oaks are an exception. The winter months – December, January, and February – are the best time to prune oak trees.
Deciduous trees can be pruned at other times of the year with little or no negative consequences (To clean up storm damage, for example). However, if possible, avoid pruning deciduous trees in spring when the trees are leafing out and in fall when the trees are dropping their leaves.
The Best Time to Prune Oaks
To reduce the risk of an oak wilt infection, do not prune oaks from March through October. Oak wilt is a fungal disease that is lethal to many oaks. It can spread from infected trees to healthy trees by sap-feeding beetles ("picnic bugs"). If an oak tree must be pruned in spring or summer (such as after a storm), apply latex house paint to the pruning cuts to avoid attracting sap-feeding beetles to the wounds. Learn more about Oak Wilt in these articles: Pruning Oak Trees to Avoid Oak Wilt and Oak Wilt.
FAQs - Deciduous Trees
- When is the best time to prune shade trees? | Short answer: February and March
- When is the best time to prune oak trees? | Short answer: December through February
Evergreen Trees
Evergreen trees, such as pine, spruce, and fir, require little pruning. Dead, broken, and diseased branches can be removed at any time of the year. Late winter is the best time to remove unwanted lower branches on evergreen trees.
Spruce and fir trees possess side or lateral buds on their newest (outermost) growth. To promote denser growth, cut shoots back to just above a lateral bud or side branch in early spring.
Growth on pine trees develops from terminal buds. Pines do not produce side or lateral buds. The growth of pines can be slowed by pinching or pruning off one-half to two-thirds of the elongated terminal buds ("candles") in spring when the candles are approximately 2 to 3 inches long. Do not prune branches back to older growth down the stem as new growth will not develop from these areas.
Deciduous Shrubs
The proper time to prune deciduous shrubs is determined by the plant's growth habit, bloom time, and health or condition.
Spring-Flowering Shrubs
Spring-flowering shrubs, such as lilac and forsythia, bloom in spring on the growth of the previous season. The plant's health or condition determines the best time to prune spring-flowering shrubs.
The best time to prune healthy, well-maintained spring-flowering shrubs is immediately after flowering. Healthy, well-maintained shrubs should require only light to moderate pruning. Pruning immediately after flowering allows gardeners to enjoy the spring flower display and provides adequate time for the shrubs to initiate new flower buds for next season.
Summer-Flowering Shrubs
Summer-flowering shrubs, such as potentilla and Japanese spirea, bloom in summer on the current year's growth. Prune summer-flowering shrubs in late winter or early spring. The pruned shrubs will bloom in summer on the current season's growth.
Shrubs with Non-Showy Flowers
Some deciduous shrubs don't produce attractive flowers, such as burning bush. These shrubs may possess colorful bark, fruit, or foliage. Prune these shrubs in late winter or early spring before growth begins.
Overgrown Shrubs
Neglected, overgrown shrubs often require extensive pruning to rejuvenate or renew the plants. The best time to rejuvenate large, overgrown shrubs is late winter or early spring (March or early April). Heavy pruning in late winter or early spring will reduce or eliminate the flower display on spring-flowering shrubs for 2 or 3 years. However, rejuvenation pruning will restore the health of the shrubs. More information can be found in this article: Pruning Large, Overgrown Shrubs
Formal Deciduous Shrub Hedges
Most deciduous shrubs should not be sheared into formal hedges. It destroys their natural shape, reduces the number of leaves and flowers within the shrub's canopy, and causes a proliferation of small shoots at the branch tips that will look unsightly.
A few species, namely privet, alpine currant, and barberry, can be successfully managed as formal, sheared hedges. To maintain a formal shape, pruning is required at least twice a year. Begin shearing deciduous hedges in spring just after the new flush of growth appears (May). A second shearing can be done in mid-summer (July) if needed. Avoid extensive pruning after mid-summer as it will promote new growth that cannot harden off well before winter arrives. More information can be found in this article: How to Prune Formal Hedges
Don't Prune in Late Summer and Fall
Do not prune deciduous shrubs in late summer. Pruning shrubs in August or early September may encourage a late flush of growth. This new growth may not harden sufficiently before the arrival of cold weather and be susceptible to winter injury.
FAQs - Pruning Shrubs
- When should I prune spring-flowering deciduous shrubs? | Short answer: Immediately after flowering
- When is the best time to prune forsythias? | Short answer: Immediately after flowering
- When should I prune my weigela? | Short answer: Lightly in early spring and again (if needed) after bloom
- When should I prune summer-flowering deciduous shrubs? | Short answer: March and early April
- When would be the best time to prune potentillas? | Short answer: March and early April
- When should I prune “non-flowering” deciduous shrubs? | Short answer: February and March
Evergreen Shrubs
Prune evergreen shrubs, such as juniper and yew, in late March or early April before new growth begins. Light pruning may also be done in mid-summer. Avoid pruning evergreen shrubs in the fall. Fall-pruned evergreens are more susceptible to winter injury.
Formal Evergreen Hedges
To maintain a formal shape, pruning is required at least twice a year - the tidiest of hedges require pruning almost monthly. Begin shearing evergreen hedges in late spring or early summer just after the new flush of growth appears (May through early June). Avoid extensive pruning after mid-summer.
Boxwoods often experience dieback in severe winters. Prune out dead growth in early spring (early to mid-April). Light pruning/shearing (to shape plants) can be done from spring to mid-summer. Do not prune boxwoods in late summer as late-season growth may not have sufficient time to harden before winter. More information can be found in this article: How to Prune Formal Hedges
FAQs - Pruning Evergreen Shrubs
- When should I prune evergreen shrubs? | Short answer: Early Spring and (if needed) mid-summer
Fruit
Late February to early April is the best time to prune fruit trees in Iowa. Pruning should be completed before the fruit trees begin to break bud (leaf out) in early spring.
Early spring is also the best time to prune most small fruits with woody stems such as grapes, raspberries, blueberries, gooseberries, and currents.
FAQs - Pruning Fruit
- When should I prune my fruit trees? | Short answer: Late February through early April
- When is the best time to prune grapevines? | Short answer: Late February through early April
Roses
The upper portions of modern roses, such as hybrid teas, floribundas, and grandifloras, typically have winter dieback due to exposure to low winter temperatures and extreme temperature changes. Gardeners should prune out the dead wood after the winter protection is removed from modern roses in late March to mid-April.
Old garden roses, hybrid rugosas, and other hardy shrub or landscape roses often survive Iowa's winters with little or no winter injury. Those that bloom only once a year should be pruned immediately after flowering. Those that bloom throughout the summer should be pruned in March or early April.
More information can be found in this article: How to Prune Roses.
Vines
Most vines can be pruned in late winter or early spring before they begin to leaf out (March through early April). The exception to this are spring flowering vines, such as wistera, which should be pruned immediately after flowering.
Clematis
Clematis varieties can be placed into three groups based on their flowering characteristics.
- Bloom on the current season’s growth. These varieties tend to produce one flush of blooms sometime between late May and September. They are some of the most common types found in Iowa. (Examples: Clematis viticella, Clematis terniflora, and large-flowered hybrids such as Clematis × jackmanii, ‘Ernest Markham’, and ‘Hagley Hybrid’)
- Bloom on the previous year’s growth referred to as old wood. These varieties are the earliest to bloom in Iowa often flowering in May. (Examples: Clematis alpina and Clematis macropetala)
- Bloom on both old and new wood. These varieties bloom twice each season. Large flowers appear between May and July and a second flush of smaller flowers happens in late summer. (Examples: ‘The President', ‘Henryi’, and ‘Ramona’)
Prune clematis vines that bloom on the current season's growth back to within 6 to 12 inches of the ground in late winter/early spring (Mid-March to Mid-April).
Wait until the vines begin to leaf out before pruning the other two groups of clematis. Prune out all the dead wood once the vines begin to leaf out. Clematis vines of the last 2 groups will bloom poorly if much of the old growth is destroyed in winter.
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https://www.trusens.com/news/blog/benefits-of-an-air-purifier-for-apartment-living/
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If you live in an apartment, you may not have much control over your indoor air. Other than being able to control the thermostat or whether a window is open or closed, an air purifier can be your best chance to take control of your apartment’s air.
Uses for an Apartment Air Purifier
The benefit of using an air purifier in any indoor space is to reduce the indoor air pollutants and distribute cleaner air around it. In an apartment, air purifiers help to reduce odors, smoke, volatile organic compounds, mold, allergens, and pet dander, hair and odors, whether they come from your own apartment or your neighbors’ apartment.
- Odors. Leaving the trash out for too long or burning something in the kitchen takes over the air in an apartment much quicker due to its size and lower levels of ventilation available. Using an air purifier will help to eliminate unwanted or lingering odors. TruSens Air Purifiers paired with the Specialty Odor Filter helps eliminate odors in your apartment.
- Smoke. Cigarette smoke in your apartment can leave a bad smell and pollutants present in the air. Whether sourced from you, your roommate, or a neighbor, an air purifier can help to reduce the odors and airborne pollutants from cigarette smoke.
- Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs). VOCs are airborne chemical pollutants that can be sourced from certain cleaning supplies, paints, and new furniture. Cleaning your apartment regularly with certain supplies will continually release VOCs into your apartment. If you have recently received new furniture and/or have painted, these both have the potential to release VOCs into your apartment’s air. Using an air purifier in your apartment will help to reduce VOCs from the indoor air.
- Mold. Common areas for mold growth include the kitchen and bathroom due to their potential for moisture. In an apartment, these two locations are near the rest of the rooms and living spaces. Air purifiers help to reduce mold spores in the air before mold growth begins.
- Allergens. For those with allergies, reducing the number of allergens from the air in your apartment is a priority. While there are many ways to reduce allergens from your apartment, there are also many ways they can make their way into the indoor air. Air purifiers help to reduce allergens from your indoor air. TruSens additionally offers a specialty Allergy & Flu filter that, paired with a TruSens Air Purifier, helps to capture 99% of airborne allergens and viruses.
- Pet dander, hair, and odors. If you have a pet such as a dog, cat, or hamster, they can contribute to poor indoor air quality. While vacuuming, dusting, and bathing your pets may help, so do air purifiers. Using an air purifier will help to reduce dander, hair, and odor that your pets release into your apartment’s air. Using a TruSens Air Purifier and Specialty Pet Filter helps capture up to 99.97% of pet dander and hair and helps eliminate common pet odors.
Choosing the Right Air Purifier and Filter for Your Apartment
Choosing the right air purifier for your apartment will depend on your apartment’s size and why you’re interested in purchasing an air purifier. As mentioned, there are several reasons you may want to consider using an air purifier in your apartment.
When choosing the air purifier to best suite your needs, consider the following:
- Size. TruSens air purifiers come in multiple sizes in order to fit each room size. In order to determine the size air purifier that you need, you will need to determine which room and the room’s size. TruSens Air Purifiers are designed to clean the air within a single room or space. Therefore, unless you live in a studio apartment that meets the recommended room size, one will not be sufficient for the entire apartment. However, all TruSens Air Purifiers come with a handle for easy room-to-room portability.
- Model of Air Purifier. TruSens is always looking to further innovate and meet the needs of our customers. With this, we have multiple versions of the TruSens Air Purifier available.
- Filters. Customize your air purification with the TruSens Specialty Filters. Specialty filters address specific indoor air quality needs of your apartment. These specialty filters include the Allergy & Flu Filter, Pet Filter, and Odor Filter.
Find information on all TruSens Air Purifiers and TruSens Specialty Filters.
Air Purifier Placement
Placement of the air purifier within your apartment is important to pay attention to, especially if you do not own more than one. According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), users should “place portable air cleaners so that their clean air reaches the breathing zone of occupants as directly as possible, without obstruction from furnishings or addition to furnishings or addition of fine particles by common sources such as printers”
The air purifier placement should also be determined by your needs. For example, if your main concern or reasoning to purchase an air purifier for your apartment is for smells within the kitchen, use it in the kitchen.
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I live in a 1br apartment in Manhattan, and it consistently smells bad. What is a good way to purify the air in my home?
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https://www.bhg.com/gardening/trees-shrubs-vines/care/what-to-prune-when/
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A Guide to Pruning Plants for Healthier Trees, Shrubs, and Flowers Learn how, when, and what to prune in your garden for the healthiest plants possible. By Viveka Neveln Viveka Neveln Viveka Neveln is the Garden Editor at BHG and a degreed horticulturist with broad gardening expertise earned over 3+ decades of practice and study. She has more than 20 years of experience writing and editing for both print and digital media. Learn about BHG's Editorial Process Updated on October 28, 2025 Reviewed by Joseph Tychonievich Reviewed by Joseph Tychonievich Joseph Tychonievich is a gardening expert with two decades of work in horticulture, the author of three gardening books, and known for his deep knowledge of the science behind techniques for successful gardening. Learn about BHG's Gardening Review Board Close Credit: Doug Hetherington Many trees, shrubs, and perennials can produce more blooms and stronger growth if you trim them back at certain points during the year. The ideal window depends on the type of plant. Take the mystery out of when and how to do it properly with this guide on pruning plants. 7 of the Worst Mistakes to Avoid When Pruning Plants 01 of 17 Getting Started Credit: Marty Baldwin Start by removing any dead, diseased, or damaged stems as soon as you notice them. These can attract insects and diseases. Also, remove crossing branches, water sprouts—which are upright growing shoots on trunks or branches—and suckers, which are vigorous shoots growing near or from below the ground. How to Spot 5 Common Plant Diseases and Keep Your Garden Healthy 02 of 17 When to Prune Hydrangeas Credit: Matthew Benson Bigleaf and oakleaf hydrangeas bloom on old wood, so prune them before midsummer. If they are pruned in winter or early spring, you’ll remove the flower buds.Reblooming types like the Endless Summer and Let's Dance Series bloom on both old and new growth, so pruning time is less critical. Even if some buds are cut, new stems will still flower.Panicle hydrangeas, such as 'PeeGee' and 'Limelight,' and 'Annabelle' arborescens flower on new wood. So they're flexible in timing, but avoid pruning right before they bloom. 03 of 17 Spring-Flowering Trees and Shrubs Credit: Peter Krumhardt Spring bloomers like lilac, forsythia, and rhododendron develop blooms on last year's growth. Prune them in late spring after they're finished blooming. Pruning later or in winter removes flower buds, which reduces next spring’s blooms. You'll get vigorous blooms in spring by cutting some of the oldest shoots down to the ground to make space for new growth and flowers. 04 of 17 Summer-Blooming Trees and Shrubs Credit: Dean Schoeppner Summer bloomers like potentilla and crape myrtle flower on current season’s growth. Prune when they're dormant in the winter or in early spring before new growth. You can cut them to the ground in late winter, and they will still bloom that summer. A pole pruner with a rotating head will help you cut stems at the plant’s base. This saves time and reduces back strain. 6 Must-Know Tips for Pruning Crape Myrtle Trees Correctly 05 of 17 Shrubs Without Showy Blooms Credit: Laurie Black You can prune deciduous shrubs valued for foliage, like the golden smoke tree, at almost any time except late fall. Late-season growth may not survive winter. Do extensive pruning during winter dormancy. 06 of 17 When to Prune Clipped Hedges Credit: Dean Schoeppner For shrubs like boxwood in a shaped hedge, shear the new growth frequently during the early part of the growing season to maintain their size and form. Keep the top a little narrower than the base so that the upper branches don’t shade the lower ones. Stop shearing the hedge about six weeks before your area’s average first frost. Late winter to early spring or mid-to-late summer are some of the best times to prune hedges more drastically. If you’re growing a privacy hedge, reduce the amount of pruning maintenance needed by selecting shrubs that grow only as tall and wide as necessary to provide screening. Allow them to grow into their natural form, and you won’t have to prune often, if at all. 07 of 17 When to Prune Roses Credit: Blaine Moats Treat climbing roses and old garden roses that bloom only once per year at the same as other spring-blooming shrubs. Prune after they finish blooming. Repeat bloomers, including hybrid teas, floribundas, grandifloras, miniatures, and modern shrub roses are pruned mostly to shape the plant or to remove winter-damaged stems (as shown here). If they become overgrown, cut them back in early spring. How to Deadhead Roses the Right Way So They Keep Blooming 08 of 17 When to Prune Deciduous Shade Trees Credit: Peter Krumhardt Prune shade trees like oak, linden, and ash when they are dormant in winter. It’s easiest to see the branching structure at this time of year, and you’re less likely to spread diseases through the pruning wounds. As with non-blooming shrubs, avoid pruning them late in summer. Trees that produce a heavy sap flow when pruned in winter—maples, birches, elms, and dogwoods—are known as “bleeders.” The sap flow may be unsightly, but it doesn’t harm the tree. To avoid the bleeding, you can wait until the leaves have fully expanded in summer to prune these species. 09 of 17 When to Prune Deciduous Fruit Trees Credit: Bob Stefko Prune apple (including crabapple), peach, pear, plum, and cherry trees in midwinter. Although winter pruning removes some flower buds, the goal is to open up the tree for more sunlight so you'll get a better fruit harvest. Dormant pruning is critical, especially for apples, pears, and crabapples, as it helps prevent exposure to fireblight—a bacterial disease—during the growing season. Always use clean pruning tools to avoid spreading diseases. To control the spread of diseases while pruning, dip your pruning shears in rubbing alcohol or a solution of one part bleach to nine parts water. 10 of 17 When to Prune Broadleaf Evergreens Credit: Marty Baldwin Most broadleaf evergreens, including holly, mahonia, and some types of magnolias, don’t need much pruning. The best time to prune them is in early spring, just before they put on their growth spurt. You can do minor shaping and pruning at other times of the year, too. Save on holiday decorations by snipping a few branches for winter holiday greenery. 11 of 17 When to Prune Needle-Leaf Evergreens Credit: Jay Wilde Most trees and shrubs with needlelike or scalelike foliage (spruce, juniper, cypress, arborvitae, fir, yew, Douglas fir, and false cypress) are best pruned early in the growing season. Avoid cutting back into wood that doesn’t have any green needles; it may not sprout new growth. Like broadleaf evergreens, you can trim a few branch tips in midwinter to take some greenery indoors. 12 of 17 When to Prune Pine Trees Credit: Andre' Baranowski True pines are pickier about their pruning needs than other needle-leaf evergreens. Pines only form buds at branch tips before the stem becomes woody. For the best results, only prune pines in the candle stage: Before the new shoots turn woody and before the pine needles have fully expanded. Prune just a portion of the new growth, removing up to half of the expanding candle. 13 of 17 When to Prune Perennial Flowers Credit: Dean Schoeppner Most perennial flowers look best if you remove faded flowers, called deadheading. As a bonus, many perennials will push out another cycle of blooms after deadheading. If your perennial flowers become too tall and leggy or flop open in the middle, try shearing them back to 6-12 inches above the ground. This type of haircut causes them to branch and become stockier. 14 of 17 When to Prune Annual Flowers Credit: Peter Krumhardt Deadhead annual flowers regularly to keep them blooming well. Removing the old flowers prevents them from setting seed and allows plants to put more energy into blooming. Some annuals, like petunias, sprawl and develop bare stems at their bases. As with perennials, you can shear these rangy plants to force more compact growth and renewed bloom. 15 of 17 When to Prune Bush Berries Credit: Bob Stefko The most productive portions of blueberry, gooseberry, and currant bushes are stems that are three years old or less. To maintain a constant supply of productive wood, prune out about a third of the oldest stems on these shrubs each winter. Cut the old stems off at ground level. 16 of 17 When to Prune Cane Berries Credit: Granen Photography Raspberries and blackberries grow on stems known as canes. Typically, these don't bear fruit until their second year. After fruiting, the cane dies, so you must remove these two-year-old canes promptly to prevent disease and make room for new growth. For canes in their first year, pinch back tips once they reach 3 to 4 feet to encourage branching.Everbearing raspberries are different. They produce a late-summer crop on first-year cane tips. Don't pinch them in midsummer. Let the canes fruit and flower in fall, and then remove their tips after fruiting in winter. The next season, the lower parts will produce fruit. Remove these after they're done fruiting. 17 of 17 When to Prune Grape Vines Credit: Matthew Benson Grapes grow vigorously and need extensive pruning each year to keep them productive. Most training systems for grapes involve developing a main stem or trunk with several lateral stems or arms. Grapes fruit on these lateral stems, which are shoots from the current season’s woody growth. Prune all grapes close to the lateral arms each year during the dormant season to produce the best fruit. The degree of pruning depends on the vigor of the variety: Prune vigorous varieties more heavily than weak growers. Frequently Asked Questions What are the best pruning shears? The best pruning shears are the ones that can adapt to your ability and that do the job, whether you’re trimming flowers or thick branches. However, as a general rule, pruning shears should not be old or rusty, so try to keep up with the maintenance for a proper sharp tool. Always take into consideration the type, material, and cutting capacity of the shears. How long does it take a plant to recover from pruning? Pruning may remove inches from your favorite plant, but think of it as a haircut. You’re trimming so the plant can grow back healthy and deceased-free. Unless it’s a chop to target major issues, keep your cuts on the shorter side—under ¾ inch—and you can expect the plant to recover within the next growing cycle. Explore more: Gardening Trees, Shrubs & Vines Caring for Trees & Shrubs Was this page helpful? Thanks for your feedback! Tell us why! Other Submit
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https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/introducing-william-morris
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William Morris is best known as the 19th century's most celebrated designer, but he was also a driven polymath who spent much of his life fighting the consensus. A key figure in the Arts & Crafts Movement, Morris championed a principle of handmade production that didn't chime with the Victorian era's focus on industrial 'progress'. Our collections hold a huge amount of his work – not only wallpapers and textiles but also carpets, embroideries, tapestries, tiles and book designs.
Have nothing in your houses that you do not know to be useful or believe to be beautiful.
Morris was born in Walthamstow, east London in 1834. The financial success of his broker father gave Morris a privileged childhood in Woodford Hall (a country house in Essex), as well as an inheritance large enough to mean he would never need to earn an income. Time spent exploring local parkland, forest and churches, and an enthusiasm for the stories of Walter Scott, helped Morris develop an early affinity with landscape, buildings and historical romance. He also had precociously strong opinions on design. On a family trip to London in 1851, Morris (then aged 16) demonstrated his loyalty to craft principles by refusing to enter the Great Exhibition – which championed Machine Age design – on the grounds of taste.
After school, Morris went to Oxford University to study for the Church. It was there that he met Edward Burne-Jones, who was to become one of the era's most famous painters, and Morris's life-long friend. Burne-Jones introduced him to a group of students who became known as 'The Set' or 'The Brotherhood', and who enjoyed romantic stories of medieval chivalry and self-sacrifice. They also read books by contemporary reformers such as John Ruskin, Charles Kingsley and Thomas Carlyle. Belonging to this group gave Morris an awareness of the deep divisions in contemporary society, and sparked his interest in trying to create an alternative to the dehumanising industrial systems that produced poor-quality, 'unnatural' objects.
In 1855, Morris and Burne-Jones went on an architectural tour of northern France that made both men realise that they were more committed to art than the Church. Soon after, Morris began work in the office of George Edmund Street, the era's leading Neo-Gothic architect. Morris showed little talent for architecture and spent most of his time setting up Oxford and Cambridge Magazine, a vehicle both for his own writing and that of other members of The Brotherhood. Morris left Street's office after only eight months, to begin a career as an artist. Burne-Jones's connection with the artist Dante Gabriel Rossetti – a central figure in the Pre-Raphaelite group – soon led to Morris working with Rossetti as part of a team painting murals at the Oxford Union.
While working in Oxford Morris had a chance meeting with a local stableman's daughter, Jane Burden. Consciously flouting the rules of class, Morris married Jane in 1859 (and her striking looks were to make her a model of idealised beauty for members of the Pre-Raphaelite group for the next 30 years). Morris commissioned architect Philip Webb – whom he had met during his time at Street's – to design and build a home for himself and his wife in rural Kent. In part, Morris wanted to realise the idea of a craft-based artistic community that he and Burne-Jones had been talking about since they were students. The result was Red House, a property that would be 'medieval in spirit' and, eventually, able to accommodate more than one family.
Morris and Jane moved into Red House in 1860 and, unhappy with what was on offer commercially, spent the next two years furnishing and decorating the interior with help from members of their artistic circle. Huge murals and hand-embroidered fabrics decorated the walls, creating the feel of a historical manor house. Prompted by the success of their efforts (and the experience of 'joy in collective labour'), Morris and his friends decided in 1861 to set up their own interiors company: Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co. Everything was to be crafted by hand, a principle that set the company firmly against the mainstream focus on industrialised 'progress'.
Initially, Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co. specialised in the kind of wall paintings and embroidered hangings that had been produced for Red House. Although in its first few years the company didn't make much money, it did win a series of commissions to decorate newly built churches, and became well known for work in stained glass. Morris had always wanted the firm to be based at Red House but the practical restrictions of a small, rural workshop (as well as the death of Burne-Jones's young son) meant that the idea of a medieval-style craft-based community was abandoned. Morris sold Red House in 1865 and the family moved back to London.
In the late 1860s, two prestigious decorating commissions helped establish Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co.'s reputation: one for a new dining room at the South Kensington Museum (later the V&A), and another at St James's Palace. During this period, Morris was also working on The Earthly Paradise, an epic poem with an anti-industrial message that established Morris as one of the foremost poets of his day. He was also busy producing his first wallpapers, whose designs were inspired by English gardens and hedgerows. To make them, he researched and revived historical printing and dyeing methods. This insistence on establishing a 'from scratch' understanding of process was to become a hallmark of Morris's career.
In 1875 Morris became sole director of the renamed and restructured Morris & Company. Over the next decade he continued to design at an impressive rate, adding at least 32 printed fabrics, 23 woven fabrics and 21 wallpapers – as well as more designs for carpets and rugs, embroidery and tapestry – to the company's range of goods. All of these were sold in the shop that Morris opened on Oxford Street in 1877, in a fashionable space that offered a new kind of 'all under one roof' retail experience. By 1881 Morris had built up enough capital to acquire Merton Abbey Mills, a textile factory in south London. This allowed him to bring all the company's workshops together in one place, and to have closer control over production.
In his political life Morris became increasingly disillusioned with parliamentary politics as a means of ending class division, and in 1884 he helped set up a new group called the Socialist League. He made frequent street-corner speeches and went on marches, but his fame protected him against the sanctions of a disapproving establishment. Increasingly, Morris began to leave matters at Merton Abbey in charge of his assistant Henry Dearle and other senior members of the firm, including his daughter, May. He did however continue his interest in tapestry, and for the last five years of his life was involved with Burne-Jones and Dearle on the design of a set of panels based on the Search for the Holy Grail.
Towards the end of his career, Morris began to focus increasingly on his writing, publishing a number of prose narratives, including his most celebrated: News from Nowhere (1890). Infused with his socialist ideas and romantic utopianism, this book offers Morris's vision of a simple world in which art or 'work-pleasure' is demanded of and enjoyed by all. In 1891 (the same year he turned down the Poet Laureateship after the death of Tennyson), Morris set up the Kelmscott Press. The books the Press produced – eventually, a total of 66 – were printed and bound in a medieval style, with Morris designing their typefaces, initial letters and borders. The most famous of these is an illustrated edition of the works of Geoffrey Chaucer, which was published in 1896, a few months before Morris's death.
Find out more in the book News from Nowhere, written by William Morris.
Read more about Morris in our comprehensive illustrated book, with chapters on painting, church decoration and stained glass, interior decoration, furniture, tiles and tableware, wallpaper, textiles, calligraphy and publishing.
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'Have nothing in your houses that you do not know to be useful, or believe to be beautiful' [WILLIAM MORRIS]. Is this good advice?
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https://www.airoasis.com/blogs/articles/do-air-purifiers-help-with-bad-smells
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Do Air Purifiers Help With Bad Smells?
When you walk through your front door, does your home have a bad smell? It’s an uncomfortable situation, especially if you can’t identify the source. We as humans are uniquely sensitive to smells. Research indicates that humans can identify more than one trillion smells, including many that other mammals cannot. With such a sensitive instrument planted in the middle of your face, you’re bound to detect some unpleasant odors no matter where you go.
When dealing with lingering odors, it’s important to remember that humans’ ability to smell isn’t just a superfluous sensory attribute; it’s an essential survival tool. Like animals, humans make crucial decisions about a particular food or substance’s safety based on smell.
You'll also want to determine bad smells that indicate danger: an alarming burnt smell, a burning plastic smell or even a sour smell can all indicate your home needs immediate attention to prevent disaster.
But if your home has lingering smells that aren't alarming, it could mean several things. If your home smells bad constantly, your nose could be alerting you to the presence of toxins, moisture build up, pet dander or other bacteria. Luckily, there are several ways to address bad smells and their sources, such as running the best air purifiers for odors.
Keep reading to learn what causes bad smells, as well as how to address them and freshen your home’s air.
Ready to kill unpleasant odors in your home? Air Oasis is here to help. Visit us online to find the best air filter and air purifier for odors, bacteria, viruses, VOCs (volatile organic compounds), allergens and more.
What Causes Bad Smells in My Home?
Sometimes it’s easy to identify the source of a bad smell. For example, a quick inspection may reveal that your cat’s litter box is overflowing, or your teenager left a half-eaten pizza on their bedroom floor. Other times, identifying the root cause of a particular odor isn’t so easy. Musty, chemical and rotting odors are some of the most common, not to mention that notorious wet dog smell.
Poor Ventilation
If you keep your home's windows and doors sealed tightly, bad smells could be coming from improper ventilation. Through every season of the year, ample ventilation helps your home stay fresh and free of bad odor. As soon as you start to notice a weird smell or even that "home smell," it's time to open some windows and let in some airflow.
Old or Faulty Appliances
Some home appliances can cause unfavorable odors, especially when routine care and maintenance are neglected. Getting rid of spoiled food in the refrigerator and cleaning your dishwasher when necessary are two important ways to prevent bad kitchen smells. If you notice a specific appliance smell, such as gas coming from your fireplace or a chemical smell coming from your HVAC, call your service repairman to address the issue right away.
Lack of Regular Cleaning
Cleaning your home regularly isn't just about making sure it looks welcoming. Cleanliness also helps maintain the general health and hygiene of the entire home. This includes smells. Often, these problems can be eliminated thanks to some regular cleaning in your home:
- A dusty odor
- Stale home smell
- The smell of trash or rotten food
- The smell of dirty dishes or dirty sponge
- Unclean bathroom smells
A little bit of cleaning every day can help with odor removal and prevent bad odors from building up over time.
What's That Bad Smell? Common Odors to Identify in Your Home
Several unpleasant odors are common in even the most modern homes today. Knowing which type of odor you're smelling can help you determine the source and find a solution. Here are the top odors you might be dealing with.
Musty Odors
If your home smells like a musty attic, dank locker room or a dirty tub, you may be dealing with a mold problem. Although mold spores can hide out anywhere, they commonly colonize in places like basements, closets and bathrooms that have high levels of moisture and relatively little ventilation. They can also accumulate and grow in appliances that use water like washing machines, or in drains and water fixtures.
As mold grows and spreads, it off-gasses microbial volatile organic compounds (mVOCs), which cause musty odors. Breathing or touching mold can cause allergic reactions like sneezing, a runny nose, itchy skin and throat, watery eyes and even asthma attacks in some people. If your home consistently smells musty, you should check for mold growth.
Chemical Smells
Does your home have a distinct acrid, chemical or chlorine-like smell? You could be dealing with volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted from a number of sources. VOCs are chemical contaminants commonly found in building materials, paints, adhesives, cleaning agents, carpeting, personal hygiene products, air fresheners and more.
VOCs pose a number of health risks, and prolonged exposure can cause symptoms like nose and throat irritation, shortness of breath, dizziness, headaches and skin issues. Left unaddressed, high concentrations of VOCs can cause damage to the lungs, liver, kidneys and central nervous system and may even cause cancer.
Rotting Odors
When food decomposes, it releases sulfur and nitrogen-containing compounds that smell bad and indicate rot. With both of these types of compounds, even a little can stink up your whole house. If the source isn’t your garbage can, you should check places where food particles could be trapped, such as the kitchen sink, dishwasher and refrigerator. In addition to stinking up the house, bacteria from rotting food can cause illness when ingested, so it’s important to find the source.
Old Air Purifier Smells
Air purifiers that are old or that contain dirty filters can sometimes emit a bad smell. These old air purifier smells can be resolved by either cleaning the filter directly or switching the activated carbon filters, depending on the type. Different air purifiers use different methods of filtration.
It may be worth getting a new air purifier altogether -- especially an air purifier that has a HEPA filter. HEPA (high-efficiency particulate absorbing) filters are more effective when addressing odors in the home. Some air purifiers use both HEPA filters and carbon filters for dual action to eliminate particles that may cause a bad smell.
Learn more about air purifiers that utilize HEPA filters and carbon filters to help your home smell like new: Browse the options from Air Oasis.
How to Get Rid of Bad Odors Indoors
The method for removing a bad odor in your home will depend on its origin. After you’ve identified and tried to eliminate the source, you can begin to remediate the odor with proper cleaning, ventilation and air purification.
Cleaning Tips
When it’s time to clean your home to remove the causes of bad odors, you’ll want to choose your cleaning products wisely. If you purchase a chemical cleaning solution, you’ll only increase the VOCs in the air. That’s why it’s essential to use natural cleaning materials, as well as adopt cleaning practices that mitigate the risk of future odors.
Best Cleaning Materials to Help With Odors
You can use household products like vinegar, lemon, baking soda and essential oils to make a fresh-smelling, natural cleaner that works for just about anything. To make your own all-purpose cleaning solution, mix 1⁄2 cup of white vinegar, two tablespoons of baking soda, tea tree and eucalyptus essential oils. Add this mixture to a spray bottle and fill the rest of the bottle with water.
How Often Should You Wash Curtains and Rugs?
Curtains collect allergens like dust over time and can cause unpleasant home odors; it’s a good idea to wash them every three to six months. Carpets collect lots of grime and dirt just by being on the floor. Vacuum carpets frequently to remove allergens, especially if you have pets, and wash them at least once a year.
Ventilation
When an indoor space isn’t properly ventilated, contaminants like allergens, VOCs and odors become trapped and accumulate. As a result, indoor air can be more polluted than outdoor air, even in large, industrial cities. Lack of airflow increases indoor pollution levels and encourages mold and bacteria growth.
High indoor humidity levels indicated by moist, dank air can mean your home isn’t getting proper ventilation. Many HVAC systems control indoor humidity levels and ventilate air, but if your air ducts or filters are dirty, running your HVAC system could exacerbate the problem.
The most immediate thing you can do to improve indoor air quality is open the windows and doors so that fresh air can circulate. Once you shut them, make sure to run a high-quality air purifier to clean whatever contaminants remain in the air. Even better, having air purifiers in every room will help maintain your home's natural smell and preferred ambiance.
Making a Room Smell Fresh
After you’ve removed the source of the odor, cleaned and ventilated, you may want to add something to your home to help it smell fresh. However, many store-bought products claiming to freshen your home’s air actually make indoor air quality worse.
Air freshener sprays can release ozone into your home, and plug-in air fresheners and heavily scented candles release other VOCs. Try one of these alternatives to give any room in your home a fresh smell:
- Reed diffuser with your favorite essential oils
- Simmer pots with oranges and aromatics
- Flowers and houseplants
- High-quality air purifiers
Want to know the best air purifiers to keep your home smelling fresh? First let's look at why they work.
Air Purifiers: Bad Smells Be Gone
One of the most effective ways to keep your home smelling fresh is running a high-quality air purifier. Essential oils, diffusers and houseplants can help cover up bad smells, but air purifiers can actually remove many of the contaminants that cause them.
Eliminate Bad Odors: Indoor Air Purifier Technology
Air purifiers can remove odor-causing contaminants by a variety of methods. At Air Oasis, we know that the most effective air purifiers employ more than one air cleaning strategy. That’s why each of our air purifiers leverages a combination of all of the following technologies:
- Carbon filtration, which traps odors and contaminants through absorption
- HEPA filtration, which traps more than 99% of particles in a fine mesh filter
- AHPCO® (silver ion), a type of ionization that creates long-lasting ions that seek out and inactivate contaminants
- Bi-Polar®, an ionization technology that emits positively and negatively charged ions that attach to contaminants and cause them to fall from the air
- UV light, which inactivates bacteria and viruses and can sanitize air and surfaces
Best Air Purifiers to Help With Smells
Humans’ keen sense of smell is a mysterious and powerful ability. Smells can trigger memories, cause the mouth to salivate and even repel people from toxic substances. However, you might wish you didn’t have a sense of smell if your house is filled with persistent odors.
One of the best ways to freshen your home’s air while removing contaminants is to run an air purifier for bad smells. At Air Oasis, we’re proud to provide the most effective air purifiers for odors, VOCs, bacteria, allergens and more. Need a new air purifier to combat bad odors and keep your home's air clean? Contact us online or give us a call at 806-373-7788 to see which air purifiers are best for you and your family.
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https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/98-642.html
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98-642 F
CRS Report for Congress
Received through the CRS Web
Democracy-Building in the New Independent
States of the Former Soviet Union:
Progress and Implications for U.S. Interests
July 29, 1998
(name redacted)
Analyst in Foreign Affairs
Foreign Affairs and National Defense Division
Congressional Research Service ˜
The Library of Congress
ABSTRACT
This report provides a discussion and analysis of democratization efforts in the New
Independent States of the former Soviet Union (NIS; Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia,
Moldova, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan) and U.S.
democracy-building assistance. It lists benchmarks of democratization and groups NIS
according to their apparent democratization progress. It discusses problems of
democratization in the NIS and criticism of U.S. democracy-building efforts. The prominent
recent concerns of many in Congress and elsewhere with the effects of NATO enlargement
on Russia's democratization are presented. The paper highlights several issues for Congress
in assessing U.S. democracy-building efforts in the NIS, including the propriety of such
assistance, the kinds of assistance programs to promote, criteria to use in assessing who
receives assistance, and the effectiveness of democracy-building. Tables include a checklist
of democracy-building progress in each NIS; U.S. aid data ordered by democracy-building
program; and cumulative aid obligations for each NIS for FY1992-FY1997, the
Administration's FY1998 estimated spending, and the Administration's FY1999 aid request.
An Appendix presents brief information on democracy-building in each NIS and on
proposed Administration assistance programs for FY1999. The report will be updated as
democratization and legislation warrant. Related products include CRS Issue Brief 95024,
Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia; CRS Issue Brief 93108,
Central Asia's New States, and
CRS Issue Brief 92089,
Russia.
Democracy-Building in the New Independent States of the
Former Soviet Union:
Progress and Implications for U.S. Interests
Summary
Since the end of the Cold War and the advent of independence for the former
Soviet republics, these new independent states (NIS) have made varying progress in
implementing democratic reforms. Some NIS such as Russia appear to be making
some progress, a few such as Kyrgyzstan appear to be faltering, and several such as
Turkmenistan appear to be making scant progress.
Successive U.S. Administrations have fostered democracy-building in the NIS as
a primary foreign policy objective. Broadly, U.S. policymakers have stressed that the
containment policy of the Cold War has been replaced with the policy of engagement
and enlargement to increase the world’s free market democracies. Democratic NIS
are regarded as more likely to conduct peaceful foreign policies and to uphold civil
and human rights. Also, U.S. trade and business would likely be attracted to
democratic NIS where the rule of law is respected. The Administration generally
adheres to the idea that democracy-building and the creation of market economies
can proceed simultaneously in the NIS as the best means to ensure stable reforms.
Several U.S. agencies carry out democracy-building programs, with the U.S. Agency
for International Development playing a prominent role.
In practice, U.S. democracy-building aid reflects various interests and aid goals
and particular needs in an NIS. Cumulative data for FY1992-FY1997 appear to
some degree to show that democracy-building aid has been targeted to NIS that are
faltering or making scant progress in order to bolster civil society. Democracy-
building aid to Belarus, Kazakstan and Uzbekistan has been aimed at bolstering the
growth of NGOs in countries where the political systems are largely undemocratic.
The Administration has placed some priority on democracy-building in Russia and
Ukraine because of their large populations and territory (and the strategic threat of
an unstable, nuclear-armed Russia), their geopolitical and cultural connections to
Europe, and the view that democratization in these NIS provides examples to other
NIS. Cumulative aid figures for Armenia, Georgia, and Tajikistan reflect a recent
shift to some democracy-building aid and efforts to relieve humanitarian suffering
related to conflict.
Most in Congress have supported aid for democracy-building in the NIS, though
there have been varying concerns about the duration, conditionality, and scope of
such aid. Some have urged earmarking or otherwise highlighting democracy-
building aid for Armenia, Georgia, Ukraine, and other NIS, while others have
criticized the effectiveness or pertinence of existing democracy-building and other
NIS aid. Foreign operations appropriations for FY1998 (P.L.105-118) reduced the
Administration’s request for aid to the NIS to $770 million (from $900 million), but
otherwise generally reflected a shift in program priorities to grassroots democracy-
building efforts. Congressional debate on the FY1999 NIS aid request appears
supportive of the Administration's plans for democracy-building programs in the
NIS, but less receptive to other NIS programs and requested funding levels.
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
What Is Democracy-Building? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Democracy-Building in the NIS:
Progress and Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
National Identity Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Crime and Corruption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Grouping NIS by Progress in Democratization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Implications for U.S. Interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Critiques of U.S. Democracy-Building Efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
NATO and Russia's Democratization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
U.S. Democracy-Building Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Non-Freedom Support Act Democracy-Building Aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Recent Trends in Democracy-Building Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Issues for Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Should the United States Foster Democracy-Building in the NIS? . . . . . . . 18
What Kinds of Democracy-Building Programs Should Be Promoted? . . . . 19
What Should Be the Criteria for Democracy-Building Assistance? . . . . . . 20
Is Aid Having an Impact on Democratization in the NIS? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Appendix, Democratization
in the New Independent States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
List of Tables
1. Checklist of Democracy-Building in the New Independent States . . . . . . . . . 7
2. Democracy-Building Aid to the NIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3. Democracy-Building: Cumulative Obligations by Country,
the FY1998 Estimate, and the FY1999 Request . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Democracy-Building in the New Independent
States of the Former Soviet Union:
Progress and Implications for U.S. Interests
Introduction
Many analysts argue that a process of political liberalization undertaken by
former Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev in the late 1980s contributed to the
collapse and breakup of the Soviet Union at the end of 1991. The new independent
states (NIS)1 that emerged from the breakup professed intentions to democratize and
to uphold human rights. These assurances were given to the United States when
diplomatic relations were established, and several NIS leaders on U.S. visits have
repeated these assurances.2
According to some analysts, the interest in democratization in the NIS is part
of the expanding worldwide appeal of democratic governance.3 But democracy is
only one of several possible outcomes of transition from communist rule in the NIS.
Many observers optimistically argue that all the NIS have at least formally
disavowed communism. They contend that a majority of the NIS have made at least
faltering progress in democratization, despite the harsh obstacles and legacies the
NIS have faced. Other observers are less sanguine, concluding that only a few of the
NIS appear to be making much progress in becoming democracies. They also argue
that none of the NIS has made enough progress that democratization might be termed
consolidated, or unlikely to face reversal. This paper examines democratization in
the NIS, grouping them broadly into three categories based on their progress in
reaching various benchmarks. The paper will examine U.S. Administration policy
on democracy-building in the NIS and Congressional and other concerns and issues.
In practice, U.S. democracy-building efforts in each NIS reflect various interests and
aid goals, as well as the particular needs of an NIS and its receptivity to aid.
1The Baltic states regained their independence in September 1991. They are usually
considered in U.S. aid and policy discussions as part of Central Europe rather than as
members of the NIS, and are not included in this study.
2(name redacted),
Diplomacy in the Former Soviet Republics, Westport CT: Praeger, 1995, pp.
61-64. Several analysts have stressed that the collapse of communism removed it as an
alternative model for developing states to follow. See Francis Fukuyama,
The End of
History and the Last Man, New York: The Free Press, 1992.
3The fall of communism in Central Europe and the Soviet Union was preceded by the
collapse of authoritarian regimes in Southern Europe, Latin America, and elsewhere. See
Samuel Huntington,
The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century,
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991.
CRS-2
The United States long has been committed to expanding the number of
democracies in the world. Broadly, U.S. policymakers have stressed that the
containment policy of the Cold War has been replaced with the policy of engagement
and enlargement to increase the world’s free market democracies. The
Administration has argued that good relations with Russia and Ukraine are a primary
objective of U.S. foreign policy and that fostering democratization in these and other
NIS is one of the central objectives of U.S. aid. Democratic NIS are viewed as a
U.S. security interest, since democracies are considered unlikely to start wars.4 In
this view, a democratic Russia and other NIS could be integrated into the Western
community of democratic states and they would uphold international civil and
human rights standards. Also, U.S. trade and business would be attracted to
democratic NIS where the rule of law is respected, according to the Administration.
Congress has generally supported Administration efforts to foster democracy
in the NIS, with differences in emphasis and timing. Congress was at the forefront
in the early 1990s in calling for a coordinated U.S. aid response to the breakup of the
Soviet Union, and more recently in directing the Administration to devote more
resources to bolstering independence and democracy-building in the non-Russian
NIS. For FY1998, Congress also generally endorsed the Administration's
Partnership for Freedom Initiative (and partly funded it), which calls for shifting and
increasing aid resources devoted to civil society programs. At the same time, many
in Congress have voiced concerns about the long-term commitment of Russia and
other NIS to democratization, the effectiveness of U.S. aid programs in fostering NIS
democratization, and the aptness of Administration support for NIS engaging in
nondemocratic actions. (See below,
Issues for Congress.)
What Is Democracy-Building?
Democracy-building is usually defined as those activities that aim at
establishing and strengthening democratic processes and institutions. Efforts to
promote democracy, according to the State Department, include civic education,
conflict prevention and resolution, ethnic, racial, and religious diversity programs,
human rights education and training, legislative, political party, public
administration, and trade union development, rule of law initiatives, support for
elections and electoral reform, and support for civilian control over the military.5
More generally, many observers have focused on several benchmarks of progress in
democracy-building.
C
The establishment of civil peace (or at least the geographical containment of
conflict) is one of the precursors of successful democratization. Contending
4Some observers have warned that, while mature democracies have not been warlike,
democratizing states may pursue aggressive foreign policies. See Michael Doyle,
The Ways
of War and Peace, New York, Norton, 1997; and Jack Snyder and Edward Mansfield,
Foreign Affairs, vol. 74, May-June 1995, pp. 79-97.
5U.S. General Accounting Office.
Promoting Democracy. GAO/NSIAD-94-83, January
1994, pp. 1, 10; and U.S. General Accounting Office.
Promoting Democracy: Progress
Report. GAO/NSIAD-96-40, February, 1996, p. 10.
CRS-3
ethnic, clan, or regional groups can stymie the development of a broadly
democratic state.6
C
Approval or amendment of a constitution providing for representative
institutions, the separation of powers, and broad protection of human and civil
rights. Rights include freedom of speech and media, and protections allowing
the growth of myriad and influential interest groups.7
C
Occurrence of substantive and open debate and the passage of important laws
by the legislature.
C
Adoption of a multiparty electoral system and repeated occurrence of free and
fair elections that result in a peaceful transfer of power.8
C
Minimal public support for parties or groups opposed to democracy.9
These benchmarks do not necessarily all need to be present for democratization
to occur, but substantial progress on the benchmarks will usually lead to a
consolidated democracy (where reforms are less likely to be reversed). Some
analysts take the view that democracy-building marks its first success when the first
competitive and free and fair election occurs and seems more assured when the
second and third such elections take place. Many suggest that such elections and
other benchmarks can be seen as part of a continuum of gradual consolidation. The
Appendix discusses progress on benchmarks for each of the NIS.
Democracy-Building in the NIS:
Progress and Problems
Democratization faces more difficulties in the NIS than in long-existing
countries in Latin America and Southern Europe that have recently democratized,
according to many observers. The NIS face problems of national identity (including
defining citizenship), that are wrapped in issues of contested borders, separatism, and
ethnic tensions. In this view, a legacy of communist habits of thinking and acting
makes democratization more difficult, although such habits may be less entrenched
where NIS have had previous experience with some degree of democratization.
6Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan,
Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation,
Baltimore, Johns Hopkins, 1996, pp. 366-400. Rogers Brubaker argues that titular ethnic
elites in the NIS tend to promote their language, culture, demographic strength, economic
welfare, and political hegemony, rather than democratic inclusiveness. See
Theory and
Society, February 1994, pp. 47-78.
7Other important issues bearing on the effective separation of powers include the supremacy
of the rule of law and its exercise through a free judiciary, and control of military and
security forces by civilian leaders.
8Lawrence LeDuc, Richard G. Niemi, and Pippa Norris, eds.,
Comparing Democracies,
Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage, 1996. They argue that “elections are a central, if not the central,
institution of democratic governance” (p. 4).
9Richard Rose,
Journal of Democracy, Vol. 8, No. 3, 1997, pp. 92-108.
CRS-4
Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia can point to brief periods of independence and
non-totalitarian existence after World War I as historical models. On the other hand,
it can be argued that the bad memories many citizens have of communism may spur
them to support democratization rather than permit backsliding.10
National Identity Issues
The cases of Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Tajikistan illustrate the difficulties of
state-building in multiethnic states. In these states, a democratization policy that
emphasized the inclusion of minorities in the political and economic life of the state
was not followed. Inclusive policies focusing on ethnic or regional representation
in the legislature, federalism, multiple official languages, teaching in multiple
languages, economic equality, and legal protections for minority rights can
sometimes allow democratization to occur in multiethnic states. Where leaders do
not follow these policies, minorities might be faced with choosing between
assimilation or secessionism, or face repression and "ethnic cleansing."
Setbacks to democratization in Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia (with the
latter resuming progress after 1995) and the uncertainties faced in Tajikistan are
signs that internal civil peace appears to be a basic condition for substantial and
consolidated democratization. Georgia’s and Moldova's progress will remain
conditional until internal dissension and the political status of ethnic minorities are
resolved, according to many experts. Armenia's relationship to Nagorno Karabakh
(NK; a breakaway part of Azerbaijan inhabited mostly by ethnic Armenians) also
remains ambiguous (are NK Armenians citizens of Armenia?) and has given rise to
conflict and dissension.
Some observers argue that the underfunded and inadequately manned and
provisioned armed forces in the NIS threaten civilian leaders and democratization,
while others argue that a greater danger to democratization is posed by paramilitary
groups. In the case of Russia, some observers conclude that the military's
involvement in political disputes in 1991 and 1993 increases the possibility of its
future involvement, including a possible coup.11 More commonly, however, para-
military groups have posed regional or regime threats in Georgia, Moldova, Russia,
and Tajikistan. In Georgia, paramilitary coup forces were partly supported by a
badly split Georgian National Guard in overthrowing President Zviad Gamsakhurdia.
Paramilitary forces led separatism in Abkhazia and South Ossetia (assisted by
Russian irregulars and military forces). Paramilitary groups successfully prosecuted
the Chechen separatist conflict in Russia. In Azerbaijan, paramilitary forces
(supplied with arms by the Russian military) pressured the resignation of President
Abulfaz Elchibey. In Moldova, paramilitary forces (assisted by the Russian
10Samuel Huntington,
Global Resurgence, pp. 3-25; Kenneth Jowitt,
Global Resurgence, pp.
26-35; Linz and Stepan, pp. 55-56.
11On the debate, see U.S. Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service.
Russia's
Conventional Armed Forces, by Stuart Goldman. CRS Report 97-820, pp. 31-33; and
Russia's Civil-Military Relations, by (name redacted). CRS Report 94-631.
CRS-5
military) led separatism in the Transdniestr region. Military and paramilitary forces
have clashed during Tajikistan's seven-year civil war.12
Leadership
The pace of democratization in the NIS is also influenced by the disposition of
ruling elites toward reform, as well as variations in mass political culture. Several
NIS leaders have discouraged democratic participation -- ranging from peaceful
demonstrations to elections -- sometimes leading to civil conflict. In the late 1980s,
Soviet Russia had developed many new interest groups that urged Gorbachev to
implement more reforms. Central Asia, in contrast, had lower levels of urbanization
and education, and local and clan-based loyalties were often more significant than
wider political engagement and civic responsibility.
Strong presidential systems in the NIS have hampered the emergence of
political parties and effective legislatures.13 The presidents either feel themselves to
be “above politics” or head or back dominant communist-type parties. Several NIS
presidents altered their constitutions to enhance their powers relative to their
legislatures. Other analysts argue that presidential systems can be conducive to
democratization if power is shared more equitably among the branches of
governance.
Marking at least a concern with appearing democratic, NIS leaders have not
usually canceled elections, except in three Central Asia states, where referendums
on extending presidencies were held to circumvent competitive elections. Some NIS
leaders have delayed or forced early elections, such as legislative elections in
Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Russia (in the latter, the legislature was forcibly
dissolved). Efforts to manipulate or unfairly influence electoral results are more
common, as in the Armenian presidential elections of 1996, the 1993 Azerbaijani
presidential race, and the Tajik legislative races of 1995, where international
monitors did not judge the elections as free and fair.
A peaceful leadership transition is a stringent test of democratization. Peaceful
leadership transitions have occurred in Ukraine and Moldova. Undemocratic and
violent changes of executive power have occurred in Georgia and Azerbaijan. In
Belarus, Kazakstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, presidents have clung to power
by holding referendums to extend their rule, without benefit of contested elections.
Crime and Corruption
While some observers argue that some crime and even corruption may be useful
in some cases in facilitating economic decision-making, the distribution of resources,
and even the development of free markets, others caution that rampant crime and
corruption are bound to erode and retard economic and democratic reforms.14
12Charles Fairbanks, Jr.,
Journal of Democracy, October 1995, pp. 18-34.
13Juan Linz,
Global Resurgence, pp. 124-142.
14For details, see U.S. Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service.
Crime in
(continued...)
CRS-6
According to a recent World Bank report, public officials in Russia, Ukraine,
Azerbaijan, Kazakstan, and Uzbekistan, were viewed as most corrupt in these NIS,
and corruption and crime in the NIS region were viewed as higher than in any other
area of the world.15 Where NIS officials are corrupt and crime is rampant, the issue
of aid diversion also becomes critical. Congressional concerns about corruption and
crime in the NIS and effects on aid contributed to a provision in P.L.105-118
(Foreign Operations Appropriations for FY1998) that some U.S. assistance to
Ukraine would be withheld until problems affecting U.S. private investment were
resolved, and to a conference report request (Conf.Rept. 105-401) for an
Administration assessment of the effects of crime and corruption in the NIS.16
Grouping NIS by Progress in Democratization
There have been various efforts to group NIS by their progress in
democratization. Prominent among these have been those carried out by the human
rights organization Freedom House, in cooperation with USAID. They have
undertaken to “assess the progress of ex-Communist countries in ridding themselves
of the shackles of a repressive political system” and a centralized economy. Their
1997 “Nations in Transit” project discerned three groups or subgroups among the
NIS, more and less advanced transitional states and autocracies. Freedom House
categorized all the transitional states as unstable democracies capable of progressing,
stagnating, or retrogressing, and stated that these countries may be most influenced
by Western democracy-building aid.17
Based on the benchmarks of progress reflected in Table 1, and other criteria
evaluated by Freedom House and the State Department, this report will discuss three
groups of NIS, those that are democratizing, faltering, and backsliding or failing to
democratize. Four NIS -- Russia, Ukraine, Moldova, and Georgia -- appear to have
made some democratization progress. Three NIS -- Armenia, Kyrgyzstan, and
Azerbaijan -- appear to have faltered, while the remaining NIS -- Belarus,
Kazakstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan -- have made scant progress
or have substantially reverted to autocracy. The groupings are suggestive rather than
definitive, and democratizing NIS may well "straddle" groups or move from one
group to another. The question of the future of democratization largely defines the
middle group of faltering states. Kyrgyzstan may strengthen its commitment to
14(...continued)
Russia, by (name redacted). CRS Report 94-718F;
Crime in Russia: Situation Update, by (na
me redacted)
. CRS Report 95-486F; and
Crime in Russia: Recent Developments and Implications
for U.S. Interests, by (name redacted). CRS Report 97-705F.
15World Bank.
Improving the Environment for Business and Investment in the CIS and
Baltic Countries, Background Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the European Bank
for Reconstruction and Development, 1997.
16See also Senator Mitch McConnell, Chair of the Foreign Operations Subcommittee, Senate
Appropriations Committee, Opening Statement, Hearing on Crime Programs, April 21, 1998.
17In consultation with USAID, Freedom House developed 46 questions to score the countries
on seven categories of economic and political transition. The categories correspond to major
programmatic concerns and funding emphasis at USAID and other U.S. agencies. Scoring
of the categories for each NIS was carried out by Freedom House and other experts.
CRS-7
democratization, while Armenia's March 1998 presidential election presented a
mixed picture of some improvement in voting procedures along with many voting
irregularities. Azerbaijan's future democratization appears more problematic, and
recent events surrounding the upcoming October 1998 presidential race raise critical
concerns of further backsliding. Among the states making scant progress in
democratization, Tajikistan’s future is still clouded by civil disorder, though the
reconciliation efforts between the government and former opposition raise hopes of
progress toward stability and democratization.18
Table 1
Checklist of Democracy-Building in the New Independent States
Criterion
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Belarus
Georgia
Kazakstan
Kyrgyzstan
Moldova
Russia
Tajikistan
Turkmenistan
Ukraine
Uzbekistan
1.
N
N
Y
N
Y~
Y
N
Y~
N
Y
N
Y
2.
Y
Y
Y/N
Y
Y/N
Y/Y~
Y
Y
Y~
N
Y
N
3A.
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
N
N
Y
N
N
Y
N
3B.
N
N
N
Y
Y~
Y~
Y
Y
N
N
Y
N
4A.
N
N
—
—
—
Y~
Y
Y
—
—
Y
—
4B.
—
—
—
Y
N~
Y~
Y
Y
—
—
Y
—
5.
N~
N
N
Y
Y~
Y
Y
Y
N
N
Y
N
6.
Y
Y
---
Y
---
Y
Y
N
---
---
N
---
7.
Y~
Y~
N
Y
N
Y~
Y
Y~
Y~
N
Y~
N
Key: Y=Yes; N=No; ~=qualified Yes or No; Y/=constitution was later amended or superceded
1. Separatism is not a threat and civil war and conflicts have ceased
2. Democratic constitution has been approved
3A. Free and fair presidential election—first time
3B. Free and fair legislative election—first time
4A. Free and fair presidential election—second time
4B. Free and fair legislative election—second time
5. Multiple political parties at local level operate freely
6. Democratization is not threatened by extremist parties
7. The legislature is significant as a rule-making body
Sources: U.S. State Department,
Country Reports on Human Rights; Freedom House,
Freedom in the
World 1997-1998; Freedom House and USAID,
Nations in Transit 1997, and information in the Appendix.
18The groupings examined here are broadly comparable in most instances with trends and
rankings on political rights and civil society as reported most recently in Freedom House,
Freedom in the World 1997-1998, March 1998.
CRS-8
Implications for U.S. Interests
To further its support for political and economic reforms in the NIS, the Bush
Administration submitted the Freedom Support Act to Congress in early 1992, and
an amended version was signed into law in October 1992 (P.L.102-511). It states
that the collapse of the Soviet Union presents a “historic opportunity” to the West to
encourage the new states to enter the “community of democratic nations,” and that
the United States should play a special role in fostering “the development of
institutions of democratic governance, including electoral and legislative systems.”
Other U.S. aid goals in the NIS include meeting urgent humanitarian needs, fostering
free markets systems, encouraging trade and investment, promoting food production
and distribution, enhancing health and human services, promoting educational
reform, fostering upgraded safety at civilian nuclear reactors, enhancing
environmental protection, improving transportation and telecommunications,
combating illegal drugs, and protecting and caring for refugees and displaced
persons.
The Clinton Administration has stressed that support for democratic reforms in
Russia and other NIS are important objectives of U.S. foreign policy.19 More
generally, the Administration’s
Strategic Plan and its
National Security Strategy, and
the FY1999 Budget Request for international affairs declare that the core objectives
of U.S. foreign policy are enhancing U.S. security, promoting U.S. prosperity, and
fostering democracy worldwide, and form an integrated strategy of engagement. The
Strategic Plan argues that more and more states are seeking to democratize and that
U.S. and other international influence can be “crucial” to democracy-building. The
Administration has placed some priority on democracy-building support for Russia
and Ukraine because of their large populations and territory, their geopolitical and
cultural connections to Europe, and the view that democratization in these NIS
provides an example for similar democratization among other NIS. The
Administration has hailed "free and fair" legislative, presidential, and regional
elections held in Russia since 1995.20 It also has welcomed democratization progress
in Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, and Moldova, though in recent years criticizing some
setbacks in Kyrgyzstan.21
19U.S. Government Printing Office.
Budget of the United States Government, FY1999, p.
155; The Secretary of State,
Congressional Presentation for Foreign Operations, FY1999,
p. 607; U.S. Department of State,
United States Strategic Plan for International Affairs,
September 1997, pp. 11-13, 37-38; President Clinton,
A National Security Strategy for A
New Century, May 1997, pp. 2-5, 22, 25, 28.
20U.S. Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service.
Russia's December 1995
Legislative Elections: Outcome and Implications for U.S. Interests, by (name redacted). CRS
Report 96-17F;
Russia's Presidential Election, by (name redacted)
. CRS Report 96-620F;
Russia's Local Elections, by (name redacted). CRS Report 97-276.
21According to the U.S. Congressional Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe
(CSCE), "more than any other [member of the Organization for Security and Cooperation
in Europe], the United States has urged genuine, if measured, progress in democratization"
in Central Asia. See
Political Reform and Human Rights in Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and
Kazakstan, March 1998, p. 5.
CRS-9
Critiques of U.S. Democracy-Building Efforts
The Administration generally adheres to the idea that democracy-building and
the creation of market economies can proceed simultaneously as the best means to
ensure stable reforms. Secretary Albright argued in early 1998 that “I do think that
there are a set of needs [in developing states] that need to be fulfilled practically
simultaneously . . . in the best of all worlds, [political development and economic
development] go together.” She was in part responding to criticism that U.S.
support for economic development should precede support for free elections and
other democratization efforts, because the latter could be destabilizing.22
Other critics have argued that the Administration should focus aid on NIS that
have made the most progress in democratization, rather than spreading it "thinly"
among most NIS. They lament that the progressive NIS are not receiving enough
U.S. aid to surmount their tendencies to “stagnate” and “decay” rather than fully
democratize. They criticize what they view as shallow U.S. efforts to merely foster
more free elections worldwide. They point out that in countries such as Kazakstan
and Belarus, where relatively free and fair elections have been held, democratization
since has faltered. Consolidation efforts should include more focused and longer-
termed efforts to foster individual rights and freedoms, the rule of law, the
separation of church and state, and checks and balances on executive power, they
argue.23
Among critics faulting U.S. democracy-building programs, professor Michael
McFaul has called for the Administration to devote more aid to buttress Russia's
substantial progress in democratization, rather than pessimistically to emphasize
NATO enlargement as a hedge against democratic collapse in Russia. Others
criticize a U.S. shift toward closer ties with a strategically significant Uzbekistan,
rather than with the more democratically-inclined Kyrgyzstan, warning that such an
emphasis does not encourage democratization in the region. They have endorsed,
along with some opposition leaders in the NIS, Administration plans to focus more
U.S. aid on grassroots democracy-building rather than continue aid programs viewed
as directly or indirectly supporting regimes that resist democratization. Opposition
figure Akezhan Kazhegeldin, former prime minister of Kazakstan, has urged that
“America should demand that Central Asia go forward with democratization [and]
liberalization. If you do not, you will lose. There will be expectations in society,
and all the Western companies will lose, as they did in Iran.” Opposition figure
22Secretary of State Madeleine K. Albright, Remarks and Q&A Session at Center for
National Policy, January 13, 1998. The National Endowment for Democracy likewise
responded that U.S. policy should support broad democratization. See Marc F. Plattner and
Carl Gershman,
Wall Street Journal, January 26, 1998. These officials were in part reacting
to articles by Robert D. Kaplan,
The Atlantic Monthly, December 1997, pp. 55-80; and
Fareed Zakaria,
Foreign Affairs, November-December 1997, pp. 22-43. Ross Burkhart and
Michael Lewis-Beck conclude in a cross-national analysis that while economic development
fosters democratization, the latter can be pursued for its own sake "without sacrificing
economic development." This view might be seen as supporting Administration policy. See
American Political Science Review, December 1994, pp. 903-910.
23Alexander Motyl, in
Nations in Transit 1997, pp. 17-22; Zakaria, pp. 22-43.
CRS-10
Rasul Guliyev, former legislative speaker in Azerbaijan, too warned in February
1998 that the lack of democratization in Azerbaijan meant that unexpected
government changes in the future there could lead to the confiscation of U.S.
investments.24
Secretary Albright appeared to address such criticism in her Congressional
testimony on February 10, 1998, when she argued that U.S. democracy-building
efforts were tailored to needs and receptivity in each NIS and had proved helpful to
democratic groups in the NIS. She stated that “In recent months, some have
criticized America for, in their words, trying to ‘impose’ democracy overseas. They
suggest that it is hopeless and sometimes damaging to encourage elections in
countries that are not yet developed. They appear to assume that our efforts are
limited to the promotion of elections . . . America’s aim is to assist democratic
forces, where and when we can . . . we employ a wide variety of means from
vigorous diplomacy to training judges to providing technical advice.”25
NATO and Russia's Democratization
Prominent among recent criticism of the Administration's democracy-building
policy has been the argument that U.S. security interests in NATO's enlargement
could be harmed by a countervailing rise to power of nondemocratic ultra-
nationalists and militarists in Russia.26 The Administration has countered that NATO
enlargement will bolster democracy in Europe, including democratization in Russia,
Ukraine, and other NIS. However, the Administration also has attempted to take
these concerns into account by backing NATO-Russia cooperation efforts. In
signing the NATO-Russia Founding Act on May 27, 1997, President Clinton stated
that because “Russia has opened itself to freedom . . . we see a future of partnership
too long delayed, that must no longer be denied.” He stressed that NATO would be
dedicated “to advance the security of every democracy in Europe — NATO’s old
members, new members, and nonmembers alike.”27 In a speech a few days later, he
argued that NATO enlargement, NATO's Partnership for Peace (PFP), and special
accords with Russia and Ukraine, “will erase the artificial line in Europe that Stalin
drew .... we must not fail history’s challenge at this moment to build a Europe
peaceful, democratic, and undivided, allied with us to face the new security threats
of the new century.”28
24Michael McFaul,
Foreign Affairs, January-February 1995, pp. 87-99; and
Washington Post,
May 19, 1998, p. A21; and Robert Dahl,
Democracy and Its Critics, New Haven, Yale
University Press, 1989, pp. 316-317; Bess A. Brown,
Authoritarianism in the New States of
Central Asia, Berichte des Bundesinstituts fur ostwissenschaftliche und internationale
Studien, 1996;
New York Times, February 17, 1998; Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty,
Newsline, February 6, 1998.
25Secretary of State Madeleine K. Albright, Statement Before the Senate Foreign Relations
Committee, February 10, 1998.
26Michael Mandelbaum,
The Dawn of Peace in Europe, 20th Century Fund, 1997.
27
Remarks by President Clinton...At NATO/Russia Founding Act Signing Ceremony, White
House, May 27, 1997.
28
Remarks by the President at the U.S. Military Academy Commencement, White House,
(continued...)
CRS-11
The impact of NATO enlargement on Russian democratization was a major
concern among many in the Senate during debate on the resolution of ratification on
the accession of Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic to NATO. Many
opponents of enlargement highlighted the dangers it posed to Russia's democracy and
peaceful foreign policy, and the possible negative impact on U.S. national security.
Many proponents countered that enlargement would have no effect on Russia's
democratization or would even support it. Others argued that stepped-up U.S. and
NATO ties and aid could preclude possible harm to Russia's reforms. The
Resolution of Ratification to Treaty Doc. 105-36 reflects a consensus that it is in the
interest of the United States for NATO to pursue good relations with a democratizing
Russia.
Senator Paul Wellstone, in opposing enlargement, contended that the forces
supporting democracy in Russia would suffer, and argued that "a democratic Russia
is unlikely to ever threaten its neighbors." He warned that many Western experts and
Russian democrats think that enlargement "is likely to sow the seeds for the re-
emergence of antidemocratic and chauvinistic trends in Russia." Senators Daniel
Patrick Moynihan and Dirk Kempthorne likewise urged support for strengthening
democracy and free enterprise in Russia rather than creating security problems for
the West. Senator Patrick Leahy similarly warned that "the enlargement of NATO,
no matter how benign, can only strengthen the hand of left and right-wing extremists
in Russia." Senator Bob Smith concurred that "we ought to be doing everything in
our power" to bolster democratization in Russia as the best way to preserve the
independence of Central Europe.29
In contrast, Senator Alfonse D'Amato voiced views common to many of those
endorsing enlargement that "Russian democracy will be better served by having
healthy, stable, and prosperous democracies on its western border," and that "a
failure to expand NATO and the European Union ... would be a victory for the anti-
democratic forces in Russia." Senator Joseph Biden concurred that "if you want to
give antidemocratic forces in Russia a boost," then vote against enlargement. At the
same time, he called for bolstering the U.S. "hand of friendship and help to Russia."
Senator William Roth argued that NATO's relations with Russia serve to draw it out
of isolation and hence bolster its reforms. Senator Lugar argued that, despite years
of debate over NATO enlargement, democratization in Russia has continued to make
progress. Russia has cooperated with the West on some foreign policies and not on
others, and this will not change with NATO enlargement, he concluded.30
28(...continued)
May 31, 1997. Others have disagreed with these arguments. On the debate, see U.S. Library
of Congress. Congressional Research Service.
NATO Enlargement and Russia, by Stanley
Sloan and Steve Woehrel. CRS Report 95-594S; and
NATO Enlargement and Russia, by
Steve Woehrel. CRS Report 97-477F.
29
Congressional Record, April 27, 1998, pp. S3632-S3633; April 30, 1998, pp. S3836,
S3743-3744, S3857, S3889.
30
Congressional Record, April 27, 1998, pp. S3603, S3617-S3620, S3633, S3638-3639,
S3643; and April 30, 1998, pp. S3837, S3880. For further details, see U.S. Library of
Congress. Congressional Research Service.
NATO: Congress Addresses Expansion of the
Alliance, by (name redacted). CRS Issue Brief 95076, updated regularly.
CRS-12
U.S. Democracy-Building Assistance
Even before the
Table 2
collapse of the Soviet
Democracy-Building AID to the NIS
Union, a debate occurred in
Cumulative Obligations (million dollars)*
the United States and in
Freedom Support Act Funds:
other Western countries
Agency for International Development:
about aiding Gorbachev’s
Democratic Pluralism
259.16
reform efforts. After the
Eurasia Foundation
79.77
Soviet Union broke up in
NIS Exchanges & Training
160.11
1991, this aid debate
U.S. Department of Commerce:
intensified. Some observers
SABIT Business Intern Training
15.57
have argued that reforms in
Commercial Law Development
3.00
United States Information Agency (USIA):
Russia could be bolstered
Freedom Support Act Exchanges
283.76
with significant U.S.
U.S. Department of State:
assistance. The 1992
Anti-Crime Training & Technical Aid
2
Freedom Support Act
1
(P.L.102-511) reflected a
.
consensus in Congress and
7
the Administration that
U.S. Department of Justice: Criminal Law
3.6
increased aid for reforms
Peace Corps
51.35
should be given to Russia
U.S. Department of Agriculture Exchange:
and other NIS. The in-
Cochran Fellowship Program
7.11
Faculty Exchange Program
1.33
c o m i n g C l i n t o n
Congressional Research Service
4.69
Administration in early
Non-Freedom Support Act Funds:
1993 highlighted assistance
U.S. Department of Agriculture:
for reforms in Russia and
Cochran Fellowship Program
5.18
the NIS as a national
USIA Base Budget
190.95
security priority of the
U.S. Department of State: International
United States.31
Military Exchanges & Training
7.26
Peace Corps Base Budget
27.26
The Freedom Support
Total
1121.8
*
as of September 30, 1997
Act (Sec. 498) calls for
Note: Democracy-building programs as administered by
support for the estab-
the Democratic Initiatives Division, NIS Coordinator's
lishment of democratic and
Office, U.S. State Department.
free societies in the NIS
through programs to foster:
(1) political, social, and
economic pluralism; (2) respect for human rights and the rule of law; (3)
development of institutions of democratic governance, including electoral and
legislative processes; (4) improvement of public administration at all federal levels;
(5) free media; (6) effective control by civilians over the military; and (7) a strong
justice system. Criteria for aid (Sec. 498A) include making significant progress and
commitment to creating democracy based on the rule of law, individual freedoms,
and representative government formed by free and fair elections.
31For background, see U.S. Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service.
U.S.
Assistance to the Soviet Union and Its Successor States 1991-1996, by (name redacted). CRS
Report 98-43F.
CRS-13
The Democratic Initiatives Division of the State Department's Office of the
Coordinator of U.S. Assistance to the NIS oversees USAID and other agency
democracy-building and training and exchange aid to the NIS.32 The branch also
consults with the State Department's Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and
Labor on policy issues of interest to the Bureau. The Coordinator's Office works
closely with USAID and other agencies to establish country levels of aid. Factors
determining aid levels include the strategic importance of the country to the United
States, the country's commitment to moving toward democracy and free markets, and
how well U.S. aid efforts achieve results. A country where U.S. aid is not achieving
results might face cuts in aid, or a refocusing of aid.33 Country aid levels are also
established by Congressional earmarks or strong Congressional views. Within each
NIS, planning for aid for democracy-building and other programs is carried out by
resident USAID offices and approved by the U.S. ambassadors.
U.S. democracy-building aid for the NIS is partly extended under the umbrella
of the Democratic Pluralism Initiative “to promote democratization by supporting
democratic processes and institution-building, with a special emphasis on promoting
the rule of law, democratic local governance, and a strengthened civil society and
independent media.”34 Democracy-building programs administered by the
Democratic Initiatives Division of the Coordinator's Office also include activities of
the Eurasia Foundation and various agencies' training and people-to-people
exchanges that are deemed to at least partly enhance respect for the rule of law and
civil society (see Table 2). The Democratic Initiatives Division works with the
Economic Division of the Coordinator's Office in overseeing economic training and
exchange programs such as the Cochran fellowships.
Freedom Support Act funds are administered by USAID or transferred by it to
other agencies, and account for the largest share (80%) of U.S. aid for democracy-
building in the NIS. USAID's democratic pluralism initiatives have been grouped
into three broad components (enhancing citizen participation, legal system reforms,
and local government reforms) and five programs:35
C
Citizen Participation, Political Process Programs: These strengthen local,
regional, and national democratic institutions and processes by supporting the
32Office of the Special Advisor to the President and Secretary of State on Assistance to the
NIS, U.S. Department of State, Democratic Initiatives Division, Table,
Cumulative
Obligations for NIS Democracy-Building Programs by Country as of 9/30/97.
33U.S. Congress. House of Representatives. Committee on Foreign Affairs. Testimony of
Assistant Secretary of State for Human Rights and Humanitarian Affairs John Shattuck.
Hearing, September 14, 1993, p. 29.
34
Freedom Support Act Annual Report FY1996, p. 99; USAID,
FY1998 Planning Sheet:
Democratic Pluralism Initiatives. The Democratic Pluralism Initiative was launched by
USAID in 1990 to sharpen its focus on democracy-building in Asia, the Middle East, and
Eastern Europe. The NIS were added with the passage of the Freedom Support Act in 1992.
According to the initiative, political reform can facilitate economic development as well as
vice versa. See USAID,
The Democracy Initiative, December 1990.
35USAID,
Congressional Presentation, Annex III, FY1999; Office of the Coordinator of U.S.
Assistance to the NIS,
FY1996 Annual Report and
FY1997 Annual Report.
CRS-14
development of political parties, civic organizations, and independent labor
movements, and promoting free and fair elections.
C
Citizen Participation, Civil Society Programs: These help NGOs to provide
services and participate in public policy-making. USAID-funded U.S.-based
private voluntary associations (PVOs) assist NIS counterparts by training
trainers in leadership, fund-raising and networking, and by providing seed
grants for the implementation of small projects. Local NGO and PVO staffs are
trained in project design and organizational management and in networking,
communication, and participation in public policy-making.
C
Citizen Participation, Independent Media Programs: These support the devel-
opment of independent newspapers and broadcast media by providing
journalists with training, technical aid, and equipment.
C
Legal System: Rule-of-law programs to support U.S.-based NGOs whose
mission is to promote the development of transparent legal and legislative
processes, foster human rights, and enhance the free flow of legal information.
These NGOs help establish independent, effective court systems by providing
training to judges, prosecutors, and defense attorneys, help establish bar
associations, help develop the capacity to provide legal education, provide
expert commentary on draft commercial and criminal codes and draft
constitutions, and promote grassroots legal reform by supporting public law
clinics. A program of parliamentary development encourages the transparency
of law-making and its effectiveness as a check on executive power.36
C
Local Government: The public administration program aims to help local gov-
ernments become more transparent, accountable, and responsive. Several pilot
projects have been undertaken to introduce new management and financial
practices and to help upgrade service delivery. Advisors have helped municipal
officials to prepare presentations of their budgets, identify spending priorities
and account for municipal expenditures through media and town meetings.
Non-Freedom Support Act Democracy-Building Aid
Some other agency funds are used for NIS democracy-building besides Freedom
Support Act funds. The State Department's International Military Exchanges and
Training (IMET) program, administered by the Department of Defense, helps foster
military respect for democratic institutions and civilian control over the military.
The Peace Corps has volunteers in most NIS who carry out some democracy-related
education. Some portion of USIA's base budget bolsters democracy-building in the
NIS. In FY1998-FY1999, USIA obligated or proposed aid to the NIS of about $24
million a year, of which about one-half is used by USIA's Office of Eastern Europe
and the NIS for democracy-building programs. These include fostering free
elections, helping to improve legislation governing human rights, protecting the
36USAID funded technical support to the legislatures in Georgia, Russia, and Ukraine to
increase their institutional capacity. For background on the CRS program in Russia, see U.S.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service.
Russia’s New Legislature, by (na
me redacted). CRS Report 96-878F.
CRS-15
independence of the judiciary and media, and introducing civic education into the
schools. Other USIA programs involving aspects of democracy-building in the NIS
include those dealing with law enforcement, the free flow of information, and
international cooperation.37 Besides agency programs included in the table, other
U.S. activities might also be included, such as transfers from the Foreign Military
Financing Program to NATO’s PFP, some of which foster democratic civil-military
relations in the NIS.
Recent Trends in Democracy-Building Assistance
Freedom Support Act assistance was initially considered by the Administration
to be transitional “to help move the countries of the region far enough along the road
to becoming market-based democracies that they can . . . complete the journey on
Table 3
Democracy-Building: Cumulative Obligations by Country,
the FY1998 Estimate, and the FY1999 Request
(million dollars)
Country
Cumulative
As Percent
FY1998 FY1999
As Percent
Obligations*
of Country
Estimate** Request**
of Country
Cumulative
Planning
Obligations
for FY1999
Belarus
25.13
6.9 5.01
7.0
61.9
Russia
545.55
12.0
41.575
96.9
43.0
Kyrgyzstan
35.87
10.8
6.71
10.0
34.5
Uzbekistan
38.52
36.2
5.85
11.05
34.5
Tajikistan
13.59
7.5
2.2
5.75
30.7
Kazakstan
64.02
13.9
8.23
14.0
30.4
Ukraine
208.13
14.1
41.37
64.0
28.6
Moldova
26.03
10.2
3.96
9.5 26.8
Azerbaijan
13.37
11.9
4.19
8.0
25.4
Armenia
40.42
5.6
21.745
19.0
23.8
Turkmenistan
19.26
13.2
1.3
3.5
23.3
Georgia
27.12
5.5
25.45
16.2
20.1
Total (Average)
1121.8
(11.0)
175.505
280.7
(30.3)
*
as of September 30, 1997; includes Freedom Support Act and non-Freedom Support Act funding;
in addition, $64.79 million in regional aid is used for democratization and is included in the total.
*
*includes only Freedom Support Act democracy programs; for the FY1998 estimate, $7.915
million in NIS regional aid was estimated for democratization and is included in the total; for
FY1999 planning, $13.3 million in NIS and Central Asian regional aid was planned for
democratization and is included in the total. Democracy-building efforts administratively include
democratic pluralism initiatives, the Eurasia Foundation, and various training and exchange
programs.
Source: State Department
their own” as aid winds down.38 The South Caucasus and Central Asian states,
37USIA,
USIA FY99 Budget Proposal; USIA,
USIA Performance Plan FY1999.
38USAID Congressional Presentation, Annex III, FY1998, p. 8.
CRS-16
among other NIS, were felt to need longer-term assistance, but all Freedom Support
Act aid was proposed to end by the year 2002.
The Partnership for Freedom (PFF) aid initiative unveiled by the
Administration in early 1997 indefinitely extends the anticipated duration of aid to
the NIS to reflect a more long-term view of U.S. relations. It ostensibly focuses on
NIS that have come the farthest in their transitions “and are ready for trade,
investment, rapid growth, and a multitude of economic, political, and cultural ties to
the West," although the Administration also has highlighted PFF programs for
Central Asian regimes that have made little progress in democratization.39 The
democratic component of PFF calls for enhanced cooperative aid to encourage the
development of civil society through grassroots partnerships between U.S. and NIS
organizations and exchange programs. At the same time, some technical aid, in the
guise of support for U.S. experts who advise recipient governments on policy
reforms, will continue.40
In its Congressional Presentation for FY1998, USAID proposed aid for
enhancing citizens’ participation by supporting NGOs for all NIS except Moldova
and Belarus, and to foster more effective, responsible, and accountable local
government for Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan, Georgia, and Ukraine. Support for legal
system reforms was proposed for Armenia, Georgia, Russia, and Ukraine. USAID
also anticipated that increased funding under the PFF initiative would be used to
increase cooperative U.S.-NIS activities to promote lasting ties and civil societies in
the NIS.41
Actual FY1998 Freedom Support Act funding for democracy-building fell short
of the Administration's request for most NIS, because of Congressional earmarks and
reductions in funding, and changing program needs and country receptivity. USAID
indicated in Congressional testimony that, if its request was not fully funded, it
would give priority to economic restructuring and democratic initiatives.42 The latter
appeared to suffer substantial reductions, however. Estimated funding by USAID
in most NIS for democratic pluralism initiatives for FY1998 amounted to about one-
half of what USAID originally requested. In Georgia and Armenia, however,
Congressional earmarks apparently protected democracy-building programs. In the
case of Russia, estimated democracy-building funding in FY1998 is substantially less
than what USAID requested, being reduced from $69.8 million to $12.8 million.
39USAID Congressional Presentation, Annex III, FY1998, p. 10.
40U.S. Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service.
The Partnership for Freedom,
by (name redacted). CRS Report 97-342F, upda
ted May 8, 1997. These goals for PFF were
reiterated by Donald Pressley, Acting Assistant Administrator for Europe and the NIS,
USAID, in testimony before the House International Relations Committee on March 26,
1998. He stressed that the need for PFF results in part from the "longer and deeper isolation"
of the NIS from Western influences.
41USAID, Congressional Presentation, Fiscal Year 1998, Annex III, Europe and the New
Independent States, pp. 2, 9-10, 13, 17, 53-54, 122-125, 162-165, 185-188, 282-285, 356-
361, 382-383.
42Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related
Programs, House Appropriations Committee, March 19 and April 17, 1997, p. 401.
CRS-17
The State Department's Congressional Presentation for Foreign Operations for
FY1999 requests $280.7 million in Freedom Support Act aid for the NIS for
"increasing [the] adherence to democratic principles." This is an increase from
estimated spending for democracy-building of $175.505 million in FY1998 (22.8%
of Freedom Support Act funding in FY1998 compared to 30.3% proposed for
FY1999),43 reflecting the objectives of expanding civil society and local economic
and exchange programs under PFF. Cumulative funding for Freedom Support Act
and Non-Freedom Support Act aid to the NIS for democracy-building, broadly
defined, is about 11% of all obligated funds 1992-1997 ($1.1 billion out of $10.2
billion).44
The cumulative rankings do not clearly parallel the three groups of NIS ranked
by progress in democratization (Table 3). In practice, democracy-building aid
appears to some degree to have been targeted to NIS that are faltering or backsliding,
in order to bolster civil societies in these states, although the cumulative data also
reflect other U.S. interests, aid goals, needs and receptivity of an NIS, or
Congressional earmarks. The FY1998 estimates and FY1999 planning data (Table
3) also reflect varying objectives and do not precisely parallel the rankings. In some
NIS, the Administration and Congress have placed greater emphasis on targeting aid
for civil society initiatives where the governments have made little progress in
democratization or are backsliding (Belarus, Kazakstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan),
while in others, aid has supported further progress in democratization (the cases of
Russia and Ukraine). Democracy-building aid to Belarus, Kazakstan and Uzbekistan
has been aimed at bolstering the growth of NGOs where the political systems are
largely undemocratic. In the case of Armenia, Georgia, and Tajikistan, cumulative
aid figures reflect a focus until recently on relieving humanitarian suffering caused
by conflict.
In the case of democracy-building support for backsliding NIS, the
Administration has argued that support for grass roots and other local civil and
human rights efforts can contribute to popular pressure that may eventually result in
changes of leadership or other top-level support for wider democratization. Such
programs have been endorsed by some human and civil rights advocates of these
NIS, though some have doubted their usefulness where regimes stifle meaningful
dissent, or warn that close attention must to paid to keep such programs from
bolstering authoritarian regimes. In his Congressional testimony in March-April
1998, Richard Morningstar, then-Special Advisor to the President and the Secretary
of State on Assistance to the NIS, argued that PFF efforts are particularly salient to
democracy-building in South Caucasian and Central Asian states where "we have
foot-dragging on democratic reform" by authoritarian leaders. In these states, the
United States has tried to "pry open the door of progress, focusing in particular on
43Amended estimated spending provided by the State Department, May 29, 1998.
44Besides democracy-building aid, about 23% of cumulative obligations are for Nunn-Lugar
or DOE programs and 28% are food assistance, with the rest devoted to economic and other
humanitarian aid.
CRS-18
supporting NGOs as key components of grassroots democracy," and training and
exchanges such as for legislators and law enforcement personnel.45
Issues for Congress
Most in Congress have supported aid for democracy-building and economic
reforms in Russia and other NIS. Over the six years of Freedom Support aid, some
Congressional observers have urged greater emphasis on democracy-building in
Russia, while others have criticized the effectiveness or pertinence of existing
democratization and other U.S. aid to Russia and other NIS.46
The increased funding for the NIS region contained in the FY1998 PFF
initiative was partly supported by Congress (Congress reduced the Administration’s
FY1998 request for aid to the NIS from $900 million to $770 million, but increased
the level of aid over the $625 million allocated the previous year). The House
Appropriations Committee reported that it welcomed the PFF shift in program
priorities to private sector investment and grassroots democracy-building efforts.
Further support for NIS democracy-building was provided when Congress approved
a provision in Foreign Operations Appropriations for FY1998 (P.L.105-118) that
permitted government-to-government democracy-building aid to Azerbaijan. At
Congressional hearings in the first half of 1998 on the FY1999 NIS aid request,
many in Congress appeared supportive of the Administration's plans for PFF
programs in the non-Russian NIS, but less receptive to other NIS programs and
requested funding levels. S.2334, Foreign Operations Appropriations for FY1999,
was reported favorably by the Senate Committee on Appropriations on July 21,
1998. It provides for $740 million for NIS assistance, below the Administrations
request of $925 million, and earmarks aid to Armenia, Georgia, and Ukraine. The
Committee reported that its earmarks and other NIS support strengthen free market
democracies there and "enhance U.S. interests through increased stability, security,
and prosperity" (S.Rept.105-255).
Should the United States Foster Democracy-Building in the NIS?
While a consensus supports democracy-building in the NIS, some voices
believe that current U.S. aid policy may not be the most effective means to reach this
goal. Some believe that the United States should not seek to impose the U.S. system
of governance on NIS but rather allow them to develop their own democratic
systems. Some call for less reliance on U.S. taxpayer-provided assistance and more
recognition and support for the substantial private efforts of U.S. citizens, companies,
and media to spread democracy. Others call for other democratic countries and
45Ambassador Richard L. Morningstar,
Statement Before the House International Relations
Committee on Assistance to the NIS, March 26, 1998; Statement of Ambassador Richard L.
Morningstar,
On Assistance to the [Caucasian and Central Asian] NIS, House International
Relations Committee, April 30, 1998.
46U.S. Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service.
Russia and U.S. Foreign
Assistance, by (name redacted). CRS Report 96-261F; and
The Former Soviet Union and U.S.
Foreign Assistance, by (name redacted). CRS Issue Brief IB95077, updated regularly.)
CRS-19
international organizations to shoulder more of the NIS aid burden. Some warn that
U.S. aid to foster democracy-building in the NIS might cause a backlash by
nondemocratic and ultra-nationalist groups in these states and harm the efforts of
indigenous democrats. Others argue that democracy-building efforts might
contribute to civil disorder if NIS governments are not able to cope with increased
citizen participation and demands, possibly harming U.S. trade and private
investment interests. The general consensus in Congress supporting NIS democracy-
building aid may come into question if NIS democratization efforts encounter
mounting setbacks and reversals.
What Kinds of Democracy-Building Programs Should Be
Promoted?
There are narrow and broad criteria of what constitutes democracy-building
programs. Democracy-building can be narrowly defined as encompassing support
for writing constitutions, setting up free and fair electoral systems, and executive,
legislative, and judicial branch institution-building. Support for upholding the broad
range of human rights is also sometimes included, as are many or most economic
reforms. Many would include such programs as crime fighting and fostering civilian
control over the military as democracy-building. Many have also advocated that
democracy-building aid be targeted to localities and private groups as well as to
central governments, and that central governments receive less aid when they are
resistant to reforms. The State Department, as noted, has taken an expansive view
that people-to-people exchanges that bring NIS citizens and officials to the United
States, and some in-country training such as that conducted by Peace Corps
volunteers, expose NIS participants to principles of the rule of law and to modes of
behavior in a civil society.47
Virtually all observers agree that the kinds of programs and their scope should
be tailored to each NIS rather than implemented across the board. USAID in part has
based its democracy-building programs on reviews it has carried out in each NIS.
In its FY1997 review for Kazakstan, for instance, USAID assessed Kazakstan as
moving forward in creating effective, responsible, and accountable local government,
so recommended beginning a program of training and assistance in local democracy-
building in FY1998. In the case of Georgia, the review for FY1997 concluded that
there had been good progress in USAID programs to foster citizen participation and
legal reform, but less progress in creating effective, responsible, and accountable
local government. It recommended a pause on large-scale local government aid or
even curtailing the program if the central government did not pursue
decentralization.48
47On U.S. democracy-building aid for Russian legislative, judicial, party, electoral, and NGO
development, see U.S. Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service.
Russia and
U.S. Foreign Assistance: Current Issues, by (name redacted), March 20, 1996, pp. 25-26.
48USAID,
Kazakstan: Results Review and Resource Request, April 1997; USAID,
Congressional Presentation for FY1999, Annex III, p. 120; and USAID,
Results Review and
Resource Request: Georgia, June 1997, pp. 2, 24. USAID's
Congressional Presentation for
FY1999, Annex III, requested less funding for local government democratization, pending
local government elections (p. 102).
CRS-20
The question of what kinds of democracy-building programs to support also
depends on the amount of NIS aid appropriated and earmarked, as well as on changes
in the receptivity of each NIS to assistance. While Administration planning through
FY1997 called for NIS aid to be wound down shortly after the year 2000, there were
discussions about what programs important to the United States should be retained
in the coming years. Crime-fighting training, some people-to-people exchanges, and
civil society programs were among democracy-building programs many proposed
should continue, and these programs have been highlighted as part of PFF.
What Should Be the Criteria for Democracy-Building Assistance?
Another issue is prioritizing which NIS to assist in bolstering their
democratization. What are the criteria for determining which NIS are to receive the
most aid, which NIS are progressive enough that they require reduced or no
democracy-building aid, and which NIS are so nondemocratic that they should not
receive any U.S. aid? U.S. assistance to the NIS, including democracy-building aid,
has been conditioned on a wide variety of factors, including the Freedom Support
Act and other legislation, as well as Administration policies. The Administration has
mentioned criteria including whether an NIS is strategically important to the United
States or is a regional power, the prospects for the creation of democracy and free
markets, how open an NIS is to U.S. aid efforts, and whether democratization may
have a demonstration effect on other NIS in the region.49 Other conditions bearing
on whether an NIS receives U.S. assistance, perhaps including democracy-building
aid, include whether an NIS adheres to arms control agreements, does not wage war
against its neighbors, does not support terrorism, does not transfer materials or
technology that can be used to construct mass destruction weapons, and upholds
human rights. Specific legislative conditions on aid to Russia that potentially affect
U.S. democracy-building efforts have included whether it upholds religious freedom
and abjures assisting Iran in building nuclear reactors and ballistic missiles.
Rarely does an NIS have a clear-cut record in democratization that makes policy
choices simple. The Administration contends that U.S. ties with Uzbekistan,
Azerbaijan, and Turkmenistan are important for economic reasons, and because of
Uzbekistan's regional power status, despite their poor receptiveness to democracy-
building. In these cases, aid levels are not perfectly related to the ranking of NIS in
terms of democratization progress. But even in the case of Russia and Ukraine,
besides their democratization progress, policy-makers have emphasized the
geopolitical importance of these populous and territorially-large NIS, as well as
strategic concerns with reducing nuclear weapons in Russia. Even in backsliding
NIS, in practice the Administration has pursued some engagement to advance human
rights and democracy-building at the grass roots level (see Table 3).
The range and scope of conditions on democracy-building aid to the NIS have
been a perennial issue of concern to Congressional authorizers and appropriators.
In February 1998, Representative Lee Hamilton reflected arguments of many in
Congress and the Administration that rather than giving up on supporting democracy
where NIS governments have faltered at reforms, the United States should maintain
49U.S. Congress. Committee on Foreign Affairs.
Administration of Justice Programs.
Hearing. Testimony of John Shattuck, September 14, 1993, p. 29.
CRS-21
support for successful programs to aid democratic reformers.50 On the other hand,
Representatives Gilman, Gerald Solomon, and James Traficant have questioned the
usefulness of giving aid to Yeltsin until he attacks high-level corruption and
implements meaningful economic and foreign policy reforms. Answering those who
might caution against cutting off aid to a democratizing Russia, Senator Gordon
Smith stated that no country that suppresses religious freedom can be democratic.
In May 1998, after receiving assurances in Russia that religious rights would be
upheld, he emphasized the U.S. interest in a Russia that chooses the path of
"democratic government, the rule of law, and friendly relations with its neighbors."51
Congressional concern over particular U.S. and international security interests
at times has been considered to clearly outweigh broader security interests ensured
through democracy-building support. Annual foreign operations appropriations
since FY1996 have called for a partial aid cutoff to Russia -- possibly including some
democracy-building aid -- if Russia assists Iran's nuclear and missile programs (a
presidential waiver has been provided if Russia makes progress in curtailing such
programs and on national security grounds).52 Similarly, NATO's enlargement was
widely supported in Congress as a core U.S. security interest, though in this case,
concern over a possible clash of U.S. interests caused many in Congress to also urge
stepped-up support for democracy-building in Russia. Senator Robert Torricelli
highlighted this view when he argued that "if Russia is democratic and capitalistic
and free, [then] Eastern Europe is secure," and that by enhancing Russian
democracy, the United States enhanced its own security. Senator Patty Murray
similarly stressed that "Russia matters to our own future ... peace and security," and
called on the Administration and Congress to "rebuild" ties with "those in Russia
who are advocating and following the course of democracy." Senator Strom
Thurmond, while arguing that enlargement would provide a hedge against "a future,
resurgent Russia," also urged continued support for Russia's transition to a peaceful
free market democracy as "America's primary national security goal in Europe."53
Congressional debate and funding priorities have placed greater emphasis in
recent years on U.S. aid to the non-Russian NIS, earmarking or strongly supporting
appropriations for assistance for Ukraine, Georgia, Armenia, and Kyrgyzstan. These
earmarks usually have been accorded to NIS demonstrating at least some progress
in democratization, though other considerations, such as urgent humanitarian needs
50
Congressional Record, February 3, 1998, p. E63. He was supporting the National
Endowment for Democracy against critics of U.S. democratization policy. For a similar
argument, see Representative Steny Hoyer,
Congressional Record, July 30, 1997, p. H6357,
during debate on H.R. 2159, covering appropriations for FY1998 to the NIS.
51
Congressional Record, June 19, 1998, p. 4873; April 16, 1997, p. H1546; November 5,
1997, p. H9996; and July 16, 1997, p. H7518;
Opening Statement for Senator Gordon Smith,
European Affairs Subcommittee, Senate Foreign Relations Committee, May 20, 1998.
52U.S. Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service.
Russia's Religion Law, by (na
me redacted). CRS Report 97-696F; and
Russian Missile Technology and Nuclear Reactor
Transfers to Iran, by Stuart Goldman, (name redacted ), and Robert Shuey. CRS Report
98-299F.
53
Congressional Record, April 30, 1998, pp. S3829, S3847, S3868, S3876-3877, S3886-
3887; May 11, 1998, p. S4626.
CRS-22
in Armenia and Georgia, also have entered into earmarking decisions. Support for
non-Russian NIS to enhance their sovereignty and independence has been
prominently stressed by Senator Mitch McConnell.54 The Foreign Aid
Appropriations Act for FY1998 (P.L.105-108) reflects these emphases, earmarking
assistance to Ukraine, Armenia, and Georgia for democracy-building and other
purposes. The Act also states that U.S. policy should promote democratization and
other goals in the countries of the South Caucasus and Central Asia. The Silk Road
Strategy Act (H.R.2867/S.1344) introduced in the House and Senate in late 1997,
calls for added policy emphasis on the South Caucasian and Central Asian NIS.
Representative Gilman, in introducing the bill in the House, stated that the first
priority of U.S. involvement in these NIS should be to "see democratic government
take root in these states. Stability in the region and in the broader Eurasian region
may well depend on the successful consolidation of democratic governance in these
states."55
Among non-Russian NIS that have been of special concern to Congress,
Armenia has received support from an Armenian Caucus of Members of Congress
and other Members who have advocated increased aid and diplomatic support.
Senator Jesse Helms stated on June 8, 1998, that increased aid to bolster
democratization in Georgia would be a priority. Senator Sam Brownback on
February 10, 1998, warned that "if democracy is allowed to fail in Georgia, it is
unlikely to succeed anywhere in the region," and urged the Administration to
articulate to those who might try to destabilize the South Caucasus states that "we
will do everything we can to facilitate democracy and free markets" among these
states. Senator McConnell similarly stated on January 28, 1998, that Georgian
President Eduard Shevardnadze’s “vision for a free, prosperous, and democratic
Georgia is one I support and believe him to be uniquely qualified to deliver.”56
Representative Bob Shaffer on April 23, 1998, emphasized that “Ukraine has
moved cautiously and steadily toward a free-market economy and multi-party
democracy.” While calling for Ukraine to improve its business climate for foreign
investors, he also stated that the United States should “continue to engage this
aspiring, recovering independent nation and encourage the constructive reform
Ukraine has already initiated.” He warned that “rebuking Ukraine” rather than
engaging it would demonstrate that the United States had lost confidence in
Ukraine’s ability to reform and possibly harm its democratization.57
Representatives Gilman and others introduced a resolution on March 5, 1998,
deploring limitations on human and civil rights in Belarus and calling for renewed
democratization. Representative Smith stated that “the rights and liberties of the
54
Congressional Record, November 1, 1995, p. S16473.
55
Congressional Record, November 7, 1997, p. E2240.
56
Congressional Record, February 10, 1998, p. S547; January 29, 1998, p. S208; February
9, 1998, p. S523; February 3, 1998, p. S329-330; January 28, 1998, p. S184.
57
Congressional Record, April 23, 1998, pp. E641-642.
CRS-23
Belarusian people are being eroded by their own authorities” and that “serious
backsliding and a turn to the Soviet past” are occurring.58
Is Aid Having an Impact on Democratization in the NIS?
It is difficult to assess what effect U.S. government programs have on
democratization, since indigenous efforts, U.S. private investment, and other nations'
foreign aid also may have a substantial effect. Program successes may also be
difficult to assess, especially in the short term, complicating the debate over future
aid. The Administration has admitted that expectations in the early 1990s that
democratization in the NIS would progress rapidly were exaggerated, and has
proposed increased assistance over an open-ended time-span. Some observers have
argued that U.S. aid to Russia and other NIS may have at most an effect at the
margins, but might be usefully considered where extra support might bolster
democratization efforts by reformers or localities.59 Others counter that U.S. aid for
democracy-building in the NIS has been largely ineffective because of corruption,
crime, and mismanagement in these states, and argue either that aid should be cut off
or that these problems must receive priority aid (see above
, Crime and Corruption).
USAID's reviews in the NIS attempt to measure the democracy-building success
of U.S. programs. In some cases, surveys and other data were used to assess
progress toward objectives, but in other cases a qualitative "anecdotal narrative
approach" was used, which included State Department's human rights assessments
and other materials. USAID has generally argued that its reviews show that its
democracy-building programs have facilitated and strengthened NIS
democratization. In its review for Armenia, USAID judged Armenia as not meeting
expectations in developing political parties and reforming electoral and legislative
systems, and stated that some aid efforts had been recast or suspended. Nonetheless,
it concluded that U.S. aid had improved some aspects of the electoral process. It
blamed the "seriously flawed" and "questionable" 1996 presidential election and
turmoil afterward on the still low level of political culture. In Georgia, USAID
evaluated progress in citizen participation and legal reform as broadly meeting
USAID expectations, although there appeared to be less progress in developing
decentralized local governments. By USAID measures, Kazakstan has been meeting
or exceeding expectations on some measures of democratization. The numbers of
local NGOs formed and improvements in local public administration there have
exceeded expectations.60
Severe backsliding in Belarus has shown that earlier positive Administration
assessments of U.S. democracy-building there proved unsustainable. Nonetheless,
USAID argued that its democracy-building aid proved useful in Belarus and that
58
Congressional Record, March 5, 1998, pp. E312-313.
59U.S. Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service.
Russia and U.S. Foreign
Policy: Parameters of the Current Debate, by Mark M. Lowenthal. CRS Report 94-491F,
June 10, 1994.
60USAID,
Results Review and Resource Request: Armenia, June 1997;
Results Review and
Resource Request: Georgia, June 1997; and
Kazakstan: Results Review and Resource
Request, April 1997.
CRS-24
continued aid would nurture reformist forces. USAID stated that "clearly,
individuals who participated in USAID democracy-building programs became vocal
and tireless advocates of democratic ideals." USAID concluded that "the negative
trends [in Belarus] highlight the extreme importance" of PFF-type programs "aimed
at sustaining the independent media, strengthening NGOs, developing respect for the
rule of law at the grassroots level, and assisting in privatization."61
Other observers have viewed democracy-building programs as less successful.
The U.S. General Accounting Office (USGAO) in early 1996 assessed U.S.
democracy programs in Russia as having “mixed results in meeting their stated
developmental objectives," since half of the programs reviewed did not "contribute
to significant changes in Russia's political, legal, or social system." In responding to
the USGAO report, the State Department and USAID agreed with USGAO that
short-term results often were not significant, but stressed that U.S. democracy-
building efforts in Russia were being refocused to longer-term efforts. Instead of
support for central institutions and political parties where progress has proved
difficult to achieve, they averred, a longer time-span for assistance would be adopted
and support would be focused more on grass roots efforts to build a popular
consensus for democratic reforms (in line with the subsequently announced PFF
initiative).62
61USAID,
Belarus: Results Review and Resource Request, May 19, 1997.
62USGAO.
Promoting Democracy: Progress Report on U.S. Democratic Development
Assistance to Russia, pp. 2-9.
CRS-25
Appendix, Democratization
in the New Independent States
This appendix provides assessments of democratization in the NIS, and
proposed U.S. democracy-building aid. The NIS are provisionally grouped
according to the benchmarks discussed above into those that have made progress in
democratization (Russia, Ukraine, Moldova, and Georgia), those that have faltered
(Armenia, Kyrgyzstan, and Azerbaijan), and those that have made scant progress or
are substantially backsliding (Belarus, Kazakstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and
Uzbekistan).63
DEMOCRATIZING NIS
Russia
According to the State Department, Russia’s constitutional structures are
democratic and citizens exercise the right to change their government peacefully,
though democratization has proceeded slowly.64 The legislature and the president
faced elections in 1995-1996 that were judged by most international observers as
largely free and fair, with a broad range of political parties and movements
contesting office.65 The judiciary shows signs of limited independence. Local
elections in 1996-1997 were mostly free and fair, though some residency, age, or
other requirements in some localities were considered illegal by the Central Electoral
Commission. Crime and corruption increasingly threaten democratization,
however.66
Many analysts have argued that democratization in Russia was retarded by
Yeltsin’s reluctance in late 1991 to call for new Russian legislative elections and a
new constitution, at a time when the reformist movement was strong. Instead, his
63Besides sources noted below, for background see U.S. Library of Congress. Congressional
Research Service. CRS Reports for Congress 96-179,
Armenia; 97-522,
Azerbaijan; 95-776,
Belarus; 97-727,
Georgia; 97-1058,
Kazakstan; 97-690,
Kyrgyzstan; 95-403,
Moldova; 98-
594,
Tajikistan; 97-1055,
Turkmenistan; and 97-1060,
Uzbekistan. See also CRS Report 96-
245,
Ukraine, and CRS Issue Briefs 93108,
Central Asia's New States, and 95024,
Armenia,
Azerbaijan, and Georgia.)
64U.S. State Department,
Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1997; Thomas
Remington, in Karen Dawisha and Bruce Parrott, eds.,
Democratic Changes and
Authoritarian Reactions in Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and Moldova, Cambridge University
Press, 1997, pp. 69-129. See also George Breslauer, Political Succession,
Problems of
Post-Communism, September-October 1997, pp. 32-37.
65Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), International Observers
Mission: Russian Presidential Election, Final Statement, June 18 and July 5, 1996. See also
the generally positive assessments by Yitzhak Brudny, In Pursuit of the Russian Presidency,
Communist and Post-Communist Studies, September 1997, pp. 255-275. Other analysts
placed greater emphasis on Yeltsin's manipulation of the media and violations of campaign
spending limits, among other transgressions. For a negative assessment, see Boris
Kagarlitsky, Russia Chooses -- And Loses,
Current History, October 1996, pp. 305-310.
66
Freedom in the World 1997-1998, p. 428.
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administration focused on economic rather than political reforms. The economic
reforms were opposed by the legislature. The wrangling between the executive and
legislative branches on economic and other issues was finally resolved with Yeltsin’s
forcible dissolution of the legislature in October 1993 with heavy loss of life, a
setback for democratization. Another setback to democratization was posed by
Russia's December 1994 military and police crackdown in Russia's breakaway
Chechnya Republic, resulting in tens of thousands of civilian and other casualties
and displaced persons and refugees, and massive economic damages. Highly
unpopular among most Russians, the conflict was wound down in August 1996 with
a cease-fire arranged during the Russian presidential campaign.
Although Russia has pledged to abide by existing borders with other NIS, some
ultra-nationalists and communists in Russia have called for incorporating transborder
areas such as those in Crimea, eastern Ukraine, and northern Kazakhstan where
many ethnic Russians reside, or even urged reconstituting the Soviet Union. There
are serious questions about the results of the December 1993 constitutional
referendum that have never been addressed by the Yeltsin administration, but most
political parties endorsed Yeltsin's proposal in 1994 to work within the constitutional
framework. In the 1996 presidential race, Communist Party of the Russian
Federation (CPRF) head Gennadiy Zyuganov stated that he would fundamentally
amend or replace the constitution. The CPRF and the Liberal Democratic Party
(LDPR; Vladimir Zhirinovskiy's party) won large numbers of seats in the State
Duma in 1993 and 1995, but these and other ultra-nationalist or anti-government
deputies have not been able to revamp the constitution, since agreement is required
in the Federation Council and in the regions.
The electoral system for the State Duma was stable for two elections, but the
Federation Council has shifted in its representation, and it remains to be seen
whether it will be durable. There also may be changes in the State Duma electoral
system, since Yeltsin and others have called for doing away with proportional
representation by party lists or lowering the 5% threshold. The CPRF has regional
units and the LDPR has some local though declining presence. The Our Home party
has relied on support provided by regional leaders, and the Yabloko party has
endeavored to create a grassroots organization, but other democratic parties tend not
to have a local presence. There has not been a transfer of presidential power yet as
a test of democratization, but the acceptance by the CPRF of the results of the 1996
presidential race set a fragile precedent.67 The legislature is constitutionally
constrained in initiating legislation involving appropriations, but has asserted itself
in altering appropriations measures and passing some important laws. Yeltsin has
vetoed many bills approved by the legislature and the government has often been lax
in implementing laws.
67Heinz Timmerman argues that there has been a "surprising" degree of political stability in
Russia since 1993, because the CPRF has in practice worked within the political system
rather than acting disruptively. Acquiescence by several CPRF deputies for Sergey
Kiriyenko's confirmation as prime minister in May 1998 is a recent example of this stability.
See
The Communist Party of Russia, Berichte des Bundesinstituts fur ostwissenschaftliche
und internationale Studien, No. 9, January 1998.
CRS-27
Yeltsin's "state of the federation" addresses to the Russian legislature in 1997
and 1998 stressed his continued commitment to democratization. In 1997, he urged
the legislature not to try to amend the constitution but “to learn to respect [it], let us
learn to live by it . . . And only after that will we think of amendments.” He also
warned that regional/republic efforts to circumvent laws will not stand: “I have
enough will to ensure that the Constitution ... operates fully and over the whole
territory of the country." His 1998 address reiterated this commitment to reforms.
He stated that "we have built a system of democratic institutions" and that a
"civilized political process" was emerging. He criticized the "poor juridical quality"
of many laws passed by the legislature, though he also criticized executive branch
agencies for laxity in formulating draft laws, some of which also were of poor
juridical quality. He called for added support for NGOs in Russia to build a civil
society. He decried the existence of dozens of political parties in Russia, calling for
passage of a law on parties that would facilitate development of a "normal multiparty
system," and for effective laws on campaign financing and electoral monitoring.
U.S. Democracy-Building Aid. The Administration requested $96.9 million
in Freedom Support Act funds for FY1999 for democracy-building (more than
double last year's estimated spending), including USAID's request of $15.9 million
for enhancing citizen's participation in political and economic decision-making and
$5 million for fostering a more democratic and market-oriented legal system. The
Administration plans to stress U.S.-Russian private-sector and community-based
partnerships and exchanges under the PFF program, as carried out by USIA, USAID,
and other agencies. While these programs will emphasize economic reforms, the
Administration maintains that they also foster respect for the rule of law.
USAID will provide grants to the National Democratic Institute (NDI) and the
International Republican Institute (IRI) to encourage political party-building at the
national and local levels and the strengthening of democratic institutions, and to
other U.S. NGOs to carry out civil society, rule of law, and independent media
programs. USAID's Regional Investment Initiative will focus partly on increasing
citizen participation in local government. USAID legal assistance funding to the
U.S. Justice Department, the National Judicial College, and the American Bar
Association's Central and East European Law Initiative (ABA/CEELI) will buttress
Russian criminal justice reform, law enforcement, legal education and training, legal
ethics, commercial law drafting, and local NGO advocacy of civil rights. Other
proposed programs with democracy-building components include IMET assistance
to foster military justice and civilian control over the military.68
Ukraine
According to the State Department, Ukraine has continued its slow progress in
building a law-based civil society. The new Ukrainian constitution adopted in 1996
creates a balance of power between the executive and legislative branches. The
judiciary is funded as an independent branch, but remains subject to political
interference. Citizens exercised the right to change their leaders in 1994 when they
68U.S. State Department; USAID,
Congressional Presentation for FY1999, Annex III, pp.
213-216; The Secretary of State,
Congressional Presentation for Foreign Operations for
FY1999, pp. 666-667.
CRS-28
elected a new president and a new legislature representing a wide range of parties.69
Ukraine joined the Council of Europe in 1995 and is undertaking implementation of
human rights standards required by the Council. Increasing crime and corruption,
however, threaten democratization in Ukraine and other NIS.70
There are many political parties registered, but they are weakly supported by
the citizenry. Some in the Ukrainian Communist Party and others call for integration
with Russia, and some ethnic Russians in eastern Ukraine and Crimea urge
secession, but most observers do not view such calls as a potent threat to Ukraine's
independence or integrity. Ukraine's fragile integrity has been challenged by the
strength of the Ukrainian nationalist party Rukh in the western areas of Ukraine,
while the Communist Party has received its greatest support in eastern Ukraine.
There have been positive signs of democratization in Ukraine. The legislature
has passed important laws after debate, including privatization, ratification of the
Lisbon Protocol on Ukraine’s non-nuclear status, the constitution, and on the status
of Crimea. The Presidential election of December 1991 was deemed free and fair by
most observers, with Leonid Kravchuk winning against five other candidates. The
presidential election of June-July 1994 resulted in the peaceful transfer of power
from Kravchuk to Leonid Kuchma. A cumbersome electoral process, requiring a
major turnout by voters and a majority win by a candidate, created confused and
time-consuming repeat legislative elections during 1994, though international
observers judged the process generally free and fair. A new electoral law of October
1997 for legislative elections in 1998 created a mixed electoral system where 50%
of the candidates would be elected from single-mandate districts and 50% from party
lists.
On March 29, 1998, Ukrainian legislative elections were held, along with
elections to the Crimean legislature and local council races. The Ukrainian
legislative election resulted in about an even split between reformist and communist-
oriented members. Thirty parties and electoral blocs successfully registered for the
vote, out of 54 registered parties in Ukraine. Eight parties able to receive at least 4%
of the vote gained representation in the legislature. Of the 450 seats, the Communist
Party won 121, Rukh 40, the National Democratic Party (NDP) 30, the Ukrainian
Peasant Socialist bloc 36, Hromada 32, the United Social Democrats 17, the
Progressive Socialists 16 and the Greens of Ukraine 19. Some parties that did not
gain representation via party lists managed to have some members elected in the
single-district races. Candidates not announcing a party affiliation won 114 seats.
Communists gained over three dozen seats over their previous numbers in the
legislature, while Rukh gained about two dozen. President Kuchma's favored party,
the NDP, did not do as well as he expected, but observers argued that the
Communists and kindred factions would be blocked on many issues by reform-
oriented factions. Some elections were challenged or invalidated and new elections
were scheduled.
69U.S. State Department,
Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1997. According
to Ilya Prizel, Ukraine has a chance to make further democratization progress and not decline
into authoritarianism and dependency if it can improve its economy. See Dawisha and
Parrott,
Democratic Changes, pp. 330-369.
70
Freedom in the World 1997-1998, p. 517.
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The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and the
Council of Europe election monitors stated that the election marked progress in
democratization — that voters were generally free to express their will and the
results appeared to reflect their will — but was tarnished by violations of freedom
of the press and expression. There were procedural problems in accommodating
large turnouts in several districts. Monitors also decried the ineligibility of most
Crimean Tatars to vote in elections to the 100-seat Crimean legislature held at the
same time as the country-wide election.71 In the assessment of the U.S. CSCE, the
composition of the new Ukrainian legislature made it unlikely that it would be "a
force for significant reform. At the same time, the likelihood of significant
backsliding from reform is small."72
The almost even split between the right and left wings in the legislature led to
difficulty in forming legislative bodies. Wrangling over the speakership, other
leading posts, and committee chairs stretched into July 1998, when a boycott by
most rightist and pro-presidential deputies allowed Socialist-Peasant Party official
Oleksandr Tkachenko to be elected speaker by leftist and anti-presidential deputies.
In the interim, Kuchma — whose presidential powers are somewhat more
circumscribed than Yeltsin's in Russia — issued several economic decrees instead
of asking for the legislature to first enact them. He explained in a national address
that the "political squabbles in parliament" and the need for reforms necessitated his
action, and called on legislators to support his reforms.
U.S. Democracy-Building Aid. The U.S. Administration requested $64
million in Freedom Support Act funds for FY1999 for democracy-building in
Ukraine, a sizable boost over FY1998 estimated spending. This includes USAID's
request of $5 million to foster increased citizen participation in political and
economic decision-making, $2.5 million to bolster legal system reforms, and $5.5
million for strengthening the accountability and effectiveness of local government.
USAID plans continued grants to Freedom House, Internews, NDI, IRI, International
Research and Exchanges Board (IREX), the NIS-US Women's Consortium, the
International Foundation for Electoral Studies (IFES), and the Eurasia Foundation
to foster independent media, democratic electoral processes, and public policy and
human rights advocacy by private groups. USAID also plans to continue grants to
Associates in Rural Development, ABA/CEELI, the U.S. Association of Former
Members of Congress, and other U.S. groups to provide training, material assistance,
and technical advice to the Ukrainian legislature, presidency, and Ministry of Justice,
to the judiciary, to public prosecutors, to law schools, and to human rights, legal, and
legal advocacy NGOs. Support for legal reforms includes aid for law drafting as
well as for combating crime and corruption. USAID plans to continue grants to the
Research Triangle Institute, IREX, USIA, the Eurasia Foundation, and other U.S.
groups to improve local government management, financial planning, municipal
71According to the OSCE, "the Ukrainian elections were conducted under a generally
adequate legal and administrative framework. However, the campaign was marred by
incidents of violence, arrests and actions against candidates and abuse of public office that
represents a serious shortcoming in the conduct of the campaign, and raises questions about
the neutrality of the state apparatus in the election." See OSCE,
Republic of Ukraine
Parliamentary Elections, 29 March 1998, 1998.
72U.S. CSCE
, Ukraine's Parliamentary Election, March 29, 1998.
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services, housing and land management, zoning, local legislative procedures, citizen
relations, and legislative-executive relations. Besides these programs, increased
funds were requested to support IMET efforts to foster military justice and respect
for civilian control over the military.73
Moldova
In 1994, Moldova adopted a constitution that provides for multiparty
representative government with divided powers. One constitutional provision states
that organizations that oppose the sovereignty and independence of Moldova are
unconstitutional, which some critics charge as discriminating against groups
advocating reunification of Moldova with Romania. Competitive multiparty
legislative elections took place in 1990, before the breakup of the Soviet Union.
Another legislative race in 1994 was judged open and fair by international observers,
as was the presidential race in 1996. The peaceful transition of presidential power
represents further progress in the transition to democracy, according to the State
Department. The judiciary is increasingly independent but still influenced somewhat
by the prosecutor’s office. Moldova remains ethnically divided, with Slavic
separatists controlling the Transdniestrian region along the Ukrainian border. The
separatists continue to demand status as a separate state in a loose confederation with
the rest of Moldova. A cease-fire has been observed since 1992, but a May 1997
agreement on principles of a settlement has not resulted in substantial progress.74
Elections to Moldova's legislature were held on March 22, 1998. Nine parties,
six electoral blocs, and over 1,400 candidates vied for the 101 legislative seats.
Officials in the breakaway and nondemocratic Transdniestrian region refused to
allow polling, but permitted a few residents to cross the border to vote. Parties had
to gain more than 4% of the votes to win representation in the legislature. Four blocs
and parties surmounted this barrier, with the pro-presidential Democratic and
Prosperous Moldova Bloc (DPM) winning 24 seats, the heavily pro-Romanian
Democratic Convention of Moldova (DCM) winning 26 seats, and the Party for
Democratic Forces winning 11 seats. Reflecting societal discontent with the poor
economy and wage and pension arrears, the Communist Party won the largest share
of seats -- 40 -- in the new legislature. International observers found the election
largely "free and fair."75
To keep the Communist Party from gaining power, the other winning blocs and
party formed a legislative coalition on April 21 called the Alliance for Democracy
and Reforms. This Alliance agreed that the speakership would be held by a DPM
member, that most committee chairs would be held by Alliance members, that the
73U.S. State Department; USAID,
Congressional Presentation for FY1999, Annex III, pp.
268-273; The Secretary of State,
Congressional Presentation for Foreign Operations for
FY1999, 675-677.
74U.S. State Department,
Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1997. See also
William Crowther, in
Democratic Changes, pp. 321-322.
75According to the OSCE, "The election process was as a whole satisfactory. The candidates
could compete under generally good conditions, and the voters could freely express their will
on election day. A major exception to this positive assessment was Transdniestria." See
Preliminary Statement issued on 23 March 1998 by the Election Observation Mission.
CRS-31
prime minister would be a DCM member, and cabinet posts would be shared among
the Alliance partners. In May 1998, however, President Petru Lucinschi insisted on
his constitutional right to nominate the prime minister, and the DCM agreed to the
appointment of DPM member Ion Cubuc in order to preserve the Alliance and to
"watch against Communists' coming to power."76 The head of one party in the DCM
and the Alliance leader is Mircea Snegur, who lost the 1996 presidential race to
Lucinschi. The fragility of the Alliance and its blocs and the rivalry between
Lucinschi and Snegur threaten the effectiveness of the legislature, according to some
observers.77
U.S. Democracy-Building Aid. The U.S. Administration has focused mostly
on enhancing Moldova's economic reforms. Marking a partial shift, it requested $9.5
million in Freedom Support Act funds for FY1999 for democracy-building, a sizable
boost over last year's estimated spending. This includes USAID's request for $1.5
million to increase citizen participation by providing legal education for law
students, lawyers, and judges, strengthening NGOs that affect public policy or
provide social services, and strengthening independent media. IFES provided
information on elections and workshops and exchanges to foster civil society. IFES
also set up the NGO Training and Consulting Center to hold seminars on public
administration. It also sponsors a Mass Media Working Group, a Voter Education
Working Group, and an NGO Working Group.78
Georgia
According to the State Department, citizens in Georgia exercised their right to
freely change their leaders in October 1992 and November 1995. Despite some
violations, international observers judged these elections as generally free and fair.
Local leaders remain appointed by the president, however, and plans to hold local
elections in 1997 were not fulfilled. The governments of South Ossetia and
Abkhazia are ruled by undemocratic leaders, according to the State Department.
Ajaria is “self-governing under conditions resembling a police state.” Problematic
voting took place in Ajaria during Georgia-wide elections in 1995 and its regional
elections in 1996.79
Although progressive elections have been held several times, most recently in
1995, there has been no change of leadership at the presidential level since the
violent change in executive leadership in early 1992 to test the norm of a peaceful
transfer of power. The 1995 legislative race was progressive in that the electoral law
provided for most deputies to be elected by proportional representation and some
through single-member constituencies, the former theoretically strengthening party
formation. However, an extremely large number of parties (54) fielded candidates.
This, and the mandated requirement that a party receive over 5% of the total vote in
order to gain seats, resulted in only three parties winning representation on the party
76Mircea Snegur, Foreign Broadcast Information Service,
Daily Report: Central Eurasia,
May 6, 1998.
77Vladimir Socor, Quo Vadis, Moldova?
Prism, May 1, 1998.
78USAID,
Congressional Presentation for FY1999,
Annex III, pp. 159-160, 170-171.
79U.S. State Department,
Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1997.
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ballots, wasting a large number of votes. The ruling Citizen's Union party, which
won 23% of the vote, gained nearly 50% of the seats because of these factors. The
Citizen’s Union and the National Democratic Party have some local organization.
Regional parties include the Rivalist Union of Ajaria, Traditionalists based largely
in Gori and western Georgia, and Zviadists in western Georgia.
Despite passage of a liberal constitution in 1995, the constitutional issue of
unitary vs. federal relations was not resolved, so the basic form and structure of the
state remains provisional and the possibility of further separatism cannot be ruled
out.80 Movements opposed to the constitutional order have declined. Some Zviadists
boycotted the 1995 legislative and presidential races as illegitimate, and Abkhazia
and South Ossetia oppose the present Georgian Constitution. As a result of
negotiations with Abkhazia, South Ossetia, and Ajaria, there is the possibility of
altering the constitution, including the formation of a federal upper legislative
chamber, and changing the electoral system.
U.S. Democracy-Building Aid. USAID states that although progress in
Georgia toward democratic governance has been impressive, institutions, policies,
and practices are still fragile.81 Political parties, independent media, and NGOs are
"nowhere near being sustainable" and need continued aid, USAID avers. In the
political realm, democratic rule is taking root. Citizen participation in the political
process through parties and NGOs is increasing. Since economic and political
stability has begun to emerge since 1995, USAID has been able to shift aid from
humanitarian to other reform needs. U.S. aid has been instrumental in advancing
democracy-building goals, though political evolution is not complete, USAID
reports. The Administration requested $16.2 million in Freedom Support Act funds
for FY1999 for democracy-building (a reduction from the previous year's earmarked
funding), including USAID's request for $3.72 million to support citizen
participation, $1.8 million to support judicial reform, and $800,000 to support local
government reforms. Problems of corruption also will be addressed by supporting
legal and judicial reform.82
FALTERING DEMOCRATIZATION
This category includes states that have suffered setbacks in democratization or
whose progress is unsteady and tardy. Armenia and Kyrgyzstan appear to possess
somewhat better prospects for further progress than Azerbaijan, according to some
observers. Recent trends in Azerbaijan appear disquieting and may result in further
setbacks (see below).
80Linz and Stepan would say that Georgia is not yet a democracy, since the constitution has
not settled the issue of unitary vs. federal relations (p. 4).
81Researcher Stephen Jones states that "it would be naive to expect a smooth road ahead for
any society that has recently emerged from authoritarianism.” He notes, however, that "the
principles and procedures for resolving political and ethnic crises peacefully are in place and
Georgians are already benefitting from their democratic gains,” though reforms are
vulnerable to setbacks. See
Current History, October 1996.
82USAID,
Congressional Presentation for FY1999, Annex III, pp. 99-102.
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Kyrgyzstan
Kyrgyzstan's citizens have had a declining ability to change their government
peacefully, according to the State Department. A new constitution was approved in
May 1993, establishing a democratic presidential system upholding the separation
of powers and expansive human rights guarantees. This constitution led some U.S.
policymakers to view Kyrgyzstan a model of democratization among the NIS.
However, Kyrgyz President Askar Akayev orchestrated the early disbandment of a
legislature he found troublesome in 1994, and took over legislative power pending
new elections. He decreed an October 1994 referendum to approve amendments to
the constitution, including provisions creating a bicameral legislature and weakening
it relative to the presidency. He argued that legislative and other provisions of the
May 1993 constitution were too "idealistic" since the Kyrgyz "people are not
prepared for democracy," and that a "transitional period" was needed. The
amendment process, like the dissolution of the legislature, contravened the
constitution, according to the State Department. The referendum questions were
approved by over 96% of voters with a questionable 96% turnout, again according
to the State Department. After the October referendum, detailed constitutional
provisions were published for popular debate in early 1995, to be given final form
and approval by the newly elected legislature.83
The early 1995 legislative races were considered by many international
observers as generally reflecting the will of the people, although campaigning and
voting were marred by some irregularities and confusion. Few candidates were
elected in the first round of voting, and repeat rounds stretched into mid-1995. In
September 1995, Akayev's supporters submitted a petition signed by 1.2 million
(52% of the voting age population) urging the legislature to approve a referendum
extending Akayev's term to the year 2001. After contentious debate, the legislature
rejected holding a referendum, and Akayev instead announced that an early
presidential election would be held in December 1995. Thirteen candidates were
registered, but ten were disqualified. Akayev handily won re-election to a five year
term in elections deemed generally "free and fair" by international observers, though
questions were raised about the disqualifications and other irregularities.
Akayev spearheaded another constitutional referendum in early 1996. Although
the turnout appeared low to media observers, Kyrgyz authorities announced a 97%
turnout and a 95% approval margin. According to the State Department, the
referendum violated the law on referendums and was marked by rampant fraudulent
voting. It gave Akayev greater powers to veto legislation, dissolve the legislature,
83There are differing assessments of democratization in Kyrgyzstan. OSCE electoral
observers considered the 1995 legislative and presidential races as generally progressive,
despite irregularities. See OSCE,
ODIHR Activity Report for 1995, October 1, 1995
. Others
have placed greater stress on signs of problematic democratization. See U.S. State
Department,
Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 1994, 1995, 1996, and 1997; and
Freedom House,
Freedom in the World 1997-1998, pp. 321-323
. See also U.S. CSCE,
Parliamentary Elections in Kyrgyzstan, February 1995; and
Political Reform and Human
Rights in Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Kazakstan, March 1998, pp. 16-26. Eugene Huskey,
Kyrgyzstan,
Conflict, pp. 242-276, provides a detailed analysis of drawbacks to the 1995
legislative race. See also Amnesty International,
Kyrgyzstan: A Tarnished Human Rights
Record, May 1996.
CRS-34
and appoint all ministers without legislative confirmation, while making
impeachment more difficult, along the lines of the Russian Constitution. The
legislature increasingly has asserted itself by passing a large number of bills and
overriding some presidential vetoes. In 1995, a Constitutional Court was sworn in,
and judicial reforms were begun in 1996, though the judiciary remains under the
influence of the executive branch. Most local officials are appointed by the
president. Political parties are weak. Although nearly two-dozen are registered,
some are inactive. Less than half the members of the legislature claim party
affiliation, and voting rarely takes place along strict party lines.
President Akayev's supporters have petitioned the Constitutional Court to
decide whether Akayev could run for a "second" term as allowed by the 1993
constitution (disregarding his election in 1991 under a previous constitution). The
Constitutional Court agreed in July 1998 that Akayev could run again, leading some
observers to criticize the decision as violating the spirit if not the letter of the rule of
law. Other indicators of lagging democratization in mid-1998 include passage of a
law requiring a permit to hold demonstrations (apparently violating a constitutional
safeguard of the right to assembly) and the consideration of a draft electoral law
calling for most legislators to be indirectly elected by local administrations.84
U.S. Democracy-Building Aid. According to the U.S. Administration, the
challenge for U.S. aid is to ensure that Kyrgyzstan serves as an example of political
and economic reform for other Central Asian states. Kyrgyzstan is "a 'laboratory' for
demonstrating that democracies can work in Central Asia," according to USAID.
The Administration has requested $10 million in Freedom Support Act funds for
FY1999 for democracy-building, a slight increase over FY1998 estimated spending.
This includes USAID's request for $2.05 million for citizens' participation and $2
million for local government programs. Democratic reform and respect for the rule
of law took a step forward, USAID has reported, with a successful USAID-assisted
housing program that included property auctions, construction, and the development
of condo associations. USAID also has endeavored to strengthen civil society by
supporting NGOs and the legal and media professions.85
Armenia
Armenia is in the early stages of an uneven transition to democratic order and
free market economy, according to the State Department and others. Until 1994,
Armenia appeared to be making progress in democratization, but in recent years
authoritarian tendencies have caused a mixed picture to emerge. Armenia was
among the first Soviet republics to begin building democracy, and it endeavored to
secede from the Soviet Union in a peaceful and lawful fashion. Its legislature was
freely elected in 1990 and its president was democratically elected in 1991.
However, other events less favorable to democratization included the fortification
of existing networks of favoritism, nepotism, and corruption among various
government officials, enterprise directors, and leading families, according to some
observers. The conflict over Nagorno Karabakh (NK; a breakaway part of
84
Kyrgyzstan Bulletin, July 15, 1998.
85USAID,
Congressional Presentation for FY1999, Annex III, pp. 125-127, 133-135.
CRS-35
Azerbaijan inhabited mostly by ethnic Armenians who are supported by Armenia)
has also impeded democratization. Some militant nationalists have stressed national
security issues and a “united front” in the conflict over NK as more important than
democratization. In 1994-1995, the Armenian government banned the major
opposition party, the Dashnaktsutiun (Armenian Revolutionary Federation or ARF),
increased controls over the press, and manipulated the 1995 legislative elections and
constitutional referendum, according to some observers. These observers also allege
that the constitutional referendum was presented to voters as a decision on whether
or not to have a constitution, rather than a vote on the merits of the presidential
republic it created. OSCE election monitors called the 1995 legislative race "free but
not fair," reflecting the ban on the ARF and media and other manipulation of the
electoral campaign by President Ter-Petrosyan.86
The Armenian government manipulated the results of the 1996 presidential
election, thereby restricting the ability of citizens to change their government
peacefully and contributing to a lack of public confidence in the integrity of the
electoral process, according to the State Department. OSCE observers of the 1996
presidential election also concluded that there were "serious violations of the election
law" that "raise questions about the integrity of the election process," and the official
vote count, although they noted that it is uncertain whether the irregularities would
have affected the basic outcome of the race.87 Other observers have argued that,
although the election was flawed, the conduct of the campaign was an improvement
over the 1995 legislative elections. Although the constitution provides for
independent judicial and legislative branches, in practice they are not insulated from
political pressures from the executive branch.88 The constitution allows the
president wide scope to dissolve the legislature and the power to appoint the cabinet,
chief prosecutor, and members of the Constitutional Court. There is an absence of
a viable legal and regulatory framework for institutions such as the judiciary and
procuracy, and the relative weakness of civil society impedes democratization,
according to many observers.
In February 1998, Armenian President Ter-Petrosyan announced his
resignation, stating that the "power bodies" (the security ministries) had "demanded"
that he step down, and that he had acceded in order to prevent "destabilization in the
country." Prime Minister Kocharyan, who had been critical of Ter-Petrosyan's NK
policy, assumed the duties of acting president (after the speaker of the legislature,
next in the constitutional line as acting president, also resigned). A presidential
election was scheduled to be held on March 16, with a runoff on March 30 between
the two top candidates if no one received over 50% of the vote. Twelve candidates
successfully registered on March 13. No candidate won over 50% of the 1.46
million votes cast (a 63.97% turnout) as required, so the two top candidates -- acting
86Nora Dudwick, Political Transformations in Postcommunist Armenia, in Karen Dawisha
and Bruce Parrott, eds.,
Conflict, Cleavage, and Change in Central Asia and the Caucasus,
Cambridge University Press, 1997, pp. 69-109; USAID,
Congressional Presentation for
FY1999, Annex III, pp. 29-30, 38-40; U.S. CSCE,
Report on Armenia's Elections and
Constitutional Referendum, 1995.
87U.S. CSCE,
Report on Armenia's Presidential Election of September 22, 1996, 1996.
88U.S. State Department,
Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1997.
CRS-36
President Robert Kocharyan and the former Armenian Communist Party leader --
were scheduled for a runoff election on March 30. Electoral observers from the
OSCE witnessed myriad voting irregularities and judged the first round of voting as
"deeply flawed," although they noted that the irregularities did not alter the basic
outcome.
Kocharyan received 59.49% of 1.57 million votes cast (a 68.49% turnout)
in the runoff (CEC statement of final results, April 6). Based on reports from almost
140 electoral observers, the OSCE concluded that the voting irregularities observed
did not affect the outcome. It stated that the election was a step forward from the
troubled 1996 presidential race but did not meet OSCE standards.89 Kocharyan's
party coalition in the presidential race appeared to be unraveling in mid-1998, with
the Yerkrapah Union of Karabakh Veterans seeming to vie with the Armenian
Revolutionary Federation (Dashnaktsutyun) Party for elite support ahead of
legislative races planned for mid-1999.
U.S. Democracy-Building Aid. Despite setbacks, there have been some
positive democratization efforts, many achieved with U.S. aid, according to USAID.
Legislation on a new civil and criminal code is nearing completion. The judiciary
and the legislature are becoming more capable. USAID has fostered the growth of
NGOs and opposition parties, enabling them to aggregate interests. An independent
print and broadcast media are emerging. The Administration requested $19 million
in Freedom Support Act funds for democratization for FY1999, a slight decline over
FY1998 estimated spending. This includes USAID's request for $7.7 million to
enhance citizens' participation and $4.3 million to support legal systems reforms.90
Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan's democratization efforts have faced damaging setbacks. Despite
months of political turmoil, Azerbaijan had a progressive multi-candidate
presidential election in mid-1992, although there were some balloting irregularities
associated with family voting. However, popularly-elected president Abulfaz
Elchibey proved slow in implementing political and economic reforms and in
negotiating a settlement of the NK conflict. Even these efforts were set back when
he was overthrown by paramilitary forces in mid-1993 and replaced by former
Azerbaijani Communist Party leader Heydar Aliyev. A subsequent late 1993
presidential election was declared undemocratic by international observers. Aliyev’s
rule has been authoritarian, with intolerance of political opposition and criticism,
according to many observers.91
According to the State Department, the Azerbaijani government widely
interferes in the electoral process, thereby restricting the right of citizens to change
the government peacefully. International monitors found irregularities in the 1995
legislative races and declared them neither free nor fair. The flawed election resulted
in domination of the legislature by the New Azerbaijan Party, led by Aliyev, and
89OSCE,
Republic of Armenia Presidential Election, March 16 and 30, 1998: Final Report,
April 13, 1998.
90USAID,
Congressional Presentation for FY1999, Annex III, pp. 38-40.
91Audrey Alstadt, Azerbaijan’s Struggle Toward Democracy,
Conflict, Cleavage, and
Change in Central Asia and the Caucasus, pp. 100-155.
CRS-37
other parties and independent deputies loyal to the president. Opposition party
candidates were in many cases barred from running and these parties won only eight
seats. Serious irregularities, including the apparent inflation of turnout, also put into
question the constitutional referendum held at the same time. Aliyev, while
acknowledging that the election and referendum did not meet international
democratic standards, argued that they showed some democratization progress.92
Although democratic political reforms are "blunted" in Azerbaijan, "a
modicum of press freedom and increasing citizen participation in various types of
political and social service delivery organizations is laying the foundation for future
political change," according to USAID93 Also, despite government harassment, some
opposition parties continued to be active, another sign that democratic tendencies
have not yet been extinguished, according to the State Department.94 The
government continues to deny registration to two prominent opposition parties. The
legislature is only marginally independent from the executive branch, exercising
little legislative initiative. Aliyev forced the increasingly popular and independent
Rasul Guliyev to step down as legislative speaker in 1996. Initially, Guliyev was
accused of insufficient loyalty to Aliyev for urging stepped-up economic reforms,
but later was accused of corruption and supporting terrorism.95
Azerbaijani presidential and belated municipal elections are scheduled for
October 1998. The run-up to the presidential race, however, raises increased doubts
about the future of democratization in Azerbaijan. An election law approved in June
1998 by the legislature — which is controlled by the ruling New Azerbaijan Party
— calls for one-half of the Central Electoral Commission to be appointed by the
president and one-half by the legislature. Several opposition parties have objected
to this law as preordaining Aliyev's re-election and have threatened to boycott the
presidential race. According to oppositionists, pro-Aliyev forces have responded to
this boycott threat by fielding straw candidates to give the appearance of a multi-
candidate race.
U.S. Democracy-Building Aid. A provision of P.L.105-118, signed into law
in November 1997, relaxes the restriction on U.S. assistance to Azerbaijan by
permitting government-to-government democracy-building aid. Reflecting this
change, the Administration requested $8 million in Freedom Support Act funds for
democracy-building in FY1999 (double FY1998 estimated spending), including
92U.S. State Department,
Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1997; OSCE/UN
Joint Electoral Observation Mission in Azerbaijan, On Azerbaijan's 12 November 1995
Parliamentary Election and Constitutional Referendum, January 1996.
93USAID,
Congressional Presentation for FY1999, Annex III, pp. 43. In April 1998,
Azerbaijan halted rebroadcasts of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL) programs,
citing a license dispute. However, some critics linked the halt to increased attempts at
censorship by the Aliyev regime prior to the presidential race, boding ill for a "free and fair"
election. See Mirza Michaeli, Azerbaijan: Protest Fast To Renew RFE/RL Broadcasts
Grows,
RFE/RL Newsline, May 4, 1998.
94
FY1997 Freedom Support Act Annual Report, p. 1.
95U.S. State Department,
Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1997.
CRS-38
USAID's request for $3 million for citizens' participation programs such as electoral
system support.96
BACKSLIDING OR FAILED DEMOCRATIZATION
According to Freedom House, Belarus, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and
Turkmenistan rank lowest in democratization. Some civil liberties appear to be
upheld in Kazakstan, but legal and constitutional restrictions on civil and human
rights, and the question mark over Kazakstan’s ethnic stability, place it in this group
of NIS where democratization is problematic, though not impossible, according to
some observers. Analyst Richard Rose, in noting the absence of substantive
democratization in these states (he also includes Azerbaijan), states that “democracy
is not necessarily the destiny of all post-communist countries.” He observes that
“Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan equal Burma, Iraq, and Sudan in the
denial of freedom.”97 There may be some nascent democratization efforts in
Tajikistan (see below).
Belarus
Belarus is substantially backsliding in its democratization. According to the
State Department, the government severely restricts the right of citizens to change
their government peacefully. After gaining independence in 1991, Belarus continued
to be ruled by hardline Communists in the government and legislature who forged
ties with kindred Russian hardliners. By 1994, they had forced out the moderate
legislative speaker Stanislau Shushkevich, just before elections were held for the
newly created presidency. The presidential race of mid-1994 pitted the hardline
prime minister Vyacheslau Kebich against obscure legislator Alyaksandr
Lukashenka. Lukashenka ran on an anti-corruption platform and won the second
round of the presidential race with 80% of the vote. International observers judged
the race as free and fair.98 In contrast, the mid-1995 legislative races were afflicted
by irregularities, including a media blackout on campaign information, harsh
restrictions on campaign expenditures, onerous electoral procedures that in effect
favored rural Communist Party candidates, and government propaganda aimed at
discouraging turnout and reducing the appeal of nationalist parties.99 Even after a
second round of voting, many seats in the legislature remained unfilled, and
Lukashenka used this opportunity to rule by decree. Many Communists and other
members of the outgoing legislature opposed Lukashenka's effort to eliminate the
legislature, and pressed for further electoral rounds. Relenting, Lukashenka
permitted two rounds of voting in late 1995 that raised the number of seats filled in
96U.S. State Department; USAID,
Congressional Presentation for FY1999, Annex III, p. 47.
97Rose, p. 95; Linz and Stepan, p. 449n.
98U.S. CSCE,
The Belarusian Presidential Election, June and July 1994, 1994.
99The OSCE concluded that the electoral process leading to the elections "fell short of the
commitments contained in paragraph 7.7 of the Copenhagen Document of the OSCE with
respect to political campaigning. The provisions dealing with secrecy of voting were not
strictly enforced. Taking into account the deficiencies of the electoral legislation, the voting
itself was, despite some irregularities, conducted in a generally adequate manner." See
OSCE,
ODIHR Activity Report 1995, October 1, 1995.
CRS-39
the legislature to 198 (out of 240). This legislature convened in early 1996, but
growing calls by many for Lukashenko's impeachment caused him to propose a new
constitutional referendum in late 1996 that would expand his powers.100
The constitutional referendum held in November 1996 was neither free nor
fair, according to most international observers. The Belarusian Constitutional Court
objected that the draft constitution would give the executive branch unacceptable
control over the legislative and judicial branches, and ruled that the referendum
could only be advisory. The Belarusian Central Electoral Commission head refused
a demand that he proclaim that the referendum had passed even before the ballots
were counted and was fired, and the prime minister also resigned. Following the
vote, Lukashenka implemented the constitution despite the Constitutional Court’s
ruling. The constitution created a bicameral legislature. The president appointed
eight of the 64 members of the upper chamber, while his regional and Minsk city
officials appointed the rest. Lukashenka selected incumbent pro-government
legislators elected in 1995 to fill other seats, sidestepping a new election.
International electoral and human rights groups condemned these procedures as
undemocratic. On July 7, 1998, the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly overwhelmingly
voted to refuse to recognize a delegation from the new legislature and to continue to
accredit members of the disbanded legislature.101
U.S. Democracy-Building Aid. In March 1997, the Clinton Administration
announced that it was curtailing planned aid to Belarus, including government-to-
government exchanges of legislators and judicial personnel, because of mounting
human rights abuses. The Administration has requested $7 million in Freedom
Support Act funds for democracy-building efforts in Belarus during FY1999,
primarily for nongovernmental and private exchanges and training programs such as
those of the Eurasia Foundation, the National Endowment for Democracy, and
USIA's Democracy Commission. USAID did not formally request democracy-
building funds for Belarus, but indicated that it plans to support some activities.
These include the ABA/CEELI program to foster respect for the rule of law by
strengthening local bar associations and supporting legal education. Grants to
IREX/PROMEDIA will assist media associations to improve laws and promote
freedom of speech.102 Deteriorating U.S.-Belarusian relations in mid-1998 has
contributed to added and proposed U.S. restrictions on aid to Belarus.
100Kathleen Mihalisko, Belarus, in Dawisha and Parrott, eds.,
Democratic Changes, pp. 223-
281.
101U.S. State Department,
Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1997. See also
International Helsinki Federation for Human Rights,
Annual Report 1997. According to the
Federation, Lukashenka has "undermined all the prerequisites for a democratic and open
society based on the separation of powers, democratic pluralism, the rule of law, and respect
for civil rights." Parrott too has classified Belarus as a "personal dictatorship." See
Democratic Changes, p. 7; and Kathleen Mihalisko, Belarus
, Democratic Changes, pp. 223-
281.
102U.S. State Department; Secretary of State,
Congressional Presentation for Foreign
Operations for FY1999, pp. 651-652; USAID,
Congressional Presentation for FY1999,
Annex III, pp. 50-51.
CRS-40
Kazakstan
In March 1995, President Nursultan Nazarbayev orchestrated the dissolution
of a newly elected legislature he found obstructive and ruled by decree. A
referendum held in April 1995 extended his term until the year 2000, although the
constitution then in force called for a presidential election. He drew up a new
constitution which was overwhelmingly approved in mid-1995. In December 1995,
Nazarbayev supporters won all seats in mostly uncontested races to the upper
chamber of a new legislature (and some were appointed directly by the president),
and the presidential party won most seats in the lower chamber. The elections and
referendums of 1995 were considered nondemocratic by international observers.
According to the State Department, the Kazak government infringes on the
right of citizens to change their government peacefully. The constitution
concentrates power in the presidency, giving it substantial control over other
branches of government. The constitution cannot be amended without the
president’s agreement. A Constitutional Council, which replaced the Constitutional
Court in 1995, has three of seven members appointed by the president, limiting its
independence. The regional governors are appointed by the prime minister but serve
at the discretion of the president, who also has the power to annul their decisions.
The legislature cannot initiate changes in the constitution or exercise oversight over
the executive branch. The president has broad powers to dissolve the legislature,
while the legislature has highly limited power to remove the president. A
presidential decree of December 1996 added to the president's power by designating
the president as the supreme arbiter of foreign and domestic policy and the guarantor
of state power, the constitution, and human rights. He also assumed the power to
order legislative elections, annul laws, and dismiss the government. Most legislative
activities occur behind closed doors and ties with constituents are nonexistent.
During 1997, legislators made some use of their power to introduce bills, a sign of
democratization progress, although Nazarbayev retained a firm grip on power.103
Observers warn that Kazakstan faces problems of state building posed by its
large minority ethnic Russian population. Attempts to create a "Kazakstan for the
Kazaks" cannot be pursued through democratic means. Such efforts could lead
Russians in Kazakstan to appeal to nationalists in Russia for support and to greater
support for secessionism among northern and eastern regions where most of
Kazakstan's six million ethnic Russians reside.104
U.S. Democracy-Building Aid. The U.S. Administration has used Freedom
Support Act funds to promote legal and infrastructure improvements needed to help
create a democratic and civil society in Kazakstan. For FY1999, the Administration
has requested $14 million for such programs, a sizable boost over FY1998 estimated
spending. This includes $7.5 million requested by USAID to help independent
television to become sustainable, $3 million for local government initiatives, and
$4.5 million for citizens' participation programs such as strengthening the legislature
103U.S. State Department,
Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1997. See also
Freedom Support Act FY1997 Annual Report, p. 1; and U.S. CSCE,
Political Reform and
Human Rights in Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Kazakstan, March 1998, pp. 27-38.
104Linz and Stepan, p. 32.
CRS-41
and developing NGOs to ensure grassroots involvement. USAID states that the
legislature and parties are not yet a vehicle for popular involvement in political life,
so NGOs, fledgling media, and social and economic movements are supported to
help fill the void. USAID has stated that it will work to enhance development of the
electoral system in anticipation of 1999 legislative races. Since FY1993, USAID
has tried to improve citizen participation by developing NGOs, of which there are
now over 440. Independent media are also increasing. A local bar association is
being helped to operate to contribute to democratic change. USAID implemented
the Municipal Finance and Management Project in Central Asia as part of the
Democratic Pluralism program from 1994-1996 in the town of Atrau. The town
drew up a development strategy and adopted Western accounting practices. A new
program was launched in FY1998 to train local officials in municipal management
and problem solving and financial accounting and procurement, helping residents
manage privatized housing developments, and training city council members in
democratic local governance.105
Tajikistan
According to the State Department, during 1997 Tajikistan remained a largely
authoritarian state, where the government limited the right of citizens to change their
government peacefully and freely. The constitution was adopted in a questionable
referendum in 1994. It created a strong president who has broad powers to appoint
and dismiss cabinet members and other officials. The presidential race, held at the
same time as the referendum, pitted Tajik leader Imomali Rakhmanov against one
semi-opposition candidate, with other candidates excluded. The exclusion of
effective opposition participation in the electoral, constitution-drafting, and
referendum processes led to a boycott by international observers. The legislative
election of 1995 was similarly boycotted by international observers. The race was
marred by many irregularities such as voter intimidation and ballot-box stuffing that
precluded election of an independent legislature. Some members of the legislature,
however, have challenged the government on some policies. The judiciary is not
independent. Significant movement toward ending the civil war was marked by the
signing of a comprehensive peace accord in June 1997 and the inauguration of a
National Reconciliation Commission in July. This Commission has proposed a
coalition government and planned legislative elections in 1998.106
The prospects for democratization in Tajikistan remain uncertain. Although
the Reconciliation Commission named several oppositionists to ministerial posts, the
legislature, dominated by former communists, in May 1998 refused to confirm
prominent oppositionists as ministers. It also violated provisions of the peace
accords by banning religious parties, aimed against the oppositionist Islamic Revival
Party. This ban created widespread oppositionist and international protest, leading
to government pledges to rework the law. No date has been worked out for early
105U.S. State Department; USAID,
Congressional Presentation for FY1999, Annex III, pp.
118-121.
106U.S. State Department,
Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1997. For
background and current information on the Tajik peace process, see U.S. Library of
Congress. Congressional Research Service.
Central Asia's New States, by (name redacted). CRS
Issue Brief 93108, updated regularly.
CRS-42
legislative elections, which are opposed by the sitting legislature. Sporadic fighting
between the government and maverick oppositionist groups and brigands jeopardizes
the fragile peace.
U.S. Democracy-Building Aid. The U.S. Administration has requested
$5.75 million in FY1999 Freedom Support Act funds, a boost over FY1998
estimated spending, though overall aid still focuses heavily on humanitarian needs.
The request includes USAID proposed spending of $1.875 million to support
increased citizen participation in political decision-making. In the past, USAID has
assisted Tajik NGOs to develop and to enhance their roles and effectiveness. A U.S.
organization gave advice on setting up a lawyers' code of ethics. Internews has
helped independent media remain in operation. IFES is working to ensure free and
fair future elections. USAID envisages devoting more aid to elections if they are
held during FY1999 and, if the peace process continues, to more actively promote
democratization.107
Turkmenistan
According to the State Department, Turkmenistan has made little progress in
moving from a “Soviet-era authoritarian style” of government to a democratic
system. Turkmenistan has registered no opposition parties and continues to repress
opposition political activities. Citizens of Turkmenistan have no real ability to effect
peaceful change of their government and have little influence on governmental
policymaking. The 1992 constitution drafted by President Saparamurad Niyazov
was unanimously approved by the legislature. The constitution calls Turkmenistan
a secular democracy and provides for the separation of powers between the various
branches of government, but in actuality the president has absolute power and
Turkmenistan remains a one-party state, according to most observers. It creates a
"presidential republic" where the president is also the prime minister, has the power
to appoint all executive, judicial, and regional officials, and has wide authority to
rule by decree and to control the legislative process. It is silent on how the
legislature (Mejlis) initiates and approves laws and on relations between the Mejlis
and the quasi-legislative Khalk Masilkhaty. Following the adoption of the
constitution, Niyazov was re-elected president in an uncontested race. Opposition
groups were given inadequate time to organize and qualify to submit a candidate.
A 1994 referendum to extend the term of the president until the year 2002 was
reported as garnering the support of 99.99% of the voters. The 1994 legislative races
were judged to be nondemocratic, because no opposition participation was allowed
and the elections were uncontested. The president controls the judicial system.
Although the Mejlis has no genuine independence, it has moved to become
more professional and does amend and debate some draft legislation.108 The lack of
107U.S. State Department; USAID,
Congressional Presentation for FY1999, Annex III, p.
238.
108U.S. State Department,
Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1997. Parrott
terms Turkmenistan a "personal dictatorship." See
Democratic Changes, p. 7. The U.S.
CSCE has judged Turkmenistan as having "the most repressive regime in all the former
Soviet republics." See
Political Reform and Human Rights in Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and
(continued...)
CRS-43
democratization in Turkmenistan was displayed during the April 11, 1998 election
of sixty unpaid "people's representatives" to the Khalk Masilkhaty (these people's
representatives make up a small fraction of the Khalk Masilkhaty, which also
includes members of the Mejlis, ministers, judges, and regional executives). Turnout
was reported at 99.5%, though some of the candidates ran unchallenged and no real
campaigning or political party contestation occurred.
U.S. Democracy-Building Aid. The U.S. Administration has requested $3.5
million in Freedom Support Act funds for FY1999 for democracy-building programs,
mainly for exchanges and training, the lowest proposed funding among the NIS.
USAID has requested no FY1999 funds for its democratic pluralism programs in
Turkmenistan, citing Turkmenistan's inadequate commitment to reforms.
Uzbekistan
According to the State Department, Uzbekistan is an authoritarian state with
limited civil rights. Although the constitution provides for separation of powers
between the branches of government, in practice the president dominates the
government. The judicial branch is heavily influenced by the executive branch.
Citizens cannot exercise their right to change the government peacefully. The
government “severely represses” opposition groups and “applies strict limits” on free
speech. No opposition groups are allowed to function legally or participate in
government. President Karimov was elected in a limited multi-candidate election in
1991. In 1995, he won support by 99.6% of 11.25 million voters in a referendum to
extend his presidential term until the year 2000, a percentage the U.S. State
Department noted “could not have been valid.” He has extensive decree powers,
primary authority for drafting legislation, and control of virtually all government
appointments. The dominant party is the People’s Democratic Party (PDP) of
Uzbekistan -- the renamed former Communist Party -- and most government officials
belong to the PDP. The December 1994 legislative races were limited to candidates
from the PDP and one other pro-government party. Since then, some other pro-
government parties have fielded candidates in unchallenged by-elections and gained
representation in the legislature. The legislature has remained largely a rubber-stamp
body.109
U.S. Democracy-Building Aid. The U.S. Administration requested $11.05
million in Freedom Support Act funds for FY1999 for democracy-building programs
in Uzbekistan, a sizable boost over FY1998 estimated spending. This includes $3.28
million requested by USAID to enhance citizens' participation in political and
economic decision-making. According to USAID, the United States is the major
international donor of aid for democracy-building in Uzbekistan. The Counterpart
Consortium will focus on NGO training and the Eurasia Foundation will provide
grants to organizations to encourage engagement in policy issues. USAID also
108(...continued)
Kazakstan, March 1998, p. 4.
109U.S. State Department,
Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1997. See also
U.S. CSCE,
Political Reform and Human Rights in Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Kazakstan,
March 1998, pp. 5-16; and William Fierman, Political Development in Uzbekistan,
Conflict,
Cleavage, and Change, pp. 360-408.
CRS-44
encourages the formation of independent media, but has had limited success because
of Uzbek government policies. There are plans to assist in strengthening election
laws, forming an independent electoral commission, training election officials, and
educating voters in preparation for legislative and presidential elections in 1999, if
the Uzbek government appears committed to freer elections.110
110U.S. State Department; USAID,
Congressional Presentation for FY1999, Annex III, pp.
278-279, 284-285.
EveryCRSReport.com
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Has democratisation in the former USSR been a success?
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Overview
Two decades after the Soviet Union’s collapse, Russians, Ukrainians, and Lithuanians are unhappy with the direction of their countries and disillusioned with the state of their politics. Enthusiasm for democracy and capitalism has waned considerably over the past 20 years, and most believe the changes that have taken place since 1991 have had a negative impact on public morality, law and order, and standards of living.
There is a widespread perception that political and business elites have enjoyed the spoils of the last two decades, while average citizens have been left behind. Still, people in these three former Soviet republics have not turned their backs on democratic values; indeed, they embrace key features of democracy, such as a fair judiciary and free media. However, they do not believe their countries have fully developed these institutions.
In contrast to today’s grim mood, optimism was relatively high in the spring of 1991, when the Times Mirror Center surveyed Russia, Ukraine and Lithuania. At that time all three were still part of the decaying USSR (which formally dissolved on December 25, 1991).1 Then, solid majorities in all three republics approved of moving to a multiparty democracy. Now, just 35% of Ukrainians and only about half in Russia and Lithuania approve of the switch to a multiparty system.
As was the case two decades ago, the shift towards democracy tends to be more popular among those who are perhaps best positioned to take advantage of the opportunities provided by an open society. In all three countries, young people, the well-educated and urban dwellers express the most support for their country’s move to a multiparty system.
People in these former Soviet republics are much less confident that democracy can solve their country’s problems than they were in 1991. When asked whether they should rely on a democratic form of government or a leader with a strong hand to solve their national problems, only about three-in-ten Russians and Ukrainians choose democracy, down significantly from 1991. Roughly half (52%) say this in Lithuania, a 27-percentage-point decline from the level recorded two decades ago.
When asked about the current state of democracy in their country, big majorities in all three former republics say they are dissatisfied. Moreover, in Lithuania and Ukraine, dissatisfaction has increased in just the last two years. A fall 2009 Pew Global Attitudes survey found that 60% of Lithuanians said they were dissatisfied with the way democracy was working; today 72% say so. In Ukraine, unhappiness with the state of democracy has risen from 70% to 81%.
These are among the major findings from a survey by the Pew Research Center’s Global Attitudes Project, conducted in Russia, Ukraine and Lithuania from March 21 to April 7 as part of a broader 23-nation poll in spring 2011. The survey reexamines a number of issues first explored in a spring 1991 survey conducted by the Times Mirror Center, the predecessor of the Pew Research Center for the People & the Press. This report also presents a number of key findings from a fall 2009 Pew Global Attitudes survey, conducted in these three nations, as well as in 10 other European countries and the United States. (See “ End of Communism Cheered but Now with More Reservations ,” released November 2, 2009.)
Changes Have Helped Elites
Large majorities in all three nations believe that elites have prospered over the last two decades, while average citizens have not. In Ukraine, for instance, 95% think politicians have benefited a great deal or a fair amount from the changes since 1991, and 76% say this about business owners. However, just 11% believe ordinary people have benefited.
The fall 2009 survey further highlighted the extent to which these publics are disillusioned with their political leadership. Few believed politicians listened to them or that politicians governed with the interests of the people in mind.
Just 26% of Russians, 23% of Ukrainians, and 15% of Lithuanians agreed with the statement “most elected officials care what people like me think.” And only 37% in Russia, 23% in Lithuania, and 20% in Ukraine agreed that “generally, the state is run for the benefit of all the people.”
A Democracy Gap
As the findings of the 2009 survey make clear, there is a considerable gap between the democratic aspirations of Eastern Europeans and their perceptions of how democracy actually works in the former Eastern bloc.
In all three former Soviet republics surveyed, the 2009 poll found widespread support for specific features of democracy, such as a fair judiciary, honest elections, freedom of the press, freedom of religion, free speech and civilian control of the military.
Majorities consistently said it was important to live in a country that had these key democratic institutions and values, and large numbers believed most of these features were very important. However, considerably fewer thought their countries actually had these democratic institutions and freedoms.
Less Confidence in Free Markets
Just as views about democracy have soured over the past two decades, so have attitudes toward capitalism. In 1991, 76% of Lithuanians approved of switching to a market economy; now, only 45% approve. Among Ukrainians, approval fell from 52% in 1991 to 34% today. Meanwhile, 42% of Russians currently endorse the free market approach, a 12-percentage-point drop since 1991, eight points of which occurred in just the last two years. In all three nations, young people and the college educated are more likely to embrace free markets.
Waning confidence in capitalism may be tied at least in part to frustration with the current economic situation. Only 29% of Russians say their economy is in good shape, while Lithuanians and Ukrainians offer even bleaker assessments. Among the 23 nations from regions around the world included in the spring 2011 Pew Global Attitudes survey, Lithuanians (9% good) and Ukrainians (6%) give their economies the lowest ratings. (For more, see “ China Seen Overtaking U.S. as Global Superpower ,” released July 13, 2011.)
Moreover, optimism about the economic future is in short supply. More than four-in-ten Ukrainians (44%) expect their economy to worsen over the next 12 months, while 36% believe it will stay about the same, and just 15% think it will improve. Optimism is also sparse in Lithuania, with 31% saying things will worsen, 43% saying things will stay the same, and 21% suggesting the situation will improve. Russians see things a bit more positively: 18% worsen, 46% remain the same, 28% improve.
Negative Impacts on Society
Many in these three nations believe the enormous transformations that have taken place since the demise of the Soviet Union have had negative consequences for their societies. In particular, majorities in all three say the changes since 1991 have had a bad influence on the standard of living, the way people in society treat one another, law and order, and public morality.
Overall, Lithuanians are less negative than Ukrainians and Russians about the impact of the post-Soviet era. For example, majorities in the latter two nations say the changes have negatively affected national pride, while only 30% of Lithuanians hold this view.
Even so, Lithuanians are generally more negative about the impact of these changes today than they were in 1991, when the Times Mirror Center survey asked about the dramatic shifts that were underway. Conversely, Russians and Ukrainians have actually become slightly less negative since 1991, when they were even more likely than they are today to believe the changes were having a bad impact on their societies.
Lithuanian Individualism
Lithuanians also stand apart when it comes to questions about individualism and the locus of responsibility for success in life. Most Lithuanians (55%) believe that people who get ahead these days do so because they have more ability and ambition, compared with only 38% of Russians and 32% of Ukrainians.
Similarly, 58% in Lithuania think that most people who do not succeed in life fail because of their own individual shortcomings, rather than because of society’s failures. Just 47% of Russians and 40% of Ukrainians express this opinion.
Still, there is consensus across all three nations that the state’s role in guaranteeing individual freedom should not trump its responsibility for providing a social safety net. When asked which is more important, “that everyone be free to pursue their life’s goals without interference from the state” or “that the state play an active role in society so as to guarantee that nobody is in need,” more than two-thirds choose the latter in Russia, Ukraine, and Lithuania. Moreover, the belief that the state must ensure that no one is in need has become significantly more common since 1991 in all three nations.
Russian Nationalism
Twenty years after the collapse of the Soviet empire, roughly half of Russians (48%) believe it is natural for their country to have an empire, while just 33% disagree with this idea. By contrast, in 1991, during the final months of the USSR, significantly fewer (37%) thought it was natural for Russia to have an empire, while 43% disagreed.
Half of Russians also agree with the statement “it is a great misfortune that the Soviet Union no longer exists;” 36% disagree. This is a slight decline from 2009, when 58% agreed and 38% disagreed. Russians ages 50 and older tend to express more nostalgia for the Soviet era than do those under 50.
Despite widespread nationalist sentiments, Russian attitudes toward Ukrainians and Lithuanians in their country are largely positive – 80% express a favorable view of the Ukrainians and 62% give a positive rating to Lithuanians.
For their part, Ukrainians express overwhelmingly positive views about Russians, Poles, and Lithuanians in their country. Similarly, in Lithuania, attitudes toward Russians, Ukrainians, and Poles are all generally positive.
Looking West or East?
Attitudes toward the European Union and NATO are overwhelming positive in Lithuania, which joined both organizations in 2004. In fact, Lithuanians give the EU its highest rating among the 23 countries included in the spring 2011 poll. Even so, just about half of Lithuanians view their country’s EU membership positively – 49% believe it is a good thing, 31% say it is neither good nor bad, and 8% say it is bad.
Lithuanians give the United States largely positive marks – 73% have a favorable opinion of the U.S. Attitudes toward Russia are also positive on balance (53% favorable, 42% unfavorable), but not as positive as for the EU, NATO, and U.S.
Most Ukrainians express favorable opinions of the EU (72%) and U.S. (60%), but NATO is not viewed as warmly (34%). The vast majority of Ukrainians (84%) have a positive view of Russia.
As is the case in Ukraine, most Russians give the EU (64%) and U.S. (56%) positive reviews, but not NATO (37%).
Also of Note
- When asked which is more important, a good democracy or a strong economy, more than seven-in-ten Russians, Ukrainians and Lithuanians say a strong economy.
- In Ukraine, a 46%-plurality believes it is natural for Russia to have an empire.
- The belief that ability and ambition determine success in life is consistently more common among young people in these three former Soviet republics.
- Attitudes toward NATO vary significantly by region in Ukraine. About six-in-ten (59%) have a positive view of NATO in the Western region of the country. However, those in the Central (38%), South (21%) and East (18%) regions are much less likely to express a favorable opinion of the security alliance.
| 11,668
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"opinion",
"research"
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law and government
|
geo_bench
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Has democratisation in the former USSR been a success?
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ef411a9d7545
|
https://www.cnn.com/2016/11/18/politics/donald-trump-world-leaders-calls/index.html
|
Story highlights
Trump's transition from businessman to statesman heavily scrutinized by global media
Apparent lack of strategy in communication with foreign leaders has drawn criticism
Trump has defended his unorthodox approach
President-elect Donald Trump’s transition is being viewed at home as chaotic, and his move from candidate to statesman is being closely scrutinized by the global media as well, particularly his communications with world leaders.
Once again, Trump has bucked past practices for a more unorthodox approach, leaving many wondering if this signals an overhaul in US political procedure and a taste of things to come.
What protocol has Trump not followed?
Traditionally, the President-elect turns to the State Department for briefings prior to taking or returning calls from heads of state or government. This was how the transition team coordinated its international outreach strategy for then President-elect Barack Obama in 2008. The State Department said it wasn’t contacted until Thursday, after Trump had already spoken with several leaders.
Why has this been problematic?
This appears to have contributed to confusion from several foreign governments wishing to offer the incoming President their congratulations on his victory. A diplomatic source has told CNN that one US partner had to make multiple attempts in contacting the Trump camp to successfully arrange a phone call between their head of state and the President-elect.
When calls were finally arranged, they were connected without any appearance of vetting or confirmation of the individual calling, according to several diplomats who spoke to CNN.
Illustrating some of the unconventional approaches international leaders have taken, the Australian prime minister was supplied with Trump’s cell phone number by golfing legend Greg Norman after Joe Hockey, Australia’s ambassador to the US, contacted him seeking the information.
Presidential transition explained
How does it differ to Obama?
Back in 2008, Obama returned 22 calls from foreign leaders in what was described at the time as a considered strategy prioritizing leaders from countries with strategic importance and the time they called, according to Partnership for Public Service, a nonpartisan, nonprofit organization.
Trump’s transition team have released a list of 29 foreign leaders that it said have spoken to the President-elect and vice president-elect. It did not specify if all leaders spoke to both men, or if some only spoke to Trump or Pence.
CNN has made several attempts to independently verify which leaders spoke to the President-elect and confirmed that he has spoken with the prime ministers of Ireland, Australia, Canada, Japan, Italy, Israel, Denmark and the UK in addition to the presidents of Egypt, Russia, Turkey, France, China, Mexico, Argentina, South Korea and Ukraine. Trump has also spoken to German Chancellor Angela Merkel, United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon and Saudi King Salman bin Abdelaziz Al-Saud.
Calls and emails to the remaining nine heads of government to find out if they spoke with Trump went unanswered. CNN has not verified which world leaders also spoke to Pence.
Presidential transitions: Why they can be a risky time
The President-elect responded to media reports querying what appears to be a random call sheet for foreign leaders.
“I have received and taken calls from many foreign leaders despite what the failing @nytimes said. Russia, U.K., China, Saudi Arabia, Japan,” he said in a tweet Wednesday.
Before adding in a second post: “Australia, New Zealand, and more. I am always available to them. @nytimes is just upset that they looked like fools in their coverage of me.”
What does it tell us about Trump as a world leader?
The unusual nature of Trump’s campaign has followed him into the transition phase and his apparently unsystematic technique for speaking to world leaders has raised eyebrows.
“It’s all a bit haphazard as far as I can see. It doesn’t seem to follow any logical order,” former British ambassador to US Christopher Meyer told CNN.
“I wouldn’t attach much importance to it except that it’s all part of the learning process for him as well … It’s all part of getting used to being President-elect and then President.”
However, Leslie Vinjamuri, an associate professor in international relations at SOAS, University of London, told CNN that Trump’s preference in communications with Russia has “caused anxiety among America’s European allies.”
“It is short-sighted not to turn first to the United Kingdom,” said Vinjamuri, who also serves on the council of Chatham House. “Inevitably, any president of the United States will eventually recognize the absolutely essential role of the UK-US relationship.
“If we accept that first impressions matter, it is obvious that Trump’s path to diplomatic success is going to be longer than it needs to be.”
Meanwhile, Meyer said that the reports of international leaders bypassing traditional protocols – as in the case of the Australian prime minster – is “unusual,” but also to be expected somewhat considering Trump’s political credentials.
“I haven’t the faintest idea how this happened,” the erstwhile UK envoy said. “I would say this is all part of the process of the President-elect learning the rules of the game as he goes along. What else would you expect – he’s never been in government.”
Opinion: Keys to a successful Trump transition
What are the potential repercussions?
Considering how unprecedented the President-elect’s campaign turned out to be, so too are his early moves in his presidency. For Meyer, spectators across the globe shouldn’t be surprised by the fact Trump is conducting himself differently.
“The whole campaign that he has fought – both in the primaries and the presidential has been totally different – smashing all the conventions.
“The big question for outsiders, and I guess also for Americans, is which Trump is going to turn up in the Oval Office,” he added.
But this visible shift in US presidential communication strategy has been a warning flare, said Vinjamuri.
“Donald Trump’s campaign has certainly alerted us to the fact that he will not be a leader who plays by a well-recognized rule book,” she explained. “This could be very damaging especially in the realm of international diplomacy, where many of America’s partners are accustomed to the deliberative and carefully considered approach of President Obama.”
Vinjamuri continued: “But even more so, Trump has demonstrated a failure of imagination when it comes to evaluating the consequences of his words and actions on third parties. This will be potentially devastating for America’s ability to forge strong relationships with key allies.”
CNN’s Elise Labott, Kara Fox and Mark Oliver contributed to this report.
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law and government
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geo_bench
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how do diplomatic phone calls take place?
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c294a740d108
|
https://www.ny-engineers.com/blog/when-can-a-fire-pump-be-deleted
|
When Can a Fire Pump Be Deleted?
Large floorplate, short buildings can use a manual standpipe which doesn’t require a fire pump connection. These standpipes can only be used after a fire truck arrives. Manual standpipes offer a tremendous construction cost saving. Eliminating the need for the fire pump, electrical connections to it, and 2 water services with backflow preventers, this construction cost saves approximately $300,000.
First, if you don’t need a standpipe then you don’t need a fire pump. A fire pump services standpipes, not to be confused with a sprinkler booster pump which serves only sprinklers. Fire pumps are substantially larger than sprinkler booster pumps. Standpipes are required per BC 905 when:
- The building is 2 or more stories with a floor area of 10,000 ft2 or greater on any floor.
- The building is 3 or more stories with a floor area of 7,500 ft2 or greater on any floor.
- The building has 30 or more occupants on any floor 55 ft or more above the street.
- The building has any occupants on any floor 75 ft or more above the street.
The NYC building code refers to NFPA 14 for standpipe installation requirements, which is then modified by BC Q105. BC Q105 requires all high-rise buildings (over 75 ft) have automatic wet standpipes; they need a fire pump. Low-rise buildings (under 75 ft tall) have a choice of manual wet or automatic wet. Therefore, these large floor plate buildings of over 7,500 square feet per floor but under 75 feet tall can utilize manual wet standpipes that don’t require an expensive fire pump. As always, a detailed analysis must be performed by a licensed PE to ensure your specific site can utilize manual standpipes.
Code References
NYC 2014 BC 902 Definitions
STANDPIPE, TYPES OF. Standpipe types are as follows:
Automatic dry. A dry standpipe system, normally filled with pressurized air, that is arranged through the use of a device, such as dry pipe valve, to admit water into the system piping automatically upon the opening of a hose valve. The water supply for an automatic dry standpipe system shall be capable of supplying the system demand.
Automatic wetA wet standpipe system that has a water supply that is capable of supplying the system demand automatically.
Manual dry. A dry standpipe system that does not have a permanent water supply attached to the system. Manual dry standpipe systems require water from a Fire Department pumper to be pumped into the system through the Fire Department connection in order to meet the system demand.
Manual wet. A wet standpipe system connected to a water supply for the purpose of maintaining water within the system but that does not have a water supply capable of delivering the system demand attached to the system. Manual wet standpipe systems require water from a Fire Department pumper to be pumped into the system in order to meet the system demand.
Semiautomatic dry. A dry standpipe system that is arranged through the use of a device, such as a deluge valve, to admit water into the system piping upon activation of a remote control device located at a hose connection. A remote control activation device shall be provided at each hose connection. The water supply for a semiautomatic dry standpipe system shall be capable of supplying the system demand.
STANDPIPE SYSTEM, CLASSES OF. Standpipe classes are as follows:
Class I system. A system providing 2 ½ inch (64 mm) hose connections to supply water for use by the Fire Department and those trained in handling heavy fire streams.
Class II system. A system providing 1 ½ inch (38 mm) hose stations to supply water for use primarily by the building occupants or by the Fire Department during initial response.
Class III system. A system providing 1 ½ inch (38 mm) hose stations to supply water for use by building occupants and 2 ½ inch (64 mm) hose connections to supply a larger volume of water for use by the Fire Department and those trained in handling heavy fire streams.
NYC 2014 BC 905 Standpipe Systems
905.2 Installation standards. Standpipe systems shall be installed in accordance with this section and NFPA 14 as modified in Appendix Q.
905.3 Required installations. Standpipe systems shall be installed where required by Sections 905.3.1 through 905.3.6 and in the locations indicated in Sections 905.4, 905.5, and 905.6. Standpipe systems are allowed to be combined with automatic sprinkler systems.
Exception: Standpipe systems are not required in buildings occupied entirely by Group R-3.
905.3.1 Applicability. Class III standpipe systems shall be installed throughout the following buildings:
1. In buildings two stories or more in height with floor area of 10,000 square feet (929 m2) or greater on any story;
2. In buildings three stories or more in height with floor area of 7,500 square feet (697 m2) or greater on any story;
3. In buildings of any area with a floor level having an occupant load of 30 or more that is located 55 feet (16,764 mm) or more above the lowest level of Fire Department vehicle access;
4. In buildings of any area, constructed in accordance with Section 403, with occupied floors located 75 feet (22,860 mm) or more above the lowest level of Fire Department vehicle access.
Exceptions: The following exceptions are allowed as an alternative to the requirement of a Class III standpipe system:
1. Class I standpipes are allowed in buildings equipped throughout with an automatic sprinkler system in accordance with Section 903.3.1.1 or 903.3.1.2 provided that the following additional requirements are met:
1.1. A locked storage cabinet shall be provided on the main entrance floor. One additional locked storage cabinet shall be provided on every tenth floor above the main entrance floor, such that no occupant on any floor would have to travel more than 5 floors to reach a cabinet in a location within 15 feet of standpipe riser. Where one standpipe riser is installed in the building, such cabinet shall contain at least one fog nozzle, one 1.5 inch (38mm) spanner wrench, one 2.5 inch (64 mm) spanner wrench, one 2.5 inch (64 mm) by 1.5 inch (38 mm) non-swivel reducing coupling, and 125 feet (38 m) of 1.5 inch (38 mm) hose. Where two or more standpipe risers are installed in the building, at least two of each of the above items of equipment shall be provided. However, the hose may be omitted when serving Group R-2 occupancies.
1.1.1. The cabinet shall be kept locked, openable by a Fire Department citywide standard key.
1.1.2. The cabinet shall be labeled, “FOR FIRE DEPARTMENT USE ONLY.”
1.1.3. A metal sign stating clearly where the storage cabinet is located shall be placed in each stair enclosure on the main entrance floor and on each floor where the cabinet is located.
1.2. Hose valves are capped with a hose valve cap fastened to the valve with a chain.
2. Class I manual standpipes are allowed in open parking garages where the highest floor is located not more than 150 feet (45,720 mm) above the lowest level of Fire Department vehicle access.
3. Class I manual dry standpipes are allowed in open parking garages that are subject to freezing temperatures, provided that the hose connections are located as required for Class II standpipes in accordance with Section 905.5.
4. Class I standpipes are allowed in below-grade stories equipped throughout with an automatic sprinkler system.
5. Standpipe outlets may be omitted in portions of first floors or basements that are completely separated from the entrance hall or enclosed stairways leading to the upper floors, provided that portable fire extinguishers are installed, subject to the approval of the fire commissioner.
NFPA 14 2007 Edition
5.4* Required Type of System.
5.4.1 Class I Standpipe Systems.
5.4.1.1 Class I standpipe systems shall be permitted to be any type described in Section 5.2 in Copyright NFPA buildings not classified as high-rise buildings.
5.4.1.2 Class I standpipe systems in buildings classified as high-rise buildings shall be automatic or semiautomatic.
NYC 2014 BC Q105
5.4.1.1 Delete the words “any type described in Section 5.2” and replace with the words: manual-wet or automatic-wet.
5.4.1.2 Delete the words “automatic or semiautomatic” and replace with the words: automatic-wet.
Michael Tobias
Michael Tobias, the Founding Principal of NY Engineers, currently leads a team of 150+ MEP/FP engineers and has led over 4,000 projects in the US
Join 15,000+ Fellow Architects and Contractors
Get expert engineering tips straight to your inbox. Subscribe to the NY Engineers Blog below.
| 8,530
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law and government
|
geo_bench
|
when does a building need a fire pump
| false
|
7f47fdb28681
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https://www.euronews.com/2023/06/24/seven-years-on-what-do-young-brits-think-of-brexit-vote
|
Four Brits who were aged 14-19 when the Brexit referendum took place in 2016 speak to Euronews about how Brexit has changed their lives. They are now aged 21-26.
Liv's story
It's 23 June 2016 and Liv Stobart is 15 years old. She has just finished her summer exams but is awaiting a much bigger result.
As her sister scuttles into her room crying, her heart sinks. 52% out, 48% in. The UK has voted to leave the European Union.
A moment which Liv has never forgotten.
“I felt shocked and disheartened. I had no say in my future. It was a bewildering day. I still feel angry but I don’t think holding another referendum is the answer because you have to respect the will of the majority. However, I would like to think there will be more options one day. Why not European visas for under-35s for instance?”
Liv grew up in Scotland, where 62% of people voted to remain.
Since Brexit, she has thought a lot about the merits of Scottish independence. “I am more in favour of independence now - with the prospect of rejoining the EU in mind - than before.
"But I also look at the mess Brexit has caused after 70 years of partnership and think what havoc independence would wreak given Scotland's 400 year partnership with the UK!”
Seven years on, Liv is still vocal about Brexit. "I had a big debate with my boss a few months ago. He voted Leave and has two young teenagers. I know we’ve led different lives, but I turned to him and was like don’t you realise that they may want to move to Europe one day?"
But for Liv - unlike many others - there is a way out. She has French relatives and is currently applying for a passport. “I am so lucky to not be blocked like so many other young people. As soon as I get my French passport I am moving!”
Tom's story
Tom Portsmouth recalls finishing up a bike race on Belgium cobbles when the referendum results were announced.
“I was only 14 years old but I was already working towards my dream of becoming a professional cyclist. I had no idea what was coming for me."
Moving to Europe for bike racing was formerly a well-trodden route for British cyclists looking to make it as professionals. But since Brexit, cyclists must now sign a lucrative contract with a team in order to get a residency visa. A tall order for young athletes starting out their careers.
"My non-cyclist friends often tell me to stop talking about Brexit - but I can't. It affects my career, dreams and life every single day.”
European legislation stipulates that Brits can only spend 90 days at a time in Europe on a tourist visa. This means that Tom spends much of his time ferrying back and forth for specific events.
“I can’t race for six months of the racing season calendar. People don't understand the financial, physical and emotional cost of it all."
"I worry that teams will stop taking on young Brits - and instead take European riders - because of the administrative pain involved." Tom currently races for Belgian team Bingoal Wallonie Bruxelles Continental Development Team.
After more than three years of negotiations, Britain formally exited the European Union on 20 January 2021. For a window of time, Brits were still able move to Europe and apply for a form of residency - but Tom was not able to do this due to the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic.
“I couldn't go out and settle in Europe as a pre-resident because the pandemic kicked off and it was impossible to travel. That was another opportunity missed. But that won't stop me for chasing my dreams for now."
Zak's story
"I was in my last year of school when Brexit happened and I voted to leave the European Union", says Zak Butler down the crackly line on his drive to work as a primary school teacher.
"I remember being so happy with the result. When you vote on something and it goes through you get an initial sense of shared pride and satisfaction with all the people."
Many of Zak's friends and family voted Leave - as did the majority of his Conservative constituency which is located near Portsmouth.
Seven years on, Zak wonders whether he would make the same decision today. According to a May 2023 YouGov poll, two-thirds of Leave voters believe Brexit has been more of a failure than a success.
"I was young and not very knowledgeable about politics. Brexit was not planned for - and one of the reasons for this was that the Leave campaign wasn’t totally truthful in its promises."
"I care a lot about the NHS (Britain’s National Health Service) but promises of providing it with more funding were false. I was disappointed."
The Conservative government pledged to fund the NHS with an extra £350 million per week post-Brexit - but this did not materialise.
Over the years, debating Brexit has got Zak into some heated discussions. "Some people blame the referendum result on my individual vote because the margin was so tight. Younger friends who weren't able to vote also get upset. Usually if I am going out with a new group of people I tend to try and find out their opinions beforehand to avoid things getting too heated.'
Despite his doubts, Zak still believes Brexit could bring some positive changes.
"I don’t like to be proven wrong", he says with a giggle. "I think the fact that the UK was able to get COVID-19 vaccines quicker than the rest of the EU is one of the big benefits I've seen."
"I would love to work in an international school in Europe but that opportunity is probably gone. However, I can still look at working in Canada, New Zealand, Australia instead."
For Zak, only time will tell what Brexit beholds. "You'll have to interview me again in 15 years!", his last words before he hangs up.
Hugo's story
Hugo was still at school when the UK voted to leave the European Union in 2016. He recalls his upset when the results came in "I felt saddened because I had absolutely no control over the decision."
A passionate musician and trumpeter, Hugo went on to study jazz music at a British university. "When I finished my degree I didn’t have a specific plan but I had been idealizing moving to Europe for a while."
He took the leap last September, moving to Barcelona for a two-year masters in modern music and jazz. However, once the joy of being admitted to a prestigious music conservatoire in Barcelona faded, the administrative nightmare began.
"I had to get a lawyer to help me compile documents and get them translated - before even moving abroad I had spent about £500 on all of this. Next year I will also have to get health insurance which is going to cost about £500."
"Without paying for all of this, I wouldn’t have been able to go. Thankfully I'm on a student visa which also allows me to work."
For now, Hugo intends on making the most of his time in Spain - as he knows staying on once he is no longer a student will be difficult.
"I would like to get granted a freelancer visa to stay but realistically I will have to be a pretty famous musician by the time I leave to get that", he says laughing.
| 6,934
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[
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law and government
|
geo_bench
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What do you think of Brexit?
| false
|
fce5ba9261c0
|
https://www.sciencefocus.com/science/the-colourful-history-behind-the-science-of-colour
|
The rainbow used to have just 5 colours – until 1704 when Sir Isaac Newton added orange and indigo to the list simply because he had a fondness for the supposedly mystical properties of the number 7.
In fact, there are no pure colours in a rainbow – they all blend into one continuous spectrum - but ever since Newton we’ve settled on 7 and used little rhymes to remember them. Americans favour ‘Roy G Biv’ while British children might learn ‘Richard York gave battle in vain’ – red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. Attentive children might therefore be perplexed by the song, ‘I can sing a rainbow’, which begins, ‘Red and yellow and pink and green, purple and orange and blue …’
So it would seem that the colours of the rainbow can differ, and when we dip into the cultural histories of these colours, we see even wider differences. In short, how we interpret colours, even how we see them, is more a product of nurture than nature. A few colour-coded stories then:
Red
The first colour used in art was red - from ochre. And the first known example of cave art was a red ochre plaque, which contains symbolic engravings of triangles, diamond shapes and lines, dated to 75,000 years ago.
In the same cave – Blombos, in the Western Cape of South Africa – there are suggestions of even older art, including a workshop containing carefully blended paint made from red ochre and marrow fat, along with spatulas and shell mixing dishes.
This paint, thought to be used to adorn bodies and perhaps cave walls, has been dated at 100,000 years ago.
In almost every country red seems to have been the first colour (other than black and white) to be named with its symbolic appeal often drawn from blood, evoking strength, virility and fertility.
Blue
The world’s favourite colour is blue even though it is relatively new to the party linguistically.
The ancient Greeks, Chinese, Japanese and Hebrews did not have a name for blue and thought of it as a version of green. Even today several languages have green-blue blurring, including Korean, Vietnamese, Thai, Kurdish, Zulu and Himba.
Yet blue consistently comes first for both men and women in every country where colour preference has been surveyed.
In one international poll, covering ten countries from four continents, it came out well on top in all of them.
One reason is that it seems to have a calming effect. Students given IQ tests with blue covers had an edge of a few points over those given tests with red covers, perhaps because of the natural connotations of blue – seas, lakes, rivers, skies.
Yellow
Tony Orlando & Dawn - Tie A Yellow Ribbon Round The Ole Oak Tree ) TOTP ) 1973
This most contrary of colours has long been associated with cowardice (yellowish bile was thought to make you peevish) and ever since the 8th Century it was the colour of anti-Semitism. The Caliph in Medina ordered Jews and Christians to wear yellow badges because it was the colour of non-believers, and it spread, via Edward I (yellow patches for Jews) all to Nazi Germany’s yellow stars.
But it is also the colour of defiance in the form of the yellow ribbon, which started with the women’s suffrage movement in Kansas in 1867 (they chose yellow because the sunflower was the state flower).
The 1973 Tony Orlando and Dawn song, Tie a Yellow Ribbon Round the Ole Oak Tree gave the defiant version of the yellow ribbon an unexpected revival boost - it was later used in protests in the Philippines, Hong Kong and South Africa.
Green
The usual associations of green relate to the natural world but it has also picked up some more malign connotations, including envy, jealousy, inexperience, illness and poison (at least in comic book bottles).
This last meaning came from the pea-green pigment called Scheele’s green, used in dyes and paints for carpets, fabrics, wallpaper, ballroom gowns and confectionary. Problem was that this dye, invented in 1775, contained high doses of arsenic.
It was particularly lethal in wallpaper, releasing tiny particles of arsenic into the air. When Napoleon died in St Helena in 1821 British were suspected of poisoning him. Later, however, it was discovered that the green wallpaper in his room contained arsenic. This may have hastened his death, but the real cause was bowel cancer and a perforated ulcer.
Despite knowledge of its toxicity it was only in the early 20th Century that manufacturers stopped producing Scheele’s green.
Orange
The only colour in the English language that takes its name from a fruit is orange. It all goes back to China around 4,500 years ago when oranges were first cultivated and travelled west down the Silk Road. They went to Northwest India where the Sanskrit word for an orange tree – narrangah – served as the root for many languages as oranges were planted and sold – Narang in Farsi, naranj in Arabic and naranja in Spanish.
The English word orange is a corruption of the Sanskrit. People mistook ‘a naranga’ for ‘an aranga’, and so it evolved into ‘an orange’.
Before the fruit arrived, the English word for the colour was geoluread (yellow-red) but in the 16th Century orange took over. In some languages, however, the two are separated.
In Afrikaans, for example, the colour is oranje but the fruit is lemoen and several languages, including Himba, Nafana and Piraha, have no word for the colour.
Purple
The first colour to come in synthetic form was purple. In 1856, William Henry Perkin, an 18-year-old chemistry student, was told to conduct an experiment using coal tar to find a cure for malaria. He failed but was intrigued with what happened when he dipped a piece of cloth into his mixture of coal analine and chromic acid: it came out purple and held its colour. He patented the dye he called mauveine and became a rich man after it was mass-produced.
Until then purple had been prohibitively expensive (the ancients needed to crush 12,000 murex sea snails to get on gram of Tyrian purple) but the result of Perkin’s discovery was the ‘Mauve Measles’ as Punch magazine called the fashion craze.
It had a revival in the late 1960s as the colour of the counter-culture and is now seen as a feminine alternative to pink.
Pink
10 years ago evolutionary psychologists from the University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne designed an experiment to test whether pink was an innately feminine colour and blue a masculine colour. It turned out that blue was favoured by both sexes, but that pink had more female support. T
heir results were heralded as ‘proving’ that pink was inherently feminine, but this was thrown into doubt when critics protested that this was a recent development - earlier in the century women’s magazines regularly advised readers to choose pink for boys’ clothes.
For example, in 1918 the British Ladies Home Journal noted: ‘The generally accepted rule is pink for the boy and blue for the girl. The reason is that pink being a more decided stronger colour is more suitable for the boy…’
It was only in the 1950s that pink became a decided feminine colour – through American advertising campaigns.
The Story of Colour: An Exploration of the Hidden Messages of the Spectrum by Gavin Evans is available now (£20, Michael O'Mara Books)
| 7,178
|
[
"arts and entertainment",
"intermediate",
"informational",
"command",
"fact",
"research"
] |
arts and entertainment
|
geo_bench
|
Write the history of a colour.
| false
|
11e056e10dc8
|
https://crimereads.com/how-to-write-perfect-twist-endings/
|
In the best books, the twist is the icing on the cake. As a reader I don’t want to race through a book for the twist; rather, I want it to take me by delightful surprise as the story reaches its denouement. The best twists are clever, unexpected, and seem effortless—but of course, writers know how much effort goes into devising them.
We should first define what exactly a twist is. I like the description Sophie Hannah came up with in her own CrimeReads essay: a twist overturns or negates an already drawn conclusion or a firmly entrenched and reasonable assumption. A twist is more than a surprise ending.
I’ve spent a lot of time studying twists: what they are and are not, what makes them satisfying or predictable, whether there are any rules we writers should abide by when concocting them. One piece of advice that has stuck in my head came from my mentor, Mako Yoshikawa, who suggested it was cheating to have a first-person or close-third narrator know something but not share it with the audience. Now I can think of plenty of thrillers that defy this rule—where the twist was something the narrator knew all along—and my enjoyment of those stories certainly didn’t suffer. But I do try to hold myself to this rule. To each their own!
There are loads of types of twists in literature, so I don’t mean to suggest with the title of this essay that there are only nine. But the following nine are prevalent in the suspense genre. If you’re stumped on what to do with your own work in progress, perhaps you can consider one of the following plot twists.
[SPOILER ALERT—I provide examples for each kind of twist. If you don’t want to find out the twists for the following books, do not keep reading: Rebecca, Gone Girl, Sharp Objects, The Woman in the Window, Station Eleven, We Need to Talk About Kevin, Eleanor Oliphant is Completely Fine, Shutter Island, The Silent Patient, The Wife Between Us, Fight Club, My Sister’s Keeper, Before I Go to Sleep. I’ll keep the references vague, but seriously, spoilers are coming! You’ve been warned.]
1. Someone you thought was bad turns out to be good. &
2. Someone you thought was good turns out to be bad.
Caveat: The best characters are both good and bad. None of us is pure evil or a perfect angel. I’ve oversimplified the headings for the sake of clarity. Put simply, these twists are the classic case of the reader trusting the wrong character. Many of us have read hundreds of suspense novels. We know how the “bad guy” is supposed to look and behave. We try to pin down the perpetrator the first chance we get. The sly writer knows this and plays on our innate need to categorize and judge. In books like Emily St. John Mandel’s Station Eleven, A.J. Finn’s The Woman in the Window, and Gillian Flynn’s Gone Girl and Sharp Objects, one of the central characters that the reader perceives to be kind, or at least well-meaning, turns out to be the culprit. Then you have a case like the matchless Rebecca, where our perceptions of the main characters bounce between good and bad like a game of table tennis.
3. Someone presumed dead is alive. &
4. Someone presumed alive is dead.
These switcheroos leave the reader flabbergasted but (hopefully) wowed. The best example of this twist, in my opinion, is Lionel Shriver’s We Need to Talk About Kevin. I can still remember getting to the end and breaking into a grin at the sheer brilliance. These twists are also well executed in Eleanor Oliphant is Completely Fine by Gail Honeyman and The Woman in the Window.
5. Someone presumed sane is crazy.
This twist is tricky to pull off in a close narrative style. Perceptive readers can tell when something is off about their storyteller. The writer has to craft a character we trust throughout the story, as well as one we believe was actually insane all along in the end—and they have to be the same person! Dennis Lehane nails this twist in his masterpiece Shutter Island.
6. Two characters turn out to be the same person.
If not done with precision, this twist can feel gimmicky or lame. But I believe readers—especially crime readers—enjoy having the rug pulled out from under them, so long as you’ve earned that rug pull. Two variations on this twist: you can have two narrators actually be the same person but in different times of his/her/their life, a la The Wife Between Us by Greer Hendricks and Sarah Pekkanen. Or you can have one narrator plus another important character turn out to be the same person, using a character device such as a split personality. The classic example of this is Chuck Palahniuk’s Fight Club.
7. Someone different is in charge than you thought.
Put another way, the person you thought was driving the story is actually just a passenger. I love this twist because it encourages conversations about power—the dynamics and imbalances we encounter in thrillers, as well as everyday life. For a less murder-y example, look no further than Jodi Picoult’s My Sister’s Keeper. Throughout the book we assume Anna is the one driving her emancipation effort because she’s tired of existing solely to keep her sister Kate healthy. Later on we discover that Kate is the one who asked Anna to sue for emancipation because she’s tired of fighting her illness. Talk about a one-eighty in the reader’s perception of who’s driving the story.
8. Someone isn’t who you’re told they are.
This character could have done something wrong but the reader doesn’t know it yet. They might be posing as someone else or withholding information that would implicate them in whatever misdeed is being investigated. Conversely, some characters turn out to be more capable and critical to the story than the reader has been led to believe. This person is typically hiding in plain sight. Examples of this twist include Before I Go to Sleep by S.J. Watson, The Silent Patient by Alex Michaelides, and Behind Closed Doors by B.A. Paris.
9. The story’s timelines are not what you expected.
Again, much finessing is required to make this twist work, as too much time hopping can leave the reader confused. (Side note: For a brilliant study in frequent time hops that keep the reader firmly grounded, read Station Eleven.) I’d imagine a lot of advance planning is required to pull this one off. Once again, The Wife Between Us serves as a good example. We assume Vanessa and Nellie are two different characters, both in present-day. In reality, they’re the same person—Vanessa is in present-day and Nellie is in the past. By manipulating time this way, you can fool the reader.
* * *
A few more observations in my study of twists: The more close-POV characters you have, the harder it is to pull off a twist. Presumably you want the twist to involve one of the main characters, as it’s (usually) less satisfying to have a secondary character pull the wool over everyone’s eyes. You want one of the main characters to be “behind it.” If you’re going to operate by the knowing but not sharing is cheating rule, then the more narrators you have, the harder it is to have a main character who is clueless to the plan, like we want the reader to be.
If you’re committed to using multiple narrators, I’ve found it easier to create a twist when the characters operate in different timelines. In the past timeline, the thing hasn’t happened yet. In the present timeline, the narrator doesn’t yet know that the other narrator did the thing. This is the framework I used for my own novel, Darling Rose Gold. Patty Watts, a mother with Munchausen syndrome by proxy, narrates the present timeline, suspicious of her daughter’s motives but without any clue as to what’s in store. Her daughter, Rose Gold, narrates the timeline in the past, which covers the five years while Patty is in prison. Rose Gold’s story arc begins with her as a troubled young woman, trying to find her way in the world. She has no idea what she will later become capable of.
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What would be a great twist for a murder mystery? I'm looking for something creative, not to rehash old tropes.
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https://laborcenter.berkeley.edu/technological-change-in-five-industries/
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Technological change in five industries: Threats to jobs, wages, and working conditions
Press Coverage
Introduction
Workers in the U.S. were facing many questions about their future prior to the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, and that uncertainty has only intensified as the pandemic lingers, and employers’ use of new technologies continues to evolve. Policymakers, worker advocates, and researchers are watching and evaluating which technologies employers are choosing to adopt, and what consequences these changes might have for workers’ jobs. Understanding these how technological changes may unfold in different industries is essential for developing effective solutions to the challenges that workers face.
From 2018 to 2020, the UC Berkeley Labor Center and Working Partnerships USA brought together a team of experts to investigate trends in several industries in the U.S. that have been focal points for these concerns: trucking, warehouses, health care, retail, and food delivery. Our team of researchers conducted multi-year studies of each industry, examining how new technologies are changing work and why, what new technologies are on the horizon, and what factors are shaping job outcomes.[1]
The intent of the industry studies was not to predict the future or to develop a broad, unified theory of technological change. Instead, the objective was to examine how and why technological change is unfolding in key industries and assess what these changes could mean for different groups of workers. While many of the important findings from these studies are industry-specific, some common themes emerge across the research. In this report, we synthesize the findings of the industry studies, and discuss what they suggest about how policymakers and industry stakeholders should approach the challenges and opportunities workers face in a changing technological landscape.
One of the most striking findings from these studies is that technology’s effects on job quality— like wages and working conditions—should be just as big of a concern as its effects on job quantity. Employers’ use of automating technologies could lead to job loss for specific occupations, but this is just one of many ways that technological change threatens workers’ livelihoods. Rather than replacing large numbers of workers with robots, our researchers find that employers are using technology to change how workers do their jobs: how they are hired; what tasks they are asked to do, how many and how quickly, and how they are instructed to do them; and how their performance is monitored and assessed. Sometimes technology-related changes are helpful to workers—enhancing their skills or safety, for instance—but far more often they are harmful to wages and working conditions. Technological changes can also worsen existing inequities for women and people of color, who are overrepresented in the many front-line occupations that are most likely to be changed by technology.
The introduction of new technology in low-wage industries can easily lead to bad outcomes for workers, but this is not inevitable. Our studies identify important sources of variation in how technological change happens across and within industries, and multiple scenarios for future adoption. These findings suggest that how and why employers implement new technologies in the workplace is not predetermined. The choices we make now and the regulations we implement can re-shape the course of technological change and its consequences for the U.S. labor market.
The five industry studies
DRIVERLESS? Autonomous Trucks and the Future of the American Trucker
by Steve Viscelli (September 2018)
The Future of Warehouse Work: Technological Change in the U.S. Logistics Industry
by Beth Gutelius and Nik Theodore (October 2019)
Technological Change in Health Care Delivery: Its Drivers and Consequences for Work and Workersby Adam Seth Litwin (June 2020)
Change and Uncertainty, not Apocalypse: Technological Change and Store-Based Retailby Françoise Carré and Chris Tilly, with Chris Benner and Sarah Mason (September 2020)
Delivering Insecurity: E-commerce and the Future of Work in Food Retailby Chris Benner and Sarah Mason, with Françoise Carré and Chris Tilly (December 2020)
Findings
I. Employers’ use of new technologies is changing the content of workers’ jobs, but is likely to have limited effects on the overall number of jobs
Each team of researchers identified various new technologies that employers are using in each industry. These ranged from relatively simple improvements in internet and communications technology and digitization of information to complex data collection and algorithmic technologies, including but not limited to autonomous machines. Across the industries we studied, our researchers found that employers’ use of new technologies is altering both the content and the processes involved in people’s jobs in a range of ways.
Employers’ use of new technologies may cause job reductions in some specific occupations, but is not expected to lead to an overall reduction in the number of jobs in the industries studied.
Our researchers found that technology-induced job loss is a real concern for specific occupations. Most notably, nearly 294,000 long-haul truck drivers are at risk of losing their jobs in coming years due to advances in automated driving technologies.[2] Retail and grocery employers are likely to continue thinning the ranks of cashiers by shifting check-out work to customers through self-check-out stations or app-based check-out. In addition, advances in productivity tracking and managerial technology may lead to reductions in supervisors and secondary managers in larger stores.[3] In hospitals, semi-autonomous service robots could reduce the overall number of people employed as orderlies, dietary clerks, and laundry workers; COVID-19 may have jump-started this trend, as hospitals have looked for ways to limit human interactions to reduce the risk of transmission.[4]
Across industries, however, our researchers did not find that widespread technology-induced job loss was currently happening, or that it was likely to happen. In some cases, a growing demand for services—due to changing consumer preferences (e.g., e-commerce) or changing demographics (e.g., an aging population requiring more healthcare services)—has led to a demand for more workers. In these circumstances, overall demand for certain occupations of workers is outpacing technology-induced job loss or slower job growth. Other factors contributing to worker shortages in specific industries—such as long-term wage stagnation for truck drivers—may result in labor demand for workers continuing to outpace supply, even as automation reduces the overall number of jobs.[5]
Furthermore, the pace of technology adoption is often slower than expected and uneven within industries. Despite abundant speculation about the possibility of highly-automated “dark warehouses” and a “retail apocalypse” due to the growth of e-commerce, neither of these scenarios appears probable any time soon, according to our researchers.[6] In trucking, employers are unlikely to transition from human drivers to broad reliance on automated driving technology for delivery in the near future, despite the real possibility that they will implement these changes in some form for long-haul trucking.[7]
Another reason that large-scale job displacement is unlikely in the foreseeable future is that the technology to automate certain types of tasks, such as item-picking to package e-commerce orders or delivery vehicles navigating complex urban environments, remains inadequate for employers’ needs. And even where technology exists that is capable of automating certain tasks, there may be other reasons employers prefer a person to a machine in a particular role. For instance, employers may prefer a human worker to answer a customer’s questions about a product in a store, or to identify an appropriate place to leave a package at someone’s residence.
New technology can also be prohibitively expensive, especially in highly cost-sensitive industries. In warehousing, slim profit margins and cost-based competition have led to a cautious approach to new technology.[8] The growth of e-commerce has spurred experimentation with new technologies among industry leaders like Amazon, but many other firms still lag far behind in adopting even simple technologies like digital warehouse management systems.[9] Similarly, a “digital divide” exists in retail, where market leaders—especially those who have effective channels for participating in e-commerce—have the resources to invest in the latest technology, while other smaller firms do not.[10]
Employers are using technologies in ways that create new tasks and jobs, and shift the allocation of tasks across machines, workers, firms, and customers.
Understanding how new technologies are changing some workers’ jobs requires an examination of the ways in which technologies affect the specific tasks the jobs involve.[11] Every occupation consists of an assemblage of tasks, which often vary across industries or employers, and can change for all kinds of reasons, including employers’ adoption of new technologies.
Some tasks are easier than others to execute using technology, such as those that involve highly structured and repetitive actions. Even so, employers rarely use technologies to replace all tasks involved in a worker’s job; technologies are more often used to substitute for specific tasks, leaving other aspects of the job intact but potentially transformed. For example, where employers use automated chatbots to field customer service calls, human representatives may end up fielding more complicated inquiries, while the simpler ones are resolved by machines.
Technology-enabled task reorganization can create new tasks, such as remote operation of semi-autonomous vehicles, maintenance and programming of new machinery and software, and managing and staffing order-picking and curbside pickup for retail and grocery stores. This may create new jobs, increase the demand for certain jobs, or change the scope of work involved in a job.
In some cases, technologies are used to transfer tasks between customers and workers. In a customer self-checkout system, the core tasks of a cashier—ringing up and bagging groceries—are not automated but transferred from a worker to a customer.[12] On the other hand, online ordering for groceries transfers tasks that customers would otherwise do—such as filling a cart and taking the food home—to workers.[13]
Employers may also use technologies in ways that redistribute tasks among different workers. These could be workers within a particular firm, or workers employed in other firms, or independent contractors. In some grocery stores, retrieving and packing groceries for online orders is carried out by employees of the store, but in other cases (and sometimes within the same store) these tasks are carried out by a worker employed or contracted by a third party, such as Instacart. Similarly, restaurant take-out deliveries may be completed by restaurant employees, or by workers affiliated with a third-party ordering platform like Doordash or UberEats.[14]
Employers’ use of technologies may contribute to broader shifts in employment as well, across industries or market segments. The increased reliance on e-commerce for retail sales, for instance, has reduced demand for employment in stores, but increased the need for workers in warehouses and trucking. It has also shifted unpaid work by consumers in shopping and driving to paid work in order fulfillment and home delivery services.
Employers are using technologies in ways that change how job tasks are done.
In addition to the reshuffling of tasks, employers are using new technologies in ways that change the processes involved in workers’ job tasks. Advances in data collection and algorithmic technologies are enabling employers to make changes to a broad array of HR and management functions, such as hiring, scheduling, task direction and pacing, monitoring, evaluation, and discipline or dismissal.[15] These changes serve specific functions; here, we describe several types of managerial objectives, offer examples of the technologies that employers are using toward those ends, and discuss how these technologies change the way workers complete their tasks.
Safety: Some employers are using technologies intended to make work safer; examples include machinery that can alleviate the need for heavy lifting and sensors that track driving conditions, vehicle operations and potential safety hazards.[16] These technologies can change the physical processes involved in workers’ tasks, or give workers real time notifications to adjust their actions.
Personnel decision-making: In some cases, employers use data-gathering and analytic processing software to compile and interpret information about current or prospective employees, which human managers then take into consideration in their decisions about personnel. In other cases, employers are using algorithmic technologies to replace certain aspects of human decision-making altogether.
Information-sharing: Employers in many industries are using technologies that can facilitate communication and information-sharing, which can affect work processes in a wide variety of ways, such as changing the order in which workers complete their tasks, and giving them real-time direction and feedback. A few of the far-reaching range of examples of these types of technologies include delivery apps, customer service platforms, telehealth, and electronic health records.
Pace-setting: In several of the industries our researchers studied, employers are using technologies aimed at speeding up work processes to reduce costs. For instance, warehouses and retail stores may use digital inventory tracking systems and stocking devices to help streamline workers’ movement of goods in a facility. Delivery drivers often use mapping and route-planning software intended to optimize speed and maximize their number of deliveries.
Monitoring: Employers are also using technologies to monitor and track workers’ locations, activities, and the accuracy of their work. This type of tech is increasingly common in warehouses and delivery, but is also being deployed in home health care, where employers are using phone-based software to manage workers remotely by tracking their location and task-completion at clients’ residences.
The managerial objectives highlighted here are not exhaustive, nor are they mutually exclusive. Employers adopt technologies and make other changes to production processes for a complex array of reasons. These changes can affect the processes involved in workers’ jobs in intended and unintended ways, and can have both positive and negative effects on job quality. In the next section, we discuss the consequences of employers’ use of new technologies for workers.
II. Employers in each industry are using new technologies in ways that may degrade workers’ wages and working conditions and worsen existing labor market inequities
Employers can use new technologies in ways that are helpful to workers, as some of the above examples indicate. Technologies can make work safer, and reduce worker time spent on paperwork or arduous, repetitive tasks. However, in each industry, our researchers concluded that many employers are likely to use new technologies in ways that threaten workers’ wages and job quality.
Employers’ use of technology to reorganize work and production could lead to lower wages, deskilling, and deteriorating job quality for workers.
When employers reorganize and reshape production processes, the changes they make can have consequences for workers’ wages and job quality. While the consequences aren’t invariably or inevitably negative, our researchers found that technologically-induced task redistribution may result in poor outcomes for many workers.
When employers use technology to reshuffle tasks among workers within the firm, workers may see a reduction in the range or complexity of tasks involved in their work, which employers can use as justification for lower pay. In some cases, workers may actually experience a pay cut following technologically-induced reorganization of work processes; in others, an industry may experience a longer-term shift toward lower pay for certain occupations. In health care, chatbots and autonomous service robots are starting to be used in ways that reduce staffing and decrease the complexity of workers’ roles—for instance, by limiting or entirely eliminating dietary clerks’ interaction with patients through the use of autonomous bots to deliver meals.[17] Warehouse employers are using technologies designed specifically to replace human decision-making functions; other technologies simplify warehouse work by breaking a job into subtasks, sometimes to the point that previously required worker skills become completely irrelevant.[18]
Employers’ use of technology to redistribute tasks to workers outside of the firm also can have negative implications for workers’ wages and job quality. In retail, restaurants, and grocery, employers are using technology to reallocate tasks (e.g., delivery or shopping, as discussed above) to workers employed by third-party firms or hired as independent contractors. In warehouses, employers are turning to on-demand staffing platforms to hire temporary workers through staffing agencies, in some cases via third-party logistics (3PL) management firms.[19] Regardless of the industry, workers employed by third-party firms are likely to be paid less and lack access to benefits that workers at the lead firm may have, including union representation. Workers hired as independent contractors lack access to basic employment rights and legal protections, such the right to a minimum wage, collective bargaining, and workers’ compensation in case of injury.[20]
Technologically-induced reorganization of production processes has also resulted in work being shifted within industries in ways that favor lower-wage segments. In trucking, the jobs most at risk of displacement from automation are long-distance truck driving jobs, which have higher rates of pay compared to local delivery jobs; the latter increased in number as e-commerce has grown but are much harder to automate.[21]
Employers’ use of technology to change work processes can lead to work speed-up accompanied by decreased autonomy and privacy for workers.
Employers are using new technologies in ways that can impinge on workers’ autonomy and privacy, and that speed up and intensify their work. Amazon has been a leader in the development and adoption of technologies that increase employers’ surveillance and control over workers. At Amazon warehouses, workers are closely monitored using video surveillance, and tools like GPS-enabled handheld devices and wearable tech embedded with sensors. These devices gather and record data on workers’ location and activities, which are used not only for general monitoring but also as inputs into algorithms that direct workers’ tasks. Besides setting the pace of work, the algorithmic systems are used to assess workers’ performance and speed.[22] Workers’ time spent “off-task,” including time spent walking to and from a restroom or break room, is automatically recorded. If the workers aren’t meeting specific productivity targets, they are penalized and may be fired.[23]
The intensive surveillance and grueling pace at Amazon warehouses have been well-documented in media accounts and have been cited as an important impetus to attempts to organize warehouse workers into unions. Workers report that the conditions in Amazon warehouses take a serious mental and physical toll, leading to exhaustion, workplace injuries, and psychological stress induced by the pressure to achieve their required productivity rates.[24]
Warehouse workers are far from the only workers who have experienced negative consequences from employers’ use of new technologies that reshape work processes. Electronic visit verification (EVV), a software which allows home care workers to be managed and monitored through a smartphone by tracking their location and activities in real-time, is an increasingly common technology in home health care.[25] The use of EVV has created an environment where many workers report feeling increased stress from micromanagement, constant surveillance, and invasion of their privacy.[26]
In trucking, drivers can be exposed to an extreme amount of data collection and electronic monitoring. Employers use sensors and real-time visual data streams to track and assess everything happening inside or around the vehicle, including location, possible hazards, driving patterns (speed, acceleration, braking, etc.), and driver behavior (seatbelt use, driver fatigue, or other distractions like texting or eating). Fleet managers can use these systems to “exert control over workers by setting quantified metrics to evaluate driver performance and challenge workers’ accounts of driving conditions.”[27]
Major retailers frequently use algorithmic technologies as part of their processes for hiring, scheduling, and managing workers. Stores are using cameras and other sensors to track and monitor product inventory and store conditions, meaning that clerks and stockers can receive real-time alerts and direction about where and what to restock, or where to clean.[28] Delivery drivers and in-store shoppers (e.g. for Instacart) can be tracked and directed by employers and/or customers in real time via apps that monitor location and item selection.[29] These workers have reported that constant location tracking and other forms of electronic monitoring, plus algorithm-generated metrics that intensify workload and time pressure, have added to the mental and physical stress of their jobs and increased the potential for accidents and injuries.[30]
Employers are using new technologies in ways that can worsen existing labor market inequities.
The peril arising from employers’ use of new technologies is not borne equally across all workers. Many of the occupations facing significant threats from technologies that displace, monitor, control, and speed up work are those in which higher concentrations of women and people of color are employed. In warehouses, people of color are overrepresented compared to the labor market at large, and women are a growing portion of the e-commerce warehouse sub-sector.[31] In retail and grocery, women are more likely than men to work in customer-facing roles like cashier, which will continue to decline in number as employers turn to self-checkout and e-commerce.[32] Women are also overrepresented in most health care occupations (apart from the highest-paid positions like physicians and surgeons), and Black and Latino workers are concentrated in the lowest-paid jobs like home health aids, which are increasingly subjected to surveillance and monitoring technologies.[33]
Certain new technologies have biased outcomes for women, people of color, and other disadvantaged workers.[34] For example, productivity-based pay structures to incentivize speed in warehouse work creates additional challenges for workers who are not as strong or physically fit, such as older workers.[35] Additionally, algorithms used in applicant screening and hiring processes are notorious for replicating and exacerbating existing patterns of discrimination in the labor market.[36] Research also indicates that technologies like speech and facial recognition can be less accurate in identifying and communicating with women, people of color, and people whose first language is not English. This can create additional barriers for workers who must interact with these systems in their jobs.[37]
The work of our researchers and others suggests that the most serious repercussions of new technologies in the workplace will fall on those workers already facing the greatest structural challenges in the labor market. The use of new technologies will worsen existing inequities.
III. Industry context shapes employer decision-making about new technologies, leading to variation in adoption and worker impacts
A defining feature of each of our researchers’ projects was the recognition that industry context shapes technology adoption decisions. Across and within industries, our researchers observed variation in the pace of employers’ uptake of new technologies, their goals with respect to technology, and the consequences of these changes for workers. The factors that had the biggest impact on technology adoption fell into five categories: regulations, worker organizations, competitive structures, industry trends, and broader societal and market trends. These factors shaped employers’ understanding of how they might use new technologies in the context of their other objectives and priorities. In some cases, these factors accelerated technological adoption and in others they hindered it.
Regulations
Regulations establish the ground rules that shape competitive market strategies, distinct market segments, and the distribution of power across market actors.[38] Variation in regulation by industry or by region therefore plays a formative role in shaping employers’ technology adoption decisions.
Each industry is governed by a unique set of laws and regulations that are subject to change over time at the discretion of policymakers. These changes affect the context guiding employer decision-making, and can have direct and indirect effects on technology adoption and working conditions. For example, long-term deregulation over certain aspects of the trucking industry has weakened workers’ power relative to employers, and reduced job quality and working conditions for many truck drivers.[39] These changes have created distinct labor markets in trucking where workers are especially vulnerable to the invasive or exploitative effects of employers’ adoption of new technologies. For instance, in local delivery and port trucking, independent contractor misclassification has proliferated and worker protections are minimal. As we have noted, local delivery tasks remain highly reliant on human workers; as a result, local delivery firms are more likely to invest in technology that monitors and controls workers rather than attempting to replace them,[40] and drivers have limited means to object.
The health care industry, on the other hand, is highly regulated. Health care involves a complex web of actors and regulations, organized around a division between the providers of care (hospitals, etc.) and the financers of care (insurance companies and the government). In recent years, the government has tried to guide the market toward payment models based on “value-based care” (VBC) rather than “fee for service” care, which increase quality and efficiency of care provision. Under VBC models, insurers contract to reimburse providers on a fixed rate (e.g. per-member-per-month), so providers internalize the risk of variable costs associated with their patient population, and thus they no longer have an incentive to maximize the number of claims submitted to insurers.
The shift toward VBC is likely to accelerate the adoption and diffusion of quality-enhancing health care technologies, such as those that facilitate patient-provider communication and increase access to preventative care.[41] Regulations advancing VBC may be a promising shift for the health care industry for many reasons, but the constraints that VBC places on health care providers’ income can also pose challenges for workers’ bargaining power by limiting the overall amount of resources available for wages and benefits. Ensuring that workers are not penalized by the shift to VBC will require additional regulation and worker organizing.[42]
Broader regulations influence markets and technology adoption across industries. In many areas of regulation in the U.S., laws and policies favor the rights and freedoms of employers relative to workers, which creates incentives for employers to compete on labor cost cutting strategies.[43] Weak federal labor laws have limited the power of labor market institutions like unions to bargain for better wages and working conditions—including working conditions related to technology.[44]
Some states have stronger labor regulations, however, such as laws that specifically target independent contractor misclassification. Other states have laws that make it more difficult for workers to advocate for their rights and form unions. Twenty-eight states have “right to work” (RTW) laws that inhibit worker organizing. In RTW states, labor unions have less power to shape legislation or working conditions, and wages for workers tend to be lower.[45] The strength or weakness of labor regulation affects workplace technology deployment in important ways; workers’ ability to fully participate in this process can be inhibited or enhanced depending on the law, as can their ability to organize to protect themselves from potential harms of new technologies (see next section).
The lack of regulation governing employers’ uses of technology in the workplace has had a profound effect on employers’ use of technology in relation to their workers. As we note in our 2021 report Data and Algorithms at Work: The Case for Worker Technology Rights, the dearth of regulation creates strong incentives for employers to use digital technologies widely, and in ways that can directly or indirectly harm workers. There is also no oversight of the testing and quality of new systems that developers sell, which can worsen adverse effects for workers.[46]
Recent efforts to remedy this challenge have been promising, however. In September 2021, California passed a bill targeting the grueling pace of work in Amazon warehouses by limiting companies’ use of production quotas, and improving transparency around the use of algorithms in setting quotas, and several states have since passed or proposed similar legislation.[47] In April 2022, California legislators introduced A.B. 1651, The Workplace Technology Accountability Act, which would establish broad protections for workers against employers’ use of monitoring and algorithmic management technologies.[48] Legislators in California and elsewhere have passed laws fighting independent contractor misclassification, granting employment protections like minimum wage, overtime, and workers’ compensation to workers in trucking and app-based delivery.[49]
Worker organizations
Unions and worker organizations can affect technology adoption patterns in individual firms, and in the industries and regions where they represent significant portions of an industry’s workforce.[50] Health care workers are more likely to be represented by a union than workers in many other industries in the U.S. This affords them more power in influencing employers’ decisions related to technology. For example, at Kaiser Permanente, unions played an important role in facilitating the company’s switch to an Electronic Health Records system, ensuring effective deployment and use of the system, and protecting employment and wages for workers affected by the new system.[51]
Unions also play an important role in certain segments of the trucking and grocery industries. The most recent contract negotiated between United Parcel Service (UPS) and the Teamsters union includes a requirement that UPS give the Teamsters six months’ notice of any company plans to integrate emerging tech, such as drones, driverless vehicles, or truck platooning.[52], [53] The United Food and Commercial Workers union (UFCW), which represents grocery workers, has fought to keep the growing numbers of e-commerce and delivery jobs in-house. UFCW has challenged employer attempts to outsource these jobs to third-party app-based shopping companies that typically use non-union workers or independent contractors.[54]
Worker organizations can also affect technology adoption by attempting to create policy. Where unions do not currently exist in significant numbers, other organizations representing workers—such as United for Respect in the retail sector, the Warehouse Workers Resource Center, and Gig Workers Rising—have been leading efforts to advocate for stronger regulations of industries around technology and other job quality issues. In some cases, worker organizations have partnered or allied themselves with unions.
Competitive structures
Regulations create a unique structure of competitive and cooperative arrangements between firms in each industry. Market structures and market power shape employers’ strategies for growth and survival: what problems are employers trying to solve, what technologies could address those problems, and what factors will affect an employer’s decision to invest?
Weak antitrust enforcement in the U.S. has allowed ownership consolidation to proliferate in many industries, which in turn has led to a gap between large, well-resourced industry leaders that are able to invest in and experiment with cutting-edge technologies, and smaller firms that tend to lag far behind. This dynamic is especially notable in retail and warehouses.[55] Historically, employers in both industries have been slow to adopt new technologies. The rise of Amazon has reoriented the competitive terrain in both sectors, however, compelling other large employers to integrate new technologies related to e-commerce ordering and delivery into their business strategies, while smaller firms continue to take a more cautious approach.
The market dominance of a firm like Amazon means that it has an outsize influence on the competitive landscape of an industry, including on employer objectives regarding technology. Firms with the means to invest are focused on technologies that can promote speed in processing, packaging, delivery, and cost-reduction at every step of the way. Large retailers are also concerned with strategies to increase their own market share and to develop new revenue streams. For some smaller retailers, however, growing consumer expectations about low-cost, rapid online ordering and delivery options are reducing their ability to attract customers, further constricting resources available to adopt new technologies.[56]
In industries where ownership consolidation is less extreme, employers still face similar pressures to reduce wages, speed up work, and micromanage their workers, but a wider range of strategies related to technology adoption can exist. In the grocery and trucking industries, for instance, there are major employers with unionized employees. At unionized firms, workers can exercise their collective market power to influence the effects of new technologies on their jobs, as in the examples discussed above.
In health care, the government is the dominant market actor. Although most people in the U.S. have private insurance through their employers, the U.S. government funds Medicare and Medicaid, making it the largest single buyer of insurance in the U.S. As such, it has significant leverage and buying power in the industry. Thus, when President Obama signed the 21st Century Cures Act, which required home care agencies that provide personal care services to have EVV technologies or risk losing their Medicaid claims, “the federal government essentially ‘picked a winner,’” ensuring that this type of technology would proliferate across the market for home care.[57]
Industry trends
Ownership consolidation is not the only industry trend creating distinct patterns of technological change. As another important example, changes in consumer preferences also have a profound effect on patterns of technology adoption in each industry. The increase in e-commerce has reoriented employer objectives across several of the industries we studied, including retail, grocery, warehouses, and trucking. Developing effective platforms for online shopping is of course a priority for many employers, as is deploying a wide range of technologies to facilitate rapid order assembly and delivery. Similarly, growing consumer demand for prepared or semi-prepared food rather than groceries has put pressure on traditional grocery stores to develop more options in this area. One result is that some grocery stores are partnering with subscription-based meal kit companies, which typically rely on warehouse-like facilities where workers’ wages and job quality are comparatively low.[58]
In the warehouse industry, there are important differences between production processes for shipping in e-commerce facilities and traditional warehouses. Processing in traditional facilities involving bulk transfer of products is far less labor-intensive and time-sensitive compared to processing in e-commerce facilities. As a result, traditional warehouse employers may be less interested in the kind of intensive employee surveillance pioneered by Amazon, and more interested in advances in warehouse management systems and machinery to automate movement of goods around a facility.[59]
Another industry trend affecting technological adoption is outsourcing. We’ve already discussed outsourcing in the context of trucking, grocery, and food delivery, and the implications of these changes for workers, in particular independent contractors, who lack basic employee rights and protections on the job. There has also been an increase in recent years in firm-to-firm outsourcing in some sectors, such as retailers outsourcing warehouse services to third-party logistics companies (“3PLs”). Competition in the 3PL market is extremely price-sensitive, and contracts are often short-term, which may blunt employers’ incentives to invest in specialized technology.[60]
Broader societal and market trends
The COVID-19 pandemic, long-term demographic changes, and shifts in economic conditions and labor markets all affect patterns of technological change across multiple industries, but the consequences of these trends are not uniform across or even within industries. In particular, the pandemic appears to be speeding up technology adoption in some cases but slowing it down in others. For example, grocery employers have rapidly shifted to online ordering and health care providers to telehealth options since 2020; these are both technologies that had made limited inroads prior to the pandemic. On the other hand, financial constraints in stores and restaurants caused by declines in in-store shopping and eating have limited some employers’ ability to experiment or invest in any new technologies.[61]
COVID-19 has also reshaped employers’ objectives and strategies related to technology. In industries where workers have been required to work onsite, such as health care, grocery stores, and warehouses, technologies that could help reduce disease transmission for customers or workers became a priority for some employers.[62] These included new forms of data gathering on workers’ health to prevent and track outbreaks, and technologies that reduce the need for on-site workers or reduce their physical proximity to one another, such as semi-autonomous service robots and cashierless checkout.[63]
Societal and demographic trends affect industries’ uptake of technology as well. Women’s long-term increases in labor force participation has induced growing demand for prepared food along with online ordering of groceries and takeout. In the U.S., people are also living longer on average, which creates an interest among health care providers in technologies that can respond to the increasing demand for long-term care.[64] Additionally, an aging workforce has led to a retirement bubble in certain industries that may exacerbate ongoing labor shortages, with a prime example being trucking.
Broader trends may work in favor of or against workers in terms of technology adoption and its consequences. Labor shortages are benefiting some workers in sectors like trucking and warehousing by prompting long-overdue wage increases, but they may also accentuate employers’ interest in technologies that reduce employers’ reliance on workers in the long-run.[65] As discussed above, the pandemic has likely accelerated some employers’ interest in labor-displacing technologies and employee surveillance technologies, but it has also reduced some employers’ ability to invest in such technologies, potentially slowing the pace of change in certain industries and market segments.
Conclusions
Recent technological advances such as big data, robotics, and artificial intelligence have expanded our technological capabilities exponentially, and are poised to accelerate the pace of change in many industries. In some cases, employers will deploy new technologies in ways that reduce the number of jobs available. In other cases, they will use new technologies in ways that expand the numbers of existing jobs or create entirely new types of positions. Employers also will continue to use new technologies to reorganize production, reshuffle tasks, and change work processes. Across all the industries our researchers studied, we found that new technologies pose a significant threat to workers’ wages and job quality, and equity for women, people of color, and other disadvantaged workers. Many employers are using—or exploring the use of—technologies that facilitate monitoring and control over workers’ actions, speed up the pace of work, and generally devalue workers and their contributions.
The COVID-19 pandemic has injected additional uncertainty into forecasting the future of work; it serves as an important reminder that the form new technologies take and the consequences they have are not preordained. What the jobs of tomorrow will look like depends on the choices we make now to shape the course of tech development and adoption, and on the mitigable ground rules for the economy overall and for the industries in which these decisions are situated. Our studies illustrate how employers’ choices about technological change occur within the context of specific industries and markets, and the regulations and institutions that guide and govern how firms function.
The same forces that have constrained workers’ ability to improve their wages and working conditions are currently on course to wield disproportionate influence over the types of technologies that are developed and the ways they are deployed in each industry. Through our industry studies we have highlighted the importance of regulations to allow workers to help shape the process of technological change, and for employers to be motivated to make choices that prioritize quality-based over cost-based competition. Industry regulation and labor market institutions matter in guiding employer options and choices around technology adoption, and the resultant outcomes for workers.
In industries with some presence of unions—health care, trucking, and grocery—our researchers identified examples of workers influencing the process of new technology adoption to create better outcomes for workers. However, even in these industries, our researchers found that broader societal and economic trends are likely to continue to push employers to use new technologies in ways that increase the challenges workers face on the job. In industries like non-food retail and warehouses, where unions are less common and where large firms are able to set the terms of competition, prospects for workers to experience beneficial effects from technological change are even bleaker.
Absent an intentional shift in our current approaches to technological change, the industries our researchers studied are likely to see employers use new technologies in ways that make job quality worse and widen economic and race and gender inequality in the labor market. So how do we change our course? We know that new technologies can be used in ways that support workers, but how do we get there? The findings of our studies suggest that achieving better outcomes for workers will take a multifaceted approach including industry-specific institutional and regulatory changes, broader policy changes, and workplace-based organizing.
Acknowledgements:
The UC Berkeley Labor Center and Working Partnerships USA commissioned the original research discussed in this piece. Funding for that project was provided by the Ford Foundation, the Open Society Foundations, the SEIU California State Council, the W.K. Kellogg Foundation, the David M. and Abby Joseph Cohen Summer Research Fund, and the Cornell University ILR School “Technology and the Future of Work” theme project. Special thanks to Annette Bernhardt for your leadership throughout the project, and your thoughtful input and review of this report. We’d also like to thank the reviewers for sharing insights and feedback: Chris Benner, Jeffrey Buchanan, Françoise Carré, Beth Gutelius, Sara Hinkley, Ken Jacobs, Lisa Kresge, Adam Seth Litwin, Jenifer MacGillvary, Chris Tilly, and Steve Viscelli. Please address correspondence to the author at jesshf@berkeley.edu. Any errors are the responsibility of the author.
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[1] There is of course a substantial and growing body of theoretical and empirical literature on technological change and work, including but not limited to the question of automation. For some recent examples see Acemoglu & Restrepo (2020); Agrawal et al. (2019); Hu (2022); Jarrahi et al. (2021); Kellogg et al. (2020); Moradi & Levy (2020); Rogers (2020). For a discussion of methodological approaches to studying technology and work, see Bailey & Barley (2020).
[2] Viscelli (2018)
[3] Carré et al. (2020)
[4] Litwin (2020)
[5] Ibid.
[6] Benner et al. (2020); Carré et al. (2020); Gutelius & Theodore (2019)
[7] Viscelli (2018)
[8] Gutelius and Theodore (2019), p. 6
[9] Gutelius & Theodore (2019)
[10] Carré et al. (2020) p. 17
[11] For further discussion on automation and tasks, see: Acemoglu & Restrepo (2019); and Manyika et al. (2017)
[12] Carré et al. (2020)
[13] Benner et al. (2020)
[14] Ibid.
[15] For a deeper discussion of the ways employers can use algorithms in the workplace, see chapter 5 of Kresge (2020a)
[16] Gutelius & Theodore (2019)
[17] Litwin (2020)
[18] Gutelius & Theodore (2019)
[19] Gutelius & Theodore (2019)
[20] Benner et al. (2020); Carré et al. (2020)
[21] Viscelli (2018)
[22] Data collection on workers often serves another function besides monitoring, task direction and pace-setting: generating data to inform the development of new tools and machines to automate certain types of tasks.
[23] Hanley & Hubbard (2020)
[24] Tung et al. (2021)
[25] Litwin (2020)
[26] Eubanks & Mateescu (2021)
[27] Levy (2015)
[28] Workers are also monitored as a by-product of employers’ use of video monitoring to track customers as well (e.g., for shoplifting or for tracking customer shopping habits). (Carré et al. 2020)
[29] Benner et al. (2020)
[30] Bhuiyan (2020)
[31] Gutelius & Theodore (2019)
[32] Carré et al. (2020)
[33] Litwin (2020)
[34] Bernhardt et al. (2021); Heilweil (2020)
[35] Gutelius & Theodore (2019) p. 61.
[36] Bogen (2019)
[37] Harwell (2019)
[38] Vogel (2018).
[39] Viscelli (2018), p. 7. Levy (2015) notes that certain regulations have increased in trucking: some Department of Transportation rules introduced over the past few decades have actually led to increased electronic monitoring of truckers.
[40] Viscelli (2018)
[41] Litwin (2020)
[42] Litwin (2020) p. 37
[43] Litwin et al. (2022)
[44] Additionally, although labor is relatively inexpensive, the U.S. tax code favors employer investments in capital over investments in labor in a variety of ways, which may incentivize firms to pursue labor-replacing technologies in the long run (Acemoglu et al. 2020).
[45] Constant (2021)
[46] Bernhardt et al. (2021)
[47] Connecticut and Minnesota passed similar bills, and one was proposed in Washington as well. Both chambers of the New York State Legislature have passed the Warehouse Worker Protection Act, though it has yet to be signed by the governor. (An Act Concerning Protection of Warehouse Workers, 2022; Concerning Warehouse Distribution Centers., 2021; HF 2774 Status in the Senate for the 92nd Legislature (2021 – 2022), 2021; Roth, 2022).
[48] Kalish (2022)
[49] However, companies like Uber, Lyft, and Doordash continue attempting to weaken and overturn these laws. In 2020, Uber, Lyft and Doordash spent over $200 million in California to pass Proposition 22, which invalidated the law extending employment rights to many app-based workers. An Alameda County Superior Court Judge ruled the ballot measure unconstitutional in 2021, but it remains in effect during the app companies’ appeal. (Conger & Browning 2021; Lyons 2021).
[50] Kresge (2020b). It’s important to point out that there are ongoing debates around the extent of unions’ legal right to bargain over employers’ decision-making regarding technology, versus the effects of their decisions regarding technology. See Ashford & Ayers (1987); Rasband (1989)
[51] Litwin (2020)
[52] Platooning involves electronically linking a series of trucks. In human-human platooning, humans drive each truck, but the lead truck controls the speed and braking in the following truck(s). In human-drone platooning, the lead truck is driven by a human, and subsequent truck(s) are controlled by technology. (Viscelli, 2018).
[53] Kapadia (2019)
[54] Howland (2021)
[55] Benner et al., (2020); Carré et al. (2020); Gutelius & Theodore (2019)
[56] Carré et al. (2020)
[57] Litwin (2020) p. 75, 79
[58] Benner et al. (2020) p. 17, 61
[59] Gutelius & Theodore (2019) p. 18
[60] Gutelius & Theodore (2019) p. 49
[61] Benner et al. (2020); Carré et al. (2020); Litwin (2020)
[62] Many other employers seriously neglected worker safety during COVID, for instance by supplying insufficient protective equipment or sick leave accommodations, or by not enforcing masking rules for customers.
[63] Carré et al. (2020); Gutelius & Theodore (2019); Litwin (2020)
[64] Litwin (2020)
[65] Gutelius & Theodore (2019)
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Table of Contents Expand Table of Contents What Is a Corporate Tax Rate? How It Works Deductions Special Considerations Advantages FAQs The Bottom Line Corporate Tax: Definition, Deductions, and How It Works By Julia Kagan Full Bio Julia Kagan is a financial/consumer journalist and former senior editor, personal finance, of Investopedia. Learn about our editorial policies Updated January 30, 2025 Reviewed by Toby Walters Reviewed by Toby Walters Full Bio Toby Walters is a financial writer, investor, and lifelong learner. He has a passion for analyzing economic and financial data and sharing it with others. Learn about our Financial Review Board Fact checked by Suzanne Kvilhaug Fact checked by Suzanne Kvilhaug Full Bio Suzanne is a content marketer, writer, and fact-checker. She holds a Bachelor of Science in Finance degree from Bridgewater State University and helps develop content strategies. Learn about our editorial policies Investopedia / Theresa Chiechi Close What Is a Corporate Tax Rate? The federal corporate tax rate in the United States is 21%, and it applies to a corporation's profits. The taxes are paid on a company's taxable income, which includes revenue minus expenses. Expenses include cost of goods sold (COGS), general and administrative (G&A) expenses, selling and marketing, research and development, depreciation, and other operating costs. Corporate tax rates vary widely by country, with some countries considered to be tax havens due to their low rates. Corporate taxes can be lowered by various deductions, government subsidies, and tax loopholes, and so the effective corporate tax rate, the rate a corporation actually pays, is usually lower than the statutory rate; the stated rate before any deductions. Key Takeaways Corporate taxes are collected by the government as a source of income.Taxes are based on taxable income after expenses have been deducted.As of January 2025, the corporate tax rate in the United States is a flat rate of 21%. Before the Trump tax reforms of 2017, the corporate tax rate was 35%.A company can register as an S corporation to avoid double taxation. An S corporation does not pay corporate tax as the income passes through to business owners who are taxed through their individual tax returns. Understanding Corporate Tax The federal corporate tax rate in the United States is currently a flat 21% due to the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (TCJA), which President Donald Trump signed into law in 2017 and which went into effect in 2018. Previously, the maximum U.S. corporate income tax rate was 35%. U.S. corporate tax returns are generally due by the 15th day of the fourth month following the end of the corporation's tax year. Corporations may request a six-month extension to file their corporate tax returns in September. Installment payment due dates for estimated tax returns occur in the middle of April, June, September, and December. Corporate taxes are reported on Form 1120 for U.S. corporations. Some states impose a corporate income tax, which can run from a few percentage points in North Carolina to double digits in New Jersey. Corporate Tax Deductions Corporations are permitted to reduce taxable income by certain necessary and ordinary business expenditures. All current expenses required for the operation of the business are fully tax-deductible. Investments and real estate purchased with the intent of generating income for the business are also deductible. A corporation can deduct employee salaries, health benefits, tuition reimbursement, and bonuses. In addition, it can reduce its taxable income by deducting insurance premiums, travel expenses, bad debts, interest payments, sales taxes, fuel taxes, and excise taxes. Tax preparation fees, legal services, bookkeeping, and advertising costs can also be used to reduce corporate taxes. Special Considerations A central issue relating to corporate taxation is the concept of double taxation. Certain corporations are taxed based on their taxable income. If this net income is distributed to shareholders, these individuals are forced to pay individual income taxes on the dividends received. Instead, a business may register as an S corporation and have all income pass-through to the business owners. An S corporation does not pay corporate tax, as all taxes are paid through individual tax returns. Advantages of a Corporate Tax Paying corporate taxes can be more beneficial for business owners than paying additional individual income tax. Corporate tax returns deduct medical insurance for families as well as fringe benefits, including retirement plans and tax-deferred trusts. It is easier for a corporation to deduct losses, too. A corporation may deduct the entire amount of losses, while a sole proprietor must provide evidence regarding the intent to earn a profit before the losses can be deducted. Finally, a corporation may choose to retain specific amounts of profit over time to use to pay taxes, allowing it to strategically plan for taxes. What Do You Mean by Corporate Tax? Corporate taxes are taxes paid by businesses. Is the 21% Corporation Tax Rate Permanent? Yes and no. The corporate tax rate is set at a specific percentage and does not fluctuate, but it can be and has been adjusted many times in the past. Who Actually Pays Corporate Income Tax? While corporations do pay taxes, many economists believe most of the burden is passed on to shareholders through lower rates of return, customers through higher prices, and workers through low wages. The Bottom Line The corporate tax rate is levied on a corporation's profits, collected by a government as a source of income. It applies to a company's income, which is revenue minus expenses. In the U.S., the federal corporate tax rate is a flat rate of 21%. States may also impose a separate corporate tax on companies. Companies often seek to lower their corporate tax obligations by taking advantage of deductions, loopholes, subsidies, and other practices. Article Sources Investopedia requires writers to use primary sources to support their work. These include white papers, government data, original reporting, and interviews with industry experts. We also reference original research from other reputable publishers where appropriate. You can learn more about the standards we follow in producing accurate, unbiased content in our editorial policy. Internal Revenue Service. "Publication 542 (01/2022), Corporations." Congress.gov. "H.R. 1, 115th Congress." Internal Revenue Service. "Starting or Ending a Business 3." Internal Revenue Service. "Publication 542 (01/2022), Corporations." Internal Revenue Service. "Instructions for Form 1120 (2024)." Tax Foundation. "State Corporate Income Tax Rates and Brackets, 2025." Internal Revenue Service. "Publication 535 (2024), Business Expenses." Internal Revenue Service. "S Corporations." Open a New Account Advertiser Disclosure × The offers that appear in this table are from partnerships from which Investopedia receives compensation. This compensation may impact how and where listings appear. Investopedia does not include all offers available in the marketplace. Read more Economy Government & Policy Partner Links Open a New Bank Account Advertiser Disclosure × The offers that appear in this table are from partnerships from which Investopedia receives compensation. This compensation may impact how and where listings appear. Investopedia does not include all offers available in the marketplace.
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Learn how to start an interior design business or let us help you get started on your entrepreneurial journey today, with expert support guaranteed.
scroll for more
Starts at $0 + state fee and only takes 5-10 minutes
Last Updated: October 24, 2025
The world of interior decorating, with its blend of creativity and practicality, requires an initial investment ranging from $2,000 to over $10,000, covering training, equipment, and marketing expenses. In this guide, we’ll explore the essential skills needed to thrive in this industry, including a keen artistic eye, up-to-date knowledge of design trends, business management abilities, and strong communication capabilities.
The demand for interior decorators remains steady, with opportunities spanning both residential and commercial markets, and an average profit margin ranging from 10% to 60%. However, the challenges are real, from staying on top of the ever-evolving design trends to managing client expectations and balancing creativity with functionality. Let’s discuss the steps to build your dream interior decorating business.
Owning your own business lets you set your schedule, choose your clients, and build the professional community and life you desire. And, as a bonus, there are no educational requirements for interior design. However, you may benefit from some of the higher-education opportunities in this field, and a few states do require general licensing for working in commercial spaces. You can get started with your interior decorating business by following these steps.
Writing a business plan is your opportunity to put your dream on paper, figure out exactly how this adventure could play out successfully, and avoid common, costly business mistakes many small businesses make. Here are some pointers to write your small business plan.
You must register your business with the IRS if you choose an incorporated structure, such as a limited liability company (LLC) or corporation. Many design startups are either sole proprietorships or LLCs. Choose the structure with the best legal and tax setup for your situation. For more information please see: What is a Sole Proprietorship?
Since you’ll likely be in other people’s spaces and spending money on their behalf, the liability protection of an LLC is worth considering. Housing your business in an LLC structure shields your personal assets from business liability (if your business is sued, creditors can’t come after your personal bank accounts, house, car, etc.). It also prevents the double taxation that many corporations experience, in which the same money is taxed both on the corporate level and the individual level.
You can form an LLC online. Research what business licenses you may need, too. Also, remember that some states have general registration requirements to work unsupervised in commercial spaces.
Your business name should be memorable, unique, and reflect your brand. Check to ensure the website domain and social media profiles are available for your business name. You don’t want anyone confusing your business with another one with a similar name, which could cost you clients and bring on legal repercussions.
Be as creative as you’d like, and don’t rush. Make a shortlist, and live with the names in your head for a few days. What resonates? Some interior decoration businesses choose a creative doing business as (DBA) name for client-facing materials like websites and social media.
Name your decorating business
Enter your desired LLC name to get started
Using the structure you selected (LLC, corporation, etc.), register your interior design firm with state and local agencies. Get an employer identification number (EIN) from the IRS. You’ll need an EIN and business registration documents when you open bank accounts. Don’t mix personal banking with business finances, as this “pierces the corporate veil” and can impact your liability protection. In other words, your creditors might be able to come after your personal assets if you mix your personal and business banking.
Check with your county and municipality to see if there are additional licensing requirements for interior designers. Finally, consult local insurance agents to determine what type(s) of general liability insurance are best for your interior decorating business.
What will it cost to start your interior design business? It can be helpful to think of costs in terms of one-time and ongoing expenses.
One-time expenses and startup costs include furniture, computer equipment, tools of the trade, logo design, and business registration fees. It can also include the service fees for a business registration service if you choose to use one. Consider what’s truly necessary right now and what could wait until the business can afford it.
Ongoing expenses could be your salary, taxes, consultant fees, and office rent. Factor in skills and relationship development costs, as those will be key to achieving ongoing success. This means travel to trade shows and meetings, meals, classes, and thank-you gifts.
It can be tempting to take everything on yourself to keep costs low, but consider the value of your time. “The design industry is a very specific industry when it comes to fees and commissions,” Ellie Cullman of Cullman & Kravis told Architectural Digest, “so I would recommend that, from the beginning, you should bring on board an attorney and an accountant who has knowledge of the design industry.”
Cullman also recommends hiring a bookkeeper to handle the paperwork. Bookkeeping can be a very tedious process. You probably won’t want to waste time that would be better spent shopping for new clients.
Check out these forms of government assistance grants for small business owners. Loan programs from the Small Business Administration (SBA) may be available at your bank, or a personal loan could make sense.
Think about family and friends, too. They may be willing to loan or invest to help get your interior decorating business off the ground, but consider the impact on these relationships if things go wrong. truth about business credit cards are an option as well, just be cautious you don’t run up a big debt with no payback plan, as the interest costs can be astronomical.
Much of your up-front spending will create the look and ecosystem for the business. It’ll set you up both virtually and in real life and equip you to provide the services you promise.
To create your business brand, a logo and website are crucial. If you can’t design them yourself, hire a professional. Business cards, letterhead, and thank-you notes will be needed as well.
Also, create an office space that reflects your interior decorating business brand. Paint, lighting, furniture, rugs, desks, etc. — consider this your first job for your new business, whether you’re setting up shop in a coworking space or a home office.
To provide the services you promise, you’ll need a computer and a good printer, along with interior design software that helps communicate your vision to the client. Other tools of the trade include measuring tape, paint swatches, a color wheel, a camera, fabric samples, and more.
In addition to your website, which is important to optimize for search engines, social media plays a major part in marketing your interior decorating business. It gives you an opportunity to share visuals related to all your design work and even share free design tips to attract potential clients. Be consistent in both your timing and look across Twitter, Facebook, Pinterest, Instagram, LinkedIn, and whatever other social media sites you use.
Also, register with Google Business Profiles to take advantage of its marketing opportunities and get included in local business and telephone directories. Offline, attend networking events, join local business groups like the Chamber of Commerce, and hand out business cards liberally to market your small business. Consider providing services free to a charity, which raises your visibility in the community.
Starting an interior decorating business can be challenging. However, with hard work, talent, and dedication to relationship-building, designers with talent can find success in this industry.
Startup costs can be low, too. And while certifications and higher education are available, they aren’t required in most states. Best of all, you get to be creative all the time and get paid for it. If you’re ready to start your business today, we’ll form your company for just $0 + state fee.
Consider formation fees, franchise taxes, the legal and court system, investor relations, and the tax structure of states when determining the location for your business. For the vast majority of entrepreneurs, it’s easiest to simply form an LLC or corporation in your interior design company’s home state.
It certainly can be if you have a well thought-out business plan and execute it successfully. The interior design industry was worth $25.5 billion in 2022 in the U.S. alone.
Additional Resources
Start an LLC in Your State
When it comes to compliance, costs, and other factors, these are popular states for forming an LLC.
Disclaimer: The content on this page is for information purposes only and does not constitute legal, tax, or accounting advice. For specific questions about any of these topics, seek the counsel of a licensed professional.
Written by ZenBusiness Editorial Team
The ZenBusiness Editorial Team has more than 20 years of combined small business publishing experience and has helped over 850,000 entrepreneurs launch and grow their companies. The team’s writers and business formation experts are dedicated to providing accurate, practical, and trustworthy guidance so business owners can make confident decisions.
Ready to start your interior design business?
Need Interior Decorating ideas to get started?
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https://www.holopundits.com/blog/2022/04/14-augmented-reality-development-ideas-for-your-next-business.html
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Augmented Reality (AR) is one of the hottest topics in technology today - the latest big thing that everyone is talking about. By all indications, it is here to stay, and forward-looking companies are exploring the many opportunities it presents.
Thankfully, anyone can create an AR app; yes, the design sequence is a bit complex but not impossible. You can easily join the immersive bandwagon with the right idea and development team.
So, while we can help you design custom AR apps for your business, you need to come up with suitable ideas. To help you start the idea creation process, below are 14 suggestions on the types of AR projects you can undertake as a start-up or an established business.
Top 14 AR Ideas to Kick-Start Your Business
1. AR Sports App
If your day-to-day revolves around sports, you might want to design an AR Sports app for your business. AR sports apps let fans enjoy sports in a whole new way. Spectators and players can see real-time stats and information, watch a video feed, get directions to the next destination, etc. AR sporting apps are great for everything, from watching the game, playing a game, or learning. Players can even interact or get competitive with friends with the right apps.
2. AR e-Commerce App
The e-commerce space is overcrowded; stand out with an AR app! An AR e-commerce app can help you create AR experiences that bring your products to life, making it easier for customers to visualize how they might look in real life. You can also use AR to create simulations of items in your product line, allowing customers to easily visualize how these items might look on their shelves or in their closets.
3. AR Shopping App
Augmented Reality shopping app makes shopping easier and more efficient. For instance, finding the right gift for friends or family can be quite difficult, especially when shopping for multiple people. With an augmented reality app, you can help your customers scan a product's barcode and see a selection of related products. Consumers can then pick the ones they like best and send them to their friends to view and approve. That way, you save them the stress of exchanging unwanted gifts.
4. AR Landscaping App
Let's say you are into landscaping and gardening. Have you always dreamed of helping your customers turn their backyard into a secret garden paradise? Or have you always wanted to help your customers easily check out what's happening on their lawn beyond the house? If yes, it's time to stop dreaming and start investing. AR apps for landscaping and gardening can help your clients transform their lawn, garden, or patio into a virtual playground.
5. AR Building Apps
If you're in the building and construction industry, this one's for you. AR building apps provide interactive 3D models that help with the planning and execution of construction projects. Using an AR building app allows you to create a 3D model of your building and share it with your clients or team members. Plus, you can use it to streamline scheduling and estimating tasks.
6. AR Medicine Apps
Verbally educating patients about their health is one thing; showing them how their everyday reality affects their health is another. An AR Medicine app can show a patient how to take an antibiotic properly while immersing the patient with information on the implications of doing it wrong. You can also use the app to guide patients through complex surgical procedures and dental work, helping them stay as calm and informed as possible.
7. Tours
With millions of travellers looking to explore new places and cities, the need for AR-based tour guides is booming. People are always on the move, and they want easy ways to explore new cities and destinations. You can show people the best attractions and restaurants in a city with an app. You can also guide them through the city by showing the best places to visit and what is the best at each location. With the help of AR, you can even add virtual tours for museum exhibits, art galleries, and architecture.
8. AR Dental App
You can create AR experiences to offer virtual dental check-ups, dental treatments, and dental mouth inspections. Have your AR experiences based on the theme of a dentist's office. For example, you can use an AR dental app to create a check-up experience that includes a virtual toothbrush and toothpaste, a virtual mirror for brushing your teeth, and an office chair for rest.
9. Collaboration
AR has the potential to revolutionize business collaboration. You can use AR collaborative apps to bring people together from all over the world and help them collaborate as if they were in the same room. AR apps have the power to help you and your team communicate on projects, communicate with clients, and create an efficient collaborative process.
10. Education
Educators can use AR software to create digital content for students. Teachers can create digital textbooks and interactive infographics to help with complex concepts. You can also use AR presentations and AR walkthroughs to promote engaging lessons, like AR history projects, AR visual novels, AR tutorials, AR presentations, etc. AR educational apps simplify the assessment process, helping teachers test and grade students' knowledge.
11. Travel
Many people shy away from the idea of traveling because they find it hard to pack their bags, get tickets, or save money for a vacation. But what if we told you that you could experience the world in a new way? Thanks to AR, you can explore the world virtually by seeing places and things not physically present. This is perfect for those afraid of heights, traveling to remote areas, or traveling solo. Creating a travel and tourism AR app can help potential customers see monuments, museums, and cultural sites from a new perspective, explore the world's most popular travel destinations, find nearby attractions and cultural sites, and plan their next trip.
12. 3D printing
When it comes to 3D modelling, an app can be an incredibly helpful tool if you have a reliable internet connection and a smartphone. You can create a 3D printing AR app for beginners and create simple 3D models from their favorite digital resources. For additional excitement, you can allow users to enjoy many advanced features that are only available with premium AR apps - like the ability to export models to Sketchfab and other free and paid 3D model hosting sites.
13.Product Description for Customer Service
AR has the potential to improve customer service by creating a more personal shopping experience and remote assistance. One key aspect of AR in customer service is its ability to help your customers view the desired product in a suitable environment before purchasing, which could help determine if an item is worth buying.
You can use AR apps to create a more realistic experience for customers, letting them experience what it will be like to use a new product before buying it. Plus, with AR's remote assistance, you can use AR to let customers "see" what their agent sees, taking the mystery out of customer support interactions.
14. Business presentation
Business presentations are always nerve-wracking experiences. Like most business owners, you've probably experienced those uncomfortable moments just prior to speaking to your staff, clients, or prospective business partners.
You can create AR apps for business presentations in a few different ways. Create an app that allows users to overlay a digital layer on top of existing information to improve retention and understanding of complex content. Or you can create AR apps that support custom designs, allowing users to showcase company culture during presentations.
Conclusion
Augmented reality offers a lot of potential. However, many businesses don't know how to implement it. Virtually any business, from start-up to an established business, can benefit from augmented reality development; they just need the right ideas and a dependable AR development team.
At this point, we believe you have all the resources you need to generate the right AR development idea for your business. If you'd like to take your augmented reality dreams a step further and turn your ideas into reality, we recommend you contact us today.
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This article was co-authored by Jennifer Clark. Jennifer Clark is an Evolution Coach and the Founder of Soulful Solutions, her life consulting business which helps both individuals and organizations evolve and grow into their full potential based in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. She has over 20 years of experience assisting over 8000 individuals with life consulting, workshop facilitation, and public speaking training. She received a Risk Management Certification from the Sprott School of Business in 2000, an Integrated Energy Therapy Master and Instruction Certificate in 2004, and an Assertiveness Coach Certificate in 2015. She earned a BA with Honors in Political Science from Queen's University in 1992.
There are 11 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page.
wikiHow marks an article as reader-approved once it receives enough positive feedback. This article received 40 testimonials and 93% of readers who voted found it helpful, earning it our reader-approved status.
This article has been viewed 1,134,681 times.
Creating a powerful action plan always begins with having a clear purpose, vision or goal in mind. It's designed to take you from wherever you are right now directly to the accomplishment of your stated goal. With a well-designed plan, you can achieve virtually any goal you set out to accomplish.
Steps
-
Know what you want to do.[1] The less clear you are about what you want to do, the less effective your plan will be. Try to specifically define what you want to achieve as early as possible — preferably before starting your project.
- Example: You are trying to complete your master’s thesis — basically a very long essay — which needs to be about 40,000 words. It will include an introduction, a literature review (in which you critically discuss other research that informs yours, and discuss your methodology), several chapters in which you put your ideas into practice using concrete examples, and a conclusion. You have 1 year to write it.
-
Work backwards from your end goal. Identify your end goal, then list everything you need to do to accomplish it. Depending on your goal, you may even consider different ways to reach your goal. After you know what you need to accomplish, break this down into actionable steps to help you create a more realistic plan.
- Keep in mind that your plan may change as you work toward your goal, so stay flexible.
- Make sure that your goals are S.M.A.R.T. to ensure that your plan is effective:[2]
- Specific - Be clear about what you want to achieve.
- Measurable - You can break down the goal into measurable checkpoints.
- Attainable - You are capable of completing the steps necessary to reach the goal.
- Relevant - The goal makes sense for your life and purpose.
- Timely - You have the time to work toward your goal and are progressing on schedule.
Advertisement -
Be specific and realistic in your planning. Having a specific goal is just the beginning: you need to be specific and realistic in every aspect of your project — for example, by stating specific and achievable schedules, milestones, and final outcomes.
- Being specific and realistic while planning a long project is all about pro-actively reducing stress that can accompany poorly planned projects such as missed deadlines and exhausting long hours.
- Example: To finish your thesis on time, you need to write roughly 5,000 words per month, which will give you a couple of months at the end of your timeline to polish your ideas. Being realistic means not placing the expectation on yourself to write more than 5,000 words each month.
- If you’re working as a teaching assistant for three of those months, you’ll need to consider that you may not be able to complete 15,000 words in that time, and you’ll need to spread that amount out over your other months.
-
Set measurable milestones. Milestones mark significant stages along the road to achieving your end goal. Create milestones easily by starting at the end (the accomplishment of the goal) and working your way backwards to your present day and circumstances.
- Having milestones can help you — and if applicable, your team — stay motivated by breaking the work into smaller chunks and tangible goals so that you don’t need to wait until the project is completely finished to feel as though you’ve accomplished something.
- Don’t leave too much time or too little time between milestones — spacing them two weeks apart has been found to be effective.[3]
- Example: When writing your thesis, resist the urge to set milestones based on chapter completions, as this could be a matter of months. Instead, set smaller milestones — perhaps based on word counts — every two weeks, and reward yourself when you hit them.
-
Break large tasks into smaller, more manageable chunks. Some tasks or milestones may seem more daunting to achieve than others.
- If you’re feeling overwhelmed by a large task, you can help ease your anxiety and make it feel more doable by breaking it down into smaller, more manageable chunks.
- Example: The lit review is often the most difficult chapter to write, as it forms the foundation of your thesis. In order to complete your lit review, you need to do a significant amount of research and analysis before you can even begin writing.
- You can break it into three smaller chunks: research, analysis, and writing. You can break it down even smaller by choosing specific articles and books that you need to read, and setting deadlines for analyzing them and writing about them.
-
Make scheduled lists. Make a list of tasks that you need to complete in order to hit your milestones. A list on its own will not be effective — you must write this list into a timeline associated with specific, realistic actions.
- Example: By breaking your lit review into smaller chunks, you’ll know exactly what you need to get done, and can figure out a realistic timeframe for those tasks. Perhaps every one to two days you will have to read, analyze, and write about one key reading.
-
Put timelines on everything. Without specific time frames and deadlines, work will definitely expand to fill the time allotted, and some tasks may never get completed.
- No matter what action items you choose for which phase of your action plan, it is essential that a time frame be attached to absolutely everything.
- Example: If you know that it takes you roughly 1 hour to read 2,000 words, and you’ll be reading a 10,000-word article, you need to give yourself at least 5 hours to complete that article.
- You’ll need to also account for at least 2 meals during that time, as well as short breaks every 1 to 2 hours for when your brain is feeling tired. In addition, you’ll want to add at least an hour onto your final number just to account for any possible unanticipated interruptions.
-
Create a visual representation. Once you’ve listed your action items and set a specific timeline, create some type of visual representation of your plan. You could use a flow chart, a Gantt chart, a spreadsheet, or some other type of business tool to accomplish this.
- Keep this visual representation in an easily accessible place — even on a wall in your office or study room, if possible.
-
Mark things off as you go. Marking things off as you go will not only feel satisfying, it will help you keep on track lest you forget what you’ve already done.
- This is particularly important if you’re working with other people. If you’re working with other people, you might consider using a shared online document so that everyone can check in no matter where they are.
-
Keep a record of everything. As you work through your action plan, keep notes of everything. You may find it helpful to have a binder with different tabs in it to section off different aspects of your planning process. Some examples of sections:
- Ideas/Miscellaneous notes
- Daily Schedules
- Monthly Schedules
- Milestones
- Research
- Follow-up
- Individuals involved/Contacts
-
Don’t stop until you’ve reached your final goal. Once your plan is established and shared with the team (if applicable), and your milestones are scheduled, take daily actions to achieve your goal.
- Although you want to stay persistent, you should also be flexible. It's likely that unexpected events will come up that require you to shift your schedule or plan.
-
Change the date if you must, but never give up on your goal. Occasionally, circumstances or unforeseen events can arise that throw a wrench in your ability to meet deadlines, complete tasks and achieve your goal.
- If this happens, do not get discouraged – revise your plan and continue working to meet targets and move forward.
-
Get yourself a good planner. Whether this is an app or a book, you'll need a planner that will allow you to plan out your time by the hour, each day of the week. Make sure it’s easy to read and easy to use, otherwise you’ll likely not make use of it.
- Studies have shown that physically writing things down (i.e. with pen and paper) will make you more likely to do them.[4] For this reason, you may be best off using a physical planner to plan your time out.
- Keeping a planner also helps you relieve stress and feel calmer because it makes it less likely that you'll ruminate on what needs to be done. Additionally, it helps your plan become more solid in your mind.[5]
-
Avoid to-do lists. So you have a long list of things to do, but when will you actually do them? To-do lists are not as effective as scheduling out your tasks. When you schedule your tasks, you make the time to get them done.[6]
- When you have specific time blocks in which to work (many day planners literally contain hourly time blocks), you’ll also find that you’re less likely to procrastinate, as you only have an allotted time in which to get your work done before you must move on to the next scheduled task.
-
Learn how to time block. Blocking out your time helps you get a more realistic idea of how much time you actually have in a day. Start with your highest-priority tasks and work backwards.
- Do this for your whole week. Having a broader view of how your days will add up will help you refine your schedule to be as productive as possible.[7]
- Some experts even suggest having at least a general idea of what your whole month will look like.[8]
- Some people recommend starting at the end of your day and working backwards — so if you’re done work/homework at 5 p.m., plan backwards from there, to when your day starts, for example, at 7 a.m.[9]
-
Schedule time for leisure and breaks. Studies have shown that scheduling even your free time can help increase your satisfaction with life.[10] It has also been proven that long work hours (50+ hours a week) in fact make you less productive.[11]
- Sleep deprivation will kill your productivity.[12] Make sure that you sleep at least 7 hours each night if you’re an adult, or 8.5 hours a night if you’re a teenager.
- Studies show that scheduling small, “strategic renewals” (i.e. workouts, brief naps, meditation, stretching) into your day will boost your productivity and overall health.[13]
-
Set aside time to plan your week out. Many experts suggest scheduling time right at the start of your week to sit down and plan your week. Figure out how you can best use each day to work toward achieving your goals.[14]
- Account for any work or social obligations you have; if you find your schedule is tight, you may need to drop some of your lower-priority plans.
- This doesn’t mean dropping social activities. It’s important to keep up with your good friends and to nurture your close relationships. You need a support network.
-
Know what a sample scheduled day looks like. To return to the thesis-writing example, a regular day might look something like this:
- 7 a.m.: Wake up
- 7:15 a.m.: Exercise
- 8:30 a.m.: Shower and dress
- 9:15 a.m.: Make and eat breakfast
- 10 a.m.: Work on Thesis - writing (plus 15 minutes of small breaks)
- 12:15 p.m.: Lunch
- 1:15 p.m.: Emails
- 2 p.m.: Research and response to research (including 20 to 30 minutes of breaks/snacks)
- 5 p.m.: Wrap up, check emails, set primary goals for tomorrow
- 5:45 p.m.: Leave desk, go grocery shopping
- 7:00 p.m.: Make dinner, eat
- 9:00 p.m.: Relax — play music
- 10:00 p.m.: Prepare for bed, read in bed (30 minutes), sleep
-
Know that every day does not have to look the same. You can split up tasks into only 1 or 2 days a week — sometimes it’s even helpful to break up tasks as you can return to them with a fresh perspective.
- Example: Maybe you only write and do research Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, and on Thursdays you substitute writing with learning a musical instrument.
-
Schedule for problems. Build a little bit of extra time into every block that will account for a slow work day or an unanticipated interruption. A good rule of thumb is to give yourself double the time you expect a task to take — particularly when you're just starting out.
- As you become more comfortable with your tasks, or if you already have a good sense of how long something will take, you can shave your time down, but it’s always a good idea to leave in at least a small buffer.
-
Be flexible and gentle with yourself. Especially as you’re starting out, be prepared to tweak your schedule as you go. It’s part of the learning process. You may find it helpful to block your time out in pencil.
- You may also find it helpful to spend a week or two recording what you do each day into a planner as you go. This will help you get a sense of how you spend your time and how much time each task takes.
-
Disconnect. Set times in your day where you’ll check your emails or social media. Be strict with yourself, as it’s possible to lose hours just checking in every few minutes here and there.[15]
- This includes turning off your phone, if possible — at least for periods where you really want to focus on work.
-
Do less. This relates to disconnecting. Figure out the most important things in your day — the ones that will help you achieve your goals, and focus on those. De-prioritize the less important things that fragment your day: emails, mindless paperwork, etc.
- One expert recommends not checking your emails for at least the first one or two hours of your day; this way, you can focus on your important tasks without getting distracted by the things that those emails may contain.[16]
- If you know you have a lot of small tasks to do (for example, email, paperwork, tidying up your workspace), group them together into a chunk of time in your schedule rather than allowing them to fragment your day or break the flow of other more important tasks that might require more concentration.[17]
-
Be positive. Staying positive is fundamental to achieving your goals.[18] Believe in yourself and the people around you. Counter any negative self-talk with positive affirmations.
- In addition to being positive, you will benefit from surrounding yourself with positive people. Research has shown that over time, you adopt the habits of those with whom you spend the most time, so choose your company wisely.[19]
-
Reward yourself.[20] This is particularly important to do each time you hit a milestone. Give yourself tangible rewards — for example, a nice dinner at your favorite restaurant when you hit your first two-week milestone, or a back massage for your two-month milestone.
- One expert suggests giving a friend money and telling them that they can only give it to you if you finish a given task by a specified time. If you don’t finish the task, your friend keeps the money.[21]
-
Get a support network. It’s important to have your friends and family on your side; it’s also important to build connections with people who have similar goals to you. That way you can check in with each other.[22]
- Recruit an accountability partner who knows your deadlines and will help you stay accountable to your goals. For example, they might text you and ask about your progress, or you might check in with them weekly over coffee.
-
Track your progress. Research has shown that progress is the highest motivator.[23] You can track your progress simply by ticking off tasks in your schedule as you go.
-
Go to bed early and get up early. When you read about the schedules of highly productive people, a large percentage of them start their days early. These people also have a morning routine — often this is something they can look forward to doing before they go to work.
- Positive ways to start the morning are to do some sort of exercise (from light stretching and yoga to an hour at the gym), eat a healthy breakfast, and spend 20 to 30 minutes writing in a journal.[24]
-
Give yourself downtime. Taking breaks is imperative to staying motivated. If you are always working, you’ll wind up exhausting yourself. Taking breaks is a pro-active way to prevent yourself from getting exhausted and losing time that you don’t want to lose.
- Example: Step away from your computer, turn off your phone, just sit somewhere quiet and do nothing. If ideas come to you, write them down in a notebook; if they don’t, enjoy having nothing to do.[25]
- Example: Meditate. Turn off your phone’s ringer, turn off any notifications that you might get, and set a timer for up to 30 minutes, or however long you can afford. Just sit quietly and try to clear your mind. When thoughts come into your mind, you might find it useful to label them and then let them go — for example, if you think about work, just quietly say in your head, “Work” and then let it go, and keep doing this as the thoughts arise.
-
Visualize. Take a few minutes now and then to think about your goal and how it will feel to have achieved it. This will help you get through the harder times that may accompany pursuing your goal.
-
Know that it won’t be easy. Things worth having are rarely easy to get. You may have to resolve a lot of issues or work through some things as you work toward your goal. Accept them as they come.
-
Write about what you want. Do this in a journal or a text document. Think about what overall goal you want to achieve and why you want to achieve it.[28] This is particularly helpful if you're not entirely sure what you want to do, but just have a feeling about it.
- For example, if you want to make more money, you may discover that you actually want more freedom. Without knowing that, you might get locked into something that doesn't serve your true goal, like landing in a job where you have plenty of money but no free time for your family or hobbies.
- Writing regularly in a journal is a great way to keep in touch with yourself and to keep up to date on how you’re feeling. Many people claim that writing helps them clarify how they feel and what they want.
-
Do your research. Once you have an idea of what you want to do, do your research. Researching your goals will help you narrow down the best way to achieve them.
- Reach out to people who have achieved goals similar to yours. They can provide you with helpful tips about what works, as well as what to avoid.
- Online forums like Reddit are a great place to look for discussions on most topics — particularly if you want an insider’s view on specific careers.
- Example: While writing your thesis you’re beginning to wonder what you’ll end up doing with it. Read about what others have done with similar degrees to the one that you’re pursuing. This might even help you gear your thesis towards publications or other opportunities that can help further your career.
-
Consider your options and choose the one that best serves you.[29] After you’ve done your research you’ll have a good sense of what each path and result will look like. This should make it easier for you to choose the path that will best serve you in achieving your goal.
-
Be aware of things related to your goal that may affect you. This includes being aware of things that may hinder you in your goals — in the case of thesis writing this may include mental exhaustion, lack of research, or unexpected work responsibilities.
-
Be flexible. Your goals may change as you move toward them. Allow room for yourself, and as a result, your goals, to develop. That said, don’t just give up when it gets hard. There’s a difference between losing interest and losing hope!
Expert Q&A
-
QuestionI have a final exam in 3 months. Now, I need a good plan to make a great result. How can I prepare myself?Paul Chernyak, LPCPaul Chernyak is a Licensed Professional Counselor in Chicago. He graduated from the American School of Professional Psychology in 2011.
Licensed Professional CounselorBe specific about your goal for your final exam. Next, set deadlines for studying. Find out what material will be on the exam and break this down into study sessions. For example, you could study 1 topic each week until you complete all of the topics. -
QuestionAs a counselor in a study center, how can I make a monthly plan?Paul Chernyak, LPCPaul Chernyak is a Licensed Professional Counselor in Chicago. He graduated from the American School of Professional Psychology in 2011.
Licensed Professional CounselorFirst, identify your objective. Then, break your objective down into clear, actionable steps. Finally, set deadlines for each step.
Video
Tips
-
If you think that scheduling your time sounds boring, think about it this way: scheduling your days and weeks, and even months, ahead of time saves you having to make decisions on a regular basis about what you’ll do next. This frees up your mind to be creative and focused on the work that matters.[30]Thanks
-
You can apply the same planning and goal-identifying techniques to larger, more long-term goals such as choosing a career, for example.Thanks
Warnings
- The importance of giving yourself breaks cannot be emphasized enough. Do not overwork yourself; you will only wind up being less productive and less creative.Thanks
References
- ↑ Jennifer Clark. Life Coach. Expert Interview
- ↑ https://www.yourcoach.be/en/coaching-tools/smart-goal-setting.php
- ↑ http://www.brighthubpm.com/project-planning/68427-successful-project-milestone-planning/
- ↑ http://www.bakadesuyo.com/2014/08/how-to-stop-being-lazy/
- ↑ https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/mood-thought/201307/how-reduce-worry-and-rumination-1-become-more-specific
- ↑ http://www.bakadesuyo.com/2014/08/how-to-stop-being-lazy/
- ↑ http://www.bakadesuyo.com/2014/08/how-to-stop-being-lazy/
- ↑ http://www.bakadesuyo.com/2014/08/how-to-stop-being-lazy/
- ↑ http://www.bakadesuyo.com/2014/08/how-to-stop-being-lazy/
- ↑ http://www.bakadesuyo.com/2014/08/how-to-stop-being-lazy/
- ↑ http://www.cnbc.com/2015/01/26/working-more-than-50-hours-makes-you-less-productive.html
- ↑ http://www.cnbc.com/2015/01/26/working-more-than-50-hours-makes-you-less-productive.html
- ↑ https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/10/opinion/sunday/relax-youll-be-more-productive.html?_r=0
- ↑ http://www.bakadesuyo.com/2014/08/how-to-stop-being-lazy/
- ↑ http://www.bakadesuyo.com/2014/08/how-to-stop-being-lazy/
- ↑ http://time.com/2933971/how-to-motivate-yourself-3-steps-backed-by-science/
- ↑ http://time.com/2933971/how-to-motivate-yourself-3-steps-backed-by-science/
- ↑ http://time.com/2933971/how-to-motivate-yourself-3-steps-backed-by-science/
- ↑ http://time.com/2933971/how-to-motivate-yourself-3-steps-backed-by-science/
- ↑ http://time.com/2933971/how-to-motivate-yourself-3-steps-backed-by-science/
- ↑ http://time.com/2933971/how-to-motivate-yourself-3-steps-backed-by-science/
- ↑ http://time.com/2933971/how-to-motivate-yourself-3-steps-backed-by-science/
- ↑ http://time.com/2933971/how-to-motivate-yourself-3-steps-backed-by-science/
- ↑ http://time.com/2933971/how-to-motivate-yourself-3-steps-backed-by-science/
- ↑ http://time.com/2933971/how-to-motivate-yourself-3-steps-backed-by-science/
- ↑ https://www.goodreads.com/author/quotes/4493.Eckhart_Tolle
- ↑ http://tinybuddha.com/blog/the-power-of-acceptance-stop-resisting-and-find-the-lesson/
- ↑ Jennifer Clark. Life Coach. Expert Interview
- ↑ Jennifer Clark. Life Coach. Expert Interview
- ↑ http://www.bakadesuyo.com/2014/06/most-productive-people/
About This Article
To create an effective action plan, start by setting a clear, specific objective. Then, create milestones for the big parts of your overall goal, like finishing the first draft of your book. For each milestone, create a list of specific tasks and set a timeline for finishing each one. Next, create a visual representation of your milestones and timeline, such as a chart or spreadsheet. Finally, mark tasks off as you work and don’t stop until you’ve reached your goal. For time management strategies that will help you work through your action plan, read on!
Reader Success Stories
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"I am very much happy to have come across this page because I was in serious need of help on how to write my project. Now I am enlightened and will love to go through it again, especially managing your time, staying motivated and identifying your goals."..." more
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How should I do time manage spreading time working on multiple projects? For example, should I "time block" your calendar and say 8am to 10am I work Project A. And 10am to 11am I work on Project B. What are other methods besides time blocking?
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It hasn’t exactly been a box office blockbuster, but the new movie, “Prince of Persia,” has been seen and enjoyed by thousands since it opened in late May.
Based on a video game, the action adventure film tells the story of a young street boy who is adopted into the family of an ancient Persian king and becomes a prince alongside two brothers. He grows up to be a man of integrity and courage, and with the help of a beautiful princess, he saves the kingdom and perhaps the world, from the evil schemings of a power hungry individual.
This cinematic piece is great fun. It’s also complete fiction. It may surprise you to learn that a “prince of Persia” is mentioned in the Bible. This one is for real.
The reference comes in the Old Testament book of Daniel, chapter 10, verse 13. This prince is not a human being but an evil angel. He temporarily thwarts one of God’s angels, possibly Gabriel, who is attempting to deliver an answer to Daniel’s prayer seeking information and counsel about the future of his countrymen, the Jews. The narrative implies that wicked territorial spirits under the command of Satan were assigned to nations as a way of opposing God’s will and people.
This prince of Persia was responsible for trying to manipulate the decisions of the kingdom that had just been chosen to release many of the Jews held in captivity. He managed to struggle with God’s angel and delay for three weeks the response to Daniel’s prayer. His evil machinations were overcome by the assistance of God’s chief angel, Michael, who came to the aid of the heavenly messenger. It’s interesting that “Legion,” another Hollywood film released earlier this year, has Michael and Gabriel pitted against one another. Nothing could be further from the truth. They’re on the same page, the same team, serving God!
All of this sounds so far-fetched and hard to believe in our sophisticated, technological age. But evangelical theology affirms the truthfulness of it. Some lessons emerge.
For starters, spiritual warfare is a reality. There is a titanic, cosmic battle going on in the supernatural, invisible realm all around us. We can’t see it but good angels slug it out with demonic forces in a conflict to determine who will persuade and control nations and individuals. In the admittedly pictorial, apocalyptic book of Revelation you get strong hints of this in chapter 12, verses 7-9. It’s mentioned elsewhere in the New Testament, in Ephesians 6:12, where the Apostle Paul makes it clear that a monumental, ongoing struggle is being waged between spiritual forces.
National and international philosophies, policies, and actions could well be influenced and shaped more by what we can’t see than by what we can. Personal choices, too, are often impacted greatly by this continuing wrestling between good and evil beings over a fallen world whose ultimate redemption has already been won and victoriously assured by the saving death of Christ on the cross. The outcome of the war has been determined, but skirmishes go on. Christians must decide each new day how to respond to the temptations faced so that they cooperate with God’s plan.
This old, old story also reminds us that prayer is really important. Daniel was so concerned about his people that he prayed for them, seeking God’s purposes for their future. Regrettably, most believers pray very little. In our churches, prayer is often the spiritual discipline that is emphasized the least. Someone has said that the devil is unhappy but not overly troubled when we go to church or read the Bible or share our faith — but he trembles when we pray!
It is probably in our praying that we have the greatest opportunity to actually make a difference in this world and partner with God in what he is up to. You could team up with God when you intercede for a grieving family whose name you read about on an obituary page. You work alongside the Lord when you pray for those who might be injured in that car accident that you come up on as you’re driving the interstate. When viewing the nightly news you could petition God about people and situations, even of global significance, that are mentioned and play a possible role in potential divine interventions. You might silently converse with the Lord about that hurting person sitting across from you in a doctor’s waiting room and thus be involved in heavenly activity.
There’s no doubt that spiritual battles will continue on in the invisible supernatural regions and in individual Christian lives until history wraps up. The angel lets Daniel in on that crucial fact in chapter 10, verse 20. But as was true for that towering Old Testament character, we can have hope and strength. Just as the heavenly being reminded Daniel that he was loved and valued by God, believers should know that they are prized and protected by the Father. As Daniel received a lifting touch from the angel, so we can draw encouragement from the often needed physical hugs and embraces that the Lord uses our human companions to bring to us when we’re down and depressed or lonely and confused.
And the most vital source for peace and strengthening as we face the challenges and uncertainties of life will come to us, as it did for Daniel, in the truth that God reveals to us in his word. That truth clues us in that the events happening on the world scene, though so often troubling, are ultimately in the hands of a wise and sovereign God and are being worked together toward a grand and positive conclusion. Immersing ourselves in Bible study can increase our confidence and stability.
The days of the real prince of Persia are numbered!
The Rev. Tommy Davidson is pastor of Riverside Baptist Church in Newport News. He can be reached by e-mail at Graceway51@aol.com.
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If you've ever found yourself puzzled by peculiar phrases that don't seem to make sense, you've probably entered the wonderful word of idioms, where language takes on a fun twist.
Idiomatic expressions are a type of informal language that have a meaning different from the meaning of the words in the expression.
Here's an example of an idiomatic expression:
Hold your tongue.
This idiom doesn't actually mean that you should stick your fingers in your mouth and grab a hold of your tongue. It means that you shouldn't talk.
People "hold their tongues" when they're in situations where they want to talk, but it would be better if they didn't. So, while their tongue is ready to do some talking, they "hold" it and don't say anything.
Let's look at 25 common English idioms and their meanings!
1. Tickled Pink: made very happy
2. Hands Down: no competition
3. Down in the Dumps: sad or depressed
4. Sick As A Dog: very sick
5. Under The Weather: not well
6. Rise and Shine: Wake up and be happy!
7. Close, But No Cigar: You were very close, but you didn't make it.
8. Till The Cows Come Home: for a very long time
9. Raining Cats and Dogs: Raining very hard
10. Driving Me/Her/Him Up The Wall: making me very annoyed
11. A Piece of Cake: very easy
12. Slap On The Wrist: A mild punishment
13. An Arm And a Leg: It is extremely expensive.
14 Pulling Your Leg: joking
15. Greek To Me: I don't understand.
16. Keep Your Chin Up: Be happy.
17. Hold Your Horses: Be patient.
18. In The Same Boat: All of us are in the same position.
19. When Pigs Fly: never
20. Bite The Bullet: To finally face your obstacles or do something you've been avoiding
21. Hit The Hay: To go to sleep
22. Kick The Bucket: To die, referred to in a lighthearted way
23. Hold Your Tongue: Don't talk about something you might want to talk about
24. Spill the Beans: Tell a secret
25. Loose Cannon: unpredictable
* As Wikipedia describes it, the literal definition of a loose cannon is, "a cannon which gets dislocated and moves about randomly on the decks of a battleship, creating a hazard to crew and equipment." This never meant much to me until I read Victor Hugo's novel "Ninety-Three." You can read the beautiful description here if you'd like. :)
If you'd like to use one of these expressions as an idiom, know that many of them need to be used in a very specific way—you can't change the words at all. Let's look at a couple of examples.
* If you try using an idiom and end up changing some of the words like this, it's likely that people will understand what you mean, but formulations like this will also disclose or draw attention to the fact that you're probably a non-native speaker. (That's not necessarily a bad thing!)
Gru's attempt to use this idiom in Despicable Me is endearing, and it makes movie-watchers love him more!
Every language has idioms, and they can be very difficult to learn if you're not a native speaker of that language. If English isn't your native language, the best thing that you can do is have conversations with native speakers and ask them about phrases that you don't understand.
Since idioms are influenced by the culture, learning the idioms of a language can be very interesting and enlightening! Here's a closer look at how idioms and culture are connected:
1. Cultural Insights and Values
Idioms often encapsulate cultural insights and values, providing a window into the mindset and priorities of a community. For example, the idiom spill the beans implies revealing a secret. While the phrase itself seems unrelated to its meaning, it goes back to Ancient Greece, where beans were used for voting.
2. Social Norms and Etiquette
Idioms often embody social norms, etiquette, and acceptable behavior within a culture. Understanding a culture's idiomatic expressions can help learners navigate social interactions. Study idioms before you visit a foreign country!
3. Humor and Playfulness
Culture influences the sense of humor embedded in idioms. Humorous idioms often employ cultural references or wordplay that resonate with native speakers. Idioms that rely on cultural knowledge usually don't translate well into other languages.
4. Language Evolution
Cultural shifts, changes in technology, and other factors can shape idiomatic expressions (and language as a whole) over time. New idioms can be created to reflect modern phenomena, while old idioms may lose relevance. Tracking the evolution of idioms in different languages offers insights into the changing cultural dynamics of each language's culture.
5. Cross-Cultural Communication
Idioms can be a double-edged sword in cross-cultural communication. While they add richness to language, they can also lead to misunderstandings if not interpreted correctly. Learning about idioms helps to create effective cross-cultural interactions.
Idioms are the linguistic embodiment of culture, encapsulating its nuances, history, values, and creative spirit!
Are the expressions listed above always idioms? Nope. The sayings listed on this page are only idioms when they're used together to have a meaning different from the words by themselves.
Someone could say the exact same words that are listed in one of these idiomatic expressions, but the person could mean them literally, and then the words would not create an idiom. This means that it's important to think about the context in which one of these expressions is used.
Let's look at an example with the expression keep your chin up.
Imagine that you're sitting with a friend describing how distraught you are by a low grade you received on a test. Your friend says, "Keep your chin up." In this situation, these words are being used as an idiom. Your friend is really telling you to stay positive and not get too sad.
Imagine you have just joined a gym, and the coach is teaching you how to do a pull-up. As your head nears the bar, your face is pointed down when it's supposed to be pointed up. Your coach might say, "Keep your chin up." In this situation, these words are not an idiom. Your coach is not telling you to have a positive attitude—she's telling you that you literally need to keep your chin toward the ceiling.
Many of these expressions will always be idiomatic, simply because there is no actual situation in life in which you'd use them literally. For example, cats and dogs are never actually going to be falling from the sky, so if you hear someone saying that it's raining cats and dogs, you can be sure that it's being used as an idiom!
Let's review what we covered on this page.
Hello! I'm Elizabeth O'Brien, and my goal is to get you jazzed about grammar.
I think your material is great. I am so thankful I found it.
- Larry, ESL Teacher
This is original content from https://www.english-grammar-revolution.com/idiomatic-expressions.html
If you'd like to teach or learn grammar the easy way—with sentence diagrams—check out our Get Smart Grammar Program.
It starts from the very beginning and teaches you grammar and sentence diagramming in easy, bite-size lessons.
Our Free Guide Gives You A Fun Way
To Teach And Learn The Basics v
Elizabeth O'Brien is the creator of Grammar Revolution.
Her lessons are guaranteed to give you more confidence in your communication skills and make you smile. :)
Other Helpful Resources
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Quite remarkably, I kept my New Years’ resolution this year: “Make 2020 a Visionary Year!” It sounds cheesy, yes, but I mean it sincerely.
Even more remarkably, I am leaving this year with even more optimism than I had when it began. Because I see things even better now. And no matter who is in the White House come January 20th, 2021, my vision will be more encompassing than it had been my whole life to date.
You see (pun intended), the trick is not to forget that there’s a full story, and instead to look at some parts of the story too closely. But most importantly, when you consider the full story to seek knowledge and understanding of it through compassion —humanity.
This quote comes to mind from Barbara W. Tuchman’s A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous 14th Century: “Disaster is rarely as pervasive as it seems from recorded accounts. The fact of being on the record makes it appear continuous and ubiquitous whereas it is more likely to have been sporadic both in time and place. Besides, persistence of the normal is usually greater than the effect of the disturbance, as we know from our own times. After absorbing the news of today, one expects to face a world consisting entirely of strikes, crimes, power failures, broken water mains, stalled trains, school shutdowns, muggers, drug addicts, neo-Nazis, and rapists. The fact is that one can come home in the evening—on a lucky day—without having encountered more than one or two of these phenomena. This has led me to formulate Tuchman's Law, as follows: ‘The fact of being reported multiplies the apparent extent of any deplorable development by five- to tenfold’ (or any figure the reader would care to supply).”
Tuchman has written that it has been the method of dealing with the working class since the 14th century. The church and aristocracy worked to keep the masses illiterate and working in the fields to support them.
Read those two sentences again.
But the truth is, we all possess the 20/20 vision, we just have to find the courage to sit and be patient with the unknown and unfamiliar circumstances until the full story reveals itself. This requires faith and trust to navigate the course, especially when the waves are rough. Because the media is owned by today’s “aristocracy.”
Barbara Tuchman is very important and matters a great deal to me. You see, despite being part of the world’s top elite and the crème de la crème of Manhattan, she was able on her own accord to write about history in literary terms, dismissing political influence.
Barbara Wertheim Tuchman was an American historian and author who won the Pulitzer Prize twice, for The Guns of August (1962), a best-selling history of the prelude to and the first month of World War I, and Stilwell and the American Experience in China (1971), a biography of General Joseph Stilwell.
Barbara Wertheim was born in 1912, the daughter of the banker Maurice Wertheim, an individual of wealth and prestige, the owner of The Nation magazine, president of the American Jewish Congress, prominent art collector, and a founder of the Theatre Guild. Her mother was the daughter of Henry Morgenthau, Woodrow Wilson's ambassador to the Ottoman Empire. Despite her social status she was herself committed to intellectual honesty.
From an early age, Tuchman, who grew up on the Upper East Side and Park Avenue, rubbed shoulders with the nation’s cultural and political elite. Her mother was part of the Morgenthau clan, making Tuchman the granddaughter of Henry Sr., ambassador to the Ottoman Empire during World War I, and niece to Henry Jr., secretary of the treasury under Franklin Roosevelt. Robert Morgenthau, Manhattan’s legendary district attorney, was her cousin.
Though she wrote about historical events, Tuchman’s relations with professional academic historians were uneasy. According to her, her lack of academic title and graduate degree was a benefit: “It’s what saved me. If I had taken a doctoral degree, it would have stifled any writing capacity.”
She accused historians of producing over-detailed studies that were unreadable. Instead, she preferred the literary approach. She was not a historian’s historian; she was a layperson’s historian who made the past interesting to millions of everyday readers.
Tuchman rejected the academic practice of prefabricating historical systems: "The historian who puts his system first can hardly escape the heresy of preferring the facts which suit his system best.” I agree with her. An association with heretics is impossible.
Barbara Tuchman was born to a patrician family, but her quest for knowledge became her quest for truth. I adore her.
My writing on this site about the War Lobby is a tribute to Barbara Tuchman’s powerful history of the 14th century, in A Distant Mirror —a story of plague, war, brigandage, bad government, insurrection, and schism.
Tuchman showed how these realities resulted in unrest among the lower classes, a failure of will at the top, and a pervasive sense of disintegration, an atmosphere in which a “cult of death” flourished. I have used no less than those same words.
The War Lobby can be expressed more simply as the cult of death. This is why the conspiracy theory about satanists running things behind the scenes never quite goes away. Subconsciously, people know that we are dealing with human monsters.
In my modest attempt at writing about the service nomads of globalism, I reflected upon how the Sephardim merchants of Amsterdam in the 17th century as Barbara Tuchman wrote in another context, offer a “distant mirror” that can be held up to the lives and issues faced by minority groups, in general, and Jews, specifically, today.
The ways in which the Sephardim grappled with the surrounding society, tolerance, the blending of cultures, and the limits of assimilation speak strongly to scholars confronting (or refusing to publicly confront, as the case may be) these very same issues in the modern world.
The economic and social opportunities for the Sephardim in 17th century Amsterdam presage the current discussions surrounding globalization and the formation and practice of identity politics and multiculturalism specific to Zionism and settler colonialism, in general.
If we use the “distant mirror” of history to study the positive factors that have allowed Jews and other minorities to live in productive harmony with their neighbors, we might achieve more than fighting anti-Semitism, racism, or even hate, in general.
Barbara Tuchman in Bible and Sword verifies that our some of our American forefathers were Protestant religious fanatics who claimed Judaism as their own. Some historians are quite well aware of all of this (but remain silent on the matter), most Jews are not. It was no secret — they flew the flag of Moses metaphorically, and culturally waged war with episcopal Christianity.
Protestantism has been partitioned greatly and is more divided theologically and ecclesiastically than the Catholic Church or Eastern Orthodoxy. Without any kind of unity in the Protestant Church, Christianity has been tremendously exploited for purely political purposes.
A theme throughout Tuchman’s work is the persistance of religion in politics, a seminal one that can only be addressed honestly —the importance and impact of religion.
During this pause sanitaire we have been afforded the wealthy opportunity of 20/20 vision, to see the turbulent political climate from a distant mirror of intellectual honesty.
During the stay at home time, I suggest checking out Practicing History: Selected Essays — Barbara Wertheim Tuchman. Tuchman presents ideas about history and how it should be written and then some of her actual writings are included to show why she is considered to be a master who rightly disagrees with trying to make history a science.
Narrative history is Barbara Tuchman’s medium—one which is not highly regarded in certain academic quarters. Her writing tells a story, because as she says, “human behavior is timeless."
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'Disaster is rarely as pervasive as it seems from recorded accounts' (BARBARA TUCHMAN). Discuss.
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As the capital of China and home to 7 UNESCO World Heritage sites, Beijing should be at the top of your list of cities to visit in China. This mega city offers everything from ancient temples and historical sites to delicious food, traditional hutong alleys, and a lively night scene.
I’ve lived in Beijing since August 2018 and have visited most of Beijing’s famous sites (multiple times!), spread out over many weekends and months. My sister and her husband recently came to visit Beijing for a week, so I wanted to condense as much of Beijing as I could into 7 days.
It was a challenging feat as there is so much to do and see in Beijing, and you really need more like a month to soak it all in! The itinerary I planned, however, turned out to be the perfect combination of Beijing’s best sites, foods, shopping, night-life, and relaxing time for a one week trip.
Here is my General Overview for One Week in Beijing:
- Day 1: Arrive from Airport, Wudaoying Hutong Shopping and Dinner
- Day 2: Tiananmen Square, Wangfujing Street, Silk Market
- Day 3: Forbidden City and Jingshan Park
- Day 4: Mutianyu Great Wall, Chinese Hot Pot
- Day 5: Lama Temple, Temple of Heaven, Friends Cafe
- Day 6: Houhai Lake, Beijing Zoo, Massages
- Day 7: Olympic Stadium, Summer Palace, etc.
Check out some of the things we did here:
Day 1: Arrive in Beijing
Beijing is a massive city, so make sure you know where you are staying and have the address in Chinese.
Depending on what time you come to Beijing (and how tired you are from the plane!), you may have some free time to explore and dip your toes into Beijing culture. If you’re looking for a place to explore, you can check out Wangfujing Street, Nanluoguxiang Street, or the Wudaoying Hutongs.
Wudaoying Street is close to where I live, so we did some shopping and strolling along this street before stopping for a drink on the rooftop of one of the many bars there.
Read 10 Tips For Your First Trip to China!
Day 2 : Tiananmen Square & Wangfujing Street
MORNING: Coffee and Relaxing
Still recovering a bit from jet lag, the morning was very relaxed. We grabbed coffee and breakfast at a coffee shop and prepared for a busy afternoon.
AFTERNOON: Tiananmen Square, Wangfujing Street, Silk Market
Tiananmen Square, the largest public square in the world, is right across the street from the southern side of the Forbidden City and it’s free to walk around inside.
Wangfujing Street is close to Tiananman Square – just one stop over on the metro or a 15-20 minute walk. This street is popular because of all the foods you can find, like the infamous scorpions people love to try in Beijing. Here are my top 10 streed foods you should try at Wangfujing!
Afterwards we went to the famous Silk Market, a place where you can find all kinds of knock-off bags and shopping. The ladies will call out to you trying to get you to buy things. “I remember you!” one called out as we walked by again. Another looked at our summer dresses (while other Chinese people are still in jackets and pants) and said “very summer.”
EVENING: Ghost Street and A Night Out
Many hours of shopping and bartering later, we went to Ghost Street for dinner, a famous Chinese restaurant street in Beijing.
Ghost Street is a popular place for street performers to go, and they’ll wander into restaurants and ask if you want to buy a song for them to play. My sister was so excited to try this and we were serenaded with “My Heart Will Go On” (Chinese people love Titanic.)
We went out for drinks and dancing afterwards – Beijing has so many options for bars and clubs! It depends where you’d like to go and what you want to do. We went to QS and Playhouse, but other good bars options include The Great Outdoors, The Local, Legend’s, Paddy’s, and Cafe de la Poste, and some great clubs include Aurora, Salsa Caribe, and One Third.
Day 4: The Forbidden City & Jingshan Park
MORNING: Sleeping and Relaxing
We had a relaxing morning before grabbing pizza at Tube Station, a popular pizza chain in Beijing (and a good option if you want a break from Chinese food!)
AFTERNOON: Forbidden City and Jingshan Park
Located right in the heart of Beijing, the Forbidden City is a must-see when you visit the capital city of China. The ancient Imperial Palace of China, called Gùgōng (故宫) in Chinese, is a popular tourist location and covers a large area, so it’s best to do some planning before you go to avoid crowds and make the most of your time there. A ticket costs 40 RMB and I used Trip.com to buy tickets ahead of time.
When you exit the Forbidden City from the North Gate, you’ll be right across the street from Jingshan Park, a beautiful little Chinese park. You’ll see many Chinese people dancing and practicing tai ji here, and also get a stunning view of the Forbidden City from above. See more of my favorite places to take photos of the Forbidden City.
EVENING: Foot Massages and Yunnan Restaurant
We were tired from the all the walking we did and treated ourselves to foot massages! There are many massage salons in China at affordable costs. We went to Zigzag in Wudaoying Hutongs. Afterwards we went to a restaurant nearby with special food from the Yunnan Province. Yunnan food is very different than other Chinese cuisines – it has a more fresh and light flavor, and more cheese dishes (most Chinese dishes have no dairy or cheese!)
Day 4: The Great Wall & Hot Pot
MORNING & AFTERNOON: Mutianyu Great Wall
No trip to Beijing is complete without seeing the Great Wall! There are many sections you can visit, depending on the time and cost. Badaling and Mutianyu are two of the most popular sections that are closer to Beijing, while Jinshanling and Simatai are a bit farther with less crowds.
We went to the Mutianyu Section of the Great Wall, which was perfect for taking visitors. It’s only 2 hours away, and we rented a car to drive us there, wait for us, then take us back.
Mutianyu is a great section because it’s not a difficult hike, and there’s a cable car you can take up. Best of all there’s a toboggan you can take to slide down the wall!
Our driver was hilariously terrible at communicating with us though and kept trying to offer to get us discounted tickets. We just bought them from the ticket counter instead and he called me “disobedient.”
EVENING: Hot Pot
After an afternoon rest, we went out to get hot pot for dinner on Ghost Street. Hot pot is a Chinese food experience you must try, no matter which city you visit in China! For first time hot-potters, it’s good to get a half spicy, and half non-spicy broth to dip your meats and vegetables into.
We grabbed a drink at one of my favorite bars afterwards then crashed after a busy day hiking!
Day 5: Temples & Cafes
MORNING: Lama Temple
The Lama Temple is a special Buddhist temple in Beijing . Bright and colorful, many people come here to pray and burn incense.
AFTERNOON: Temple of Heaven and Friends Cafe
The Temple of Heaven is a beautiful temple and a famous place where the Chinese emperor used to come pray. It’s one of my favorite temples in China! The Pearl Market is also nearby if you’d like to do some more shopping.
We stopped by the Friends themed cafe afterwards. A fun replica of Central Perk, you can get special drinks named after the characters – and they even have a cat!
EVENING: Dumplings and Karaoke Bar
We went to the famous Mr. Shi’s Dumplings for dinner, then joined some friends for drinks at a Taiwanese music bar.
Day 6: Houhai Lake & Beijing Zoo
MORNING: Brunch and Houhai Lake
After a late night out, we had a slow morning to get ready and grab brunch. Afterwards we walked around Houhai Lake and the pedestrian street area there.
AFTERNOON: Beijing zoo and pandas!
The Beijing zoo is not too far from the center of Beijing and home to China’s national treasure: pandas. While there aren’t as many as there are in Chenddu (and there are no babies here), there were still many of them to see!
EVENING: Manicures and Dinner
After the zoo, we headed back to the massage salon for manicures and Aaron got a full body massage. We then grabbed dinner at a random noodle restaurant, but then decided to go to another restaurant with more general Chinese dishes (my favorites include cauliflower and eggplant!)
Day 7: Last Day in Beijing
Depending on when your flight is from Beijing, you might have some extra time to cross another thing off your Beijing list. There are so many more things we couldn’t fit into our schedule, but here are some other options:
- 798 Art district (free)
- Wudaoying Hutong – Cat cafes and bars
- Nanluoguxiang Walking Street – food and shops
- Summer Palace (30 RMB)
- Chinese Opera or Kung Fu Show (200 – 400 RMB)
- Olympic Park (free to walk around, 50 RMB to go inside Bird’s Nest)
- Migas Rooftop Bar
- Panjiayuan Market
- Peking Duck Restaurant
One Week Beijing Itinerary
Beijing is the ultimate China destination and has something to please everyone! If you have to choose one place to visit in China, I highly recommend it be Beijing.
Where is your favorite place in Beijing?
Check out some of my other favorite destinations and travel itineraries in China:
- 6-Day Zhangjiajie and Fenghuang Itinerary
- A Guide To Hiking Jinshanling Great Wall
- 15 Things You Should Do In Hong Kong
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16 Interesting Facts and Secrets About the Eiffel Tower Our favorite things about the famous French landmark. By Sophie Dodd Sophie Dodd Sophie Dodd is a writer at Travel + Leisure, where she relies on her 10 years of experience as a journalist and frequent flyer to test and review luggage, apparel, and accessories to help you travel better. Travel + Leisure Editorial Guidelines Updated on April 15, 2025 Fact checked by Olivia Young Fact checked by Olivia Young Olivia Young is a journalist and slow travel advocate. Her favorite travel days usually involve vegan food, wildlife sightings, and an occasional liability waiver. Travel + Leisure Fact Checking Process Leave a Comment The Eiffel Tower was initially intended to be a temporary installation for the 1889 Paris Exposition, but it has become an iconic landmark in the French capital against all odds. For starters, the Iron Lady almost wasn’t built: a coalition of famous artists criticized and protested the monument’s construction. But Gustave Eiffel’s civil engineering firm forged ahead with their winning design, which used a staggering 7,300 tons of iron and 2.5 million rivets to execute. It took two years, two months, and five days to finish. Today, it's one of the most popular landmarks in the world, receiving nearly 7 million visitors per year. And while you might think you know the Eiffel Tower, it's not without its secrets. It has changed color and size throughout the decades and even played a pivotal role in World War I. Here are our favorite little-known facts about the Eiffel Tower. Aerial view of the Eiffel Tower on the Champ de Mars in Paris, France. saiko3p/Getty Images The Eiffel Tower almost went by a different name. When Gustave Eiffel was working on the project in 1885, he initially named the monument the "300-Meter Iron Tower”—quite the mouthful, even if it sounds slightly more melodious in French. In casual conversation, it began to be referred to as “Mr. Eiffel’s Tower,” and “the Eiffel Tower” quickly took over the popular lexicon. French artists tried to prevent it from being built. From conception to construction, the Eiffel Tower was the source of deep controversy among Parisians. A few well-known creatives—including architect Charles Garnier, novelist Alexandre Dumas, and playwright Guy de Maupassant—banded together in 1887 to write a letter to decry the tower as “a gigantic black factory chimney." While some of these artists later retracted their disparagements, others doubled down after the monument’s completion—such as Maupassant, who famously dined at the Eiffel Tower’s restaurant almost daily in order to avoid having to look at it. View of the Eiffel Tower from Parc de Belleville. Taylor McIntyre/Travel + Leisure Gustave Eiffel didn’t actually design it. Despite the Tower being his namesake, Eiffel didn't design it himself. Maurice Koechlin and Emile Nouguier, two engineers who worked for his company, were the masterminds behind the structure. At first, Eiffel vetoed their initial sketch, finding it too utilitarian. He then brought on architect Stephen Sauvestre to improve the overall aesthetics of the project. In the end, the team’s ideas beat over 100 other projects, and it was selected as the main attraction of the 1889 World’s Fair. But while he wasn’t the technical designer of the tower, Eiffel was its biggest champion and protector. It's covered in the names of scientists. Eiffel and his engineers aren’t the only ones whose names are inextricably linked to the tower—72 French scientists and engineers’ names are engraved into the iron that surrounds the Tower’s first floor, including physicist Léon Foucault, chemist Jean-Baptiste Dumas, and geographer and mathematician François Perrier. While the names were painted over in the early 20th century, they were restored in the 1980s. It has also doubled as a scientific laboratory. Part of what secured the tower's design (and later saved it from destruction) was Eiffel’s insistence that it shouldn't be purely for looks—it should have a scientific function as well. The day after its inauguration, Eiffel installed a meteorology lab on the third floor, where he performed physics and aerodynamics experiments. He also invited other scientists to use the lab for their studies. Ultimately, his approach helped secure the tower a longer lease on life. View of Paris from the inside of the Eiffel tower. Gim42/Getty Images A radio antenna saved the Eiffel Tower from being torn down. From the beginning, the Eiffel Tower was only supposed to remain up 20 years after the 1889 World’s Fair—it was supposed to be torn down afterward. Eiffel was very aware of this and cleverly ensured the Tower’s existence by enhancing it with a radio antenna and a wireless telegraph transmitter. The Tower began transmitting radio signals locally at the turn of the 20th century, acting as a military radio post in 1903 and later helping France to defend itself from enemy attacks during the First World War. The radio’s usefulness secured the tower a 70-year extension on its lease—and by the time it was up in 1980, the monument’s iconic silhouette had become an irrevocable part of Paris’ skyline. An Insider's Guide to Paris, Featuring Luxury Hotels, Vintage Shops, and the City's Best Restaurants The Eiffel Tower once housed a post office and a theater. Over the decades, the Iron Lady has been home to a rotating cast of businesses, some of which lasted as little as six months. Some businesses that have set up shop in the tower include the French newspaper Le Figaro; a post office; a radio station; and a wooden theater designed by Sauvestre. Today, the tower is home to restaurants, souvenir shops, and a Champagne bar. The Eiffel Tower’s light show dates back 100 years. Perhaps the most dazzling time of day to visit the Eiffel Tower is in the evenings when 20,000 bulbs illuminate the structure in a sparkling display. It’s been a century since the Tower’s first light show, which took place during the International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts in 1925. For the occasion, automaker Andre Citröen financed an epic nighttime display of Zodiac symbols, comets, and his car brand’s name. Today, all 20,000 lights sparkle for the first five minutes of every hour beginning after dusk, with a grand finale at midnight or 1 a.m., depending on the time of year. While you’re free to snap as many personal photos as you’d like of the Eiffel Tower during the day and at night, the light show is protected by copyright under French law—professionals will need to request permission to use photos or videos of the display. It was almost destroyed during World War II. Towards the end of World War II, as the Nazi hold on occupied Paris was slipping and Allied troops were closing in, Adolf Hitler commanded his generals to level the city and destroy its most famous monuments with explosives—including the Eiffel Tower. Thankfully, Allied troops arrived before the orders were able to be carried out, and the tower was spared from extensive damage. On the top floor, you can find a plaque commemorating the liberation of Paris. The Eiffel Tower changes size with the seasons. Paris has its own leaning tower of sorts—the Iron Lady, while sturdy and wind-resistant, sways during storms and tilts a few inches away from the sun on hot days. In the summer, the sun’s heat causes the iron to expand, adding a few millimeters to the tower’s overall height, while the metal shrinks infinitesimally in winter. The Paris cityscape around the Eiffel Tower. Christopher Larson/Travel + Leisure Gustave Eiffel had a penthouse apartment at the Eiffel Tower. As far as work perks go, securing your own pied à terre in the Eiffel Tower is hard to beat. Eiffel’s cozy abode was a private residence on the tower’s top floor that he used as a laboratory and to host luminaries, including Thomas Edison. Today, the space is open to the public, and you can pose with wax figures of Eiffel, his daughter, and Edison in the paisley-clad room. How to Spend 3 Days in Paris, Including Luxury Hotels, Natural Wine Spots, and Under-the-radar Museums There’s a Champagne bar at the top. Is there anything more romantic than sipping Champagne while overlooking the City of Light? The Champagne Bar, located on the very top floor of the Eiffel Tower, is a perfect place to soak in the unobstructed views of the city below with a celebratory glass of bubbly in hand—a tipple particularly well-earned for those who opt to climb the tower’s dizzying steps. The Eiffel Tower lit at night. Leopoldine Bauer/Travel + Leisure It was “sold” for scraps in 1925—by a con artist. In the wake of Eiffel’s death in 1923, the monument’s fate seemed uncertain. Inspired by rumors of declining attendance and the steep cost of upkeep, infamous con artist Victor Lustig hatched a plan to impersonate a Parisian civil servant, sending seemingly official letters to scrap metal companies stating that the City of Paris was selling it for scraps. One unlucky man fell for the scam, but Lustig had already run off to Austria with the money. Ironically, he returned years later in an attempt to sell the tower once again. Lustig was eventually imprisoned in the United States at Alcatraz in 1935 and died there in 1947. The Eiffel Tower was once the tallest building in the world. For four decades after its construction, the Iron Lady held the distinction of being the tallest building in the world, rising a dramatic 1,024 feet over Paris. In 1930, New York’s budding skyline cinched the record, first with the Chrysler Building (at 1,046 feet tall), followed by the Empire State Building’s 1931 debut, which clocked in at 1,250 feet tall. View of looking up into the Eiffel Tower. Kryssia Campos/Getty Images It’s changed color over the years. The tower gets a fresh paint job every seven years to protect against oxidation. It was initially covered with a shade of reddish brown and then spent its adolescent years—from 1892 to 1906—under a bright ochre hue. The current “Eiffel Tower Brown” was adopted in 1968 and was selected for its ability to blend in with the surrounding cityscape. And, in fact, it's actually three shades of brown: the darkest color is at the bottom, while the lightest is at the top. The Eiffel Tower is ecofriendly. The iconic landmark is more than just a pretty face—it’s also a beacon of renewable energy. In 2015, two vertical-axis wind turbines were installed on the tower’s second floor, suspended 400 feet above the ground in order to capture wind. These turbines, which are practically silent and were painted to blend in seamlessly with the tower, power the souvenir shop, restaurant, and other businesses on the tower’s first floor. Updated by Kaeli Conforti Kaeli Conforti Currently based in Washington, D.C., Kaeli Conforti is a seasoned travel writer who covers travel news, points & miles, hotels, airlines, credit cards, aviation, solo travel, budget travel, adventure travel, family travel, weddings, honeymoons, and everything in between. learn more Read more: Destinations Europe France Paris
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Affordable tropical vacations to put on your bucket-list!
Looking for the best affordable tropical vacations under $500? Sometimes the only antidote to our busy lives is the promise of palm-fringed beaches and crystal-clear waters! If you feel the need to escape to a far-flung corner of the world, our pick of cheap tropical vacations is sure to inspire your wanderlust. Although you might assume that a tropical destination comes with a hefty price tag, there are affordable tropical vacations for every budget! From island paradises to Caribbean beaches, plan your dream getaway today!
Family-friendly tropical destinations
Riviera Maya, Mexico
A favourite of holiday-makers, Mexico’s idyllic Riviera Maya is one of the all-time best destinations to enjoy a cheap tropical vacation. With a beautiful climate and endless stretches of white-sand beach, the Riviera Maya is an affordable paradise. Whilst the winter season of December to March is a little more pricey, the remainder of the year sees relatively accessible accommodation and flight costs.
All-inclusive resorts are a great choice for a family vacation, whilst the area also boasts more budget-friendly guesthouses. Furthermore, Cancun, Playa Del Carmen, Tulum, and Cozumel are the most popular resorts on the Riviera Maya.
- Best time for deals: May–June, September–November
Phuket, Thailand
Like most of Southeast Asia, the dollar can go a long way in Thailand. Therefore, the paradise beaches of Phuket are an excellent choice for a cheap tropical vacation! One of the most popular Thai islands, Phuket, has accommodation options for all budgets. As well as backpacker-friendly lodgings, you’ll also find more pricey luxury resorts and family-friendly all-inclusive hotels.
The low season is between July and October. The rains arrive slowly, so visiting at the beginning of the low season is the best idea if you’re hoping to spend time at the beach. On the other hand, the low season means fewer crowds so if you’re happy to contend with a few downpours, you’ll be greatly rewarded with an affordable tropical vacation!
- Best time for deals: May–June, September
Costa Rica
With its stunning biodiversity, gorgeous beaches, and family-friendly activities, Costa Rica offers excellent value for families. The Guanacaste region and Manuel Antonio National Park provide the perfect mix of beach relaxation and wildlife adventures that kids will love. During the green season (May–November), prices drop significantly while the country remains lush and beautiful.
- Best time for deals: May, September–October
Backpacker’s paradise: budget tropical escapes
Cambodia
Whilst most visitors head directly to Cambodia’s awe-inspiring Angkor Wat temples, there are actually a number of dreamy tropical beach destinations to discover here! If you’re looking for a desert-island experience, the beaches of Cambodia are undeveloped and a lot less busy than neighbouring Thailand.
Koh Rong is one such destination, located in the province of Sihanoukville. Untouched by mass tourism, this is a paradise to keep in mind when you’re searching for affordable tropical vacations! Other budget vacations to consider in Cambodia are Koh Krabey and the charming seaside town of Kep.
- Best time for deals: May–October
Palawan, Philippines
Undoubtedly one of the most tropical destinations on earth, the Philippines are a great choice for a cheap tropical vacation! A paradise of crystal clear bays, abundant marine life, subterranean rivers and unique natural wonders, Palawan is otherworldly.
The off-season is between June and November. Although you can expect some rain during this time, it is unlikely to rain every day. Slightly cooler temperatures also allow you to go sightseeing in comfort and enjoy more active pursuits such as hiking and watersports. Puerto Princesa and El Nido are the most popular areas to stay in Palawan.
- Best time for deals: June–September
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka offers backpackers an incredible mix of pristine beaches, ancient temples, and lush tea plantations at very affordable prices. The southern coastal towns like Mirissa, Unawatuna, and Hikkaduwa provide beautiful beaches and budget accommodations. Public transportation is extremely cheap, making it easy to explore the entire island without breaking the bank.
- Best time for deals: April–June, September–November
Panama
At the meeting point of both South and Central America, Panama is a great choice if you are looking for affordable tropical vacations. Home to lush rainforests, beautiful beaches and the dreamy San Blas Islands, Panama is most famous for its Panama Canal.
The great thing about a trip to Panama is that you can combine both sightseeing in historic Panama City with time on the laid-back beaches of Playa Bonita or Bocas del Toro.
- Best time for deals: April–May, September–October
Romantic tropical escapes
Bali, Indonesia
You might think that a vacation to Bali is an expensive escape. In fact, it is one of the more affordable tropical vacation ideas! Destinations in the south of the island tend to be more costly. But, if you stick to the verdant central hills and northern Bali you can enjoy a budget-friendly vacation.
March, April and May are the cheapest months to travel to Bali, Indonesia. You can expect a little rain at this time of year, but there will still be plenty of chances to enjoy the free public beaches and amazing sights that this ‘Island of the Gods’ has to offer. Island-hopping throughout Indonesia is another great option for those who want to discover more of the country. Lombok and the Gili islands are within easy reach of Bali by boat.
- Best time for deals: May–May, October–November
Zanzibar, Tanzania
With its white-sand beaches, turquoise waters, and fascinating Swahili culture, Zanzibar offers an exotic romantic getaway that’s surprisingly affordable. Stay in one of the many boutique hotels along the east coast of Tanzania for the most picturesque sunrises, or choose the northern beaches for incredible sunsets. The island’s Stone Town is a UNESCO World Heritage site worth exploring between beach days.
- Best time for deals: March–May, November
Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic offers some of the best value in the Caribbean for couples seeking a romantic tropical escape. Punta Cana and Puerto Plata feature stunning beaches and all-inclusive resorts at prices much lower than neighboring islands.
For a more authentic experience, head to less touristy areas like Samaná or Barahona where prices drop even further while maintaining that Caribbean charm.
- Best time for deals: May–June, September–November
Hidden gem tropical destinations
Vietnam’s coastal regions
Vietnam’s extensive coastline offers incredible tropical beaches that remain far less expensive than many Asian counterparts. Phu Quoc Island, and Nha Trang provide beautiful beaches, delicious food, and luxurious accommodations at a fraction of the price at other destinations. The country’s strong tourism infrastructure makes travel easy while keeping costs low.
- Best time for deals: September–October, April–May
Nicaragua’s Pacific coast
Often overlooked in favor of Costa Rica, Nicaragua’s Pacific coastline offers similar stunning beaches and surfing opportunities at much lower prices. San Juan del Sur and the Emerald Coast provide tropical beauty without the crowds. Accommodations range from basic hostels to eco-lodges, all at prices that will make your budget stretch further.
- Best time for deals: May–October
Malaysia’s East coast
While Thailand gets most of the attention, Malaysia’s east coast islands like Perhentians, Redang, and Tioman offer equally beautiful beaches with fewer tourists and lower prices. The clear waters provide excellent snorkelling and diving opportunities, while beachside accommodations remain reasonably priced even during high season.
- Best time for deals: March–May, September–October
Plan affordable tropical trips with Exoticca
At Exoticca, we specialize in creating unforgettable travel experiences to exotic destinations around the world at the best possible prices. As a full-service online travel agency, we curate carefully designed itineraries that allow you to experience these tropical paradises without breaking the bank.
Our packages include flights, accommodations, transfers, and selected activities, removing the stress of planning while ensuring you get the most value from your vacation budget. Whatever your vacation preferences are, Exoticca is your trusted partner for affordable tropical vacations worldwide.
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Big Island Itinerary 5 Days: Ultimate Guide That’ll Make You Ditch the Mainland
If you think Hawaii is just hula skirts and hotel luaus, think again. The Big Island is where Mother Nature went full main character energy—lava-spewing volcanoes, technicolor beaches, coffee farms that smell like heaven, and snorkeling spots that could convert even the most dedicated poolside lounger.
And here’s the kicker: you can see the best of it in just five days (yes, even if you’re traveling with kids, your in-laws, or that one friend who packs a curling iron for beach trips). This guide is your no-fuss, high-vibes, and surprisingly budget-friendly playbook for the Big Island Hawaii itinerary 5 days.
Day 1: Waterfalls, Gardens & Small-Town Charm
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Liliʻuokalani Gardens
Read more Read lessKick off your day with a peaceful stroll through Liliʻuokalani Gardens, a 30-acre Japanese-style garden built in honor of King Kamehameha, Hawaii’s last reigning monarch . The koi ponds, stone lanterns, and pagodas make for a relaxing start to your trip. It’s free to enter and perfect for quiet reflection or snapping family photos.
Activity Option: Blue Hawaiian Helicopters Discover Hilo Tour – Want a bird’s-eye view of Hilo’s lush landscape? Consider adding the Blue Hawaiian Helicopters Discover Hilo Tour to your morning. This unforgettable experience takes you soaring over waterfalls, rainforests, and iconic landmarks for a breathtaking perspective on Hilo’s natural beauty.
Liliʻuokalani Gardens
Dedicated in 1917, this 30-acre park showcases Edo-style gardens, koi ponds & a Japanese teahouse.4.7 (3624)Liliʻuokalani Gardens, Lihiwai Street, Hilo, HI, USAOpening hours:- Monday: 5:45 AM – 7:30 PM
- Tuesday: 5:45 AM – 7:30 PM
- Wednesday: 5:45 AM – 7:30 PM
- Thursday: 5:45 AM – 7:30 PM
- Friday: 5:45 AM – 7:30 PM
- Saturday: 5:45 AM – 7:30 PM
- Sunday: 5:45 AM – 7:30 PM
Open in:
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Rainbow Falls
Read more Read lessJust five minutes from downtown, Rainbow Falls is a must-see. This 80-foot waterfall is famous for the vibrant rainbows that appear in the mist during morning sunlight. You’ll find accessible viewing platforms and plenty of photo opportunities.
Optional: Check out Akaka Falls State Park, just 11 miles north. This tropical spot features Akaka Falls, a stunning 442-foot waterfall, plus the smaller Kahuna Falls. Stroll the easy loop trail for gorgeous views and native Hawaiian plants—perfect for a peaceful nature break.
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Suisan Fish Market
Read more Read lessCheck out Suisan Fish Market for some of the freshest poke bowls and seafood plates in Hawaii. Known for their incredible quality and authentic Hawaiian flavors, this spot is a local favorite. Whether you’re in the mood for a classic ahi poke or a mixed seafood plate, every dish is made with the best ingredients straight from the ocean.
Suisan Fish Market
4.6 (1392)Suisan Fish Market, Lihiwai Street, Hilo, HI, USAOpening hours:- Monday: 9:00 AM – 3:00 PM
- Tuesday: 9:00 AM – 3:00 PM
- Wednesday: Closed
- Thursday: 9:00 AM – 3:00 PM
- Friday: 9:00 AM – 3:00 PM
- Saturday: 9:00 AM – 3:00 PM
- Sunday: Closed
Open in:
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Coconut Island
Read more Read lessAfter lunch, take a short walk to Coconut Island (Moku Ola). Connected by a footbridge, this small island park offers grassy picnic areas, a sandy beach safe for kids, and space to unwind while enjoying views of Hilo Bay.
Activity Option: Historic Hilo Bay Waterfalls by Kayak – For a more active afternoon, consider the Historic Hilo Bay Waterfalls by Kayak tour. Paddle through the peaceful waters of Hilo Bay, taking in views of the lush coastline and learning about the area’s history. This adventure offers a unique way to experience Hilo’s charm and get closer to its stunning waterfalls.
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Imiloa Astronomy Center
Read more Read lessEnd your afternoon at the Imiloa Astronomy Center, where Hawaiian culture and space science come together. With interactive exhibits, planetarium shows, and stories of Polynesian navigation, it’s a fun spot and educational experience for everyone.
Where to Stay: Grand Naniloa Hotel Hilo, a DoubleTree by Hilton? Stay by the ocean at the Grand Naniloa Hotel Hilo, a Doubletree by Hilton, where you’ll find spacious rooms with stunning bay views and a convenient location near Hilo’s top spots. With a pool, family-friendly perks, and those famous DoubleTree cookies, it’s the perfect place to relax and recharge.
Imiloa Astronomy Center
Exhibits on astronomy & Hawaiian culture/history, plus a planetarium & gardens with native plants.4.5 (185)Imiloa Astronomy Center, Imiloa Place, Hilo, HI, USAOpening hours:- Monday: Closed
- Tuesday: 9:00 AM – 4:30 PM
- Wednesday: 9:00 AM – 4:30 PM
- Thursday: 9:00 AM – 4:30 PM
- Friday: 9:00 AM – 4:30 PM
- Saturday: 9:00 AM – 4:30 PM
- Sunday: 9:00 AM – 4:30 PM
Open in:
Day 2: Volcanoes, Lava Tubes & Epic Hikes
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Kilauea Iki Trail
Read more Read lessTake on the 4-mile Kīlauea Iki Trail, starting with a walk through a lush rainforest before heading down to a solidified lava lake from the 1959 eruption, you’ll also pass remnants of a lava flow along the way. Once you’re on the crater floor, you’ll come across steam vents and unique lava formations. Be sure to bring good shoes and plenty of water—this trail is moderately challenging.
Note: The Kīlauea Iki Trail typically takes 2–3 hours to complete and is suitable for most ages with average fitness—generally recommended for ages 8 and up, especially if accustomed to moderate hiking.
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Thurston Lava Tube
Read more Read lessCheck out the Thurston Lava Tube (Nāhuku), an enormous tunnel shaped by lava flows from centuries past. While you’re there, swing by the Steam Vents and Sulfur Banks, where volcanic gases create vibrant mineral deposits—a striking reminder of the incredible forces simmering below the surface.
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Chain of Craters Road
Read more Read lessBefore heading back, consider a scenic drive along the Chain of Craters Road, which winds through volcanic terrain and ends dramatically at the sea.
Day 3: Kona Coast—Beaches, Snorkeling & Shave Ice
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Punaluʻu Beach
Read more Read lessMake a stop at Punaluʻu Black Sand Beach to see its stunning black sand beaches and the Hawaiian green sea turtles that often visit. Remember to give the turtles their space and take in the one-of-a-kind vibe.
Pro Tip: There’s little to no shade near the sand, so bring hats, sunscreen, or even a small umbrella—especially helpful if you’re visiting with toddlers!
Punaluʻu Beach
Ringed by coconut palms, this picturesque beach is known for its black sand & green sea turtles.4.7 (1354)Punaluu Black Sand Beach, Hawaii, USAOpen in:
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Kona Snorkeling
Read more Read lessHop on a Kona Snorkeling & Sailing tour with lunch (usually 3–4 hours) with operators like Body Glove Hawaii. Cruise along the breathtaking Kona coastline to explore crystal-clear snorkeling spots filled with vibrant coral and tropical fish.
With snorkeling gear, guided support, and a tasty onboard lunch with refreshing drinks included, it’s a great adventure for families and snorkelers of all experience levels.
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Hapuna Beach State Recreation Area
Read more Read lessAfter your sailing adventure, unwind at Hapuna Beach State Park, one of the Kohala Coast’s largest white sand beaches. Its gentle waves, lifeguards, picnic areas, restrooms, and shady spots make it ideal for kids and parents alike.
Optional Seasonal Activity: Whale Watching Cruise (December–April) – If you’re visiting during whale season, try swapping the snorkeling & sailing tour for a Whale Watching Cruise with Body Glove Hawaii in the morning or early afternoon.
These 2–3 hour cruises offer an incredible chance to watch humpback whales breaching and playing in their winter breeding grounds along Kona’s coast. Perfect during winter months when humpbacks visit the Hawaiian Islands to breed.
Hapuna Beach State Recreation Area
Landscaped terrain suitable for swimming, bodysurfing & picnicking also has lifeguard services.4.8 (5884)Hapuna Beach State Recreation Area, Old Puako Road, Waimea, HI, USAOpening hours:- Monday: 7:00 AM – 6:30 PM
- Tuesday: 7:00 AM – 6:30 PM
- Wednesday: 7:00 AM – 6:30 PM
- Thursday: 7:00 AM – 6:30 PM
- Friday: 7:00 AM – 6:30 PM
- Saturday: 7:00 AM – 6:30 PM
- Sunday: 7:00 AM – 6:30 PM
Open in:
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Kealakekua Bay
Read more Read lessEnd your day with a Historical Kona Dinner Cruise to Kealakekua Bay, setting sail in the early evening. Cruise to Kealakekua Bay, a sacred and historic spot where the Captain Cook Monument. Enjoy a sunset dinner with Hawaiian music and stories, offering a memorable cultural experience on the water.
Kealakekua Bay
Scenic inlet with snorkeling & boat tours, plus a monument to Captain Cook & an ancient temple.4.6 (143)Kealakekua Bay, Hawaii, USAOpen in:
Day 4: Kona Coffee & Local History
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Kona Coffee Purveyors
Read more Read lessCheck out Greenwell Farms or Hula Daddy Kona Coffee for free guided tours where you can learn all about the coffee-growing process and sample some of the famous Kona coffee. These tours are a treat for coffee enthusiasts—both educational and delicious!
Kona Coffee Purveyors
A stylish spot for artisan Kona coffee and b. patisserie baked goods.4.4 (3728)Kona Coffee Purveyors, Kalākaua Avenue, Honolulu, HI, USAOpening hours:- Monday: 7:00 AM – 4:00 PM
- Tuesday: 7:00 AM – 4:00 PM
- Wednesday: 7:00 AM – 4:00 PM
- Thursday: 7:00 AM – 4:00 PM
- Friday: 7:00 AM – 4:00 PM
- Saturday: 7:00 AM – 4:00 PM
- Sunday: 7:00 AM – 4:00 PM
Open in:
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Kona Coffee Living History Farm
Read more Read lessExplore the Kona Coffee Living History Farm, a working farm museum preserving early 20th-century coffee farming life. Kids can have fun exploring old farm tools, feeding animals, and watching how coffee was made the old-school way. Adults can enjoy learning about traditional Hawaiian agriculture and lifestyles in an engaging, distraction-free setting.
Kona Coffee Living History Farm
Visitors can explore a 1920s coffee farm hosted by costumed guides demonstrating work tasks.4.6 (379)Kona Coffee Living History Farm, Hawaiʻi Belt Road, Captain Cook, HI, USAOpening hours:- Monday: Closed
- Tuesday: 10:00 AM – 2:00 PM
- Wednesday: Closed
- Thursday: Closed
- Friday: 10:00 AM – 2:00 PM
- Saturday: Closed
- Sunday: Closed
Open in:
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Kailua-Kona
Read more Read lessStroll the waterfront and check out Huliheʻe Palace, once a royal vacation home and now a museum filled with Hawaiian artifacts. Don’t miss Mokuaikaua Church, Hawaii’s oldest Christian church built in 1820, and browse for local crafts at Aliʻi Gardens Marketplace.
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Da Poke Shack
Read more Read lessExperience the true taste of Hawaii at Da Poke Shack, a local favorite known for its fresh and flavorful poke bowls. Made with top-notch ingredients, each bowl is packed with fresh fish, tasty toppings, and mouthwatering sauces. With great service and a focus on quality, it’s a go-to spot for anyone who loves good food.
Da Poke Shack
Seafood joint by the beach for take-out poke & other local specialties & salads.4.6 (2567)Da Poke Shack, Ali‘i Dr, Kailua-Kona, HI, USAOpening hours:- Monday: 10:00 AM – 4:00 PM
- Tuesday: 10:00 AM – 4:00 PM
- Wednesday: 10:00 AM – 4:00 PM
- Thursday: 10:00 AM – 4:00 PM
- Friday: 10:00 AM – 4:00 PM
- Saturday: Closed
- Sunday: Closed
Open in:
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Body Glove Hawaii
Read more Read lessEnd your day with the Kona Super-Raft Sunset Cruise (with Dinner). Enjoy a scenic sail along the Kona coast, a tasty dinner onboard, and breathtaking sunset views over the Pacific. It’s the perfect way to unwind, take in the beauty of Kona from the water, and maybe even spot some marine life while soaking up Hawaiian music or stories.
Body Glove Hawaii
4.8 (2584)Body Glove Hawaii, Kuakini Highway, Kailua-Kona, HI, USAOpening hours:- Monday: 7:00 AM – 5:00 PM
- Tuesday: 7:00 AM – 5:00 PM
- Wednesday: 7:00 AM – 5:00 PM
- Thursday: 7:00 AM – 5:00 PM
- Friday: 7:00 AM – 5:00 PM
- Saturday: 7:00 AM – 5:00 PM
- Sunday: 7:00 AM – 5:00 PM
Open in:
Day 5: Waimea’s Rolling Hills & Sacred Valleys
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Parker Ranch Center
Read more Read lessExplore Parker Ranch, a historic treasure and one of the largest cattle ranches in the U.S., covering over 130,000 acres on Hawaii’s Big Island. With roots dating back to 1847, it’s a place full of rich history that helped shape the island’s ranching culture. Older kids will love the horseback rides, while little ones can visit the small museum or explore the grounds.
Parker Ranch Center
4.4 (969)Parker Ranch Center, Hawaiʻi Belt Road, Waimea, HI, USAOpening hours:- Monday: 9:00 AM – 7:00 PM
- Tuesday: 9:00 AM – 7:00 PM
- Wednesday: 9:00 AM – 7:00 PM
- Thursday: 9:00 AM – 7:00 PM
- Friday: 9:00 AM – 7:00 PM
- Saturday: 9:00 AM – 7:00 PM
- Sunday: 10:00 AM – 5:00 PM
Open in:
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Voyagers of the Pacific Lū‘au
Read more Read lessAfter a morning of hiking through hills and valleys, head back to the Royal Kona Resort for the incredible Voyagers of the Pacific Luau. Set on the resort’s oceanfront lawn with stunning views of Kailua Bay, the evening kicks off with a warm shell lei welcome and fun pre-show activities like cultural demonstrations and the traditional imu ceremony. As the sun sets, sit back and enjoy Polynesian music, hula performances, and stories celebrating the voyages of Pacific explorers.
Voyagers of the Pacific Lū‘au
4.2 (1076)Voyagers of the Pacific Lū‘au, Ali‘i Dr, Kailua-Kona, HI, USAOpening hours:- Monday: Open 24 hours
- Tuesday: Open 24 hours
- Wednesday: Open 24 hours
- Thursday: Open 24 hours
- Friday: Open 24 hours
- Saturday: Open 24 hours
- Sunday: Open 24 hours
Open in:
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Kona Inn Shopping Village
Read more Read lessKona Inn Shopping Village is super close to the resort and packed with great spot to explore—cute boutiques, art galleries, waterfront dining, and lively bars with live music. Be sure to check out Huggo’s on the Rocks for delicious seafood or swing by Sam’s Hideaway if you’re up for karaoke and cocktails.
Kona Inn Shopping Village
This mall with clothing boutiques, gift shops, art galleries & restaurants runs along the water.4.3 (1862)Kona Inn Shopping Village, Ali‘i Dr, Kailua-Kona, HI, USAOpening hours:- Monday: 10:00 AM – 7:00 PM
- Tuesday: 10:00 AM – 7:00 PM
- Wednesday: 10:00 AM – 7:00 PM
- Thursday: 10:00 AM – 7:00 PM
- Friday: 10:00 AM – 7:00 PM
- Saturday: 10:00 AM – 7:00 PM
- Sunday: 10:00 AM – 7:00 PM
Open in:
Welcome to Hilo, the rainy gem of the Big Island of Hawaii, where everything is green, peaceful, and full of life. Kick off your trip here by picking up your rental car, and explore its waterfalls, lush tropical gardens, and laid-back vibe—Hilo is perfect for a relaxed adventure.
Experience the awe-inspiring power and beauty of nature with a visit to Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park, just a 45-minute drive from Hilo. This UNESCO World Heritage Site is home to active volcanoes, steam vents, and craters that look like otherworldly landscapes.
Leave behind Hilo’s misty rains and lush greenery as you journey west to Kona’s sun-soaked coastline. Here, the island transforms into a golden paradise, with warm, dry weather, pristine beaches, and crystal-clear waters.
Where to Eat & Stay
Enjoy incredible views of Halemaumau Crater while dining at the Volcano House Rim Restaurant, where you’ll find delicious Hawaiian dishes made with local ingredients. For something more laid-back, check out Volcano Garden Arts Café—it’s a cozy, artistic spot serving fresh sandwiches, salads, and soups. Both places are perfect for soaking in the area’s beauty and flavors.
If you’re looking for a place to stay near Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park, two great options offer something for everyone:
Volcano House: Check out Volcano House, the only lodge right inside Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park. With incredible views of the Kīlauea caldera, easy trail access, comfy rooms, and a great on-site restaurant, it’s the perfect spot to explore the park while enjoying modern comforts.
Volcano Forest Inn: Nestled in Volcano Village, just a short drive from the park, Volcano Forest Inn features unique rooms with private lanais surrounded by a lush rainforest. Guests can enjoy free WiFi, breakfast, and parking.
With its convenient location, spotless spaces, and welcoming service, it’s the ideal spot to unwind after a day of exploring the volcano and helps you make the most of your 5 day itinerary on Big Island.
Royal Kona Resort: After a full day of ocean adventures, head back to the Royal Kona Resort. Sitting right on the lava rock coastline, it’s got ocean views, a pool, and a fun tiki bar vibe. Plus, its central spot makes it super easy to check out Kona’s shops, restaurants, and beaches.
Common FAQs on Big Island Hawaii Itinerary 5 Days
Is 5 Days on Big Island Enough?
While you can get a taste of the Big Island in 3 days, spending at least 5-7 days, and ideally more, exploring its diverse attractions is recommended. This allows ample time to enjoy volcanic landscapes, lush rainforests, beautiful beaches, and charming local cultures. A well-planned itinerary ensures you get to experience popular spots without feeling rushed.
What is the Best Month to Visit Big Island?
For a pleasant blend of weather, fewer crowds, and potential savings, consider planning your trip during the shoulder seasons. Visiting the Big Island in April-May or September-October provides you with better conditions and more accommodation options. These months are ideal for those seeking a balanced island experience without the overwhelming summer rush.
What is the Best Way to Travel to the Big Island?
Exploring the Big Island offers many sights and attractions best experienced at your own pace, making renting a car an optimal choice. With a rental, you can drive yourself to must-see destinations like Volcanoes National Park and the stunning beaches around Kona. This flexibility allows you to create a personalized itinerary, perfect for discovering hidden gems off the beaten path.
Aloha for Now: Your Big Island Send-Off
Whether you came for the volcanoes, stayed for the shave ice, or just needed a vacay that didn’t require passport panic, this 5-day Big Island itinerary hits every kind of high note.
So go ahead and channel your inner lava girl, beach dad, or low-key space nerd—because this island has room for all your alter egos. Just don’t forget the reef-safe sunscreen, stretchy pants (for all the poke), and a little room in your carry-on for malasadas.
Unlock the ultimate Big Island, Hawaii adventure with tailored packages from us at Tripster, designed for families, couples, and groups. Our seamless booking options capture the spirit of island exploration, beaches, and unique cultural experiences, ensuring a memorable and budget-friendly getaxway. Let us be your trusted partner in creating extraordinary moments on the Big Island of Hawaii.
Whether you’re looking for top-rated hotels, must-see attractions, authentic luaus, all-inclusive vacation packages, or insider travel guides, Tripster connects you to the best the Big Island offers—all at your fingertips.
Dorothy is a Destination Content Specialist at Tripster, known for transforming detailed travel research into clear, engaging guides that families can trust. With...
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https://www.toureiffel.paris/en/the-monument/history
|
It was at the 1889 Exposition Universelle, the date that marked the 100th anniversary of the French Revolution, that a great competition was launched in the Journal Officiel.
The first digging work started on the 26th January 1887. On the 31st March 1889, the Tower had been finished in record time – 2 years, 2 months and 5 days – and was established as a veritable technical feat.
Key figures
| Design | 18,038 metallic parts |
| 5,300 workshop designs | |
| 50 engineers and designers | |
| Construction | 150 workers in the Levallois-Perret factory |
| Between 150 and 300 workers on the construction site | |
| 2,500,000 rivets | |
| 7,300 tonnes of iron | |
| 60 tonnes of paint | |
| 5 lifts | |
| Duration | 2 years, 2 months and 5 days of construction |
The construction schedule
| Works kick-off | 26th January 1887 |
| Start of the pillars' mounting | 1st July 1887 |
| First floor achievement | 1st April 1888 |
| Second floor achievement | 14th August 1888 |
| Top and assembly achievement | 31st March 1889 |
The Design of the Eiffel Tower
The plan to build a tower 300 metres high was conceived as part of preparations for the World's Fair of 1889.
The wager was to "study the possibility of erecting an iron tower on the Champ-de-Mars with a square base, 125 metres across and 300 metres tall". Selected from among 107 projects, it was that of Gustave Eiffel, an entrepreneur, Maurice Koechlin and Emile Nouguier, both engineers, and Stephen Sauvestre, an architect, that was accepted.
Emile Nouguier and Maurice Koechlin, the two chief engineers in Eiffel's company, had the idea for a very tall tower in June 1884. It was to be designed like a large pylon with four columns of lattice work girders, separated at the base and coming together at the top, and joined to each other by more metal girders at regular intervals.
The tower project was a bold extension of this principle up to a height of 300 metres - equivalent to the symbolic figure of 1000 feet. On September 18 1884 Eiffel registered a patent "for a new configuration allowing the construction of metal supports and pylons capable of exceeding a height of 300 metres".
In order to make the project more acceptable to public opinion, Nouguier and Koechlin commissioned the architect Stephen Sauvestre to work on the project's appearance.
A quite different first edition
Sauvestre proposed stonework pedestals to dress the legs, monumental arches to link the columns and the first level, large glass-walled halls on each level, a bulb-shaped design for the top and various other ornamental features to decorate the whole of the structure. In the end the project was simplified, but certain elements such as the large arches at the base were retained, which in part give it its very characteristic appearance.
The curvature of the uprights is mathematically determined to offer the most efficient wind resistance possible. As Eiffel himself explains: "All the cutting force of the wind passes into the interior of the leading edge uprights. Lines drawn tangential to each upright with the point of each tangent at the same height, will always intersect at a second point, which is exactly the point through which passes the flow resultant from the action of the wind on that part of the tower support situated above the two points in question. Before coming together at the high pinnacle, the uprights appear to burst out of the ground, and in a way to be shaped by the action of the wind".
The construction
The assembly of the supports began on July 1, 1887 and was completed twenty-two months later.
All the elements were prepared in Eiffel’s factory located at Levallois-Perret on the outskirts of Paris. Each of the 18,000 pieces used to construct the Tower were specifically designed and calculated, traced out to an accuracy of a tenth of a millimetre and then put together forming new pieces around five metres each. A team of constructors, who had worked on the great metal viaduct projects, were responsible for the 150 to 300 workers on site assembling this gigantic erector set.
The rivet workers
All the metal pieces of the tower are held together by rivets, a well-refined method of construction at the time the Tower was constructed. First the pieces were assembled in the factory using bolts, later to be replaced one by one with thermally assembled rivets, which contracted during cooling thus ensuring a very tight fit. A team of four men was needed for each rivet assembled: one to heat it up, another to hold it in place, a third to shape the head and a fourth to beat it with a sledgehammer. Only a third of the 2,500,000 rivets used in the construction of the Tower were inserted directly on site.
The uprights rest on concrete foundations installed a few metres below ground-level on top of a layer of compacted gravel. Each corner edge rests on its own supporting block, applying to it a pressure of 3 to 4 kilograms per square centimetre, and each block is joined to the others by walls.
On the Seine side of the construction, the builders used watertight metal caissons and injected compressed air, so that they were able to work below the level of the water.
The tower was assembled using wooden scaffolding and small steam cranes mounted onto the tower itself.
The assembly of the first level was achieved by the use of twelve temporary wooden scaffolds, 30 metres high, and four larger scaffolds of 40 metres each.
"Sand boxes" and hydraulic jacks - replaced after use by permanent wedges - allowed the metal girders to be positioned to an accuracy of one millimetre.
On December 7, 1887, the joining of the major girders up to the first level was completed. The pieces were hauled up by steam cranes, which themselves climbed up the Tower as they went along using the runners to be used for the Tower's lifts.
Record construction time
It only took five months to build the foundations and twenty-one to finish assembling the metal pieces of the Tower.
Considering the rudimentary means available at that period, this could be considered record speed. The assembly of the Tower was a marvel of precision, as all chroniclers of the period agree. The construction work began in January 1887 and was finished on March 31, 1889. On the narrow platform at the top, Eiffel received his decoration from the Legion of Honour.
months to build the foundations
5
The numberJournalist Emile Goudeau visiting the construction site at the beginning of 1889
"A thick cloud of tar and coal smoke seized the throat, and we were deafened by the din of metal screaming beneath the hammer. Over there they were still working on the bolts: workmen with their iron bludgeons, perched on a ledge just a few centimetres wide, took turns at striking the bolts (these in fact were the rivets). One could have taken them for blacksmiths contentedly beating out a rhythm on an anvil in some village forge, except that these smiths were not striking up and down vertically, but horizontally, and as with each blow came a shower of sparks, these black figures, appearing larger than life against the background of the open sky, looked as if they were reaping lightning bolts in the clouds."
Mr. Eiffel’s Blueprints
The following blueprints are copies of Gustave Eiffel’s originals, taken from the book La Tour de 300 mètres, Ed. Lemercier, Paris 1900
Debate and controversy surrounding the Eiffel Tower
Even before the end of its construction, the Tower was already at the heart of much debate. Enveloped in criticism from the biggest names in the world of Art and Literature, the Tower managed to stand its ground and achieve the success it deserved.
Various pamphlets and articles were published throughout the year of 1886, le 14 février 1887, la protestation des Artistes.
The "Protest against the Tower of Monsieur Eiffel", published in the newspaper Le Temps, is addressed to the World's Fair's director of works, Monsieur Alphand. It is signed by several big names from the world of literature and the arts : Charles Gounod, Guy de Maupassant, Alexandre Dumas junior, François Coppée, Leconte de Lisle, Sully Prudhomme, William Bouguereau, Ernest Meissonier, Victorien Sardou, Charles Garnier and others to whom posterity has been less kind.
Other satirists pushed the violent diatribe even further, hurling insults like : "this truly tragic street lamp" (Léon Bloy), "this belfry skeleton" (Paul Verlaine), "this mast of iron gymnasium apparatus, incomplete, confused and deformed" (François Coppée), "this high and skinny pyramid of iron ladders, this giant ungainly skeleton upon a base that looks built to carry a colossal monument of Cyclops, but which just peters out into a ridiculous thin shape like a factory chimney" (Maupassant), "a half-built factory pipe, a carcass waiting to be fleshed out with freestone or brick, a funnel-shaped grill, a hole-riddled suppository" (Joris-Karl Huysmans).
Once the Tower was finished the criticism burnt itself out in the presence of the completed masterpiece, and in the light of the enormous popular success with which it was greeted. It received two million visitors during the World's Fair of 1889.
Excerpt from the "Protest Against Mr. Eiffel's Tower," 1887
“We come, as writers, painters, sculptors, architects, and passionate lovers of the beauty that Paris has until now preserved intact, to protest with all our strength, with all our indignation, in the name of disregarded French taste, in the name of threatened French art and history, against the erection, in the very heart of our capital, of the useless and monstrous Eiffel Tower, which public malice, often marked by common sense and a sense of justice, has already dubbed the Tower of Babel. (...)
Will the city of Paris continue to associate itself with the bizarre and mercantile imaginings of a machine builder, thereby disfiguring itself irreparably and dishonoring itself? (...) One only needs to imagine, for a moment, a vertiginously ridiculous tower dominating Paris like a gigantic black factory chimney, crushing with its barbaric mass (...) all our humiliated monuments, all our diminished architectural marvels, which will vanish in this stupefying nightmare.
And for twenty years, we shall see stretching over the entire city—still trembling with the genius of so many centuries—we shall see stretching, like an ink stain, the hateful shadow of this hateful column of bolted sheet metal.”
Gustave Eiffel's response in the newspaper Le Temps
"I believe, for my part, that the Tower will have its own beauty. Because we are engineers, does one assume that beauty does not concern us in our constructions, and that while we strive to build solid and durable structures, we do not also endeavor to make them elegant? Are not the true conditions of strength always in harmony with the secret conditions of beauty? (...) Now, what condition did I have to consider above all in the Tower? Resistance to wind.
Well! I claim that the curves of the four edges of the monument, as calculated, (...) will produce a strong impression of strength and beauty, for they will visually convey the boldness of the overall design. Likewise, the numerous openings carefully integrated into the very elements of the structure will clearly demonstrate the constant concern not to expose dangerous surfaces unnecessarily to the violence of storms, which could compromise the building's stability.
Moreover, there is, in the colossal, a unique attraction and charm to which ordinary artistic theories are hardly applicable."
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Las Vegas is a glittering city, full of entertainment, twinkling lights, and fabulously long nights. The city beckons visitors with endless casinos to spend your money in and a plethora of shows – concerts, comedy, magic, musicals, Cirque du Soleil, things you can’t even imagine!
Restaurants and museums dot the Strip, and outdoor activities are also plentiful close to Vegas for an adventurous day out. The city of pleasure has so many options that sometimes it’s hard to know where to begin! Luckily, we created the perfect weekend in Vegas itinerary to help you plan a jam-packed 3-day trip to Sin City.
This Las Vegas weekend itinerary was created by Practical Wanderlust’s very own Social Media Manager and intrepid Gen-Z traveler, Melissa. Take it away, Melissa!
Disclaimer: This post was created in partnership with FlyOver Las Vegas. Huge thanks to them, as well as to Melissa for volunteering as Vegas tribute while I lay at home, pregnant and exhausted. I have the best team!
Table of Contents
Psst: Planning more Nevada and western adventures? …. Check out some of our other posts for inspiration!
- Las Vegas on a Budget: A Massive Local’s Guide to Sin City on the Cheap
- 14 Unreal Outdoor Adventures in Carson Valley, Nevada
- The Perfect 10-Day Utah National Parks Road Trip Itinerary
Want to download this itinerary? We created this itinerary as a handy downloadable! Click the link below to download!
Las Vegas At-a-Glance ✍
Here’s a bite-sized snapshot of everything you need to know to plan your trip!
- When to Go: Between February and April, when the weather is mild.
- Where to Stay: If you really want that full Las Vegas experience, stay in a themed hotels along the Strip like the Excalibur or the Luxor. We also love this budget-friendly condo with a cute balcony to unwind in peace watching the bustle of the city.
- How to Get Around: Most of Las Vegas around the Strip is pretty walkable, and for everything else you can take a Lyft or Taxi. If you do rent a car, use Kayak to find the cheapest option.
- Top 3 Highlights:Walking the strip, experiencing FlyOver Las Vegas, and drinks at The Chandelier inside The Cosmopolitan.
- Before You Go: Pick up a Go City Las Vegas Pass to save $$$ on attractions. Also read Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas (or watch the movie)!
Weekend in Vegas Travel Tips
Although I grew up in Oakland, California, until this trip I had never been to Vegas – and everyone I tell this always has this super shocked look on their face when I tell them! Like, I’m only 22 y’all… I turned 21 during the Summer of COVID and for obvious reasons wasn’t able to take the 21-year-old right of passage trip to Vegas with my friends.
Truth be told, I’ve never really considered myself the “Vegas type.” Gambling isn’t exactly my favorite activity (I like my money to stay in my bank account where it belongs) and I wasn’t sure how much else there was to do. But when FlyOver Las Vegas reached out, I started researching.
To my delight, I found a ton of other awesome things to do in Las Vegas, and I was super excited to take a trip to experience it for myself! While my first Vegas trip was short-lived, I am now a Vegas convert, and I can’t wait to go back and experience more of all there is to do there.
If you’re short on time like I was, here are a few essential tips to make the most of your weekend in Vegas:
- Book everything in advance. Time flies by so fast in Vegas that I highly recommend you book tickets and reservations to activities and restaurants in advance!
- Plan to fly in on a Friday and stay as long as you can. In my case, 3 days was all I had! If I could have stayed longer I would have, but three days was definitely enough to get a little taste of Vegas that left me wanting more. Follow this itinerary as close as you can to get a full experience in the heart of Las Vegas in this short amount of time.
- Pick up a Go City Las Vegas Pass to save $$$ on attractions: The more you want to do in Las Vegas, the pricier it gets. The Go Las Vegas Pass includes entry into a TON of Las Vegas hotspots and activities for a bundled price. For example, the 4-choice Explorer Pass lets you pick four activities for $99, or you can choose an unlimited pass and squeeze in as much as possible to max out your savings. Four of the stops on this itinerary are offered on the pass, so the pass pays for itself! I’ve marked which stops are included on the pass.
- It is possible to save money in Las Vegas! We’ve got an entire guide to Las Vegas on a budget written by a local, full of helpful tips to help you save cash. For my trip, I opted to walk or Lyft everywhere instead of booking a rental car, and this itinerary is designed to not need a car!
The Perfect Weekend in Vegas Itinerary
Weekend in Vegas: Friday Night
After flying or driving into Vegas, you will want to go straight to your hotel, check in, and cool off. After you’ve settled in and recharged yourself up a bit, you’ll probably realize you’re starving and it’s time to get your weekend foodie on.
Chances are you’ll only have enough energy for dinner and drinks tonight, which is the perfect way to spend your first night in Las Vegas!
You’ll be walking all down the strip after dinner, but I promise it’s not very far – and experiencing all the lights and sounds as you walk is the perfect way to begin your weekend in Vegas.
Dinner at Tacos El Pastor
After being on a plane or in the car for hours, the last thing you want to do is wait in a long line at a bougie restaurant where you’ll also be waiting extra long for food. Let’s save the extra AF foodie experiences for later.
Right now, if you’re like me, you’ve probably reached that point in your hunger that goes from hungry to HANGRY. What better way to satisfy your hanger than with some quick and delicious tacos? You’ll find the best tacos on the strip at Tacos El Pastor.
Tacos El Pastor has pretty much everything you can think of getting at any good taco shop. The options are endless and they’re all hella good! This is coming from a Mexican girl who grew up in Oakland (city of the best tacos, LA can’t even come close to Bay Area Mexican food). So take my word for it, you’re going to leave super satisfied and ready for a drink, or a few.
While tacos are (of course) their specialty, I recommend trying their popular Mexican Mulita which is basically like a quesadilla with double tortilla like a sandwich instead of being folded and it’s filled with meat and anything else you want to add to it! I also recommend the steak fries and steak burrito.
- Travel Tip: I suggest you take a Lyft or Taxi to Tacos El Pastor since you’re probably starving and wanna get there ASAP. Also, you’ll be doing plenty of walking after dinner!
Stroll the Strip
Head to the strip – wait, you’re on the strip! That’s right, walk down the same street you’re on (S Las Vegas Blvd) toward the center of the strip where you’ll find all the big hotels like The Bellagio, Cosmopolitan, Venetian – and enjoy the show.
Yup. The show.
Walking down the strip is literally a free show, y’all – bright lights and screens everywhere, street performers and entertainers on every corner.
Take your time to observe the lit screens and signs all around you and stop to watch the street performers if you see them – and tip them too! You’ll see a bunch of girls dressed up from outfits with glitter and feathers all over them amongst people in cop outfits.
- Heads Up: Beware! Cosplay ‘cops’ will stop you on the street and fake ‘arrest’ you and ask you to pay if you take pictures as they suggest you do. If you snap any pics, please be kind and tip them for their time … or just remember to NOT snap any pics! (Also, they’re not real cops, so … don’t let them arrest you if you’re not into it.)
While walking down the Strip, one of the first hotels you’ll walk past is The Venetian, which gives total Venice in Vegas vibes. I highly recommend you stop here for a taste of Venice, where you can float down the grand canal in gondolas beside cafes, shops, and beneath arched bridges.
There is an indoor and outdoor Venetian gondola ride – each ride offers its own unique views, both equally enchanting and tons of fun. A singing gondolier pilots every gondola! Surrender to the romance of a live serenade from your one-of-a-kind ride through the canals in The Venetian transporting you to Venice.
Stopping for a fountain show while walking down the strip is also a must. The Fountains of Bellagio is a daily show in Las Vegas in front of the Bellagio Hotel which is right on the strip. It is a combination of music, water and light, the Bellagio delivers a spectacular performance with its majestic fountains.
They play a different song at every show and they range from popular artists like Lady Gaga to Frank Sinatra and The Beatles – you can always expect something different! The shows run all the time, and just check the schedule for the fountain show for running times.
After the fountain show, go inside The Bellagio to experience their indoor Conservatory and Botanical Garden. Each season, the 14,000-square-foot Botanical Garden is turned into a showcase of sights, sounds, scents and colors.
Spring, summer, fall and winter are all featured – as the seasons change, so do the displays. The talented Conservatory team is committed to sustainability and does everything they can to replant and repurpose as much of their living plant material as possible.
After falling head over heels with all The Bellagio has to offer, keep walking down the strip and let yourself be guided by the unique vibes all around you. You’re sure to quickly find entertainment everywhere as you walk.
Honestly, just pick a hotel and get lost in it. Vegas hotels are full of shops, slot machines, bars and restaurants all over!
Stop for Drinks at Fat Tuesday
After those tacos and a few blocks of walking, you’ve hopefully made some space for drinks! If it’s your first time in Vegas you’re probably wondering where everyone gets those long frozen drinks you see everyone carrying while walking down the strip.
Fat Tuesday is the place for any fan of tasty slushy drinks! There are many Fat Tuesday locations up and down the Vegas strip from The Stratosphere to Mandalay Bay. The first one you’ll see if you stay walking down the street from Tacos El Pastor is about a mile down right between The Mirage and The Venetian resort.
They have a nice variety of flavors of boozy slushies like 151 Colada (Malibu Rum + 151 Rum + Pina Colada), Banana Banshee (Everclear + Banana) and Lynchburg (Jack Daniels + Lemonade). There are a bunch more flavors with orange juice and other mix-ins, you can mix and match em too – every location has different flavors!
You really get your money’s worth here, in my opinion. There are five different sizes, but eight different cups to choose from, including the “Super Yard.”
I purchased the Yard Dog, $20 the first time for the cup and the slushie but after that it was $13 for refills. You can also add an extra shot or two to your drink for a couple extra dollars. Depending on how far you’ve gotten walking and what time it is, you can finish walking to your final activity for the night (yep, there’s more!) or hop in a Lyft.
Ride the Big Apple Roller Coaster
The Big Apple Coaster is the most iconic and fastest roller coaster on the Strip and it’s SO FUN! Adrenaline junkies and roller coaster fans, y’all are gonna love this ride.
It’s most fun to ride at night when the hotel and the whole strip is lit up with colorful lights! The views at the top are amazing, and then suddenly you drop and everything is a flash of bright lights and loud screams.
You’ll find the coaster at the New York-New York Hotel, one of the most iconic hotels on the Strip. It offers the sights, sounds, and energy of New York with incredibly real recreations of famous landmarks including the Manhattan Skyline, Brooklyn Bridge, Times Square, and the Statue of Liberty.
This experience is truly immersive, y’all – when you reach the main entrance of the ride, it’s like stepping into the NY subway station. The ride cars are even themed like the iconic yellow taxi cabs all over New York, what is more NY than that?!
Once it’s your turn, hop into your taxi cab and speed through NY in Vegas reaching up to 67 mph with sharp twists (there’s literally a sharp 180-degree twist on this ride), turns, and a 180-foot drop.
The ride is so much from the first huge drop to the very last turn! It is also a lot longer than I expected. Definitely worth my $20. (Psst: this is also one of the choices on the Las Vegas Go City pass!)
If you’re feeling tired by now, go get some rest as you’ve got all of tomorrow to explore. Or if you’re up for it, go to the casinos and test your luck or go get a drink at a bar in your hotel. You can also go back to the strip and stumble upon a new adventure. It’s Friday night and you’re in Las Vegas – have fun!
Weekend in Vegas: Saturday
Breakfast at Mon Ami Gabi
Mon Ami Gabi not only has the cutest name ever but also the cutest French bistro setting. It’s definitely giving the most authentic French vibes in here, y’all.
We recommend getting a table outside for max French bistro vibes to capture your most Instagrammable pics with the Paris Hotel air balloon sign in the background.
Why didn’t I get a pic of myself like this? Cause I was too busy ordering and eating! So please take my advice and snap the perfect pic of yourself at brunch.
The patio offers amazing views of the strip and is perfectly located right across The Bellagio where you can literally watch the fountain show!
Okay now that you’re done snapping pics you can get to business and order some food and drinks. If you’re having a boozy weekend then you can start your morning with one of their three brunch cocktails – Gabi’s Bloody Mary, St. Germain Spritz or a sparkling cocktail. I also ordered coffee because I need it to function for the rest of my day.
The menu at Mon Ami Gabi is perfect because it has a relatively short selection which I usually prefer since that narrows down my options! The menu includes French classics like eggs benedict, salmon platters and french toast.
Fuel up, say “oui” a lot, admire the view of the city from the outside seating right on the strip, and head out for more Las Vegas weekend fun.
- Travel Tip: If you’re a fan of walking like me then you can just walk over to FlyOver (it’s a .7 mi walk, about 12-16m from Mon Ami Gabi). If not then feel free to take a Taxi or Lyft!
Experience FlyOver Las Vegas
FlyOver Las Vegas is a high-tech flight ride attraction that recently opened on the Las Vegas Strip. You’ll be soaring over 22 of the American West’s most stunning destinations – all without ever leaving the city. Have y’all been on Soarin’ in Disney? Well, FlyOver is like Soarin’ but BETTER!
Suspended inside a 52.5-foot spherical screen, you’ll feel every sweeping movement of the journey as you glide through some of the country’s most picturesque landmarks in the West. From soaring over Monument Valley in Arizona to flying over the twinkling lights of the strip and seeing the iconic redwoods in California from the vantage point of a helicopter, every site offers its own unique natural beauty.
I had the most fun time ever at FlyOver, y’all. Once you step inside from being outside in the hustle and bustle of the Strip, you’re instantly transported somewhere else!
After buying your tickets, you’ll head through the calming hallways that lead you to FlyOvers waiting area where you can find bathrooms, lockers, a lounging area and even a bar! (If only real airports were this nice.)
They call FlyOver the ultimate flying experience for a reason. From the entrance to the pre-shows before the ride, every moment tells a story. And the ride itself was so much fun! I am honestly such a nerd for virtual flight rides.
The ride is about 8 wonderful minutes long and you’re transported to every destination in the most beautifully graceful way. There are sights, sounds, smells, mist, and wind for a deeply satisfying multi-sensory experience.
After your flight, you make your way to the gift shop where you can get yourself some gear from all the places you just visited.
Now that you’ve shopped till you dropped, continue your journey at the bar, The Lost Cactus. ALL the drinks are amazing here, and part of the experience too. Their cocktail creation is so much fun, from purple gin to glitter and smoke bubbles!
I’m not ashamed to say I tried every drink on the menu (even though it was before lunch – when in Vegas!) and they were ALL delicious. But, if I really had to choose, my favorite was the Prickly Pear Margarita. My mouth is literally watering thinking about it.
Lunch at The Crack Shack
After all that flying and drinking, you’ll probably be hungry. I mean, I was starving – but what’s new?
Luckily, The Crack Shack is right across the street. And let me tell you, this is really some of the best fried chicken I’ve ever had.
There’s a long selection of delicious chicken sandwiches. The Cali Drip is fire, it’s their take on a Mexican torta which has fries, jalapenos and a crunchy torta roll instead of their usual brioche bun.
Like I said, I was hella hungry, so I also ordered the Fire Nugs and the Mini Biscuits. Both are so so good! The biscuits are so soft and buttery and they’re served with miso maple butter, and if you love butter as much as I do then you have to order them.
Go to a Museum
There’s so many museums for you to go to in Vegas. Here’s the top three I suggest visiting:
The Neon Museum
The Neon Museum was created years ago as a final resting place for old neon signs from hotels that have been closed or renovated. There’s lots of classics to look at, some from well known places and some more obscure ones.
Here you can find signs like the Stardust Hotel & Casino sign, Aladdin’s Lamp, and the Moulin Rouge sign. The Moulin Rouge was one of the most historically important hotels in Las Vegas as it was the first racially integrated casino in the US – unfortunately, it lasted only 6 months before being shut down. But its legacy lives on at the Neon Museum!
Entrance pricing ranges between regular admission and guide tours. It’s $14 for regular admission or the guided tours are $28. If you like, you can come in the evening when the signs are lit up to get a guided tour and learn about every sign in the Main Boneyard. The tour is about an hour, so listen to your tour guide and enjoy the history and nostalgia of old and new Las Vegas!
Keep in mind that cameras are not allowed here! You are only allowed to use your phone camera so don’t go getting in trouble while you’re trying to set up your tripod for the perfect instashot.
Have fun and enjoy the bright and energetic energy here. Seeing all the lit up signs at once is magical and it brings it even more life when you can hear about the history behind every sign. Open your eyes and ears to be transported back to the times of these signs!
The Mob Museum
If you’re even remotely interested in the history of the mob or Las Vegas in general, the Mob Museum is a must! The Mob Museum presents an exciting and detailed view of the Mob’s impact across America – in Las Vegas and other parts of the world. It also showcases the efforts of law enforcement to bring down the Mob.
There are three tiers of passes you can get at the Mob Museum, they go up in price as you add interactive experiences to your pass. There are a selection of interactive experiences that you can participate in here like distillery tour/tasting, firearm training simulation and a crime lab. (Psst: The Mob Museum is also one of the choices on the Las Vegas Go City pass!)
Let me give you a quick overview of each floor in the museum and the exhibits you can find there.
Let’s start with the basement where you can find a speakeasy that takes you back in time to the prohibition era! Downstairs you will find a bar – because this is Vegas, and every attraction needs a bar – with prohibition-era cocktails surrounded by stories, images and artifacts from the roaring 20’s. The mob played a huge role in the smuggling and spread of alcohol and production of moonshine despite how illegal it was during prohibition.
On the first floor, you’ll learn about what kinds of techniques and technologies were necessary for law enforcement agencies to bring down the mob. There is also an exhibit named 100 Years of Made Men where you’ll see the faces and stories of the most notorious mobsters in US history from Al Cappone to Griselda Blanco the “Cocaine Godmother”. The history of cocaine smuggling and the rise of the cartels in the US is one of the most interesting exhibits on this floor. It even goes into international crime and analyzes famous criminals and crime groups all over the world!
Second floor is all about the connection between the Mob and Las Vegas. In the 1940s and ’50s, mob connected individuals were responsible for the bulk of the resorts on the Las Vegas Strip, transforming this remote railroad town into an international gambling destination. As the casino industry grew, so did the increase of law enforcement involvement – however, before that, millions were smuggled out of Las Vegas casinos from scheming mobsters and you can learn all about it here!
Finally, on the third floor, you’ll learn about the birth of the mob which turns out can be traced back to the late 19th century where Irish, Italians and Jewish immigrants struggled to survive. In their suffering, many took the ‘easy’ way out of struggling and turned to crime and violence. In addition to the birth of the mob, you’ll get even deeper into the history of prohibition and it’s lasting legacy and effect in America.
The history and information here is abundant! The museum is self paced or you can book a guided tour if you want. Be intentional with your time and the kinds of things you want to learn about. You could easily spend hours here!
- Travel Tip: There is a FREE Shuttle bus from downtown that takes you to the Arts District, Mob Museum and Fremont Street. It doesn’t pick up from the Strip, but you can take a cheaper LYFT to the Strat to get closer. Click here for more information on the free shuttle. Also, The Mob Museum is one of the choices on the Las Vegas Go City pass!
Zak Bagans’ The Haunted Museum
This one’s for my paranormal lovers. The Zak Bagans’ Haunted Museum was built in 1938 in Downtown Las Vegas and was originally owned by Cyril S. Wengert, a prominent businessman. It was formerly known as a historic Las Vegas mansion and turned into a haunted museum after it was learned that a lot of spooky sh** happened here!
Through the decades, hostile spirits have been known to roam the halls of the museum terrorizing past occupants, workers and family members who passed away there whose energy remains.
Long-time Las Vegans even claim dark rituals took place in the home’s basement during the 1970’s. Paranormal enthusiasts visiting the museum tour-guided experience will venture down creepy winding hallways and secret passages into more than 30 rooms that rival scenes from Hollywood horror films, setting the stage for frightening facts about each historic and cursed item.
If you are spiritually sensitive (like me) in any way, you WILL have a headache, nausea, or general discomfort in some rooms. Just be mindful, respectful and have fun!
After you’ve had an afternoon full of exploring museums, take a Lyft to ARIA Resort and Casino where you’ll be going to dinner!
Dinner at Din Tai Fung
Dumpling Heaven. That pretty much sums up this delicious restaurant!
Din Tai Fung is a Taiwanese dumpling house, located inside ARIA Resort and Casino on the first level. With just a few US locations, two-hour waits and lines have been known to be a thing at Din Tai Fung. However, we had reservations so there was no need to go through that! (Book yours in advance!)
To get to Din Tain Fung from the front desk, follow the right-hand walkway next to Lobby Bar, passing the ARIA Resort Club Lounge on your right. Din Tai Fung will be on your right-hand side.
We arrived to watch Xiao Long Bao (soup dumplings) come to life. You can watch the kitchen crew behind a glass in an assembly-line of dumpling creation. They rolled each wheat skin wrapper, filled it with pork/shrimp/chicken/veggie filling and placed it in a bamboo steamer to cook.
But this is still Las Vegas, so that means drinks! The drink I ordered was delicious and pretty – it was the Pear Lychee Martini. While I really enjoyed my drink, next time I’d love to try their Lychee Mojito and Yuzu Margarita. If you’re wondering what Lychee is, it’s a small fleshy fruit Native to China that has a very sweet and aromatic flavor resembling a grape with hints of rose.
We ordered so many varieties of soup dumplings/XLBs, wontons, dumplings, greens, noodles, and rice and it was ALL so good!! I would highly recommend you order the Spicy Wontons (they really aren’t that spicy) but they’re so flavorful! They have a variety of fillings too, from shrimp, chicken, veggie and combination. Another must is the Kimchi Dumplings. The kimchi flavor in them is light and delicious, not at all as pungent as eating kimchi by itself. Try them for something outside of the regular protein filling options, they won’t disappoint!
Even the appetizers are amazing, like the vinegary cucumber salad, juicy sweet & sour pork ribs, and crunchy sauteed green beans with garlic.
It was a feast. I definitely recommend you order as much as you can here – the portions are actually pretty small so it’s perfect for sharing a variety of things.
If you have room, don’t forget about dessert! There are a bunch of buns and dessert XLBs you can try, like The Chocolate and Mochi XLB. Next time I would like to try the Sweet Taro and the Sesame filling XLB and buns, or the Red Bean Sticky Rice wrap that is wrapped in bamboo leaves. Yum!
Congrats, you’re stuffed silly with dumplings! And it’s Saturday night in Las Vegas, so it’s time for some more drinks.
First, head from the ARIA to The Cosmopolitan which is located right across the street. Take your time and explore around any shops you feel called to or stop and play at the slot machines in either hotel for a bit!
Drinks at The Chandelier inside The Cosmopolitan
Okay but seriously, this was probably the most memorable moment and drink I had on my entire trip.
This was recommended to me by one of our FlyOver hosts. She mentioned there was a drink at The Cosmopolitan that involves eating a flower that numbs your mouth. I was immediately all over it because I love weird sh** like that.
Turns out the drink is called the Verbena and that flower that you chew is a Sichuan flower. This drink itself is a verbena and ginger flavored margarita!
My friend and I went into The Cosmo that night with a mission. How were we about to find this one specific drink in this giant hotel with hella bars? Well, intuition is really real and my friend’s came through that night.
We walked in on the 2nd floor and saw a huge chandelier dead center of the hotel and walked straight towards it to find out it was a bar. We went inside and down level 1.5 (there are 3 levels: 1 / 1.5 / 2) where we found the bar and successfully ordered the drink as soon as we got there! I think it might have been calling to us…
The Chandelier is such a beautiful place. You’re literally standing in the middle of a HUGE chandelier, with purple accent lights everywhere and comfy couches for you to sit and marvel at the beauty and energy while you enjoy your drink!
If you’re as fascinated by this drink as I was, basically just tell the bartender you want the “mouth numbing drink” (or just be normal and ask for The Verbena drink) and he’ll go make your drinks and come back with instructions. You eat the little yellow flower and chew for 10-15 seconds (just trust) and then sip on your drink.
My mouth was so numb y’all. I don’t even feel that kind of numb when I go to the dentist! It’s such a funny and unique experience, even talking feels weird with your mouth that numb.
Go try it if that’s your kinda thing. If it’s not, then you should STILL definitely go try something new! Cheers!
Ride the High Roller
The High Roller is one of the coolest Ferris wheels ever because it takes you 500+ feet in the air with views of all of Las Vegas right above the Strip. You can see ALL the hotels and attractions from a bird’s eye view. It’s such a unique experience to see the entire Strip from above – it almost feels unreal!
The ride lasts about 30 minutes and gives you a 360-degree view of Vegas and has spacious cabins that you can walk around in, which hold up to 40 people in each.
For my fellow boozy travelers, you can get on a Happy Half-Hour cabin that includes an open bar and bartender for one full 30-minute rotation of the wheel. It’s $60 vs the usual $34.75 for a regular cabin so y’all better be ready to drink up and make it worth it!
For the ultimate lovebird Las Vegas experience, you can even get married on the high roller. Yup! You can have the most unique wedding ever, 550 feet in the air, heart racing and butterflies in your tummy – both from the exhilaration of being so in love and so high in the air. It really doesn’t get any more Vegas than that (well, maybe if your officiant is an Elvis impersonator).
If you have the Las Vegas Go City pass, you can also go ziplining at the LINQ!
After your ride you’ll either be tired from the day, drunk from drinking all day, both, OR you’re ready to keep going … and, in that case, you’re my kind of person! The Strip beckons, so head out and see where the night takes you… after all, it’s your last night in the city that never sleeps!
Weekend in Vegas: Sunday
Breakfast at Eggslut
I have loved Eggslut since the first time I tried it in Los Angeles, so when I saw that it was here in Vegas (located inside The Cosmopolitan) I had to have it. The best thing about the sandwiches is the bread. All sandwiches are made with brioche bread, delivered fresh daily.
There are only a few different options on the type of sandwich you can get but all of them are unique. The Fairfax has scrambled eggs and chives, cheddar cheese, caramelized onions, and sriracha mayo on a warm brioche bun.
The Gaucho Sandwich made with thin slices of Wagyu tri-tip steak, egg, chimichurri, and arugula, and the Truffle Hash Browns are so freakin good, y’all. There’s even a cheeseburger-style one because it’s never too early to start your day with a cheeseburger!
- Tip: Try to get there as soon as possible as they close early – the lines can get hella long. Don’t expect to eat there, because the seating is limited but you can always take it to go. There’s plenty of random nooks with benches and chairs around the hotel. Keep your eyes peeled for an empty seat and make yourself comfortable anywhere!
Explore Springs Preserve
The Springs Preserve offers a variety of attractions focused on the history and development of the Las Vegas Valley and how sustainable lifestyles play into its future. There are exhibits on native landscaping, water conservation, efficient technologies, and information on the infrastructure that brings water to the desert.
Off the beaten path of your typical day in Las Vegas, this is the perfect little oasis away from the hustle and bustle of the Strip. There are interactive exhibits, a children’s playground, art galleries, the Divine Cafe, a gift shop, 3.5 miles of trails, and multiple gardens.
You can spend so many hours here! I spent two hours here and barely scratched the surface. The Nevada State Museum is attached to the preserve – it’s an awesome place to see the history of Nevada and is included in admission to the Springs Preserve.
As you explore the trails, you will find that a wealth of evidence reflects thousands of years of local history. Native American peoples, European exploration and settlement, ranching, railroads, and of course, water, have all shaped what you will see on your journey.
Here you can learn that after the last glacial age ended in the Las Vegas Valley some 12,000 years ago, this area slowly became a desert. Small streams and springs provided life-sustaining water to the few people who lived here.
Spanish maps of the period called this area “The Land of Northern Mysteries.” American map makers simply put the word “unexplored” on the territory.
The area was not completely uninhabited, though. The Pueblo Peoples, Patayan (ancestors of the Yuman groups) and Nuwuvi (Southern Paiutes) used the Las Vegas Springs and Las Vegas Creek until European American settlers began ranching in the valley in the 1860s. They left behind remains of their campfires, stone tools, clay pots, houses, and foodstuffs.
You can also visit the Origen Museum which has a small outdoor animal area of lizards and other reptiles, and a seasonal butterfly exhibit.
When you’re all done exploring, take a Lyft or Taxi to Park on Fremont for lunch. It’s a 10-13 minute drive!
Lunch at Park on Fremont
Park on Fremont is the most fun and eccentric restaurant in one of the best areas of Las Vegas.
The decor here is wacky and fun – from taxidermy behind the brick bar to chandeliers and neon signs, so make sure to really look around when you’re here.
Inside, there are cool dark tones mixed with rustic vibes and art all over the walls. Farther in, the back patio with outdoor seating feels like you’re stepping into an enchanted garden. You’ll find lush foliage woven through the walls and all of the trees lined with string lights making for a beautifully lit up dining garden.
Feel like having some fun after a flight of their long list of beers? There’s a seesaw and an oversized Jenga to play with in the ‘secret’ side patio. The back patio is perfectly decorated and a great spot for large groups – don’t forget to call and make a reservation for your larger party.
Foodwise, the garbage fries are an absolute go-to, topped with cheddar and provolone cheese, bacon, jalapenos, green onions, tomatoes, avocado, chipotle ranch, a fried egg and steak or chicken. They’re so yummy and flavorful!! And even better – there’s a vegan version of them available! The garlic fries with aioli were also delicious (yes I LOVE fries so much we got two versions), and my chilaquiles were the bomb!
I also recommend the wings – they’re tossed in a delicious and spicy but not too spicy buffalo sauce. You also can’t go wrong with a burger here, though it’s not a regular burger – it’s stuffed with onions, bacon and cheddar cheese – because why would you want a regular burger when you can stuff it with bacon?
The drinking possibilities are endless here, y’all. There’s a looong list of beers along with a constantly rotating selection! Not to mention there’s also a long AF list of signature cocktails, mules, bloody marys and even large shareable drinks. They have a GIANT mule that serves up to six people! But also, who has six friends?!??
Whether it’s for brunch or just drinks, I know you’re going to have a great time at Park on Fremont! After you’re done, step outside and walk around, you’re already on Fremont Street where you’ll be exploring next.
Take a Tour of Fremont Street
Take a guided tour of Fremont St from an experienced local that can show and tell you about the history and culture of this fascinating part of town.
Fremont Street was the first paved street in Las Vegas in 1925 and received the city’s first traffic light in 1931.
In its early days, Fremont Street was sort of the ‘Main Street’ or also known as the ‘Old Strip’ of Las Vegas due to its proximity to the main transportation hub of the day, the city’s first train depot, where the Plaza Hotel and Casino stands now.
Today Fremont Street is much different than the strip, it’s like the more laid back and chill version of it. In the evenings, there are a bunch of street performers, impersonators, and other artists on the street.
Fremont St is also famous for one special thing – its overhead light show, named Viva Vision. It’s a free nightly show that features 12.5 million lights and 550,000 watts of sound – it is another super fun and a free show! It starts at 6pm and ends at 2am. Each show is 6-7 minutes long and runs every start of the hour.
There are a bunch of other activities you can take part in at Fremont St., from SlotZilla Zipline that soars 11 stories above Vegas and five blocks long to free live concerts, literally every single night, from local bands to famous superstars. See their event calendar to see their everyday free concert line up!
When you’re finished exploring this area, take a LYFT back to the strip (or hop on the free shuttle to get you close, so your LYFT is cheaper.)
Enjoy the view from the Eiffel Tower
For your final Las Vegas thrill, you’ve gotta big. Er, tall – 460ft in the air, precisely!
The Las Vegas Eiffel Tower is a half-scale replica of the real one and is an amazing experience with awesome views of the city. It’s also one of the choices on the Las Vegas Go City pass.
Say your goodbyes as you marvel at the Las Vegas skyline for one last time inside of one of the most romantic landmarks in Vegas. It’s the perfect place to snap pictures of Vegas from above, look through some binoculars at the mountains and desert in the distance, and watch the Bellagio fountain show as the city twinkles far below you.
Where to Stay in Las Vegas
First and foremost – you will find a HUGE price difference in absolutely any hotel in Las Vegas if you book for midweek rather than on a weekend. (I know this is a weekend itinerary, but if you’re short on cash, take a few days off!)
If you can, you’ll want to stay right on the Las Vegas Strip for this itinerary. That will put you close enough to the action to walk or transit everywhere you want to go.
- Stay in a Hotel: For that full Las Vegas experience, there are a few themed hotels along the Strip that have surprisingly budget-friendly rates during certain times of the year (and on weekdays). Check prices for the Excalibur and the Luxor – you can sometimes find rooms for well under $100! To get a great deal we recommend using Kayak to price-compare prices on hotels for your trip.
- Stay in a Vacation Rental: You can often find a great deal on VRBO. I’ve seen everything from apartment or room rentals for under $50/night to entire condominiums for rent, and even this MGM Balcony Suite for around $100/night! This budget-friendly condo is on the strip and has a cute balcony to unwind in peace watching the bustle of the city. We recommend booking directly through VRBO because it has fewer fees and more flexible cancellation policies than Airbnb – also, we’re not fans of Airbnb’s unethical track record and lax security.
- Stay in a Hostel: If you’re truly on a shoe-string budget, a hostel is the least expensive option for Las Vegas accommodation on the strip. There are two hostels that are just a block off the strip, averaging only $30/night. Sin City Hostel and Hostel Cat both have fun social events like drinking games, BBQs, bar crawls and more!
About the Author: Melissa is Practical Wanderlust’s Social Media Manager, a part time Business Entrepreneur student, and a full time creative who shares her journey across various platforms in hopes of touching others hearts and reminding them of everything they already knew but forgot. She strives to educate and inspire others to take care of themselves from the inside out on their journey to inner-standing themselves. When she’s not on socials, she’s committed to healing through doing what she loves which includes reading, hiking, exercising, yoga, meditation and cooking! Psst: Love plants? Wanna grow your own collection by supporting her small Latina-Woman Owned Business? Follow her on Instagram! @milisuuh @hijadelanaturalezaa
Are you already packing your bags to head out on a fabulous weekend in Vegas? Which stop on the itinerary are you most excited about? Think you’ll try that mouth-numbing drink?? Drop a comment below!
Psst: Planning more Nevada and western adventures? …. Check out some of our other posts for inspiration!
- Las Vegas on a Budget: A Massive Local’s Guide to Sin City on the Cheap
- 14 Unreal Outdoor Adventures in Carson Valley, Nevada
- The Perfect 10-Day Utah National Parks Road Trip Itinerary
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Psst: Did you find this weekend in Vegas getaway itinerary helpful? Save this post for later on Pinterest!
Our Top Travel Tips & Resources
- Booking Flights: To score flight deals, search on Google Flights or Kayak. Money-saving tips: fly mid-week or on the weekend; fly carry-on only on a budget airline; and take red-eyes or early morning flights.
- Accommodations: We usually stay in budget-friendly vacation rentals, boutique hotels or private rooms in hostels. We use Booking.com to book hotels (we love their flexible cancellation policy) and Hostelworld to book hostels (low deposit, easy change/cancellation, and excellent reviews). For vacation rentals, we prefer to book using VRBO because they've got lower fees and better support than Airbnb, and we're not fans of Airbnb's unethical track record. You can also book vacation rentals on Expedia and Hotels.com. We also use TrustedHousesitters as both hosts (for our home and our fur-child) and travelers!
- Travel Insurance: We always, always, ALWAYS buy travel insurance for international trips, and we STRONGLY suggest it - visit our Travel Insurance Guide to find out why. We recommend either World Nomads or SafetyWing for international travel insurance. SafetyWing is one of the few policies that covers Covid-19, and they have excellent monthly policies that are perfect for Digital Nomads and long term travelers!
- Travel Credit Card: We book all of our trips on our favorite travel credit card. Not only do we earn cash back that we can spend on more travel, but the card offers fantastic travel perks like travel insurance, trip delay and cancellation coverage, lost baggage reimbursement, and rental car coverage, which helps protect us on our travels. Learn more here.
- Vaccines & Meds: We use the travel guides on the CDC website to research recommended medications and vaccines for international trips. We always recommend getting every vaccine recommended by the CDC! You can get them at your primary care doctor's office or a walk-in pharmacy.
- Tours: We love booking guided tours, especially food tours and walking tours, to get a local's perspective and a history lesson while sight-seeing! We book our tours using Viator and GetYourGuide.
- Transportation: We use Rome2Rio to figure out how to get from place to place, and book local transportation online using Bookaway wherever we can. When we book a rental car, we use DiscoverCars to compare rental companies and find the best deal.
- Luggage Storage: Whenever we're checking out early or taking advantage of a long layover, we use LuggageHero to safely store our luggage while we're running around. Use the code PRACTICALW for 2 hours of free luggage storage on us.
- VPN Service: A VPN keeps your digital information (like website login details, bank info, etc) safe, even when you're connected to an unsecured network while traveling. Plus, it lets you use Netflix & other streaming sites abroad! We use NordVPN. Use the code WANDERLUSTPROMO when you sign up!
- What to Pack: Here are the travel essentials that we bring on every trip. We also have packing lists for hot weather, cold weather, and many more. Take a look at all of our packing guides!
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Read update
- Read Up On Even more Of The Cheapest Tropical Places To Visit On A Budget
Summary
- Many of the cheapest tropical destinations around the world offer beautiful beaches, tasty food, and unique attractions. From Curaçao to Thailand, there are loads of options for travelers on a budget.
- Explore some of the best tropical vacations on a budget, including off-the-beaten-path spots like Bonaire and Colombia, home to stunning marine life and beaches. Don't forget to visit hidden waterfalls and try local delicacies.
- Mexico and the Philippines are some of the most affordable tropical destinations in the world with stunning beaches and friendly locals.
Craving some sand and sea but have limited funds? There are plenty of ways to travel for cheap and find oneself in the middle of a beautiful tropical paradise.
Not only are these spots idyllic and kind to one's wallet, but many of them are also cheap destinations all year round. While some locations, like the Caribbean islands, are relatively close to the continental United States, there are others that are further out.
Not to worry; there are plenty of ways to save on airfare tickets (including knowing when flights are cheapest and why) and find oneself halfway around the world on an untouched stretch of sand. From the balmy beaches of Thailand to the lovely, pristine, secluded beaches of Bonaire and beyond, these cheap tropical vacation destinations deliver big without costing a fortune.
UPDATE: 2024/02/04 14:10 EST BY MARIA BOU INK
Read Up On Even more Of The Cheapest Tropical Places To Visit On A Budget
Going on a budget-friendly exploration of the most affordable tropical vacations unveils a world of enchanting landscapes, from sun-kissed beaches to lush jungles and vibrant coral reefs. Therefore, this list was updated to include additional affordable tropical destinations to visit if travelers are on a budget.
Each of the following cheap tropical vacation destinations has been selected and ranked based on the overall cost to visit per day, taken from Budget Your Trip. All of these affordable tropical locations are also known for budget-friendly activities, food, accommodation, and even free attractions and experiences.
This Is The Cheapest Time To Book An All-Inclusive In The Caribbean (With Tips)
Travelers visiting on a budget a picturesque location in the Caribbean have to know the best time to book an all-inclusive hotel to save money!
12 Curaçao
Average cost per day: $143
Curaçao is one of the most popular summer vacation destinations, and one only needs to visit to understand why. The beaches look like something out of a postcard, and visitors will find cheery, colorful buildings, delicious food, and plenty of opportunities to explore the underwater world in the form of snorkeling and scuba diving.
Plus, for budget-conscious tourists, there's no lack of free things to do in Curacao', from taking a walking tour of Willemstad to visiting Playa Lagun and enjoying the views while crossing the Queen Emma Pontoon Bridge.
- Top Tip: Rent a car to check out all the best beaches in Curaçao
- Must-Visit Spots: Mambo Beach, Blue Bay, Playa Lagun
- Cheapest time to travel to Curaçao: May to November
11 Aruba
Average cost per day: $139
Aruba, often associated with luxury, can be an affordable destination for budget tropical vacations with strategic planning. Optimal timing in September and October offers substantial discounts due to decreased trade winds and increased temperatures. Hotels may slash prices by 50% or more, while dive boats often provide discounted packages.
June to August, though less hot, still offers savings. Vacationers with limited funds can explore cost-free attractions in Aruba's capital city of Oranjestad, including its free tourist trolley, California Dunes, and the historic Balashi ruins for a budget-friendly Aruban experience.
- Top Tip: Utilize well-equipped supermarkets to reduce dining expenses, especially at pricey beach restaurants
- Best Spots: Balashi ruins, Oranjestad, California Dunes
- Cheapest time to travel to Aruba: Fall
14 Cheap Places To Travel In The U.S. All Year Round
Wondering where to go in the United States for affordable vacations? Find out some of the cheapest destinations in the US year-round!
10 Bonaire
Average cost per day: $108
Beautiful Bonaire is a top scuba diving destination and a fantastic Caribbean hotspot where one can save some money while seeing some of the best marine life in the Caribbean.
The most popular things to do in Bonaire are snorkeling and scuba diving; there are tons to see in these blue waters, and many of Bonaire's best dive sites are actually shore dives (this is a convenient type of dive since divers can simply walk from the beach and swim out directly to the site without needing any boat rides).
Still, although this affordable Caribbean destination is famous for its shore diving and pristine marine life, there are plenty of other things to do in Bonaire besides diving; one can spend a lovely vacation basking on the beach or enjoying the many free experiences in Bonaire, among many other tourist-friendly options.
- Top Tip: Don't leave valuables alone on the beach
- Best Spots: Te Amo Beach, Lac Bay, Bonaire National Marine Park
- Cheapest time to travel to Bonaire: January
11 Things To Do In Malta: Complete Guide To Its Scenic Cliffs & Beautiful Coastal Views
Home to numerous UNESCO World Heritage Sites, Malta is steeped in history and culture. Discover the top things to do in this Mediterranean gem.
9 Malta
Average cost per day: $55
One can experience the beauty of the Mediterranean on the cheap, thanks to Malta. This gorgeous nation strikes the right balance between European sophistication and tropical charm, and one can find plenty of reasonable accommodations, excellent food, and a friendly atmosphere there.
Tourists on a budget can enjoy the numerous free activities in Malta, too, from touring Mdina Old City without spending a penny to enjoying Marsaxlokk Harbour and exploring the free-to-access parts of The Citadel on the island of Gozo.
- Top Tip: Bring a variety of different clothes as the weather can change quickly in Malta
- Must-Visit Spots: Comino Island, Blue Lagoon, Golden Bay
- Cheapest time to travel to Malta: Shoulder months
8 Dominican Republic
Average cost per day: $52
Check out the Dominican Republic for lovely balmy waters, sugary beaches, and gorgeous Caribbean Sea sunsets. This country is full of reasonably-priced hotels for every taste and style, backpacker-style hostels and accommodations.
Plus, those on a budget can take advantage of the most affordable all-inclusive resorts in the Dominican Republic, ideal for enjoying the perks of a fancy resort without breaking the bank.
Although the island is known for its sandy shores and tropical waters, there are tons to explore beyond the beach. The Damajagua hidden waterfalls are particularly lovely.
- Top Tip: Visit the beaches but don't miss the interior waterfalls
- Best Spots: Bavaro Beach, Punta Cana, Damajagua
- Cheapest time to travel to the Dominican Republic: May to September
18 Best Adults-Only All-Inclusive Resorts In The Dominican Republic
Looking for your next Adult-Only vacation? Find paradise at these Dominican Republic all-inclusive resorts.
7 Mexico
Average cost per day: $46
From bustling, beautiful Playa del Carmen to lesser-known tropical spots like Zihuatanejo, Mexico is an incredible place to visit if one is looking to save some money. Plus, it's super easy to get to, especially from the US and Canada.
There's some amazing scuba diving and snorkeling, miles of white beaches, and accommodations fit for every taste and style. Plus, the food is great, the people are friendly, and there are tons of things to check out on a vacation, from beaches to amazing ancient ruins in Mexico, especially those in Tulum and Cancun.
Moreover, tourists on a budget can stretch their funds further by staying in any of the lesser-known, under-the-radar beach towns in Mexico, which are typically overlooked in favor of fancier, more famous Mexican beach destinations.
- Top Tip: Don't drink the tap water
- Best Spots: Puerto Vallarta, Playa del Carmen, Los Cabos
- Cheapest time to travel to Mexico: September
6 Tanzania
Average cost per day: $37
Tanzania offers more than just luxury safaris, boasting a stunning coastal region that rivals top tropical destinations. Zanzibar, part of an archipelago with Unguja, Pemba, and Mafia islands, stands out for its budget-friendly appeal. Known for white sandy beaches, turquoise waters, vibrant coral reefs, and the historic Zanzibar Town, it is accessible by taxi or mini-bus.
Despite its luxury image, Zanzibar provides affordable accommodation, especially in backpacker-friendly areas like Stone Town, Kendra, and Nungwi, offering inexpensive restaurants and a plethora of day and night activities. Overall, Zanzibar is one of the world's cheap tropical places to travel to on vacation.
- Top Tip: Don't hesitate to negotiate prices, especially in markets and with local vendors.
- Best Spots: Zanzibar, Unguja, Pemba, and Mafia islands
- Cheapest time to travel to Tanzania: November to May
5 Thailand
Average cost per day: $30
The tropical haven of Thailand is yet another one of the cheapest tropical destinations to visit on vacation. It has its fair share of islands on the Gulf and Andaman coasts, lots of lovely little towns, and no lack of bustling cities like Pattaya and Bangkok, with plenty of great things to see and do without going broke since it's very possible to explore Thailand on a budget.
No matter where one goes, there's never a beautiful beach with some crystal clear water too far away. Plus, the country is famously inexpensive; tourists don't need to spend a lot of money per day in Thailand to have a good time. Heck, even $100 in Thailand goes quite far.
- Top Tip: Visit night markets for some of the cheapest yet most authentic Thai food
- Must-Visit Spots: Phuket, Ko Samui, Ko Chang, Koh Tao, Koh Lanta
- Cheapest time to travel to Thailand: May to October
Some parts of Thailand are significantly more expensive than others; Koh Phi Phi, for instance, is pretty pricey compared to backpacker spots like Koh Tao and Koh Samui.
14 Of The Cheapest Places To Fly All Year Round
Wondering where to fly for cheap? Book a ticket to these cheap places to fly to year-round, perfect for jetsetters on a budget.
4 Malaysia
Average cost per day: $30
While it's not one of the cheapest tropical places to travel from the US in terms of airfare since tourists will have to hop on a longer flight to find Malaysia's sun-kissed shores, it's worth the trip.
Once, there Malaysia is among the cheapest tropical vacations to go on, and there are hundreds of islands, a rich history, and plenty of beaches to stroll on or simply work on a base tan.
Plus, Malaysian people are famously friendly, the food is excellent, and one can find beautiful accommodation for cheap, especially in backpacker spots like colonial Georgetown in Penang. Some of the most affordable islands in Malaysia are Pulau Redang, Pulau Kapas, Pulau Tioman, and Pulau Langkawi.
- Top Tip: Dress beachy for the beach, but more modestly in the towns and cities
- Must-Visit Spots: Rawa Island, Sipadan Island, Batu Ferringhi, Pangkor Island, Georgetown
- Cheapest time to travel to Malaysia: Fall
12 Surprisingly Cheap Places To Travel In The U.S. All Year Round
Uncover hidden, affordable travel destinations across the US year-round for a delightful adventure on a budget, from Sedona to Savannah and many more!
3 The Philippines
Average cost per day: $26
For friendly people, stunning beaches, and delicious food, it's got to be the Philippines, one of the cheapest tropical destinations in the world to visit on a vacation.
This Southeast Asian nation has over 7,000 islands, endless miles of coastline, secluded jungle waterfalls, and extraordinary marine life (it's actually home to some of the best dive sites in the world, from Monad Shoal, which is among the top shark diving spots on Earth, famous for thresher sharks, to Tubbataha Reef, one of the planet's best places to see whale sharks).
Cebu is one of the best areas to visit, thanks to its beach proximity, incredible scuba and snorkeling sites, and a bevy of lush internal waterfalls.
- Top Tip: Bring cash, as some places don't accept cards
- Must-Visit Spots: Cebu, El Nido, Bantawan Island, Bohol, Panglao, Negros Island, Palawan, Siargao Island
- Cheapest time to travel to the Philippines: September
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This is our sample five day itinerary (four nights) for the Big Island of Hawaii. With five days, you are able to get a feel for the two most interesting places on the Big Island: Kailua Kona and Volcano Village.
This itinerary describes two nights in Kona and two nights in Volcano village, and a return “circle island drive” to the airport:
Table of contents
Table of Contents
- Day 1: Hitting the beaches
- Day 2: Ocean views and adventures
- Day 3: Volcano Village and the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park
- Day 4 (option 1): Kalapana and the Hot springs
- Day 4 (option 2): Hilo and Waterfalls
- Day 5: Road trip to Waipi’o valley
Money-saving and trip-enhancing trip planning tips
With life getting so expensive it makes sense to save as much money on your trip as you can. These resources help you to save money (#1), to book the best tours and activities (#2), and greatly simplify trip planning (#3 + #4):
- The Discount Hawaii Car Rentals website is our first stop for a quote when we need a rental car. We like them (a) because they offer the BEST rates, (b) require no prepayment and charge no cancellation fees, and (c) because they offer additional benefits such as free extra drivers and reduced young driver rates.
- We put a LOT of effort in figuring out which tours actually are the best. Have a look at our curated tour section to see tours that get consitently good reviews *and* offer great value.
- Did you know we are giving away free itineraries for all Hawaiian islands? These are a great place to start planing your own trip.
- Our Trip Planning 101 Guide is a another GREAT place to start planning for 1st time visitors.
Day 1: Kona and the Beach
Start your trip by picking up your rental car from one of the car rental offices at the Kona Airport. Kona is the sunny outdoor capital of the Big Island and you will spend your first two days and nights here enjoying the beach.
Drive into town and drop off your bags at your place of accommodation (if you have not yet booked, have a look here for accommodations in Kona). If you arrive during whale season (between December and March/April) sign up directly for a whale-watching cruise or, if you feel even more adventurous, we recommend that you find out more about the Manta Ray night dive/snorkel. These tours are very popular and you should try to book them in advance.
Manta Ray Snorkel Tour at Manta Village
Snorkel adventure from a 50-foot luxury catamaran to see the majestic manta rays at the world-famous "Manta Village" location in Keauhou (south Kona).
from:
$130
What is a suggested tour?Our suggested tours are hand-picked tours that receive consistent good reviews, give back to the community, and work hard to minimize their impact on the environment. Read more about these tours on our website.Afterward, drive north up Highway 11 to explore some of the beautiful west coast beaches such as Kua bay or Hapuna. If you arrived on the Big Island later in the day and are now short on time, stop at the pier fronting the King Kamehameha Hotel in the center of Kona (King Kam beach) for a quick dip or a bit of snorkeling.
End your day with watching the sunset and drinking a mai tai at the Kona Inn, or any of the other beachfront restaurants on Ali’i drive. Tomorrow will be a busy day, so don’t go to bed too late and be prepared for an early start.
Day 2: Ocean Views and Adventures.
Get up early the following day. This should be easy since you still will be on mainland time. Have a relaxed breakfast in town with a view of the ocean or drive south toward Captain Cook and stop in at the Coffee Shack for breakfast. Don’t forget to order yourself some fresh Kona coffee.
After breakfast continue south to the Pu’uhonua o Honaunau National Historical Park (also known as the city of refuge or Honaunau Bay) to learn about the ancient practices and rituals of the native Hawaiians and finish up with some snorkeling at one of the best snorkeling spots on the island: Two Step (at 300 ft. from the park entrance). This is a favorite snorkeling spot for many locals and a culturally significant place for the Hawaiian people. Please remember to be respectful to both the animals and the surroundings.
Afternoon Sail & Snorkel Tour to Kealakekua Bay
Sail to one of the best snorkeling spots on the island past the scenic Kona coastline with a spacious 50 foot catamaran from Keauhou to Kealakekua Bay. Notoriously difficult to reach over land, this is one of the best snorkeling spots on the island with pristine clear blue waters and a vibrant reef.
from:
$125
What is a suggested tour?Our suggested tours are hand-picked tours that receive consistent good reviews, give back to the community, and work hard to minimize their impact on the environment. Read more about these tours on our website.Make sure to combine your activities of the day with the tours you possibly booked. If snorkeling is not your thing you can replace it with one of the many outdoor activities near Kona to spend this day.
Day 3: Volcano Village and the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park
Day 3 is another early day so try packing your bags before you go out for breakfast in order to start your 2+ hour drive to Volcano Village directly after.
Make sure to stop on the way to make the drive more enjoyable, for example at South Point (the most southern point of Hawai’i and the second-most southern point in the United States) or Punaluʻu black sand beach, which is famous for its status as a turtle nesting area. Once you reach Volcano Village drop your bags in a cozy vacation rental close to the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park (have a look at our single favorite vacation rental in Volcano Village), then head into the park for a few hours of hiking and sightseeing.
Start your visit at the visitor center and plan your day in the park from there. Watch the 30-minute educational video in the auditorium and talk to the park rangers about the current situation in the park, ranger-led (free) hikes, and tailor-made advice. Also, ask the rangers about the current viewing conditions for the active lava flows that are entering the ocean.
Some “must sees” in the park are the Thurston Lava Tube and the Chain of Craters Road. If you feel like hiking, we suggest the Kilauea ʻIki trail, which descends from the beautiful Volcano rainforest into the caldera where you can see firsthand the effects of millions of years of volcanic activity.
Afterward, head back to Volcano Village to have dinner in one of the local restaurants.
End your day relaxing in front of the fireplace or in the hot-tub at your vacation rental of choice.
Day 4 (Option 1): Kalapana and Hot Ponds
Today you can either choose to return to the Hawaii Volcanoes National park if you are a volcanoes enthusiast, or make a road trip to Hilo (option 2: scroll down for details) or Puna/Kalapana to the southeast of Volcano Village.
Kalapana is a serene and simply breathtaking spot that is home to what was once one of the most beautiful beaches of the world, before it was overtaken by lava in the 1990s. Currently, a new black sand beach is forming close to the old beach, allowing a glance into the constant processes of creation and destruction which reign supreme on the island. If you choose to head to Kalapana, we recommend you make an entire day of it to enjoy the other gems the Puna District has to offer along the coast.
From Kalapana, head back toward Kapoho, stopping for photo ops at Isaac Hale Beach Park (Pohoiki to the locals). Afterward, enjoy a well-deserved dinner in the quaint, colorful old town of Pahoa. We recommend the Mexican restaurant Luquins — try one of their margaritas “local style”, with lilikoi (passion fruit) juice and a li hing mui salt rim.
Afterward, drive back up to Volcano Village to enjoy your last night in the peace and quiet of the rainforest.
Day 4 (Option 2): Hilo and the Wailuku River
Today you can either choose to return to the Hawaii Volcanoes National park if you are a volcanoes enthusiast, or make a road trip to Hilo or Puna/Kalapana (option 1: scroll up for details) southeast of Volcano Village.
Exclusive Access to the Private Kulaniapia Falls
Swim and play at a private waterfall at the lush Hilo coast to skip the crowds.
from:
$49
What is a suggested tour?Our suggested tours are hand-picked tours that receive consistent good reviews, give back to the community, and work hard to minimize their impact on the environment. Read more about these tours on our website.Start your day driving south one hour to the beautiful coastal town of Hilo for breakfast at Ken’s Pancake House, an old American-style diner complete with window booths and smiling local waitresses that respond best when being called “auntie” according to local customs of respect.
Afterward, head downtown to take a stroll along the many shops, galleries and boutiques and/or visit the Tsunami Museum. If it’s market day (Wednesday or Saturday) stop at the Farmers Market to see how shopping is done local style. Pick up some souvenirs or some fresh fruit and bento’s for lunch later in the day. Got a sweet tooth? You can also head over to Two Ladies kitchen (274 Kilauea Ave) for some fresh mochi, a Japanese delicacy in the islands which will leave you craving for more (the strawberry mochi are our favorite).
After you’ve had your fill of exploring downtown, head out to eat the lunch you’ve picked up on Coconut Island or at one the beaches in the majestic Keaukaha area. We recommend 4-mile or Richardsons, both for the views of Hilo Bay and the good swimming (all beaches in Hilo).
When you’re finished with lunch head up to Rainbow Falls for a couple of photos and then continue up Kaumana Drive past Hilo Hospital to the Boiling Pots.
Now it is time to drive up Saddle Road to go stargazing at one of the best locations of the world: Mauna Kea. You can reach the visitor center where there are free stargazing programs offered just after sunset with any rental car but you’ll need a 4WD if you want to visit the summit. There are also professional tours organized from Hilo (see below) that will take you up the mountain.
Mauna Kea Summit and Stars
A stargazing journey from sea level to the nearly 14,000 foot summit of Maunakea reveals the wonders and world-class clarity of the Hawaiian night sky. This tour lets you see the sunset among some of the world's best telescopes and then takes you for a private star show at 9000 ft. with an 11” Celestron telescope.
from:
$315
What is a suggested tour?Our suggested tours are hand-picked tours that receive consistent good reviews, give back to the community, and work hard to minimize their impact on the environment. Read more about these tours on our website.For more information and safety tips see our guide to stargazing on Mauna Kea.
Afterward, drive back up to Volcano Village to enjoy your last night in the peace and quiet of the rainforest. Again, don’t forget to return to the Hawaii Volcanoes National park at night if your first visit was frustrated by clouds and/or rain.
Day 5: Road trip to Waipiʻo Valley
Today is your last day on the Big Island. You will return to the airport driving counter-clockwise around the island over Hilo and the north shore of the Big Island. This is a 120-mile drive so make sure to plan your time properly and don’t miss your flight!
Start your day with packing your bags and then drive to Hilo for breakfast while watching the sun rise over the bay. Afterward, head out to Highway 19 onto the Hamakua Coast and get ready for some breathtaking scenery!
Start by turning off onto the 4-mile Scenic Route just a few minutes outside Hilo and enjoy the winding, magical drive along the coast. You can also stop at the World Botanical Gardens for a short hike through lush fern forests. Once back on Highway 19, make sure you stop at the ʻAkaka Falls State Park to see the most famous waterfall in the state of Hawaii.
Continue north to the historic town of Honoka’a. This former cane sugar stronghold has an interesting collection of shops and galleries and is a great place to grab some lunch or a fresh, hot malasada at Tex Drive In. From here, it’s just a short drive to the Waipiʻo Valley overlook at the end of Highway 240. Which will allow you a stunning view of the “Valley of Kings”, one of the most culturally significant spots for the native Hawaiians and a hotspot for the traditional cultivation of the locally prized “kalo” or taro crops.
Then continue via Waimea and start preparing yourself to go to the airport. While driving south along the coastal Highway 270 you can either stop at the Waikoloa Village for some local grindz and/or visit one of the many stunning white sand beaches (e.g. Kua Bay) on your way back to the Kona Airport.
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How GMOs Are Regulated in the United States
How GMOs are Regulated in the United States
Three federal agencies within the U.S. government work together to regulate most GMOs. “GMO” (genetically modified organism) has become the common term consumers and popular media use to describe a plant, animal, or microorganism that has had its genetic material (DNA) altered through a process called genetic engineering.
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) ensure that GMOs are safe for human, plant, and animal health.
These agencies also monitor the impact of GMOs on the environment.
The Coordinated Framework for the Regulation of Biotechnology, established in 1986, describes how the agencies work together to regulate GMOs.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration
FDA regulates most human and animal food, including GMO foods. In doing so, FDA makes sure that foods that are GMOs or have GMO ingredients meet the same strict safety standards as all other foods. FDA sets and enforces food safety standards that those who produce, process, store, ship, or sell food must follow, no matter how the foods are created.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
EPA is responsible for protecting human health and the environment, which includes regulating pesticides. EPA regulates the safety of the substances that protect GMO plants, referred to as plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs), that are in some GMO plants to make them resistant to insects and disease. EPA also monitors all other types of pesticides that are used on crops, including on GMO and non-GMO crops.
U.S. Department of Agriculture
The USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) protects agriculture in the United States against pests and disease. APHIS sets regulations to make sure GMO plants are not harmful to other plants, and USDA’s Biotechnology Regulatory Services implements these regulations.
GMOs: Government Regulation and Your Safety
Hear from experts at FDA, EPA, and USDA as they discuss how federal agencies work together to ensure that GMOs are safe for human, plant, and animal health.
A Question of GMOs
Who makes sure GMOs are safe?
Many federal agencies play an important role in ensuring the safety of GMOs. As described in the Coordinated Framework for the Regulation of Biotechnology, multiple federal agencies work to ensure the safety of GMOs. Collaboration and coordination among these agencies help make sure food developers understand the importance of a safe food supply and the rules they need to follow when developing new products using genetic engineering.
FDA’s voluntary Plant Biotechnology Consultation Program evaluates the safety of food from new GMOs before they enter the market. This program allows developers to work with FDA on a product-by-product basis.
GMOs and Food Safety: A Guide for Health Educators
How does the Plant Biotechnology Consultation Program work?
The Plant Biotechnology Consultation Program is a voluntary program with four key steps:
- GMO plant developer meets with FDA about a potential new product for use in human and animal food.
- GMO developer submits food safety assessment data and information to FDA.
- FDA evaluates the data and information and resolves any issues with the developer.
- Consultation is complete once FDA has no more questions about the safety of the human and animal food made from the new GMO plant variety. Completed consultations are all made public.
The Program allows FDA to work with crop developers to help create a safe food supply. It also allows FDA to collect information about new foods. See a full list of GMOs that have gone through the Plant Biotechnology Consultation Program.
How can I tell if I’m eating GMOs?
Certain types of GMOs have a disclosure that lets you know if the food, or ingredients you are eating, is a bioengineered food. The National Bioengineered Food Disclosure Standard defines bioengineered foods as those that contain detectable genetic material that has been modified through certain lab techniques and cannot be created through conventional breeding or found in nature.
The Standard establishes requirements for labeling foods that humans eat that are or may be bioengineered and defines bioengineered foods as those that contain detectable genetic material that has been modified through certain lab techniques and cannot be created through conventional breeding or found in nature.
The Standard requires that by 2022, food makers, importers, and certain retailers label foods that are bioengineered or have bioengineered ingredients. At that time, foods sold in the United States that meet the definition of bioengineered food must have information on their packaging using one of the approved methods, including text on the package that says “bioengineered food,” the bioengineered food symbol, or directions for using your phone to find the disclosure.
For more details on the labeling requirement for foods that are genetically modified or bioengineered, including sample labels, visit www.ams.usda.gov/be.
Is It Called GMO or Something Else?
Science and History of GMOs and Other Food Modification Processes
GMO Crops, Animal Food, and Beyond
How GMO Crops Impact Our World
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Return to Trade, Science, and Genetically Modified Foods.
1. Purpose
The scientific breakthrough of genetically modified (GM) food has generated enormous political controversy while delivering few benefits to consumers to date. The next generation of GM foods could offer much larger benefits, but today's debate has deterred investment and led to policies unguided by a long-term vision. Our purpose is to help create a more strategic policy on GM foods in the U.S. Its main product will be a major article that (a) articulates why the next generation of GM foods is a vitally important innovation, and (b) details policies for managing the environmental, health, trade, research and investment issues that arise in the GM food debate. Through a series of meetings in the U.S., along with efforts to catalyze a similar set of meetings in Europe, we will focus on the need for the specifics of a sensible long-term strategy.
We will focus on three main issues. First, how do the "first generation" and "second generation" of GM foods differ, and what do these differences portend? The first generation of products-such as corn, soybeans, and cotton-are mainly based on modifications of single genes that allow farmers to reduce the cost of pesticides, herbicides and other "inputs" to farming. Farmers have embraced this first generation of GM crops enthusiastically in the hope of lowering costs, lifting yields and boosting profits. With few exceptions (e.g., cotton), however, profits have not soared, and little of the surplus has been passed to consumers via lower prices or improved quality. Consumers, already wary of unsafe food, have been understandably reluctant to embrace products that may cause potential harm and provide no apparent benefits. In Europe, the reaction has been especially hostile, but opposition is spreading in the U.S. as well.
Our concern is that the controversy over the "first generation" of products is clouding the future for the "second generation," such as fruits and vegetables that deliver vaccines and commodity crops that allow farmers to boost yields significantly. Many of these second generation products are already in the research pipeline and, if marketed, could offer enormous benefits to consumers and farmers. Proper regulatory and incentive systems are needed to ensure that the innovation and application of this new generation properly account for the risks and values that will determine whether this new technology is successful. Hostility in some quarters (though not by farmers) to the first generation is creating a regulatory environment that may slow GM innovations and has already made investors wary. The same hostility and uncertainty also partially explain why investment in applying modern biotechnology to crops that are especially importing in the developing world remains extremely modest-public research institutions have been wary of adopting GM techniques, and private innovators have not had strong incentives to develop crops for developing country markets. Yet the benefits of genetic modification techniques may be especially large in the developing world-by raising yields and improving nutrition, genetically modified foods can play a role in alleviating poverty. Several observers have already articulated the long-term potential of this technology, but no comprehensive vision exists for realizing this potential. Such a vision must contain clear and practical solutions, especially for U.S. policy.
The second issue concerns regulation. Opponents maintain that laboratory development and trial testing of GM foods poses risks because experiments can go awry. Novel strains could escape from the laboratory or field trials; new organisms can cause unanticipated consequences. Other risks arise during commercial sale and marketing. Large-scale planting of novel organisms can aid the development of resistant pests or cause other environmental harms; and novel foods could pose risks to consumers (e.g., allergenicity).
In each of these areas, there are worrying gaps and inconsistencies in regulatory systems. Although review and approval of experiments as well as codes of practice for laboratories and field trials in developed countries are well-developed extensions of systems initially put in place during the 1970s debate over recombinant DNA, the biotech industry is now rapidly spreading to the developing world where regulatory oversight may be much less effective. Inadequate oversight in the developing world is a potential problem for all nations since improper genetic releases in one country could affect the global ecosystem. A growing number of developing countries-notably, Brazil, China and India-are promoting indigenous biotechnology industries, and making greater use of biotechnology methods in public and private research institutes. They are anxious to gain the advantages of genetic modification, not only to enhance food production but also to foster indigenous pharmaceutical and biotech industries. While most developing countries now have rules to regulate risks from developing and testing GM products, the record on implementation generally has been poor. The technology, it appears, is spreading much more rapidly than these countries' capacity to regulate. We will explore what can be done to improve regulatory capacity while retaining the benefits of GM technologies in the developing world.
Problems in the regulatory system are quite different for final products such as processed foods. A key issue lies in the large differences between U.S. and European regulatory approaches, which have caused trade frictions and raised questions over which regulatory approach is more effective. The European Union has adopted comprehensive new regulatory approval systems especially designed for GM foods; yet for several years the EU has not approved any new GM foods and several EU member states are refusing to accept them even if Brussels eventually gives regulatory approval. The U.S., by contrast, regulates GM foods through relatively minor modifications to its existing food and pesticide regulatory systems. The result has been approval of many new products but also growing concern that the US regulatory system will soon find itself in gridlock. As GM food products and risks become more complex, with novelties beyond simple insertion of single genes, it may be impossible to evaluate safety within a system designed for regulation of traditional agricultural products. Furthermore, on both sides of the Atlantic there are growing concerns that inadequate attention is paid to monitoring and regulating environmental risks caused by releasing transgenic crops and animals into the environment. We will explore why the U.S. and Europe have taken different regulatory paths, the consequences of these differences, and the prospects for resolving them.
The third issue concerns trade. Differences in planting of GM crops and regulatory systems are already causing trade frictions. At this writing, the first formal trade dispute over regulation of GM foods-between Egypt and Thailand-is in consultations at the World Trade Organization. A dispute between the US and EU is looming. In principle, the WTO's agreement on sanitary and phytosanitary regulations (the "SPS Agreement") will govern these disputes. In practice, however, the WTO system is poorly equipped to settle these problems because it requires passing judgment on the legitimacy of a nation's food safety laws. The WTO also affects this issue through its treatment of intellectual property. WTO's agreement on Trade-Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) requires countries to adopt greater protection of intellectual property, including protection of private property rights in agriculture. This will affect diffusion of GM technologies since most of the key innovations are privately owned. During the "green revolution" in agriculture beginning in the 1950s, key innovations were publicly owned and advanced by public- and foundation-funded agricultural research programs. If a GM foods revolution is to occur, explicit accommodation of public and private interests will be essential. We will explore how these issues-intrusion into national food safety laws as well as sharing of privately owned intellectual property-can be accommodated by the WTO.
Policy strategy development in this area will be exceptionally challenging. The polarized debate over the first generation of GM foods casts a long shadow over any effort. Moreover, these policies will be technically and politically complicated. For example, policies to regulate risks in the laboratory and during field-testing must be applied at the level of individual laboratories and firms, which is hard for the international community to achieve when countries are wary of international law and institutions that could reach inside their borders. Added to this problem is the fact that there is already an international treaty on this regulatory problem-the "Biosafety Protocol"-which many experts feel is largely symbolic and unlikely to be effective. A major challenge is how to accelerate the development of GM products relevant to developing country conditions. Meeting this challenge requires attention to the funding patterns and research agendas at the main public agricultural international research institutions. These institutions are facing reduced support from some large donor countries (notably in Europe) opposed to public investments in biotechnology. A final challenge is that private firms own many intellectual property rights on key innovations; how and whether they can be induced to share this information, especially with needy developing countries, is an open question.
2. Context: How did the Promise of GM Foods Come Undone?
The basic science underpinning biotechnology has existed since the early 1970s, but only in the middle 1990s did commercially viable GM foods appear on store shelves in significant quantities. The new foods quickly became embroiled in controversy. The European public, already sensitive to food dangers from the "mad cow" debacle, denounced these products as unsafe. Regulatory approval for new field trials of GM crops in Europe was halted nearly two years ago; angry activists have uprooted trial plots already in the ground; at this writing, lawsuits are being filed against growers of GM crops in Europe for polluting the world's genetic commons with products that God had neither created nor intended. Similar, though less anger-filled, events have unfolded in Japan-today, the Japanese government and consumers demand segregation and labeling of GM crops. In the United States, public discussion took a different direction. The new crops were hailed as allowing farmers to protect yields while using fewer harmful pesticides-benefiting the environment, field workers and farmers. Within five years, from the middle 1990s to today, U.S. farmers went from essentially zero GM planting to sowing the majority of the soybean crop and nearly half of the corn and cotton crop with GM seeds. Consumers, meanwhile, were largely quiet with the exception of activist groups such as Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth.
Economics, as well as different perceptions of risks, explain some of the gulf between activist GM opponents and farmers. The first generation of GM foods-notably, soybeans, corn, and cotton-have delivered benefits mainly to innovators and producers. For example, Monsanto created "Roundup Ready" soybeans that can withstand application of the powerful herbicide glyphosphate (trade name: Roundup). The herbicide helps the soybeans flourish by keeping down weeds, and reduces the costs of spraying of less effective herbicides. Economic studies show that about half of the surplus gained from this innovation flows back to Monsanto, which sells both the seeds and the Roundup. One quarter goes to farmers, and the remainder to consumers. It is hardly surprising that Monsanto and farmers have embraced the technology while consumers-who have seen fewer benefits-remain indifferent or skeptical. Why take the risk with no apparent benefit?
The next generations of products are likely to be different. Development of GM foods that contain vital vaccines and nutrients is already far advanced. An example is "golden rice"-a strain of genetically modified rice enriched through biotechnology with beta-carotene containing vitamin A. Perhaps one billion people consume insufficient amounts of the A vitamins, especially those who survive on rice-dominant diets. The novel orange-tinged rice could help solve the problem of Vitamin-A deficiency, and the associated problems of childhood disease and blindness, if it could be widely adopted by poor families. Many other products are in the development pipeline. Sweet potatoes are a staple in East African diets because they store easily and can provide food security in times of drought. Field trials are beginning in Kenya for a GM variety that resists the sweet potato virus, which kills up to 80% of the crop and partially explains why Kenyan sweet potato yields are half the world average. The potential for other innovations is immense and the timing fortuitous. Just when experts have been fretting that the "green revolution" research and diffusion programs that have lifted crop yields worldwide since the 1950s are running out of steam, genetic engineering potentially opens a new frontier.
How can societies achieve the promise of genetic engineering of foods while managing any risks? Several attributes of GM technologies make this important question especially difficult to answer. First, delivering GM technologies to market has required extremely costly investments. Hostility to the first generation of GM foods has made the leading firms skittish about pumping even greater resources into subsequent generations where the greater potential benefits to society are matched by larger commercial risks.
Second, firms in a handful of advanced industrialized countries account, so far, for nearly all innovation of GM foods. Those countries have long had regulations in place relating to potential hazards during the development and testing of new products. (Those regulations date to the acrimonious debate in the 1970s over recombinant DNA. Fundamentally the same technologies, with many of the same risks, are involved in development and testing of GM foods.) Although critics maintain that even these regulatory regimes are inadequate, corresponding oversight in many developing countries is totally absent. As the biotech industry spreads worldwide, the stark differences in regulatory approach will become increasingly troublesome. Brazil, China, and India, for example, all have public and private efforts underway to promote world-class biotechnology industries. But these new entrants do not face the same regulatory constraints, making the risks to them and the world potentially larger. A recent example concerns a new virus bioengineered in an Australian lab devoted to infertility research in mice, which destroys immune response in the same mice. The virus, produced by accident, could portend similar viruses with impacts on human immune response.
Many also feel that ill-designed and poorly contained GM crops could escape from field trials, breeding with nearby wild relatives to create "super weeds." Yet the international community has little leverage over how countries regulate the pre-market development of these products. So far, nearly all international discussions of the risks of genetic engineering has focused on ways to restrict trade in GM foods, but trade restrictions have little direct leverage on the methods by which GM foods are developed. More intrusive international legal rules could ensure that all countries implement similarly strict controls on product development, but evidence from other areas of international law suggests that such regimes work poorly if at all, not unlike analogous arms control regimes (we will invite experts on these regimes to participate). The international community has yet to confront the problem of widely variable R&D practices because the norms of the advanced industrialized nations have prevailed. In those few cases where R&D has been conducted outside the advanced research regimes it has been managed mainly by multinational firms and institutions that conform to the same norms.
Third, most investment has focused on products for the advanced industrialized countries where the markets are most promising. Yet the reason most often brandished for why GM food technologies must be advanced is the potential for "feeding the world." Some have charged that this is merely cynical posturing-but the potential benefits are real. There are many possible spillovers from the products generated for markets in advanced industrialized countries-both "golden rice" and the Kenyan sweet potatoes, for example, are partially built on genes developed and owned by industrial firms. The reality, however, is that funding of public research institutes for improving staple crops in the developing world is nearly stagnant, and only a small fraction of the public resources are being devoted to seizing the benefits of genetic engineering. Moreover, the controversy over GM foods in advanced industrialized nations has led some donor countries to threaten cutbacks if the institutes that they fund promote genetic engineering. Even if there were effective investment plans, novel GM foods typically rely, in part, on proprietary techniques and genes that could be too costly to license for the poorest beneficiaries. And public research institutes increasingly rely on partnerships with private firms, which bring badly needed resources but raise questions about how the benefits of research may be shared. So far, particular GM foods have advanced only through a patchwork of uneasy fixes-donations of technology (e.g., the Kenyan sweet potato), private special funding (e.g., Rockefeller Foundation's support of technology similar to "golden rice"), and the like. But is this ad hoc approach sustainable and effective?
Fourth, regulation and development of this new technology are complicated by the rules of the World Trade Organization. European governments defend their restrictions on testing and imports of GM foods by pointing to potential risks of these products-the "precautionary principle." But the WTO is still largely silent on how vigorously its members can defend trade restrictions using this principle, and legal scholars have warned that the principle is so elastic that it can easily be abused as a cover for simple protectionism. The WTO is also important because it imposes discipline on how countries protect intellectual property. Some observers have argued that multinational corporations that have invented (or purchased) the techniques of genetic engineering should be forced to transfer the ideas and methods to developing countries most in need. Yet the WTO's agreement on Trade-Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) requires the opposite-it obliges every member of the WTO, including developing countries, to implement patent, copyright and other intellectual property laws that could make it harder to diffuse new technologies for public purposes. Even boosters of GM food technology now publicly worry that intellectual property protections in the US and other advanced industrialized countries have gone so far that they impede the free sharing of novel ideas, which has been a mainstay of effective scientific research.
Fifth, the political forces that will affect the future of this technology are truly global, making it hard for any single nation, even the U.S., to control the policy levers. The concentration of biotech talent and a favorable regulatory environment explain why a substantial share of the research, so far, has taken place in the U.S. But the potential markets for GM foods are global, and U.S. firms are vulnerable to regulatory decisions made in many other capitals and markets. Moreover, the foes of this technology are also organized globally. Essentially all the major European and American consumer organizations participate in interlocking alliances that share information and strategies. Many of the leading environmental groups that have been active on this issue-such as Greenpeace-are multinational operations that guide their local affiliates with a central strategy and act with a global purpose. Whereas in the early 1980s the consumer movement against beef hormones took more than a decade to spread across Europe-and never really took hold in the United States-only a few short years were needed for the foes of GM foods to rally mass public support in Europe and to spread their message to nearly all other industrialized nations as well as the major countries of the developing world. Perhaps the Internet, more active media, and generally greater awareness of food safety (fanned, notably, by the "mad cow" scares) are increasing the public appetite for information about food quality and safety.
Thus the technology of GM foods has arrived at an important crossroads. It holds huge potential for consumers and producers; but the enormous controversy over the first generation of GM products has called into question whether the full potential for the second-generation GM products will ever be realized. The technologies of genetic modification may create risks, but the means of managing these risks to date-such as trade restrictions-exert little leverage. There is a truly significant potential to use this technology for public good-to better nourish the growing world population to shrink the area of land needed for food production and to reduce the use of harmful pesticides. Yet, consumer acceptance, regulation of risks, public investment, consistency with international trade rules, and ownership of intellectual property all pose major hurdles to the realization of these gains.
These are important issues for US foreign policy. US firms are the leading innovators of the technology. US consumers stand to benefit from safer and cheaper products (and to be harmed by any risks). The quality of the environment in the US-where GM crops are already grown-stands to gain or lose depending how the technology unfolds. And the quality of the world's environment and biodiversity-which have long also been concerns of US foreign policy-stand to be affected as well. The handling of GM food issues will also affect the integrity and conduct of the world trading system-in particular, the WTO's rules on intellectual property and on food safety, which were designed in considerable part by US negotiators and fashioned mainly to reflect the policy preferences of the United States.
3. Literature in the Field
There are many books and articles that touch on aspects of these challenges, although none seeks to reframe the debate along the lines that we suggest. Some argue that the debate should be framed in terms of the potential to feed the world, but that has given short shrift to the commercial realities that drive product development and to potential risks that must be addressed. Other studies suggest that this is a straightforward matter of science and that opponents of GM foods are simply wrong. But that literature does not address the political task of moving beyond the stalemate that has resulted as different political systems have interpreted the same science in different ways. And many studies have focused on a particular technical issue-such as the WTO's SPS Agreement-and explored the implications for GM foods. But those studies miss the important issues that lie outside their domain.
Below, we outline five broad types of studies that are relevant for our project. We are mindful that our goal-a coherent vision and articulation of policy-is ambitious, but it is made much easier by the availability of an extensive literature on parts of the problem.
First, there are many studies on the risks of GM foods-such as risks to the environment, consumers, and the like. Among these is a recent report by the National Academy of Sciences, as well as extensive commentary in Nature, Science and other sources on risks. These studies have focused mainly on national regulation and, to a much lesser degree, on international regulation and trade issues. They have generally identified risks, outlined management strategies, and proposed policy options. They have been much less effective in exploring why different societies regulate risks differently. One of us (Victor) was centrally involved in one of these studies, learning first hand that the theories for addressing problems where risk assessments and management techniques vary internationally and are extremely poor.
Second, there is a growing literature (and policy activity) on the potential for using biotechnology to "feed the world." These studies have identified enormous potentials and highlighted the many injustices in a world economic system that focuses R&D on products for advanced industrialized countries while giving little attention to the poor. They have also highlighted issues such as ownership of intellectual property (e.g., genes, biotechnology techniques) that may impede diffusion of the new technology to the poorest communities. But these studies offer little by way of a plan for fixing the situation, except marginal changes such as enhanced funding of the public international "Consultative Group" network of agricultural research. These are important issues, but solutions must be put in the context of the ongoing trade disputes over GM foods. For example, in the last month Thailand has launched a formal dispute in the WTO against Egypt for the latter's ban on some imported Thai products-the ban is based on the fear that some of the Thai product may be tainted by genetically modified crops. Such conflicts-of which this is just one-appear likely to overshadow the impact of public research on biotechnology in affecting which crops poor farmers grow and the markets in which they can sell them.
Third, there is a growing literature on the legal dimensions of these issues. Some focuses on the liability implications of growing GM crops, which is an issue of increasing importance as suits are prepared in Europe against field trials that may "pollute the genetic commons." But this literature largely concentrates on national and EU liability rules; at the international level, liability over "genetic pollution" has been deferred. More importantly, there is a well-developed body of international trade law on food safety regulation. The WTO imposes discipline on the types of food safety regulations that countries can impose, and some case law has emerged as disputes have worked through the WTO system (e.g., on meat hormones).
But the legal literature fails to offer much insight into the politics of these issues, which dominate. For international trade lawyers, "science" is the arbiter of whether national food safety regulations are permissible-if a national measure is based on scientific risk assessment then it passes the WTO test. But "science" is not the issue in the political controversies. Moreover, the legal literature so far offers little insight into the permissibility of various remedies for trade conflicts over GM foods, such as mandatory labeling requirements. Another major gap in the legal literature is that almost all international trade law is focused on products; it provides for regulation if the product itself causes harm and has generally not allowed regulation of the process by which the product is created. Many of the risks for GM foods come from the process by which they are grown. Moreover, if our argument is right, the greatest risks may come in the process of research and development. Efforts to control the final product-after the R&D phase is over-will have no effect on such upstream risks.
Fourth, there is a well-developed field of research on the economics of innovation and diffusion of agriculture technologies. GM foods are the latest in a long line of important agricultural innovations, each with its own technical, regulatory and market barriers and opportunities. Economic analysis of new technologies includes attention to how consumers gain information about and differentiate between products; many, including one of us (Runge), have advocated the use of labeling to allow consumers to choose between GM and non-GM crops. Yet many practical problems arise with labeling, including the possibility that labels will not be informative to consumers and some label designs could introduce bias against GM technologies. Because labeling programs can be costly to monitor and implement, much attention in industry has focused on whether labels should be positive (i.e., "contains GM products) or negative (i.e., "does not contain GM products"). Because contamination is a constant feature of the food system, special attention has focused on the threshold that determines "GM free;" very sensitive monitoring techniques make it possible to spot virtually any level of contamination, which suggests that a zero threshold would be impossible to enforce. Nearly all food will have some traces of genetic modification.
Fifth, there is essentially no literature that explores the effect of an expanding biotech industry on regulation of GM techniques. Extensive information is available on the rules that countries impose on biotech R&D, but information about actual implementation (i.e., application, monitoring and enforcement) of those rules is unreliable. No studies, of which we are aware, have even explored possible scenarios for the development of biotech industries in developing countries and whether that development will occur with a parallel set of appropriate regulations.
Also notably absent from the literature is an assessment of how countries manage the techniques of genetic modification. The literature on GM regulation in the advanced industrialized countries is extensive, and there are some inventories of adopted rules that govern the techniques in public and private research institutions in developing countries, but no studies have examined implementation. A systematic examination of that issue is beyond the scope of this study, but a comparison between the rule systems in these countries and the spread of investment in GM technologies is feasible and will form part of our research.
4. Adding Value
We will add value to this debate in three ways. First, we will articulate a vision for what is really at stake with GM foods-the development of a "second generation" of products and the risks associated with diffusion of the global biotech industry. Second, we will offer specific advice on how to achieve the vision, which will include topics such as:
- How governments should handle disputes under the WTO's SPS Agreement that involve highly uncertain and distant risks. At present, there is no guidance on that matter; rather, the debate is stuck on whether and how to adopt an expanded version of the "precautionary principle."
- How systems for labeling GM products can be made compatible with the WTO's agreement on technical barriers to trade.
- How to promote development of the next generations of GM products in public research institutions (including those of the international CG system) with private sector collaboration.
- How to manage the risks from laboratory and field trial research in the growing number of countries with biotech industries. (Answers to this question may benefit from looking closely at efforts, successful and not, to manage development of biological and chemical weapons.)
In developing these policy proposals we will focus on the U.S. However, a successful US policy requires engagement with many NGOs, other countries, and international institutions. Thus our vision must be one that is attractive and plausible for the world.
Third, and most importantly, we aim for a broad policy statement. The current debate has raised many issues-health and environmental safety regulations, possible WTO disputes, intellectual property rules, and funding of international agricultural research-but the links across them are not considered. The current policy is reactive-government works one issue, often in response to a crisis-in part because the stakes in GM foods have not been made sufficiently clear so that the highest levels of government have demanded a coherent policy strategy.
5. Products
Through approximately three study group meetings (see below) we will develop a major article that outlines this vision. Writing that article may require one or more technical background studies, such as on risks of GM foods, the handling of similar health and environmental safety disputes in the WTO, and the methods used in different countries to regulate the possible risks of genetic modification. Drs. Runge and Victor already have some of those studies under way; where appropriate, they will be published separately. Our main focus is the final article, which will be written to be accessible to a non-technical audience.
Our study group plan also envisions commissioning outside papers on specific topics that are not the expertise of Drs. Victor and Runge. We would urge the authors of those papers to publish their work in appropriate journals, although our purpose is not to generate a specific publication from those background papers-nor does CFR have a paper series that would be an appropriate venue for those works.
6. Study Group Details
We envision holding three meetings of the study group-the first in late March, the second about 8 weeks later, and the final meeting in mid-summer. Each meeting will have a theme and at least one background paper circulated in advance:
Meeting 1 (late March)
- Purpose: what are the facts on the ground, and is our conception of this study group correct?
- Key questions:
- What are the key scientific methods and issues?
- How did the US and EU arrive at such different regulatory approaches to GM products?
- Are we correct that the debate is on the wrong track?
- What is the impact of this wrong track on innovation of the next generation of products:
- Private sector: impact on how firms view the potential for the next generation of products?
- Public sector: impact on level and type of investment in new GM techniques in public research institutions?
- Background presentation:
- Key scientific issues, methods, and risks in the development and commercial production of GM foods.
- Background papers:
- Paper on the origins of the current dispute: how did different countries, using essentially the same scientific information, arrive at such different regulatory decisions about GM foods? (Author: David Vogel, INSEAD and Univ. of California, Berkeley)
- Concept paper (this document)
Meeting 2 (April/May)
- Purpose: facts on the ground in developing countries and the development of GM food products for the developing world (possible location: Washington DC)
- Key questions:
- What are the trends in investment in agriculture for public benefit in developing countries?
- Is the level of investment in GM techniques for this market adequate? Are methods for sharing intellectual property and for joint public-private investment adequate?
- Is there a growing and systematic problem with regulation of GM techniques ("biosafety") in the US, other OECD countries, and overseas?
- Background papers
- Investment in GM techniques for the developing world-level of investment; balance between traditional agricultural research and biotech; role of public-private partnerships in development of GM foods for developing countries; key policy issues (e.g., IPR sharing and granting). (Author: TBD)
- Paper on regulation of GM techniques in the US, Europe and key developing countries (authors: Karplus and Victor)
Meeting 3 (late June)
- Purpose: recap and synthesize the debate; focus on real policy options for the US.
- Key questions:
- Are we facing a crisis for the development of GM foods (i.e., a large gap between the trajectory of product development and the realistic potential trajectory)?
- What are the real policy options for the U.S.-government, firms, NGOs?
- Background papers
- Draft of major policy paper on "Trade, Science and Genetically Modified Foods" (authors: Runge and Victor).
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https://chefindisguise.com/conversion-tables/
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I hope this helps make your life easier the next time you are reading a recipe 🙂
Baking temperatures conversion table
| Fahrenheit Setting | Celsius Setting | Gas Setting |
| 300◦F | 150◦ | Gas Mark 2 (very low) |
| 325◦ | 160◦ | Gas Mark 3 (low) |
| 350◦ | 180◦ | Gas Mark 4 (moderate) |
| 375◦ | 190◦ | Gas Mark 5 (moderate) |
| 400◦ | 200◦ | Gas Mark 6 (hot) |
| 425◦ | 220◦ | Gas Mark 7 (hot) |
| 450◦ | 230◦ | Gas 8 (very hot) |
| 475◦ | 240◦ | Gas Mark 9 (very hot) |
| 500◦ | 260◦ | Gas Mark 10 (extremely hot) |
| Broil | Broil | Grill |
Liquid and dry ingredients conversion tables
|
Liquid (Fluid or Volume) Measurements (approximate): |
|||
|
1 teaspoon |
1/3 tablespoon |
5 ml |
|
|
1 tablespoon |
1/2 fluid ounce |
3 teaspoons |
15 ml, 15 cc |
|
2 tablespoons |
1 fluid ounce |
1/8 cup, 6 teaspoons |
30 ml, 30 cc |
|
1/4 cup |
2 fluid ounces |
4 tablespoons |
59 ml |
|
1/3 cup |
2 2/3 fluid ounces |
5 tablespoons + 1 teaspoon |
79 ml |
|
1/2 cup |
4 fluid ounces |
8 tablespoons |
118 ml |
|
2/3 cup |
5 1/3 fluid ounces |
10 tablespoons + 2 teaspoons |
158 ml |
|
3/4 cup |
6 fluid ounces |
12 tablespoons |
177 ml |
|
7/8 cup |
7 fluid ounces |
14 tablespoons |
207 ml |
|
1 cup |
8 fluid ounces/ 1/2 pint |
16 tablespoons |
237 ml |
|
2 cups |
16 fluid ounces/ 1 pint |
32 tablespoons |
473 ml |
|
4 cups |
32 fluid ounces |
1 quart |
946 ml |
|
1 pint |
16 fluid ounces/ 1 pint |
32 tablespoons |
473 ml |
|
2 pints |
32 fluid ounces |
1 quart |
946 ml, 0.946 liters |
|
8 pints |
1 gallon/ 128 fluid ounces |
3785 ml, 3.78 liters |
|
|
4 quarts |
1 gallon/ 128 fluid ounces |
3785 ml, 3.78 liters |
|
|
1 liter |
1.057 quarts |
1000 ml |
|
|
1 gallon |
128 fluid ounces |
3785 ml, 3.78 liters |
|
|
Dry (Weight) Measurements (approximate): |
|||
|
1 ounce |
30 grams (28.35 g) |
||
|
2 ounces |
55 grams |
||
|
3 ounces |
85 grams |
||
|
4 ounces |
1/4 pound |
125 grams |
|
|
8 ounces |
1/2 pound |
240 grams |
|
|
12 ounces |
3/4 pound |
375 grams |
|
|
16 ounces |
1 pound |
454 grams |
|
|
32 ounces |
2 pounds |
907 grams |
|
|
1 kilogram |
2.2 pounds/ 35.2 ounces |
1000 gram |
|
|
Temperature Conversion: |
|||
|
Fahrenheit to Celsius: |
Celsius to Fahrenheit: |
||
|
Subtract 32 |
Multiply by 9 |
A note about kitchen measurements:
Not all tablespoons are the same. The Australian tablespoon is 20 ml; the British tablespoon is 17.7 ml. In most Canadian recipes, the tablespoon is 15 ml., while the American tablespoon is 14.2 ml.
In British, Australian and sometimes Canadian recipes, the “imperial pint” is used which is 20 fluid ounces. American and sometimes Canadian recipes use the American pint of 16 fluid ounces.
Dry Measure Equivalents
| 3 teaspoons | 1 tablespoon | 1/2 ounce | 14.3 grams |
| 2 tablespoons | 1/8 cup | 1 ounce | 28.3 grams |
| 4 tablespoons | 1/4 cup | 2 ounces | 56.7 grams |
| 5 1/3 tablespoons | 1/3 cup | 2.6 ounces | 75.6 grams |
| 8 tablespoons | 1/2 cup | 4 ounces | 113.4 grams |
| 12 tablespoons | 3/4 cup | 6 ounces | .375 pound |
| 32 tablespoons | 2 cups | 16 ounces | 1 pound |
| American Standard (Cups & Quarts ) | American Standard (Ounces) | Metric (Milliliters & Liters) |
| 2 tbsp | 1 fl. oz. | 30 ml |
| 1/4 cup | 2 fl. oz. | 60 ml |
| 1/2 cup | 4 fl. oz. | 125 ml |
| 1 cup | 8 fl. oz. | 250 ml |
| 1 1/2 cups | 12 fl. oz. | 375 ml |
| 2 cups or 1 pint | 16 fl. oz. | 500 ml |
| 4 cups or 1 quart | 32 fl. oz. | 1000 ml or 1 liter |
| 1 gallon | 128 fl. oz. | 4 liters |
Volume (Dry)
| American Standard | Metric |
| 1/8 teaspoon | .5 ml |
| 1/4 teaspoon | 1 ml |
| 1/2 teaspoon | 2 ml |
| 3/4 teaspoon | 4 ml |
| 1 teaspoon | 5 ml |
| 1 tablespoon | 15 ml |
| 1/4 cup | 59 ml |
| 1/3 cup | 79 ml |
| 1/2 cup | 118 ml |
| 2/3 cup | 158 ml |
| 3/4 cup | 177 ml |
| 1 cup | 225 ml |
| 2 cups or 1 pint | 450 ml |
| 3 cups | 675 ml |
| 4 cups or 1 quart | 1 liter |
| 1/2 gallon | 2 liters |
| 1 gallon | 4 liters |
U.S. TO METRIC CONVERSIONS
(LIQUID)
1 teaspoon = 4.929 ml (milliliters)
1 tablespoon = 14.787 ml
1 dram = 3.6967 ml
1 fluid ounce = 29.57353 ml
1 cup = 236.59 ml
1 cup = 2.366 deciliters
1 cup = 0.2366 liters
1 gill = 118.294 ml
1 gill = 1.18294 deciliters
1 gill = 0.118294 liters
1 pint = 473.1765 ml
1 pint = 4.731765 deciliters
1 pint = 0.4731765 liters
1 quart = 9.4635 deciliters
1 quart = 0.94635 liters
1 gallon = 37.854 deciliters
1 gallon = 3.7854 liters
1 firkin = 34.069 liters
1 hogshead = 238.48 liters
(DRY)
1 pint = 0.551 liters
1 quart = 1.101 liters
1 peck = 8.81 liters
1 bushel = 35.25 liters
(WEIGHT)
1 ounce = 28.35 grams
1 pound = 453.59 grams
1 pound = 0.454 kg
METRIC TO U.S. CONVERSIONS
(LIQUID)
1 ml = 0.033814 fluid ounces
1 ml = 0.061024 cubic inches
1 ml = 0.2029 teaspoons
1 ml = 0.0676 tablespoons
1 deciliter = 3.3814 fluid ounces
1 deciliter = 6.1024 cubic inches
1 deciliter = 20.29 teaspoons
1 deciliter = 6.76 tablespoons
1 deciliter = 27.05 drams
1 deciliter = 0.423 cups
1 deciliter = 0.845 gills
1 deciliter = 0.21134 pints
1 deciliter = 0.10567 quarts
1 liter = 33.814 fluid ounces
1 liter = 61.024 cubic inches
1 liter = 67.6 tablespoons
1 liter = 270.5 drams
1 liter = 4.23 cups
1 liter = 8.45 gills
1 liter = 2.1134 pints
1 liter = 1.0567 quarts
1 liter = 0.26417 gallons
1 liter = 0.029353 firkins
(DRY)
1 liter = 1.8162 pints
1 liter = 0.9081 quarts
(WEIGHTS)
1 gram = 0.035274 ounces
1 gram = 0.0022046 pounds
1 kg = 35.274 ounces
1 kg = 2.2046 pounds
(LENGTH)
1 millimeter = 0.03937 inches
1 cm = 0.3937 inches
1 meter = 39.37 inches
1 meter = 3.281 feet
1 meter = 1.0936 yards
Butter
a cup of butter weighs 8 ounces
1 ounce = 28.34 grams, so
1 cup of butter weighs 227 grams.
1/4 cup of butter = 57 g
1/3 cup of butter = 76 g
1/2 cup of butter = 113 g
Butter to olive oil conversion
|
Butter/butterrine |
Oliveolive oil |
||
|
U.S. units |
metric |
U.S.customary units |
metric |
|
1 teaspoon |
5 ml |
3/4 teaspoon |
4ml |
|
1 tablespoon |
15 ml |
2 1/4 teaspoons |
11ml |
|
1/4 cup |
60 ml |
3 tablespoons |
44ml |
|
1/3 cup |
78 ml |
1/4 cup |
44ml |
|
1/2 cup |
118 ml |
1/4 cup + 2 tablespoons |
89ml |
|
2/3 cup |
156 ml |
1/2 cup |
118ml |
|
3/4 cup |
177ml |
1/2 cup + 1 tablespoon |
132ml |
|
1 cup |
237 ml |
3/4 cup |
177ml |
Dry Goods
All-Purpose Flour and Confectioners’ Sugar
| Cups | Grams | Ounces |
| 1/8 cup (2 Tablespoons) |
16 g | .563 oz |
| 1/4 cup | 32 g | 1.13 oz |
| 1/3 cup | 43 g | 1.5 oz |
| 1/2 cup | 64 g | 2.25 oz |
| 2/3 cup | 85 g | 3 oz |
| 3/4 cup | 96 g | 3.38 oz |
| 1 cup | 128 g | 4.5 oz |
Bread Flour
| Cups | Grams | Ounces |
| 1/4 cup | 34 g | 1.2 oz |
| 1/3 cup | 45 g | 1.6 oz |
| 1/2 cup | 68 g | 2.4 oz |
| 1 cup | 136 g | 4.8 oz |
Rolled Oats
| Cups | Grams | Ounces |
| 1/4 c | 21 g | .75 oz |
| 1/3 c | 28 g | 1 oz |
| 1/2 c | 43 g | 1.5 oz |
| 1 c | 85 g | 3 oz |
White Sugar (Granulated)
| Cups | Grams | Ounces |
| 2 Tbsp | 25 g | .89 oz |
| 1/4 cup | 50 g | 1.78 oz |
| 1/3 cup | 67 g | 2.37 oz |
| 1/2 cup | 100 g | 3.55 oz |
| 2/3 cup | 134 g | 4.73 oz |
| 3/4 cup | 150 g | 5.3 oz |
| 1 cup | 201 g | 7.1 oz |
Packed Brown Sugar
| Cups | Grams | Ounces |
| 1/4 c | 55 g | 1.9 oz |
| 1/3 c | 73 g | 2.58 oz |
| 1/2 c | 110 g | 3.88 oz |
| 1 c | 220 g | 7.75 oz |
Honey, Molasses & Syrup
| Cups | Grams | Ounces |
| 2 Tbsp | 43 g | 1.5 oz |
| 1/4 c | 85 g | 3 oz |
| 1/3 c | 113 g | 4 oz |
| 1/2 c | 170 g | 6 oz |
| 2/3 c | 227 g | 8 oz |
| 3/4 c | 255 g | 9 oz |
| 1 c | 340 g | 12 oz |
Volume-to-weight conversions http://chocolateandzucchini.com/
Note: Since the volume measurement of an ingredient depends on how you pack the measuring cup/spoon and on the ingredient itself (how it is cut, its density, its water content), the volume-to-weight conversions are not absolute: they are simply a reflection of my own experience.
Dairy
Butter: 1/2 cup = 1 stick = 4 ounces = 113 grams
Butter: 1 tablespoon = 14 grams
Comté cheese, grated: 1 cup = 100 grams
Crème fraîche: 1 cup = 240 grams
Fresh cheese: 1 cup = 240 grams
Greek-style yogurt: 1 cup = 280 grams
Gruyère cheese, grated: 1 cup = 100 grams
Heavy cream: 1 cup = 240 grams
Light cream: 1 cup = 240 grams
Milk: 1 cup = 240 mL
Parmesan cheese, grated: 1 cup = 110 grams
Ricotta: 1 cup = 250 grams
Yogurt: 1 cup = 250 grams
Nuts etc.
Almonds, shelled, whole, blanched: 1 cup = 125 grams
Almonds, sliced: 1 cup = 70 grams
Almond meal (a.k.a. ground almonds): 1 cup = 100 grams
Almond butter/purée: 1 cup = 240 grams
Cashews, shelled, whole: 1 cup = 130 grams
Chestnuts, shelled, cooked: 1 cup = 130 grams
Hazelnuts, shelled, whole: 1 cup = 120 grams
Macadamia nuts, shelled, whole: 1 cup = 125 grams
Nut butter: 1 cup = 240 grams
Pistachios: 1 cup = 125 grams
Poppy seeds: 1 cup = 145 grams
Walnuts, shelled, halves: 1 cup = 100 grams
Baking
Agave syrup: 1/3 cup = 100 grams
Baking powder (levure chimique or alsacienne): 1 standard French sachet = 11 grams = 1 tablespoon
Cacao nibs: 1 cup = 120 grams
Chocolate chips: 1 cup = 160 grams
Cocoa powder: 1 cup = 120 grams
Honey: 1 cup = 300 grams
Honey: 1 tablespoon = 18 grams
Salt, fine: 1 teaspoon = 5 grams
Salt, coarse: 1 cup = 220 grams
Sugar, brown: 1 cup (packed) = 170 grams
Sugar, confectioner’s: 1 cup = 130 grams
Sugar, granulated: 1 cup = 200 grams
Sugar, granulated: 1 tablespoon = 12.5 grams
Molasses: 1 cup = 280 grams
Flour, grains, etc.
Bulgur: 1 cup = 190 grams
Chickpeas (dried, raw): 1 cup = 190 grams (= 475 grams when cooked)
Cornmeal: 1 cup = 165 grams
Couscous: 1 cup = 165 grams
Dried beans: 1 cup = 180 grams
Elbow macaroni: 1 cup = 150 grams
Flour, all-purpose or whole wheat: 1 cup = 120 grams
Pearl tapioca: 1 cup = 180 grams
Polenta: 1 cup = 160 grams
Quinoa: 1 cup = 190 grams
Rice, basmati: 1 cup = 180 grams
Rice, short-grain: 1 cup = 195 grams
Rolled oats: 1 cup = 100 grams
Fruits, vegetables, herbs
Baby spinach leaves: 1 cup (packed) = 30 grams
Basil: 1 cup (packed) = 20 grams
Blueberries: 1 cup = 190 grams
Carrots, grated: 1 cup (loosely packed) = 90 grams
Fava beans, shelled: 1 cup = 120 grams
Green peas, shelled: 1 cup = 145 grams
Hibiscus flowers, dried, semi-crushed, lightly packed: 1 cup = 40 grams
Mâche: 1 cup (packed) = 20 grams
Raisins: 1 cup = 150 grams
Raspberries: 1 cup = 125 grams
Rocket: 1 cup (packed) = 25 grams
Strawberries: 1 cup (small strawberries, or large strawberries, sliced) = 125 grams
Young salad greens: 1 cup (packed) = 20 grams
Other
Agar-agar: 1 teaspoon = 2 grams
Baby shrimp, shelled, cooked: 1 cup = 100 grams
Capers: 1 cup = 120 grams
Dried bread crumbs: 1 cup = 100 grams
Hibiscus flowers: 1/3 cup = 15 grams
Oil: 1 tablespoon = 9 grams
Olives: 1 cup = 180 grams
Pans and dishes
10-inch tart or cake pan = 25-centimeter tart or cake pan
9-inch cake pan = 22-centimeter cake pan
4-inch tartlet mold = 10-centimeter tartlet mold
9-by-13-inches baking dish = 22-by-33-centimeter baking dish
8-by-8-inches baking dish = 20-by-20-centimeter baking dish
6-ounce ramekin = 180-mL ramekin
9-by-5-inches loaf pan = 23-by-12-centimeter loaf pan = 8 cups or 2 liters in capacity
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This post may contain affiliate links. Please read our disclosure policy.
Something as simple as Oven-Baked Chicken Breast can be exceptionally spectacular with a few simple prep ahead steps. This easy boneless Chicken Breast Recipe is a fabulous on its own as a main course or as the first step for a variety of my favorite recipes.
Table of Contents
- Why I Make This Recipe Every Week
- Ingredients for Baked Chicken Breast
- How to Bake Chicken Breast in the Oven
- What Temperature to Bake Chicken Breasts
- How Long To Bake Chicken Breasts
- How To Store Leftovers
- Kellie’s Tips for Perfect Chicken Breasts
- Best Sides for Chicken Breast
- How To Use Leftover Chicken Breasts
- More Easy Chicken Recipes
- Oven Baked Chicken Breast Recipe
Why I Make This Recipe Every Week
Chicken can be a little on the plain side so my goal is always to make a tender, juicy Baked Chicken Breasts that is loaded with flavor. Boneless chicken tends to get dry if you overcook it so the goal here was to make sure it was tender, juicy and perfect!
Generally, I’ll make something like Chicken Piccata so it’s saucy enough to make it flavorful. But this quick chicken recipe needs none of that.
No barbecue sauce needed here, either, because this easy boneless skinless chicken breast recipe can stand alone as the best dinner ever. This easy chicken dinner turns out flavorful and lightly spiced with a hint of smoke while staying tender and juicy. This is not a dry chicken breast whatsoever.
Ingredients for Baked Chicken Breast
- Chicken Breast – I like to use boneless, skinless chicken breast that are organic and similar in size so they cook evenly. The size of your chicken breasts will, ultimately, determine the cooking time so an instant read thermometer is helpful to have on hand.
- Brown Sugar – The brown sugar adds a richer flavor and provides some deep caramelization to the chicken. You can use dark brown sugar or light brown sugar, whatever you have on hand will work.
- Seasoning – I use a blend of garlic powder, onion powder, smoked paprika, chili powder and dried thyme for maximum flavor and a hint of smokiness. We also add a pinch of cayenne pepper which is optional if you’re not a fan of spicy food.
- Butter – For added flavor and moisture, we like to top each chicken breast with a bit of butter. You could substitute the butter with a little olive oil if you prefer. Use that melted butter on the bottom of the pan for basting your chicken before serving.
For the full ingredient list and instructions, see the recipe card below.
How to Bake Chicken Breast in the Oven
Baking boneless chicken breasts is one easy task but because they contain very little fat and are a lean cut of meat you have to infuse flavor anyway you can. The secret to the best juicy baked chicken breasts is to cook it at a high temperature!
I skip brining which is one way to force flavor into the chicken but it can be messy and, frankly, I forget to do it every single time.
So, I resort to a dry rub to season chicken breasts. You could also use this Fajita Seasoning to flavor your chicken breast or this Taco Seasoning works really well, too! You can even use this simple Poultry Seasoning for a herbaceous flavor.
- Make the chicken seasoning by whisking together the smoked paprika, chili powder, cayenne, brown sugar, garlic powder, onion powder, salt and pepper. You can add Italian Seasoning for more flavor.
- Pat the chicken dry with paper towels and transfer to a freezer bag. Pour the seasoning over the chicken breasts. Seal the bag. Shake to coat.
- Store the chicken in the refrigerator for 30 minutes or up to 24 hours. (A great meal prep tip!) You can even FREEZE the chicken breasts at this point to make things even easier in the future.
- When you’re ready to cook, remove the chicken from the bag and place on a baking sheet lined with foil or in a baking dish.
- Preheat oven. Bake chicken until it’s cooked through at a temperature of 165˚F.
- Serve!
For thinner chicken breast, you can place them between sheets of plastic wrap and pound them with a meat mallet or rolling pin to about 1/2 inch even thickness. Decrease the cooking time to 20 minutes.
I like to bake my chicken on a sturdy baking sheet lined with aluminum foil for easy clean up! We also love this easy to use Instant-Read Thermometer for safe cooking.
We love the versatility of this Instant Read Thermometer. It’s the perfect, must-have tool for any kitchen!
You can even make this chicken in the slow cooker by just arranging on the bottom, adding a 1/4 cup chicken stock and cooking on low for 3-4 hours.
What Temperature to Bake Chicken Breasts
When I tested this recipe, too low of a temperature seemed to dry out the chicken because it did have to cook for a longer period of time. Boneless skinless, chicken breasts do better with a higher temperature because it allows the outside of the chicken to sear which seals in the juices.
I use this same method for my roast turkey and it’s been the best turkey ever for the past 20 years.
So, 425˚ Fahrenheit is my go to for baking chicken breasts because it’s not so searing hot that the outside dries out but it’s just hot enough to sear the outside of the chicken keeping the inside juicy and tender.
How Long To Bake Chicken Breasts
Boneless, skinless chicken breasts will bake in the oven for 20-30 minutes until they reach an internal temperature of 165˚ F. This, of course, depends upon the weight and thickness of the chicken breast you’re baking.
When it comes to baking chicken breasts, size matters.
Follow the guidelines below for estimated cooking times for baked chicken breasts:
- 5 ounces 14-16 minutes
- 8 ounces 16-20 minutees
- 10-12 ounces 20-30 minutes
My chicken breasts were on the larger size so sometimes I’ll even split them in half lengthwise like I did here with these Parmesan Crusted Chicken Cutlets.
If you decide to bake bone-in chicken breasts your cooking times will increase just a bit. You can follow the guide for my Simple Roasted Chicken Breasts while still using one of the seasoning mixes I mentioned earlier.
Also, buy an instant read thermometer because nobody likes undercooked chicken. Chicken is done baking when the internal temperature reaches 165˚F on a meat thermometer.
How To Store Leftovers
Leftover chicken breasts will last up to 4 days in the fridge if stored in an airtight container. We love to use them for meal prepping at the beginning of the week.
To store chicken breast in the freezer, wrap each breast tightly in plastic wrap and transfer to an airtight container. Store your chicken breasts in the freezer for up to 6 months.
Kellie’s Tips for Perfect Chicken Breasts
Make sure you let your chicken rest after baking. I remove the chicken breast from the oven and tent them with foil. Then, I allow them to rest for 10 minutes.
This step allows the juices to redistribute throughout the breast and let’s the meat relax a bit. If you skip this step, your chicken juices will run right out of your chicken breast leaving you with aforementioned dry, chalky chicken we are not a fan of. Perfect chicken breasts is the direct result of proper baking and lots of rest.
Best Sides for Chicken Breast
How To Use Leftover Chicken Breasts
More Easy Chicken Recipes
Want MORE juicy deliciousness? Be sure to follow us over on Instagram!
Check out the Best Chicken Breast Recipes for more easy dinner ideas.
Oven Baked Chicken Breast Recipe
Equipment
- 1 baking sheet
- 1 Instant Read Thermometer
Ingredients
- 1/4 cup brown sugar
- 3 tbsp smoked paprika
- 1 tbsp chili powder
- 1 tbsp garlic powder
- 1 tbsp onion powder
- 1 tbsp dried thyme
- 1 tsp cayenne pepper, optional
- 1/2 tsp kosher salt
- 1/2 tsp ground black pepper
- 4 whole boneless, skinless chicken breasts
- 1/4 cup butter
Instructions
- In a medium bowl, whisk together the brown sugar, paprika, chili powder, garlic powder, onion powder, thyme, cayenne pepper, salt and pepper.
- Place the chicken breasts in a large zip top bag and pour the seasoning over the chicken. Shake the chicken to coat.
- Transfer the chicken to the refrigerator (still in the bag) and marinade for 30 minutes or up to 24 hours.
- Preheat oven to 425˚ Fahrenheit.
- Remove the chicken from the bag and arrange on a baking sheet lined with foil. Place 1 tablespoon butter on top of each chicken breast.
- Bake the chicken in the oven for 20-30 minutes (or according to the chart above) until an instant read thermometer shows 165˚ F.
- Remove the chicken from the oven and cover with foil. Rest the baked chicken breasts for 10 minutes.
- Serve immediately or cool to room temperature, wrap tightly in plastic wrap and store in the refrigerator for up to 36 hours.
Video
Notes
- Chicken can be rubbed with the spice blend and stored in an airtight container refrigerated for up to 24 hours.
You can also FREEZE your chicken for up to 3 months. - Want more easy dinner ideas? Check out this list of over 100 easy meals!
Nutrition
Nutrition information is automatically calculated, so should only be used as an approximation.
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I have been on a mission to help you build a collection of salad dressing recipes for a year now. Today’s recipe, Lemon Balsamic Salad Dressing is the newest one that I think you will enjoy. It is the balsamic vinegar added version of my all time favorite, Lemon Salad Dressing.
I recently used this lemon balsamic vinaigrette in Cucumber Mozzarella Tomato Salad recipe but you can pretty much use it in any salad. This dressing especially compliments salad recipes with a minimal number of ingredients like my Blueberry Salad and Avocado Quinoa Salad.
Why Should You Make This Recipe?
- You know what goes in there: I get it. It is convenient to grab a bottle of balsamic vinaigrette when you are at the store. However, most of those are packed with preservatives and low quality ingredients. When you make homemade dressings like this one, you know every single ingredient that goes in this one.
- It comes together in minutes: All you need is 6 ingredients (including salt & black pepper) and 5 minutes to whip this easy recipe.
- Easy to adjust: I think the recipe is perfect but you can easily use it as a base and adjust it to your liking, which I will talk more about below.
Citrus Balsamic Vinaigrette Ingredients:
You will need balsamic vinegar, extra virgin olive oil, fresh garlic, freshly squeezed lemon juice, and salt and pepper to make this lemon balsamic vinaigrette recipe.
Ingredient Notes & Substitutions:
- Citrus: While I love the tangy flavors of freshly squeezed lemon juice, when I want it to be a bit sweeter I use orange juice instead. It is extra special if you can get your hands on blood oranges.
- Meyer lemons: Swap regular lemon with Meyer lemon for a sweeter and more fruity lemon balsamic vinegar salad dressing. Be sure to add the lemon zest for an additional layer of flavor.
- Sea Salt vs. Kosher Salt: I mostly use Diamond Kosher (affiliate link) salt in my cooking and for this recipe 1 teaspoon kosher salt is ideal. However, if you don’t have it you can use 1/2 teaspoon sea salt instead.
- Agave Nectar: Most store bought versions of this dressing usually have some sugar in it. If you prefer yours on the sweeter side, I recommend adding in a tablespoon of agave nectar or maple syrup.
- White Balsamic Vinegar: The lemon balsamic vinaigrette recipe below uses a regular aged, dark colored balsamic vinegar, but if you want it to have a lighter color and less syrupy consistency, use white balsamic vinegar instead.
How To Make Lemon Balsamic Vinegar:
The process of making this salad dressing recipe could not be easier. Simply:
- Place balsamic vinegar, fresh lemon juice, minced garlic, salt and pepper in a small bowl. Give it a whisk.
- While still whisking, slowly pour in the extra-virgin olive oil and continue whisking until fully incorporated and smooth.
- Transfer it to a bottle or jar with a fitted lid. Be sure to give it a good shake before using.
How To Store?
This lemon garlic balsamic vinaigrette keeps well up to 5 days as long as it is stored in an airtight container like a mason jar or bottle with a tight fitting lid in the fridge.
Ways To Use This Dressing:
- As a salad dressing: This balsamic lemon vinaigrette can be drizzled over healthy salad greens like arugula, baby spinach, and/or butter lettuce. You can also use it in vegetable salad recipes like Tomato White Bean Salad, Pesto Caprese Pasta Salad, Strawberry Spinach Salad, and Cucumber Caprese Salad (made with juicy cherry tomatoes.)
- Use it as dipping oil: While I use this dressing mostly as a simple salad dressing, I sometimes serve it as a balsamic vinaigrette dip as an alternative to my bread dipping oil recipe. It goes well with a loaf of crusty bread like my olive bread.
- Use it as a chicken marinade: This may come as a surprise but this dressing makes a great light marinade for chicken as well.
Expert Recipe Tips:
- Use good quality ingredients: Be sure to use good quality olive oil and balsamic vinegar for best results. They don’t have to necessarily be expensive. My favorite *affordable* olive oil brand for this simple lemon balsamic vinaigrette salad dressing is California Olive Ranch (affiliate link) and balsamic vinegar is Stonewall brand (affiliate link)
- Taste before you use: When making a salad dressing my rule is to make it a bit saltier and sour than I would if I was consuming the dressing by itself. Because chances are that you will use it in a salad that is packed with vegetables that can always benefit from being properly seasoned. So, use the recipe below as a place to start, give it a taste and adjust it according to your recipe and taste buds.
- Add in fresh herbs or Italian seasoning: Depending on the recipe you are using, you can jazz it up with garden herbs like fresh parsley or basil. Or if you are short on time, add in a teaspoon of Italian seasoning for extra flavor.
Other Homemade Salad Dressings You Might Like:
- Yogurt Salad Dressing
- Tahini Yogurt Dressing
- Ginger Sesame Dressing
- Yogurt Poppy Seed Dressing
- Chili Lime Vinaigrette
- Maple Dijon Dressing
- Basil Pesto Salad Dressing
Lemon Balsamic Dressing Recipe
Ingredients
- 3 tablespoons balsamic vinegar
- 2 tablespoons freshly squeezed lemon juice
- 1 clove garlic, peeled and minced
- 1 teaspoon kosher salt
- 1/2 teaspoon freshly ground black pepper
- 1/4 cup extra virgin olive oil
Instructions
- Place balsamic vinegar, fresh lemon juice, minced garlic, salt and pepper in a small bowl. Give it a whisk.
- While still whisking, slowly add in the extra-virgin olive oil and continue whisking until fully incorporated and smooth.
- Transfer it to a bottle or jar with a fitted lid. Be sure to give it a good shake before using.
Notes
- This recipe makes 2/3 cup of Lemon Balsamic Dressing. The calorie information below considers it to be good for 4 servings.
- To store: Place in the fridge in an airtight container like a mason jar or a bottle with a tight fitting lid.
- Swap lemons with Meyer lemons for a little bit sweeter dressing.
- I used Diamond Kosher salt but you can also use sea salt. If you do so, use 1/2 teaspoon sea salt.
- Before using it in your recipe be sure to give it a taste and add in seasoning if necessary.
Nutrition
Nutrition information is automatically calculated, so should only be used as an approximation.
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Lily Hulatt is a Digital Content Specialist with over three years of experience in content strategy and curriculum design. She gained her PhD in English Literature from Durham University in 2022, taught in Durham University’s English Studies Department, and has contributed to a number of publications. Lily specialises in English Literature, English Language, History, and Philosophy.
Get to know Lily- Fact Checked Content
- Last Updated: 10.07.2023
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The war against Russia will be such that it cannot be conducted in a knightly fashion. This struggle is one of ideologies and racial differences and will have to be conducted with unprecedented, unmerciful and unrelenting harshness.”1
What led to the bloodiest global conflict in history, World War II? Were the causes simple or complex? Could this war have been prevented? Historians underscore several long-term and short-term contributors to this event.
Nazi German soldiers in front of burning houses and a church outside Leningrad (St. Petersburg), Soviet Union, autumn 1941. Source: National Digital Archives of Poland, Wikipedia Commons (public domain).
Causes of WWII in Europe and Asia
There were several long-term and short-term causes of the Second World War. The long-term causes include:
- The Treaty of Versailles (1919).
- The Great Depression (1929).
- German and Japanese militarism.
- German Nazism and Japanese imperialism.
- The failure of peace initiatives (the Kellogg-Briand Pact and the League of Nations).
- The failure of non-aggression pacts between several countries and Germany and appeasement through the Munich Agreement (1938).
The short-term lead-up to the war comprised several events:
- Japan invaded China’s Manchuria in 1931 (the Mukden Incident).
- Italy under fascist leader Benito Mussolini invaded Ethiopia in 1935 (the Abyssinian Crisis).
- Full-scale war between Japan and China: the Second Sino-Japanese War began in 1937.
- Germany acquired Austria in 1938.
- Germany annexed Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia in 1938.
- Germany invaded Poland in 1939 starting the Second World War.
Long-Term Causes of WWII
There are up to half a dozen long-term causes of the bloodiest military conflict in history.
The Treaty of Versailles (1919)
The Treaty of Versailles was an important aspect of the Paris Peace Conference (1919-1920) which concluded WWI. This agreement dictated the terms of the postwar settlement.
Historians believe that these terms were too harsh for Germany and set in motion the events that led to the Second World War.
Treaty of Versailles cover, ca. June 28th, 1919. Source: Auckland War Memorial Museum, Wikipedia Commons (public domain).
The scar WWI left on Europe was deep and bloody, the resentment animated the term of surrender and reconciliation. The treaty was between the victors of this conflict, Britain, the United States, Japan, and France, and the vanquished, Germany. Neither Germany nor its wartime allies Hungary and Austria–the Central Powers–were allowed to define the contents of the treaty. The victors punished Germany by blaming it for the war. As a result, Germany, known as the Weimar Republic from 1918-1933, was ordered to:
- reduce its weapons stockpiles and the size of its armed forces in a process of demilitarization;
- pay reparations to the affected countries;
- give up several territories to France, Belgium, Poland, and Czechoslovakia, as well as its colonies abroad.
In addition, Austria lost such territories as Sudetenland to Czechoslovakia through another postwar agreement, the Treaty of Saint Germain (1919), which became an important lead-up to the Second World War.
The Inter-Allied Military Commission of Control oversaw Germany’s adherence to the terms of demilitarization, for instance, limiting its army to 100,000 men, and reducing weapons ownership and the import and export of materiel.
Materiel is a term used to describe military equipment, supplies, and weapons.
Furthermore, border disputes persisted. According to Germany, millions of Germans were now stranded in foreign countries because of the Versailles Treaty. The Pact of Locarno (1925) was supposed to confirm the German border with France and Belgium, respectively, but it did not help in the long term.
Economic Causes of WWII
The Weimar Republic was in a terrible economic state and experienced hyperinflation of its currency in the early 1920s. The American-led Dawes and Young Plans in 1924 and 1929, respectively, were meant to relieve some of the economic pain through loans and other financial mechanisms.
Hyperinflation is a rapid devaluation of a currency that is accompanied by rapidly rising prices.
German Railways Banknote, 5 billion marks during the hyperinflation period in 1923. Source: Wikipedia Commons (public domain).
One striking example is the devaluation of the German mark. A loaf of bread went from costing 250 marks in early 1923 to 200,000 million marks by the end of the same year.
The Great Depression arrived with the U.S. stock market crash of 1929. It led to joblessness, homelessness, and hunger for the public, along with bank failures and a significant decline in the gross national product.
Gross national product (GNP) is the combined total value of products manufactured and services offered in a country in a single year.
Germany began to slowly recover by the time Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933, and the country became known as the Third Reich. However, the populist support of the Nazi (National Socialist) Party came from the preceding economic conditions.
Adolf Hitler, 1936. Source: Bundesarchiv, Bild 146-1990-048-29A / CC-BY-SA 3.0, Wikipedia Commons.
Failure of the League of Nations
In addition to the Treaty of Versailles, the League of Nations was the second important result of the Paris Peace Conference. Representatives of more than 30 countries worked to establish the League—an international organization meant to foster global peace.
In decade later, 15 countries, followed by dozens of others, signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928):
- The U.S.
- Germany
- Britain
- France
- Japan
This agreement also sought to prevent war. However, the Kellogg-Briand Pact lacked enforcement mechanisms. In 1931, Japan attacked China's Manchuria. The League of Nations failed to adequately punish Japan, and the Kellogg-Briand Pact was ambiguous. Several other incidents, such as Italy's invasion of Ethiopia (1935), discredited the international legal system in the 1930s and set the world on a path to war.
Failure of International Agreements
There were many agreements signed between different countries in the interwar period. Some agreements reinforced the Treaty of Versailles like the Locarno Pact. Others sought to foster peace in general, such as the Kellogg-Briand Pact. Other agreements with Germany, like the non-aggression pacts, sought to prevent war between the given signatories, such as the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact between the Soviet Union and Germany. Finally, the ineffective appeasement of the Munich Agreement ceded territories to Hitler—Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia—to prevent greater war.
Munich Agreement signatories, (L-R) Britain’s Chamberlain, France’s Daladier, Germany’s Hitler, Italy’s Mussolini and Ciano, September 1938. Source: Bundesarchiv, Bild 183-R69173 / CC-BY-SA 3.0, Wikipedia Commons.
| Date | Agreement |
| December 1, 1925 | Locarno Pact between France, Belgium, Germany, Italy, and Britain about the shared borders of Germany, Belgium, and France. |
| August 27, 1928 | Kellogg-Briand Pact, between 15 powers. |
June 7, 1933 | Four-Power Pact featuring Germany, Italy, France, and Britain. |
January 26, 1934 | German-Polish Declaration of Non-Aggression. |
October 23, 1936 | Italo-German Protocol. |
September 30, 1938 | Munich Agreement featuring Britain, Germany, Italy, and France. |
June 7, 1939 | German-Estonian and German-Latvian Non-Aggression Pacts. |
August 23, 1939 | Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact featuring Germany and the Soviet Union. |
September 27, 1940 | Tripartite Pact (Berlin Pact) featuring Germany, Japan, and Italy. |
German Nazism, Japanese Imperialism, and Militarism
In Europe, Nazi ideology under Adolf Hitler featured a racialist, supremacist hierarchy, in which ethnic Germans were at the top, and others, like Jews and Slavs, were considered inferior (Untermenschen). The Nazis also subscribed to the concept of Lebensraum, "living space." They believed that they were entitled to acquire Slavic lands for ethnic Germans. This idea was one of the motivations for the invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941.
Emperor Hirohito channeling militarist aesthetics on his favorite white horse: Shirayuki (White Snow), 1935. Source: Osaka Asahi Shimbun, Wikipedia Commons (public domain).
In Asia, the Japanese empire under Emperor Hirohito invaded other countries from 1931-1945, having already annexed Korea in 1910. Japan invaded China's Manchuria in 1931, the rest of China in 1937, and other countries in Southeast Asia, such as Vietnam during World War II. Japan called its empire the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. In reality, Japan extracted the resources it needed from its colonies.
Both Germany and Japan subscribed to militarism. Militarists believe that the army is the backbone of the state, and military leaders often hold top government positions.
Short-Term Causes of WWII
The short-term causes of World War II involved the aggressive behavior of Japan, Italy, and Germany toward many nations.
Check out the following timeline of the short-term causes of WWII:
| Date | Event | Description |
| 1931 | Mukden Incident | Japan created a pretext to invade China's Manchuria in September 1935 contrary to the Kellogg-Briand Pact and the League of Nations arbitration. |
| 1935 | Abyssinian Crisis | The League of Nations was unable to resolve a brewing conflict in North Africa. Italy, which had African colonies such as Eritrea, invaded Ethiopia (Abyssinia) in October 1935. |
| 1936 | German troops in the Rhineland | Hitler put troops in the Rhineland region, which contradicted the Treaty of Versailles. |
| 1937 | Second Sino-Japanese War | The Second Sino-Japanese War began in July 1937 between Japan and China. It became part of the Pacific theater in World War II. |
| 1938 | Annexation of Austria (Anschluss) | In March 1938, Hitler annexed Austria and absorbed it into the Third Reich. |
| 1938 | Germany annexes Sudetenland | In October 1938, Germany annexed Sudetenland (Czechoslovakia) followed by Polish and Hungarian annexation of other parts of that country. Germany invaded the Czech parts of Czechoslovakia in March 1939. |
| 1939 | Germany's invasion of Poland | On September 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland. France and Britain declared war on Germany, so World War II officially began. |
Short-Term Causes of WWII: German Invasion of Poland
Poland and Hungary invaded Czechoslovakia after Germany annexed Sudetenland in that country in October 1938. However, these events did not prevent Poland from being invaded by Germany on September 1, 1939. That date marked the start of the Second World War.
Two days later, both France and Britain declared war on Germany. On September 17, the Soviet Union also entered Poland in an attempt to push the conflict away from the Soviet borders. This attempt to avoid war also failed when Germany invaded the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941.
By the start of World War II in Europe, the Second Sino-Japanese War had been raging in Asia since 1937. The two conflicts turned into one with Japan's strike on America's Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, making the war truly global.
Consequences of WWII
There were many important consequences of the Second World War, including:
- The Soviet Union and the United States became superpowers after it ended, in 1945. They were no longer Allies but opponents in the Cold War (1945-1991), which split the world into two competing blocs.
- The United Nations replaced the League of Nations with four Allies (Soviet Union, United States, Britain, and China), and France, as the permanent members of the Security Council.
- The United States used the atomic bomb for the first time in history against Japan's Hiroshima and Nagasaki. From then on, a nuclear arms race began.
- The decolonization process continued in Asia and Africa. Many countries became independent. However, in some cases, this process was accompanied by military conflicts, such as the Vietnam War.
Causes of WWII - Key Takeaways
- The Second World War (1939-1945) was the bloodiest global conflict in history with several long-term and short-term causes.
- The long-term causes of World War II include
- 1) the Treaty of Versailles;
- 2) the Great Depression (1929);
- 3) German and Japanese militarism;
- 4) German Nazism and Japanese imperialism;
- 5) the failure of the international peace framework through the League of Nations; 5) the failure of international agreements with Germany.
- The short-term causes of World War II are
- 1) the Japanese invasion of China in 1931 and 1937;
- 2) the Italian invasion of Ethiopia in 1935;
- 3) the German acquisition of Austria and the invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1938 and the German invasion of Poland in 1939.
References
- Ross, Stewart, Causes and Consequences of the Second World War, London: Evans, 2003, p. 32.
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Frequently Asked Questions about Causes of WWII
What officially started WWII?
Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. This date is considered the beginning of the Second World War. After this, France and Germany declared war on Germany, and the conflict became more complex and global.
What was the primary cause of WWII?
There were several important causes of the Second World War (1939-1945). The economic downturn of the Great Depression (1929) felt around the world was one of them. Historians also describe the effects of the Versailles Treaty (1919), such as the war-guilt clause and the financial reparations imposed by the victors of World War I, as a significant contributor to Germany’s humiliation, loss of land, and its subpar economic conditions. Both factors gave rise to Adolf Hitler and the Nazis (National Socialists) who engaged in extreme politics: from racism to militarism. Elsewhere, the Japanese empire expanded into other Asian countries, such as China, and shared militarist ideas. Finally, the League of Nations, the predecessor of the United Nations, failed to prevent this global war.
How did the Treaty of Versailles help cause WWII?
The Versailles Treaty (1919) was the agreement that concluded the First World War, in which the victors essentially blamed Germany, the vanquished, for this conflict. As a result, historians believe that Germany was punished too harshly. The victors demilitarized Germany by reducing its armed forces and arms stockpiles. Germany was ordered to pay significant reparations which contributed to its dire economic situation in the 1920s. Germany also lost land to a number of countries, such as Alsace-Lorraine to France.
What were the causes and effects of WWII?
World War II had several causes. They included the punishment of Germany by the Treaty of Versailles (1919) after the First World War, Japanese and German militarism and expansionism, as well as the global economic situation precipitated by the Great Depression (1929). The effects of the Second World War were also numerous: the Soviet Union and the United States, World War II Allies, both became superpowers after 1945 and engaged in a long global conflict, the Cold War. As a result, the world was split into two competing blocs. The League of Nations was replaced by the United Nations, which still exists today. Decolonization continued in the former European colonies in Asia and Africa, as countries gained independence, sometimes accompanied by armed conflict. The United States used the atomic bomb against Japan in August 1945 for the first time. Subsequently, other countries developed nuclear weapons, and the arms race began.
What are the 5 main causes of WWII?
The five main causes for the Second World War are 1) the Treaty of Versailles (1919) that punished Germany after World War I; 2) the global economic downturn of the Great Depression (1929); 3) German and Japanese militarism; 4) Japanese imperialism and German Nazism; 5) the failure of the international legal framework: international peace organizations like the League of Nations, several non-aggression pacts with Germany, and appeasement agreements like Munich (1938).
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Two worlds collide: Spanish conquistadors and Aztecs
Five centuries ago, Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés met Aztec emperor Moctezuma – a moment often depicted as the start of an unstoppable, inevitable European colonisation of the Americas. Caroline Dodds Pennock explains why the story is much more complex
On 8 November 1519, on a wide wooden causeway outside the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan, the tlatoani (ruler) Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin – better known today as Moctezuma – and the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés came face to face for the first time. The meeting powerfully symbolises the confrontation between the great civilisations of Europe and the Americas: Cortés, standing as representative of the king of Spain and newly elected Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V; and Moctezuma, the ruler of an empire of millions. It was the start of a series of events that led to the downfall of the Aztec empire, and to the Spanish conquest and colonisation of Central and South America.
The epic myth of the Spanish conquest has become famous in history: the daring adventurer Cortés and a few hundred plucky conquistadors who defied overwhelming odds to vanquish the brutal Aztec empire. But this is no simple tale of inevitable European dominance. This was a moment when events were finely poised, before the balance of power shifted decisively towards the Europeans. And, for the players in this delicate game, it was not at all apparent who held the strongest cards.
The meeting on the causeway has been depicted as emblematic of the meeting between the Old World and the New. But various aspects hint at the complexities and nuances of the encounter. After Cortés rode his horse onto the causeway he seems to have been kept waiting while Aztec nobles conducted a ceremonial welcome: each saluted him in courtly Nahuatl language before bowing low to touch and kiss the ground. It must have been an incredible scene, with thousands of Aztecs watching from canoes and rooftops, hoping to catch a glimpse of the newcomers; the causeway, too, was packed with people.
In a striking distinction, Spanish accounts of the event emphasise the precious metals and stones sported by the Aztecs, whereas the Florentine Codex – compiled later from the recollections of indigenous informants – gives priority to the glorious flowers that adorned the causeway in gourd vases, wreaths and garlands: sunflowers, popcorn flowers, magnolias, cacao blooms.
With so many nobles involved, these initial ceremonies dragged on for perhaps an hour, and it seems that Cortés endured them a little impatiently. Fortunately, the proceedings were deciphered for him by an indigenous translator, Malintzin (known to the Spanish as Doña Marina or La Malinche), who had been given to him as one of a group of enslaved women. Her importance to the encounter cannot be overstated: it was actually her voice that both Moctezuma and Cortés heard during their ‘conversations’, with all the potential for misunderstanding and misinterpretation that entailed. Fascinatingly, though the Spanish sources largely ignore her involvement, indigenous accounts don’t contain the same omission. In those, Malintzin appears as a central character, both the voice of the Spaniards and an authority figure in her own right.
After the initial ceremonies, calculated to make a grand impression and emphasise Aztec dominance, Moctezuma himself came out to meet the conquistadors. The tlatoani was carried onto the causeway on a litter with a magnificent canopy of green feathers, decorated with gold and jewels. The shimmering feathers and the green jade dangling from the canopy border, were among the most precious objects in the Aztec world, enveloping Moctezuma in a lustrous display of his power and wealth. He was surrounded by the high lords of his empire, themselves fabulously dressed, but the tlatoani’s rank was marked out by his ornate sandals. All the other Aztecs, even the highest nobles, went barefoot to honour the man who stood so close to the gods, and only his closest advisors were permitted to look him in the face.
When Moctezuma stepped down from the litter, Cortés dismounted and the two engaged in a fascinating exchange that reveals their very different values. It is hard to know precisely what happened. However, it seems that Cortés proffered his hand to Moctezuma but was rebuffed by his attendants – one did not touch the tlatoani. Moctezuma instead extended his own hand – taking control of the interaction – before accepting from Cortés a necklace of worked-glass beads scented with musk, which the conquistador had been wearing. In return, Moctezuma offered the Spaniard flowers, then put over the conquistador’s head two necklaces made of beautiful and valuable red snail shells, from which dangled eight shrimps made of pure gold, each the size of a man’s hand. After this rather unequal swap, the tlatoani invited Cortés into the city. It was the beginning of a famous relationship that led ultimately to the death of Moctezuma, and to Cortés’s triumph over a city in ruins.
Things never dreamed of before
Thanks to the dominance of sources produced by conquistadors or their supporters, this story is typically told from the Spanish perspective: scores of readers have experienced the entry into Tenochtitlan through the wide-eyed wonder of the conquistador Bernal Díaz del Castillo in his popular account of “things never heard of, seen, or dreamed of before”.
Moctezuma was a literate, effective administrator whose people were highly educated and determined
The awe of the Spanish is not hard to imagine. Tenochtitlan was almost certainly the largest city that any of them had ever seen. Home to perhaps a quarter of a million people (more than double the population of contemporary London), this island city was a teeming metropolis, with palaces and temples towering over clean streets, fertile gardens, orderly canals and huge plazas. The market at Tlatelolco alone drew around 60,000 people each day – similar to the population of Seville, the largest city in Spain at that time. This was, incontrovertibly, a civilisation, much to the consternation of the conquistadors. The Aztecs are often stereotyped as an ‘ancient’ culture: superstitious, Stone Age, in thrall to bloodthirsty gods. It is easy to forget that Moctezuma, a contemporary of Henry VIII, was not just a powerful warrior but also a literate, effective administrator whose people were highly educated, well-organised and determined.
Our narrative of the conquest usually follows the path of the Spanish expedition, but the meeting on the causeway was actually the culmination of more than six months of careful manoeuvring from both sides.
From the time Cortés landed on the Mexican coast in March 1519, Moctezuma had been carefully monitoring his movements, despatching emissaries to meet the new arrivals and sending astonishing gifts of gold and silver; these were intended to persuade the invaders to depart his territory and move on to others less powerful or less willing to pay tribute. To the Spanish, though, these courteous exchanges were not a deterrent but an invitation: they saw them as confirmation of the existence of a wealthy kingdom in the interior that could be easily exploited.
In a precarious position after defying his local superior – Diego Velázquez, governor of Cuba – Cortés saw the incredible treasures sent by Moctezuma as an opportunity to buy the support of Charles V. He promptly dispatched these riches to the Spanish king, along with emissaries to plead his case and secure his authority in a land he had no real mandate to conquer.
This was just one prong of a complex strategy designed to legitimise Cortés’s actions and ensure his success. First, he ordered that his ships be disabled, forcing his followers to commit to the mission and realise – as Cortés himself said later – that “they would conquer and win the land, or die in the attempt”.
This do-or-die attitude was not merely a facade. Having departed from Cuba without the governor’s sanction, Cortés had been declared a rebel against the crown and, as a result, was fighting on two fronts for much of the expedition. Indeed, in May 1520 he found himself facing a force sent by Velázquez to arrest him, but in a characteristically bold (and lucky) move, Cortés convinced the Cuban soldiers to join his quest for gold and glory. It was not until 1523, two years after the fall of Tenochtitlan, that Cortés learned he’d been named governor of New Spain, and he spent most of his life fighting Velázquez’s accusations. It’s clear, then, that his position here was far from secure.
Cortés’s strategy on the ground was to exploit local divisions, winning allies (or at least reasonably compliant bystanders) through a combination of force, diplomacy and terror tactics. By the time he arrived at Tenochtitlan he was accompanied by some 10,000 indigenous warriors. These men were Tlaxcalans, close neighbours and enemies of the Aztecs of Tenochtitlan; after initial fierce resistance, they had been convinced to throw in their lot with the Spaniards against their old adversaries.
Cortés led an army in which conquistadors were outnumbered at least ten to one by Mexicans
The entry into Tenochtitlan was an awe-inspiring moment for the conquistadors. Superficially, the balance of power favoured Moctezuma: he controlled the stage, and the Spaniards found themselves at the heart of a hostile city, in the centre of an empire of millions, surrounded by highly trained warriors who thought nothing of offering their opponents to a merciless god. “What men in all the world have shown such daring?” boasted Díaz. But the presence of a multitude of Tlaxcalans on the causeway must surely have affected the dynamic of the meeting. Bravery comes much more readily with 10,000 allies at your back.
When Cortés rode towards Tenochtitlan, he was at the head of a strikingly foreign force – unfamiliar clothes and weapons, white faces, beards, strange crosses and banners all feature in later depictions of the invading Spaniards by indigenous people – but he also led an army in which the conquistadors were outnumbered by Mexicans at least ten to one.
We don’t know what the Aztecs thought about the Tlaxcalans in their midst, but we know that their fellow Mexicans were luxuriously accommodated in the city with the Spaniards, and that many Tlaxcalans died alongside their allies on the so-called ‘Night of Sorrows’. This was the night when, after simmering hostilities erupted into open warfare following the slaughter of unarmed Aztec warriors at a festival, the conquistadors fled the city, losing most of their party in the process. Moctezuma was also killed at some point during this clash, though it’s unclear whether he died at the hands of the Spanish or his own people.
Cortés and his allies then orchestrated an unlikely reversal, besieging the city with brigantines constructed in Tlaxcala and carried over the mountains. Ravaged by a smallpox epidemic to which they had no immunity, the Aztecs nonetheless fought to the death, refusing to surrender until their new ruler, Cuauhtemoc, was finally captured in a canoe on the lake. By that stage, the city the Spaniards had so admired was in ruins.
Moment of uncertainty
This story is not new. It has been told and retold: as the triumph of technology; as a tale of heroism and European derring-do; as a story of Spanish barbarity and vicious conquest; as the salvation of savage souls; as the last gasp of a great empire or the start of a new one. And yet we keep returning to it – to this moment of historical tension, this instant when the world stood at a tipping point. It is, for me, this very uncertainty that draws us back.
The conquest, combined with epidemics, killed all but a small fraction of the original population
There is an inexorability to history. The story marches towards the present, towards the birth of brutal European empires and the annihilation and exploitation of indigenous communities. The violence of conquest, combined with the merciless epidemics that swept through the Americas in the following decades, left all but a small fraction of the original population dead, families and communities in ruins, and thousands of Mexicans enslaved and transported to Spain.
But for the participants in this historical tragedy, the outcome was not inevitable. When the Aztec empire fell, indigenous Mexicans did not passively submit to Spanish rule. For many, one faceless emperor was simply replaced by another, and they adapted accordingly. The Tlaxcalans fought for their rights as allies to the Spanish, successfully asserting their autonomy and gaining exemption from tribute. They sent emissaries to Spain, won coats of arms, and became prominent players in colonial politics.
Other cities also asserted themselves, swiftly adapting their knowledge of legal and literary conventions to a new alphabetic system of communication, proving their adaptability and resilience, and learning the delicate art of negotiation with the crown. Even the noble families of Tenochtitlan – the conquistadors’ fiercest opponents – successfully asserted their ‘traditional’ rights, intermarried with the Spanish elite, and gained posts and grants at court in Spain.
The meeting between Cortés and Moctezuma was remarkable for all that it symbolises. For the Spanish, it was a precarious juncture. For the Aztecs, it was the arrival of a strange force to be dazzled and dominated. For the Tlaxcalans, it was an opportunity to exploit. It is a reminder that history is a mirror with many faces. The side we most often see reflects European dominance, but tilt the angle and we see other perspectives, other possibilities, other people. It is tempting to see this as the start of European global dominance, but the route by which we got here was not clearly signposted to its participants. In the 500 years since Moctezuma met Cortés, the world was remade. Yet a closer look at this moment reminds us that this history was not direct or inevitable, but a mosaic of endlessly complex possibilities.
What to read more about the Aztecs and the New World? Here are some of our most popular articles...
- Aztec sacrifice: how many people were really put to death?
- What can the Aztecs tell us about themselves? The secrets of their ‘indigenous annals’
- Tudors in America: how England’s New World colonies came into being
Caroline Dodds Pennock is lecturer in international history at the University of Sheffield and author of Bonds of Blood: Gender, Lifecycle and Sacrifice in Aztec Culture (Palgrave Macmillan, paperback 2011)
This content first appeared in issue 14 of BBC World Histories magazine
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This Stephen King novel about a girl who has the ability to control fire has been adapted twice. Does either do the book justice? can John Carpenter and Zac Efron save the 2022 adaptation from being a disappointment? Is Drew Barrymore a bad child actor?? Check out this book vs movie to find out!
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This Stephen King novella was made into a movie starring Johnny Depp, who was riding the high from his Pirates of the Caribbean movie. The movie makes a change that totally took me by surprise! But does this change make the story better or worse?
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Room by Emma Donoghue was adapted into a movie starring Brie Larson and Jacob Trembley. This powerful story has some changes from book to movie, and in the end, which wins?
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Zora Neale Hurston is a famous African American author who wrote Their Eyes Were Watching God, which was adapted into a movie starring Halle Berry and produced by Oprah Winfrey. How does the movie compare to this classic novel about a woman finding true love, and finding herself?
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This Ridley Scott movie starring Nicholas Cage and Sam Rockwell was adapted from the novel by Eric Garcia. The story follows the story of a conman whose daughter shows up and changes his life and the life of his partner. The movie makes some changes to the end, but overall follows the book pretty close!
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The Road is a desolate novel by Cormac McCarthy which was adapted into a movie starring Viggo Mortensen and Kodi Smit0McPhee. The movie stays very true to the book! Check out today’s episode to learn what I thought of each and what minor changes were made.
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Larry McMurtry’s debut novel was soon adapted into a critically acclaimed movie starring Paul Newman as the unlikeable Hud. This is a desolate coming of age story about a teen living in Texas. The movie makes some key changes, listen to find out!
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This beloved Douglas Adams quirky, scifi novel was adapted in 2005 starring Sam Rockwell, Martin Freeman and Zooey Deschanel. The movie makes some changes from book to movie, check out what the changes are, and which one wins!
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Anne of Green Gables is a beloved book about an orphan girl who is adopted by an aging brother and sister and the impact she has on those around her. The best adaptation is the 1985 TV movie version and today I talk about why I love both!
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This Patricia Highsmith novel about a suburban couple who have a toxic relationship was adapted into a movie starring Ben Affleck and Ana de Armas. The movie stays true to the novel up until the end-find out what has been changed!
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This David O. Russel movie stars Bradley Cooper, Jennifer Lawerence and Robert De Niro and is based on the novel by Matthew Quick. Both focus on mental illness, bipolar disorder in the movie and brain damage in the book. Even though the book and movie are very similar, there are some big changes made.
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After Yang is based on the short story by Alexander Weinstein from his book Children of the New World. This takes place in a sci-fi future where “technosapiens” have been created. The movie takes things in a different direction than I thought they would. Listen to here what I thought of both!
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The Lost Daughter is directed by Maggie Gyllenhaal, adapted from the book by Italian author Elena Ferrante. This isn’t a book or movie everyone loves, and some people have, understandably, conflicted feelings. The movie follows the source novel very close with really just one change to end. Hear what’s different, and my thoughts on both!
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This critically acclaimed movie is based on the novel by Thomas Savage. Both are amazing and the movie stays pretty close to the book. Here, I discuss the nuances in each, the meaning of both, and what few things were changed from book to movie.
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The Double by Jose Saramago was made into the movie Enemy directed by by Denis Villeneuve. Understanding the meaning of either is difficult and whereas the movie has a more definite meaning, the book seems more open to interpretation. Listen to me try to make sense of the book, followed by a chat with The Forgotten Cinema Podcast about the movie!
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The new adaptation of one of Agatha Christie’s Hercule Poirot murder mystery. Directed by and starring Kenneth Branagh and stars Gal Gadot, Armie Hammer and Branagh as Poirot. There aren’t too many changes from book to movie, but there are some key details left out of the movie!
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Cold Mountain is an award winning book and movie telling the story of Inman as he returns home. Both book and movie are so critically acclaimed, but in the end, which is the better of the two?
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The new George Clooney movie starring Ben Affleck is based on the memoir about a boy who is raised by a bar. The movie makes some big changes to this heartfelt story. But do those changes do justice to the real events?
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The popular Harry Hole detective novel by Norwegian Jo Nesbo was made into a notoriously bad movie starring Michael Fassbender. Today I discuss the changes that were made to the script, some of the logistical reasons behind the failure of the movie, and what I thought of this winter murder mystery.
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The sequel to Jurassic Park was a highly anticipated book and movie. Here, I not only talk about how The Lost World book and movie compare, but I also couldn’t help comparing it to the first Jurassic Park as well.
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Stephen King’s The Shining was adapted by the famous Stanley Kubrick starring Jack Nicholson. This movie is so famous and well loved, despite being so different from the book in a lot of ways. I talk about the differences that were made, as well as talking about why I love both book and movie for their separate strengths.
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The Revenant is based on a true story of Hugh Glass, but both book and movie took liberties with the story seeing as little of the truth is known. Which version of this incredible event is the best? And find out some huge differences between book and movie.
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Charles Dicken’s A Christmas Carol is one of the most well known Christmas stories of all time. It has been adapted time and time again; but today I will be comparing it with the 1984 version starring George C. Scott. Hear how the two compare!
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Guillermo Del Toro directs the movie adaptation which stars Bradley Cooper and Cate Blanchett. How does it compare with the noir carnival book by William Lindsay Gresham? This is a great adaptation, but there are some changes to be talked about. I also analyze the characters and the message of this great story.
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Little Women is a literary classic that has been adapted many times. Here, we talk about how the book compares with the latest movie from 2019 directed by Greta Gerwig.
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Beloved is the Pulitzer prize winning novel by Toni Morrison. It’s about people that are haunted by their past-their past abuses as well as their own actions from the past. The movie stars Oprah Winfrey and Danny Glover in the lead roles. The movie follows the book very closely, but there is still a lot to break down here as we discuss the differences between book and movie, and the deep symbolism in both.
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This Ridley Scott film has been highly anticipated. Did it live up to the hype? And how does it compare to the true story which we read about in the book by Sarah Gay Forden? Is this story of murder, madness, glamor and greed within the Gucci family better told in book or movie?
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This iconic Martin Scorsese film is based on the book Wiseguy. The movie follows the true story of Henry Hill very close; but does it still end up falling short of the book?
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This iconic movie starring Johnny Depp and Benicio Del Toro is based on a book by the gonzo journalist, Hunter S. Thompson. A lot of people thought this book was unadaptable-were they right? Find out how the book and movie compare!
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This story shines a light on the story of the black cowboys of North Philadelphia. With that as its backdrop, we are told a story about family, relationships, community and love. The book is meant for a teenage audience, while the movie has a more adult approach. When ended up being the version?
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Many people name this gothic novel as their favorite book and it is with good reason! This movie adaptation stars Mia Wasikowska and Michael Fassbender and is the best version in my opinion. Find out why I love both book and movie so much!
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This is one of Agatha Christie’s personal favorites of hers, is the movie just as good? Starring Glenn Close and directed by Gilles Paquet-Brenner, find out how this murder mystery compares to its original source novel!
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Gillian Flynn wrote this psychological thriller which has so many turns, you never know what to expect. The movie stars Ben Affleck and Rosamund Pike and follows the book fairly close. However there are some key elements left out of the movie, which causes the overall theme to change considerably.
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This 90’s slasher stars Jennifer Love Hewitt, Freddie Prinze Jr, Ryan Phillippe and Sarah Michelle Gellar. The novel is by the fairly well known Lois Duncan and there are so many differences between the two!
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Oprah Winfrey stars in the movie which tells the story of the HeLa cells, and the woman behind .them. The book finally tells the world the truth about Henrietta Lacks and how she changed the world. The movie is well done, but how does it compare with the book?
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Kathy Bates portrayal of the psychotic number one fan has gone down in film history. There’s no denying that Misery is an amazing movie, but how does it compare to the original Stephen King novel? We go deep as I discuss the symbolism of Annie Wilkes, and the power writing can have over your demons. As well as the differences from book to movie-and there’s a lot!
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In the wake of Stalin’s death, those in his close circle battle it out to see how will be next in charge. How much does this British comedy change from the original comic book? And how much of it actually happened in real life?
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The Soviet Union under the control of Stalin is an interesting setting as it is. Then we have the Leo, an officer of the government who starts questioning his blind obedience. Then on top of that, there area series of murders that need solving! Find out how this intriguing book compares with the movie!
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The chivalric romance set in King Arthur’s court about Sir Gawain and The Green Knight. The original source is a poem, which is really more like a short story. There is a lot of symbolism and metaphors in both book and movie, and here I explain both while comparing the differences!
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Special One Year episode where I share my favorite and least favorite adaptations I’ve covered as well as my least favorite! I also share why I started this podcast in the first place; and what you can expect going into my second year!
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The incredible true story of a boy who was lost, and reunited with his family 26 years later. How does the memoir compare with the movie adaptation?
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A memoir that was adapted into a movie starring Robert DeNiro and Paul Dano. This is a great film adaptation, but there is still so much to discuss when it comes to this incredible story.
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Two magicians have a feud which will eventually lead to their demise. The movie is a great adaptation, but that doesn’t mean there aren’t some huge changes between the book and movie.
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We Were Soldiers documents the Ia Drang battle in Vietnam which was the first time the US military and Vietnam military officially battled. Here I discuss the book and movie adaptation with my brother who has a different perspective since he himself is in the Army!
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The story of a black cop who goes undercover in the KKK. The craziest part? It’s based on a true story. But does the movie stick to the truth, or did exaggerate when bringing this story to the big screen?
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There are a lot of things eating at Gilbert Grape in both the book and the movie. The movie was adapted by the author himself, but did he still end up making some big changes?
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Eddie is a deadbeat, but when then he gains access for a drug that propels him to the top of the business world. But does the Eddie in the movie have the same fate as the Eddie in the book?
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Slumdog Millionaire is based on the Book Q and A. You’ll soon find out that they changed a lot more than just the title!
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The movie stays true to the overall story of these three friends who grew up together. However, there are some big changes they made to one of the characters in particular.
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People seem to either love or hate this movie, but what about the book? Find out what big changes were made from book to screen.
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Both the book and movie leave you thinking; here I do my best to explain both while also comparing the many changes that were made!
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This Clint Eastwood adaptation stays very close to the book. What is left out however is that internal dialogue that makes such a difference when trying to understand a character. Listen and find out more to understand their motives for what they do.
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Adapting this James Baldwin book in a movie is a tall order, but Barry Jenkins seems to be the best man for the job. Find out what differences there are between the two and which I prefer better!
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The movie makes some big changes to this suspense novel. Learn what’s different, plus learn about the author and the secrets surrounding him.
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A short story, made into a movie, then from that turned into a novel; all written by Dennis Lehane. Are there still differences made? And do I prefer the book as usual, or is the movie the favored one?
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This classic tale has been adapted many times, in one way or another. Here I compare the book with two of the movie versions. You may be surprised to discover what changes there are between the three.
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Truth is stranger than fiction. The movie is based on the memoir of the real Frank Abagnale Jr, but did the movie feel it needed to add even more flair to the story? Listen and find out!
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The movie is based on the memoir of Susana Kayson’s time in a mental institution, but how close does the movie stick to the truth of her experience?
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Not many people realize Cool Hand Luke is based on a book! The movie starring Paul Newman became such a success the book has been overshadowed, but is the book even better than the movie?
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This iconic movie was first a novel by Michael Crichton. The book is actually quite different from the movie and though the movie is fantastic, the book is even better! Listen to the podcast to find out why!
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This Martin Scorsese thriller is one that tends to leave viewers confused, however, when you compare it with the book by Dennis Lehane, it makes perfect sense!
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You can read the blog, or you can click on one of the icons below to listen to the podcast version! Click HERE for more listening options! **Warning: Spoilers for both book and movie!** Crazy Rich Asians by Kevin Kwan (2013) Crazy Rich Asians directed by Jon M. Chu (2018) This movie came out more
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The book that inspired two movie adaptaions-which one sticks closest to the original? Which one has the most grit? I’m here to tell you.
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The movie took many liberties adapting this novel, but it’s still a story of an oil man, his son, and a former hillbilly who claims to be a prophet.
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Bob Arctor is an undercover narcotics agent, but he is slowly losing his grasp on reality. Find out how this all star cast movie compares.
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Iains Reid’s novel about a girl thinking of ending things with her boyfriend, but we learn that things aren’t quite as it seems.
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Wonder gives us a look into what it is like for someone with Treacher Collins; as well as seeing into how it effects the lives of those around them.
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The incredible story of a man who was kidnapped and sold into slavery. After which he releases a memoir giving a first hand look into what he endured.
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A plot to bring the Third Reich back into power, can Gregory Peck be stopped?
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The ageless story of a man who has the appearance of youth and innocence, but he has a secret he his hiding.
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A wife who cooks, cleans, has a perfect body, and never disagree’s with her husband. What more could you want?
The Stepford Wives: Book vs Movie Review Read More »
| 46,637
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history
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geo_bench
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when were 7 books removed from the bible
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193b7ca7e4e6
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https://blog.ferrovial.com/en/2019/03/history-drink-potable-water/
|
La respuesta parece evidente. Desde siempre. Para cada uno de nosotros individualmente, habitantes del primer mundo, esta respuesta es correcta. Pero ¿para el conjunto de la humanidad? Esa respuesta tal vez ya no sea tan sencilla. Echemos un vistazo a la historia en busca de respuestas.
Todos los animales necesitamos consumir agua para sobrevivir, pero sólo los humanos la tratamos. Cuando el hombre primitivo se convierte en agricultor en el Neolítico, aproximadamente en el 7.000 a.C., empieza a necesitar conducir el agua para los sistemas de riego. Ya no basta con acercarse a coger el agua del río o de los manantiales. Así empiezan también a aparecer ingenios para conseguir un agua más limpia.
Para aquellos hombres primitivos, un agua más limpia significaba mejorar su turbidez, olor y sabor, es decir sólo en las características físicas, las que se pueden percibir a través de nuestros sentidos. Los primeros sistemas fueron simplemente dejar reposar el agua en vasijas o pozos para permitir la decantación y que el agua estuviera menos turbia. Después poco a poco se fueron extendiendo otros métodos como el filtrado a través de arena o grava, dejar el agua al sol o hervirla. Existen registros de estos métodos desde el 4.000 a.C.
Fueron los griegos y los egipcios los que consiguieron una mayor sofisticación. Los griegos empezaron a utilizar los filtros de carbón y en el 1.500 a.C. hay documentos que explican como en Egipto se utilizaban sustancias minerales y vegetales para facilitar la precipitación y clarificar el agua, lo que en la actualidad denominamos floculación.
Los romanos adoptaron estos sistemas y los utilizaron a gran escala en sus ciudades. Distribuían agua a través de tuberías de diversos materiales, que previamente había sido almacenada en depósitos y tratada con métodos sencillos como el de la aireación.
En definitiva, hace más de 3.000 años las técnicas básicas de potabilización ya se conocían. De hecho, se siguieron usando sin grandes cambios hasta el siglo XIX. Cuando, con sólo dos años de diferencia en 1804 y 1806, en Glasgow y París respectivamente, se ponen en marcha las dos primeras plantas de tratamiento de agua a gran escala para abastecer una ciudad de la edad moderna. Fueron plantas que contaban con sedimentación y filtrado mediante arena y carbón.
Pero a finales del siglo XIX, Pasteur, a quien la humanidad no ha dedicado suficientes estatuas, demuestra que en el agua habitan miles de organismos microscópicos que pueden transmitir numerosas enfermedades. No fue una sorpresa, pues las grandes aglomeraciones urbanas habían dado lugar a brotes de cólera y otras enfermedades, que se ya se habían empezado a relacionar con la contaminación del agua. Queda claro por tanto que no es suficiente con mejorar las características físicas del agua.
De esta forma la historia del agua potable entra en una nueva dimensión con la introducción de desinfectantes. En 1908 se utiliza por primera vez el cloro para tratar el agua en Nueva Jersey y al mismo tiempo se empieza a usar ozono en Europa.
El efecto de la potabilización del agua fue sencillamente espectacular. En los primeros 30 años del siglo XX se produce el mayor salto en la esperanza de vida de la historia. En los países más desarrollados donde se extiende este tratamiento (Inglaterra, Francia, Alemania, Países Bajos e Italia) se producen incrementos de entre 10 y 15 años en la esperanza de vida. ¡En solo 30 años!
| 1750 – 1759 | 1850 – 1859 | 1880 | 1900 | 1930 | 1950 | 1985 | |
| Inglaterra | 36,9 | 40,0 | 43,3 | 48,2 | 60,8 | 69,2 | 74,7 |
| Francia | 27,9 | 39,8 | 42,1 | 47,4 | 56,7 | 66,5 | 75,4 |
| Suecia | 37,3 | 43,3 | 48,5 | 54,0 | 63,3 | 71,3 | 76,8 |
| Alemania | – | – | 37,9 | 44,4 | 61,3 | 66,6 | 73,8 |
| Italia | – | – | 35,4 | 42,8 | 54,9 | 65,5 | 75,9 |
| Países Bajos | – | 36,8 | 41,7 | 49,9 | 64,6 | 71,8 | 76,4 |
| Unión Soviética | – | – | 27,7 | 32,4 | 42,9 | 64,0 | 68,0 |
| Estados Unidos (población blanca) | – | 41,7 | 47,2 | 50,8 | 61,7 | 69,4 | 74,7 |
| Australia | – | – | 49,0 | 55,0 | 65,3 | – | 75,9 |
| Japón | – | – | 35,1 | 37,7 | 45,9 | 59,1 | 77,8 |
Fuente: Livi-Bacci (2002)
Finalmente ha sido el cloro el que se ha impuesto como desinfectante para tratar el agua potable. Porque es un germicida de amplio espectro, es decir, elimina todos los microorganismos y a la vez evita la proliferación de mohos y algas; porque su efecto perdura en el tiempo y consigue mantener el agua limpia hasta que sale por nuestros grifos; y, aunque habrá quien no se lo crea, porque mejora el sabor y los olores.
Así que en realidad la humanidad ha necesitado beber agua potable desde siempre, pero hasta hace poco más de 100 años no lo sabíamos.
El problema es que hoy 22 de marzo de 2019, en pleno siglo XXI sigue habiendo 844 millones de personas que no tienen acceso a agua potable. Ni siquiera tiene acceso a métodos como los de los romanos. Repito la cifra, 844 millones, para que resuene en nuestros oídos e intentemos que nuestra mente se dé cuenta de la magnitud del problema. En Europa vivimos 740 millones de personas. Es como si desde Lisboa hasta Moscú, desde Sevilla a Oslo, nadie tuviera agua potable.
Las Naciones Unidas ha fijado como Objetivo de Desarrollo Sostenible número 6, “garantizar la disponibilidad de agua y su gestión sostenible y el saneamiento para todos”. Es uno de los ODS que están más al alcance de nuestra mano. 2.300 millones de personas consiguieron acceso al agua potable entre 1990 y 2015. ¿Por qué no va a ser posible conseguir el acceso universal en 2030? Celebrar el Día Mundial del Agua tiene que servir para movernos a la acción.
En Ferrovial así lo hemos entendido y llevamos trabajando desde 2011 para conseguir llevar agua potable a las poblaciones más vulnerables del planeta. En ese año se puso en marcha el Programa Infraestructuras Sociales que apoya proyectos para facilitar el acceso al agua y al saneamiento en áfrica subsahariana y américa latina. Hasta el momento hemos desarrollado 25 proyectos en 8 países que han permitido que 223.000 personas tengan acceso a agua potable de calidad.
Es nuestra contribución para conseguir el sueño de la ONU del acceso universal al agua en 2030. Porque de eso se tratan los ODS, de que soñemos juntos.
Un artículo de Ricardo Navas
| 6,273
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history
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geo_bench
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What allowed humans to safely drink water before purification was invented?
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fbc723875dee
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https://study.com/learn/lesson/montezuma-biography-facts.html
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Montezuma II | Biography, Aztec King Rule & Death
Table of Contents
ShowWas Montezuma II a good leader?
He was a ruler who knew how to expand his empire and took it to its peak. However, he led an opulent lifestyle away from the people and many tribes rebelled against him. When the Spanish arrived, he gave in to all their requests, and his lack of action led to the conquest of the Aztecs.
Was Montezuma the last Aztec emperor?
Montezuma was not the last Aztec emperor. After he died, Cuitlahuac was named emperor, but soon he died from smallpox. Cuauhtemoc then took the throne, but the Spanish captured him to finish the Conquest of Tenochtitlan.
Who was Montezuma and why was he important?
Montezuma II was one of the last Aztec emperors. Under his rule, the Aztec empire had its peak, conquering other tribes and expanding their territories. However, he allowed the Spanish to conquer them due to his religious superstition.
Table of Contents
ShowMontezuma II (1466-1520) was one of the last rulers of the great Aztec Empire before the arrival of the Spanish. Under his mandate, the city of Tenochtitlan managed to maintain its power and the domain it exercised over other peoples, who were obliged to pay tribute. Son of Emperor Axayacatl, he was elected high priest and, in 1502, succeeded his uncle, Ahuizotl, in the government of the Aztec empire. Devoutly religious, he ultimately provoked the Spanish conquest of the empire.
Who was Montezuma?
Montezuma II was born in Tenochtitlan (which is currently Mexico City) in 1466. His complete name was Mohtecuzoma II Xocoyotsin. It is said that Mohtecuzoma means in Nahuatl (the language spoken by the Aztecs) "the one who is angry." His nickname Xocoyotzin means "young." His grandfather was the Aztec king Montezuma Ilhuicamina, also known as Montezuma I. Therefore, the nickname and the regnal number II were used to differentiate him from his grandfather. He held the title of Huetlatoani, which in the Nahuatl language means "Great Ruler." The name Montezuma II is commonly used by English sources and literature. However, the most correct approximation from Spanish to Nahuatl is Moctezuma II. Both ways to spell his name are correct, and both are used all around the world in different sources.
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His grandfather, Montezuma I, passed away three years after Montezuma was born, and his father, Axayacatl, became the Aztec Huetlatoani. The Aztecs controlled territories such as Texcoco, Tlacopan. and Tlatelolco. Despite the lack of cohesiveness among their domains, they remained united by fear of Mexican repression and by their military rule. Montezuma II received military and religious training from the Aztec nobles. In 1481, his father died, and his uncle, Tizoc, succeeded him. Meanwhile, Montezuma had to complete his religious and military education. He became a priest before being the king of the Aztec empire. His uncle died, and later another uncle, Ahuizotl, became Huetlatoani. Montezuma began to gain military experience and was later appointed general. On the death of his uncle, he was elected, in 1502, as the ninth Huetlatoani. By then, the Aztec people already recognized him as a capable and prepared leader to continue consolidating the empire.
One of the first actions of his reign was to replace all government officials; they were replaced by young men from noble families. Montezuma II organized the empire into various provinces. He created a strong central administration and established a tax system. At the same time, he continued the military expansion initiated by his predecessors. However, he was unable to subdue the enemy peoples of Tlaxcala. He also failed in his expeditions to Guatemala and Nicaragua. Because of the expansion of its territory, he managed to establish trade routes between the empire and other civilizations.
He was a despotic king, which soon caused instability and discontent in his kingdom. He asked other tribes for human tributes to sacrifice them to the gods. Many tribes, like the Tlaxcalans, began to rebel against him. In this way, the Aztec empire began to dismantle in different areas. He reigned from 1502 until 1520, when the Spanish conquered the Aztecs.
Life of an Aztec King
As emperor of the Aztec empire, Montezuma II lived in the capital, Tenochtitlan. This was a city characterized by having been built between canals and being surrounded by the water of Lake Texcoco. Its constructions were emblematic. Aqueducts carried fresh water to the city's inhabitants. The Templo Mayor (Spanish for Main Temple) was the largest religious center in the city. This city was populated by different social classes. The lower classes were slaves. Then there were workers and farmers. In the middle class were the merchants. At the top, there were the warriors and the priests, and only above them, the Huetlatoani.
The Aztec leader lived an opulent life, surrounded by luxuries. Two years before the arrival of the Spaniards, Montezuma II had built the royal houses and a magnificent palace. It is said that the dimensions of the palace were such that it had twenty access doors. It also had three patios, and, in one of them, there was a fountain with water brought from Chapultepec (a lake near Tenochtitlan). Also, the palace had many rooms: one hundred chambers and one hundred baths. He also celebrated many feasts, for which dozens of different foods were prepared. To maintain that lifestyle, it is said that Montezuma had dozens of servants at his service twenty-four hours a day. He also surrounded himself with jewels and other precious resources, like quetzal feathers and other rare items from distant lands.
Montezuma II was a very religious person. He turned the figure of the Huetlatoani into something almost divine. For the same reason, he was a ruler who distanced himself from the people. He did not allow commoners to enter his palace, and only nobles had access. Also, servants were not allowed to watch him while eating. Only his family and some nobles were able to see him and talk to him. Officially, he had two wives, but he had hundreds of mistresses. Because of this, Montezuma II had many children, but his favorite one was Tecuichpo Ichcaxochitl, who, after the Spanish conquest, was baptized as Isabel Montezuma.
First Contact with the Spanish
By 1517, the Spanish crown began to launch a series of expeditions to what is now Mexico. These expeditions departed from Cuba. In them, the Spaniards had contact with different tribes and discovered different parts of this territory. There was a legend in which the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl, who was highly revered, spent time among humans and left, flying to the shores of Veracruz. However, he promised that one day he would return. In 1518, Montezuma was informed of the presence of the ships of the Spanish explorer Juan de Grijalva off the Yucatan coast. The Aztec king sent emissaries and gifts to the foreigners, whom he assumed to be Quetzalcoatl's envoys sent to announce his return.
In 1519, the Hernan Cortes expedition landed in Veracruz. This date coincided with the one marked on the Aztec calendar as the return of Quetzalcoatl. Montezuma did not hesitate to identify the conqueror as the god. On November 8, 1519, he received him in Tenochtitlan and showered him with valuable gifts. Montezuma yielded to all of Cortes's requests. Gold, jewelry, food, and other valuable resources were provided. Montezuma II lodged Cortes and his men in his palace. The Spanish were Catholic and considered the religion of the Aztecs a heresy. The images of the Aztec gods were torn down and replaced by Christian images. Even Montezuma II agreed to be baptized. The submission of the Aztec king occurred because he believed that he should not anger the god Quetzalcoatl.
Prisoner of the Spanish
Although Cortes had the favor of Montezuma, the Aztec leader's courtiers, generals, and the Tenochtitlan inhabitants did not like the situation. On November 14, 1519, Cortes took Montezuma prisoner, worried that his fate depended on the will of the emperor. He kept him in power in a symbolic way, and Montezuma II thought that if he gave in to Cortes's wishes, he would eventually leave, but the Spanish did not leave and were dedicated to looting everything they could.
Suddenly, Cortes received the news that a contingent had arrived on the coast of Veracruz with the mission of arresting him. It was an expedition organized by Diego de Velázquez, governor of Cuba, and led by his nephew, Panfilo de Narvaez. Before they could organize in the coast, Cortes left for Veracruz with some of his men. Another group of men stayed on guard in Tenochtitlan, with Montezuma II still held as a hostage. During Cortes's absence, one of his generals, Pedro de Alvarado, remained in command.
How did Montezuma II Die?
The Aztecs asked Pedro de Alvarado for permission to hold a religious festival. At first, he agreed on the condition that no one should be armed. However, shocked by the brutality of the Aztec sacrifices and dazzled by the jewels and gold carried by the nobles, he decided to ambush them. When the festival was at its height, they closed the patio doors and killed all the participants.
In response to this event, the people rose up in arms. After Alvarado's massacre, Cortes returned from Veracruz. On June 29, 1520, Cortes asked Montezuma to calm the impetus of his people. When Montezuma appeared on the balcony of his palace to give a speech, the people began to throw stones and arrows at him as soon as he looked out.
There are various versions of Montezuma II's death. According to the Spanish version, Montezuma died as a result of his injuries. The Aztec version says that all the Aztec nobles who were imprisoned by the Spanish were executed for being no longer useful. Later, when the bodies were collected, Montezuma's body would show sword wounds.
When Montezuma II died, Cuitlahuac succeeded him as Aztec king, but he soon died from smallpox. Then the young Cuauhtemoc took the throne. On August 13, 1521, Cuauhtemoc was captured, which meant the definitive fall of Tenochtitlan into the hands of the Spanish. From this date, what now is Mexico became a Spanish colony, called New Spain, for three centuries from 1521 to 1821.
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The legacy and reputation of Montezuma II are full of contrasts. He was heir to an empire of vast proportions. As the Aztec leader, he increased the empire and established new trade routes, but he also stood out for his opulence and separation from the lower classes. He is also remembered in history as the ruler who succumbed to the Spanish. He did not offer much resistance to the Spanish conquerors to whom he surrendered. His people stoned him when he went out to ask that the invaders not be fought.
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Montezuma II (1466-1520) was one of the last Aztec emperors before the Spanish conquest. He was the son of Axayacatl and grandson of Montezuma I, both Aztec emperors. He received a military and a religious education. Before becoming king, he was a priest. He was elected in 1502 to take the throne and ruled for eighteen years, until 1520. Under his command, the Aztec empire reached its peak and expanded its territories, dominating other tribes. Montezuma II had a reign full of opulence and separation from the people. He was also a despotic ruler. He demanded human tributes to other tribes so he could sacrifice them to the gods, and many tribes rebelled against him. The city of Tenochtitlan was the capital of the empire and where he lived. It was a city full of impressive buildings, such as temples, the palace, and aqueducts to carry freshwater.
Due to his superstition about the return of Quetzalcoatl, he received the expedition of Hernan Cortes with open arms in 1519. Cortes and his men, blinded by ambition, decided to conquer Tenochtitlan. To control the Aztecs, they captured Montezuma II, keeping him as emperor and ruling through him. After the Spanish massacred the Aztecs at a religious festival, the people were enraged and rebelled against the Spanish. When Montezuma leaned out of his palace to ask them to calm down, he was stoned by his people and died of his injuries. Montezuma II went down in history as a ruler who led the Aztecs to their splendor but who did not know how to stand up against the Spanish, and because of him, the Aztecs were conquered.
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Video Transcript
The Aztec Empire
What comes to mind when you think of the empires of Central America? Human sacrifice, massive temples, powerful and vengeful gods, Spanish conquest? The Aztec Empire had all of these things and more. Located in the heart of Mexico, the city of Tenochtitlan became the heart of the Aztec Empire.
Built in the middle of a swampy lake, the Aztecs created a massive city with large roads and canals for trade. In fact, Aztec engineers were so advanced that they built large aqueducts, or large pipes, that brought fresh water into the city. The center of the city had a large marketplace, fantastic pyramids for the Aztec gods, and a place to play sports.
But Tenochtitlan was more than just the capital of the Aztec Empire; it was the home to the powerful kings that ruled the Aztecs and other tribes they conquered. From Tenochtitlan, the Aztec kings built their armies and created plans for war. They also demanded tributes, or payment from the people they conquered. Of the eleven kings that ruled the Aztecs, the most famous was Montezuma II, who was the ninth king of the Aztec Empire who ruled from 1502 to 1520.
Montezuma II
Montezuma II was born around the year 1466 in the city of Tenochtitlan. As a kid, he learned many of the subjects that students today learn in school, like science and astronomy. Of all of the things he studied, Montezuma loved religion the most and actually became a priest at one of Tenochtitlan's large temples before he became a king.
At the age of 36, Montezuma took the Aztec throne after his uncle, Ahuitzotl died. Ahuitzotl was an impressive ruler. During his time as emperor, he fought wars all over central America and doubled the size of the Aztec Empire. By the time Montezuma became the king, Aztec influence spread from Mexico into Nicaragua and Honduras.
The biggest issue for Montezuma as a new king was what to do with such a large empire. His uncle had spent so much time and effort expanding, but Montezuma's responsibility became maintaining that power. The peoples conquered by the Aztecs had to make payments to Tenochtitlan and to the king. These payments came in the form of gold, precious metals, foods, and different goods. Montezuma decided to increase the size of the tributes, and he also demanded that the conquered tribes pay him human tributes, too. Montezuma was very superstitious and very religious; the human tributes were used as sacrifices to please the gods.
Montezuma and the Spanish
Think for a second about what life in the Aztec Empire would be like for a conquered person. You have to make huge payments to a king you've probably never seen, and you have to pick someone from your village to be sacrificed; maybe a neighbor, a friend, or someone in your own family. How would you react? You probably wouldn't be very happy and would look for a way to overthrow the king. Well, this is exactly what some of these tribes decided to do. Montezuma was not popular outside of Tenochtitlan. In total, he was the ruler of over five million people. That's a lot of upset and angry followers!
In 1517, the tides turned against Montezuma when the Spanish conquistadors arrived. Hernan Cortes and his men slowly made their way to Tenochtitlan. As they traveled, they heard stories of Montezuma and realized how angry and upset some of the tribes were. Cortes decided to form alliances with these tribes. By the time Cortes reached Montezuma, he decided that the only way to get what he wanted was to capture the Aztec ruler.
Cortes used Montezuma as his puppet and managed to swindle gold and treasure from the Aztecs. Eventually, the Aztec people revolted against the Spanish and their weak leader. Montezuma's people threw rocks at him that caused wounds that might have caused his death. Montezuma died in June of 1520 and only two more Aztec kings ruled after him.
Lesson Summary
All right, let's take a moment or two to review. Montezuma II was the ninth king of the Aztec Empire who ruled from 1502 to 1520. During that time, he maintained the aqueducts, or large pipes that brought fresh water into the city. He increased taxes on his people and demanded more human tributes, which are generally considered to be payment from the conquered people, to be sacrificed to the gods. Many tribes conquered by the Aztecs disliked Montezuma and formed an alliance with Hernan Cortes and the Spanish conquistadors. Cortes captured Montezuma and ruled the Aztecs through him. Montezuma died in 1520 after his people threw rocks and stones at him.
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By: Patrick J. Kiger
The Civil War was a conflict many years in the making.
In the wake of the Mexican War, tensions developed between the North and South over whether the western land gained by the U.S. should become free or slave territory. Things came to a head when California sought approval to enter the Union as a free state in 1849, which would have upset the balance struck by the Missouri Compromise several decades before. Senator Henry Clay, a Whig from Kentucky, proposed a package of legislation to resolve the disputes, but the Senate—after seven months of discussions—rejected his proposal.
Senator Stephen A. Douglas, a Democrat from Illinois, came up with an alternative proposal that admitted California, established Utah and New Mexico as territories that could decide for themselves whether to permit slavery, defined boundaries for the state of Texas, abolished the slave trade in the District of Columbia, and obligated the entire country to cooperate in the capture and return of escaped slaves. But the deal only postponed the conflict.
“They didn’t really compromise,” says Michael Green, an Associate Professor of History at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas and author of several books on the Civil War era, including Politics and America in Crisis: The Coming of the Civil War and Lincoln and the Election of 1860. “They just agreed to disagree.”
An existing federal law, enacted by Congress in 1793, allowed local governments to seize and return escaped slaves to their owners, and imposed penalties upon anyone who aided their flight. But the new version included in the Compromise of 1850 went much further, by compelling citizens to assist in capturing escapees, denying the captives the right to a jury trial, and increasing the penalty for anyone aiding their escape. It also put cases in the hands of federal commissioners who got $10 if a fugitive was returned, but only $5 if an alleged slave was determined to be a free Black.
Northern abolitionists rebelled against the law. After 50,000 anti-slavery protesters filled the streets of Boston to protest the arrest of a Black man named Anthony Burns in 1854, President Franklin Pierce sent federal troops to maintain order and provided a Navy ship to return Burns back to Virginia.
“Northerners who had questioned slavery said, ‘We told you so,’ and those who hadn’t thought to themselves, ‘This is going too far,’” says Green. “It’s a radicalizing moment.” As a result, Massachusetts and other free states began passing “personal liberty” laws, which made it difficult and costly for enslavers to prove their cases in court.
In 1851, author Harriet Beecher Stowe, who was still grieving the loss of her 18-month-old son Samuel to cholera two years earlier, wrote to the publisher of a Washington, D.C.-based abolitionist newspaper, National Era, and offered to write a fictional serial about the cruelty of slavery. Stowe later explained that losing her child helped her to understand “what a poor slave mother may feel when her child is ripped away from her,” according to Stowe biographer Katie Griffiths.
Stowe’s story, published in 41 installments, boosted the paper’s circulation, and a Boston publisher decided to release it as a two-volume novel. Uncle Tom’s Cabin: Or, Life Among the Lowly sold 300,000 copies in its first year, and the vociferous public debate about the book exacerbated the differences between the North and South. Northerners were shocked by the brutal depiction of slavery, which Stowe had synthesized from published autobiographies of slaves and stories she had heard from friends and fugitive Blacks. In turn, “Southerners react noisily to it,” Green explains. “They’re saying, ‘This is terrible. You’re attacking us. You’re all against us.’” When Stowe visited the White House in 1862, President Lincoln asked, “So this is the little lady who made this big war?”
In 1854, Senator Douglas, the author of the Compromise of 1850, introduced another piece of legislation “to organize the Territory of Nebraska,” an area that covered not just that present-day state but also Kansas, as well as Montana and the Dakotas, according to the U.S. Senate’s history of the law. Douglas was promoting a transcontinental railroad that would pass through Chicago in his home state. But the envisioned northern route had to pass through the Nebraska territory, a place where slavery was prohibited by the 1820 Missouri Compromise. Rivals, including slave owners, wanted a southern route.
To get what he wanted, Douglas offered a compromise, which would allow settlers in those territories to decide whether to legalize slavery. Massachusetts Senator Charles Sumner, an opponent of slavery, attacked the proposal for creating “a dreary region of despotism.” Nevertheless it was passed by Congress, with cataclysmic results.
“It re-opened that land to the expansion of slavery, and destroyed a long-established political compromise on the issue of slavery in the West,” Phillips says. Pro-slavery and antislavery activists surged into the territories in an effort to sway the vote, and clashed violently in a conflict that became known as “Bleeding Kansas,” which foreshadowed the Civil War.
One of those who went to Kansas was a radical abolitionist and religious zealot named John Brown, who had worked as a conductor on the Underground Railroad and founded an organization that helped slaves escape to Canada. Brown moved to Kansas Territory, where in May 1856, he was angered by the destruction of a newspaper office and other property in Lawrence, Kansas by pro-slavery forces. Brown decided retaliation was in order.
At a spot near a crossing on Pottawatomie Creek in Franklin, Kansas, Brown, four of his sons and several others lured five proslavery men out of their houses with a promise that they would not be harmed, and then slashed and stabbed them with a saber and shot them in the head, according to a contemporary account of the attack. Brown’s brutality was denounced by Southern newspapers and by some Northern ones as well, and it “aroused emotions and distrust on both sides,” as an article from the Kansas Historical Society notes. The fighting in Kansas continued for another two years.
Dred Scott, an enslaved man, was born in Virginia and later lived in Alabama and Missouri. In 1831, his original enslaver died, and he was purchased by a U.S. Army surgeon named John Emerson. Emerson took him to the free state of Illinois and also Wisconsin, a territory where slavery was illegal due to the Missouri Compromise. During that time, Scott married and he and his wife had four children. In 1843, Emerson died, and several years after that, Scott and his wife sued Emerson’s widow in federal court for their freedom on the grounds that they had lived in free territory.
Scott, who was assisted financially by the family of his original owner, endured years of litigation until the case reached the U.S. Supreme Court. In an 1857 decision written by Chief Justice Roger Taney, the court decided that Scott was not entitled to U.S. citizenship and the protection of law, no matter where he had lived. In the court’s view, the Constitution’s framers had not intended for Black people to be free, but instead viewed them as property, with “no rights which the white man was bound to respect.” The ruling made further political compromise too difficult.
Brown dreamed of carrying out an even bigger attack, one that would ignite a mass uprising of Southern enslaved people. On a night in October 1859, he and a band of 22 men launched a raid on Harpers Ferry, a town in what is now West Virginia, and captured some prominent local citizens and seized the federal arsenal there. His small force soon was counterattacked by local militia, forcing him to seek refuge. The following afternoon, U.S. Marines under the command of then-Col. Robert E. Lee arrived and stormed the arsenal, killing many of Brown’s men and capturing him. Brown was tried and charged with treason, murder and slave insurrection, and sentenced to death. He was hanged in December 1859. While the attack failed to trigger the widespread revolt he envisioned, it drove the North and South even further apart.
“Northern abolitionists who preferred pacificism praised Brown as a martyr to the cause of freedom and even helped to finance his attack,” Phillips explains. “Southerners expected more acts of terrorism and prepared by bolstering their militias.” In many respects, Brown’s raid could be viewed as the first battle of the Civil War, he says.
Abraham Lincoln, a self-taught lawyer who had served a single term in Congress, emerged in the mid-1850s as an articulate and persuasive critic of slavery, and achieved national prominence with a series of debates against Senator Stephen Douglas in an unsuccessful campaign for Douglas’s seat. When the Republican Party held a convention to nominate a presidential candidate, the chosen location of Chicago gave Lincoln a home-court advantage over more experienced politicians such as Senator William H. Seward of New York.
“When they set up the convention floor, they put Illinois in a spot where they could get to the other delegations that were less committed,” Green says. “The New York delegation, which was supporting Seward, was put in a corner where they couldn’t get out.” That made it difficult for them to negotiate and persuade others to support their candidate. In the general election, Lincoln caught more lucky breaks. After the Democrats were unable to decide upon a candidate, southern Democrats nominated John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky, while northerners nominated Douglas. Breckenridge and Constitutional Party Candidate John Bell split the South, while Lincoln swept the northeastern and midwestern states except for Missouri (which went to Douglas), as well as Oregon and California to win the presidency despite getting just 40 percent of the vote. “For the first time, the Electoral College worked against the South,” Green explains.
The election of the first U.S. president who was a vocal opponent of slavery came as a shock to Southerners. “Now, there is going to be someone in the White House who is not going to do what the South says it wants done, reflexively,” Green explains. “Their feeling is, no matter what Lincoln says about protecting our rights, he’s not going to do that. We don’t trust him. He’s been elected by people who are out to get us.”
Less than six weeks after the election, the first secession convention met in Charleston South Carolina. About 60 percent of the 169 delegates were slave owners, and they voted unanimously to leave the Union. Local residents celebrated with bonfires, parades and the ringing of church bells. Five more states—Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia and Louisiana—soon followed. Representatives from those six states met in February 1861 to establish a unified government, which they called the Confederate States of America. Jefferson Davis of Mississippi was elected as Confederate President. Texas joined in March.
After Confederate forces attacked Fort Sumter in April and Lincoln called for federal forces to retake it, four more states—Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina and Tennessee—left the union and joined the Confederacy as well.
Though the Confederacy’s leaders didn’t realize it, they actually were hastening the end of what they sought to protect. “Had they stayed, slavery as an institution almost certainly would have survived much longer,” Green says.
Instead, a four-year, bloody war devastated much of the South, took the lives of more than 650,000 from both sides, and led to the emancipation of more than 3.9 million enslaved Black Americans, in addition to changing the nation in numerous other ways.
The American Civil War is one of the most studied and dissected events in our history—but what you don't know may surprise you.
Lincoln was so taken with the new technology—which he called 'lightning messages'—that he sometimes slept on a cot in the telegraph office during major battles.
They helped usher in a wave of important reforms.
Embalming methods emerged as a way to preserve and disinfect remains of the fallen.
Patrick J. Kiger has written for GQ, the Los Angeles Times, National Geographic, PBS NewsHour and Military History Quarterly. He's the co-author (with Martin J. Smith) of Poplorica: A Popular History of the Fads, Mavericks, Inventions, and Lore that Shaped Modern America.
We strive for accuracy and fairness. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate.
Get fascinating history stories twice a week that connect the past with today’s world, plus an in-depth exploration every Friday.
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Terms apply to American Express benefits and offers. Visit americanexpress.com to learn more.
Your Netflix® bill may have just gone up.
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At CNBC Select, our mission is to provide our readers with high-quality service journalism and comprehensive consumer advice so they can make informed decisions with their money. Every personal finance article is based on rigorous reporting by our team of expert writers and editors with extensive knowledge of personal finance products. While CNBC Select earns a commission from affiliate partners on many offers and links, we create all our content without input from our commercial team or any outside third parties, and we pride ourselves on our journalistic standards and ethics.
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Yes, it’s difficult to discover positive words that start with Y. Actually the final letters are often with limited words, especially positive ones. But still we have collected a list positive words that start with Y for you.
These positive words that start with Y, are the ideal option for expanding your vocabulary and boosting your everyday communication abilities. Positive words starting with Y quickly improve how you speak or connect with others.
These cool terms can also help you seem more educated and get better marks in school and college. You may even surprise your friends and coworkers by employing these unusual terms.
Even though few words begin with Y, you may still utilize them in essays and text messages! It all depends on how inventive you can be with these words.
Let’s begin with the list of positive words beginning with Y. Read it attentively and put it into action in your life.
You Might Also Like:
Positive Words That Start with Y to Brighten Your Mood
Life is full of troubles and issues, and nice words that start with Y can frequently assist you in breaking out of a rut. We’ll look at a list of positive words that start with Y.
1. Yummy
- Definition: have a good taste
- Synonyms: tasty, delicious, delectable
- Example: Her mother makes so yummy macrons.
2. Young-looking
- Definition: having a young look
- Synonyms: youthful, youngish, young-like
- Example: How is she still so young-looking in her mid-forties?
3. Young-at-heart
- Definition: characterized by inner youthfulness
- Synonyms: youthful, energetic, enjoyable
- Example: Mine is such a young-at-heart father.
4. Yarn
- Definition: to narrate a fanciful and fictitious event
- Synonyms: tell, share, narrate
- Example: I loved those memories when grandma used to yarn about her meeting with a fairy.
5. Yummily
- Definition: filled with pleasure
- Synonyms: beautifully, charmingly, sweetly
- Example: The baby was yummily cute.
Positive Words That Start with Y to Describe a Person
These positive words that start with Y to describe someone provide a good image of that person. Let’s start with Y and go over some of the most prevalent words used to describe someone positively.
1. Young
- Definition: being at the peak period of life
- Synonyms: adolescent, youthful, fresh
- Example: He is such a young and handsome man.
2. Yare
- Definition: full of liveliness and eagerness
- Synonyms: lively, quick, agile
- Example: She looks like a yare woman.
3. Yern
- Definition: marked by extreme will and eagerness
- Synonyms: willing, desirous, earnest
- Example: The kids were so yern to visit the park that they got convinced.
4. Youth
- Definition: people who are at a young age
- Synonyms: teenagers, youngsters
- Example: He is a motivational speaker for youth.
5. Yokozuna
- Definition: a sumo wrestler of the highest rank
- Synonyms: champion, winner, victor
- Example: He has proven himself to be a remarkable yokozuna.
Positive Words That Start with Y to Boost Positive Thinking
Whether you’ve had a setback while striving toward your goal or are just feeling down, inspiring phrases might help you remain motivated. Look at these positive words beginning with Y to help us stay optimistic.
1. Youngblood
- Definition: enthusiasm and vigor of a young man
- Synonyms: energy, enthusiasm, effort
- Example: Your venture would be successful if you put your youngblood in it.
2. Yogic
- Definition: related to a spiritual exercise yoga
- Synonyms: yoga, yogistic
- Example: You must put the yogic concentration into your work to achieve your dreams.
3. Youthful
- Definition: filled with youthfulness
- Synonyms: fresh, young, energetic, lively
- Example: Even if your body gets old, stay youthful inside.
4. Yift
- Definition: something given as a gift
- Synonyms: talent, present, blessing
- Example: Your long legs are with you as a nature’s yift.
5. Yodel
- Definition: a musical piece of tuneful words
- Synonyms: song, melody, tune, chant
- Example: It’s best to listen to your yodel occasionally.
Positive Words That Start with Y for Doing Everyday Affirmations
Positive words that start with the letter Y are listed below for use in daily affirmations. Check out our selection of inspirational words that start with Y.
1. Yearn
- Definition: to deeply wish for something
- Synonyms: long, desire, crave
- Example: I yearn for a simple but easy life.
2. Yielding
- Definition: having a trait of adaptability to changes
- Synonyms: flexible, supple, easy-going
- Example: I am yielding to things that I can’t change.
3. Yip
- Definition: to give approval and express praise
- Synonyms: cheer, applaud, hail
- Example: Yip with an open heart about others’ success.
4. Youthfulness
- Definition: the attribute of being youthful
- Synonyms: juvenility, youngness, freshness
- Example: Though we are getting old, our friendship is still in its youthfulness.
5. Yoga
- Definition: a meditative and spiritual exercise
- Synonyms: yogism, yogeeism
- Example: You should start your day with yoga to integrate your mind.
Positive Words That Start with Y to Lift Your Spirits
Words have a big influence on how you think. Words that start with Y that are positive might help you shift your attention during difficult times. Here you will find motivational words that start with Y.
1. Young-gun
- Definition: to be capable of competing with other experienced persons at a young age
- Synonyms: successful, experienced
- Example: With consistent efforts and the right knowledge, you can become a young-gun.
2. Yummilicious
- Definition: deliciously tasteful
- Synonyms: yummy, delectable, appetizing
- Example: Your victory requires a yummilicious treat.
3. Yippee
- Definition: an expression of pleasure and excitement
- Synonyms: wow, hurrah
- Example: A return ticket to Peru, yippee.
4. Yearning
- Definition: an eager and passionate desire
- Synonyms: longing, craving, desire
- Example: Your yearning would itself pave the way.
5. Youngster
- Definition: a young girl or boy
- Synonyms: child, teen, adolescent
- Example: The life of a youngster is full of energy and hopes for the future.
Positive Words That Start with Y – Full List (86 Words)
We looked at a number of positive words in this article. The list includes all positive words beginning with the letter Y. This is a complete list of positive words that start with Y that can be found on the internet.
- Yummy
- Young-looking
- Young-at-heart
- Young
- Yare
- Yern
- Youth
- Youngblood
- Yogic
- Youthful
- Yearn
- Yielding
- Yip
- Young-gun
- Yummilicious
- Yippee
- Yarn
- Yummily
- Yift
- Yokozuna
- Yodel
- Youthfulness
- Yoga
- Yearning
- Youngster
- Yow
- Yuppie
- Yahweh
- Yawling
- Yacht
- Yock
- Yuk
- Yolo
- Yolk
- Younker
- Youthward
- Year-round
- Yore
- Yoyo
- Yum
- Yummylicious
- Yang
- Yam
- Yule
- Yellowing
- Youthfully
- Yen
- Yawp
- Yeastian
- Yogurt
- Youngling
- Yorker
- Yay
- Yield
- You
- Yummy-mummy
- Yeal
- Yellowish
- Yee-haw
- Yours
- Yonder
- Yo
- Yahoo
- Yachtsman
- Yeehaw
- Yean
- Yet
- Yeast
- Yugoslavian
- Yep
- Yearly
- Yogi
- Yankee
- Yeoman
- Yeah
- Yellow
- Year
- Yett
- Yes
- Yup
- Yell
- Yesterday
- Yard
- Young-blood
- Yemeni
- Yiddish
Final Thoughts on Positive Words That Start with Y
Thank you for visiting our collection of positive words that start with Y. We hope you find these positive words that start with Y to describe someone or something useful in your everyday life. Life is full of hardships and challenges, yet we must remain optimistic and confident.
Attitude is something you have power over, and it can significantly impact our lives. Use these positive words starting with Y to jumpstart your good feelings. Positive thinking may help us in challenging situations.
So use every opportunity to make a good difference and fill the world with pleasure. What are your favorite positive words beginning with Y?
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This story is available exclusively to Business Insider
subscribers. Become an Insider
and start reading now.Have an account? .
With a vast library of TV shows, movies, and original programming, Netflix is one of our picks for the best streaming services you can sign up for. But like its competitors, the price of Netflix varies depending on which subscription tier and features you choose.
Netflix pricing previously started at $7 a month, but a January 2025 Netflix price hike brought starting prices up to $8 a month. Standard and Premium subscription prices also increased to $18 a month and $25 a month, respectively. Netflix's 2023 crackdown on password sharing introduced the service's Extra Member option, which allows subscribers to enable access to one or two members who live outside of their household for an additional monthly fee.
To help you decide which Netflix plan is right for you, we've put together a guide detailing how much Netflix charges for each of its membership tiers, along with details on each plan's features. If you're hoping to try something else, you can check out our guide to the best Netflix alternatives.
How much Netflix costs a month
In the US, Netflix currently offers three streaming plans: Standard with Ads, Standard, and Premium, ranging from $8 to $25 monthly.
It also costs more to add another user to a subscription plan. Standard and Premium subscriptions are the only plans that offer extra member additions. Standard allows one extra member slot for $7 (with ads) to $9 (without ads) monthly. Premium offers up to two extra member slots for $7 (with ads) to $9 (without ads) each month.
Here's a breakdown of Netflix prices for each plan.
Subscription plan
Monthly price
Extra member fees
Streaming quality
Simultaneous streams
Access to content
Download support
Standard with Ads
$7.99
N/A
Up to 1080p/Full HD
Two
Due to licensing restrictions, some titles are inaccessible
Two devices at a time
Standard
$17.99
$6.99 with ads / $8.99 without ads (up to 1 member)
Up to 1080p/Full HD
Two
Every Netflix title
Two devices at a time
Premium
$24.99
$6.99/ month with ads / $8.99/month without ads (up to 2 members)
Dave Johnson is a technology journalist who writes about consumer tech and how the industry is transforming the speculative world of science fiction into modern-day real life. Dave grew up in New Jersey before entering the Air Force to operate satellites, teach space operations, and do space launch planning. He then spent eight years as a content lead on the Windows team at Microsoft. As a photographer, Dave has photographed wolves in their natural environment; he's also a scuba instructor and co-host of several podcasts. Dave is the author of more than two dozen books and has contributed to many sites and publications including CNET, Forbes, PC World, How To Geek, and Insider.
Grace Mayer was a former Tech and Trending News Fellow with Business Insider. Before reporting for Business Insider, she was a reporting intern with The Chronicle of Higher Education, where she was awarded the 2023 David W. Miller Award for Young Journalists. She graduated from Boston College in 2022, and she studied management, marketing, and journalism.You can find her on Twitter at @GraceMayerr.
Lillian Brown is the Senior Associate Editor of Streaming at Business Insider. A lifelong entertainment and media buff, she specializes in helping you find how to watch your favorite shows, movies, and sporting events.ExperienceLillian has been writing about entertainment, sports, TV, and film for over six years, starting her career in the Living/Arts department of The Boston Globe. She went on to write entertainment features, roundups, and conduct celebrity interviews for publications like Vulture, TV Guide, Esquire, Time, and The Daily Beast before joining Business Insider as a streaming specialist on the Reviews team.In her current role, she writes about everything from finding the right VPN for watching overseas soccer games to choosing between the endless number of streaming services out there. When she’s not writing, she is editing stories from freelancers or fellow Reviews team members. Lillian is also an expert deal hunter. She loves the thrill of sharing an amazing discount with readers, whether it be on her favorite streaming services or on products she knows our team loves and recommends. She plays an active role in writing about sales and deals for the Reviews team.Why you can trust LillianWhether she’s testing streaming platform interfaces or actively comparing channel offerings between services, Lillian always has her finger on the pulse of what’s new in entertainment. She has tested nearly every streaming service and is an expert when it comes to VPNs. She is the first person to know when a streaming service has changed its price, and whether or not it’s still worth paying for. As a sports fan, she also knows exactly where the next big playoff game is streaming, what time it starts, and where they’re playing. Expertise
Streaming services
How to watch your favorite films, TV, sports
VPN services for legal streaming
Deals
Outside of workMost of the time, you can find Lillian watching a horror movie, WNBA game, or long-distance running. She is located in Boston.
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If you're thinking of a career change, learning to code can give you the skills necessary to land a rewarding tech position at a big-name company like Apple and Amazon. Knowing how to code expands your career options and can open up your prospects for remote employment, so you can work from home (or anywhere). You don't even need to leave your house to learn how to code: There are plenty of online coding courses available.
It's important to know which programming language you want to learn before you get started -- Python, JavaScript, C# or one of hundreds of others -- and it hinges on what you want to do with it, like build a website, a game or an app. We recommend starting with Python, which is frequently ranked as an in-demand and relatively easy-to-learn programming language often used in business settings. Check out our roundup of the best Python course options available now to find one that's right for you.
If you're looking to become a Python programmer from scratch, you want to start with a course that covers basic Python concepts. Then, once you've got those coding skills down, move on to course content that's more specialized and advanced. We've done the background research, looking into courses that offer a tutorial in Python code. Here are five of the best online Python course options that you can take right now, based on our findings.
Read more: Learn Cybersecurity With These 5 Online Classes
No previous coding experience is required for this Python course, making it a good choice for the absolute beginner at Python programming. Jack Donaldson is a game designer and programmer who'll teach you the basic concepts and fundamentals of the Python programming language. You'll need a laptop or desktop computer and will start by installing Python and PyCharm, an integrated development environment used to help build software applications. Both are free to download.
Donaldson first takes you through the introductory course topics, Python training basics like variables, data types, condition statements and manipulating strings and texts. He also covers more complicated advanced Python code topics like loops and functions. In his class description video, Donaldson says his Python online course relies heavily on "doing" -- expect lots of projects and walkthroughs to help you build a foundation in Python skills.
What it costs: Some online classes on Skillshare are free when you create an account, but most require a premium membership, which costs $99 annually or $19 a month. You can sign up for 14 free days of unlimited classes. The premium membership is also ad-free and lets you download classes to your mobile device and watch offline.
The Programming for Everybody: Getting Started with Python course, offered on Coursera through the University of Michigan, explores the basics of the Python programming language, writing your first program and using variables and core programming tools.
The programming foundations course is part of the five-course Python for Everybody Specialization. You can enroll in a single Python class to get started, go through Python certification, or audit the class and review the materials for free.
The Python for Everybody Specialization is considered a beginner specialization and if you subscribe to one Python course, you'll be included in the whole specialization. According to Coursera, the first two Python online training courses offer Python tutorial basics aimed at those with no programming experience.
The online Python course is free to download and requires a laptop or desktop computer to learn Python coding skills.
What it costs: Coursera operates more like a traditional online college course with enrollment windows. Sometimes the certificates you earn can apply as a credit at an institution, but it has to be stated. When you sign up for Coursera, you get a seven-day free trial and then it costs $49 a month. You can also choose to audit the class for free, which lets you read and view the Python program course content only.
This Udemy course from a professional software developer aims to provide complete coding beginners with an understanding of Python fundamentals over 363 short lectures. You'll learn Python programming skills that can be applied to specific branches like machine learning and data science as well as other programming jobs centered around Python.
The course primarily focuses on Python 3 (the latest release being version 3.8), but you'll also learn how to work with Python 2. You can view and download active Python releases on Python's main site. As you learn more about the programming language, you can read up on the changes that have been implemented in the change logs.
What it costs: Udemy's course prices are set by the individual instructors from a price tier, unless they choose to offer them for free. This course costs $110, which is steeper than most of the others listed, but it has a lot to offer -- and we've seen it on sale for as low as $25.
The Python in 90 minutes class on Skillshare is a bite-size crash course on the coding language if you're pressed for time or in need of a refresher. The instructor efficiently packs the essentials of Python into 25 lessons along with extra materials, reviews and practice sheets. This Python training course is aimed at beginners and will teach you the fundamentals. Like the others, you'll need a laptop or desktop to work on.
What it costs: Some online classes on Skillshare are free when you create an account, but most require a premium membership, which costs $99 annually or $19 a month. You can sign up for 14 free days of unlimited classes. The premium membership is also ad-free and lets you download classes to your mobile device and watch offline.
This Python course from Texas A&M University Professor John Keysor starts with the basics and the course content takes a deep dive into the Python language over 24 lessons. Each lesson is about 30 minutes and builds upon the last to show you practical applications for Python. In the course description, Keysor notes such applications coding for games and graphics, analyzing sports statistics, simulating retirement funds and basic robotics.
What it costs: The Great Courses doesn't have a flat subscription fee like Skillshare. Keysor's course costs $235 online (or $270 on DVD), though we've seen it on sale for as low as $50.
When you make a Great Courses account, you can stream the course for free with trial with The Great Courses Plus. The content can then be accessed over the iOS or Android app, or on your TV via the Roku app, Chromecast, Amazon Fire TV and Apple TV.
To learn more digital skills, check out the free classes you can take through Microsoft and LinkedIn Learning. And for more, check out five MasterClass classes to become a filmmaker and other online classes to help you learn to play guitar, learn to code and learn to draw.
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General Format
Welcome to the Purdue OWL
This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.
Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.
Please use the example at the bottom of this page to cite the Purdue OWL in APA.
You can also watch our APA vidcast series on the Purdue OWL YouTube Channel.
General APA Guidelines
Your essay should be typed and double-spaced on standard-sized paper (8.5" x 11"), with 1" margins on all sides. Include a page header (also known as the “running head”) at the top of every page. For a professional paper, this includes your paper title and the page number. For a student paper, this only includes the page number. To create a page header/running head, insert page numbers flush right. Then type "TITLE OF YOUR PAPER" in the header flush left using all capital letters. The running head is a shortened version of your paper's title and cannot exceed 50 characters including spacing and punctuation.
Font
The 7th edition of the APA Publication Manual requires that the chosen font be accessible (i.e., legible) to all readers and that it be used consistently throughout the paper. It acknowledges that many font choices are legitimate, and it advises writers to check with their publishers, instructors, or institutions for guidance in cases of uncertainty.
While the APA Manual does not specify a single font or set of fonts for professional writing, it does recommend a few fonts that are widely available. These include sans serif fonts such as 11-point Calibri, 11-point Arial, and 10-point Lucida Sans Unicode as well as serif fonts such as 12-point Times New Roman, 11-point Georgia, 10-point Computer Modern.
Major Paper Sections
Your essay should include four major sections: the Title Page, Abstract, Main Body, and References.
Title Page
Note: APA 7 provides slightly different directions for formatting the title pages of professional papers (e.g., those intended for scholarly publication) and student papers (e.g., those turned in for credit in a high school or college course).
The title page should contain the title of the paper, the author's name, and the institutional affiliation. A professional paper should also include the author note. A student paper should also include the course number and name, instructor name, and assignment due date.
Type your title in upper and lowercase letters centered in the upper half of the page. The title should be centered and written in boldface. APA recommends that your title be focused and succinct and that it should not contain abbreviations or words that serve no purpose. Your title may take up one or two lines. All text on the title page, and throughout your paper, should be double-spaced.
Beneath the title, type the author's name: first name, middle initial(s), and last name. Do not use titles (Dr.) or degrees (PhD).
Beneath the author's name, type the institutional affiliation, which should indicate the location where the author(s) conducted the research.
A professional paper should include the author note beneath the institutional affiliation, in the bottom half of the title page. This should be divided up into several paragraphs, with any paragraphs that are not relevant omitted. The first paragraph should include the author’s name, the symbol for the ORCID iD, and the URL for the ORCID iD. Any authors who do not have an ORCID iD should be omitted. The second paragraph should show any change in affiliation or any deaths of the authors. The third paragraph should include any disclosures or acknowledgements, such as study registration, open practices and data sharing, disclosure of related reports and conflicts of interest, and acknowledgement of financial support and other assistance. The fourth paragraph should include contact information for the corresponding author.
A student paper should not include an author note.
Note again that page headers/page numbers (described above for professional and student papers) also appear at the top of the title page. In other words, a professional paper's title page will include the title of the paper flush left in all capitals and the page number flush right, while a student paper will only contain the page number flush right.
Student APA title page
Professional paper APA title page
Abstract
Begin a new page. Your abstract page should already include the page header (described above). On the first line of the abstract page, center and bold the word “Abstract” (no italics, underlining, or quotation marks).
Beginning with the next line, write a concise summary of the key points of your research. (Do not indent.) Your abstract should contain at least your research topic, research questions, participants, methods, results, data analysis, and conclusions. You may also include possible implications of your research and future work you see connected with your findings. Your abstract should be a single paragraph, double-spaced. Your abstract should typically be no more than 250 words.
You may also want to list keywords from your paper in your abstract. To do this, indent as you would if you were starting a new paragraph, type Keywords: (italicized), and then list your keywords. Listing your keywords will help researchers find your work in databases.
Abstracts are common in scholarly journal articles and are not typically required for student papers unless advised by an instructor. If you are unsure whether or not your work requires an abstract, consult your instructor for further guidance.
APA Abstract Page
Please see our Sample APA Paper resource to see an example of an APA paper. You may also visit our Additional Resources page for more examples of APA papers.
How to Cite the Purdue OWL in APA
Individual Resources
The page template for the new OWL site does not include contributors' names or the page's last edited date. However, select pages still include this information.
In the absence of contributor/edit date information, treat the page as a source with a group author and use the abbreviation "n.d." for "no date":
Purdue Online Writing Lab. (n.d.). Title of resource. Purdue Online Writing Lab. http://Web address for OWL resource
Purdue Online Writing Lab. (n.d.). General Writing FAQs. Purdue Online Writing Lab. https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/general_writing_faqs.html
The generic APA citation for OWL pages, which includes author/edit date information, is this:
Contributors' names. (Last edited date). Title of resource. Site Name. http://Web address for OWL resource
Note: This page reflects the latest version of the APA Publication Manual (i.e., APA 7), which released in October 2019. The equivalent resource for the older APA 6 style can be found here.
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You have /5 articles left.
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A recent piece on Atlanta's NPR station looked at the excitement among Georgia business leaders about computer science. High school enrollments in computer science are up 50 percent since 2014. Many high schools that weren't offering computer science instruction are now doing so.
In part, the enrollment gains reflect the growth of jobs in many fields for which computer science is good training. The Georgia Department of Education says there are far more jobs requiring computer science majors (or equivalent preparation) than there are college graduates with appropriate training. Proponents of the computer science boom talk about preparing students for jobs that are as good as guaranteed.
But one factor in the boom is of concern to some educators. In 2015, the Georgia Board of Regents amended the admissions requirements for the University System of Georgia. Until then, students needed to have completed two years of the same foreign language, while in high school, to apply for admission to the university system. The requirement remains, but in 2015, the board said that computer science could count as a foreign language.
The change makes sense to many computer science instructors in Georgia. Michael Reilly, a teacher quoted by WABE, the NPR station, said the change is all about jobs, and providing education students are sure to use. "Kids were required to take two years, at least, of foreign language that, frankly, most people don’t use after they’re done," he said.
The shift in Georgia comes at a time when many foreign language programs in higher education have been the target of budget cuts and enrollments are dropping -- even as college leaders talk about the importance of a global perspective.
In 2015, the Modern Language Association released the latest of its periodic examinations of foreign language enrollments. Enrollment in foreign language courses decreased 6.7 percent over all since 2009, after increasing steadily since 1995. Enrollments in all major European languages (including Spanish, which has led in enrollments) were down.
Paula Krebs, executive director of the MLA, said that "coding skills are incredibly valuable for students, perhaps especially for humanities majors, but computer science learning is not equivalent to language learning, nor should it be a substitute." She said that the value of foreign language is not just about learning a vocabulary, but about culture and context that cannot be gained through computer science, however valuable that may be in its own right.
Krebs said that people should consider a comment made over the summer by Simon Gikandi, an MLA vice president who is Robert Schirmer Professor of English at Princeton University. Said Gikandi, "When I ask Google to translate 'Call an ambulance' into Swahili, it suggests 'beat up the vehicle that carries sick people.'"
"Code gives you Google Translate, but only cultural context will get you the ambulance," Krebs said.
The American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages has a page of its website devoted to arguing against the idea of viewing computer coding or science as equivalent to a foreign language. "Computer coding cannot be used to investigate, explain and reflect on the relationship between the products, practices and perspectives of a particular culture through the language. Languages provide an historical connection to society and culture and have been around for centuries, gathering the elements of culture, preserving stories and being used for human communication," says one argument on the page.
Rick Clark, director of undergraduate admission at Georgia Institute of Technology, said he saw value in the steps by Georgia to encourage more study of computer science in elementary and secondary school.
"I like that kids, even in eighth and ninth grade, who are planning their path through school would take these courses, because basic coding and language will set them up for opportunities upon high school graduation that they would not have otherwise," Clark said.
In fact, he said his concern is that access to computer science is unequal in Georgia high schools. Most of those who not only take a course, but are able to take Advanced Placement in computer science, are in the metro Atlanta area, Clark said. Georgia Tech is worried about these inequities and is exploring ways to use online instruction to make sure those outside the Atlanta area have access.
At the same time, Clark said, the push for computer science should not be viewed as either/or with foreign languages. He said Georgia Tech is "looking for students who demonstrate that international vision and interest," and that he finds many of those applicants who are taking AP computer science in high school are also pursuing foreign language instruction as advanced levels.
More than half of Georgia Tech students participate in study abroad, he noted, and 10 percent of undergraduates are from outside the United States. "We are intent upon enrolling students who in high school chose to seek out that global perspective," he said.
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https://www.palmbeachschools.org/Page/1298
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Language
American Sign Language
Boca Raton Community High School
9/9/2024 to 11/4/2024
Mondays 6:00 PM - 8:00 PM
This American Sign Language _ "Express yourself without saying a Word"As a result of this Course, you will be able to: Know vocabulary in Sign, Songs in Sign, Games for guest entertainment, do skits, Deaf Culture tips and will learn several signs along with fingerspelling.The book for the course is classed "The Joy of Signing" by Lottie Riekehof and can be purchased at Barnes and Nobles ($20 approx.)** Useful but not required. It will also be helpful for students to bring a loose leaf binder, pa
Beginners French Conversation
Delray Full Service Adult Education Center
9/9/2024 to 11/11/2024
Mondays 12:00 PM - 1:30 PM
A course designed to teach and practice French words and phrases for use in everyday conversation, travel and business. Lessons will include both formal and informal conversations, with an emphasis on pronunciation. Students will also be exposed to classical and contemporary cultures of various French speaking countries, including music, art, and mass media. A language comes alive when it is fun to learn. Prepare to have fun
Beginners Spanish Conversation
Delray Full Service Adult Education Center
9/11/2024 to 11/6/2024
Wednesdays 11:30 AM - 1:30 PM
During this class, you will learn basic phrases and common expressions in Spanish. The objective is for you to be able to communicate in Spanish when meeting people, asking for help, when going to a restaurant or shopping and getting around using local transportation.
Creole Conversational- Mr. Emilcar
Lake Worth Community High School
8/14/2024 to 9/25/2024
Wednesdays 6:00 PM - 8:00 PM
Creole class with Mr. Emilcar is designed to teach learners a wide variety of useful words, terms and phrases in Haitian Creole. Also, the course will be interesting and interactive in the manner in which all the participants will be able to learn the basic Creole conversational phrases through their interactions with one another.
French - Beginner's
Boca Raton Community Middle School
9/24/2024 to 11/19/2024
Tuesdays 7:00 PM - 8:30 PM
French Beginner's Course will focus on students who want to communicate in French, and develop basic speaking, reading, writing, and listening skills.
French - Intermediate
Boca Raton Community Middle School
9/25/2024 to 11/13/2024
Wednesdays 7:00 PM - 8:30 PM
French Beginner's Course will focus on students who want to communicate in French, and develop basic speaking, reading, writing, and listening skills.
French Conversational-Beginners to Low Intermediate
Lake Worth Community High School
8/14/2024 to 10/2/2024
Wednesdays 6:00 PM - 8:00 PM
French Conversational is a course for Beginner to Low Intermediate, French taught is used mainly for traveling conversations. Will introduce greetings, common expressions, common courteous, common questions that might be asked during travel. Also names of different areas you might need such as hotels, post office, train stations. You will also discuss the names of different foods and restaurants. Instructor may recommend a book for students to purchase.
French for beginners w/Leonarda
Palm Beach Central Community High Schools
9/3/2024 to 10/22/2024
Tuesdays 6:00 PM - 8:00 PM
Ready for travel and need to learn the basics. Start with this class, taught by someone who has been helping students learn for many years. This is a basic French Class that will use a functional approach to building oral proficiency. Leonarda has been teaching French and Italian for many years and is devoted to helping her students get the most out of the classes.
Italian for Beginners w/Leonarda
Palm Beach Central Community High Schools
9/5/2024 to 10/31/2024
Thursdays 6:00 PM - 8:30 PM
Italian, like any language, is largely governed by rules. The fastest way to master a language is by learning the rules. In the beginners class we'll take you step by step through all the essentials-providing you with a firm foundation for future progress. Starting with the alphabet, numbers, days of the week, months, shopping, travel, verbs, and sentences with little dialogue. The course is designed to be accessible for the absolute beginner, but even if you know quite a lot of the Italian alre
Italian Intermediate
Palm Beach Central Community High Schools
9/4/2024 to 10/23/2024
Wednesdays 6:00 PM - 8:30 PM
This course is a continuation for anyone who has taken a beginning Italian course and feel ready to move on to the next level. Leonarda will be teaching this class along with her beginners class on Thursdays.
Advanced Japanese
Forest Hill Community High School
9/17/2024 to 12/3/2024
Tuesdays 6:00 PM - 8:30 PM
This course is to continue to build oral proficiency by expanding your knowledge of vocabulary and grammar.
Spanish - Beginner's
Boca Raton Community Middle School
9/24/2024 to 11/19/2024
Tuesdays 5:30 PM - 7:00 PM
This is a level one class designed for real beginners. It is aimed towards basic conversational Spanish. It includes a number of 8 verb tenses at least, a vocabulary of about 400 words and the correct word-order for sentences in different verb tenses. We also cover a number of short stories which increase vocabulary and help to face daily situations in real Spanish.
Spanish - Beginners -Mr. Perez
Lake Worth Community High School
8/14/2024 to 10/2/2024
Wednesdays 5:00 PM - 6:15 PM
Spanish for beginners is an 8 week class focusing on conversational instruction. Building # 14 is on the front of the parking lot, left side on the second floor room 14-209
Spanish - Intermediate - Mr. Perez
Lake Worth Community High School
8/14/2024 to 10/2/2024
Wednesdays 6:30 PM - 8:15 PM
An 8 week class focusing on advanced conversational instruction. Report to building # 14 2nd. floor room 14-209Building 14 is facing the Main Parking Lot on your left side.
Spanish for Beginners w/Virginia
Palm Beach Central Community High Schools
9/4/2024 to 10/23/2024
Wednesdays 6:00 PM - 7:30 PM
Spanish taught by a seasoned teacher! This introductory course is intended for people with no previous or little knowledge of Spanish. It provides the students with basic skills to communicate in the target language. The course emphasizes oral communication in a variety of topics at a basic level.
Spanish I - Beginners
Atlantic Community High School
8/27/2024 to 10/15/2024
Tuesdays 6:00 PM - 8:00 PM
Students will learn the basics of the Spanish language. Bring notebook, pen/pencil to class.
Spanish- Intermediate
Boca Raton Community Middle School
9/24/2024 to 11/19/2024
Tuesdays 7:00 PM - 8:30 PM
This is a second level course which makes students develop longer sentences and consequently a more fluent conversation and dialogues. You should be able to use the 8 verb forms seen in the previous basic course and add at least 4 more new verb tenses and a number of about 700 words. This is a practical Spanish level, it insists on the correct word order and the usage of common daily questions and answers. It also includes a number of short stories at a higher level to force students to converse
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Enroll in a Spanish beginners course at the local community college
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https://www.yourdictionary.com/articles/adverb-examples
|
Picture a man walking. Now picture him walking happily after receiving good news. Wait — he’s walking angrily after receiving very bad news. Or, he’s walking awkwardly in shoes that don’t quite fit. Why are all of these scenes so different when the verb, walking, is the same? It’s all thanks to adverbs, which add a little life to basic sentences.
What Is an Adverb?
Adverbs are one of the main parts of speech, along with nouns, adjectives, and verbs. An adverb tells you more about a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. While many adverbs end in -ly, they’re not all so easy to spot.
There are five main kinds of adverbs, each answering a different question. They include:
- adverbs of manner (how something happens) - angrily, hungrily, beautifully
- adverbs of time (when does something happen) - yesterday, tomorrow, next week
- adverbs of place (where something happens) - here, there, nowhere
- adverbs of degree (how much does something happen) - almost, so, very
- adverbs of frequency (how often something happens) - always, never, often
Examples of Adverbs in a Sentence
An adverb is often one of the more descriptive words in a sentence. Once you find the adverb in a sentence, you can determine what question it’s answering.
- The dog messily ate his dinner. (How did the dog eat his dinner?)
- We go bowling quite often. (How often do you go bowling?)
- I hurriedly handed in my test. (How did you hand it?)
- Let's eat dinner outside. (Where should we eat dinner?)
- My roommate is so annoying. (How annoying is he?)
- Marcia finished the project last night. (When did she finish it?)
- She reluctantly washed the dishes. (How did she wash the dishes?)
- This car is incredibly expensive. (How expensive is it?)
What Do Adverbs Do?
Adverbs further describe the action in a sentence. But you’ll also find that they can modify adjectives or other adverbs to make a strong point even stronger.
Adverbs Modify Verbs
You’ll typically see adverbs modifying the verb in a sentence.
- The cute dog runs quickly. (How does it run?)
- My patient mother walks slowly. (How does she walk?)
- The quiet boy plays happily with trucks. (How does he play?)
Adverbs Intensify Adjectives
You can also use adverbs as intensifiers to modify adjectives.
- The extremely cute dog runs quickly. (How cute is it?)
- My very patient mother walks slowly. (How patient is she?)
- The somewhat quiet boy plays happily with trucks. (How quiet is he?)
Adverbs Intensify Other Adverbs
When adverbs act as intensifiers to other adverbs, they create an adverbial phrase (two adverbs that describe one word).
- The cute dog runs very quickly. (How quickly does he run?)
- My patient mother walks so slowly. (How slowly does she walk?)
- The quiet boy plays rather happily in the corner. (How happily does he play?)
What Are Conjunctive Adverbs?
Many consider conjunctive adverbs (such as also, besides, meanwhile, however, etc.) to be another type of adverb. Conjunctive adverbs function like conjunctions to join two sentences or concepts.
- I just wanted to say hello. Also, I forgot to thank you for your gift.
- The villain cackled at his evil plan. Meanwhile, the superhero protected the streets.
Conjunctive adverbs can come at the beginning of a clause (Unfortunately, we were too late), the middle of a clause (We were unfortunately too late), or at the end of a clause (We were too late, unfortunately.)
Common Errors With Adverbs and Adjectives
Since adverbs and adjectives both modify other words, people often mistakenly use an adjective when they should use an adverb and vice versa.
But adjectives can only modify nouns, so they’re not interchangeable with adverbs — even if the words are similar.
Using “Good” and “Well”
Aren’t good and well both adjectives? Not exactly. Good is an adjective, and well is an adverb. Use good to modify nouns and well to modify verbs.
- Incorrect - You paint good. (The adjective good can’t modify the verb paint)
- Correct - You paint well. (The adverb well can modify the verb paint)
The only time you can use well as an adjective is to describe someone’s health (“I hope you get well soon”). You’d never use good as an adverb.
Using “Bad” and “Badly”
Another commonly confused word pair is using the adjective bad and the adverb badly as synonyms.
Bad is an adjective, while badly is its adverb form.
- Incorrect - He behaved very bad on the field trip. (The adjective bad can’t modify the verb behaved)
- Correct - He behaved very badly on the field trip. (The adverb badly can modify the verb behaved)
Adverbs follow action verbs, not linking verbs (such as feel, is, seems, or becomes). In the sentence “I feel bad,” the adjective bad is a subject complement to show that you have a negative emotion.
If you say “I feel badly,” feel is an action verb, not a linking verb, and badly is modifying it. So you’re saying that you’re bad at feeling (possibly with your hands), not that you have a negative emotion.
Should You Use Adverbs?
Now that you know all about adverbs, you may be surprised to hear that most writing advice says the same thing: Avoid them. But why should you avoid these cool descriptive words?
It’s true that using adverbs can strengthen your writing — but only if you use them sparingly. Adding adverbs to descriptive verbs can make your writing redundant.
For example, in the sentence “She laughed happily,” you don’t need the adverb happily. The verb laughed already shows the emotion. However, if you want to say “She laughed wickedly,” the adverb wickedly adds a completely different meaning to laughed, so keep it in.
More Adverb Practice
If you'd like to test your adverb knowledge, these challenge opportunities are great for a quick grammar refresher.
- Try out some printable adverb quizzes, complete with answer keys.
- You can print several adverb worksheets for elementary and middle school.
- Use these interactive adverb games to reinforce an adverbs lesson in the classroom.
- If you're ready for more of an adverbs challenge, try out some worksheets on conjunctive adverbs that link independent clauses.
- Ready to put your parts of speech together? Test yourself with these diagramming sentences worksheets.
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https://www.grammarly.com/blog/apa-title-page/
|
An APA format title page is the first page of a paper that gives the title, author’s name, author’s affiliations (school or institution), and other information helpful for organizing and introducing the paper. When you’re writing papers in the APA format, a title page is required.
The APA format places particular emphasis on the title page and even includes different rules for students and professionals. In this guide, we explain how to write an APA format title page and what to include in it. We’ll also share an APA format title page example for both student and professional papers.
What is an APA format title page?
An APA format title page is the first page of a paper that includes essential information like the title, name(s) of the paper’s author(s), and the affiliation of each author—typically their school or institution. The title page acts as an introduction to the paper and presents all the essential information in an easy-to-find location, making it easier for someone (like your professor) to organize multiple papers at once.
Papers written in the APA format require a title page, although what you need to include is different depending on whether you are a student or professional.
What are the 7 required items for an APA title page?
For students writing in the APA format, the title page needs to include seven parts, each in their required location:
1 Page number
The page number goes in the upper-right corner of the title page, as part of the running head. This should be flush right with the page margin (1 inch). Because the title page comes first, this page number is always 1.
2 Title
The first line of text on the title page is, appropriately, the title. It follows these formatting guidelines:
- The text is bold.
- The title is centered.
- The title follows standard rules for capitalization in titles.
- It’s written three or four lines down from the top-page margin.
There’s no need to change the font or even the text size for the title; you can use whatever size and font you use in the rest of your paper.
3 Byline
Next comes the author’s name, or byline. If there is more than one author, the formatting rules change slightly, so pay extra attention to these guidelines:
- Add one empty, double-spaced line between the title and the byline.
- Names are written in standard font (no bold or italics).
- Names are centered.
- If there are two authors, separate their names with the word and.
- If there are three or more authors, separate their names with commas and the word and before the final name.
- For multiple authors, organize their names by their contribution to the paper, not alphabetically.
- For names with suffixes, include a space before the suffix but not a comma (e.g., Robert Downey Jr.).
- Place all names on the same line if possible.
4 Affiliation (school or institution)
After the byline comes the affiliation. This usually refers to the school the author attends, but it can also refer to a nonacademic institution like a hospital or an independent laboratory. If the author has no affiliation, write their location, including a city and country.
For one author, the affiliation goes on the line directly below their name. If the author has more than one affiliation, place the second affiliation on the line below the first.
For two or more authors with the same affiliation, simply place the affiliation on the line below the byline. You need to mention it only once.
For multiple authors with different affiliations, include superscript numbers (like you do with footnotes) after each name. On the lines below the byline, place one affiliation per line, starting with the corresponding superscript number (again, just like footnotes).
Affiliations also include the name of any department or division, if applicable. Write the department or division first, followed by a comma, and then write the school or institution name. If multiple authors are affiliated with the same school but are associated with different departments, you still need to write different affiliation lines, one for each department.
5 Course name
The course name is placed on the line below the affiliation. Include the course code if available.
6 Instructor
On the line below the course name, write the name of the course instructor. Use their complete name, including honorific titles like “Dr.”
7 Due date
Last, the due date of the assignment goes on the line below the instructor. It’s best if the date is written out in full. For example, spell out the month’s name instead of using abbreviations or numbers (it’s OK to use numbers for the days though).
Student vs. professional APA format title page
The seven parts of a title page above apply to student papers, but what about professional papers?
The formatting for professional title pages is largely the same: The paper title, author name(s), and affiliations are all written following the rules above. However, there are some major differences:
- Professional papers do not require the course name, instructor, or due date on the title page.
- Professional papers use an advanced running head that includes a shortened form or summary of the title. This shortened title is written in all caps and oriented flush left at the margin (the page number is still flush right).
- The title page of professional papers includes an author note, which provides additional commentary about the authors that is relevant to the paper. Author notes typically entail an ORCID iD, disclosures, or acknowledgments, as well as a note mentioning any change in affiliation after the paper was written.
APA format title page examples
Student APA format title page example
1
Milgrim Experiments Revisited: Authority’s Influence in Modern Times
Stanley Milgrim Jr. and Thomas Blass Jr.
Department of Psychology, Yale University
PSYC 140: Social Science Core
Dr. Steve Chang
May 10, 2023
Professional APA format title page example
SOCIAL MEDIA AND SOCIAL ANXIETY 1
Antisocial Media: Social Media’s Link to Social Anxiety
Mike Kluckenberg1, Erin Mosk2, and Zhang Ming3, 4
1Department of Psychology, University of Silicon Valley
2Department of Psychology, Texas Tech University
3Center for Human Growth and Development, University of Michigan
4Department of Psychology, Yale University
Author Note
Mike Kluckenberg: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5689-3874
Erin Mosk is now at the Busines, Computing and Social Sciences Division, University of San Francisco.
We have no known conflict of interest to disclose.
Title page vs. cover page: What’s the difference?
The terms title page and cover page have different meanings in print media and the publishing industry. However, in the APA format, they mean the same thing: A cover page is just an alternative name for the title page.
APA format title page FAQs
What is a title page?
A title page is the first page of a paper that displays basic information like the author’s names, paper title, and the school or institution the authors are affiliated with.
What are the 7 required items for an APA title page?
For student papers written in APA format, the title page needs to include (1) the page number in the upper-right corner, as part of the running head, (2) the paper’s title, (3) the author’s name, (4) the author’s affiliation (school or institution), (5) the course name, (6) the course instructor, (7) the due date.
What is the difference between a title page and a cover page?
Title pages and cover pages have different meanings in print media and the publishing industry. However, when it comes to writing a paper in APA format, the title page and cover page are the same thing.
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https://byjus.com/maths/roman-numerals/
|
Roman Numerals is a special kind of numerical notation that was earlier used by the Romans. The Roman numeral is an additive and subtractive system in which letters are used to denote certain base numbers and arbitrary numbers in the number system. An example of a roman numeral is XLVII which is equivalent to 47 in numeric form. Roman numerals are denoted using a different combination of symbols, that include the English alphabet. For example, 5 in roman numeral is denoted by V. It has wide applications in naming anything such as Class I, Class II, Class X, etc.
Let us learn roman numerals in detail in this article.
| Table of Contents: |
What are Roman Numerals?
Roman numerals is an ancient number system that is still used in many places. In roman numerals, alphabets are used to represent the fixed positive numbers. These roman numerals are I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, and X represent 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 respectively.
After 10, the roman numerals are followed by XI for 11, XII for 12, XII for 13, … till XX for 20. The most common roman numerals that are presently used to represent the basic numbers are given in the table below.
| I | V | X | L | C | D | M |
| 1 | 5 | 10 | 50 | 100 | 500 | 1000 |
Roman Numerals Chart (1 to 1000)
Below is the chart for roman numerals that shows the roman numerals from 1 to 1000 such as for 1, 2, 3, …, 10, 11, 20, 30, 50, 100, 500 and 1000. Using the chart, we can easily write roman numbers from 1 to 1000.
Students can download the pdf of the roman numerals chart for free from the link given below.
Roman Numerals Chart – Download PDF |
Roman Numerals 1 to 100
Following is the list of Roman numerals or Roman numbers from 1 to 100. There are certain rules to write the roman letters from 1 to 100, which are explained here.
| Number | Roman
Numeral |
Number | Roman
Numeral |
Number | Roman
Numeral |
Number | Roman
Numeral |
Number | Roman
Numeral |
| 1 | I | 21 | XXI | 41 | XLI | 61 | LXI | 81 | LXXXI |
| 2 | II | 22 | XXII | 42 | XLII | 62 | LXII | 82 | LXXXII |
| 3 | III | 23 | XXIII | 43 | XLIII | 63 | LXIII | 83 | LXXXIII |
| 4 | IV | 24 | XXIV | 44 | XLIV | 64 | LXIV | 84 | LXXXIV |
| 5 | V | 25 | XXV | 45 | XLV | 65 | LXV | 85 | LXXXV |
| 6 | VI | 26 | XXVI | 46 | XLVI | 66 | LXVI | 86 | LXXXVI |
| 7 | VII | 27 | XXVII | 47 | XLVII | 67 | LXVII | 87 | LXXXVII |
| 8 | VIII | 28 | XXVIII | 48 | XLVIII | 68 | LXVIII | 88 | LXXXVIII |
| 9 | IX | 29 | XXIX | 49 | XLIX | 69 | LXIX | 89 | LXXXIX |
| 10 | X | 30 | XXX | 50 | L | 70 | LXX | 90 | XC |
| 11 | XI | 31 | XXXI | 51 | LI | 71 | LXXI | 91 | XCI |
| 12 | XII | 32 | XXXII | 52 | LII | 72 | LXXII | 92 | XCII |
| 13 | XIII | 33 | XXXIII | 53 | LIII | 73 | LXXIII | 93 | XCIII |
| 14 | XIV | 34 | XXXIV | 54 | LIV | 74 | LXXIV | 94 | XCIV |
| 15 | XV | 35 | XXXV | 55 | LV | 75 | LXXV | 95 | XCV |
| 16 | XVI | 36 | XXXVI | 56 | LVI | 76 | LXXVI | 96 | XCVI |
| 17 | XVII | 37 | XXXVII | 57 | LVII | 77 | LXXVII | 97 | XCVII |
| 18 | XVIII | 38 | XXXVIII | 58 | LVIII | 78 | LXXVIII | 98 | XCVIII |
| 19 | XIX | 39 | XXXIX | 59 | LIX | 79 | LXXIX | 99 | XCIX |
| 20 | XX | 40 | XL | 60 | LX | 80 | LXXX | 100 | C |
Students can download the pdf of roman numerals from 1 to 100 for free from the link given below.
Roman Numerals 1 to 100 – Download PDF |
Roman Numerals 100 to 1000
After practising the above list, you will be able to find the list of roman numerals from 100 to 1000 as well.
| Number | Roman Numerals | Evaluation |
| 100 | C | 100 |
| 200 | CC | 100 + 100 |
| 300 | CCC | 100 + 100 + 100 |
| 400 | CD | 500 – 100 |
| 500 | D | 500 |
| 600 | DC | 500 + 100 |
| 700 | DCC | 500 + 100 + 100 |
| 800 | DCCC | 500 + 100 + 100 + 100 |
| 900 | CM | 1000 – 100 |
| 1000 | M | 1000 |
From the above table, we can see how the roman numerals have been calculated and expressed alphabetically.
Roman Letters
The roman letters are English alphabets but not all the alphabets are roman alphabets. There are 23 roman alphabets out of 26 English alphabets, in which J, U and W are not considered as roman alphabets. Hence, the roman alphabets are:
A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, V, X, Y and Z. These roman letters are also called roman symbols.
For example, the year 2019 is written as MMXIX.
Rules to Write Roman Numerals
There are certain rules to be followed if we have to represent a number in roman numerals form. Please check the rules listed below.
- The value of the symbol is added to itself, as many times as it is repeated. (Eg. II – 2, XX – 20 and XXX – 30).
- A symbol can be repeated only for three times, for example XXX = 30, CC = 200, etc.
- Symbols V, L, and D are never repeated.
- When a symbol of smaller value appears after a symbol of greater value, its values will be added. For Example- VI = V + I = 5 + 1 = 6.
- When a symbol of a smaller value appears before a greater value symbol, it will be subtracted. For Example- IX = X – I = 10 – 1 = 9.
- The symbols V, L, and D are never subtracted, as they are not written before a greater value symbol.
- The symbol I can be subtracted from V and X only and symbol X can be subtracted from symbols L, M and C only.
Converting Roman Numerals to Numbers
Rule 1: If one or more symbols are placed after another letter of greater value, add that amount.
- VII = 7 (5 + 2 = 7)
- LXXX = 80 (50 + 10 + 10 + 10 = 80)
- MCCC = 1300 (1000+100 + 100 + 100 = 1300)
Rule 2: If a symbol is placed before another letter of greater value, subtract that amount.
- CM = 900 (1000 – 100 = 900)
- IX = 9 ( 10 – 1 = 9 )
- XC = 90 (100 – 10 = 90)
Rule 3: 1000 is replaced by a bar in the case of roman numerals
| 5000 | 10,000 | 50,000 | 100,000 | 500,000 | 1,000000 |
\(\begin{array}{l}\bar{V}\end{array} \) |
\(\begin{array}{l}\bar{X}\end{array} \) |
\(\begin{array}{l}\bar{L}\end{array} \) |
\(\begin{array}{l}\bar{C}\end{array} \) |
\(\begin{array}{l}\bar{D}\end{array} \) |
\(\begin{array}{l}\bar{M}\end{array} \) |
Subtractive Rule of Roman Numerals
| Write | Instead of | For the value of |
| IV | IIII | 4 |
| IX | VIIII | 9 |
| XL | XXXX | 40 |
| XC | LXXXX | 90 |
| CD | CCCC | 400 |
| CM | DCCCC | 900 |
Video Lesson on Roman Numerals
Related Articles
Solved Examples on Roman Numerals
Example 1:
Write 69 in roman numerals.
Solution:
69 = 60 + 9
= (50 + 10) + (10 – 1)
= LX + IX
= LXIX
Thus, 69 = LXIX.
Example 2:
Convert 1984 into the roman numeral.
Solution:
Break the number 1984 into 1000, 900, 80 and 4, then perform each conversion
As, 1000 + 900 + 80 + 4 = 1984
- 1000 = M
- 900 = CM
- 80 = LXXX
- 4 = IV
1000 + 900 + 80 + 4 = 1984,
So, 1984 = MCMLXXXIV
Example 3:
Convert 1774 to Roman Numerals.
Solution:
Break 1774 into 1000, 700, 70, 4 and then do each conversion
1000 = M
700 = DCC
70 = LXX
4 = IV
1000+700+70+4 = 1774,
Hence, 1774 = MDCCLXXIV
Example 4:
Compute the following roman numeral MXXII – LXX – LII.
Solution:
Given: MXXII – LXX – LII.
We know that MXXII = 1022, LXX = 70 and LII = 52.
Now, substituting these numbers in the Roman numeral letters, we get;
MXXII – LXX – LII = 1022 – 70 – 52.
MXXII – LXX – LII = 900.
Hence, the number 900 in the Roman numeral is CM.
Practice Questions on Roman Numerals
- What is 500 in roman numeral form?
- Convert 1009 into a roman numeral.
- Convert CXII into the number form.
- What is 11 in roman numerals?
- Write 6 in roman numeral
- Write 12 in roman numerals
- What is the number form of the Roman numeral CMXXIII?
Frequently Asked Questions on Roman Numerals
How do we write 100 in roman?
Write roman numerals from 1 to 10.
1 – I
2 – II
3 – III
4 – IV
5 – V
6 – VI
7 – VII
8 – VIII
9 – IX
10 – X
How do we write 200 in Roman?
How do you write roman numbers?
I – 1
V – 5
X – 10
L – 50
C – 100
D – 500
M – 1000
Using these alphabets, we can write all the roman numbers.
What does the roman number XC equal to?
How do you evaluate 800 in roman numeral?
500 = D and 100 = C
Therefore,
800 = DCCC
What is the use of roman numerals?
For example, Sam came Ist in class.
Prince Charles III
Schools have Class 1st to Class Xth.
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https://www.monroecc.edu/depts/foreign/spanish/
|
Spanish
¡Hola!
Did you know:
- Approximately 350 million people in 21 countries speak Spanish.
- Spanish is the second most used language in international communication.
- The Hispanic population in the USA has grown by 60% in just one decade!
Spanish/Foreign Language Courses
|
SPA 101--Elementary Spanish I
3 Credits Designed for students with no previous experience in the language. Focuses on communicative skills of listening comprehension, speaking, reading, and writing. Includes high frequency vocabulary, basic constructions, common phrases, and cultural aspects. Also stresses student participation in skills development. SPA 111 is strongly recommended for improving comprehension and oral fluency especially for students transferring to a four-year institution.
Course Learning Outcomes Intersession 2026 Spring Semester 2026 |
|
SPA 102--Elementary Spanish II
3 Credits Continuation of SPA 101 with emphasis on basic language skills for communication and on cultural aspects to promote understanding and appreciation of Hispanic cultures. A companion course, SPA 112, is strongly recommended for improving comprehension and oral fluency, especially for students transferring to a four-year institution. Prerequisite: SPA 101 or successful completion of the New York State regents exam, the equivalent or permission of the instructor. Memory and length of time since last studied are factors in successful placement. Course Learning Outcomes Intersession 2026 Spring Semester 2026 |
|
SPA 111--Elementary Spanish Conversation I
2 Credits This is an introductory level one conversation course designed for those who wish to focus on learning comprehension and conversational skills. Spoken Spanish used in context by a variety of native speakers will provide comprehension practice. Using video, music and songs, audio cassettes and CD-ROM, as well as Internet, students will hear and use authentic language structures used in simple forms of Spanish for communication. Students will be evaluated on the linguistic achievement, their aural comprehension and conversational competence at this introductory level. Prerequisite(s): SPA 101 taken concurrently; one year of language study or permission of instructor. Course Learning Outcomes Intersession 2026 Spring Semester 2026 |
|
SPA 112--Elementary Spanish Conversation II
2 Credits This is an introductory level two conversation course designed for those who wish to focus on learning comprehension and conversational skills. Spoken Spanish used in context by a variety of native speakers will provide comprehension practice. using video, music and songs, audio cassettes and CD-ROM, as well as Internet, students will hear and use authentic language structures used in simple forms of Spanish for communication. Students will be evaluated on their linguistic achievement and performance, their level of aural comprehension and conversational competence at this introductory level. Prerequisite(s): SPA 102 taken concurrently, one to two years of previous language study or permission of instructor. Course Learning Outcomes Intersession 2026 Spring Semester 2026 |
|
SPA 141--Spanish for the Health Professions
3 Credits This course is designed for those in the health professions who wish to acquire the basic tools for effective communication with the Hispanic client. The language is taught in the context of specific situations with extensive practice and a minimal amount of grammar. The course also contains an important cultural component that will allow the student to gain a greater knowledge and understanding of Hispanics, and thus to create a better, safer, and productive environment.
Course Learning Outcomes Intersession 2026 Spring Semester 2026 |
|
SPA 203--Intermediate Spanish I
3 Credits Continued study in Spanish for those with a firm foundation in elementary Spanish communication, written and oral. Grammar and vocabulary are continued at a higher level. Cultural topics are included in the study of grammar and structure. A companion course, SPA 213, is strongly recommended for improving comprehension and oral fluency, especially for students transferring to four-year institutions. Memory and length of time since last studied are factors in successful placement. Prerequisite(s): SPA 102, or successful completion of high school Spanish 4, the equivalent, or permission of the instructor. Course Learning Outcomes Intersession 2026 Spring Semester 2026 |
|
SPA 204--Intermediate Spanish II
3 Credits Continuation of SPA 203 with an emphasis on the development of linguistic skills and cultural understanding for students with some competency in the language. A companion course, SPA 214, is strongly recommended for improving oral fluency, especially for students transferring to four-year institutions. Memory and length of time since last studied are factors in successful placement. Prerequisite(s): SPA 203, or excellence in high school Spanish 5, the equivalent, or permission of the instructor. Course Learning Outcomes Intersession 2026 Spring Semester 2026 |
|
SPA 213--Intermediate Spanish Conversation I
2 Credits A communicative approach to develop comprehension of the spoken language and ability to communicate with native speakers at the beginning intermediate level. Spanish spoken by native speakers from Spain and Latin America will be used to train students for real life communication appropriate for social and career related situations. To develop linguistic skills, intensive training in comprehension and communication will be enhanced by the use of video and audio materials, and interactive websites. Language structures will be practiced in context using related text materials and culture, as well as topics of interest such as current events. Students will be evaluated on their linguistic achievement and performance, their level of aural comprehension and conversational competence at this intermediate level of communication. Prerequisite(s): SPA 203 taken concurrently, or successful completion of high school Spanish 4, the equivalent, or permission of the instructor. Course Learning Outcomes Intersession 2026 Spring Semester 2026 |
|
SPA 214--Intermediate Spanish Conversation II
2 Credits A communicative approach to develop comprehension of the spoken language and ability to communicate with native speakers at the beginning intermediate level. Spanish spoken by native speakers from Spain and Latin America will be used to train students for real life communication appropriate for social and career related situations. To develop linguistic skills, intensive training in comprehension and communication will be enhanced by the use of video and audio materials, and interactive websites. Language structures will be practiced in context using related text materials and culture, as well as topics of interest such as current events. Students will be evaluated on their linguistic achievement and performance, their level of aural comprehension and conversational competence at this intermediate level of communication. Prerequisite(s): SPA 204 taken concurrently, or successful completion of high school Spanish 5, the equivalent, or permission of the instructor. Course Learning Outcomes Intersession 2026 Spring Semester 2026 |
|
SPA 221--Hispanic Culture On Location
3 Credits This course is designed to provide the opportunity to see and experience the richness of a Spanish speaking country through the unique experience of travel. The core part of this course will be a stay in the country, with visits to the main cities and cultural centers. Class meetings prior to the trip will focus on topics that will help the student to prepare for the experience, and meetings after the trip will provide a time for debriefing, reporting, evaluation and assimilation. The student is expected to complete ten tasks during his/her stay, make an oral presentation, and prepare a portfolio of the trip. This portfolio can be a personal journal, photo display, video recording, or a combination thereof.
Course Learning Outcomes Intersession 2026 Spring Semester 2026 |
| 8,096
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Enroll in a Spanish beginners course at the local community college
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4ceee19578d4
|
https://koa.com/blog/summer-bucket-list/
|
Remember summer? That warm time when the world was your oyster, and anything and everything seemed possible? For some, summer may seem like a distant memory, buried underneath the piles of snow and layers of coats you are still wearing. However, the truth is that summer is near, so take a moment to celebrate.
In just a matter of time, you will be throwing your sweaters into storage, saying “goodbye” to winter, and giving summer a huge, warm welcome. Unfortunately, the last little bit of winter is typically the worst. The snow no longer provides that new, fresh exciting feeling that it did before the holidays. You watched every new show on Netflix, and you are just so sick of being cold.
In order to push through these last weeks of winter and set your sights on the warm weather ahead, put together a summer adventure bucket list of camping experiences you want to have this year. Getting a jump start on this is a good idea. Summer is the busiest time of year for camping, and things are guaranteed to be packed and booked far in advance.
What should you put on a bucket list for summer? Fun ideas for a summer bucket list can include fun new places, exciting new adventures or simple moments shared with family. Keep in mind that not every list item has to involve an extreme experience. Your list should help you find joy in the small things and keep your mind open to new adventures.
Summer Bucket List Ideas
A bucket list is a very personal thing because we all have different hopes, dreams, desires and ideas of what constitutes an adventure. Consider the following things for a summer bucket list to start planning your own summer list:
1. Visit the Ocean
Visit the ocean for a day full of sand and sunshine. Enter a sandcastle building contest, search for seashells or re-awaken your inner child and fly a kite. Relax under a beach umbrella and enjoy the sound of crashing waves and a delightful sea breeze.
2. Go for a Swim
Swim in a lake, an ocean, a river or a pool. Relish the embrace of nice, cool water on a hot day. Enjoy a relaxing float or splash around with your kids. Swimming is a fun way to get some exercise this summer, so take advantage of the water around you.
3. Gaze at the Stars
Sleep under the stars and experience the awe-inspiring view they have to offer. Aim to find a spot far away from any city lights where you can get the full experience of the stars. Make it extra fun and try to identify all of the constellations. If possible, plan this bucket list item for a time when a meteor shower is happening.
4. Try Whitewater Rafting
If you are looking for an experience to remember and want to overcome some fears, try whitewater rafting. With tons of wonderful places to experience whitewater rafting across the country, choose a fun destination and book your trip early in advance. Adrenaline seekers will be hopping on these raft trips soon.
5. Take a Road Trip
Take a weekend road trip somewhere new. Plan a stress-free road trip to a nearby location for just a couple of days that will give you some fantastic new experiences. You can also opt to take a longer road trip and see more places on your summer bucket list.
6. Barbecue Some New Recipes
Learn to barbecue something new. Step away from your usual go-to recipes and barbecue a unique meal. Step outside your comfort zone this summer and try your hand at a new dish on the ‘barbie.
7. Splash at a Waterpark
Head to a waterpark for a day of fun. Whether you have a waterpark in your hometown or need to take a road trip to reach one, make the waterpark experience a must for this summer. Just be sure to remember your sunscreen!
8. Take a Family Photo
Take a new family photo. Since we live in a world full of selfies, make it a point to get your entire family together this summer for a quality family photo. Whether you use the self-timer function on your own camera or hire a professional photographer, take a photo that you can hang at home and smile at every time you pass.
9. Pick Your Own Fruit
Visit a farm that allows you to pick your own fruit. Whether you are in the mood for some strawberries, raspberries or cherries, find a pick-it-yourself farm where you can pick the food yourself and then enjoy the fruits of your labor.
10. Detox From Technology
Detox from technology for a few days. Say goodbye to your phone, your computer and your TV for two or three days and allow yourself to connect more deeply with yourself, your family, your friends and with nature.
11. Watch an Outdoor Movie
Watch a movie outdoors and enjoy being under the stars while you enjoy some delicious popcorn. If your town has an outdoor cinema, or if you can DIY an outdoor movie theater, this is an incredibly fun thing to do during the summer. Bonus points for bringing along some fabulous snacks.
12. Attend a Festival
Attend a fun festival this summer. Towns and cities across the United States have a variety of unique festivals — from wine festivals to fruit festivals and all of the music festivals in between. Visit a town you have never been to and celebrate with the community. Shop at craft booths, try local and seasonal food and learn about the town’s history. Find a music festival featuring your favorite musicians, or attend a small music festival to discover some new music.
13. Enjoy a Cozy Campfire
Spend time with friends and family around a warm campfire. Use your skills to build a safe campfire and try some fun new s’mores recipes. Get creative with various chocolate bars and mix and match ingredients to create delicious s’mores.
Tell ghost stories around the campfire with friends or family to heighten the fun. Print out some online stories, pick some spooky short stories from a book, prepare your own tale or improvise as you go. If you camp with small children, tell some goofy ghost stories that will make them giggle. You can also take turns sharing family memories as a way to bond around the campfire. No matter what you talk about, campfires have a way of bringing people together.
14. Ride a Roller Coaster
Enjoy the classic thrill of a roller coaster this summer. Face your fear of heights and find a mild roller coaster or chase an adrenaline rush on a tall coaster. If you seek the highest thrills, visit Cedar Point amusement park in Ohio to ride one of the world’s tallest roller coasters. You can also make your way to Six Flags Great Adventure Park in New Jersey to ride the fastest roller coaster in the United States. Remember to eat some amusement park treats before you leave.
15. Enjoy Some Ice Cream
Whether you enjoy a tall waffle cone, a strawberry sundae or a big banana split, make sure you indulge in some delicious ice cream before summer ends. Take the family to a Wisconsin creamery or enjoy your favorite flavor on the boardwalk at your favorite beach. No matter where you camp in the United States, there is sure to be some ice cream nearby.
16. Hike a New Trail
Explore a new area by hiking nearby trails. Take in the scenery, enjoy the peace in nature and get some exercise. Take your children along on an easy hike to look for flowers, bugs and wildlife or try a more challenging hike with friends.
17. Explore a National Park
Tent camp in or near a national park. National parks across the United States offer so much to explore and discover. From adventurous hikes to breathtaking views, national parks are great summer destinations. Visit your favorite national park this summer or check out a park that you have never been to before.
18. Read a New Book
Whether you read a suspenseful thriller around the campfire or an inspiring memoir on the beach, use your free time to practice some self-care and get into a great book. Finding time to read can be difficult with busy work schedules and family obligations, but camping is the perfect opportunity to enjoy some reading time.
19. Learn Something New
Learn something new this summer. Visit a museum, aquarium, art gallery or science center. The whole family can enjoy learning new things about history, art, science or biology. Learn about world history or discover some interesting facts about your vacation destination at a local museum. Visit an aquarium to learn about sea animals or stop at a wildlife sanctuary to find out about local wildlife. Or choose a unique lodging option to experience something you haven’t before firsthand.
20. Go Kayaking
If you want to explore the water without the thrills of whitewater rafting, rent a kayak and explore the water at your own pace. Enjoy the fun and serenity of floating and paddling on a peaceful lake. You might even find some fish swimming underneath.
And this is just the beginning!
There are endless fun things to do this summer, and they do not have to be huge experiences. Even small moments shared with friends and family can make this summer one you will never forget. Thrilling adventures are fun and memorable, but enjoying the basics of summer can be just as meaningful.
You may find yourself pleasantly surprised by how much happiness something as simple as eating the raspberries you picked yourself can bring you, or how simply exchanging family stories around the campfire can add so much joy to your life.
So grab yourself a notebook and start planning. With your own bucket list in hand, this summer is sure to be the best summer yet.
Enjoy Your Summer Bucket List Adventures With Kampgrounds of America
Wherever your summer bucket list takes you, trust KOA to provide you with a comfortable place to stay. With over 500 locations across North America, KOA Campgrounds are near many destinations, hiking trails, lakes, rivers, beaches, state parks and more.
At KOA, you can enjoy a variety of camping and lodging options, amenities, fun activities and food options. Book a stay at a KOA location near your desired destination today.
Leslie, a.k.a. Copy Girl, is a copywriter who gets butterflies from telling stories through words.
Her voice comes from a place filled with passion, dreams, and lots of sugar. “Cake over steak” is her go-to motto.
With over 10 years of experience in crafting words, and years of embarking on travels that have taken this Montana girl to some incredible places, Leslie love the adventures of both body and mind her writing takes her on.
Everywhere she goes, she takes this advice with her:
“Hold on to your divine blush, your innate rosy magic, or end up brown.” – Tom Robbins, Jitterbug Perfume
To see what Leslie’s up to in the writing world, visit her website here.
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https://sunshinegreenhouse.com/blogs/sunshine-greenhouse-kit-blog/is-gardening-a-science-or-an-art
|
Our backyards, balconies, and windowsills are rooted in a world beyond the neat rows of ceramic pots and the tidy flower beds you brag about to the neighbors. This thriving kingdom of flora is an oasis for the mind and soul, bustling with life, texture, and color at every turn. It is a corner of magic where creativity sprouts, happiness blossoms, and wisdom trickles down like raindrops, nurturing the seeds of curiosity deep within. As your hands plunge into the rich soil, you can't help but wonder whether the harmonious dance of cultivating a thriving garden is the masterful artistry of a mysterious alchemist or the precise craft of an empirical scientist. So, fellow green-thumbed explorers, join me on this journey to unearth the roots of this age-old debate—could the essence of gardening lie in the vibrant strokes of an artist's brush or within the measured boundaries of a scientist's test tube?
Blending art and science in gardening
Gardening is a unique blend of art and science, harmoniously merging plant cultivation's aesthetic and practical aspects. The artistic side of gardening allows creativity in designing visually pleasing gardens that evoke emotions. At the same time, the scientific aspect focuses on understanding the biology of plants, soil composition, and climate conditions to ensure optimal growth.
A skillful gardener adeptly integrates both art and science, creating a harmonious and functional outdoor space. This holistic approach results in flourishing plants, enhanced well-being for the gardener, and a positive impact on the surrounding environment.
Horticulture as a science
Horticulture is widely recognized as both a science and an art. As a science, horticulture involves the study of plant cultivation, propagation, and growth, as well as using scientific principles in plant breeding, nutrition, and pest management. Horticulturists rely heavily on research, experimentation, and applying scientific principles to cultivate various plant species successfully.
Furthermore, horticulture encompasses various specialized fields, such as floriculture, pomology, and olericulture. These fields apply scientific knowledge to the cultivation of specific types of plants, such as flowers, fruits, and vegetables. As a result, horticulturists play a vital role in developing new plant varieties, improving crop yield and quality, and maintaining healthy ecosystems.
Horticulture as an art
Horticulture is often regarded as a unique blend of art and science. As an art form, it focuses on the aesthetic aspects of plant cultivation, such as the arrangement of flowers and the design of landscaping elements. Horticulturists use their creativity and vision to create visually appealing gardens, flowerbeds, and landscapes that complement various architectural styles and natural environments.
In addition to its artistic components, horticulture also requires a thorough understanding of the scientific aspects of plant growth and development. This includes knowledge of plant biology, soil management, and principles of botany, which are crucial to the successful cultivation and maintenance of diverse plant species.
Principles and techniques of cultivation
Gardening can be considered both a science and an art, as it requires knowledge and creativity to cultivate plants effectively. The science aspect focuses on understanding the principles that govern plant growth, including soil composition, sunlight exposure, and water requirements. On the other hand, gardening involves combining these scientific principles with visual harmony and design to create aesthetically pleasing landscapes or fruitful gardens.
In practice, skilled gardeners artfully arrange plants visually appealingly while employing scientific techniques to ensure optimal growth. Consequently, gardening may be seen as an intricate combination of science and art, where each element contributes to the successful cultivation and aesthetic arrangement of various plant species.
Local adaptations in gardening
Gardening is a unique blend of art and science that requires creativity and technical knowledge. As an art form, it involves the harmonious arrangement of plants, considering their colors, textures, and forms. This creative process allows gardeners to design and maintain visually captivating spaces that evoke emotions and enhance the aesthetics of their surroundings.
On the other hand, gardening also involves a scientific approach, requiring knowledge of plant physiology, chemistry, and ecology. Gardeners must consider soil composition, climate, and plant requirements to cultivate their desired plants successfully. Moreover, they often adapt their gardening practices to local conditions, using their understanding of environmental factors and regional plant varieties. In this way, the science of gardening allows for innovative and sustainable practices to thrive alongside its artistic aspects.
History of garden development
The history of garden development can be traced back to ancient civilizations, where wealthy citizens created gardens for aesthetic purposes. Examples include the 16th-century BC ancient Egyptian gardens and the influential Persian gardens, extending their influence to Greece and Rome. As civilizations evolved, so did horticultural traditions, leading to distinct garden styles such as the Italian Renaissance and European formal gardens.
In recent times, garden and landscape design has emerged as a unique field that merges art and science, addressing aesthetic values and practical concerns. This evolution of garden development reflects cultural philosophies and attitudes towards the relationship between humans and nature, resulting in various garden styles catering to various functions and preferences.
Gardening in modern times
In contemporary times, gardening has evolved into a perfect blend of art and science. This fascinating discipline allows individuals to express their creativity and aesthetic sense while utilizing their knowledge of various plants, soil types, and cultivation techniques. As a form of art, gardening enables people to design spaces that showcase their unique interpretation of beauty, creating a harmonious environment that brings joy to visitors and the gardener.
On the other hand, gardening is undoubtedly a science that requires a deep understanding of diverse plant species, their growth patterns, and optimal environmental conditions. Moreover, it involves the application of various horticultural practices, such as pruning and grafting, which demand technical expertise. The fusion of artistic expression and scientific knowledge makes gardening a captivating discipline that transcends the boundaries of categorization as solely art or science.
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90754d86c2a6
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https://www.signupgenius.com/home/ideas-summer-bucket-list.cfm
|
40 Ideas for Your Summer Bucket List
Summer has arrived, and with it come those lazy mornings, schedule-free afternoons, and spontaneous evenings. But the lack of structure can leave some families scratching their heads trying to figure out how to fill the long stretches of time ahead of them. Dreaming up a bucket list can be a great way to inspire plans that you can all look forward to this summer.
When brainstorming bucket list ideas, it’s important to let every member of the family have some say-so, even young children. It can be a lot of fun to write your ideas on popsicle sticks and place them in a jar. Throughout the summer, when you have some spare time, draw a stick and start the activity suggested.
If some of your ideas require more planning, put them on the calendar and keep that time sacred. A bucket list is more than just a way to fill the time during the summer, it’s a way to make lasting memories as a family that your children will cherish forever.
Get Started With These Ideas
- Create a Summer Playlist - As a family, create a playlist to stream throughout the summer. Keep updating your list with new songs and rank your favorites at the end of the season.
- Schedule a Lunch Date - Arrange a date and time to take your kids to see where mom or dad work, then go to lunch at one of their favorite spots.
- Enjoy Summer Reading - Get the whole family excited about summer reading! Decide on a challenge you can all participate in such as reading books from different authors and genres.
- Give Back to the Community - Getting your children involved with volunteering can be a great way to make some memories and change lives. Find a local charity or take part in a neighborhood improvement day to show your kids what it means to give back to their community.
- Enjoy a Pool Day - Whether you're sliding down a water slide, playing Marco Polo or lounging on a pool float, taking a swim together needs to be part of every family's summer. If you don't have a neighborhood pool, check your local parks and recreation department's web site to find public pools.
- Try a New Sport - Step out of your comfort zone and experiment with a new activity. Arrange a family tennis lesson or try a sport like pickleball or beach volleyball.
- Run a Lemonade Stand with a Twist - Give kids a chance to grow their entrepreneurial skills for a good cause! Set up a lemonade stand and donate the sale proceeds to charity. Let kids pick a cause they would like to support. Genius Tip: Use an online sign up to plan a lemonade stand fundraiser.
- Screen Free Day - Turn off your home's digital devices and turn on the world around your family. It's likely you will hear some complaining, but you will see your kids' creativity emerge and they will forget about their beloved screen time (at least for a while).
- Beat the Heat with a Matinee - Some days, it’s just too hot to be outside. Cool off with an afternoon matinee at your local movie theater. Often, theaters will have special child-friendly showings during summer days where you don’t have to be as concerned about keeping children quiet throughout the film.
Roam in Your Own Backyard
- Water Balloon Fight - Every family needs to experience a water balloon fight together, so on a hot summer's day let them fly! Invite your neighbors over if you want an all-out war.
- Watermelon Seed Spitting Contest - Liven up an afternoon with some friendly competition. Challenge your kids to see who can aim at a target or spit the farthest.
- Paint with Your Feet - A big roll of white paper, non-toxic paints and your kids' feet are all you will need for this fun outdoor art project. Your children will love getting messy and creative all at the same time. Make sure to wash your little artists off with a hose before they go indoors.
- Watch for Shooting Stars - On a cool summer night, spread out a few blankets in the backyard. Have everyone bring a pillow and be on the lookout for shooting stars. Print out a few star maps to find constellations in the sky or download an app.
- Backyard Olympics - Create the ultimate summer competition with favorite games like corn hole, ring toss, badminton and even an obstacle course. Divide your group up into teams or play as individuals, and crank up fun tunes to add to the merriment. Give out prizes to the winners and celebrate with a cookout.
- Bonfire and S'mores - One of the best summertime desserts is made by roasting marshmallows over an open fire. Add a piece of chocolate and graham crackers for a gooey treat, or step up your s'mores game with raspberries and Nutella. Create some yummy memories by making these after dark and telling ghost stories.
- Catch Fireflies After Dark - Most of us have fond childhood memories of catching fireflies on a warm summer's night. Give your kids those same experiences. Your children can use their hands, a net or a jar to catch and then release them.
Get Outside
- Venture to the Great Outdoors - Visit a state park, nature preserve or other local spot that's free and beautiful. Research online to find an outside destination your family has never experienced.
- Jump in a Lake - Cool off on a sweltering hot summer day by jumping in a freshwater lake. Research canoe and kayak rentals or try out stand up paddle boarding if you have adventurous older kids. Bring floats for everyone to help avoid too many steps on the bottom of the lake, which can be slimy.
- Go Camping - It's a classic summer activity, plus it's fun, cheap and an adventure to sleep under the stars. Research the best site depending on your children's ages. Older kids can handle roughing it better than young children, who are better off staying at a site with bathroom facilities.
- Hike to a Waterfall - Go online to research waterfalls in your region. Plan a day trip and bring along a picnic with plenty of water for hydration. Just make sure to put safety first — getting the perfect picture isn't worth an accident.
- Try Skipping Stones - A flowing creek is a great place to spend a few hours. Search for flat stones to skip across the water. Research local wildlife before your visit, and try to identify creatures such as birds, minnows, and frogs.
- Go on a Boat Ride - There is something magical about cruising on a boat with the wind blowing in your hair. Find a boat ride that would appeal to everyone in your family. A speedboat or sailboat can thrill if you have older kids, while younger kids may prefer a pontoon or paddle boat.
- Hunt for Bugs - Grab a clipboard, a piece of paper and a marker, then head outdoors to discover some creepy crawlers. A magnifying glass and a plastic jar could be fun, too. Encourage your kids to list or draw every bug they see. For an added twist, count all the ants they find.
- Start a Rock Collection - Encourage your kids to pick up a few rocks wherever your family ventures this summer whether it's a park, the beach or your local playground. After you return home, your mini-scientists can identify or paint them for a fun art project.
- Watch the Sunset - Seek a high vantage point, make the trek to your chosen spot and spread out a blanket to watch the sun slip below the horizon. Pack a picnic with drinks and snacks to enjoy with the view.
Plan Away from Home Adventures
- Take an Overnight Escape - You may be surprised by how many fun locales are within a short drive from your hometown. Research family-friendly places within a few hours and plan a getaway for a night or two. Add a fun twist like keeping the destination a secret and sharing clues with your kids.
- Plan a Beach Scavenger Hunt - Go to the beach with a bucket in hand and a list of seashells and other items for your little ones to find on the sand. Ideas include a seashell shaped like an animal, seashell in your favorite color, piece of coral, and feather. After you return home, you can place items in a jar or use the seashells for craft projects.
- Visit Family - Summer is a great time for your kids to connect with their grandparents or cousins. Help plan a day or a weekend of fun activities to encourage family bonding.
- Discover Local History - Research historical sites in your hometown or local region to find a destination for your family. Your kids can gain a new perspective on a familiar place and find out that summer learning is lots of fun!
Be a Foodie
- Eat Breakfast for Dinner - Surprise the kids with stacks of pancakes for dinner. Enlist their help to mix in their favorite ingredients such as chocolate chips or blueberries.
- Make Homemade Salsa - Take a family trip to the local farmer's market and pick up tomatoes, cilantro and green chilies. Depending on their ages, your kids can help chop, blend and taste test this yummy and healthy snack.
- Make Homemade Ice Cream - You can find many recipes online for making your own ice cream at home. Some recipes require an ice cream maker, but it's not a necessity to whip up tasty frozen treats.
- Have a Picnic - You've just got to put this classic summer activity on the list. Eating with ants and bugs is a part of the adventure — just shoo them away! Plan a homemade feast or get your favorite takeout and bring it along.
- Make Homemade Popsicles - Enlist your kids to participate in this fun activity. Dixie cups, fruit juices and wooden popsicles sticks are the main items needed to make this refreshing summer treat.
- Host a Summer Dessert Bake-off - Let contestants tap into their sweet tooth. Pick a theme, such as using ingredients from a summertime farmer's market. They are packed with fresh peaches, berries and plums. Have a blind taste test by several people who aren't the bakers.
Explore and Entertain
- Plan an Outdoor Movie Night - Borrow a video projector to show a family-friendly movie in your yard or a community space. Invite friends and neighbors to join in the fun. Genius Tip: Plan a neighborhood potluck with an online sign up.
- Go to a Summer Festival - Check out festivals featuring music, art and other themes happening all summer long. Choose one that interests your family and make a day of it. If it's a craft festival, give the kids a little spending money.
- Host a Fourth of July Cookout - Think burgers, hot dogs and ribs. Chips, potato salad and watermelon are good for sides. Invite friends and family to your bash. Don't forget the festive decorations and fireworks if your state permits. Genius Tip: Get inspiration with these 30 ideas to plan a great July 4th cookout.
- Attend a County Fair - Carnival rides, corn dogs and cotton candy are just part of the fun at a local county fair. Games, contests and animal petting can be found at many as well.
- Try New Hobbies - Whether it's fishing, water aerobics or shell art, try some fun new activities this season. Let kids think of ideas for the whole family to try!
Checking items off your family's bucket list will create some lasting memories that are sure to make this a fun summer tradition.
Sara Kendall is a freelance writer and mom of two daughters.
Additional Resources
100 Summer Craft Ideas for Kids
20 Outdoor Games for Your Backyard Party
60 Summer Outdoor Activities for Kids
50 Fun Outdoor Activities for Families
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Make this the best summer ever with these fun summer bucket list ideas. There are tons of fun ideas to add to your summer bucket list and free printable summer bucket list you can print and create with your own summer ideas!
Fun Summer Bucket List Activity
One of our annual family traditions is making a summer bucket list of things we want to do during the summer. We typically get something fun for dinner and sit down and write down everything the kids want to do and experience during the summer.
We’ve been doing this for years and every year we add some new bucket list ideas and bring back a bunch of the old ones! Ours includes things specific to Kansas City and our local area and a bunch of generic ones – that’s the best part of it, you can make it your own!
And I’ve made two free printable summer bucket lists you can use to get started! Once you’ve read through the list of summer ideas, make sure to keep reading to see how you can make your own!
Summer Bucket List Ideas
Everyone’s bucket list can be a little different, but these summer bucket list ideas should hopefully be enough to get you started with creating your own summer checklist! There are tons of fun things to choose from!
- Go on a bike ride
- Build a fort
- Do a cartwheel
- Roll down a hill. Even better if you do it with new friends!
- Bury your toes in the sand (preferably somewhere like Daytona Beach).
- Spend a day reading. You could use these fun reading activities to make a whole day out of it!
- Fly a kite
- Build a sandcastle or an entire kingdom of sandcastles
- Go to a drive-in movie theater
- Eat a hot dog straight from the grill
- Have a water fight
- Play one of these outdoor water games or one of these water balloon games (I recommend the ultimate water balloon game)
- Have a watermelon seed spitting contest
- Have a family board game tournament
- Go to a carnival
- Listen to an outdoor concert
- Go to a water park and try out a new water slide on a hot day
- Do a cannonball
- Play in the sprinklers
- Watch a fireworks show
- Sit in a hammock
- Buy something at a garage sale (aka a yard sale)
- Create your own lemonade stand (guests will love this strawberry lemonade).
- Eat a snow cone
- Go to some sort of festival
- Watch an outdoor movie
- Make root beer floats or Shirley temple floats
- Watch a movie on the big screen or if your bank account allows, rent an inflatable movie screen! Or go to a free outdoor movie!
- Go to a local farmer’s market (it’s a great time to try out some fresh fruit)
- Get a temporary tattoo
- Make homemade popsicles like these ocean blue ones with gummy sharks inside
- Watch early morning cartoons
- Snuggle in bed during a summer thunderstorm
- Have an indoor campout or if the weather cooperates, go camping and play these camping games
- Play kickball, even better if it’s slip n slide kickball!
- Swim in a lake
- Get books to read at the local library. You could even do a book club! Or a book retreat!
- Make homemade pizza
- Catch fireflies
- Watch a sunset
- Go on a picnic and do a picnic scavenger hunt
- Go on a road trip (and take these roadtrip games with you!)
- Learn something new
- Make something explode
- Go to an amusement park
- Dance it out
- Eat a funnel cake
- Volunteer somewhere like a local charity or do random acts of kindness at home
- Paint something. You could even have an entire painting party.
- Make one of these easy summer crafts – there are tons of summer craft projects to choose from like painting ladybugs.
- Jump in puddles
- Make and play a backyard game
- Eat breakfast for dinner. These egg muffins or mini pancakes are always great!
- Go on a staycation
- Collect seashells
- Go ice blocking
- Stay up past midnight
- Pick berries (then use them for this strawberry poke cake!)
- Eat ice cream before it melts
- Make s’mores or s’mores bars if you don’t have access to a fire. Don’t forget the graham crackers!
- Have a water balloon fight
- Play beach ball volleyball
- Plant flowers
- Eat corn on the cob
- Travel somewhere you’ve never been
- Go to a local museum
- Find a dinosaur (maybe on this dinosaur hunt)
- Spend a day barefoot
- Lay on grass and look at the stars
- Drink ice cold lemonade
- Have a family slumber party (this is one of my favorite things)
- Swing on the swings
- Go to a baseball game
- Do a flip a coin day where the coin determines where you go
- Send a postcard
- Go to a fair
- Go to summer camp or use these summer camp themes to have camp at home!
- Go hiking, even better if it’s a new trail
- Run a race
- Take summer pictures
- Make homemade ice cream
- Relax in a lazy river
- Ride a roller coaster
- Order pizza at the pool (or make a summer charcuterie board, still at the pool)
- Go fishing
- Play frisbee
- Drink a tropical drink
- Go to a splash pad
- Sleep in
- Take sunflower selfies
- Float in a pool (then play one of these fun pool games)
- Wave a flag
- Try 12 flavors of ice cream! You could do something homemade like this birthday cake ice cream or try out all new local places!
- Have a backyard BBQ
- Go see a show. Or you could even do a movie marathon at home or an outdoor movie night!
- Find a double rainbow
- Play until the daylight is gone
- Play hopscotch outside
- Celebrate Christmas in July (I recommend these Christmas games!)
- Make something tie-dye
- Eat fresh pineapple (or turn it into pineapple bread)
- Read a book by the pool, even if it’s just an inflatable pool in your backyard
- Do a service project or random acts of kindness
- Send letters to friends
- Go geocaching
- Blow bubbles
- Explore the great outdoors
- Make paper airplanes and have a flying competition
- Create a time capsule
- Create pictures out of sidewalk chalk
- Try new foods to see which one’s the best
- Paint a rock collection
- Go to a science center or just do a science experiment at home
- Eat something from a food truck (I love food trucks!)
- Go to a zoo or wildlife sanctuary to see animals you’ve never seen before
- Pick out new places to try each week (so skip the nearby park and try out a new one instead)
- Visit a National or State Park
- Stay up late playing night games like Ghosts in the Graveyard or Flashlight Tag
- Make up silly skits and perform them for friends
Make Your Own Summer Bucket List
You can make your summer bucket list however you want – just write it out on a piece of paper, make one with post-it notes, or even do something like my boredom buster jar where you put things in a jar and pick them out as you go! If you want something more structured, I’ve created two different printables you can use to get started.
Printable Summer Bucket List
I’ve created a summer bucket list you can use to get started with that has all sorts of fun summer ideas like playing water games to catching fireflies. There’s a filled out version of this bucket list AND a blank one you can use to create your own.
Summer Bucket List You Can Color
Or if you want a blank slate, I’ve also created a blank black and white summer bucket list that’s designed to be used as a summer activity – print it out as a large engineering print (at any local office store), color it in, and decorate! Make it yours, whatever that looks like to you. This is the one my kids created for us this year – you can see the size of it in the pictures at the bottom of this post!
I gave them crayons and a couple of sets of summer stickers to let them decorate, and it was maybe the most fun we’ve ever had making our family bucket list!
What is a bucket list?
If you’ve never made a bucket list before, they’re so much fun because they’re all about what YOU want to do!
A lot of people have bucket lists full of items they want to do sometime in their life. Maybe a travel bucket list of places they want to travel or a seasonal bucket list (like this Christmas bucket list or this fall bucket list) of things they want to do during a specific season. It’s basically a list of things you want to accomplish within a set amount of time.
Summer Bucket List FAQs
What should I put on my summer bucket list?
Fill your summer bucket list with fun activities and ideas that you and your family personally want to do. Add things you can only do during the summer like going to a waterpark and things that are better in the summer because of the water like sleeping under the stars in a sleeping bag.
Or just add things to the list that you want to do while you have some free time like a treasure hunt, making an obstacle course, and going for a boat ride!
How many things should I put on my bucket list?
The number of items that goes on your bucket list is up to you, who is doing the bucket list with you, how long you have to do the things on your bucket list, and how long each of the items on your bucket list takes. Reading a new book or going on a day trip for instance take more time than riding a ferris wheel or visiting local parks.
For a summer bucket list where you only have a couple of months to complete it, I recommend a list of around 25 items. This is about two a week assuming you’re working on your bucket list for all of June, July, and August.
Download the Summer Bucket Lists
Enter your first name and email address in the form below to get the printable free download PDF. You will receive a link to download the PDF to your email within minutes. Print on card stock and you’re on your way.
If you can’t see the form below, click here to get to the form to enter your info. If you’d prefer to not provide your email address, you can get a copy in my shop here.
You’ll receive a copy to your email shortly after that includes a 4-page PDF:
- The regular summer bucket list
- The blank summer bucket list (small one)
- The black and white color it in bucket list
More Fun Summer Ideas
If you need some more fun things to do this summer, try out these fun activities!
- Summer bingo – free printable summer themed bingo game, great for any summer party!
- Outdoor games – the best collection of backyard games, yard games, and outdoor games!
- Summer party ideas – tons of great ideas to beat the heat while entertaining this summer!
- Summer chore chart – printable chore charts for the summer that includes chores and reward ideas!
- Games with balls – fun games to play with balls, perfect for outdoor fun this summer!
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There are a handful of nuisances that come with grocery shopping: crowded parking lots, wandering the aisles to find the items you need, maybe flagging down an employee if you need help, and long checkout lines. If you dread the task because of these inconveniences, you may be the perfect candidate for grocery delivery. That way, you can keep your house stocked up without stepping foot outside. After all, it's time and energy saved for other things.
Our Picks
Of course, you'll have to pay delivery fees, but sometimes the convenience is well worth the extra few dollars. Plus, with a grocery delivery service, you can search for exactly what you need from the comfort of your own home. Many services also tie up with neighborhood markets, allowing you to support local businesses while avoiding the shopping trip.
To find the best grocery delivery service, I tested a flurry of popular options such as Amazon Fresh, Gopuff, Instacart and Walmart+ as well as some smaller upstarts such as Misfits Market and Hungryroot to see which operations excelled with variety, quality brands, fair prices, and easy and timely delivery.
If it's just fruits and veggies you're after, these are the best places to get produce delivered, but to knock out the entire list (or most of it) in one place, these are the best online grocery delivery services of 2026.
Best grocery delivery services in 2026
Pros
- Good selection of fresh and shelf-stable groceries
- Competitive prices
- Free delivery for Prime members
Cons
- There were some grocery items we couldn't find
- Shipping fees for non-Prime members
Amazon Fresh has a massive selection of groceries at low prices to choose from and speedy delivery for Prime Members. You'll find just about anything you'd see at your local supermarket. Because Amazon owns Whole Foods you'll also have access to that store's proprietary brand, 365, which has quality goods at below-average prices. The Amazon Fresh website is well organized and the ordering platform is easy to use. You can schedule deliveries for the same day in most cases.
A few food categories are somewhat limited: I couldn't find fresh chicken thighs, for instance, which are a staple on my weekly grocery list. For seafood, there was no option for fresh shrimp, so you'd have to choose frozen. The fresh produce selection is solid, but mostly, it's just the staples you'd expect and nothing more. All the food I ordered arrived looking fresh, with no spoiled or overripe fruits and vegetables.
Amazon Fresh also offers a wealth of household products, so you can bang out most of your typical supermarket run in one delivery. In addition to delivery, Amazon Fresh offers in-store pickup for certain ZIP codes.
Pros
- Tons of discounts and deals
- Same-day delivery
- Delivery from pharmacies, pet stores and home supply stores available
- Free delivery on orders over $35
Cons
- Not as great of a selection of small, local grocery stores
- The website and app aren't the best
Target-owned Shipt is similar to Instacart, offering personal shoppers who will secure your desired list from local supermarket chains and wholesale outlets, including Target. Shipt focuses more on discount area retailers, including Costco, so you'll find plenty of deals and bulk savings.
Besides the wealth of low prices, another big draw for using Shipt is having groceries delivered same-day, sometimes as quickly as an hour. Other services require you to schedule delivery times days in advance. This is great if you're not the best at planning your weekly routine and often need groceries in a hurry.
You can also tack on far more than groceries, especially if your order is from Target. Need a pound of potatoes, a table lamp and a smartwatch? Shipt can bring it all to your door.
Pros
- Can pause or cancel your subscription at any time
- Competitive prices
- Subscription gives you free delivery on all Walmart.com orders, not just groceries
- Easy to schedule a time slot
Cons
- Monthly or annual membership required for all of the benefits
- Perishables are not available for delivery in New York City
To get the most bang for your buck, shopping for groceries at Walmart is most useful when you sign up for Walmart+. Although you can order groceries without it, Walmart+ offers free delivery from the store and competitive prices. Although it is not as readily available in NYC as Amazon Fresh, it is available for the majority of the US and is most likely the better option for smaller communities and more rural towns in the US. Students will also receive 50% off the annual price.
Because you are shopping a specific store (whichever is closest to you) you typically have access to everything you need, including produce, meat and non-perishable items. If you do not have a Walmart near you for grocery delivery, you can choose shipping instead, but that will limit you to non-perishable items.
Pros
- Includes multiple stores from your local area
- A larger total selection of grocery items than most services
Cons
- Real-time shoppers require your attention for replacements
- Generally more expensive than other services
- Fewer deals and sales
Instacart is a local grocery delivery service and operates differently than the first two on our list. This third-party service hires shoppers to head to a local store of your choosing, buy the items and deliver them to your door. The good news is you'll get to order from your favorite local grocery store. Instacart is available for most grocery chains -- Publix, Aldi, Stop & Shop and Costco -- but the store options will vary depending on your location. You can view the estimated delivery time for each store before choosing one.
The downside is that you have to pay attention and check the app for messages from your shopper while they're shopping in case certain items are out of stock. The shopper will typically send photos of potential replacements in real time for you to approve or reject. It can be a little bit stressful and time-consuming, but it's still a time-saver over going to the store yourself. You can also track the grocery delivery in real-time via the mobile app to see when it will arrive.
Instacart also marks prices up on most groceries, sometimes as much as 14%. And there's a delivery fee and suggested tipping associated with each order, making it one of the more expensive options on our list. In addition to delivery, Instacart offers in-store pickup for online orders at some stores.
Pros
- Good for ordering pantry and protein staples
- Wide selection of ethically responsible products
- Eco-friendly packaging and shipping
Cons
- No fresh produce or dairy
- Must buy into a membership to browse
For a monthly or yearly membership fee, Thrive Market members can shop via the platform primarily for pantry and frozen staples, which come with a low-price guarantee. The platform also includes other household staples such as beauty, bath and body, vitamins and supplements and even wine. We found that the selection at Thrive was more than sufficient to provide a lot of great options for pantry staples, including its own proprietary brand of more than 700 items, snacks, and especially frozen proteins and meals. The specialty items here support 90+ lifestyle and dietary needs, so there is something for everyone.
Pros
- Low prices and no membership fees
- Cheap shipping starts at $6 depending on your location with free shipping for orders over $70
- Good selection of ethically responsible products
- Eco-friendly packaging and shipping
Cons
- Inventory is inconsistent
- Some produce arrives a little past its prime
- Must actively curate your order each week
If you don't mind the occasional oddly shaped orange or citrus that's fully usable but has a bit of browning on the peel, Misfits Market offers low prices on produce. Misfits may have made a name by selling cheap, ugly produce that is deemed unfit for grocery store shelves, but it's evolved into a full-service grocery operation with meats, fish, baking supplies and pantry staples.
The convenient subscription service doesn't require you to pay any subscription fees and has cheap shipping. The one catch is that the inventory changes fairly drastically from week to week. That's how it keeps prices low, but it also means you'll have to actively curate orders or you might receive items that you don't like.
Pros
- Creative and simple recipe suggestions
- Unique and interesting groceries
- Fun and easy interface
Cons
- A bit more expensive than some other services
- The overall grocery selection is limited
- Requires a subscription and minimum weekly order
Hungryroot is a grocery subscription service that makes weekly suggestions based on a quiz you take to gauge your eating habits and dietary preferences. One of this service's unique features is that it offers simple and flexible meal ideas with the necessary groceries to make them. It's somewhere between a meal kit and a grocery delivery service and is great for those looking for breakfast, lunch and dinner inspiration.
The online grocery market stocks a good amount of quality, organic and specialty items including meat, seafood, produce, snacks and pantry items, but you won't find as many options as vendors such as Amazon Fresh or FreshDirect.
Once the initial suggested list is formulated, you can remove any grocery items and add others based on a credit system. I priced out a full list from Hungryroot and compared it to an average grocery store. By my calculations, Hungryroot is about 8% to 10% more expensive. The interface and ordering platform are intuitive and even fun to use.
Pros
- Great selection of groceries
- Quality meats and fresh produce
- Competitive prices on par with midrange grocery stores
- Timely delivery and good customer service
Cons
- Only available in the Northeast
- The occasional missing item from an order
With competitive prices, great selection and timely deliveries, FreshDirect is actually my favorite grocery delivery service to use, but because it's currently only available in the Northeast, it's hard to tap as the No. 1 overall pick.
FreshDirect has a wide-ranging selection of fresh produce, meats, fish, prepared foods, pantry items and home and paper products. There are definitely fewer total items than in a brick-and-mortar supermarket but I found just about everything I would normally buy on a trip to the grocery store. FreshDirect stocks plenty of organic and specialty items at similar prices to Stop & Shop or Wegmans.
FreshDirect's website is easy to navigate and deliveries are almost always on time, in our experience. Customer service is also great and if anything is missing or damaged, they'll replace it in the next delivery or credit your account, no questions asked.
Pros
- One of the speediest grocery delivery services around
- Good selection of paper goods, household products and pharmacy staples
- Some specialty items
- Fair prices and no extra charge for fast delivery
- Delivers booze in certain cities
Cons
- Limited options for most grocery items
- Very little fresh produce
- Limited meat and dairy options
- Inventory is inconsistent
Gopuff isn't the one-stop-shop for groceries that some of these other outfits are, but it has one big thing going for it and that's speed. Gopuff stocks mostly the essentials, including snacks, dry goods, household products, paper goods and pharmacy staples, and can have them to your door in as little as 30 minutes (sometimes even around 15 if all goes well) and almost always less than an hour.
Gopuff is a great option if you need staples and need them fast but it won't replace a run to the grocery store and has fewer options than say, FreshDirect or Instacart. You will find a scant selection of fruit, vegetables, meat and dairy products and what you do find is stocked fairly inconsistently. Gopuff has a large delivery footprint, operating in more than 650 US cities via 500 regional micro fulfillment centers.
How we test grocery delivery services
To test each grocery delivery service, we placed an order from each with various, typical groceries including produce and meats (when available), dry goods, snacks and paper products. We noted how intuitive each ordering platform was and how good the selection was for various categories.
We also took notice of delivery options as some grocery services allow for same-day and next-day delivery while others require you to schedule in advance. When the groceries arrived, we noted how well the items were packed, if everything was included and how fresh -- or not fresh -- the meats, produce, cheese and other perishable items looked.
Fresh produce is the one thing you still may want to buy in person
While most of the fresh fruits and vegetables we received were fine, there was the occasional bruised tomato or apple. If you have a local market with a good selection of produce, you may want to pop in for those items and have the rest of your list delivered.
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Software & Apps > Apps > Best Apps > 3,801 3801 people found this article helpful Top 10 Free Email Accounts of 2026: A Closer Look Explore diverse free email services beyond Gmail and Outlook and find the best fit for your needs in 2026 By Stacy Fisher Stacy Fisher Technology Educator Emporia State University Stacy is a professional technology educator with over 25 years' experience. She has published hundreds of articles, co-authored a book, and has appeared on national and local TV. lifewire's editorial guidelines Updated on January 1, 2026 Reviewed by Chris Selph Reviewed by Chris Selph Chris Selph is a CompTIA-certified technology and vocational IT teacher. He also serves as network & server administrator and performs computer maintenance and repair for numerous clients. lifewire's editorial guidelines Marvid/iStock Apps Best Apps Payment Services Close The Download Gmail offers 15 GB of storage and advanced features like snoozing and offline mail reading.Outlook integrates with Microsoft services and supports mail rules for automatic email organization.Proton Mail focuses on privacy and encrypts emails, even to non-users, for added security. Most people don't need to pay for email. While many companies offer free email services, some stand out more than others. I'll help guide you to the best ones and explain what makes each one unique. I've signed up for accounts with each service to evaluate their features, and I still frequently use several of them. These encrypted email services keep your messages private Never include personal details in your email address (the text before the @), like your home address or phone number. Email addresses typically include a name alongside a few numbers or a meaningful word or phrase. For guidance, learn how to make the perfect username. 01 of 10 Gmail What We Like Includes private messaging features. Excellent spam protection. Includes 15 GB of space for emails and other files. Integrates closely with other Google services. What We Don't Like Dealing with folders/labels can be confusing. It's no surprise that Gmail tops this list. I've used Google's free email service for many years. It offers a modern feel, is well-integrated with the company's other services, and effectively blocks spam. Gmail also offers handy features, such as snoozing emails, scheduling future sends, and offline reading. You can send emails that expire and require a unique code to access, store messages in a 15 GB vault, share files from cloud storage, undo sent emails, and set up vacation responses. Google's Gemini service is integrated if you opt in. I appreciate how seamlessly Gmail integrates with other Google products, allowing me to collaborate on projects and hold virtual meetings. You can personalize Gmail's interface with themes to make it feel like your own space. Additional features I enjoy include access to advanced settings, the ability to create filters and labels, and the option to import emails from other accounts. Plus, you can extend Gmail's functionality with various add-ons. Email addresses end in gmail.com. Download For: iOS Android 02 of 10 Outlook What We Like Clean interface that's easy to use. Works closely with other Microsoft services. Organizes mail automatically. Multiple account aliases hide your actual email address. What We Don't Like Sometimes takes a while to load. Shows a giant banner ad. Outlook.com vs. Gmail Outlook is Microsoft's free email service, offering a solid interface that's easy to navigate. In my experience, it competes closely with Gmail as one of the best free email providers. The website is intuitive; right-clicking an email reveals options to move, delete, or search for all messages from a specific sender. Outlook supports mail rules, which means you can set new messages to move to a specified folder automatically and be categorized, flagged, or forwarded if certain conditions are met. You can also connect directly to Skype through your email and use add-ons such as DocuSign. All of Microsoft's other products are woven together nicely through Outlook. You can easily access OneNote, Excel, Word, Calendar, and more, right from your email. Your address can end with outlook.com or hotmail.com (yes, it's still around!). Download For: iOS Android 03 of 10 Proton Mail What We Like Relies heavily on encrypting email data. Send encrypted emails to anyone, even if they don't use Proton Mail. Choose when an email will expire. What We Don't Like Offers 1 GB of storage. Free accounts can send up to 150 messages daily. Does not include vacation reply functionality. Supports up to three folders and labels. Scheduling options are limited for free users. The main distinction of Proton Mail compared to other services is its focus on email encryption. This ensures that only the recipient, not Proton Mail or anyone else, can read your messages. Messages sent to other Proton Mail users are always encrypted. You can also encrypt messages sent to non-users. These options enhance security. You can set an expiration time for encrypted messages, up to four weeks, after which they become unreadable. Recipients open encrypted messages via a link that requests a password. The message is then decrypted and shown in the browser. They can reply through the same encrypted channel without needing a Proton Mail account. Proton Mail offers encryption features for free, but its 1 GB email storage is relatively low (initially, you start with 500 MB and can unlock more for free). The daily message limit might not trouble light users, but heavy email users will notice this constraint. Another privacy feature, Link Confirmation, helps prevent phishing attacks by displaying a pop-up window when you click a link, allowing you to confirm its destination first. Email addresses can end in proton.me or protonmail.com. Download For: iOS Android 04 of 10 Yahoo Mail What We Like Tons of email storage space. Lets you make free disposable email addresses. Includes a built-in GIF database. Yahoo Calendar integration directly within the email area is user-friendly. What We Don't Like There are fewer filters and rules compared to other email providers. Yahoo Mail offers an impressive 1 terabyte (TB) of free storage for every new account. This is significantly more storage space than most email providers offer, making Yahoo Mail an ideal choice if you need to store years of emails and attachments. The Compose window in Yahoo Mail is similar to Gmail but includes a key advantage: you can easily switch between inline image attachments and regular file attachments. This feature is essential if you need to explain the context of your images, which can be challenging when they are merely attached. Yahoo Mail excels in providing options for alternate identities or aliases. You can create up to three disposable addresses for free, linked to your inbox without revealing your regular email. It's beneficial when making accounts and avoiding inbox clutter. If the spam becomes too overwhelming, simply delete the disposable address. Yahoo Mail offers an intuitive organization system. Photos, documents, receipts, and travel details in your email are automatically grouped into their categories. This setup makes it much easier to find and access these items without having to sift through emails and open individual attachments. Other features of Yahoo Mail include inserting GIFs from a built-in collection, customizing themes to change the website's background and color scheme, importing contacts from your computer or other accounts like Facebook and Outlook, and utilizing a built-in notepad. You can also attach files from Google Drive or Dropbox, easily attach files emailed to you, and connect external accounts to manage all your email through one interface. When signing up, you can choose an email address that ends in either yahoo.com or myyahoo.com. Download For: iOS Android 05 of 10 10 Minute Mail What We Like Provides you with an email address instantly. Allows you to acquire an account without creating a user profile. Terminates automatically 10 minutes after creation. What We Don't Like Each account has a 10-minute lifespan. The email addresses are lengthy and hard to remember. Accepts mail only, so you can't reply or compose new emails. 10 Minute Mail is one of the best email services if you need a temporary email address right now without going through the typical user registration steps. As the name suggests, it's not a full-fledged email provider, since it gives you an account for only 10 minutes. However, it is included here because it's perfect for whenever you require a temporary email account. Instead of providing the primary email you use for everything else, plug in a disposable address from this site. You'll get emails like you would with a regular account, but it's not tied to your identity, and when the time is up, you don't have to worry about closing the account, deleting the emails, or anything—exit the page or let the time expire. 10 Minute Mail is perfect when you're testing a service and don't want to get emails in your regular inbox. It's also helpful when sharing your email address with someone you don't trust. It's a valid email account from which you can get verification emails and replies, but it disappears soon after. You can use it for a longer period if needed, but make sure to use the button on the email page to reset the timer before the 10 minutes expire. Visit 10 Minute Mail 06 of 10 Tuta What We Like Automatically encrypts emails. Enables sending encrypted emails to non-users. Offers multiple domain options for new accounts. Necessitates a strong email password. What We Don't Like Provides only 1 GB of storage space. Some features are available only with a paid account. Unused accounts are deleted after six months. Tuta, formerly known as Tutanota, describes itself as the "world's most secure email service." Like Proton Mail, it automatically encrypts your emails. However, you have the option to disable end-to-end encryption if you prefer. A notable feature is that you can't create an account without a secure password. While some services may suggest stronger passwords but still accept weak ones, Tuta requires a secure password. The web interface is straightforward and provides menu transitions that bring together the mail folders and email settings. When sending messages to non-users, you can make them password-protected or keep them unencrypted. If a password is designated, the recipient gets a custom link to open the message; they must enter the password to read and reply. A neat feature is that when the user responds to an email not using Tuta, the messages are still contained within the temporary account. You can have back-and-forth communication with any other email service, and the recipient can keep the link open the entire time. Even though it isn't as well-known as Gmail or Yahoo, Tuta lets you have an email signature, use up to 1 GB of storage, and automatically add emailed recipients as new contacts. Premium features like offline storage and smart filtering can be had for a cost. You can make an account with any of these domains: tutanota.com, tutanota.de, tutamail.com, tuta.io, keemail.me. Paying subscribers also have tuta.com as a choice. Download For: iOS Android 07 of 10 iCloud Mail iCloud Mail. What We Like It's easy to unsubscribe from email lists. Provides 5 GB of free online storage. Accessible from both computers and mobile devices. What We Don't Like Not as advanced as some other providers. Our Review of iCloud Mail iCloud Mail is a service that many people don't realize they're just steps away from accessing. It's free if you sign up for an Apple ID/Apple Account, and it's not limited to Apple products. Anyone can create an account and use iCloud Mail on their computer. When you set up an account, you can log in from any computer to access not only your mail but also a range of products like notes, reminders, photos, iCloud Drive content, contacts, and calendar events—all synced from your iOS device. The email features aren't highly advanced, so it may not be ideal if you need a lot of options. But setting it up is simple, with no tedious process of adding your name or choosing a password. It integrates seamlessly with your existing Apple Account or a new free iCloud account. The 5 GB of free storage for emails and other iCloud files is a plus, offering more space than some other services. You'll also benefit from IMAP support, forwarding options, large file attachments (up to 5 GB via Mail Drop), and an easy two-click method to unsubscribe from unwanted emails. New accounts end with icloud.com. Visit iCloud.com 08 of 10 Yandex Mail What We Like Offers free storage for email and other Yandex services. Allows you to sign up with an existing social media or Gmail account. Sends reminders if the recipient doesn't respond after a specified number of days. Includes a built-in translator. Countdown to cancel sent emails. What We Don't Like 2FA requires a special Yandex app (most providers use Google Authenticator). Can't change the 24-hour time format. Trouble logging in at times. Yandex.Mail: The Good and Bad Yandex is a Russian company offering a variety of tools and free email accounts, which include 5 GB of online storage, a calendar, and a search engine. Similar to Google, a Yandex email allows you to access these services with a single login. The interface is user-friendly, easy to read, and maintains a simple layout while keeping all necessary tools accessible. Like many providers on this list, Yandex supports email filters, contact importing and exporting, tasks, and hotkeys. Yandex is unique in several ways, enhancing its appeal. You can easily forward multiple messages as file attachments. It supports delayed messaging and provides notifications when an email is received, with reminders if you don't get a reply. Impressively, the part after “@” can be your website domain name, free of charge. This service ranks lower due to occasional login issues, where the website suspects suspicious activity, leading to temporary lockouts until identity verification. However, once access is restored, all emails remain intact. All Yandex email addresses end with yandex.com. Download For: iOS Android 09 of 10 AOL Mail What We Like AOL Mail provides convenient access to a calendar and to-do list directly from the email page. Selection of themes to choose from. Can check spelling before sending every email. What We Don't Like It's easy to accidentally open the news section instead of your email. Lots of ads. Some features require a paid AOL Desktop Gold subscription. AOL Mail offers a free email account option that shares similarities with Yahoo Mail. The main page features top stories from AOL.com, which you might find either a nice addition or a bit cluttered, based on your preferences. Like most email providers, AOL Mail lets you filter messages to show only unread or read emails, or flagged and unflagged messages. It also allows you to block senders and set up customized filters. Similar to Yahoo Mail, when composing an email with AOL Mail, you can access a GIF gallery and stationery. Convenient collections for photos and documents are included as well. Your AOL.com account includes a calendar and a to-do list right within your inbox. However, certain features, like a chat room, require a subscription to AOL Desktop Gold. With an AOL email address, you’ll get something like example@aol.com. You can also receive mail sent to example@aim.com. What Was AOL Instant Messenger? Download For: iOS Android 10 of 10 Zoho Mail Zoho Mail. What We Like Works well for teams. Supports tabbed email windows. Connecting to other Zoho apps is easy. The design is clean and minimal. Features tailored for uniqueness What We Don't Like Zoho's interconnected apps can be overwhelming. Primarily designed for business purposes. The free plan excludes IMAP, POP, and ActiveSync. Zoho offers an online suite of apps primarily focused on business use. Zoho Mail is its free email service. When you compose a message for the first time, you'll see a minimal, tabbed design that allows you to quickly switch between the new email box and the rest of your mail. This feature makes everything feel more accessible. The Streams feature lets you create groups for interacting with shared messages and attachments with your team members. It functions similarly to a private social media site. SecurePass is another notable feature. By clicking the lock while composing an email, you can set the message to expire on a specific day. With this feature enabled, recipients can't forward, copy, print, or download the email. It's a valuable addition! All the standard compose tools are included. Additionally, you can add files from Zoho Docs, Google Drive, OneDrive, Box, and other services, as well as tables in your messages. The service lets you create notes and tasks, utilize keyboard shortcuts, enable filters for auto-management, share drafts with contacts, set up vacation replies, and manage custom domains by adding them to an allow or block list. Free accounts offer 5 GB of storage and allow up to 25 MB for attachments, which is sufficient for users with modest email needs. All addresses end with zohomail.com. Download For: iOS Android Tips for Choosing a Free Email Service When you pick an email account, look for a few characteristics to help you determine which is best for you. They differ in how much storage you get, what the interface looks like, how you customize it, and what types of advanced features are included, such as messaging, filters, and the ability to import other data. It's also probably important to you what your actual email address is. If your first choice doesn't give you the address you're looking for, move on to the next one on the list. Try different combinations and variations to find one that's not already taken. If you're signing up for a new email account because you don't know your current one, figure out your email address to avoid making an entirely new account. 4 Best Free Windows Email Programs for 2026 Was this page helpful? Thanks for letting us know! Get the Latest Tech News Delivered Every Day Subscribe Tell us why! Other Not enough details Hard to understand Submit
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As gaming technology and the gaming industry continues to expand and evolve into new sectors, it is essential to be aware of all the trends that will shape this booming sector over the next few years.
With 2023 quickly filling up the rearview mirror, now is a great time for businesses to take stock of what could end up being some of the most influential advancements in gaming technology to date.
By understanding these technologies today, companies can seize opportunities for business growth tomorrow and stay ahead of their competition with innovative strategies catered towards modern gamers.
In this blog post, we'll discuss five of the most anticipated trends in gaming tech that are expected to arrive by 2023 -- from 5G enabled cloud streaming services to developments in immersive reality and improved artificial intelligence.
In 2023, advances in gaming technology are set to offer gamers more immersive gameplay than ever before.
One of the biggest advancements is virtual reality (VR), which has been gaining popularity and is poised to revolutionize the way we play games. With the continuous development of technology in games, the future of gaming is incredibly exciting, and the possibilities appear endless.
Colocation has significantly enhanced gaming technologies, particularly in the realm of virtual reality games. By providing a centralized, high-performance environment for servers and other hardware, colocation ensures that gamers experience minimal latency and maximum reliability.
This is crucial for VR games, as even the slightest delay can lead to motion sickness or an overall diminished gaming experience. Furthermore, colocation facilities offer robust security measures and redundant power supplies, which ensure that game servers remain up and running at all times. This uninterrupted service is essential for maintaining immersive and engaging VR experiences.
Additionally, the scalability offered by colocation enables gaming companies to easily expand their infrastructure as the demand for VR games grows, ensuring that they can continue to deliver cutting-edge, high-quality experiences to an ever-growing audience.
In summary, colocation plays an integral role in enhancing the performance, reliability, and scalability of high-tech gaming technologies.
Today's gaming world is so dynamic; to remain competitive requires much attention to detail from gaming companies. But simply producing good games no longer is enough. It is also necessary to stay on top of the latest trends. To spot up and coming trends as well as those that are fading away.
Virtual reality has emerged as a groundbreaking advancement in gaming technology, offering an immersive and interactive experience that transcends traditional gaming boundaries. With its ability to transport players into lifelike digital environments, VR holds immense potential to revolutionize gameplay by transforming the way we interact with games and enhancing the level of engagement.
This new technology allows game makers to create games that are different and exciting. People can choose from many different types of games, plus they can push the boundaries of what is normally done with gaming. As VR continues to evolve and mature, it is poised to redefine the gaming landscape, opening up new possibilities for both players and creators alike.
Mobile gaming has experienced a meteoric rise in recent years, becoming an integral part of the gaming industry as more and more developers focus on creating games tailored for smartphones and tablets.
More people are playing mobile games because it is easy to get phones and tablets. Also, technology has improved so the games look and feel great when you play them.
The proliferation of diverse gaming genres, ranging from puzzle and strategy to action and adventure, ensures that there is something for everyone in the mobile gaming space. With this upward trajectory showing no signs of slowing down, mobile gaming is set to continue shaping the future of the gaming industry.
Augmented reality (AR) is an exciting developments in gaming that blurs the line between the real and virtual worlds. It offers a truly unique and immersive experiences to players.
AR overlays digital elements onto the user's real-world view, seamlessly integrating virtual objects into their immediate surroundings. This is often accomplished through smartphone cameras or AR glasses, which enable users to experience an enhanced version of reality where the virtual and physical worlds coexist.
Both AR and VR hold immense potential for revolutionizing gaming, as they offer novel ways for players to engage with and navigate through interactive digital landscapes.
Game developers are increasingly leveraging the power of artificial intelligence (AI) to craft more immersive and engaging gaming experiences for players.
By incorporating AI-driven algorithms and machine learning techniques, they can create non-player characters (NPCs) with more realistic behaviors, reactions, and decision-making abilities. These advancements enable NPCs to adapt to the player's actions, making them smarter and more challenging opponents.
Artificial Intelligence powered games are very exciting because they are realistic, complex, and hard to predict. This makes it easier for players to get into the virtual world and feel closer to the characters and stories.
The gaming industry is growing quickly. Companies and gamers should stay up-to-date on the new trends that are changing the industry. That way, they can be prepared for what's ahead.
Colocation is a key factor in enhancing the performance of virtual reality games, allowing gamers to enjoy an immersive experience with minimal latency and maximum reliability. In order to benefit from such technology, companies must be able to quickly understand and adapt their strategies accordingly.
As such, staying up-to-date with what’s hot in the market is an essential skill for success in gaming spaces today. If you're looking for best-in-class colocation solutions for your business or organization, you can customize a solution that exactly fits your needs in just two minutes.
Connect with our concierge team today or check out our customizable colocation solutions online now; change is here - let's ride the wave together!
Author
Datacenters.com Technology
Datacenters.com is the fastest and easiest way for businesses to find and compare solutions from the world's leading providers of Cloud, Bare Metal, and Colocation. We offer customizable RFPs, instant multicloud and bare metal deployments, and free consultations from our team of technology experts. With over 10 years of experience in the industry, we are committed to helping businesses find the right provider for their unique needs.
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Top 10 Gaming Technology Trends to Watch Out in 2025
Aakash Soni
17th Jul, 2025
With robust digital transformation, technology trends in the gaming industry are progressing rapidly. As technology evolves, staying updated with the latest developments shaping the gaming industry’s future is essential.
The gaming world has gone beyond console and PC gaming into virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and mobile gaming. The newest gaming technologies are pushing the gaming experience’s boundaries and shaping gaming’s future.
Full-fledged gaming on portable devices has become a reality due to the increased demand for mobile gaming. Furthermore, immersive technologies like virtual and augmented reality are revolutionizing the way gamers experience games.
With advancements like virtual reality and augmented reality, gaming is no longer restricted to the physical world. Now, players can create their own virtual worlds and experience gaming in a whole new way.
This article will explore the top 10 gaming technology trends that are expected to be prevalent in 2024 and beyond. So, whether you’re planning to build a gaming enterprise or just looking to stay ahead of the curve, here are the top 10 gaming industry trends in 2024.
Before we dive in, let’s look at some mind-blowing gaming industry statistics.
Online Gaming Industry Statistics
1. According to reports, around 3 billion people actively play video games, which is quite a considerable number as the worldwide population is 8 billion.
2. Approximately 85% of the gaming industry comes from free-to-play games which offer add-ons and other value-added services.
3. The PC-only gaming section will cross the mark of $46.7 billion in market valuation by the end of 2025.
4. Around 34% of the total gaming community is aged between 18 and 34.
5. More than 227 million people in the USA play video games actively for a couple of hours per week.
These statistics show that the gaming industry is growing rapidly, and gaming technology trends are evolving along with it. Without further ado, let’s look at the top 10 gaming technology trends in 2024.
Top Gaming Industry Trends of 2024 You Need to Know
1. The Rise of eSports
eSports refers to competitive electronic gaming, and it is growing rapidly, with more professional gamers signing up to compete in video game tournaments. During the pandemic, tournaments have moved to an online format, and viewership has grown considerably. With the continued growth of eSports, gaming companies are investing heavily in making the most out of the trend.
Some of the critical characteristics of eSports gaming are:
1. It is an immersive experience for viewers with constant feedback and instant results.
2. It provides gamers with an opportunity to make money as professional athletes.
3. The tournaments are broadcasted live, which helps engage both players and viewers.
With the involvement of robust gaming technology like streaming, eSports has become more accessible and an excellent way for gaming companies to increase their reach. In 2024 when the trend is expected to peak, gaming companies will be investing heavily in eSports.
Moreover, eSports tournaments will be broadcasted live to engage players and viewers alike. This will lead to an influx of sponsorships and investments in the gaming industry. The best part about eSports is that it has become a legitimate career for gamers to make money by competing in tournaments.
The cutting-edge differentiating factor that makes the eSports niche more special is that it offers an immersive experience to viewers with constant feedback and instant results. This makes eSports a great way to engage with audiences and create a connection with gamers.
2. Metaverse
Metaverse will become more prevalent in 2024 and beyond as it offers exciting benefits and unique characteristics like:
1. The ability to create virtual worlds opens up new possibilities for game developers.
2. Metaverse will be an excellent platform for gamers to interact with each other in real-time.
3. It will give players access to the latest gaming technology and experiences.
Regarding advanced gaming technology, the Metaverse is one of the most exciting trends. It is a virtual world that connects different games and allows players to interact with each other in real-time. The possibilities for gaming companies are endless, as this technology can be used to create everything from virtual worlds to multiplayer gaming experiences.
The Metaverse will allow developers to create immersive digital environments and interact with players in real-time. This technology can be used to build games, virtual worlds, and experiences that are more engaging than ever before. As the Metaverse evolves, gamers can create their own virtual world and explore gaming in a whole new way.
The biggest example of the Metaverse is Roblox, which has been around since 2004 and is one of the most popular social gaming platforms. It’s worth noting that major tech giants such as Apple, Microsoft, and Amazon are already investing in the Metaverse, so it will be interesting to see how this technology evolves over time.
3. Cloud-based Gaming Ecosystem
Cloud gaming will be a major gaming trend in 2024 as it offers the following benefits:
1. The ability to develop games quickly without having to worry about hardware limitations.
2. It is cost-effective for developers as they no longer need to worry about expensive hardware upgrades and maintenance.
3. It will give gamers access to more immersive and realistic games with better graphics, sound, and overall experience.
Could-based game development is among the hottest gaming trends of the future. With this technology, developers can create games quickly and efficiently without having to worry about hardware limitations. In addition, the cloud computing infrastructure will allow for faster game releases and keep up with the demand for new content.
Cloud-based gaming will also be more cost-effective for developers as it eliminates the need for expensive hardware upgrades and maintenance. Moreover, cloud-based gaming will enable developers to create more immersive games with better graphics, sound, and overall experience.
With platforms like Microsoft Azure and Amazon Web Services, game developers can create and deploy games with ease. The cloud-based scalable architecture will help developers create games quickly and easily. Moreover, as more smartphone users want PC-like gaming quality, cloud-based gaming will become the go-to platform for gamers.
As more smartphone manufacturing companies focus on gaming, more cloud-based gaming solutions will be available. This technology is gaining traction because it offers higher scalability and freedom to deliver a bespoke gaming experience.
4. Blockchain-based Gaming
With blockchain-based gaming, game developers can create unique games that are not only secure but also highly customizable and interactive. This technology is expected to revolutionize the gaming industry in 2024 as it offers several advantages such as:
1. The ability to create secure, transparent, and immutable transactions between gamers and developers.
2. Create unique, highly customizable, and interactive games for players to enjoy.
3. Provide gamers with better privacy protection as the data is stored on a distributed ledger system.
Blockchain-based gaming is a revolutionary type of gaming technology that leverages blockchain technology to power secure and transparent gaming experiences. Blockchain-based games use an immutable, distributed ledger system to track game data and ensure secure transactions between players and developers.
By leveraging the decentralization of blockchain, these games are highly secure and transparent and provide players with a unique gaming experience. Gaming development companies are actively using blockchain as it is highly efficient from the conventional architecture.
For example, blockchain-based games provide owners of digital assets with the ability to trade them securely and transparently. This technology will make it easier for players to manage their assets and ensure they are secure.
In addition, blockchain offers a secure platform to manage in-game transactions, making it easier for developers to monetize their games. The in-game purchases and transactions will be secure and transparent, so game developers can easily track their revenue.
5. Multi-platform Releases
People prefer to play games available on multiple platforms because they can access their go-to games from any device and keep up with the latest updates. The trend of multi-platform gaming will become increasingly popular in 2024 as it offers key characteristics like:
1. The ability to access games from any device or platform.
2. The engagement rate of gamers increases as they are easily accessible across devices.
3. For gaming companies, marketing will be easier as they don’t have to create separate campaigns for each platform.
Among the most popular gaming technology trends, multi-platform releases are becoming increasingly adaptable. This technology allows game developers to develop games and apps that can be released on multiple platforms, including PC, console, mobile, and web-based platforms.
This gaming experience offers players more freedom to access games from any device or platform. Moreover, it also enables developers to reach out to wider audiences and make more money from their games.
In 2024, multi-platform releases will become even more popular among gamers and developers. This technology will enable developers to create games optimized for different platforms while allowing players to access their favorite titles from any device.
The biggest popular example of a multi-platform release is Fortnite, the popular battle royale game. The developers of Fortnite have optimized their game to be available on PC, console, and mobile platforms, giving players the ability to play their favorite game from any device.
6. Crypto-based Gaming
Crypto-based gaming will become popular because of the involvement of real money or cryptocurrency as rewards. It could potentially revolutionize the gaming industry in 2024, as it offers several advantages such as:
1. Enhanced security and transparency due to blockchain technology.
2. Players can earn real money or cryptocurrency as rewards.
3. The ability to create unique gaming experiences with crypto-enabled tokens.
Crypto-based game development services are gaining more traction because of the advantages that blockchain technology offers, such as enhanced security and transparency.
Crypto-based games are different from blockchain-based games because they offer gamers a chance to win real money or cryptocurrency as rewards. This type of gaming experience can be highly lucrative for players and can even attract more people to the gaming industry.
Some popular examples of crypto-based games are Ethereum-based ‘Etherbots,’ decentralized exchanges, and collectible card games. In addition, there are also a variety of gaming websites that offer players the chance to win cryptocurrencies by playing online games.
As more gamers seek crypto-based gaming experiences in 2024, developers will focus on creating more secure and rewarding games. The right balance between security and rewards will be key for developers who want to develop successful crypto-based games.
7. Fitness Gaming is Here to Stay and Thrive
The fitness-based game development solutions will pace up because of the following advantages:
1. The ability to get active and stay in shape while playing games.
2. It gives gamers an alternative way to stay engaged with gaming.
3. Players can access fitness games from any platform.
During the pandemic, people have understood the value of staying in shape and taking care of their health. As a result, the trend of fitness gaming has become increasingly popular as people look for ways to stay active by playing games.
Fitness gaming is different from traditional gaming because it incorporates physical activity into the game. This type of gaming experience can help people stay healthy while still having fun in their homes.
In 2024, fitness gaming will become more popular as gaming developers focus on creating active experiences that are both entertaining and beneficial for gamers. For example, the Nintendo Wii has been a popular choice among people who want to stay active while playing games.
Compared to other intense gaming niches like action and adventure, fitness gaming is easier to learn and can be enjoyed by people of all ages. Moreover, the side effects are significantly lower than traditional gaming as it encourages physical activity.
There is a wide range of fitness games available in the market, including dance games, sports games, and fitness trackers that monitor your progress.
8. AR and VR-based Gaming
Augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) are two technologies that have been making waves in the gaming industry. You can hire game developers to create AR and VR-based games, and it will benefit you in multiple ways:
1. They can appeal to a larger audience with their enhanced gaming experiences.
2. It can result in increased revenue and engagement.
3. AR and VR-based games can help create more lifelike gaming experiences.
AR technology allows gamers to experience a game in an immersive environment by blending the real world with a digital one. VR, on the other hand, provides users with a fully immersive gaming experience.
As Meta and several other companies are heavily investing in AR and VR technology, there is a strong possibility that AR and VR-based gaming will become more popular in 2024.
AR and VR-based games have the potential to be more realistic than traditional games, allowing players to experience a whole new level of realism. Additionally, these types of games could also use motion tracking and facial recognition technology, allowing for more interactive gaming experiences.
AR and VR-based games will also allow players to explore virtual worlds and create their own gaming experiences. As these technologies become more advanced, developers can create even more intuitive gaming experiences in 2024.
The most popular example of AR and VR-based gaming is the virtual reality shooter game, “Robo Recall.” This game allows players to experience a real world of robots, where they can take on challenging missions and engage in intense battles.
9. Social Gaming
Social gaming brings various benefits as:
1. It helps people connect with their friends, family, and other players.
2. It encourages collaboration between players and makes gaming more social.
3. It allows players to stay engaged in gaming even when they are not physically together.
Social gaming refers to games played with friends, family members, or online players. The COVID-19 pandemic has pushed social gaming into the spotlight as it has become more popular among people looking for ways to stay connected and entertained while at home.
By 2024, social gaming will grow because of its accessibility and the fact that it allows people to stay connected with their friends, family members, and online communities.
One of the most popular types of social gaming is mobile games. Mobile games are convenient as they can be accessed from anywhere at any time. Popular examples of mobile social games include Words With Friends and Draw Something.
Social gaming is more engaging than solo gaming as it gives people a competitive edge while playing with others. Social games can also be used to create communities and foster friendships.
In 2024, the trend of developing and releasing more social games will continue as people look for ways to stay connected even when they are not together in person. Moreover, it’s a way of interaction between people and can help them maintain their relationships.
10. The Wearable Industry Influence on Gaming
In 2024, the wearable industry’s influence on gaming will continue to increase as more and more people start to use these devices for gaming. Some of the benefits include:
1. It allows gamers to stay connected on the go.
2. More personalized gaming experiences can be created using the data collected by wearables.
3. Wearables provide enhanced gameplay that is beyond traditional gaming consoles or computers.
The introduction of wearables has opened up many possibilities for gaming. Wearable technology, such as fitness trackers, and virtual reality headsets, have made it possible to access gaming on the go.
Wearable tech can be used to create handy gaming experiences by enabling gamers to interact with their environment in real-time. This can allow players to explore new game worlds and create their own gaming experience.
Furthermore, fitness trackers have been used to measure exercise performance, such as steps taken, calories burned, and sleep patterns. This information can be used to develop personalized gaming experiences for gamers.
Moreover, the demand for wearable gaming accessories is expected to increase significantly in the upcoming time. This will result in more wearable devices being developed and released, allowing gamers to use them for a variety of in-game activities.
These are the top 10 gaming technology trends that are expected to take the industry by storm in 2024. If you’re planning to develop a game to engage your audience and generate revenue, you need to hire a professional and experienced game development company like Auxano Global Services.
Why Hire Auxano Global Services for Game Development Services?
Auxano Global Services is an innovative game development company that offers a wide range of services, including game design, development, and testing. We have a team of experienced professionals who understand the importance of creating engaging gaming experiences.
Our developers use the latest technologies to develop games that are tailored to provide a unique experience for your players. With the availability of robust technology stacks, experienced developers, and advanced analytics tools, Auxano Global Services is the right choice for your gaming project.
We provide complete game development services, from concept creation to development, testing, and launch. We can also provide you with post-launch support and maintenance services. Contact us today.
Wrapping up!
The gaming industry is constantly evolving, and the trends discussed above are just a few of the things to come in 2024. The possibilities for game development are endless and can help you create an engaging experience for your players. That’s why, it’s important to hire the top game development company to help you create the best gaming experience.
Frequently Asked Questions
What are some popular trends in the gaming industry?
Why is the gaming industry among the fastest-growing sectors?
What are the benefits of hiring a game development company?
How to choose the right game development company?
How much does it cost to develop a game?
About The Author
Aakash Soni
Aakash Soni is the Operational Head at Auxano Global Services, a complete Software development company that has been recognized by Clutch for its achievements and client satisfaction. He is a Master in Trending Technologies and has been involved in developing and implementing several innovative projects, including Entrepreneurial Trends, Data Analytics, Retail Technology ecosystems, Internet of Things, and Blockchain. He has an eye for spotting opportunities and is a strong advocate of disruption through technology and innovation. He has worked with Fortune 500 companies and helped many startup firms to rise in the market. He is leading the Auxano Global Services team to help clients leverage disruptive technologies like Blockchain & AI to deliver transformative business outcomes.
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A new design with Liquid Glass. Beautiful, delightful, and instantly familiar.
Visual intelligence now lets you search, ask questions, and take action with the content on your iPhone screen.1
Personalize chats with new backgrounds and answer questions with polls in Messages.
Communicate across languages with Live Translation in Messages,2 FaceTime, and Phone.3
Eliminate distractions with new screening tools in Phone,4 FaceTime, and Messages.
Get more information at a glance with Live Activities and react with Tapbacks in CarPlay.5
Design
A whole new element of delight.
The new design with Liquid Glass is beautiful, delightful, and instantly familiar. It gives you a more consistent experience across your apps and devices, making everything you do feel fluid.
A fresh design.
With the optical qualities of glass and a sense of fluidity, Liquid Glass brings an expressive new design to your Lock Screen, Home Screen, Control Center, apps, and more.
A more vibrant Lock Screen.
The time dynamically adapts to your photo wallpaper and notifications, keeping your subject in view. When you move your iPhone, your photo comes to life with a new 3D effect.6
Updated app icons.
Take your pick from updated light and dark appearances, new color-tinted icons, and a stunning clear look.
Dynamic controls.
Across apps, Liquid Glass controls reflect and refract their surroundings and fluidly morph to bring more focus to your content.
A shared look across the system.
Liquid Glass enables a more delightful experience across apps and devices so it’s easier to use your Apple products together as you move across them throughout your day.
Apple Intelligence
Effortlessly helpful every day.
Apple Intelligence is integrated into even more places to help you communicate across languages, create more personal images, and get more done.7
Live Translation.
Automatically translate texts in Messages,2 display live translated captions in FaceTime, and get spoken translations for calls in the Phone app.3
Use Live Translation with AirPods.
When the person you’re speaking with responds in a different language, their words are automatically translated and spoken out loud in a natural voice.8
Do more with visual intelligence.
It builds on Apple Intelligence, so you can search across your most used apps, add an event to your calendar, and ask questions — letting you do more with what’s on your screen.
More ways to express yourself with images.
Mix emoji and descriptions to make something brand-new. In Image Playground, discover additional ChatGPT styles. And have even more control when making images inspired by family and friends using Genmoji and Image Playground.
Accelerate your workflows.
Intelligent actions in Shortcuts can summarize text, create images, or tap directly into Apple Intelligence models to provide responses that feed into your shortcut.
Communication
Less noise. More fun.
Enjoy fewer interruptions and more ways to dial up the personality in your daily interactions — so you can focus on the conversations that matter most.
Manage unwanted calls.
Call Screening automatically answers unknown callers without interrupting you. Once the caller shares their name and the reason for their call, your phone rings and you can decide if you want to pick up.4
Screen new senders.
Approve unknown numbers with new screening tools that detect spam and give you control over who appears in your conversations in Messages, and your recent calls in Phone and FaceTime.
Let the Phone app wait on hold for you.
Hold Assist keeps your spot in line while you wait for a live agent and notifies you when they’re ready.9
Polls in Messages.
Create a poll to let the group chat decide. Everyone in the conversation can contribute options and watch as votes come in.
Add a background to any conversation.
Select from stunning built-in options or choose any of your own photos to bring a distinct personality to your Messages conversations.
Discovery
Step into your comfort zone. On the spot.
Tap into features that help you explore the world while protecting your privacy. And with the new Games app, stay up to date across all your games and discover new ones.
Maps understands your preferred routes.
Maps learns the routes you travel regularly and can alert you about significant delays, even before you head out. If your routine changes, iPhone adapts to it so you can conquer your commute.
Visited Places in Maps.
Never forget a place with the option to remember where you’ve been with Visited Places. Quickly find that great cafe from a trip and share it with a tap.10
AutoMix and Lyrics Translation.
AutoMix in Apple Music uses intelligence to seamlessly mix from one song to the next like a DJ, time stretching and beatmatching at the perfect moment. And Lyrics Translation helps you understand the meaning behind your favorite songs.11
Store even more in Wallet.
Create a digital ID in Wallet using your U.S. passport.12 It can be used at TSA checkpoints, in apps, and in person. Boarding passes now include convenient access to airport maps, luggage tracking with Find My, and shareable Live Activities.
New Games app.
Stay up to date with what’s happening across all your games, discover new ones your friends are playing, and get tailored recommendations. Compete with friends in score-based showdowns with Challenges.
New features include an all-new experience designed with Braille13 users in mind, more options for Vehicle Motion Cues to help reduce motion sickness, and a more customizable reading experience.
Family.
Parents can move kids to Child Accounts more easily and take advantage of a wide set of parental controls designed to keep children safe. These include enhancements across Communication Limits, Communication Safety, and the App Store.
Audio recording.
Capture high-quality audio during video conference calls. And record in high definition in Camera with AirPods and AirPods Pro with the H2 chip.
Reminders.
With Apple Intelligence, Reminders can suggest tasks, grocery items, and follow-ups based on emails or other text on your device. It can also automatically categorize related reminders into sections within a list.
Photos.
With an updated layout, easy-to-use controls, and Library and Collections as your two main tabs, Photos makes it easier than ever to find what you’re looking for. Bring your favorite photo to life as a spatial scene, which uses the same advanced technology as visionOS to create a captivating 3D effect.
AirPods Camera Remote.
Start recording video in Camera by pressing and holding on AirPods or AirPods Pro with the H2 chip.
Clock.
Set a snooze duration between 1 and 15 minutes, giving you more flexibility and customization for your daily alarms.
CarPlay.
React with a Tapback in Messages, follow Live Activities, and get more information at a glance so you can stay connected and focused while you drive.5
Journal.
Multiple journals let you keep entries for different aspects of your life separate, images can be added inline with text, and a beautiful map view shows entries based on their location.
| 7,070
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[
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"simple",
"informational",
"statement",
"fact",
"research"
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technology
|
geo_bench
|
Apple unveils iOS & iPadOS 17
| false
|
340c98aa8f30
|
https://www.fidelity.com/learning-center/personal-finance/retirement/turbocharge-childs-retirement
|
Most children, whether they are teenagers or younger, don't spend a lot of time worrying about retirement. After all, when you're juggling schoolwork, extracurricular activities, and all the other challenges of adolescence, saving for retirement may not even register on your radar screen.
However, that doesn't mean that savvy parents, grandparents, and other family members can't step in to help jumpstart their children's retirement savings. One way to do that is to establish a custodial account Roth IRA, or what is known at Fidelity as a Roth IRA for Kids, and more generally as a Roth IRA for minors.
A Roth IRA for Kids provides all the benefits of a regular Roth IRA, but is geared toward children under the age of 18 and requires an adult to serve as custodian.
The custodian maintains control of the child's Roth IRA, including decisions about contributions, investments, and distributions. In addition, statements are sent to the custodian. However, the minor remains the beneficial account owner and the funds in the account must be used for the benefit of the minor. When the minor reaches a certain required age, typically either 18 or 21 in most states, the assets must be transferred to a new account in their name.
Put your child's earnings to work
A contribution to a custodial Roth IRA for Kids can be made if a minor has earned income during the year. Eligible income can include formal employment income or self-employment income. Activities like babysitting, petsitting, or mowing lawns can qualify a minor for Roth IRA contributions. Note that in some cases self-employment taxes (Medicare and Social Security) can apply so it's advisable to consult with a tax professional. The 2025 maximum annual contribution is $7,000, or the total of a child’s earned income for the year—whichever is less. For example, if your daughter earned $2,000 during a summer job, you could contribute up to $2,000 to a Roth IRA in her name. (Keep in mind, you can't contribute more than the minor's earned income, so if you contribute $2,000, neither the minor nor another adult can contribute more that tax year.)
If your child is not filing a tax form that reports his or her earned income, consider maintaining a written log of their earnings in case the IRS asks questions. Unlike traditional IRAs, contributions to Roth IRAs are made with after-tax dollars. This means the account owner cannot claim a tax deduction for his or her contributions. However, since most kids have low annual earnings, their income tax rate is already quite low or even zero. Therefore, tax deductions may not be an important factor at this stage of their lives. Moreover, when it comes time to tap their savings at retirement age, certain qualified distributions from a Roth IRA will be tax-free, unlike distributions from a traditional IRA.
Making the case to the children in your life
Despite the potential to accumulate significant savings, tying up money in a Roth IRA may not appeal to a child who is more concerned about having cash to go to the movies or to buy video games. For older teens, concerns about paying for a car or pending college tuition bills may take priority.
Convincing a child to hand over his or her hard-earned cash to invest in a Roth IRA may be challenging but remember that as long as the child has earned income to qualify for Roth IRA contributions it doesn’t matter where the contributions come from. As an alternative, you may want to consider an arrangement where you or another adult make contributions as gifts to reward the child for working, or one where the child contributes a portion of his or her earnings to the Roth IRA and you match that amount (assuming the total contributions—both the child's contribution and any of your own contribution on behalf of the child—don't exceed the lesser of the child's earned income for the year or the 2025 IRA contribution limit of $7,000).
It's also helpful to know that with a Roth IRA, the rules do provide some flexibility to withdraw funds prior to retirement. For example, a Roth IRA allows the account owner to take out 100% of contributions at any time and for any reason, with no taxes or penalties. Generally, any withdrawals are considered to come from contributions first. Distributions from earnings—which may be taxable if certain conditions are not met—begin only when all contributions have been withdrawn.
Earnings from the investments in the account can be taken out without paying any federal taxes (and usually state and local taxes too) after the account owner reaches age 59½, or due to disability or death. In addition, at the time of withdrawal, the account owner must have had a Roth IRA open for at least 5 years, measured from the beginning of the first tax year a contribution was made to a Roth IRA. This is known as the 5-year rule.
If the account owner takes withdrawals of earnings prior to age 59½ and does not satisfy the 5-year rule, they will (unless an exception applies) be subject to a 10% early withdrawal penalty and ordinary income taxes. However, the rules allow for a federal tax- and penalty-free withdrawal of up to $10,000 in earnings, even if the account owner has not reached age 59½, as long as the money is used for a first-time home purchase and the 5-year rule has been satisfied. Other exemptions may also apply.
Establishing a Roth IRA for Kids allows the children in your life to begin taking advantage of the opportunity for tax-free growth at a young age. While your children may not be overly excited about this idea now, they may thank you many years from now.
| 5,591
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[
"finance",
"intermediate",
"informational",
"question",
"research"
] |
finance
|
geo_bench
|
what is a custodial ira
| false
|
cdfeeaa1fe0f
|
https://www.forbes.com/sites/johntharvey/2012/02/06/economics-crisis/
|
A lot of blame has been spread around regarding the financial collapse and the onset of the Great Recession. Greedy speculators, big banks, Wall Street executives, and Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac have all taken turns as whipping boys. But one group has largely avoided their fair share of attention: economists. They were the ones who provided the intellectual justification for the transformation of our economy over the past thirty years. They stood idly by as jobs went overseas, demand was sapped by increasingly uneven distributions of income, competition was destroyed by lax attitudes towards antitrust laws, and safeguards were discarded in the financial sector. More than that, many actually praised these events. This is not insignificant. Much of the financialization of the U.S. economy (the shift from producing goods and services to managing financial wealth that played such a central role in our collapse) could not have occurred without economists offering their tacit and open approval. Opposition would have slowed, if not stopped, these trends.
There was actually a poll among economists to determine which of their brethren they thought most responsible for our current debacle. The “winners” were as follows:
Alan Greenspan (5,061 votes): As Chairman of the Federal Reserve System from 1987 to 2006, Alan Greenspan both led the over expansion of money and credit that created the bubble that burst and aggressively promoted the view that financial markets are naturally efficient and in no need of regulation.
Milton Friedman (3,349 votes): Friedman propagated the delusion, through his misunderstanding of the scientific method, that an economy can be accurately modeled using counterfactual propositions about its nature. This, together with his simplistic model of money, encouraged the development of fantasy-based theories of economics and finance that facilitated the Global Financial Collapse.
Larry Summers (3,023 votes): As US Secretary of the Treasury (formerly an economist at Harvard and the World Bank), Summers worked successfully for the repeal of the Glass-Steagall Act, which since the Great Crash of 1929 had kept deposit banking separate from casino banking. He also helped Greenspan and Wall Street torpedo efforts to regulate derivatives.
One might wonder how there could be such a disconnect between the theories employed by these economists and the real world. But, to those of us in the profession, it comes as no surprise. Some of us have been worried to death about it for years.
The short answer is, the incentive structure in mainstream (or Neoclassical) economics is skewed towards rewarding people for building complex mathematical models, not for explaining how the actual economy works. You might assume those two things are connected in some tangible way, but that’s not necessarily the case. I think the non-economist would be absolutely shocked by some of the things we learn in graduate school. For example, I wonder how many people know the formal Monetarist (Milton Friedman’s school of thought) explanation of how the Great Depression occurred? Their analysis depends on the existence of something called money illusion on the part of workers. The idea is that laborers are never quite certain what the current cost of living is since they do not keep a careful accounting of their expenditures. Meanwhile, firms are pretty darn sure what prices are because it is so important to their livelihood to pay close attention. Now imagine the following. Let’s say there is a massive collapse in the supply of money, leading to a fall in prices (which is, as I have pointed out elsewhere, based on a very poor understanding of the modern financial system; but, in the interest of keeping things simple, I’ll concede the point here). The fall in prices, because it means they are earning lower profits, leads firms offer lower wages to their employees. But–and here’s what they say happened in the Great Depression–workers, not realizing because of money illusion that the cost of living has declined (and that firms’ offer is therefore not unreasonable), quit their jobs. And that, apparently, is how unemployment rose to 25% in the 1930s: the money supply fell, lowering prices, leading firms to offer lower wages, and causing workers to VOLUNTARILY QUIT THEIR JOBS! I don’t know about you, but that’s one of the most ridiculous explanations I have ever heard in my entire life. It also puts into perspective the above quote criticizing Friedman’s approach.
This is not completely atypical. It is a function of the fact that economists spend too much time developing complex thought experiments and clever stories and not working to understand the complexities of the real-world economy. A famous book published in 1990 showed evidence of this in the top graduate programs in our discipline (The Making of an Economist by Arjo Klamer and David Colander, Westview Press). When asked what was most important to success as an economist, students ranked these skills in this order (page 18):
1. Being smart in the sense of being good at problem solving.
2. Excellence in mathematics.
3. Being very knowledgeable about one particular field.
4. Ability to make connections with prominent professors.
5. Being interested in, and being good at, empirical research.
6. Having a broad knowledge of the economics literature.
7. Having a thorough knowledge of the economy.
No, I did not accidentally type the list backwards! And, if anything, the relegation of “knowledge of the economy” to dead last has become worse. Courses that would have provided context and empirical grounding to theory have been slowly replaced over the past thirty years by those teaching more mathematical methods. Today, students learn more about set theory than they do about the merger movements of the late 19th and early 20th centuries--if they hear about the latter at all, which is increasingly unlikely. Moreover, winning the publishing game means writing articles that are more general, theoretical, and mathematical. The author of a piece on the evolution of the specific institutional structure of the financial sector in the United States from 1980 to 1990, for example, even if well-written and firmly grounded in theory, would find it difficult to publish in any of the “top” journals. This would hurt the career advancement of a middle- to senior-level economics professor and could be a death sentence for the junior one, needing, as they do, to earn tenure in order to keep their job.
Not that I have anything against mathematics. My first college major was physics and I have always enjoyed the subject. I was one of those strange kids who loved word problems and derived great joy from figuring out the underlying logic of mathematical relationships (no, I didn’t date very much!). But for economists, math should be no more than a tool, not the end in itself. I’m afraid that’s not the case, so much so that today a common pattern is for a student to earn a math degree as an undergraduate and then pursue an economics PhD. Are they really interested in understanding unemployment, inflation, poverty, pricing, consumer choice, etc., or have they found a place where doing what they do best is rewarded?
This doesn’t mean that nothing useful gets done, but there are built-in incentives against it. Nor do I mean to implicate all of economists. Many DID raise the alarm and tried very hard to get the attention of the powers that be. But, they were in the minority and members of schools of thought largely dismissed by mainstream economics (e.g., Institutionalism, Post Keynesianism, and Modern Monetary Theory). Their graduate programs DO force students to learn about the structure of the actual economy (although still with plenty of math, but this time as the means rather than the end) and their journals DO reward authors who tackle the extremely complex and much messier task of figuring out what caused real-world economic disasters and successes. This is the sort of work that needs to be encouraged.
There was, incidentally, a second poll asking who most accurately forecast the financial crisis. The winner was, by a wide margin, Professor Steve Keen of the University of Western Sydney. The page announcing the award says this about Professor Keen’s work:
In December 2005, drawing heavily on his 1995 theoretical paper and convinced that a financial crisis was fast approaching, Keen went high-profile public with his analysis and predictions. He registered the webpage www.debtdeflation.com dedicated to analyzing the “global debt bubble”, which soon attracted a large international audience. At the same time he began appearing on Australian radio and television with his message of approaching financial collapse and how to avoid it. In November 2006 he began publishing his monthly DebtWatch Reports (33 in total). These were substantial papers (upwards of 20 pages on average) that applied his previously developed analytical framework to large amounts of empirical data. Initially these papers analyzed the Global Financial Collapse that he was predicting and then its realization.
In the 1995 article referenced above, Keen takes pains to model explicitly the features of a modern financial system (see Steve Keen, “Finance and Economic Breakdown: Modeling Minsky’s ‘Financial Instability Hypothesis,’” Journal of Post Keynesian Economics, vol.17, no.4, Summer 1995, pp.607-635). For him, there are no helicopters increasing the money supply by dropping cash, no households with perfect working models of the economy in the backs of their heads, no depressions caused by the fact that workers suddenly and voluntarily quit their jobs en masse, no speculators who know the future (all of these are actually features of popular mainstream economic approaches). His paper contains a great deal of math, but as a tool rather than an end. Among his key conclusions are:
• “...capitalist expectations of profit during booms can lead them to incur more debt than the system is capable of financing” (p.633).
• a breakdown results when there is a debt-induced recession, leading some capitalists to go bankrupt and lenders to “write off bad debts and suffer capital losses” (p.633).
• “...a rise in income inequality (between workers and capitalists) leads to a period of instability and then collapse” (p.633).
• “...a long period of apparent stability is in fact illusory, and the crisis, when it hits, is sudden–occurring too quickly to be reversible by changes to discretionary policy at the time” (p.633).
• the weight of the collapse may be so great that monetary (he specifically mentions lowering interest rates) and fiscal policy are powerless to reverse the trend.
All this was written in the midst of the longest peacetime expansion in US economic history, a period when some mainstream economists were declaring it a “New Economy” where recession had been banished forever. His predictions–and this is just a small subset of his work–were eerily accurate and based on work well outside of what is recognized as worthwhile in mainstream economics. He has continued to constantly update his work in his blog: http://www.debtdeflation.com/blogs/.
If you have never heard of him, that’s not surprising. You probably don’t read too many academic journals. The real problem is, most economists have never heard of him either. If we are to truly recover and put ourselves back on the track to prosperity, that has to change. It is vital that our profession revise its incentive structure such that models that more closely reflect the complex institutional structures and behaviors in the real world are valued above those that look pretty, but tell us nothing.
| 11,718
|
[
"finance",
"intermediate",
"informational",
"question",
"opinion",
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"debate"
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finance
|
geo_bench
|
How much blame should academic economists take for the financial crisis?
| false
|
a1d834679dcc
|
https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2015/11/05/global-concern-about-climate-change-broad-support-for-limiting-emissions/
|
Nevertheless, there are significant regional differences on the perception of the problems posed by global warming. And Americans and Chinese, whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions, are among the least concerned. (For more on global anxiety about climate change, see “Climate Change Seen as Top Global Threat”, released July 14, 2015).
In most countries, publics tend to believe that much of the burden for dealing with climate change should be shouldered by wealthier countries. Across the nations polled, a median of 54% agree with the statement “Rich countries, such as the U.S., Japan and Germany, should do more than developing countries because they have produced most of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions so far.” A median of just 38% believe that “Developing countries should do just as much as rich countries because they will produce most of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions in the future.” However, in six countries, half or more say developing nations should do just as much. Half of Americans hold this view, while 40% think rich countries should do more. Overall, there is little relationship between how wealthy a society is and its people’s views on this question.
Still, despite considerable agreement on many climate issues, there are also important differences between regions and countries, and often, within nations. Concerns about climate change are especially common in Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa. However, they are less prevalent in China and the U.S., the two largest greenhouse gas emitters. For instance, just 18% of Chinese and 45% of Americans say climate change is a very serious problem, compared with a global median of 54%. Similarly, while four-in-ten around the world are very worried that global warming will harm them personally, just 15% in China and 30% in the U.S. share this fear. Overall, people in countries with high levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions per capita tend to express less anxiety about climate change than those in nations with lower per-capita emissions.
In a number of societies, views about climate change divide sharply along partisan lines. This is especially true in the U.S., where Democrats are much more likely than Republicans to see climate change as a problem, to believe its effects are being felt now, to think it will harm them personally, and to support U.S. participation in an agreement to limit greenhouse gas emissions. (For more on U.S. views about climate change, see “Public and Scientists’ Views on Science and Society”, released on January 29, 2015). But the U.S. is not the only country with notable partisan and ideological differences. In other economically advanced nations, such as Australia, Canada, Germany and the UK, those on the political left are significantly more likely than those on the right to view climate change as a major threat.
These are among the key findings from a new Pew Research Center survey, conducted in 40 nations among 45,435 respondents from March 25 to May 27, 2015.
The Consequences of Climate Change
Many are worried about other consequences as well. Across the nations polled, a median of 25% say severe weather is their chief concern, and in Asia-Pacific the median is 34%. Severe weather is the number one (or tied for number one) issue in eight nations. Meanwhile, Indonesians, Nigerians and Malaysians identify long periods of hot weather as a top concern. There is no country in which rising sea levels are the top choice, though roughly one-in-five or more respondents name this as their primary concern in France, the UK, Japan, Australia and South Korea.
The degree to which people fear climate change will affect them personally varies substantially across the globe. The share of the public saying they are very concerned it will personally harm them during their lifetime ranges from less than 20% in the UK, Australia, Germany, China, Israel and Poland, to more than 70% in Uganda, Brazil, Burkina Faso, the Philippines and Ghana.
U.S. Not the Only Country with Big Partisan Divides
Views about climate change break sharply along partisan, gender and generational lines in the U.S. Democrats are much more concerned than Republicans about this issue, much more likely to believe the effects of global warming are already being felt, and significantly more likely to think they personally will be harmed by climate change.
Additionally, American women are far more concerned than men about climate change (51% of women see it as a very serious problem vs. only 39% of men). They are also more likely to believe it will affect them personally (36% very concerned vs. 23%) and more likely to believe major lifestyle changes will be required to deal with the issue (75% to 57%).
Young Americans are generally more concerned than their elders about climate change. Americans ages 18 to 29 are significantly more likely than those ages 50 and older to see global warming as a very serious problem (52% to 38%), to believe it will affect them personally (34% very concerned vs. 21%), and to support U.S. participation in an agreement to limit greenhouse gas emissions (85% to 60%). Younger Americans are also more likely to think rich countries should do more than developing nations to address this problem (51% to 34%).
The partisan divisions found in the U.S. are reflected in several other relatively wealthy democracies. Some of the greatest partisan differences exist in Australia, where disagreements over global warming within the ruling, right-of-center Liberal Party contributed to the 2015 ouster of Prime Minister Tony Abbott and his replacement by Malcolm Turnbull. Just 31% of Liberals expect global warming to harm them personally, compared with 65% of Labor Party supporters and 72% of Greens. Similarly, only 44% of Liberals think rich countries should do more about climate change than developing nations, while 54% of Labor and 67% of Greens want wealthy societies to bear more of the costs.
In Canada, Germany and the UK, followers of conservative parties are also much less likely than followers of liberal or green parties to believe they will be harmed by climate change. And in Canada and Australia, supporters of conservative parties are less likely to think rich nations should do more than developing countries to address this issue. Meanwhile, in Germany, adherents of the Green Party are significantly more likely than those of both the right-of-center Christian Democratic Union/Christian Social Union and the left-of-center Social Democratic Party to expect more from rich countries.
Faith and Climate Change
Pope Francis’ May 2015 encyclical on the environment and human ecology, “Laudato Si,” contends that “Climate change is a global problem with grave implications.”1
Catholics, along with people who are unaffiliated with major religions, are more likely to agree with the pope’s position than are Protestants in the U.S. Among American Catholics, half believe climate change is a very serious problem and 39% are very concerned it will harm them personally. Only 34% of Protestants are very concerned about global warming, and just 26% express strong concerns that it will harm them in their lifetime.
In Australia and Canada, Catholics are more likely than Protestants to express serious concerns about personal harm caused by climate change, though in both nations worries about global warming are most common among the religiously unaffiliated.
Notably, Pope Francis also wrote in his encyclical: “We must continue to be aware that, regarding climate change, there are differentiated responsibilities.” But on the issue of whether rich countries should do more than poor ones in combatting global warming, there is no statistically significant difference between the views of Catholics and Protestants in the U.S., Canada and Australia.
| 7,855
|
[
"environment",
"intermediate",
"debate",
"question",
"opinion",
"research",
"informational"
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environment
|
geo_bench
|
Should there be a limit on carbon emissions across the world?
| false
|
174421c43ec1
|
https://www.forbes.com/sites/startswithabang/2020/10/21/the-world-needs-nuclear-power-and-we-shouldnt-be-afraid-of-it/
|
For thousands upon thousands of years, humans have been harnessing the power of nature to provide energy to push our civilization forward. By leveraging fire, we gained the ability to cook food, provide warmth and shelter, and to protect us from predators. Later on, we tamed a variety of animals, using their labor to perform tasks that would be too strenuous or inefficient for humans. Eventually, natural power sources, like the wind, was harnessed through windmills to turn millstones, grinding grain without any human input at all.
An enormous transformation occurred when we began using natural sources — windmills, steam-generating combustion processes, even flowing water — to turn turbines, generating power and providing electricity. Today, the world’s energy needs are still dominantly met through these same processes, with non-renewable fossil fuels like coal, oil, and gas providing the dominant fraction of Earth’s energy uses. We’re powering a space age civilization with the same fossil fuels that emerged during the iron age. Now, more than ever, the world needs nuclear power, and yet fear, rather than facts, governs our policies. Here’s the science of why we should embrace it.
The way a conventional, chemical-based power plant works is simple and straightforward. A fuel source of some variety is burned, releasing energy, which heats up and boils water, generating steam. That steam turns a turbine, which generates electricity, used to provide power for whatever purposes are in demand downstream.
The big problem we have, whether we admit it to ourselves or not, is that this way of generating large amounts of energy has created enormous environmental problems. While the impact of extracting these raw materials in such enormous quantities is no doubt significant, the end products of combusting these fuel sources has fundamentally and significantly changed the chemical composition of Earth’s atmosphere and oceans, leading to global warming, ocean acidification, and other climate-related effects.
The evidence that this has occurred is overwhelming, and it’s a problem that we continue to exacerbate with each passing day on Earth. As more hydrocarbon-based fossil fuels undergo combustion, they increase the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in Earth’s atmosphere, which has risen from pre-industrial levels of about 270 parts-per-million to modern levels of around 410 parts-per-million: a little more than a 50% increase in less than 300 years.
This carbon dioxide increase also extends to the ocean, where carbon dioxide combines with water to create carbonic acid, changing the pH (a measure of acidity) of our oceans on a global scale.
But the most pressing problem is the global warming that has ensued from this additional amount of carbon dioxide. Our global average temperature has risen by 0.98 °C (1.76 °F) since we began accurately measuring it back in 1880, and that rise has accelerated, having increased by 0.18 °C (0.32 °F) per decade over the past 39 years.
Although many different approaches have been proposed to address this problem, it’s clear that any sustainable, long-term solution will include one important component: a transition to energy sources that don’t result in additional carbon dioxide emissions. While most of the ideas put forth — such as the hypothetical Green New Deal — focus on renewable energy sources like solar and wind power, there’s another option that we should seriously reconsider: nuclear fission power.
Yes, it’s true that fission power plants that cut corners could lead to radioactivity-related disasters, such as what infamously happened at Chernobyl in 1986. Meltdown is a risk, occurring at Three Mile Island in 1979. And a poorly contained reactor on a fault line could result in radioactive waste products contaminating the nearby environment due to a natural disaster, such as what occurred at Fukushima in 2011. But even despite these occurrences, nuclear power remains safer, on the whole, than any other large-scale power source in use over all of human history.
The first nuclear reactors to be used for large-scale power generation came online in the mid-1950s, and in that time, there have been a total of over 17,000 reactor-years (where one nuclear reactor operating for a year equals one reactor-year) spanning 33 countries. The three aforementioned incidents are the only adverse ones to be documented in all that time. And yet, when people think of nuclear power, they commonly think of these disasters — as well as the danger of nuclear war, the hazards of radioactive waste, and the destructive power of the atomic bomb — rather than the safe, efficient, and green energy source that nuclear power actually is.
Thankfully, the science behind nuclear power is actually simple, and helps us understand why we shouldn’t fear it the same way we fear nuclear bombs or nuclear war. Instead, there’s a well-understood process that goes on inside the atom, and can generate enormous quantities of power, enough to power our global energy needs for centuries, without the polluting side-effects of fossil fuels.
The physics behind nuclear power. In conventional (chemical-based) fuels, reactions occur between the electron configurations of various atoms, releasing up to ~0.0001% of the fuel’s mass as energy. In nuclear-based reactions, it’s the atomic nuclei themselves that are split, releasing approximately ~1000 times as much energy for the same amount of fuel. In particular, fissionable material (like uranium-235) only needs one simple ingredient — a neutron for the nucleus to absorb — to trigger a fission reaction.
Although other fuels can be used, the good news about nuclear power is that it’s self-sustaining: each U-235 nucleus that absorbs a neutron in turn emits three new neutrons when it splits apart, releasing energy and sustaining the reaction. So long as enough neutrons continue to interact with fissile material, the reaction will occur. This releases heat, which is used to boil water, generating steam, and turning a turbine, the same as a chemical-based reactor. Only, with nuclear, there’s no carbon dioxide waste produced.
Nuclear’s energy output is entirely controllable. One of the big concerns raised with renewable sources of energy like wind and solar are that they’re not controllable. If it’s not windy, you don’t generate wind power; if it’s not sunny (or if it’s night), your solar panels’ output drops tremendously. But the rate of nuclear output can be controlled in a straightforward manner, simply by controlling three factors: control rods, temperature, and a medium (usually water).
Remember what causes a nuclear reaction: the availability of neutrons for the fissile material to absorb. If you put more (or fewer) control rods in, you absorb more (or fewer) of the available neutrons, changing how much interacts with the fissile material. If you increase the temperature, you increase the rate of the reaction; if you decrease it, the reaction rate drops. And the presence of a medium, such as water, can also act as a neutron absorber, but that comes at a cost: you wind up with tritiated water, which itself is radioactive for a period of a few decades.
Still, this is an enormous win: we can generate more or less power as needed, up to the plant’s maximum safe capacity.
There’s no risk of a nuclear bomb, and the waste is eminently manageable. A lot of people, quite understandably, fear the risk of a nuclear explosion. Fortunately, the risk of a nuclear explosion is absolutely zero when it comes to a nuclear power plant. Put simply, the fuel used inside every nuclear reactor — as demanded by the International Atomic Energy Agency — isn’t sufficiently enriched to make a runaway chain reaction even a possibility. The material isn’t capable of creating a nuclear explosion.
That said, there will be nuclear waste produced. Some of it will be useful for repurposing, like the plutonium used in thermoelectric heating and energy generation for deep space missions, while other material (like tritiated water) will need to be stored and managed. According to the World Nuclear Association:
- Radioactive waste comes out as high-level waste,
- which usually needs ~5 years of underwater storage followed by ~45 years of dry storage,
- allowing radioactivity and heat levels to drop,
- and by then it's become low-level waste,
- which can be packaged and stored underground for long-term disposal.
Although we still have to overcome the “not in my backyard” (NIMBY) mentality when it comes to nuclear, this is essentially a scientifically solved problem.
We can fully transition to nuclear in under 20 years. Building a new, country-wide (or global) set of reactors to power the world will require a sustained investment. New power plants, reactors, cooling towers, etc., will all need to be constructed. Sufficient quantities of nuclear fuel will need to be mined, extracted, and appropriately refined. Supply chains will need to be constructed, and waste management will be an ongoing need to address. Above and beyond the existing infrastructure that we have today, it will require an enormous and sustained investment of resources.
But the payoff will come. While humanity has, to put it lightly, done a dismal job of addressing the climate crisis up until this point, that can all change. If we can simultaneously replace:
- coal, gas, and oil-based power plants with nuclear ones,
- our gasoline-based automotive infrastructure to electric power,
- industrial, commercial, and residential heat and power needs into electric rather than fossil fuel-based solutions,
We can eliminate more than 80% of our fossil fuel uses, including practically all of the non-sustainable ones. We can transform the world for a long-term payoff with a short but significant up-front investment.
The uncomfortable truth is this: we are a space-age civilization that has chosen to eschew technological advances in energy generation because of fear and inertia. We are powering the 21st century with 18th century technology, which has had disastrous effects on our environment that we have ignored for far too long. While there are many possible ways forward to address this problem, nuclear power has the proven track record of success necessary and the flexibility to be an integral, and potentially the primary, resource in humanity’s arsenal in the fight against climate change.
For many years, we have let fear, rather than facts, control the narrative over nuclear power. While the conventional story around nuclear power focuses on the few disasters that have occurred, nuclear’s track record tells a different story: one of unparalleled safety, successful waste management, and abundant, affordable, green energy. The world needs nuclear power now more than ever. If we can overcome our entrenched biases against it, we just might solve one of the biggest problems facing our world for generations to come.
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Should nuclear power be banned?
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With the ability to deliver safe, reliable energy with zero carbon emissions, nuclear energy is increasingly seen as a solution for drastically reducing our greenhouse gas footprint and mitigating global warming.
From the general public to governments throughout the world, the nuclear energy advantages are becoming more apparent in the transition to clean, high output energy.
The primary advantages of nuclear energy include:
Clean
Safe
Reliable
Affordable
Overview of Nuclear Energy and How It Works
Nuclear energy is a clean and efficient way to produce energy and generate electricity without producing greenhouse gas emissions.
Fuel made of uranium is placed in a reactor and generates heat through nuclear fission. This heat is then used to create steam, which can be used for high-temperature industrial processes or to power turbines to generate electricity.
Nuclear energy remains a significant player in the global energy market, with improvements to ensure its safety, particularly through the use of advanced nuclear technology.
The Benefits of Nuclear Energy
1. Clean
Climate change is one of the biggest challenges facing our world today, which has escalated the need for a clean energy transition.
One option that is increasingly gaining traction is nuclear energy, is a viable energy source and has the potential to play a critical role in mitigating global greenhouse gas emissions.
Advanced nuclear energy is an environmentally friendly option given its ability to conserve water. Unlike conventional power plants, advanced nuclear power plants like the Xe-100 use far less water since they do not need additional water to cool the reactor.
This is beneficial in areas that are prone to droughts or water scarcity, relieving the pressure on water supplies.
Moreover, nuclear power plants contribute to significantly less air pollution. They don't produce the emissions that are hazardous to both human health and the environment.
2. Safe
Nuclear power plants are subject to some of the most stringent safety regulations of any industrial sector. These regulations cover every aspect of plant operation, from design and construction to maintenance and decommissioning.
In addition, advanced nuclear power facilities are equipped with state-of-the-art safety technologies meant to prevent accidents and minimize their impact if they occur.
These safety measures include emergency cooling systems, backup power sources, and other safeguards designed to protect both the nuclear reactor and the surrounding area in the event of an accident.
Advanced SMRs also have lower reactor power density and a self-regulating core design. This means that the core is designed to shut down if cooling stops and is intended to prevent the reactor from melting under foreseeable adverse conditions without action by the operator.
Because of this, the emergency planning zone for advanced SMRs can be at the site boundary, allowing the technology to be located closer to population centers and industrial facilities that require process heat.
Safety is also a top priority in the nuclear industry, and ongoing research and development are focused on improving safety even further. This includes research into new reactor designs, safety systems, and accident mitigation strategies.
3. Reliable
While renewable energy sources such as wind and solar have increased and will continue to become a greater share of the global energy supply, they are constrained by their inability to provide consistent base-load electricity power due to their intermittency.
Advanced small modular reactors, on the other hand, have load-following capabilities and are designed to ramp up or ramp down based on customer needs.
Nuclear energy is one of the most reliable and consistent sources of energy, as stated by the United States Department of Energy.
Rising energy consumption and the increased focus on decarbonization create a significant requirement for nuclear energy's carbon-free, always-on generation.
Nuclear power facilities can run continuously for long periods of time without needing frequent maintenance or refueling.
As a result, they can consistently supply electrical grids with uninterruptible electricity. Because of this, grid managers can plan and manage the supply of electricity more effectively.
4. Affordable
Nuclear energy is a cost-effective alternative to traditional sources of power and offers a reliable source of electricity.
Advanced small modular reactors are largely factory built and road-shippable, which reduces on-site work and results in better cost predictability and more efficient quality control.
Conventional large-scale nuclear facilities, however, have high upfront capital costs due to their large size, substantial containment structures, and longer construction times.
The cost of nuclear fuel, which is primarily based on uranium, is also relatively low compared to other fossil fuels and natural gas. This means that the cost of fuel makes up a relatively small portion of the total cost of generating electricity at a nuclear power plant.
Nuclear power plants also have operational lifetimes up to 60 years, resulting in a relatively low cost per kilowatt-hour of electricity produced.
Due to their extended lifespan, the initial cost of establishing a nuclear power station can be distributed over a more extended period, making nuclear energy a cost-effective option.
How Countries are Utilizing Nuclear Energy Technology for Sustainable Development
Several countries, communities, and public bodies have adopted nuclear power as an alternative source of energy and a means to achieve sustainable development.
In recent years, there has also been significant developments in nuclear technology. One of the most notable advancements has been the use of small modular nuclear reactors, which are mobile and can provide energy to remote areas.
In fact, advanced small modular reactors (SMRs) – specifically, high temperature gas reactors (HTGRs) like X-energy’s Xe-100 – have several inherent advantages over other carbon-free power generation, including existing Generation III SMR and conventional large-scale technologies.
About X-Energy Reactor Company, LLC
X-Energy Reactor Company, LLC, is a leading developer of advanced small modular nuclear reactors and fuel technology for clean energy generation.
X-energy is redefining the nuclear energy industry through its development of safer and more efficient advanced small modular nuclear reactors and proprietary fuel to deliver reliable, zero-carbon and affordable energy to people around the world.
For more information, visit X-energy.com or connect with us on Twitter or LinkedIn.
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Consider this thought experiment. What would the climate change debate look like if nuclear power was invented tomorrow? Imagine if humanity had only used fossil fuels and renewables up to this point, and an engineering visionary revealed that split atoms could be used to generate clean power. That's the hypothetical posed to me by Dietmar Detering, a German entrepreneur living in New York.
"I'm sure we'd develop the hell out of it," he said, before sighing. "We're looking at a different world right now."
Detering thinks nuclear energy could be the key to solving the climate crisis. A former member of Germany's Green Party, Detering now spends his spare time as co-chair of the Nuclear New York advocacy group. He's part of a wave of environmentalists campaigning for more nuclear energy.
Though the word evokes images of landscapes pulverized by atomic calamity -- Hiroshima, Chernobyl, Fukushima -- proponents like Detering and his colleague Eric Dawson point out that nuclear power produces huge amounts of electricity while emitting next to no carbon.
This separates it from fossil fuels, which are consistent but dirty, and renewables, which are clean but weather dependent. Contrary to their apocalyptic reputation, nuclear power plants are relatively safe. Coal power is estimated to kill around 350 times as many people per terawatt-hour of energy produced, mostly from air pollution, compared to nuclear power.
"Any energy policy has pros and cons, and we feel, after putting a lot of scrutiny on it, that the pros outweigh the cons of nuclear energy," said Dawson, a grassroots campaigner at Nuclear New York.
It's a contentious statement. Many scientists and environmentalists say nuclear power is prohibitively dangerous and expensive, that plants take too long to build. "Better to expand renewable energy or energy saving, that is a better use of money in terms of climate change mitigation," says Jusen Asuka, director at the Institute for Global Environmental Strategies in Kanagawa, Japan.
But others believe nuclear power is necessary to achieve carbon neutrality by 2050. Governments around the world have declared intentions to reach net zero carbon emissions, most recently at the COP26 UN climate summit, but few have charted clear courses. Some argue that clean, reliable electricity produced in nuclear plants should be part of the solution.
This second camp mourns the decline of nuclear power, which has steepened since the 2011 meltdown at Fukushima. The International Energy Agency estimates the developed world is on track to lose 66% of its current nuclear capacity by 2040. In the US, where nuclear power produces nearly 40% of the country's low-carbon power, 11 reactors have been decommissioned since 2013 -- and nine more will soon join them.
The most recent retirement was Indian Point Energy Center, which formerly produced 25% of the electricity used by 10 million New Yorkers. One reactor was shut last year and the second followed on April 30. The result? Higher emissions as the electricity gap is filled by natural gas.
"The whole goal that everybody's talking about is to increase zero emission electricity, yet they are shutting down the source of the vast majority of zero emission electricity," said Dawson. "So this drives us insane."
Nuclear's PR problem
To be sure, there are risks.
Meltdowns, while rarer than once-in-a-generation, have cataclysmic consequences. And the question of how to best store nuclear waste is contentious: The US invested $9 billion in building a storage site at Yucca Mountain before abandoning the project, though Finland, France and Canada have found potential solutions. (The US also toyed with launching nuclear waste into the sun. Those plans have also been abandoned.)
As a result, nuclear power's reputation is among its biggest hurdles. In the public imagination, nuclear power presages disaster. But the numbers tell a different story. Estimates of deaths from nuclear incidents range from less than 10,000 to around 1 million. As you can infer, it's a highly contested number -- but in either case dwarfed by the death toll from fossil fuel pollution. Around 8.7 million premature deaths were caused by fossil fuel pollution in 2018 alone, according to a February Harvard study.
Bill Gates, when asked if nuclear energy was a solution to climate change, responded: "If people were rational, yes."
The PR problem is understandable. Thirteen years before the first American nuclear power plant opened, the same technology was used to devastate Hiroshima and Nagasaki. No one appreciated the black cloud hanging over atomic power more than President Dwight Eisenhower, who accompanied the rollout of nuclear electricity with a marketing blitz. "This greatest of destructive forces can be developed into a great boon, for the benefit of all mankind," he promised in his now famous Atoms for Peace speech.
So alluring was the promise of cheap, clean energy that 11 countries had built nuclear reactors by 1970, with hundreds more commissioned for development. The newly created Atomic Energy Commission expected the US alone to be running over 1,000 reactors by 2000. But it was not to be. Forty years later, there are an estimated 440 nuclear reactors running -- globally.
There are three key reasons for nuclear's decline since the '70s. Environmental groups, fearful of nuclear meltdowns and weapon proliferation, began lobbying governments to stop building new power plants. In the US, the result was rafts of new safety regulations that made building and operating plants two to three times more costly.
Second was Three Mile Island, where a mechanical failure at a Pennsylvania power station led to radiation leaking outside of the plant. Though no one was killed, the near-miss caused an immediate pause on nuclear power's expansion -- plus more regulation on existing plants, further driving up costs.
Third, and most crucially, Chernobyl. The catastrophic meltdown realized the anti-nuclear movement's worst fears: 4,000 people died, according to conservative estimates by the WHO, and over 130,000 were evacuated. (One extreme estimate of the true death toll exceeds 900,000.) The incident illustrates another downside to atomic energy -- how lasting damage can be. The nuclear cleanup is expected to take 81 years to fully complete.
Chernobyl put a moratorium on nuclear power. Italy banned it outright a year later, and it would be 26 years before construction of another nuclear reactor was green-lit in the US. By 1987, it seemed the world had decided nuclear power was not the energy of the future.
But that was before climate change took center stage as our greatest existential threat.
When the sun ain't shining...
The term "environmentalist" is often used as a catch-all, but it can mean different things. It used to refer to people trying to protect wildlife and natural ecosystems. In the 21st century, the term has evolved to encapsulate the need to combat human-made climate change.
The distinction between these two strands of environmentalism is the cause of a rift within the scientific community about nuclear energy.
On one side are purists who believe nuclear power isn't worth the risk and the exclusive solution to the climate crisis is renewable energy. The opposing side agrees that renewables are crucial, but says society needs a baseload of power to provide electricity when the sun isn't shining and the wind isn't blowing. Nuclear energy, being far cleaner than oil, gas and coal, is a natural option, especially where hydroelectric capacity is limited.
"It's true that nuclear power can have localized negative impacts," said Leon Clarke, research director at the Center for Global Sustainability, "but it isn't going to melt your glaciers."
Clarke, who helped author reports for the UN's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, isn't an uncritical supporter of nuclear energy, but says it's a valuable option to have if we're serious about reaching carbon neutrality.
"Core to all of this is the degree to which you think we can actually meet climate goals with 100% renewables," he said. "If you don't believe we can do it, and you care about the climate, you are forced to think about something like nuclear."
The achievability of universal 100% renewability is similarly contentious. Cities such as Burlington, Vermont, have been "100% renewable" for years. But these cities often have small populations, occasionally still rely on fossil fuel energy and have significant renewable resources at their immediate disposal. Meanwhile, countries that manage to run off renewables typically do so thanks to extraordinary hydroelectric capabilities.
"Norway, Iceland, New Zealand, countries like these all have a naturally high supply for hydroelectricity, so I'm not promoting nuclear there," says Dawson, the campaigner from Nuclear New York. "If [renewables] work, and they provide first-world quality of life, great! But most countries are not able to do that."
Germany stands as the best case study for a large, industrialized country pushing into green energy. Chancellor Angela Merkel in 2011 announced Energiewende, an energy transition that would phase out nuclear and coal while phasing in renewables. Wind and solar power generation are both up over 400% since 2010, and renewables provided 46% of the country's electricity in 2019.
But progress has halted in recent years. The instability of renewables doesn't just mean energy is often not produced at night, but also that solar and wind can overwhelm the grid during the day, forcing utilities to pay customers to use their electricity. Lagging grid infrastructure struggles to transport this overabundance of green energy from Germany's north to its industrial south, meaning many factories still run on coal and gas. The political limit has also been reached in some places, with citizens meeting the construction of new wind turbines with vociferous protests.
The result is that Germany's greenhouse gas emissions have fallen by around 11.5% since 2010 -- slower than the EU average of 13.5%.
Nuclear is replaced by renewables -- and gas
Germany's stunted progress in lowering carbon emissions isn't an indictment of renewable energy as much as an illustration of how bedeviling the shift from dirty to clean energy is. Reducing carbon emissions means setting up wind and solar farms, but also improving energy efficiency and tackling transport emissions. Neglect of such areas are part of why Germany's emissions remain high, but the premature dismissal of nuclear energy is also often argued as a key shortcoming of Energiewende.
Green energy has plugged some of the gap left by a diminishing nuclear sector, but so have coal and gas. The situation is similar in Japan. In pivoting away from nuclear energy after Fukushima, the country plans to build 22 new coal plants in the next five years.
New York, like other parts of the US, is following the same path. When Indian Point Power Center's second and final reactor closed on April 30 it was the culmination of 20 years of debate: Decommissioning the plant was first proposed in 2002 because of its potentially being the target of a post-9/11 terrorist attack.
Public anxiety over Indian Point is understandable. Though not concentrated enough to be hazardous, water carrying radioactive particles flows from the plant into the Hudson River. More harmful is the cooling system that sucks water in from the Hudson, killing fish and larvae in the process. And, as former Governor Andrew Cuomo pointed out, the plant is unusually close to an exceptionally dense city, which would make a meltdown particularly catastrophic. That millions of Americans rejoiced when the plant's closure was announced is no surprise.
But now comes the hard part.
New York, a state with a bigger population than most countries, has committed to getting 70% of its electricity from carbon-free sources by 2030. It has invested heavily in wind farms to this end. But with three natural gas plants set up to help provide the power hitherto generated by Indian Point, emissions are likely to go up following the plant's closure. This is more than a guess: natural gas's share of energy consumption rose from 36% to 40% after Indian Point's first reactor was shut last year.
Nuclear's critics argue that this rise is temporary, and that expanding wind power will eventually replace Indian Point's output. Nuclear New York's Detering rejects this logic.
"People say, 'Well, we're replacing nuclear with wind and solar,'" said Detering. "But I think that is looking at this backwards. We want to displace fossil fuels."
It's a scenario likely to occur repeatedly in the coming years as plants are deconstructed throughout the country. Already on track to miss its 2030 gas emissions target, California will lose two reactors in 2025 -- and a fifth of its carbon-free electricity with them. Nuclear energy provided 93% of Pennsylvania's carbon-free electricity before one of its five reactors was shut in 2019.
It's not just public perception and safety concerns that's hampering nuclear energy adoption, but the more pedestrian worries of time and money. This is true in the US too: With no carbon pricing, increasingly cheap natural gas is more economical than tightly regulated nuclear.
"Cost is the single most important issue for everything," says Asuka, of Kanagawa's Institute for Global Environmental Strategies. Asuka reasons that it's unhelpful for developing countries or those aspiring to meet 2030 deadlines to start building plants now, since they cost so much and take so long to build. He argues that investment should go into energy conservation and renewable technologies.
"Nuclear power is not so helpful in terms of cost, security and timing," Asuka says.
A handful of companies building the next generation of nuclear reactors think they can change that.
The next generation
Nuclear power plants are massive investments. Not only do they cost over $10 billion, they often take between eight and 12 years to build. That's without factoring in delays and budget overruns, which are common. "Stabilizing the climate is urgent, nuclear power is slow," reads the 2019 World Nuclear Industry Status Report.
The US model for nuclear power plant production is particularly inefficient. Each state has its own utility standards and safety regulations, requiring power plants to be tailored to their locale. By contrast, France designed a few types of reactor and mass-produced them around the country -- and now gets over 70% of its electricity from nuclear energy. South Korea managed to halve the cost of nuclear energy between 1971 and 2008 using similar methods. Compare that to the US, where costs skyrocketed as high as 1,000% between the '60s and '80s.
X-Energy, one of several companies building safer and less expensive "Gen IV" nuclear reactors, hopes to reverse that trend. X-Energy's pebble-bed designs run on nuclear fuel encased in up to 220,000 billiard-sized graphite balls -- which the company says makes a meltdown physically impossible.
Leaks and meltdowns happen when the metal structure in which nuclear fission occurs melts or ruptures. At Chernobyl, for instance, operator error caused a steam explosion that blew a nuclear reactor open, unleashing radioactive gas and debris.
The graphite encasing nuclear materials used in X-Energy's reactors can withstand temperatures of up to 3,200 degrees fahrenheit, around 1,000 degrees more than the heat that caused Chernobyl's meltdown. Even if a reactor was torn apart, all radioactive elements would still be contained within the graphite casing.
"The accident in Chernobyl -- with our reactor, it's impossible," said Yvotte Brits, a nuclear engineer at X-Energy. "The reactor can never meltdown, no matter what the operator does. They can make the worst mistake but still cannot melt down the reactor."
That means plants aren't just safer, they're significantly cheaper and quicker to build. If meltdowns are impossible, the safety regulations that make power plants in the US so expensive won't be necessary. Neither will the giant containment structure that typically surrounds a nuclear core, which in turn allows X-Energy to build modular plants in a factory rather than constructing them at a building site.
The first plant is due for completion in 2027, with another following the year after. Brits says the company will eventually be able to complete a reactor in two years' time.
X-Energy is one of many companies building next-generation power plants that promise to realize Eisenhower's promise of atomic energy that's cheap, safe and widespread. Another is the Bill Gates-backed TerraPower, which is developing a reactor that aims to solve the cost and waste problems by running off depleted uranium. Both companies were awarded $80 million by the Department of Energy last October to help fund upcoming reactors.
"I've been in the industry almost 40 years, there's no better time than now," says Darren Gale, X-Energy's vice president of commercial operations. "People are coming to the realization that we can't have it both ways. We can't demand having the [clean] power and then refuse to let you build nuclear power plants to make that happen.
"Congress, public opinion, everybody is starting to change because they've seen the alternative is building more oil and gas."
Gale's optimism stems in part from President Joe Biden's American Jobs Plan, a huge infrastructure proposal which has provisions to fund advanced nuclear reactors. That's good news for companies like X-Energy -- and for the world if the designs live up to their potential -- but does little for existing nuclear infrastructure.
The future, today
"It is, I promise, worse than you think." Those are the opening words of The Uninhabitable Earth, an influential article-turned-book by David Wallace-Wells that details what a warming planet will likely look like. Low-lying countries like Bangladesh sunk by rising oceans and the onset of mass heat deaths are on the low end of the calamity spectrum. Starvation, plagues and warfare would follow, he writes.
Those are the plausible costs of inactivity -- a baseline. No energy source is perfect, so mitigating that outcome by reaching carbon neutrality will require a series of risks, sacrifices and difficult decisions. In the face of this, countries have made weighty pledges to fight climate change but are often light on the particulars of what that entails.
"Countries are making commitments to net zero that are extraordinarily ambitious, but we don't know exactly how to get there," said the Center for Global Sustainability's Clarke. "All options need to be kept on the table. I would absolutely be keeping [nuclear] on the table."
Both Detering and Dawson from Nuclear New York are aware of nuclear energy's perils. For different reasons -- Dawson is a conservative concerned about air pollution and energy scarcity, Detering a former Green Party member worried about climate change -- both have come to regard it a shame that nuclear energy is being neglected. For them it's not a matter of looking for the perfect energy source, but of comparing alternatives.
"Nuclear energy is not fairydust," says Detering. "There's waste and there's a risk of something going wrong. Comparing it to something that's real, these are small issues." For his part, Dawson says he won't advocate for nuclear power if a better alternative emerges.
"Today, I think this is the most reliable, efficient, scalable, carbon-free technology we have," he said. "So let's do something that works today."
Correction, July 6: Removes erroneous claim that radiation leaks at nuclear power plants have caused deaths.
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An overview of the main advantages of nuclear energy and the challenges currently facing the industry today.
June 11, 2024Nuclear energy protects air quality by producing massive amounts of carbon-free electricity. It powers communities in 28 U.S. states and contributes to many non-electric applications, ranging from the medical field to space exploration.
The Office of Nuclear Energy within the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) focuses its research primarily on maintaining the existing fleet of reactors, developing new advanced reactor technologies, and improving the nuclear fuel cycle to increase the sustainability of our energy supply and strengthen the U.S. economy.
Below are some of the main advantages of nuclear energy and the challenges currently facing the industry today.
Advantages of Nuclear Energy
Clean Energy Source
Nuclear is the largest source of clean power in the United States. It generates nearly 775 billion kilowatthours of electricity each year and produces nearly half of the nation’s emissions-free electricity. This avoids more than 471 million metric tons of carbon each year, which is the equivalent of removing 100 million cars off of the road.
Creates Jobs
The nuclear industry supports nearly half a million jobs in the United States. Domestic nuclear power plants can employ up to 800 workers with salaries that are 50% higher than those of other generation sources. They also contribute billions of dollars annually to local economies through federal and state tax revenues.
Supports National Security
A strong civilian nuclear sector is essential to U.S. national security and energy diplomacy. The United States must maintain its global leadership in this arena to influence the peaceful use of nuclear technologies. The U.S. government works with countries in this capacity to build relationships and develop new opportunities for the nation’s nuclear technologies.
Challenges of Nuclear Energy
Public Awareness
Commercial nuclear power is sometimes viewed by the general public as a dangerous or unstable process. This perception is often based on three global nuclear accidents, its false association with nuclear weapons, and how it is portrayed on popular television shows and films.
DOE and its national labs are working with industry to develop new reactors and fuels that will increase the overall performance of these technologies and reduce the amount of nuclear waste that is produced.
DOE also works to provide accurate, fact-based information about nuclear energy through its social media and STEM outreach efforts to educate the public on the benefits of nuclear energy.
Used Fuel Transportation, Storage and Disposal
Many people view used fuel as a growing problem and are apprehensive about its transportation, storage, and disposal. DOE is responsible for the eventual disposal and associated transport of all used fuel, most of which is currently securely stored at more than 70 sites in 35 states. For the foreseeable future, this fuel can safely remain at these facilities until a permanent disposal solution is determined by Congress.
DOE is currently evaluating nuclear power plant sites and nearby transportation infrastructure to support the eventual transport of used fuel away from these sites.
Subject to appropriations, the Department is moving forward on a government-owned consolidated interim storage facility project that includes rail transportation.
The location of the storage facility would be selected through DOE's consent-based siting process that puts communities at the forefront and would ultimately reduce the number of locations where commercial spent nuclear fuel is stored in the United States.
Constructing New Power Plants
Building a nuclear power plant can be discouraging for stakeholders. Conventional reactor designs are considered multi-billion dollar infrastructure projects. High capital costs, licensing and regulation approvals, coupled with long lead times and construction delays, have also deterred public interest.
DOE is rebuilding its nuclear workforce by supporting the construction of two new reactors at Plant Vogtle in Waynesboro, Georgia. The units are the first new reactors to begin construction in the United States in more than 30 years. The expansion project supported up to 9,000 workers at peak construction and created 800 permanent jobs at the facility when the units came online in 2023 and 2024.
DOE is also supporting the development of smaller reactor designs, such as microreactors and small modular reactors, that will offer even more flexibility in size and power capacity to the customer. These factory-built systems are expected to dramatically reduce construction timelines and will make nuclear more affordable to build and operate.
High Operating Costs
Challenging market conditions have left the nuclear industry struggling to compete. DOE’s Light Water Reactor Sustainability (LWRS) program is working to overcome these economic challenges by modernizing plant systems to reduce operation and maintenance costs, while improving performance. In addition to its materials research that supports the long-term operation of the nation’s fleet of reactors, the program is also looking to diversify plant products through non-electric applications such as water desalination and hydrogen production.
To further improve operating costs. DOE is also working with industry to develop new fuels and cladding known as accident tolerant fuels. These new fuels could increase plant performance, allowing for longer response times and will produce less waste. Accident tolerant fuels could gain widespread use by 2025.
*Update June 2024
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As Secretary of State John Kerry prepares to sign the U.S. on to the Paris Climate Agreement on April 22 – Earth Day – there are lessons from past international climate agreements, namely the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, we would be remiss to ignore.
First, let’s call the Paris Agreement what it is: a political stunt for President Obama to do what President Clinton could not with the Kyoto Protocol.
To recap, in 1997, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change adopted the Kyoto Protocol, which set forth binding targets and timetables for greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reductions for developed countries—countries like the U.S. and European Union. Meanwhile, developing countries like China, India, and Brazil got a free pass. In fact, the Kyoto Protocol exempted 80 percent of the world from GHG emission reductions.
I could talk extensively about how it was known then that without developing countries, Kyoto would produce no meaningful impact on global climate change. What is most important now—in advance of the Paris Agreement signing—is holding the Obama Administration accountable to the lessons learned from the fallout of Kyoto.
Let us not forget, the Kyoto Protocol, which was a legally binding treaty as opposed to the non-binding Paris Agreement, was signed by the Clinton Administration in late 1998, but was never submitted to the U.S. Senate for ratification.
This was because the Senate had already voted, 95 to 0, to approve the Byrd-Hagel resolution, which warned the president against signing a climate treaty that would either economically harm the U.S. or exempt developing countries from participating.
In 2001, the U.S. formally rejected the Kyoto Protocol and looking back on Kyoto’s track record that is a very good thing.
Ultimately, 36 developed countries were legally bound to its GHG targets and 17 – nearly half – of them failed to meet their GHG targets.
Some countries joining Kyoto, like Iceland, had targets that actually granted increases in GHG emissions while others, like Russia, had a target of zero – requiring them to do nothing. The same goes for Russia today with the Paris agreement. Russia pledged to reduce its carbon emissions by 30 percent, but made their promise based off emission levels from 1990 – not their current emission levels today. By playing with numbers, Russia’s commitment will actually allow it to increase emissions over the next few years.
Others including Japan—the host country for signing Kyoto— significantly missed its GHG reduction targets and instead increased emissions.
There were warning signs countries would fail to meet the Kyoto targets.
For example, in 2005, the year Kyoto went into force, as then-Chairman of EPW Committee, I held a hearing on Kyoto where I questioned then-U.S. Senior Climate Change Negotiator Harlan Watson about EU countries meeting their targets.
Watson testified that at the time only two EU countries – the UK and Sweden – were on track to reaching their targets. Watson also noted that at least 15 of the then-25 members of the EU had actually increased their emissions since signing onto Kyoto.
Another witness, Dr. Margo Thorning of the American Council for Capital Formation, told the Committee, EU “policymakers are beginning to worry about the additional steps required to meet the targets.”
We now know that they were right. The EU, one of the staunchest advocates for global GHG emission cuts, barely reached half of its required GHG targets under Kyoto.
If developed countries, like those in the EU have ignored legally binding GHG emission targets in Kyoto, it’s highly likely they will not meet the voluntary GHG reductions promised in Paris.
Within the EU, some individual countries such as Poland have already shown fierce opposition to the Paris Agreement due to their reliance on coal power.
Some have said Paris is different because developing countries like China agreed to GHG targets. However, the devil is in the details.
China’s climate change commitment to peak their emissions by 2030 is a business as usual scenario and therefore they won’t have to take any serious action to reduce emissions.
Furthermore, after making their pledge, The New York Times uncovered that China dramatically underreported the amount of coal it burns per year – burning 17 percent more than what China had previously reported during climate talks.
Just last month, a London School of Economics and Political Science researcher found that it is possible that Chinese emissions have already peaked. It’s no wonder when the country is bringing online a new coal power plant every 10 days.
Now why would China bother putting forth such a commitment and why would the Obama Administration promote it as historic?
First, it is in the interest of China to ensure this commitment is ratified since it makes it more difficult for the U.S. and EU to get out of economically damaging regulations that limit our energy use.
Second, it is in the interest of President Obama to sign this agreement since his own legacy hinges of its ratification.
We’ve seen this before. Think back to Kyoto. Clinton did not have the support of the Senate. Yet, Clinton delegated his UN Ambassador to sign it.
And we know what happened – they signed it and so did many other countries, but the difference between the signatories is that U.S. signature means nothing without Senate ratification. That was true then and it is still true today.
The Obama Administration should take note. History repeats itself. If Secretary Kerry signs the Paris Agreement, as we all expect him to do so, it will be an act in defiance of lessons from the past and in defiance of the best interests’ of the American people - all while achieving no meaningful impact on global temperatures.
Just like Koyto, countries will not comply. Here at home, the president’s means to force the U.S. to achieve his 26-28% emission reduction pledge–primarily through the so-called Clean Power Plan which is likely to get struck by the courts and its implementation has already been blocked by the U.S. Supreme Court.
Even before the Supreme Court stay of the Clean Power Plan, the president was short of meeting 40% of his pledge. Without the Clean Power Plan, the U.S. will fall short by 60% of President Obama’s pledge.
As the world closes the books on another failed climate deal this Friday in New York, the only achievement that President Obama and his liberal allies will be able to point to is the massive carbon footprint left behind from their government-funded planes used to travel to numerous climate negotiations that all amounted to a hollow deal to bolster the president’s legacy.
Click play to view the video or follow this link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bv124fpxpME
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Understanding Car Engine Coolant: Importance and Maintenance
Discover the importance of engine coolant, radiator fluid, and antifreeze in your car. Learn what coolant does and why water isn't a suitable alternative.
A car transmission is a crucial component in the drivetrain that transfers power from the engine to the wheels.
Transmissions can be either automatic or manual, with manual transmissions requiring the driver to manually change gears. Manual transmissions work by using a clutch pedal and shifter to engage or disengage the engine from the transmission.
There are various types of manual transmissions, including dual-clutch, unsynchronized, synchronized/constant mesh, automated and preselector. Automatic transmissions, on the other hand, use a torque converter to change gears and do not require manual shifting.
If you’ve wondered about how a transmission works, the process varies depending on the type of transmission. Whatever type of transmission it is, the answer to what does a transmission do is it enables the gear ratio between the drive wheels and engine to adjust as the car slows down and speeds up.
When a vehicle is stopped, the transmission disconnects the engine from the drive wheels so that the engine can keep idling when the wheels aren’t in motion. Transmissions also enable quick acceleration from a stop and enable the engine to run more slowly to cut down on wear while the vehicle is driving at consistent speeds.
Manual transmissions require the driver to manually change gears using a clutch pedal and a shifter. These types of transmissions consist of a set of gears along a pair of shafts, called the input and output shafts.
How does a manual transmission work? With a manual transmission, the driver must select the proper gear and engage or disengage the clutch. The transmission uses a flywheel, pressure plate and clutch to engage and disengage the engine from the transmission.
The flywheel and pressure plate are connected to the engine. The clutch is sandwiched between them and is splined to the transmission input shaft. The act of “pushing in the clutch” releases the pressure plate, which disengages the clutch from the engine. Every time you make a shift, you have to push in the clutch first.
This transmission uses two clutches, which can be wet or dry. One clutch operates the even gears (2, 4 and 6). The other clutch operates the odd gears (1, 3, 5 and reverse). Dual-clutch transmissions were common in older cars and are still found in modern race cars. With today’s dual-clutch automated manual transmissions, sometimes called a double-clutch transmission or a twin-clutch transmission, a computer controls the clutch engagement and shifting, bridging the gap between a manual and automatic transmission.
The first manual transmissions were unsynchronized, or “non-synchro.” They were also called rock crushers because drivers would grind the gears together trying to get them to mesh. Trucks used this type of transmission well into the early 1960s because these transmissions were very strong.
Synchronized/constant mesh transmissions keep the cluster gear, drive gear and mainshaft gears constantly moving. These types of transmissions use pads to slow down the gears. This eliminates the need for double-clutching action.
An automated transmission, sometimes referred to as an AMT, is a manual transmission with a computer controlling the shifting and clutch. The AMT is used in heavy-duty trucks.
Single-clutch is a manual transmission with the computer controlling the shifting and clutch. Shifting and clutch control can be electric, hydraulic or electrohydraulic. The popularity of single-clutch transmissions started to fade as dual-clutches were able to handle increased torque.
A preselector was a manual transmission with a vacuum or hydraulic shift control that was mostly used in the 1930s through the early 1950s. Some preselectors used bands and planetary gears. Basically, whatever forward gear was selected, the next time the clutch was engaged, it shifted to that gear.
How does an automatic transmission work? The main automatic vs. manual transmission difference is that with an automatic transmission, the process that powers a manual transmission happens within the transmission itself. Automatic transmissions typically don’t use clutches. Instead, the automatic transmission relies on a torque converter to change gears.
The first automatic transmission, which was more like a semi-automatic transmission because it still had a clutch, has been around in some form since the early 1900s. The first true automatic transmission used in a production car was the Hydro-Matic, in a 1939 Oldsmobile for the 1940 model year. The inventor was Earl Avery Thompson.
Most large SUVs and trucks have traditional automatic transmissions. Here are some terms commonly associated with automatic transmissions:
What about electric cars? Single-gear systems are used in electric vehicles. The power band of an electric motor enables engineers to use compact single-speed transmissions to transfer power to the drive wheels. This can be integrated with the motor or be a bolt-on.
Continuously variable transmissions, called CVTs, are pulley-based transmissions that are primarily used in small vehicles with small engines. CVTs have been used for years in snow machines, ATVs and side-by-sides, to name a few. They’re also more recently popular in hybrid vehicles.
The basic set-up is a primary small drive and a secondary large driven clutch, with a belt or chain to connect the two. The belt or chain will sit low in the primary drive and sit high in the secondary drive at a stop.
As you accelerate, the primary drive will contract, causing the belt or chain to walk up, while at the same time the secondary will expand, causing the belt or chain to walk down.
A car’s transmission helps deliver the power from an engine to the wheels. It changes the gears according to your car’s speed to prevent the engine from getting overloaded. It also keeps fuel consumption lower and keeps a car moving.
An automatic transmission changes the gears for a driver automatically while a manual transmission allows the driver to decide which gear they want to use.
The gearbox can sense a car’s speed changes by measuring the oil pressure of the vehicle while it moves. Because of this function, it can switch the gears accordingly.
Universal Technical Institute (UTI) has a courses on powertrains and transmissions in the Automotive Technology program. Students learn:
You don’t need any prior automotive experience to attend UTI. Students graduate prepared for entry-level careers as automotive technicians.1
Get information on automotive technician training online or call 1-800-834-7308 for information.
VA benefits may not be available at all campus locations.
Universal Technical Institute of Illinois, Inc. is approved by the Division of Private Business and Vocational Schools of the Illinois Board of Higher Education.
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According to Meineke, most automobiles use a form of automatic transmission called a hydraulic planetary automatic transmission, which is also used in a scaled-up version in some industrial and commercial equipment and heavy-duty vehicles. The friction clutch is replaced by fluid coupling and the system defines a set of gear ranges depending on the needs of the auto. When you put the vehicle in park, all the gears lock to prevent the car from rolling forward or backward.
A less common option is the automated manual transmission (AMT). Sometimes called a semi-automatic transmission, this model pairs the clutches and gears of a manual transmission with a set of actuators, sensors, processors, and pneumatics. AMTs operate like an automatic while providing the affordability and fuel-saving benefits of a manual transmission. With this type of transmission, the driver can manually shift gears or opt for automatic shifting. Either way, he or she does not need to use the clutch, which is operated by a hydraulic system.
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History of the Automatic Transmission
General Motors and REO both released semi-automatic vehicle transmissions in 1934. These models posed fewer challenges than the traditional manual transmission but still required the use of a clutch to change gears. The GM transmission was the first of its kind to use a hydraulically controlled planetary gearbox, allowing the gears to shift depending on the vehicle's travel speed.
The planetary transmission was one of the most important developments on the road to the modern automatic transmission. Although GM was the first to use the version with hydraulic controls, this technology actually dates to a 1900 invention by Wilson-Pilcher. That innovation consisted of four forward gears on two trains that could be shifted with a single lever.
Operation of an Automatic Transmission
The most common type of automatic transmission uses hydraulic power to shift gears. According to How Stuff Works, this device combines a torque or fluid coupling converter with gearsets that provide the desired range of gears for the vehicle. The torque converter connects the engine to the transmission and uses pressurized fluid to transfer power to the gears. This apparatus replaces a manual friction clutch and lets the vehicle come to a complete stop without stalling.
Information from Art of Manliness depicts the operation of an automatic transmission. As the engine transmits power to the pump of the torque converter, the pump converts this power into transmission fluid that powers the turbine of the torque converter. This apparatus increases the power of the fluid and transmits even more power back to the turbine, which creates a vortex power rotation that spins the turbine and the attached central shaft. The power created by this rotation is then transmitted from the shaft to the transmission's first planetary gear set.
This type of transmission has what is called hydraulic control. The transmission fluid is pressurized by an oil pump, which allows the speed to change depending on the vehicle's speed, tire revolutions per minute, and other factors. The gear pump is placed between the planetary gearset and torque converter, where it pulls and pressurizers transmission fluid from a sump. The pump input leads directly to the housing of the torque converter attached to the flexplate of the engine. When the engine is not running, the transmission does not have the oil pressure needed to operate and thus the vehicle cannot be push-started.
The planetary gear train is a mechanical system in which the gears are connected with a set of bands and clutches. When the driver changes gears, the bands hold one gear still while rotating another to transmit torque from the engine and increase or decrease gears.
The different gears are sometimes called the sun gear, the ring gear, and the planetary gear. The arrangement of the gears determines how much power will flow from one gear to another and out to the drive train of the vehicle when you shift.
Gears of an Automatic Transmission
The gears of an automatic transmission include the following:
- According to How a Car Works, when you shift your vehicle into drive, you engage all available forward gear ratios. This means that the transmission can move between its full range of gears as needed. Six-speed automatic transmissions are the most common number of gears, but older cars and entry-level compact cars may still have either four or five automatic gears.
- Third gear either locks the transmission in third gear or limits it to the first, second, and third gear ratios. This provides the power and traction needed to go either uphill or downhill or to tow a boat, RV, or trailer. When the engine reaches a designated level of revolutions per minute (RPM), most vehicles automatically drop third gear to keep the engine from harm.
- Second gear either locks the transmission in second gear or limits it to the first and second gear ratios. This gear is ideal for going uphill and downhill in slippery conditions as well as driving during ice, snow, and other types of inclement weather.
- First gear is used when you want to lock the transmission in first gear, although some vehicles will automatically switch out of this gear to protect the engine at a certain RPM. Like second and third gear, this gear is best used for towing, driving uphill or downhill, and when traveling during slippery, icy conditions.
Advantages of an Automatic Transmission
According to How Stuff Works, the biggest advantage of an automatic transmission is the ability to drive without the need for a clutch as is required with a manual transmission. Individuals with many disabilities are able to drive using an automatic since operation only requires two usable limbs.
The lack of a clutch also eliminates the need to pay attention to shifting manually and monitoring the tachometer to make the necessary shifts, which gives you more attention to focus on the task of driving.
Many drivers also find it easier to control an automatic transmission at low speeds than a manual transmission. The hydraulic automatic transmission creates a phenomenon called idle creep, which encourages the vehicle to move forward even when idling.
Information and research in this article verified by ASE-certified Master Technician Duane Sayaloune of YourMechanic.com. For any feedback or correction requests please contact us at research@caranddriver.com.
Sources:
https://www.meineke.com/blog/how-an-automatic-transmission-works/
https://auto.howstuffworks.com/automatic-transmission.htm
https://www.howacarworks.com/basics/how-automatic-gearboxes-work
https://www.artofmanliness.com/articles/how-automatic-transmission-works/
https://auto.howstuffworks.com/automatic-transmission12.htm
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If you drive a manual transmission car, then you may have several questions floating in your head. How does the funny "H" pattern that I am moving this stick shift knob through have any relation to the gears inside the transmission? What is moving inside the transmission when I move the shifter?
When I mess up and hear that horrible grinding sound, what is actually grinding? What would happen if I were to accidentally shift into reverse while I am speeding down the freeway? Would the entire transmission explode?
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In this article, we'll answer all of these questions and more as we explore the interior of a manual transmission.
Cars need transmissions because of the physics of the gasoline engine.
First, any engine has a redline — a maximum rpm value above which the engine cannot go without exploding. Second, if you have read How Horsepower Works, then you know that engines have narrow rpm ranges where horsepower and torque are at their maximum.
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For example, an engine might produce its maximum horsepower at 5,500 rpm. The transmission allows the gear ratio between the engine and the drive wheels to change as the car speeds up and slows down. You shift gears so the engine can stay below the redline and near the rpm band of its best performance.
Ideally, the transmission would be so flexible in its ratios that the engine could always run at its single, best-performance rpm value. That is the idea behind the continuously variable transmission (CVT).
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Continuously Variable Transmissions
A continuously variable transmission (CVT) has a nearly infinite range of gear ratios. In the past, CVTs could not compete with four-speed and five-speed transmissions in terms of cost, size and reliability, so you didn't see them in production automobiles.
These days, improvements in design have made CVTs more common.
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The standard manual transmission is connected to the engine through the clutch. The input shaft of the transmission therefore turns at the same rpm as the engine, which improves both power output and fuel economy.
CVTs became common in hybrid cars because they are considerably more efficient than both manual and traditional automatic transmissions, and their popularity skyrocketed from there as automakers competed for the best possible fuel economy ratings.
The CVT does have its downsides; most notably, it can be sluggish to drive, since it's engineered for efficiency rather than fun. The CVT also works best in small cars with small engines, which is why most trucks and large SUVs continue to use traditional automatics.
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Basic Parts of a Transmission
To understand the basic idea behind a standard transmission, let's look at each of the parts to understand how they fit together:
The Clutch and Clutch Pedal
The green shaft comes from the engine through the clutch. The green shaft and green gear are connected as a single unit. (The clutch is a device that lets you connect and disconnect the engine and the transmission.)
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When you push in the clutch pedal, the engine and the transmission are disconnected so the engine can run even if the car is standing still. When you release the clutch pedal, the engine and the green shaft are directly connected to one another. The green shaft and gear turn at the same rpm as the engine.
The Layshaft
The red shaft and gears are called the layshaft. These are also connected as a single piece, so all of the gears on the layshaft and the layshaft itself spin as one unit.
The green shaft and the red shaft are directly connected through their meshed gears so that if the green shaft is spinning, so is the red shaft. In this way, the layshaft receives its power directly from the engine whenever the clutch is engaged.
The Differential
The yellow shaft is a splined shaft that connects directly to the drive shaft through the differential to the drive wheels of the car. If the wheels are spinning, the yellow shaft is spinning.
The Bearings
The blue gears ride on bearings, so they spin on the yellow shaft. If the engine is off but the car is coasting, the yellow shaft can turn inside the blue gears while the blue gears and the layshaft are motionless.
The Collar
The purpose of the collar is to connect one of the two blue gears to the yellow drive shaft. The collar is connected, through the splines, directly to the yellow shaft and spins with the yellow shaft.
However, the collar can slide left or right along the yellow shaft to engage either of the blue gears. Teeth on the collar, called dog teeth, fit into holes on the sides of the blue gears to engage them.
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Shifting Into First Gear
This diagram shows that when shifted into first gear, the purple collar engages the blue gear to its right. As the graphic demonstrates, the green shaft from the engine turns the layshaft, which turns the blue gear to its right.
This gear transmits its energy through the collar to drive the yellow drive shaft. Meanwhile, the blue gear on the left is turning, but it is freewheeling on its bearing so it has no effect on the yellow shaft.
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When the collar is between the two gears, the transmission is in neutral. Both of the blue gears freewheel on the yellow shaft at the different rates controlled by their ratios to the layshaft.
What Is the Grinding Sound When Shifting?
When you make a mistake while shifting and hear a horrible grinding sound, you are not hearing the sound of gear teeth mis-meshing. As you can see in these diagrams, all gear teeth are all fully meshed at all times. The grinding is the sound of the dog teeth trying unsuccessfully to engage the holes in the side of a blue gear.
Double-Clutch
The transmission shown here does not have "synchros" (discussed later in the article), so if you were using this transmission you would have to double-clutch it. Double-clutching was common in older cars and is still common in some modern race cars.
In double-clutching, you first push the clutch pedal in once to disengage the engine from the transmission. This takes the pressure off the dog teeth so you can move the collar into neutral. Then you release the clutch pedal and rev the engine to the "right speed."
The right speed is the rpm value at which the engine should be running in the next gear. The idea is to get the blue gear of the next gear and the collar rotating at the same speed so that the dog teeth can engage.
Then you push the clutch pedal in again and lock the collar into the new gear. At every gear change you have to press and release the clutch twice, hence the name "double-clutching."
How the Gear Shift Knob Works
You can also see how a small linear motion in the gear shift knob allows you to change gears. The gear shift knob moves a rod connected to the fork. The fork slides the collar on the yellow shaft to engage one of two gears.
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A Real Transmission
Four-speed manual transmissions are largely outdated, with five- and six-speed manual transmissions taking their place as the more common options. Some performance cars may offer even more gears.
However, they all work more or less the same, regardless of the number of gears. There are three forks controlled by three rods that are engaged by the shift lever. Looking at the shift rods from the top, they look like this in reverse, first and second gear:
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Keep in mind that the shift lever has a rotation point in the middle. When you push the knob forward to engage first gear, you are actually pulling the rod and fork for first gear back.
You can see that as you move the shifter left and right you are engaging different forks (and therefore different collars). Moving the knob forward and backward moves the collar to engage one of the gears.
Reverse gear is handled by a small idler gear (purple). At all times, the blue reverse gear in this diagram above is turning in a direction opposite to all of the other blue gears.
Therefore, it would be impossible to throw the transmission into reverse while the car is moving forward; the dog teeth would never engage. However, they will make a lot of noise.
Synchronizers
Manual transmissions in modern passenger cars use synchronizers, or synchros, to eliminate the need for double-clutching. A synchro's purpose is to allow the collar and the gear to make frictional contact before the dog teeth make contact.
This lets the collar and the gear synchronize their speeds before the teeth need to engage, like this image.
The cone on the blue gear fits into the cone-shaped area in the collar, and friction between the cone and the collar synchronize the collar and the gear. The outer portion of the collar then slides so that the dog teeth can engage the gear.
Every manufacturer implements transmissions and synchros in different ways, but this is the general idea.
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What About the Automated Manual Transmission?
The automated manual transmission is perhaps better known and more accurately described as the dual-clutch automatic, and it is an increasingly popular option. Though the dual-clutch automatic transmission became popular on high-end performance cars, such as Porsches and Audis, it is increasingly available on more mainstream models.
The dual-clutch automatic operates via two clutches, which are controlled by the car's computer network and require no input from the driver. When the clutch in a manual transmission is engaged, it disconnects the engine from the transmission to enable the shift.
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The dual-clutch automatic operates two different gears at once, which completes the shift while bypassing the power-disconnect stage. That allows a dual-clutch transmission to complete shifts much more quickly, since there isn't a "pause" while the engine and transmission try to match back up.
Advantages of Dual-Clutch Automatic Transmission
The car is faster since there is no interruption in power, the ride is smoother since it's all but impossible to pinpoint the moment of the gear change, and fuel economy is better because there is no power lost to inefficient shifts.
It's worth noting that some cars with dual-clutch automatics offer a manual shifting mode, usually via steering wheel-mounted paddle shifters, but the experience is not the same.
Some performance enthusiasts may bemoan the loss of the "row-it-yourself" experience, since manually shifting is an enjoyable skill to practice and perfect, but if speed is the ultimate goal, it's hard to argue with the results of an automated manual transmission.
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Is Manual Transmission Disappearing?
Even if you're among the rare car buyer who prefers to drive a manual, you'll have a hard time finding one the next time you go to a dealership. According to the EPA, just 0.9 percent of cars produced in 2022 had a manual transmission.
Interestingly, sales of manual transmission vehicles experienced a slight uptick in 2022 and 2023. According to an analysis by WardsAuto using data from J.D. Power and CarMax, manual transmission vehicles accounted for 1.7 percent of new vehicle sales in the U.S. in 2023, up from 1.2 percent in 2022 and 0.9 percent in 2021.
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Used manual transmission cars are also becoming more popular: They accounted for 2.4 percent of CarMax's sales in 2020, but went up to 2.9 percent in 2022.
What's behind the trend? "It's the vinyl of driving," one Reddit user said. "Customers have expressed interest in manual transmission vehicles due to a variety of factors, including nostalgia and throwback culture,” Mark Collier, regional vice president and general manager at CarMax, told Wards.
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Manual Transmission FAQ
What does 5-speed manual transmission mean?
Manual transmissions are also known as 5-speeds.
Do they still make cars with manual transmissions?
Yes. But as of late 2023, less than 2 percent of new vehicles were produced with manual transmissions, according to the EPA.
Is a manual transmission better?
Automakers say that automatic transmissions are simply better in every way, especially the CVT and dual-clutch options. However, a small group of drivers prefer to drive stick.
Is it better to drive an automatic or a manual?
With an automatic transmission, the car is faster since there is no interruption in power. The ride is smoother since it's all but impossible to pinpoint the moment of the gear change and fuel economy is better because there is no power lost to inefficient shifts.
Are manual transmissions still made?
You'll have a hard time finding new manual transmission car the next time you go to a dealership, but they are still being made. If you want options such as engine upgrades or all-wheel drive, those features often come only on models or trim levels that do not offer manual transmissions.
Cite This!
Please copy/paste the following text to properly cite this HowStuffWorks.com article:
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How does a car's transmission system work?
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330791fecb08
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https://www.bioenergyconsult.com/car-transmission-system/
|
A car transmission, also known as the transmission system, is the mechanism by which power created by the engine is transferred to the driving wheels. This part of the vehicle is the most important in determining the power and functionality of your engine systems. The two types of transmissions include automatic transmission and manual transmission. Use hpi to check the transmission type of any car, van or light-commercial vehicle.
A manual transmission requires the driver to complete extra steps of selecting and engaging the gear ratios. In contrast, mechanical efforts are minimized in an automatic transmission, and different speeds are obtained automatically.
If you are wondering how a car transmission works, it all depends on the type of transmission. However, regardless of the type, the answer to what a transmission does is to enable the gear ratio between the vehicle’s engine and drive wheels to adjust as the vehicle speeds up and slows down. When not in motion, the transmission disconnects the drive wheels from the engine. So let’s dive deeper into details on how manual and automatic transmission work.
All you need to know about manual transmission
A manual transmission is a manual gearbox or stick-shift or standard transmission class of transmission where the driver literally uses a stick shift to change gears. Changing the gears involves releasing the clutch disc through a third pedal located on the left side of the break. Then select the chosen gear and engage the clutch again. If the driver frequently engages the clutch slowly, the disc will wear out early. If the driver engages the clutch too quickly, the engine will stall.
Components of a manual gearbox
Narrowing down the various parts and components of the gearbox will help you understand the complex way a manual transmission works. Some significant features of a manual gearbox include
- The clutch and clutch pedal: Consisting of various small parts, the clutch transfers the engine torque to the transmission. The clutch pedal is a piece of gear that is hydraulically controlled. When you depress, it disengages the clutch.
- Flywheel: Normally circular in shape and used to send the engine torque to the clutch disc, which interacts with the smooth surface of the flywheel.
- Collar and selector fork: An arm-like-looking piece of gear that aids in moving the collars through the output shaft. By locking the collar to a specific gear, you can always select different other gears. This results in the transmission of torque from the layshaft to the output shaft.
- Synchronizers: Helps the collar and the gear engage with each other and importantly matches their speed if there is a difference.
- Output shaft and Layshaft: The output shaft’s gears mesh with the lay shaft’s gears when one receives the engine power first.
- Gears: Gear often comes in different sizes in a manual gearbox. Large gearwheels contain more teeth and offer more torque to reduce the car’s speed, whereas small gears provide less torque to your car so that it can run at a higher speed.
How a manual transmission works
- Before switching the vehicle’s key on, you need to press the clutch pedal down to disengage the clutch. This cuts the power between the engine’s input shaft and the transmission and ensures that the engine is alive before powering the vehicle.
- Shift the gearshift to the first gear so that the gear shift can move towards the latter one. The first gear has a connection to the layshaft, which is connected to the engine input file via another gear.
- The synchronizer collar connected to the shifting fork helps the driving gear in the transportation of power to the output shaft and matches their speed if there is any difference.
- You now need to apply slight pressure on the gas pedal and then take your foot off the clutch. This reconnects the gearbox and the engine making your vehicle start moving.
- You now need to repeat the same process of changing the gear so that you can speed up or slow down the car.
Generally, bade-model vehicles are fitted with a 5-speed manual transmission, while pricey vehicles are equipped with a 6-speed transmission such as the rebuilt nv5600 transmission.
All you need to know about automatic transmission
With an automatic transmission, things are simplified as compared to a manual transmission. There is neither a clutch pedal nor a gear shift in an automatic transmission vehicle. Once the transmission is put into drive, all other things are automatic.
Components of an automatic transmission
To help understand what happens in an automatic transmission, let us look at the specific parts of an automatic transmission.
- Transmission casing: Houses all parts of the transmission.
- Torque Converter: Transmits to the transmission input shaft from the engine. It also helps in the multiplication of engine torque output
- Planetary gears: This allows automatic increase and decrease of the gear ratios.
How automatic transmission works
- The engine dispatches power to the torque converter’s pump
- The pump receives the power and, through the transmission fluid, sends it to the torque converter’s turbine
- Through the stator, the transmission fluid is sent back to the pump
- The stator multiplies power and sends it back to the turbine
- The turbine is normally connected to the central shaft, which is also connected to the transmission.
- The turbine then spins the shaft spins dispatching power to the first planetary gear
- The planetary gear arrangements determine of power transmitted to the rest of the drive
- Power from the torque converter will either make the ring gear, the sun gear, or the planetary carrier of the planetary gear system stay stationary or move.
Stages of automatic transmission
- Park(P): Locks the transmission, restricting the vehicle from moving
- Reverse(R): Puts the car in reverse gear, making the car move backward
- Neutral(N): disconnects the transmission from the wheel
- Drive(D): allows the vehicle to move and can accelerate through a range of gears
- Low(L): allows you to lower your speed and move on middy or hilly areas
Now, as you cruise down the freeways and feel the car shifting gears, you will have an idea of what is exactly taking place under the hood. It’s all about the transmission, but if you need to get a new one it’s all about cheap online transmissions! However, if you need money to pay for one, you could always use your vehicle to get extra cash! Find out how much money you could get with a car title loan.
Also Read: Tips for Looking After Your Alloys
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176e9fb93317
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https://www.napavalley.com/weather/
|
Before you book your trip to California Wine Country, you may be wondering: when is the best weather in Napa Valley? Thanks to a mild, Mediterranean climate, Napa Valley is not only an idyllic place to grow grapes, it’s also a welcoming destination for visitors any time of year. Though temperate year-round, summers tend to be warm and dry with plenty of sun, while winters can bring rain and cooler, cloudy days. Regardless of the season, temperatures can vary dramatically between day and night, sometimes as much as 30 degrees, so layers are advised.
5 Day Forecast
From sunrise to sunset, the weather forecast is looking good in Wine Country! Thanks to its mild, Mediterranean-like climate, Napa Valley is an idyllic place to visit year-round.
Weather Season by Season
Spring
March – May
Spring is a lovely time to explore Napa Valley, when you’ll find blossoming flowers, vineyards showcasing the first signs of bud break, and fewer crowds. Though you may see patchy fog in the morning, rain becomes less frequent as the days start to warm, inviting mild temperatures that encourage more time outdoors.
Average High/Low: 68°F / 47°F
Average Rainfall: 1.8″
Summer
End of May – August
Napa Valley is a top destination during the summer months for visitors looking to make the most of the region’s long, hot days and pleasant evenings. Though it can get crowded, you can’t deny the appeal of lazy, sunshine-filled afternoons in Wine Country, when there’s not a cloud or raindrop in sight.
Average High/Low: 82°F / 55°F
Average Rainfall: 0.08″
Harvest
Late August – October
California beckons with lovely weather conditions all year long, but it’s hard to beat the magic of the harvest season in Wine Country. Thanks to average temperatures that are neither too hot nor too cold, it’s an ideal time to visit. Plus, the vineyards reveal brilliant shades of red and gold that make for a beautiful sight to see.
Average High/Low: 77°F / 50°F
Average Rainfall: 0.08″
Fall
Late September – Thanksgiving
Though fall in Napa is synonymous with harvest, most of the excitement surrounding crush begins to mellow out by mid-October as evening temperatures start to drop. While still pleasant during the day with high temperatures staying in the upper 60s, layers become more of a necessity in the early morning and at night when it can dip below 45 degrees. Sunny days are still the norm, but November brings more clouds and the occasional rain shower.
Average High/Low: 69°F / 41°F
Average Rainfall: 1.9”
Holidays
December – January
December is a wondrous time in Napa Valley, when festive events and gatherings add to the joy of the season. Average temperatures hover around 60 degrees during the day, dropping down into the 40s and sometimes 30s at night. Though you won’t find snow, precipitation is somewhat frequent, so don’t forget an umbrella and a rain jacket.
Average High/Low: 60°F / 42°F
Average Rainfall: 5.1″
Low Season
January – March
Winter may be the rainy season in Napa County, but with fewer crowds and more affordable lodging prices, it’s a great time to cozy up with a glass of red wine beside a fire. Despite the rain, you’ll still find clear, sunny days with a high temperature in the 50s, making Napa feel downright balmy compared to most of the country this time of year.
Average High/Low: 57°F / 38°F
Average Rainfall: 5.3″
Plan Your Trip
FEATURED NAPA VALLEY EXPERIENCES: WINE TASTING & WINE TOURS
TRAVEL RECOMMENDATIONS
Your Questions About Napa Valley Weather Answered
-
When is the best weather in Napa?
With its mild, Mediterranean-like climate, Napa Valley is an idyllic place to visit year-round. However, Napa Valley’s warmest weather is found between May and September, when the days are long and filled with plenty of sunshine.
-
How cold does it get in Napa Valley?
Napa Valley enjoys mild weather year-round, but winter brings the coldest temperatures. While daytime temperatures rarely drop below 55 degrees between January and March, average lows range between 38 – 40 degrees F at night.
-
Does Napa have snow?
While the higher elevations in Napa Valley, such as Spring Mountain, receive the occasional flurry or dusting of snow, the valley floor (where most of the vineyards are located) does not get snow.
-
Does it rain in Napa?
Napa Valley gets an average of 27 inches of rain per year, with most rainfall happening during the winter months between December and March.
-
Why is the weather good for the wine?
Napa Valley’s Mediterranean climate creates ideal conditions for growing grapes, where warm, dry summers are moderated by cool marine influences, and large diurnal temperature shifts from day to night allow the grapes to ripen while retaining balanced acidity.
-
Is Napa Valley warmer than San Francisco?
Napa Valley is typically much warmer than neighboring San Francisco, especially in the summer months. During summer, fog and cooler temperatures are common in San Francisco, while warm, sunny days are the norm in Napa Valley.
Upcoming Napa Valley Events
Celebrate Napa Valley Restaurant Month at the Clif Family Food Truck, Napa’s favorite for eight…
Dining
Restaurant Month at The…
Come savor something truly special during this year’s Restaurant Month at The Grove Restaurant at…
Educational
Sing Napa Valley at…
Sing Napa Valley invites singers of all experience levels to join its welcoming community choir…
Food & Wine Festivals
Napa Truffle Festival
Celebrate the Annual Napa Truffle Festival, a four-day celebration of all things truffle, January 16–19.…
FEATURED PARTNERS
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weather
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weather in napa in may
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87228f8ef172
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https://www.sftourismtips.com/napa-weather-in-may.html
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SIGN UP FOR MY EMAIL TO RECEIVE YOUR FREE SAN FRANCISCO PLANNING GUIDE.
By: Jill Loeffler • Updated: January 22, 2025
What should you expect from the Napa weather in May? Perfection!
This time of the year is warm and sunny almost every day of the month. The sun is shining, the vines are starting to fill out, and it is a lovely time to be here.
Read on for more about the weather, what you should bring along to wear, and a few of my favorite things to do this time of year.
The photo above was from an unusually cloudy day in May. Typically, there is less cloud cover and the sun is often shining bright.
It is the end of spring and the temperatures are mild and comfortable. The days start off in the 50s and warm up to the 60s by mid-morning. They peak out in the lower to upper 70s during the day and then start to cool off again at night.
You will find overnight lows in the lower to mid-50s. It is slightly cooler during the first part of the month and a bit warmer toward the end of it.
The great thing about this time of year is that there is very little rain. You might see some clouds in the sky, but the monthly rainfall is usually just over one inch for the month.
Read on for more details about the Napa weather in May.
Average High in May: 75° F (27° C)
Average Low in May: 50° F (12° C)
Average Monthly Rainfall: Just over an inch
Record High: 104° F (45° C)
Record Low: 30° F (1° C)
SFTourismTips is made possible by readers like you! If you book through my links, I may earn a small commission at no extra cost to you. Thanks for your support! Learn more.
What should you pack for the Napa weather in May? We usually get about 14 hours of daylight this time of year. The sun rises around 6 am and it is still quite cool. The sun sets around 8 pm, which is when it starts to really cool off again.
To stay comfortable, bring along several items that you can layer.
Shirts: Bring along a couple of short sleeved and light weight long sleeved shirts. Also bring along a few light weight sweaters. This will allow you to mix and match based on what you have planned for the day.
Jackets: Make sure to bring along a light weight jacket. You will need this during the cool mornings and evenings.
Pants/Jeans: Pack at least a couple of pairs of pants. You can wear jeans or casual pants. You will find quite a few people wearing jeans throughout the valley. This is the time of year you start to see a few people in dresses too.
Shoes: Bring along at least two pairs of comfortable shoes. I will wear canvas shoes earlier in the month and will usually bring along some sandals for the days later in the month. Make sure you can wear them while standing for an hour or two at a time, since most tasting rooms have very little seating.
Shirts: It is typically warm enough to wear short sleeved shirts. Most men wear casual, button down shirts. You will find some men in fitted or nicely tailored T-shirts too. All are acceptable in the tasting rooms.
Jackets: Make sure to bring along a light jacket. This will be something you will need for the evenings and early mornings.
Pants/Jeans: Jeans or pants are perfect for the early part of the month. You will find a few warmer days toward the end of the month where you might feel more comfortable in shorts. It is the perfect time to sit outside so bring along a combination of pants and jeans that keep you at the perfect temperature in with temperatures in the upper 60s or lower 70s.
Shoes: Bring along two pairs of comfortable shoes. Both athletic and canvas shoes are welcome in the tasting rooms. You will be standing a lot so make sure your shoes don't hurt your feet while standing for an hour or two at a time.
1. BottleRock: One of the biggest music festivals is over Memorial Day weekend in Napa. This three-day event features some of the biggest artists every year. There are five stages of music every day with a variety of artists performing. You will also find some of the top local wines, brews, and food for sale too.
2. Cave Tours: Head below ground for a cave tour. I love these tours as you get a great idea on what it takes to make and store wine until it is ready to be bottled. Make sure to go on a cave tour that includes a tasting inside the cave at the end. These are my favorite. They are often small group tours, so you will get to ask questions and learn quite a bit about the winery. Make sure to also bring along your jacket as it is cool underground.
3. Memorial Day Weekend: Celebrate the weekend at Napa Valley wineries. Many feature big food and wine tasting festivals. Others offer vineyard dinners or open houses.
4. Mother's Day: Spoil your mom (or yourself!) this Mother's Day in Napa. You will find some wonderful brunches, family-focused lunches, and special tastings at wineries throughout the valley.
5. Hot Air Balloon Rides: With the cool morning temperatures and the gorgeous sunrises, May is the perfect time to head out on a Hot Air Balloon ride. Your ride begins shortly before sunset and runs for about 45 minutes to an hour. Most will pick you up and drop you off at your hotel. Others include an optional champagne toast or brunch after the ride above the vineyards.
Hi, I’m Jill!
I’ve been sharing San Francisco travel advice since 2009 and have helped millions of people explore the city like a local. Whether you’re dreaming of sea lions, cable cars, or a great sourdough bread bowl, I’m here to help you plan an unforgettable trip with real tips from someone who actually lives here.
Comments? Questions? Suggestions?
I would love for you to join me in my private Facebook group!
It's a great place to interact with me and others who are familiar with the area.
You can ask questions, get advice for your upcoming stay, and then share your photos and advice with others when you return home. It's a great community and the fastest way to get answers to those nagging questions about your visit!
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https://gamerant.com/terraria-every-class-endgame-builds/
|
Terraria is undoubtedly a game that seeks to challenge players and push them to do their best, regardless of the odds or obstacles in their way. Such is evident through the inclusion of notably difficult enemies, bosses, and locations. Players must strive to be the best at whatever they do, but before doing so, they must decide what playstyle is best for them. The game presents various approaches — commonly known as classes — players can take, each with strengths, weaknesses, and focuses that play to different capabilities and preferences.
While Terraria has no official class or leveling system, it features four distinct methods of play defined chiefly by its means of inflicting damage and its proficiencies. The four classes are Melee, Ranged, Magic, and Summoning, all of which possess a myriad of specific subclasses. Understanding these varying playstyles and their characteristics is vital in progressing through the game and performing well. Thus, players must know how each class works and what gear suits it best. Here is every class in Terraria — and their best endgame builds.
Melee
The Melee class is the typical up-close-and-personal archetype that utilizes relatively close-ranged weapons and formidable armor to its advantage. Builds of this class often boast phenomenal offense, defense, and crowd control, making them a fitting choice for spearheading battles. Players that choose the Melee class should be comfortable with close-quarters combat and throwing themselves into the raging fires of conflict, as that is what this class does best. Although most builds of this class are similar, there is much room for variety.
The Melee class can specialize in ways that stray from its typical sword and board playstyle. Rather than using a blade or the like, players can utilize weapons such as yo-yos, spears, jousting lances, boomerangs, flails, etc. There is a considerable amount of nuance to the Melee class, allowing players flexibility while keeping true to the purpose of this playstyle overall. Additionally, the gear players equip can improve their build in vastly different ways, turning players into fast-hitting assailants, hard-hitting bruisers, formidable walls, and far more.
Best Melee Builds
|
World State |
Weapon |
Armor |
Accessories |
|---|---|---|---|
|
Early game |
Platinum/Gold Sword |
Platinum/Gold Armor |
Band of Regeneration, Cloud in a Bottle, Hermes Boots |
|
Pre-Hardmode |
Enchanted Sword |
Molten Armor |
Feral Claws, Magma Stone, Shield of Cthulhu |
|
Hardmode |
Terra Blade |
Beetle Armor |
Ankh Shield, Fire Gauntlet, Warrior Emblem |
|
Endgame |
Zenith |
Solar Flare Armor |
Ankh Shield, Celestial Shell, Fire Gauntlet |
Ranged
The Ranged class is best known for providing background support, using far-reaching weaponry and gear that improves their evasiveness. Most every build of this class aims to inflict considerable damage — whether in a single hit or a short period — without getting into the thick of battle, making them much less direct contenders in fights. Those deciding on the Ranged class must understand the importance of avoiding close combat, staying elusive, and doing good damage. There is plenty of diversity, allowing players to customize this class further.
The Ranged class presents players with a wide assortment of weapons, each with the same general function. Players can use bows, repeaters, guns, consumables, launchers, etc., to wreak havoc from afar. Every weapon of the Ranged class serves the same purpose in dramatically different ways, granting players much leeway when developing their builds. Many items can also buff the capabilities of this class in different ways, turning players into quick-shooting gunslingers, volley-launching archers, or even covert snipers.
Best Ranged Builds
|
World State |
Weapon |
Armor |
Accessories |
|---|---|---|---|
|
Early game |
Tendon/Demon Bow |
Fossil Armor |
Cloud in a Bottle, Hermes Boots, Panic Necklace |
|
Pre-Hardmode |
Minishark |
Necro Armor |
Blue Horseshoe Balloon, Spectre Boots, Sweetheart Necklace |
|
Hardmode |
Daedalus Stormbow |
Shroomite Armor |
Endless Quiver, Molten Quiver, Ranger Emblem |
|
Endgame |
S.D.M.G. |
Vortex Armor |
Molten Quiver, Ranger Emblem, Recon Scope |
Magic
The Magic class has access to a vast collection of spells and incantations, granting them extensive power at the cost of formidability and durability. Builds of this class seek to utilize devastating and distinct capabilities of magic, which boast unique effects capable of things that typical weapons are not. Players who set their minds on the Magic class should understand that they are glass cannons, powerful attackers incapable of enduring damage. With arcane power at their disposal, players can do all sorts of things with the Magic class.
The Magic class boasts some of the most devastating and varied weapons in Terraria, all with dramatically different effects. Weapons of this class include wands, magic guns, spell books, etc., which players can use to achieve various things. The Magic class's diversity in selection and function allow players to pursue many different focuses, most of which are immensely powerful. This class also benefits from various gear that can improve its potential, transforming players into powerful spellcasters, diverse sorcerers, or destructive forces.
Best Magic Builds
|
World State |
Weapon |
Armor |
Accessories |
|---|---|---|---|
|
Early game |
Water Bolt |
Jungle Armor |
Band of Starpower, Mana Flower, Hermes Boots |
|
Pre-Hardmode |
Space Gun |
Meteorite Armor |
Celestial Cuffs, Magnet Flower, Spectre Boots |
|
Hardmode |
Betsy's Wrath |
Spectre Armor |
Celestial Cuffs, Mana Cloak, Sorcerer Emblem |
|
Endgame |
Lunar Flare |
Nebula Armor |
Celestial Cuffs, Mana Cloak, Sorcerer Emblem |
Summoning
The Summoning class, while technically a branch of the Magic class, stands on its own as it utilizes minions, sentries, and whips to overwhelm and overpower enemies. Every build of this class aims to defeat foes through strength in numbers and control as they can dictate their summons to attack particular adversaries. Players deciding on the Summoning class will focus less on bolstering their capabilities but on those of their minions and sentries instead. Players have leeway with their builds with the exceptional amount of summons in Terraria.
The Summoning class features all manner of minions and sentries, which can be dictated to an extent using whips. Every minion, sentry, and whip is different but serves the purpose of focusing and overwhelming enemies. Moreover, the Summoning class can seamlessly utilize weapons from others in addition to its own, granting even more versatility to an already diverse playstyle. This class features various items that work to diversify things, transforming players into masters of hordes or overseers of cannons, being in a position of power regardless.
Best Summoning Builds
|
World State |
Weapon |
Armor |
Accessories |
|---|---|---|---|
|
Early game |
Leather Whip, Slime Staff |
Flinx Fur Coat |
Cloud in a Bottle, Feral Claws, Hermes Boots |
|
Pre-Hardmode |
Spinal Tap, Imp Staff |
Obsidian Armor |
Feral Claws, Pygmy Necklace, Spectre Boots |
|
Hardmode |
Kaleidoscope, Terraprisma |
Spooky Armor |
Celestial Shell, Papyrus Scarab, Summoner Emblem |
|
Endgame |
Kaleidoscope, Stardust Dragon Staff |
Stardust Armor |
Celestial Shell, Papyrus Scarab, Summoner Emblem |
Terraria is available on PC, PS Vita, PS3, PS4, PS5, Xbox 360, Xbox One, Xbox Series X/S, Nintendo Switch, Wii U, 3DS, IOS, Android, and Google Stadia.
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games
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