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Industrial Revolution	eric hobsbawm held industrial revolution began britain fully felt t. s. ashton held occurred roughly .rapid industrialization first began britain starting mechanized spinning high rates growth steam power iron production occurring .mechanized textile production spread great britain continental europe united states early th century important centres textiles iron coal emerging belgium united states later textiles france.an economic recession occurred late early adoption industrial revolutions early innovations mechanized spinning weaving slowed markets matured.innovations developed late period increasing adoption locomotives steamboats steamships hot blast iron smelting new technologies electrical telegraph widely introduced powerful enough drive high rates growth.rapid economic growth began occur springing new group innovations called second industrial revolution.
Industrial Revolution	innovations included new steel making processes massproduction assembly lines electrical grid systems largescale manufacture machine tools use increasingly advanced machinery steampowered factories.etymology earliest recorded use term industrial revolution appears letter july written french envoy louisguillaume otto announcing france entered race industrialise.book keywords vocabulary culture society raymond williams states entry industry idea new social order based major industrial change clear southey owen implicit early blake early wordsworth turn th century.term industrial revolution applied technological change becoming common late jérômeadolphe blanquis description la révolution industrielle.friedrich engels condition working class england spoke industrial revolution revolution time changed whole civil society.however although engels wrote book translated english late expression enter everyday language then.
Industrial Revolution	credit popularising term may given arnold toynbee whose lectures gave detailed account term.economic historians authors mendels pomeranz kridte argue protoindustrialization parts europe islamic world mughal india china created social economic conditions led industrial revolution thus causing great divergence.some historians john clapham nicholas crafts argued economic social changes occurred gradually term revolution misnomer.still subject debate among historians.requirements six factors facilitated industrialization high levels agricultural productivity provide excess manpower food pool managerial entrepreneurial skills available ports rivers canals roads cheaply move raw materials outputs natural resources coal iron waterfalls political stability legal system supported business financial capital available invest.industrialization began great britain new factors added eagerness british entrepreneurs export industrial expertise willingness import process.britain met criteria industrialized starting th century.
Industrial Revolution	britain exported process western europe especially belgium france german states early th century.united states copied british model early th century japan copied western european models late th century.important technological developments commencement industrial revolution closely linked small number innovations beginning second half th century.following gains made important technologiestextiles – mechanised cotton spinning powered steam water increased output worker factor around .power loom increased output worker factor .
Industrial Revolution	cotton gin increased productivity removing seed cotton factor .large gains productivity also occurred spinning weaving wool linen great cotton.steam power – efficiency steam engines increased used onefifth onetenth much fuel.adaptation stationary steam engines rotary motion made suitable industrial uses.highpressure engine high power weight ratio making suitable transportation.steam power underwent rapid expansion .iron making – substitution coke charcoal greatly lowered fuel cost pig iron wrought iron production.
Industrial Revolution	– using coke also allowed larger blast furnaces resulting economies scale.steam engine began used power blast air indirectly pumping water waterwheel mid enabling large increase iron production overcoming limitation water power.cast iron blowing cylinder first used .later improved making double acting allowed higher blast furnace temperatures.puddling process produced structural grade iron lower cost finery forge.
Industrial Revolution	rolling mill fifteen times faster hammering wrought iron.hot blast greatly increased fuel efficiency iron production following decades.invention machine tools – first machine tools invented.included screw cutting lathe cylinder boring machine milling machine.machine tools made economical manufacture precision metal parts possible although took several decades develop effective techniques.textile manufacture british textile industry statistics britain imported .
Industrial Revolution	million pounds raw cotton spun woven cottage industry lancashire.work done hand workers homes occasionally shops master weavers.raw cotton consumption million pounds cleaned carded spun machines.– british textile industry used million pounds cotton increased million pounds .the share value added cotton textile industry britain ..
Industrial Revolution	.value added british woollen industry ..cotton factories britain numbered approximately .approximately onethird cotton cloth manufactured britain exported rising twothirds .
Industrial Revolution	cotton spun amounted .million pounds increased million pounds .less .world cotton cloth produced machinery invented britain.spindles britain rising million next years.wages lancashire core region cottage industry later factory spinning weaving six times india overall productivity britain three times higher india.
Industrial Revolution	cotton parts india china central america south america middle east long history hand manufacturing cotton textiles became major industry sometime ad.tropical subtropical regions grown grown small farmers alongside food crops spun woven households largely domestic consumption.th century china began require households pay part taxes cotton cloth.th century almost chinese wore cotton clothing.almost everywhere cotton cloth could used medium exchange.
Industrial Revolution	india significant amount cotton textiles manufactured distant markets often produced professional weavers.merchants also owned small weaving workshops.india produced variety cotton cloth exceptionally fine quality.cotton difficult raw material europe obtain grown colonial plantations americas.early spanish explorers found native americans growing unknown species excellent quality cotton sea island cotton gossypium barbadense upland green seeded cotton gossypium hirsutum.sea island cotton grew tropical areas barrier islands georgia south carolina poorly inland.
Industrial Revolution	sea island cotton began exported barbados s. upland green seeded cotton grew well inland areas southern u.s. economical difficulty removing seed problem solved cotton gin.strain cotton seed brought mexico natchez mississippi became parent genetic material world cotton production today produced bolls three four times faster pick.trade textiles age discovery followed period colonialism beginning around th century.following discovery trade route india around southern africa portuguese dutch established verenigde oostindische compagnie abbr.voc dutch east india company worlds first transnational corporation first multinational enterprise issue shares stock public.
Industrial Revolution	british later founded east india company along smaller companies different nationalities established trading posts employed agents engage trade throughout indian ocean region indian ocean region north atlantic europe.one largest segments trade cotton textiles purchased india sold southeast asia including indonesian archipelago spices purchased sale southeast asia europe.mids cloth threequarters east india companys exports.indian textiles demand north atlantic region europe previously wool linen available however number cotton goods consumed western europe minor early th century.premechanized european textile production flemish refugees began weaving cotton cloth english towns cottage spinning weaving wool linen well established.left alone guilds consider cotton threat.
Industrial Revolution	earlier european attempts cotton spinning weaving thcentury italy thcentury southern germany industries eventually ended supply cotton cut off.moors spain grew spun wove cotton beginning around th century.british cloth could compete indian cloth indias labour cost approximately onefifth onesixth britains.british government passed calico acts protect domestic woollen linen industries increasing amounts cotton fabric imported india.the demand heavier fabric met domestic industry based around lancashire produced fustian cloth flax warp cotton weft.flax used warp wheelspun cotton sufficient strength resulting blend soft cotton difficult sew.on eve industrial revolution spinning weaving done households domestic consumption cottage industry puttingout system.occasionally work done workshop master weaver.
Industrial Revolution	puttingout system homebased workers produced contract merchant sellers often supplied raw materials.offseason women typically farmers wives spinning men weaving.using spinning wheel took anywhere four eight spinners supply one handloom weaver.invention textile machinery flying shuttle patented john kay number subsequent improvements including important one doubled output weaver worsening imbalance spinning weaving.became widely used around lancashire johns son robert invented dropbox facilitated changing thread colors.
Industrial Revolution	– lewis paul patented roller spinning frame flyerandbobbin system drawing wool even thickness.technology developed help john wyatt birmingham.paul wyatt opened mill birmingham used new rolling machine powered donkey.factory opened northampton spindles five paul wyatts machines.operated .
Industrial Revolution	similar mill built daniel bourn leominster burnt down.lewis paul daniel bourn patented carding machines .based two sets rollers travelled different speeds later used first cotton spinning mill.lewiss invention later developed improved richard arkwright water frame samuel crompton spinning mule.in village stanhill lancashire james hargreaves invented spinning jenny patented .first practical spinning frame multiple spindles.
Industrial Revolution	jenny worked similar manner spinning wheel first clamping fibres drawing followed twisting.simple wooden framed machine cost £ spindle model used mainly home spinners.jenny produced lightly twisted yarn suitable weft warp.– spinning frame water frame developed richard arkwright along two partners patented .design partly based spinning machine built thomas high clockmaker john kay hired arkwright.
Industrial Revolution	– spindle water frame used series four pairs rollers operating successively higher rotating speed draw fibre twisted spindle.roller spacing slightly longer fibre length.too close spacing caused fibres break distant spacing caused uneven thread.top rollers leathercovered loading rollers applied weight.weights kept twist backing rollers.bottom rollers wood metal fluting along length.
Industrial Revolution	water frame able produce hard mediumcount thread suitable warp finally allowing cotton cloth made britain.horse powered first factory use spinning frame.arkwright partners used water power factory cromford derbyshire giving invention name.samuel cromptons spinning mule introduced .mule implies hybrid combination spinning jenny water frame spindles placed carriage went operational sequence rollers stopped carriage moved away drawing roller finish drawing fibres spindles started rotating.cromptons mule able produce finer thread hand spinning lower cost.
Industrial Revolution	mule spun thread suitable strength used warp finally allowed britain produce highly competitive yarn large quantities.realising expiration arkwright patent would greatly increase supply spun cotton lead shortage weavers edmund cartwright developed vertical power loom patented .patented twoman operated loom conventional.cartwright built two factories first burned second sabotaged workers.cartwrights loom design several flaws serious thread breakage.
Industrial Revolution	samuel horrocks patented fairly successful loom .horocks loom improved richard roberts produced large numbers roberts hill co.the demand cotton presented opportunity planters southern united states thought upland cotton would profitable crop better way could found remove seed.eli whitney responded challenge inventing inexpensive cotton gin.man using cotton gin could remove seed much upland cotton one day would previously working rate one pound cotton per day taken woman two months process.these advances capitalised entrepreneurs best known richard arkwright.credited list inventions actually developed people thomas highs john kay arkwright nurtured inventors patented ideas financed initiatives protected machines.
Industrial Revolution	created cotton mill brought production processes together factory developed use power—first horsepower water power—which made cotton manufacture mechanised industry.inventors increased efficiency individual steps spinning carding twisting spinning rolling supply yarn increased greatly.long steam power applied drive textile machinery.manchester acquired nickname cottonopolis early th century owing sprawl textile factories.although mechanization dramatically decreased cost cotton cloth midth century machinewoven cloth still could equal quality handwoven indian cloth part due fineness thread made possible type cotton used india allowed high thread counts.however high productivity british textile manufacturing allowed coarser grades british cloth undersell handspun woven fabric lowwage india eventually destroying industry.
Industrial Revolution	wool earliest european attempts mechanized spinning wool however wool spinning proved difficult mechanize cotton.productivity improvement wool spinning industrial revolution significant far less cotton.silk arguably first highly mechanised factory john lombes waterpowered silk mill derby operational .lombe learned silk thread manufacturing taking job italy acting industrial spy however italian silk industry guarded secrets closely state industry time unknown.although lombes factory technically successful supply raw silk italy cut eliminate competition.
Industrial Revolution	order promote manufacturing crown paid models lombes machinery exhibited tower london.iron industry uk iron production statistics bar iron commodity form iron used raw material making hardware goods nails wire hinges horseshoes wagon tires chains etc.well structural shapes.small amount bar iron converted steel.cast iron used pots stoves items brittleness tolerable.
Industrial Revolution	cast iron refined converted bar iron substantial losses.bar iron also made bloomery process predominant iron smelting process late th century.in uk tons cast iron produced charcoal tons coke.charcoal iron production coke iron tons.production charcoal cast iron tons coke iron production tons.charcoal cast iron production tons coke cast iron tons.
Industrial Revolution	uk imported tons bar iron either refined cast iron directly produced tons bar iron using charcoal tons using coke.uk making tons bar iron coke tons charcoal imports tons exports tons.uk import bar iron exported tons.iron process innovations major change iron industries industrial revolution replacement wood biofuels coal.given amount heat mining coal required much less labour cutting wood converting charcoal coal much abundant wood supplies becoming scarce enormous increase iron production took place late th century.
Industrial Revolution	coke generally replaced charcoal smelting copper lead widespread use glass production.smelting refining iron coal coke produced inferior iron made charcoal coals sulfur content.low sulfur coals known still contained harmful amounts.conversion coal coke slightly reduces sulfur content.– minority coals coking.another factor limiting iron industry industrial revolution scarcity water power power blast bellows.
Industrial Revolution	limitation overcome steam engine.use coal iron smelting started somewhat industrial revolution based innovations sir clement clerke others using coal reverberatory furnaces known cupolas.operated flames playing ore charcoal coke mixture reducing oxide metal.advantage impurities sulphur ash coal migrate metal.technology applied lead copper .also applied iron foundry work case reverberatory furnace known air furnace.
Industrial Revolution	foundry cupola different later innovation.by abraham darby made progress using coke fuel blast furnaces coalbrookdale.however coke pig iron made suitable making wrought iron used mostly production cast iron goods pots kettles.advantage rivals pots cast patented process thinner cheaper theirs.coke pig iron hardly used produce wrought iron – darbys son abraham darby ii built furnaces horsehay ketley low sulfur coal available far coalbrookdale.new furnaces equipped waterpowered bellows water pumped newcomen steam engines.newcomen engines attached directly blowing cylinders engines alone could produce steady air blast.
Industrial Revolution	abraham darby iii installed similar steampumped waterpowered blowing cylinders dale company took control .dale company used several newcomen engines drain mines made parts engines sold throughout country.– steam engines made use higherpressure volume blast practical however leather used bellows expensive replace.ironmaster john wilkinson patented hydraulic powered blowing engine blast furnaces.blowing cylinder blast furnaces introduced first blowing cylinder made cast iron believed one used carrington designed john smeaton.
Industrial Revolution	cast iron cylinders use piston difficult manufacture cylinders free holes machined smooth straight remove warping.james watt great difficulty trying cylinder made first steam engine.john wilkinson built cast iron blowing cylinder ironworks invented precision boring machine boring cylinders.wilkinson bored first successful cylinder boulton watt steam engine given exclusive contract providing cylinders.watt developed rotary steam engine widely applied blowing hammering rolling slitting.
Industrial Revolution	solutions sulfur problem addition sufficient limestone furnace force sulfur slag use low sulfur coal.use lime limestone required higher furnace temperatures form freeflowing slag.increased furnace temperature made possible improved blowing also increased capacity blast furnaces allowed increased furnace height.– addition lower cost greater availability coke important advantages charcoal harder made column materials iron ore fuel slag flowing blast furnace porous crush much taller furnaces late th century.as cast iron became cheaper widely available began structural material bridges buildings.famous early example iron bridge built cast iron produced abraham darby iii.
Industrial Revolution	however cast iron converted wrought iron.europe relied bloomery wrought iron largescale production cast iron.conversion cast iron done finery forge long been.improved refining process known potting stamping developed superseded henry corts puddling process.cort developed two significant iron manufacturing processes rolling puddling .puddling produced structural grade iron relatively low cost.puddling means decarburizing molten pig iron slow oxidation reverberatory furnace manually stirring long rod.
Industrial Revolution	decarburized iron higher melting point cast iron raked globs puddler.glob large enough puddler would remove it.puddling backbreaking extremely hot work.puddlers lived .puddling done reverberatory furnace coal coke could used fuel.the puddling process continued used late th century iron displaced steel.
Industrial Revolution	puddling required human skill sensing iron globs never successfully mechanised.rolling important part puddling process grooved rollers expelled molten slag consolidated mass hot wrought iron.rolling times faster trip hammer.different use rolling done lower temperatures expelling slag production iron sheets later structural shapes beams angles rails.the puddling process improved baldwyn rogers replaced sand lining reverberatory furnace bottom iron oxide.john hall patented use roasted tap cinder iron silicate furnace bottom greatly reducing loss iron increased slag caused sand lined bottom.
Industrial Revolution	tap cinder also tied phosphorus understood time.halls process also used iron scale rust reacted carbon molten iron.halls process called wet puddling reduced losses iron slag almost around .puddling became widely used .time british iron manufacturers used considerable amounts iron imported sweden russia supplement domestic supplies.
Industrial Revolution	increased british production imports began decline britain eliminated imports became net exporter bar iron.hot blast patented scottish inventor james beaumont neilson important development th century saving energy making pig iron.using preheated combustion air amount fuel make unit pig iron reduced first onethird using coke twothirds using coal however efficiency gains continued technology improved.hot blast also raised operating temperature furnaces increasing capacity.using less coal coke meant introducing fewer impurities pig iron.meant lower quality coal anthracite could used areas coking coal unavailable expensive however end th century transportation costs fell considerably.shortly industrial revolution improvement made production steel expensive commodity used iron would cutting edge tools springs.
Industrial Revolution	benjamin huntsman developed crucible steel technique s. raw material blister steel made cementation process.the supply cheaper iron steel aided number industries making nails hinges wire hardware items.development machine tools allowed better working iron causing increasingly used rapidly growing machinery engine industries.steam power development stationary steam engine important element industrial revolution however early period industrial revolution industrial power supplied water wind.britain estimated horsepower supplied steam.steam power grown hp.the first commercially successful industrial use steam power due thomas savery .
Industrial Revolution	constructed patented london lowlift combined vacuum pressure water pump generated one horsepower hp used numerous waterworks mines hence brand name miners friend.saverys pump economical small horsepower ranges prone boiler explosions larger sizes.savery pumps continued produced late th century.the first successful piston steam engine introduced thomas newcomen .number newcomen engines installed britain draining hitherto unworkable deep mines engine surface large machines requiring significant amount capital build produced upwards .kw hp.
Industrial Revolution	also used power municipal water supply pumps.extremely inefficient modern standards located coal cheap pit heads opened great expansion coal mining allowing mines go deeper.despite disadvantages newcomen engines reliable easy maintain continued used coalfields early decades th century.newcomen died engines spread first hungary germany austria sweden.total known built joint patent expired abroad.engineer john smeaton built large examples introduced number improvements.
Industrial Revolution	total engines built .a fundamental change working principles brought scotsman james watt.financial support business partner englishman matthew boulton succeeded perfecting steam engine incorporated series radical improvements notably closing upper part cylinder thereby making lowpressure steam drive top piston instead atmosphere use steam jacket celebrated separate steam condenser chamber.separate condenser away cooling water injected directly cylinder cooled cylinder wasted steam.likewise steam jacket kept steam condensing cylinder also improving efficiency.improvements increased engine efficiency boulton watts engines used – much coal per horsepowerhour newcomens.
Industrial Revolution	boulton watt opened soho foundry manufacture engines .by watt steam engine fully developed doubleacting rotative type meant could used directly drive rotary machinery factory mill.watts basic engine types commercially successful firm boulton watt constructed engines driving reciprocating pumps serving blast furnaces powering mill machinery engines generated ..kw hp.until common pattern steam engine beam engine built integral part stone brick enginehouse soon various patterns selfcontained rotative engines readily removable wheels developed table engine.around start th century time boulton watt patent expired cornish engineer richard trevithick american oliver evans began construct higherpressure noncondensing steam engines exhausting atmosphere.
Industrial Revolution	high pressure yielded engine boiler compact enough used mobile road rail locomotives steam boats.the development machine tools engine lathe planing milling shaping machines powered engines enabled metal parts engines easily accurately cut turn made possible build larger powerful engines.small industrial power requirements continued provided animal human muscle widespread electrification early th century.included crankpowered treadlepowered horsepowered workshop light industrial machinery.machine tools preindustrial machinery built various craftsmen—millwrights built water windmills carpenters made wooden framing smiths turners made metal parts.wooden components disadvantage changing dimensions temperature humidity various joints tended rack work loose time.industrial revolution progressed machines metal parts frames became common.
Industrial Revolution	important uses metal parts firearms threaded fasteners machine screws bolts nuts.also need precision making parts.precision would allow better working machinery interchangeability parts standardization threaded fasteners.the demand metal parts led development several machine tools.origins tools developed th century makers clocks watches scientific instrument makers enable batchproduce small mechanisms.before advent machine tools metal worked manually using basic hand tools hammers files scrapers saws chisels.consequently use metal machine parts kept minimum.
Industrial Revolution	hand methods production laborious costly precision difficult achieve.the first large precision machine tool cylinder boring machine invented john wilkinson .used boring largediameter cylinders early steam engines.wilkinsons boring machine differed earlier cantilevered machines used boring cannon cutting tool mounted beam ran cylinder bored supported outside ends.the planing machine milling machine shaping machine developed early decades th century.although milling machine invented time developed serious workshop tool somewhat later th century.henry maudslay trained school machine tool makers early th century mechanic superior ability employed royal arsenal woolwich.worked apprentice royal gun foundry jan verbruggen.
Industrial Revolution	jan verbruggen installed horizontal boring machine woolwich first industrial size lathe uk.maudslay hired away joseph bramah production highsecurity metal locks required precision craftsmanship.bramah patented lathe similarities slide rest lathe.– maudslay perfected slide rest lathe could cut machine screws different thread pitches using changeable gears spindle lead screw.invention screws could cut precision using various earlier lathe designs copied template.
Industrial Revolution	– slide rest lathe called one historys important inventions.although entirely maudslays idea first person build functional lathe using combination known innovations lead screw slide rest change gears.maudslay left bramahs employment set shop.engaged build machinery making ships pulley blocks royal navy portsmouth block mills.machines allmetal first machines mass production making components degree interchangeability.
Industrial Revolution	lessons maudslay learned need stability precision adapted development machine tools workshops trained generation men build work richard roberts joseph clement joseph whitworth.james fox derby healthy export trade machine tools first third century matthew murray leeds.roberts maker highquality machine tools pioneer use jigs gauges precision workshop measurement.the effect machine tools industrial revolution great firearms threaded fasteners industries massproduced metal parts.techniques make massproduced metal parts made sufficient precision interchangeable largely attributed program u.s. department war perfected interchangeable parts firearms early th century.in halfcentury following invention fundamental machine tools machine industry became largest industrial sector u.s. economy value added.chemicals largescale production chemicals important development industrial revolution.first production sulphuric acid lead chamber process invented englishman john roebuck james watts first partner .
Industrial Revolution	able greatly increase scale manufacture replacing relatively expensive glass vessels formerly used larger less expensive chambers made riveted sheets lead.instead making small amount time able make around kilograms pounds chambers least tenfold increase.the production alkali large scale became important goal well nicolas leblanc succeeded introducing method production sodium carbonate.leblanc process reaction sulfuric acid sodium chloride give sodium sulfate hydrochloric acid.sodium sulfate heated limestone calcium carbonate coal give mixture sodium carbonate calcium sulfide.adding water separated soluble sodium carbonate calcium sulfide.
Industrial Revolution	process produced large amount pollution hydrochloric acid initially vented air calcium sulfide useless waste product.nonetheless synthetic soda ash proved economical compared burning specific plants barilla kelp previously dominant sources soda ash also potash potassium carbonate produced hardwood ashes.these two chemicals important enabled introduction host inventions replacing many smallscale operations costeffective controllable processes.sodium carbonate many uses glass textile soap paper industries.early uses sulfuric acid included pickling removing rust iron steel bleaching cloth.the development bleaching powder calcium hypochlorite scottish chemist charles tennant based discoveries french chemist claude louis berthollet revolutionised bleaching processes textile industry dramatically reducing time required months days traditional process use required repeated exposure sun bleach fields soaking textiles alkali sour milk.tennants factory st rollox north glasgow became largest chemical plant world.after focus chemical innovation dyestuffs germany took world leadership building strong chemical industry.
Industrial Revolution	aspiring chemists flocked german universities – era learn latest techniques.british scientists contrast lacked research universities train advanced students instead practice hire germantrained chemists.cement joseph aspdin british bricklayer turned builder patented chemical process making portland cement important advance building trades.process involves sintering mixture clay limestone °c °f grinding fine powder mixed water sand gravel produce concrete.portland cement used famous english engineer marc isambard brunel several years later constructing thames tunnel.
Industrial Revolution	cement used large scale construction london sewerage system generation later.gas lighting another major industry later industrial revolution gas lighting.though others made similar innovation elsewhere largescale introduction work william murdoch employee boulton watt birmingham steam engine pioneers.process consisted largescale gasification coal furnaces purification gas removal sulphur ammonia heavy hydrocarbons storage distribution.first gas lighting utilities established london .
Industrial Revolution	soon became one major consumers coal uk.gas lighting affected social industrial organisation allowed factories stores remain open longer tallow candles oil.introduction allowed nightlife flourish cities towns interiors streets could lighted larger scale before.glass making glass made ancient greece rome.new method producing glass known cylinder process developed europe early th century.
Industrial Revolution	process used chance brothers create sheet glass.became leading producers window plate glass.advancement allowed larger panes glass created without interruption thus freeing space planning interiors well fenestration buildings.crystal palace supreme example use sheet glass new innovative structure.paper machine machine making continuous sheet paper loop wire fabric patented nicholas louis robert worked saintléger didot family france.
Industrial Revolution	paper machine known fourdrinier financiers brothers sealy henry fourdrinier stationers london.although greatly improved many variations fourdrinier machine predominant means paper production today.the method continuous production demonstrated paper machine influenced development continuous rolling iron later steel continuous production processes.agriculture british agricultural revolution considered one causes industrial revolution improved agricultural productivity freed workers work sectors economy.contrast percapita food supply europe stagnant declining improve parts europe late th century.industrial technologies affected farming included seed drill dutch plough contained iron parts threshing machine.the english lawyer jethro tull invented improved seed drill .mechanical seeder distributed seeds evenly across plot land planted correct depth.
Industrial Revolution	important yield seeds harvested seeds planted time around four five.tulls seed drill expensive reliable therefore much effect.good quality seed drills produced mid th century.joseph foljambes rotherham plough first commercially successful iron plough.threshing machine invented scottish engineer andrew meikle displaced hand threshing flail laborious job took onequarter agricultural labour.
Industrial Revolution	took several decades diffuse final straw many farm labourers faced near starvation leading agricultural rebellion swing riots.machine tools metalworking techniques developed industrial revolution eventually resulted precision manufacturing techniques late th century massproducing agricultural equipment reapers binders combine harvesters.mining coal mining britain particularly south wales started early.steam engine pits often shallow bell pits following seam coal along surface abandoned coal extracted.cases geology favourable coal mined means adit drift mine driven side hill.shaft mining done areas limiting factor problem removing water.
Industrial Revolution	could done hauling buckets water shaft sough tunnel driven hill drain mine.either case water discharged stream ditch level could flow away gravity.the introduction steam pump thomas savery newcomen steam engine greatly facilitated removal water enabled shafts made deeper enabling coal extracted.developments begun industrial revolution adoption john smeatons improvements newcomen engine followed james watts efficient steam engines reduced fuel costs engines making mines profitable.cornish engine developed much efficient watt steam engine.coal mining dangerous owing presence firedamp many coal seams.degree safety provided safety lamp invented sir humphry davy independently george stephenson.
Industrial Revolution	however lamps proved false dawn became unsafe quickly provided weak light.firedamp explosions continued often setting coal dust explosions casualties grew entire th century.conditions work poor high casualty rate rock falls.transportation beginning industrial revolution inland transport navigable rivers roads coastal vessels employed move heavy goods sea.wagonways used conveying coal rivers shipment canals yet widely constructed.
Industrial Revolution	animals supplied motive power land sails providing motive power sea.first horse railways introduced toward end th century steam locomotives introduced early decades th century.improving sailing technologies boosted average sailing speed .the industrial revolution improved britains transport infrastructure turnpike road network canal waterway network railway network.raw materials finished products could moved quickly cheaply before.improved transportation also allowed new ideas spread quickly.
Industrial Revolution	canals improved waterways industrial revolution navigation several british rivers improved removing obstructions straightening curves widening deepening building navigation locks.britain kilometres mi navigable rivers streams .canals waterways allowed bulk materials economically transported long distances inland.horse could pull barge load dozens times larger load could drawn cart.in uk canals began built late th century link major manufacturing centres across country.known huge commercial success bridgewater canal north west england opened mostly funded rd duke bridgewater.
Industrial Revolution	worsley rapidly growing town manchester construction cost £ £ advantages land river transport meant within year opening price coal manchester fell half.success helped inspire period intense canal building known canal mania.new canals hastily built aim replicating commercial success bridgewater canal notable leeds liverpool canal thames severn canal opened respectively.by national network existence.canal construction served model organisation methods later used construct railways.eventually largely superseded profitable commercial enterprises spread railways on.
Industrial Revolution	last major canal built united kingdom manchester ship canal upon opening largest ship canal world opened manchester port.however never achieved commercial success sponsors hoped signalled canals dying mode transport age dominated railways quicker often cheaper.britains canal network together surviving mill buildings one enduring features early industrial revolution seen britain.roads france known excellent system roads time industrial revolution however roads european continent u.k. bad condition dangerously rutted.much original british road system poorly maintained thousands local parishes occasionally earlier turnpike trusts set charge tolls maintain roads.increasing numbers main roads turnpiked extent almost every main road england wales responsibility turnpike trust.new engineered roads built john metcalf thomas telford notably john mcadam first macadamised stretch road marsh road ashton gate bristol .
Industrial Revolution	first macadamised road u.s. boonsborough turnpike road hagerstown boonsboro maryland .the major turnpikes radiated london means royal mail able reach rest country.heavy goods transport roads means slow broad wheeled carts hauled teams horses.lighter goods conveyed smaller carts teams pack horse.stagecoaches carried rich less wealthy could pay ride carriers carts.productivity road transport increased greatly industrial revolution cost travel fell dramatically.productivity almost tripled longdistance carrying increased fourfold stage coaching.
Industrial Revolution	railways reducing friction one major reasons success railroads compared wagons.demonstrated iron platecovered wooden tramway croydon england.a good horse ordinary turnpike road draw two thousand pounds one ton.party gentlemen invited witness experiment superiority new road might established ocular demonstration.twelve wagons loaded stones till wagon weighed three tons wagons fastened together.horse attached drew wagons ease six miles km two hours stopped four times order show power starting well drawing great load.railways made practical widespread introduction inexpensive puddled iron rolling mill making rails development highpressure steam engine also around .wagonways moving coal mining areas started th century often associated canal river systems movement coal.
Industrial Revolution	horsedrawn relied gravity stationary steam engine haul wagons back top incline.first applications steam locomotive wagon plate ways often called castiron plates used.horsedrawn public railways begin early years th century improvements pig wrought iron production lowering costs.steam locomotives began built introduction highpressure steam engines expiration boulton watt patent .highpressure engines exhausted used steam atmosphere away condenser cooling water.also much lighter weight smaller size given horsepower stationary condensing engines.
Industrial Revolution	early locomotives used mines.steamhauled public railways began stockton darlington railway .the rapid introduction railways followed rainhill trials demonstrated robert stephensons successful locomotive design development hot blast dramatically reduced fuel consumption making iron increased capacity blast furnace.on september liverpool manchester railway first intercity railway world opened attended prime minister duke wellington.railway engineered joseph locke george stephenson linked rapidly expanding industrial town manchester port town liverpool.opening marred problems due primitive nature technology employed however problems gradually ironed railway became highly successful transporting passengers freight.success intercity railway particularly transport freight commodities led railway mania.construction major railways connecting larger cities towns began gained momentum end first industrial revolution.
Industrial Revolution	many workers completed railways return rural lifestyles instead remained cities providing additional workers factories.developments developments included efficient water wheels based experiments conducted british engineer john smeaton beginnings machine industry rediscovery concrete based hydraulic lime mortar john smeaton lost years.social effects factory system prior industrial revolution workforce employed agriculture either selfemployed farmers landowners tenants landless agricultural labourers.common families various parts world spin yarn weave cloth make clothing.households also spun wove market production.
Industrial Revolution	beginning industrial revolution india china regions iraq elsewhere asia middle east produced worlds cotton cloth europeans produced wool linen goods.in britain th century puttingout system farmers townspeople produced goods market homes often described cottage industry practised.typical puttingout system goods included spinning weaving.merchant capitalists typically provided raw materials paid workers piece responsible sale goods.embezzlement supplies workers poor quality common problems.logistical effort procuring distributing raw materials picking finished goods also limitations puttingout system.
Industrial Revolution	– early spinning weaving machinery spindle jenny six pounds affordable cottagers.later machinery spinning frames spinning mules power looms expensive especially waterpowered giving rise capitalist ownership factories.the majority textile factory workers industrial revolution unmarried women children including many orphans.typically worked hours per day sundays off.common women take factory jobs seasonally slack periods farm work.lack adequate transportation long hours poor pay made difficult recruit maintain workers.
Industrial Revolution	many workers displaced farmers agricultural workers nothing labour sell became factory workers necessity.see british agricultural revolution threshing machinethe change social relationship factory worker compared farmers cottagers viewed unfavourably karl marx however recognized increase productivity made possible technology.standards living economists robert e. lucas jr. say real effect industrial revolution first time history living standards masses ordinary people begun undergo sustained growth ... nothing remotely like economic behaviour mentioned classical economists even theoretical possibility.others however argue growth economys overall productive powers unprecedented industrial revolution living standards majority population grow meaningfully late th th centuries many ways workers living standards declined early capitalism instance studies shown real wages britain increased life expectancy britain begin dramatically increase s. similarly average height population declined industrial revolution implying nutritional status also decreasing.real wages keeping price food.during industrial revolution life expectancy children increased dramatically.
Industrial Revolution	percentage children born london died age five decreased .– .–.the effects living conditions industrial revolution controversial hotly debated economic social historians s. series essays henry phelps brown sheila v. hopkins later set academic consensus bulk population bottom social ladder suffered severe reductions living standards.– significant increase worker wages.food nutrition chronic hunger malnutrition norms majority population world including britain france late th century.
Industrial Revolution	large part due malnutrition life expectancy france years years britain.united states population time adequately fed much taller average life expectancy – years although u.s. life expectancy declined years mid th century.food consumption per capita also declined episode known antebellum puzzle.food supply great britain adversely affected corn laws –.corn laws imposed tariffs imported grain enacted keep prices high order benefit domestic producers.corn laws repealed early years great irish famine.the initial technologies industrial revolution mechanized textiles iron coal little anything lower food prices.
Industrial Revolution	britain netherlands food supply increased industrial revolution due better agricultural practices however population grew noted thomas malthus.condition called malthusian trap finally started overcome transportation improvements canals improved roads steamships.railroads steamships introduced near end industrial revolution.housing rapid population growth th century included new industrial manufacturing cities well service centers edinburgh london.critical factor financing handled building societies dealt directly large contracting firms.
Industrial Revolution	private renting housing landlords dominant tenure.p. kemp says usually advantage tenants.people moved rapidly enough capital build adequate housing everyone lowincome newcomers squeezed increasingly overcrowded slums.clean water sanitation public health facilities inadequate death rate high especially infant mortality tuberculosis among young adults.cholera polluted water typhoid endemic.
Industrial Revolution	unlike rural areas famines one devastated ireland s.a large exposé literature grew condemning unhealthy conditions.far famous publication one founders socialist movement condition working class england friedrich engels described backstreet sections manchester mill towns people lived crude shanties shacks completely enclosed dirt floors.shantytowns narrow walkways irregularly shaped lots dwellings.sanitary facilities.population density extremely high.
Industrial Revolution	however everyone lived poor conditions.industrial revolution also created middle class businessmen clerks foremen engineers lived much better conditions.conditions improved course th century due new public health acts regulating things sewage hygiene home construction.introduction edition engels notes conditions wrote greatly improved.example public health act led sanitary byelaw terraced house.sanitation condition working class england friedrich engels described untreated sewage created awful odours turned rivers green industrial cities.in john snow traced cholera outbreak soho london faecal contamination public water well home cesspit.
Industrial Revolution	snows findings cholera could spread contaminated water took years accepted work led fundamental changes design public water waste systems.water supply preindustrial water supply relied gravity systems pumping water done water wheels.pipes typically made wood.steampowered pumps iron pipes allowed widespread piping water horse watering troughs households.literacy industrialization modern industrialization began england scotland th century relatively high levels literacy among farmers especially scotland.
Industrial Revolution	permitted recruitment literate craftsmen skilled workers foremen managers supervised emerging textile factories coal mines.much labour unskilled especially textile mills children young eight proved useful handling chores adding family income.indeed children taken school work alongside parents factories.however midnineteenth century unskilled labor forces common western europe british industry moved upscale needing many engineers skilled workers could handle technical instructions handle complex situations.literacy essential hired.
Industrial Revolution	senior government official told parliament upon speedy provision elementary education depends industrial prosperity.use trying give technical teaching citizens without elementary education uneducated labourers—and many labourers utterly uneducated—are part unskilled labourers leave work–folk longer unskilled notwithstanding strong sinews determined energy become overmatched competition world.the invention paper machine application steam power industrial processes printing supported massive expansion newspaper pamphlet publishing contributed rising literacy demands mass political participation.clothing consumer goods consumers benefited falling prices clothing household articles cast iron cooking utensils following decades stoves cooking space heating.coffee tea sugar tobacco chocolate became affordable many europe.consumer revolution england early roughly seen marked increase consumption variety luxury goods products individuals different economic social backgrounds.
Industrial Revolution	improvements transport manufacturing technology opportunities buying selling became faster efficient previous.expanding textile trade north england meant threepiece suit became affordable masses.founded josiah wedgwood wedgwood fine china porcelain tableware starting become common feature dining tables.rising prosperity social mobility th century increased number people disposable income consumption marketing goods wedgwood pioneer individuals opposed items household started appear new status goods status symbols related changes fashion desired aesthetic appeal.with rapid growth towns cities shopping became important part everyday life.window shopping purchase goods became cultural activity right many exclusive shops opened elegant urban districts strand piccadilly london example spa towns bath harrogate.
Industrial Revolution	prosperity expansion manufacturing industries pottery metalware increased consumer choice dramatically.labourers ate metal platters wooden implements ordinary workers dined wedgwood porcelain.consumers came demand array new household goods furnishings metal knives forks example well rugs carpets mirrors cooking ranges pots pans watches clocks dizzying array furniture.age mass consumption arrived.new businesses various industries appeared towns cities throughout britain.confectionery one industry saw rapid expansion.
Industrial Revolution	according food historian polly russell chocolate biscuits became products masses thanks industrial revolution consumers created.midth century sweet biscuits affordable indulgence business booming.manufacturers huntley palmers reading carrs carlisle mcvities edinburgh transformed small familyrun businesses stateoftheart operations.frys bristol produced first chocolate bar.competitor cadbury birmingham first commercialize association confectionery romance produced heartshaped box chocolates valentines day .increased literacy rates industrialisation invention railway created new market cheap popular literature masses ability circulated large scale.
Industrial Revolution	penny dreadfuls created meet demand.guardian described penny dreadfuls britains first taste massproduced popular culture young victorian equivalent video games.one million boys periodicals sold per week.labelled authorpreneur paris review charles dickens used innovations revolution sell books powerful new printing presses enhanced advertising revenues expansion railroads.first novel pickwick papers became publishing phenomenon unprecedented success sparking numerous spinoffs merchandise ranging pickwick cigars playing cards china figurines sam weller puzzles weller boot polish joke books.
Industrial Revolution	nicholas dames atlantic writes “literature” big enough category pickwick.defined new one learned call “entertainment.”in welsh entrepreneur pryce prycejones formed first mail order business idea would change nature retail.selling welsh flannel created mail order catalogues customers able order mail first time—this following uniform penny post invention postage stamp penny black charge one penny carriage delivery two places united kingdom irrespective distance—and goods delivered throughout uk via newly created railway system.railway network expanded overseas business.population increase industrial revolution first period history simultaneous increase population per capita income.according robert hughes fatal shore population england wales remained steady six million rose dramatically .
Industrial Revolution	population england doubled .million .million nearly doubled .million.improved conditions led population britain increasing million million s. europes population increased million million .
Industrial Revolution	urbanization growth modern industry since late th century led massive urbanisation rise new great cities first europe regions new opportunities brought huge numbers migrants rural communities urban areas.worlds population lived cities compared nearly today beginning st century.manchester population burgeoned .million.effect women family life womens historians debated effect industrial revolution capitalism generally status women.
Industrial Revolution	taking pessimistic side alice clark argued capitalism arrived thcentury england lowered status women lost much economic importance.clark argues thcentury england women engaged many aspects industry agriculture.home central unit production women played vital role running farms trades landed estates.useful economic roles gave sort equality husbands.however clark argues capitalism expanded th century division labour husband taking paid labour jobs outside home wife reduced unpaid household work.
Industrial Revolution	middle upperclass women confined idle domestic existence supervising servants lowerclass women forced take poorly paid jobs.capitalism therefore negative effect powerful women.in positive interpretation ivy pinchbeck argues capitalism created conditions womens emancipation.tilly scott emphasised continuity status women finding three stages english history.preindustrial era production mostly home use women produce much needs households.second stage family wage economy early industrialisation entire family depended collective wages members including husband wife older children.
Industrial Revolution	third modern stage family consumer economy family site consumption women employed large numbers retail clerical jobs support rising standards consumption.ideas thrift hard work characterized middleclass families industrial revolution swept europe.values displayed samuel smiles book selfhelp states misery poorer classes voluntary selfimposed – results idleness thriftlessness intemperance misconduct.labour conditions social structure working conditions terms social structure industrial revolution witnessed triumph middle class industrialists businessmen landed class nobility gentry.ordinary working people found increased opportunities employment new mills factories often strict working conditions long hours labour dominated pace set machines.late year industrial workers united states still worked hour day hours steel industry yet earned less minimum deemed necessary decent life however workers textiles far leading industry terms employment women children.
Industrial Revolution	workers labouring classes industrial life stony desert make habitable efforts.also harsh working conditions prevalent long industrial revolution took place.preindustrial society static often cruel – child labour dirty living conditions long working hours prevalent industrial revolution.factories urbanisation industrialisation led creation factory.factory system contributed growth urban areas large numbers workers migrated cities search work factories.
Industrial Revolution	nowhere better illustrated mills associated industries manchester nicknamed cottonopolis worlds first industrial city.manchester experienced sixtimes increase population .bradford grew every ten years population bradford actually born there.in addition percent europes population left home pushed poverty rapidly growing population displacement peasant farming artisan manufacturing.pulled abroad enormous demand labour overseas ready availability land cheap transportation.still many find satisfactory life new homes leading million return europe.
Industrial Revolution	mass migration large demographic effects less one percent world population consisted overseas europeans descendants represented percent.americas felt brunt huge emigration largely concentrated united states.for much th century production done small mills typically waterpowered built serve local needs.later factory would steam engine chimney give efficient draft boiler.in industries transition factory production divisive.industrialists tried improve factory living conditions workers.one earliest reformers robert owen known pioneering efforts improving conditions workers new lanark mills often regarded one key thinkers early socialist movement.by integrated brass mill working warmley near bristol.
Industrial Revolution	raw material went one end smelted brass turned pans pins wire goods.housing provided workers site.josiah wedgwood matthew boulton whose soho manufactory completed prominent early industrialists employed factory system.child labour industrial revolution led population increase chances surviving childhood improve throughout industrial revolution although infant mortality rates reduced markedly.still limited opportunity education children expected work.
Industrial Revolution	employers could pay child less adult even though productivity comparable need strength operate industrial machine since industrial system completely new experienced adult labourers.made child labour labour choice manufacturing early phases industrial revolution th th centuries.england scotland twothirds workers waterpowered cotton mills described children.child labour existed industrial revolution increase population education became visible.many children forced work relatively bad conditions much lower pay elders – adult males wage.reports written detailing abuses particularly coal mines textile factories helped popularise childrens plight.public outcry especially among upper middle classes helped stir change young workers welfare.politicians government tried limit child labour law factory owners resisted felt aiding poor giving children money buy food avoid starvation others simply welcomed cheap labour.
Industrial Revolution	first general laws child labour factory acts passed britain children younger nine allowed work children permitted work night workday youth age limited twelve hours.factory inspectors supervised execution law however scarcity made enforcement difficult.ten years later employment children women mining forbidden.although laws decreased number child labourers child labour remained significantly present europe united states th century.organisation labour industrial revolution concentrated labour mills factories mines thus facilitating organisation combinations trade unions help advance interests working people.
Industrial Revolution	power union could demand better terms withdrawing labour causing consequent cessation production.employers decide giving union demands cost suffering cost lost production.skilled workers hard replace first groups successfully advance conditions kind bargaining.the main method unions used effect change strike action.many strikes painful events sides unions management.britain combination act forbade workers form kind trade union repeal .
Industrial Revolution	even unions still severely restricted.one british newspaper described unions dangerous institutions ever permitted take root shelter law country...in reform act extended vote britain grant universal suffrage.year six men tolpuddle dorset founded friendly society agricultural labourers protest gradual lowering wages s. refused work less ten shillings week although time wages reduced seven shillings week due reduced six.james frampton local landowner wrote prime minister lord melbourne complain union invoking obscure law prohibiting people swearing oaths members friendly society done.james brine james hammett george loveless georges brother james loveless georges brotherinlaw thomas standfield thomass son john standfield arrested found guilty transported australia.

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