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Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud	laying emphasis use words within provision cautioned judges cannot rewrite constitution particularly contrary text context intent.noted allow bills traverse outside scope article passed money bills would consequences terms nature bill legislative participation rajya sabha reduce bicameralism illusion.helda bill money bill must contain provisions fall within ambit matters mentioned article …the lok sabha cannot introduce pass legislative measure garb money bill could otherwise amended rejected rajya sabha.bicameralism founding value democracy.part basic structure constitution.
Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud	introduction passing bill money bill qualify money bill article constitution plainly unconstitutional… introducing aadhaar act money bill bypassed constitutional authority rajya sabha.passage aadhaar act money bill abuse constitutional process.deprived rajya sabha altering provisions bill carrying amendments.superseding authority rajya sabha conflict constitutional scheme legitimacy democratic institutions.constitutes fraud constitution… debasement democratic institution cannot allowed pass.
Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud	institutions crucial democracy.debasing cause peril democratic structures.one academician wrote shortly thereafter justice chandrachuds reading constitutional provision assessment aadhaar act upheld delicate balance bicameralism lies heart indias parliamentary democracy individual state identity justice chandrachuds judgment also analysed intersection identity individuals.dissent noted emphasis protection individual identity.emphasising plurality identities individual observed thattechnologically level aadhaar means identification.yet another level aadhaar project also offered providing documentary identity persons may possessed one all... identity includes right determine forms identity expressed right identified.
Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud	concept flipped identification identifiers becomes form identity time database governance.involves radical transformation position individual…identity plural concept.constitution also recognizes multitude identities plethora rights safeguards.technology deployed aadhaar scheme reduces different constitutional identities single identity digit number infringes right individual identify himselfherself chosen means.aadhaar identification instrument facilitates prof identity.
Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud	must allowed obliterate constitutional identity.he analysed intersection law technology observed biometric technology core aadhaar programme probabilistic nature leading authentication failures.observed thatdignity rights individuals cannot made depend algorithms probabilities.constitutional guarantees cannot subject vicissitudes technology.aftermath dissent justice chandrachuds dissent received academic analysis led scholars write dissent ranks alongside great dissents history indian supreme court.lead commentators experts labelled dissent stirring dissent fiery dissent historic dissent stinging dissent lone yet powerful dissent.
Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud	invoke reference dissent famous lines chief justice charles hughes dissent court last resort appeal brooding spirit law intelligence future day later decision may possibly correct error dissenting justice believes court betrayed.dissent noticed judicial pronouncements elsewhere world.in judgment concerning constitution validity jamaican national identification registration act chief justice sykes relied justice chandrachuds dissenting opinion strike act.commended dissent following termsin words respectfully wish adopt learned judge i.e.chandrachud j. summarised overall constitutional failings aadhaar scheme thus … technology deployed aadhaar scheme reduces different constitutional identities single identity digit number infringes right individual identify chosen means.aadhaar identification instrument facilitates proof identity.
Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud	must allowed obliterate constitutional identity…from reading judgments case dr chandrachud j respectful view demonstrated greater sensitivity issues privacy freedom evident judgments majority judges delivered concurring judgments.lordship cleareyed view dangers state anyone control ones personal information generally preferred approach issue judges… must also say application standard prefer reasoning dr chandrachud j majority.one constitutional law expert observed that…a dissent limited footnote judicial lore nation waiting years pass intelligence future day dawns.sometimes like swallow flying south dissent becomes part global migration ideas.finds fertile soil far home bloom full richness denied native environment… sometimes need friends colleagues parts world hold mirror unwilling unable look into.perhaps fate aadhaar dissent travel around world light dark places long recognised brooding spirit law homeland error corrected last.later justice chandrachuds observations aspect money bill resurrected constitution bench roger mathew v south indian bank ltd. chief justice gogoi writing majority held law money bills must given appropriate meaning interpretation avoid prevent overinclusiveness underinclusiveness.
Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud	noting deficiencies reasoning majority aadhaar judgment referring question law money bills bench higher strength statedupon extensive examination matter notice majority k.s.puttaswamy aadhaar pronounced nature impugned enactment without first delineating scope article principles interpretation repercussions process.clear us majority dictum k.s.puttaswamy aadhaar substantially discuss effect word article offers little guidance repercussions finding provisions enactment passed money bill conform article g… bench equal strength k.s.puttaswamy aadhaar accordingly direct batch matters placed honble chief justice india administrative side consideration larger bench.justice chandrachud agreed majority law money bills must clarified.
Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud	consequently matter pending consideration supreme court.on january justice chandrachud lone dissenter dismissal review petitions filed judgement dated september upheld constitutionality aadhar ground aspect constitutes money bill article indian constitution heart matter potential fraud constitution referred larger bench another constitutional bench supreme court yet constituted.free speech justice chandrachud delivered dissent romila thapar ors.v. union india investigation special investigation team sit sought five human rights activists charged arrested commission offences unlawful activities prevention act following violence broke elgar parishad event .majority refused constitution sit.dissent justice chandrachud directed investigation conducted sit reprimanded pune police mala fide behaviour aiding conduct media trial.his dissent reported upholding freedom speech principle fairness article indian constitution.
Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud	observed dissent safety valve democracy.dissent allowed pressure cooker may burst.also opined necessary draw balance dissent unlawful activities.held thatdissent symbol vibrant democracy.voices opposition cannot muzzled persecuting take unpopular causes.
Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud	however expression dissent enters upon prohibited field incitement violence subversion democratically elected government recourse unlawful means dissent ceases mere expression opinion.unlawful activities violate law dealt accordance it.justice chandrachud also emphasised necessity ensuring fair impartial investigation regarded integral component guarantee arbitrariness article right life personal liberty article indian constitution.observed court stand principles formulated may witness soulful requiem liberty.gender justice justice chandrachud along justice rohinton fali nariman delivered dissent kantaru rajeevaru v. indian young lawyers association.held decision five judges sabarimala case held women age ten fifty shall denied entry sabarimala temple fit case exercise review jurisdiction judgment suffer error apparent face record.
Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud	dissent observed executive constitutional obligation implement decisions supreme court even parties them.justice nariman observedbona fide criticism judgment albeit highest court land certainly permissible thwarting encouraging persons thwart directions orders highest court cannot countenanced constitutional scheme things.election speech justice chandrachud authored minority opinion two judges abiram singh v. c.d commachen concerned interpretation section representation peoples act .provision states appealing votes based religion race caste community language amounts corrupt practice candidate.question concerned whether word qualified candidate election agent whether included person appeal addressed.
Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud	majority affirmed broader reading term include prohibition appeal religion race caste community language voters themselves.justice chandrachud wrote...the constitution… recognises position religion caste language gender social life nation.individual histories citizens collective groups society associated ages histories discrimination injustice basis defining characteristics…while majority viewed group identities sites division fracturing fragile democratic consensus dissent questioned existence consensus.justice chandrachud held noted columnist wrote coming democracy identities become sites redressing historical discrimination political mobilization.deny opportunity would simply perpetuate status quo built upon exclusion marginalization.
Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud	tax jindal stainless ltd. v. state haryana justice chandrachud authored minority opinion constitutional validity entry tax imposed states.differed view majority held free trade throughout territory article constitution india mean freedom tax observed position violated constitutional principles.held entire nation must viewed one economic unit following termsarticle sub serves constitutional goal integrating nation economic entity comprising common market goods services.he propounded direct inevitable effect test identify whether tax amounts restriction freedom trade commerce.notable speeches justice dhananjaya speaker conferences organised bodies united nations including united nations high commission human rights international labour organisation united nations environmental program world bank asian development bank.delivered lecture titled global constitutionalism age transnational judicial conversations human rights organised supreme court hawaii university hawaii june .
Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud	delivered numerous speeches india premier law institutions well events organized civil society.recent speeches include february delivered speech titled hues make india plurality pluralism p desai memorial lecture gujarat.stated…the employment state machinery curb dissent instils fear creates chilling atmosphere free speech violates rule law detracts constitutional vision pluralist society…the true test democracy ability ensure creation protection spaces every individual voice opinion without fear retribution…a state committed rule law ensures state apparatus employed curb legitimate peaceful protest create spaces conducive deliberation.within bounds law liberal democracies ensure citizens enjoy right express views every conceivable manner including right protest express dissent prevailing laws.blanket labelling dissent antinational antidemocratic strikes heart commitment protection constitutional values promotion deliberative democracy.in impassioned appeal pluralism celebration diversity statedthe framers constitution rejected notion hindu india muslim india.
Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud	recognised republic india…a united india one characterized single identity devoid rich plurality cultures values.national unity denotes shared culture values commitment fundamental ideals constitution individuals guaranteed fundamental rights also conditions free safe exercise.pluralism depicts merely commitment preservation diversity commitment fundamental postulates individual equal dignity.sense pluralism furthers basic postulates constitution nourishes provides content goal national unity...no single individual institution claim monopoly idea india…what utmost relevance today ability commitment preserve conserve build rich pluralistic history inherited.the speech reported plea protect right dissent free democratic society.recently speech delivered december “legal professionals disabilities” international summit legal professionals disabilities ils pune highlighted inaccessibility common law admission test visually challenged.remark noticed promptly addressed consortium national law universities assured public coursecorrection.
Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud	ecommittee justice chandrachud chairperson ecommittee supreme court india.ecommittee body tasked implementation ecourts project india aims digitise judiciary level high courts district courts.currently ecourts project phase ii addition providing necessary hardware courts meeting technological demands also undertaken introduce various digital services benefit lawyers general public.chairpersonship justice chandrachud ecommittee introduced overseen implementation inter alia following measures virtual courts virtual courts inaugurated delhi may pune may chennai may justice chandrachud.virtual courts allow adjudication cases virtual platform.
Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud	communication sentencing payment fines compensation takes place online.facility functional x. present service available traffic violations motor vehicles act .national judicial data grid njdg njdg flagship project ecommittee tracks countrys pending cases ensuring transparency functioning judicial system making information available public domain.interoperable criminal justice system icjs icjs allows live electronic exchange data courts police.fir charge sheet details electronically received courts cis software system.
Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud	efiling software .new efiling software application developed enabling electronic filing legal papers promoting paperless filing.upgraded version efiling software userfriendly simpler registration process advocates.also inter alia enables advocates add partners clients provides online vakalatnama readymade templates pleadings provision online recording oath digital signing case papers.epayments ecommittee introduced facility online payment court fees fines penalty judicial deposits.
Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud	esewa kendras esewa kendras created high courts one district court state provide digital aid access internet electronic equipment accessing services provided ecourts project.litigants lawyers inter alia obtain case information obtain copies judgements orders use efiling services esewa kendras.national service tracking electronic process nstep ecommittee digitised delivery processes national service tracking electronic process nstep.consists centralised process service tracking application mobile app bailiffsprocess servers.nstep used speedy delivery processes reducing inordinate delays process serving.
Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud	nstep mobile application provided bailiffs helps realtime transparent tracking service.judgement search portal judgement search portal created repository judgements final orders passed high courts district court.portal uses free text search engine provides judgments based given keyword combination keywords.portal also designed keeping mind needs persons disabilities.provides facility audio captcha along text captcha.
Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud	also uses combo boxes making easier persons visual disabilities access website.other initiatives include installation touch screen kiosks court complexes obtain case information ecourts services application mobiles ecommittee youtube channel.live streaming court proceedings ecommittee undertaken task introducing live streaming court proceedings.released model draft rules invite comments stakeholders.rules come backdrop judgement supreme court swapnil tripathi v supreme court india held live broadcast proceedings supreme court flows right access justice indian constitution.during tenure justice chandrachud services provided ecourts project recorded .crores etransactions – highest number etransactions recorded electronic governance related project india.
Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud	ecommittee supreme court india also awarded digital india award platinum award excellence digital governance year president india.ecommittee also undertakes training advocates judges court staff issues technological awareness.conducted online training .lakh lawyers judges court staff pandemic may december .references external links millennium laws india inc.a symposiumm e n – realizing potential designing.
Stratus Technologies	implementation strategies.first south asian regional judicial colloquium access justicechri judicial colloquia series access justicejusticiability economic social cultural rights pacific—a judicial colloquium workshopcourt judicature allahabadcompany founded stratus computer inc. natick massachusetts adopted present name .current ceo president dave laurello.stratus technologies inc. privately held company owned solely siris capital group.parent company stratus technologies bermuda holdings ltd. incorporated bermuda.stratus computer marlborough massachusetts based producer fault tolerant minicomputers.competed computers tandem computers lesser extent digital equipment corporations vax.starting computers resold worldwide olivetti cps brand.
Stratus Technologies	computers resold ibm ibm system brand.company based maynard massachusetts.history stratus shipped first computer february short months founding.customer west lynn creamery located nearby lynn massachusetts.initial customer verified stratus strategy competing tandem computers company pioneered general purpose faulttolerant industry.
Stratus Technologies	west lynn creamery planned purchasing tandem switched stratus learning product.the companys traditional markets financial services companies banks stock exchanges.beginning company moved telecommunications industry particularly area network management custom services result telecommunications revenues surpassed enterprise computing.led buyout company ascend communications later acquired lucent technologies.the enterprise server portion business little interest ascend portion spun management buyout funding international investment firm investcorp.company named stratus technologies inc.in second quarter lucent sold telecom product lines originally came stratus platinum equity buyout firm based los angeles.unit eventually named cemprus llc.
Stratus Technologies	stratus purchased cemprus .wholly owned subsidiary stratus.acquisition gave stratus ss signaling software phone networks intelligent gateway software traditional ip voice equipment able communicate.software used support higherlevel telephony applications callingcard toll free phone number services.in stratus purchased emergent network solutions allen texas.stratus sold emergent emergent known stratus telecommunications.
Stratus Technologies	two companies separate entities.one parent other.july reverse merger ymax vocaltec stratus telecommunications technologies owned vocaltec.in stratus acquired assets products services intellectual property marathon technologies along customer base channelpartner network.now privately held stratus technologies inc. owned siris capital group acquired company april .products customers legacy product line originally based motorola mc processors ft xa series migrated intel processors xar series hewlettpackards parisc processors continuum series finally intel xeon processors v series.line runs vos operating system originally many features inspired derived multics.
Stratus Technologies	operating systems supported legacy platforms xar jetta continuum—hpux homegrown unix product called ftx faulttolerant unix—are supported longer actively sold.in june stratus introduced ftserver line intelbased servers running microsoft windows higher.stratus ftserver line sold today supports windows well red hat enterprise linux.company sells models ftserver designated entrylevel midrange enterpriseclass fault tolerant servers.midrange enterprise ftserver systems also run vmware vsphere virtualization software.the company began offering stratus avance software june high availability product virtualization built in.avance runs two generalpurpose x servers allows deployment applications across highavailability virtual machines freeing existing x servers.
United States	two servers comprising avance highavailability platform may separated three miles purposes disaster recovery business continuity.avance intended serve smalltomedium size businesses need affordable simple high availability virtualization.stratus large presence maynard massachusetts u.s. headquarters phoenix arizona well several worldwide offices locations uk netherlands south africa france germany italy spain australia new zealand singapore hong kong china japan.the company vast customer base popular types customers include banks credit unions emergency response centers usa police departments fire departments hospitals clinics governments credit card companies stock exchanges telcosphone companies internet providers.references external links stratus company homepageconsists states federal district five major unincorporated territories indian reservations minor possessions.nearly .million square miles .million square kilometers worlds third fourthlargest country geographic area.united states shares land borders canada north mexico south well maritime borders bahamas cuba russia countries.
United States	population million people third populous country world.national capital washington d.c. populous city financial center new york city.paleoindians migrated siberia north american mainland least years ago european colonization began th century.united states emerged thirteen british colonies established along east coast.disputes great britain taxation political representation led american revolutionary war – established nations independence.late th century u.s. began expanding across north america gradually obtaining new territories sometimes war frequently displacing native americans admitting new states.
United States	strongly related belief manifest destiny united states spanned continent east west.slavery legal southern united states second half th century american civil war led abolition.spanish–american war world war established u.s. world power aftermath world war ii left united states soviet union worlds two superpowers.cold war sides fought korean vietnam wars avoided direct military conflict.competed space race culminating spaceflight first landed humans moon.
United States	soviet unions dissolution ended cold war leaving united states worlds sole superpower.the united states federal presidentialconstitutional republic three separate branches government including bicameral legislature.founding member united nations world bank international monetary fund organization american states nato international organizations.permanent member united nations security council.considered melting pot cultures ethnicities population profoundly shaped centuries immigration.united states ranks high international measures economic freedom quality life education human rights low levels perceived corruption.
United States	however criticized racial wealth income inequality capital punishment mass incarceration lack universal health care.the united states highly developed country economy accounts approximately quarter global gdp worlds largest gdp market exchange rates.value united states worlds largest importer secondlargest exporter goods.although population .worlds total holds total wealth world largest share held country.making third global military spending foremost military power world leading political cultural scientific force.
United States	etymology first known use name america dates back appeared world map produced german cartographer martin waldseemüller french city saintdiédesvosges.map name shown large letters would considered south america honor amerigo vespucci.italian explorer first postulate west indies represent asias eastern limit part previously unknown landmass.flemish cartographer gerardus mercator used name america world map applying entire western hemisphere.the first documentary evidence phrase united states america dates january letter written stephen moylan george washingtons aidedecamp joseph reed.moylan expressed wish go full ample powers united states america spain seek assistance revolutionary war effort.
United States	first known publication phrase united states america anonymous essay virginia gazette newspaper williamsburg april .the second draft articles confederation prepared john dickinson completed later june declared name confederation shall united states america.final version articles sent states ratification late stated stile confederacy shall united states america.june thomas jefferson wrote phrase united states america capitalized letters headline original rough draught declaration independence.draft document surface june unclear whether written dickinson used term june draft articles confederation.the short form united states also standard.common forms u.s. usa america.
United States	colloquial names u.s. a. internationally states.columbia name popular american poetry songs late th century derives origin christopher columbus columbus columbia appear frequently u.s. placenames including columbus ohio columbia south carolina district columbia.places institutions throughout western hemisphere bear two names including colón panama country colombia columbia river columbia university.the phrase united states originally plural american usage.described collection states—e.g.united states are... singular form became popular end civil war standard usage.
United States	citizen united states american.united states american u.s. refer country adjectivally american values u.s. forces.english word american rarely refers topics subjects directly connected united states.history indigenous peoples precolumbian history generally accepted first inhabitants north america migrated siberia way bering land bridge arrived least years ago however evidence suggests even earlier date arrival.clovis culture appeared around bc believed represent first wave human settlement americas.
United States	likely first three major waves migration north america later waves brought ancestors presentday athabaskans aleuts eskimos.over time indigenous cultures north america grew increasingly complex precolumbian mississippian culture southeast developed advanced agriculture architecture complex societies.citystate cahokia largest complex precolumbian archaeological site modernday united states.four corners region ancestral puebloan culture developed centuries agricultural experimentation.haudenosaunee located southern great lakes region established point twelfth fifteenth centuries.prominent along atlantic coast algonquian tribes practiced hunting trapping along limited cultivation.estimating native population north america time european contact difficult.
United States	douglas h. ubelaker smithsonian institution estimated population south atlantic states population gulf states academics regard figure low.anthropologist henry f. dobyns believed populations much higher suggesting around .million along shores gulf mexico .million people living florida massachusetts .million mississippi valley tributaries around people florida peninsula.
United States	european settlements claims early colonization coastal new england norse disputed controversial.first documented arrival europeans continental united states spanish conquistadors juan ponce de león made first expedition florida .even earlier christopher columbus landed puerto rico voyage san juan settled spanish decade later.spanish set first settlements florida new mexico saint augustine often considered nations oldest city santa fe.french established settlements along mississippi river notably new orleans.
United States	successful english settlement eastern coast north america began virginia colony jamestown pilgrims colony plymouth .continents first elected legislative assembly virginias house burgesses founded .documents mayflower compact fundamental orders connecticut established precedents representative selfgovernment constitutionalism would develop throughout american colonies.many english settlers dissenting christians came seeking religious freedom.russians first europeans establish settlement alaska three saints bay.
United States	russian america spanned much presentday state alaska.in early days colonization many european settlers subject food shortages disease attacks native americans.native americans also often war neighboring tribes european settlers.many cases however natives settlers came depend one another.settlers traded food animal pelts natives guns tools european goods.natives taught many settlers cultivate corn beans foodstuffs.
United States	european missionaries others felt important civilize native americans urged adopt european agricultural practices lifestyles.however increased european colonization north america native americans displaced often killed.native population america declined european arrival various reasons primarily diseases smallpox measles.european settlers also began trafficking african slaves colonial america via transatlantic slave trade.lower prevalence tropical diseases better treatment slaves much higher life expectancy north america south america leading rapid increase numbers.colonial society largely divided religious moral implications slavery several colonies passed acts favor practice.
United States	however turn th century african slaves supplanted european indentured servants cash crop labor especially american south.the thirteen colonies new hampshire massachusetts connecticut rhode island new york new jersey pennsylvania delaware maryland virginia north carolina south carolina georgia would become united states america administered british overseas dependencies.nonetheless local governments elections open free men.extremely high birth rates low death rates steady settlement colonial population grew rapidly eclipsing native american populations.christian revivalist movement known great awakening fueled interest religion religious liberty.during seven years war – known u.s. french indian war british forces captured canada french.creation province quebec canadas francophone population would remain isolated englishspeaking colonial dependencies nova scotia newfoundland thirteen colonies.
United States	excluding native americans lived thirteen colonies population .million third britain.despite continuing new arrivals rate natural increase small minority americans born overseas.colonies distance britain allowed development selfgovernment unprecedented success motivated british monarchs periodically seek reassert royal authority.independence expansion american revolutionary war fought thirteen colonies british empire first successful war independence noneuropean entity european power modern history.
United States	americans developed ideology republicanism asserting government rested people expressed local legislatures.demanded rights englishmen taxation without representation.british insisted administering empire parliament conflict escalated war.the second continental congress assembly representing united colonies unanimously adopted declaration independence july day celebrated annually independence day.articles confederation established decentralized government operated .after defeat siege yorktown britain signed peace treaty.american sovereignty became internationally recognized country granted lands east mississippi river.
United States	tensions britain remained however leading war fought draw.nationalists led philadelphia convention writing united states constitution ratified state conventions .going force constitution reorganized federal government three branches principle creating salutary checks balances.george washington led continental army victory first president elected new constitution.bill rights forbidding federal restriction personal freedoms guaranteeing range legal protections adopted .although federal government outlawed american participation atlantic slave trade cultivation highly profitable cotton crop exploded deep south along slave population.
United States	second great awakening especially period – converted millions evangelical protestantism.north energized multiple social reform movements including abolitionism south methodists baptists proselytized among slave populations.beginning late th century american settlers began expand westward prompting long series american indian wars.louisiana purchase almost doubled nations area spain ceded florida gulf coast territory republic texas annexed period expansionism oregon treaty britain led u.s. control presentday american northwest.victory mexican–american war resulted mexican cession california much presentday american southwest making u.s. span continent.the california gold rush – spurred migration pacific coast led california genocide creation additional western states.giving away vast quantities land white european settlers part homestead acts nearly total area united states private railroad companies colleges part land grants spurred economic development.
United States	civil war new transcontinental railways made relocation easier settlers expanded internal trade increased conflicts native americans.new peace policy nominally promised protect native americans abuses avoid war secure eventual u.s. citizenship.nonetheless largescale conflicts continued throughout west s. civil war reconstruction era irreconcilable sectional conflict regarding enslavement africans african americans ultimately led american civil war.election republican abraham lincoln conventions thirteen slave states declared secession formed confederate states america south confederacy federal government union maintained secession illegal.order bring secession military action initiated secessionists union responded kind.
United States	ensuing war would become deadliest military conflict american history resulting deaths approximately soldiers well upwards civilians.union initially simply fought keep country united.nevertheless casualties mounted lincoln delivered emancipation proclamation main purpose war unions viewpoint became abolition slavery.indeed union ultimately war april states defeated south required ratify thirteenth amendment prohibited slavery except penal labor.two amendments also ratified ensuring citizenship voting rights blacks.reconstruction began earnest following war.
United States	president lincoln attempted foster friendship forgiveness union former confederacy assassination april drove wedge north south again.republicans federal government made goal oversee rebuilding south ensure rights african americans.persisted compromise republicans agreed cease protecting rights african americans south order democrats concede presidential election .southern white democrats calling redeemers took control south end reconstruction beginning nadir american race relations.redeemers established socalled jim crow laws disenfranchising blacks impoverished whites throughout region.blacks would face racial segregation nationwide especially south.
United States	also occasionally experienced vigilante violence including lynching.immigration expansion industrialization north urbanization unprecedented influx immigrants southern eastern europe supplied surplus labor countrys industrialization transformed culture.national infrastructure including telegraph transcontinental railroads spurred economic growth greater settlement development american old west.later invention electric light telephone would also affect communication urban life.the united states fought indian wars west mississippi river least .conflicts ended cession native american territory confinement indian reservations.
United States	additionally trail tears exemplified indian removal policy forcibly resettled indians.expanded acreage mechanical cultivation increasing surpluses international markets.mainland expansion also included purchase alaska russia .proamerican elements hawaii overthrew hawaiian monarchy formed republic hawaii u.s. annexed .puerto rico guam philippines ceded spain year following spanish–american war.
United States	american samoa acquired united states end second samoan civil war.u.s. virgin islands purchased denmark .rapid economic development late th early th centuries fostered rise many prominent industrialists.tycoons like cornelius vanderbilt john d. rockefeller andrew carnegie led nations progress railroad petroleum steel industries.banking became major part economy j. p. morgan playing notable role.american economy boomed becoming worlds largest.
United States	dramatic changes accompanied growing inequality social unrest prompted rise organized labor along populist socialist anarchist movements.period eventually ended advent progressive era saw significant reforms including womens suffrage alcohol prohibition regulation consumer goods greater antitrust measures ensure competition attention worker conditions.world war great depression world war ii united states remained neutral outbreak world war joined war associated power alongside allies world war helping turn tide central powers.president woodrow wilson took leading diplomatic role paris peace conference advocated strongly u.s. join league nations.however senate refused approve ratify treaty versailles established league nations.in womens rights movement passage constitutional amendment granting womens suffrage.
United States	saw rise radio mass communication invention early television.prosperity roaring twenties ended wall street crash onset great depression.election president franklin d. roosevelt responded new deal.great migration millions african americans american south began world war extended whereas dust bowl mids impoverished many farming communities spurred new wave western migration.at first effectively neutral world war ii united states began supplying materiel allies march lendlease program.december empire japan launched surprise attack pearl harbor prompting united states join allies axis powers following year intern u.s. residents including american citizens japanese descent.
United States	although japan attacked united states first u.s. nonetheless pursued europe first defense policy.united states thus left vast asian colony philippines isolated fighting losing struggle japanese invasion occupation.war united states one four powers met plan postwar world along britain soviet union china.although nation lost around military personnel emerged relatively undamaged war even greater economic military influence.the united states played leading role bretton woods yalta conferences signed agreements new international financial institutions europes postwar reorganization.allied victory europe international conference held san francisco produced united nations charter became active war.
United States	united states japan fought largest naval battle history battle leyte gulf.united states developed first nuclear weapons used japan cities hiroshima nagasaki august japanese surrendered september ending world war ii.cold war late th century world war ii united states soviet union competed power influence prestige became known cold war driven ideological divide capitalism communism.dominated military affairs europe u.s. nato allies one side soviet union warsaw pact allies other.u.s. developed policy containment towards expansion communist influence.
United States	u.s. soviet union engaged proxy wars developed powerful nuclear arsenals two countries avoided direct military conflict.the united states often opposed third world movements viewed sovietsponsored occasionally pursued direct action regime change leftwing governments occasionally supporting authoritarian rightwing regimes.american troops fought communist chinese north korean forces korean war –.soviet unions launch first artificial satellite launch first crewed spaceflight initiated space race united states became first nation land man moon .united states became increasingly involved vietnam war – introducing combat forces .at home u.s. experienced sustained economic expansion rapid growth population middle class following world war ii.surge female labor participation especially majority women aged employed.
United States	construction interstate highway system transformed nations infrastructure following decades.millions moved farms inner cities large suburban housing developments.united states formally expanded beyond contiguous united states territories alaska hawaii became respectively th th states admitted union.growing civil rights movement used nonviolence confront segregation discrimination martin luther king jr. becoming prominent leader figurehead.combination court decisions legislation culminating civil rights act sought end racial discrimination.
United States	meanwhile counterculture movement grew fueled opposition vietnam war black power movement sexual revolution.the launch war poverty expanded entitlements welfare spending including creation medicare medicaid two programs provide health coverage elderly poor respectively meanstested food stamp program aid families dependent children.the early saw onset stagflation.united states supported israel yom kippur war response country faced oil embargo opec nations sparking oil crisis.election president ronald reagan responded economic stagnation freemarket oriented reforms.following collapse détente abandoned containment initiated aggressive rollback strategy towards soviet union.late brought thaw relations soviet union collapse finally ended cold war.
United States	brought unipolarity u.s. unchallenged worlds dominant superpower.after cold war conflict middle east triggered crisis iraq invaded annexed kuwait ally united states.fearing spread instability august president george h. w. bush launched led gulf war iraq waged february coalition forces nations ended expulsion iraqi forces kuwait restoration monarchy.originating within u.s. military defense networks internet spread international academic platforms public greatly affecting global economy society culture.due dotcom boom stable monetary policy reduced social welfare spending saw longest economic expansion modern u.s. history.beginning u.s. signed north american free trade agreement nafta causing trade among u.s. canada mexico soar.st century september alqaeda terrorist hijackers flew passenger planes world trade center new york city pentagon near washington d.c. killing nearly people.
United States	hundreds died later illnesses related attacks perhaps thousands first responders cleanup workers survivors suffer longterm effects.response president george w. bush launched war terror included nearly year war afghanistan – iraq war.military operation pakistan led killing osama bin laden.government policy designed promote affordable housing widespread failures corporate regulatory governance historically low interest rates set federal reserve led united states housing bubble culminated financial crisis – great recession nations largest economic contraction since great depression.crisis assets owned americans lost quarter value.barack obama first multiracial president africanamerican ancestry elected amid crisis subsequently passed american recovery reinvestment act economic stimulus dodd–frank wall street reform consumer protection act attempt mitigate negative effects ensure would repeat crisis.republican donald trump elected th president result viewed one biggest political upsets american history.
United States	trump led country first waves covid pandemic united states december estimated killed americans.seen repudiation trumps divisive leadership democrat joe biden elected th president.january supporters outgoing president trump stormed united states capitol unsuccessful effort disrupt presidential electoral college vote count.geography contiguous states district columbia occupy combined area square miles km.area square miles km contiguous land composing .
United States	total u.s. land area.hawaii occupying archipelago central pacific southwest north america square miles km area.five populated unincorporated territories puerto rico american samoa guam northern mariana islands u.s. virgin islands together cover square miles km.measured land area united states third size behind russia china ahead canada.the united states worlds third fourthlargest nation total area land water ranking behind russia canada nearly equal china.ranking varies depending two territories disputed china india counted total size united states measured.the coastal plain atlantic seaboard gives way inland deciduous forests rolling hills piedmont.
United States	appalachian mountains divide eastern seaboard great lakes grasslands midwest.mississippi–missouri river worlds fourth longest river system runs mainly north–south heart country.flat fertile prairie great plains stretches west interrupted highland region southeast.the rocky mountains west great plains extend north south across country peaking around feet colorado.farther west rocky great basin deserts chihuahua mojave.sierra nevada cascade mountain ranges run close pacific coast ranges reaching altitudes higher feet m. lowest highest points contiguous united states state california miles km apart.
United States	elevation feet .alaskas denali highest peak country north america.active volcanoes common throughout alaskas alexander aleutian islands hawaii consists volcanic islands.supervolcano underlying yellowstone national park rockies continents largest volcanic feature.the united states large size geographic variety includes climate types.east th meridian climate ranges humid continental north humid subtropical south.
United States	great plains west th meridian semiarid.much western mountains alpine climate.climate arid great basin desert southwest mediterranean coastal california oceanic coastal oregon washington southern alaska.alaska subarctic polar.hawaii southern tip florida tropical well territories caribbean pacific.
United States	states bordering gulf mexico prone hurricanes worlds tornadoes occur country mainly tornado alley areas midwest south.overall united states receives highimpact extreme weather incidents country world.biodiversity u.s. one megadiverse countries containing large amount endemic species species vascular plants occur contiguous united states alaska species flowering plants found hawaii occur mainland.united states home mammal species bird species reptile species amphibian species well insect species.there national parks hundreds federally managed parks forests wilderness areas managed national park service.altogether government owns countrys land area mostly western states.
United States	land protected though leased oil gas drilling mining logging cattle ranching .used military purposes.environmental issues include debates oil nuclear energy dealing air water pollution economic costs protecting wildlife logging deforestation climate change.prominent environmental agency environmental protection agency epa created presidential order .idea wilderness shaped management public lands since wilderness act.endangered species act intended protect threatened endangered species habitats monitored united states fish wildlife service.the united states ranked th among nations environmental performance index.
United States	country joined paris agreement climate change many environmental commitments.left paris agreement rejoined .government politics united states federal republic states federal district five territories several uninhabited island possessions.worlds oldest surviving federation.federal republic representative democracy majority rule tempered minority rights protected law.
United States	u.s. ranked th democracy index described flawed democracy.transparency internationals corruption perceptions index public sector position deteriorated score .in american federalist system citizens usually subject three levels government federal state local.local governments duties commonly split county municipal governments.almost cases executive legislative officials elected plurality vote citizens district.the government regulated system checks balances defined u.s. constitution serves countrys supreme legal document.constitution establishes structure responsibilities federal government relationship individual states.
United States	article one protects right writ habeas corpus.constitution amended times first ten amendments make bill rights fourteenth amendment form central basis americans individual rights.laws governmental procedures subject judicial review law voided courts determine violates constitution.principle judicial review explicitly mentioned constitution established supreme court marbury v. madison decision handed chief justice john marshall.the federal government comprises three brancheslegislative bicameral congress made senate house representatives makes federal law declares war approves treaties power purse power impeachment remove sitting members government.executive president commanderinchief military veto legislative bills become law subject congressional override appoints members cabinet subject senate approval officers administer enforce federal laws policies.judicial supreme court lower federal courts whose judges appointed president senate approval interpret laws overturn find unconstitutional.the house representatives voting members representing congressional district twoyear term.house seats apportioned among states population.
United States	state draws singlemember districts conform census apportionment.district columbia five major u.s. territories one member congress—these members allowed vote.the senate members state two senators elected atlarge sixyear terms onethird senate seats election every two years.district columbia five major u.s. territories senators.president serves fouryear term may elected office twice.president elected direct vote indirect electoral college system determining votes apportioned states district columbia.
United States	supreme court led chief justice united states nine members serve life.political divisions states principal political divisions country.state holds jurisdiction defined geographic territory shares sovereignty federal government.subdivided counties county equivalents divided municipalities.district columbia federal district contains capital united states city washington.
United States	states district columbia choose president united states.state presidential electors equal number representatives senators congress district columbia three rd amendment.territories united states puerto rico presidential electors people territories cannot vote president.the united states also observes tribal sovereignty american indian nations limited degree states sovereignty.american indians u.s. citizens tribal lands subject jurisdiction u.s. congress federal courts.like states great deal autonomy also like states tribes allowed make war engage foreign relations print issue currency.
United States	reservations usually part single state though reservations cross state boundaries.indian country jurisdiction civil criminal matters shared tribes states federal government.citizenship granted birth states district columbia major u.s. territories except american samoa.parties elections united states operated twoparty system history.elective offices levels stateadministered primary elections choose major party nominees subsequent general elections.since general election major parties democratic party founded republican party founded .
United States	since civil war one thirdparty presidential candidate—former president theodore roosevelt running progressive —has much popular vote though selffinanced reform party campaign ross perot took ..president vice president elected electoral college.in american political culture centerright republican party considered conservative centerleft democratic party considered liberal.states northeast west coast great lakes states known blue states relatively liberal.red states south parts great plains rocky mountains relatively conservative.democrat joe biden winner presidential election former vice president serving th president united states.
United States	leadership senate includes vice president kamala harris president pro tempore patrick leahy majority leader chuck schumer minority leader mitch mcconnell.leadership house includes speaker house nancy pelosi majority leader steny hoyer minority leader kevin mccarthy.in th united states congress house representatives senate narrowly controlled democratic party.senate consists republicans democrats two independents caucus democrats vice president harris democrat able break ties.house consists democrats republicans.state governors republicans democrats.
United States	among d.c. mayor five territorial governors three democrats one republican one new progressive.foreign relations united states established structure foreign relations.permanent member united nations security council new york city home united nations headquarters.also member g g oecd.almost countries embassies washington d.c. many consulates around country.
United States	likewise nearly nations host american diplomatic missions.however iran north korea bhutan taiwan formal diplomatic relations united states although u.s. maintains unofficial relations taiwan supplies military equipment.the united states special relationship united kingdom strong ties canada australia new zealand philippines japan south korea israel several european union countries including france italy germany spain poland.works closely fellow nato members military security issues neighbors organization american states free trade agreements trilateral united states–mexico–canada agreement.colombia traditionally considered united states loyal ally south america.the u.s. exercises full international defense authority responsibility micronesia marshall islands palau compact free association.government finance taxation united states progressive levied federal state local government levels.
United States	includes taxes income payroll property sales imports estates gifts well various fees.taxation united states based citizenship residency.nonresident citizens green card holders living abroad taxed income irrespective live income earned.united states one countries world so.in taxes collected federal state municipal governments amounted .gdp.
United States	effective tax rate wealthiest households compared .bottom half u.s. households.during fiscal year federal government spent .trillion budget cash basis.major categories fiscal year spending included medicare medicaid social security defense department nondefense discretionary mandatory interest .in united states largest external debt world.percentage gdp th largest government debt world however recent estimates vary.
United States	total national debt united states .trillion gdp fourth quarter .total federal debt surpassed u.s. gdp.u.s. credit rating aa standard poors aaa fitch aaa moodys.military president commanderinchief united states armed forces appoints leaders secretary defense joint chiefs staff.
United States	department defense administers five six service branches made army marine corps navy air force space force.coast guard also branch armed forces normally administered department homeland security peacetime transferred department navy wartime.six branches u.s. armed forces reported .million personnel active duty.reserves national guard brought total number troops .
United States	million.department defense also employed civilians including contractors.military service united states voluntary although conscription may occur wartime selective service system.conscription mandatory even peacetime.today american forces rapidly deployed air forces large fleet transport aircraft navys active aircraft carriers marine expeditionary units sea navy armys xviii airborne corps th ranger regiment deployed air force transport aircraft.air force strike targets across globe fleet strategic bombers maintains air defense across united states provides close air support army marine corps ground forces.
United States	space force operates global positioning system operates eastern western ranges space launches operates united states space surveillance missile warning networks.military operates bases facilities abroad maintains deployments greater active duty personnel foreign countries.the united states spent billion military global military spending..gdp rate secondhighest among top military spenders saudi arabia.defense spending plays major role science technology investment roughly half u.s. federal research development funded department defense.
United States	defenses share overall u.s. economy generally declined recent decades early cold war peaks .gdp .federal spending .gdp .federal spending .
United States	total number personnel united states thirdlargest combined armed forces world behind chinese peoples liberation army indian armed forces.the united states one five recognized nuclear weapons states one nine countries possess nuclear weapons.worlds secondlargest stockpile nuclear weapons russia.united states also owns worlds nuclear weapons.law enforcement crime law enforcement united states primarily responsibility local police departments sheriffs offices state police providing broader services.federal agencies federal bureau investigation fbi u.s. marshals service specialized duties including protecting civil rights national security enforcing u.s. federal courts rulings federal laws.
United States	according bureau justice statistics charles h. ramsey former philadelphia pennsylvania police chief appearing meet press u.s. police agencies united states.number includes city police departments county sheriffs offices state policehighway patrol federal law enforcement agencies.state courts conduct criminal trials federal courts handle certain designated crimes well certain appeals state criminal courts.a crosssectional analysis world health organization mortality database showed united states homicide rates .times higher highincome countries driven gun homicide rate .times higher.
United States	u.s. murder rate .per .united states highest documented incarceration rate largest prison population world.department justice said imprisonment rate prisoners sentenced year state federal facilities stood per residents lowest point since total prison population year stood represented decrease population size decade earlier.sources prison policy initiative put aggregate number prisoners .
United States	million.according federal bureau prisons majority inmates held federal prisons convicted drug offenses.efforts reduce prison population include government policies grassroots initiatives promote decarceration — recent examples include laws federal state level fair sentencing act first step act marylands justice reinvestment act californias money bail reform act.prisoners held privatized prisons practice beginning subject contention.january biden administration signed executive order halted renewal federal government contracts private prisons apply detention centers held undocumented immigrants.although nations abolished capital punishment sanctioned united states certain federal military crimes state level states though three states moratoriums carrying penalty imposed governors.
United States	country sixthhighest number executions world following china iran saudi arabia iraq egypt.executions took place owing part u.s. supreme court ruling furman v. georgia struck previous practice.since decision however executions although convicted sentenced since furman exonerated tabulated death penalty information center.recent years number executions presence capital punishment statute whole trended nationally several states recently abolishing penalty.economy according international monetary fund u.s. gdp .
United States	trillion constitutes gross world product market exchange rates gross world product purchasing power parity.january united states national debt trillion.the united states largest importer goods secondlargest exporter though exports per capita relatively low.total u.s. trade deficit billion.canada china mexico japan european union top trading partners.from u.s. real compounded annual gdp growth .compared .
United States	weighted average rest g. country ranks fifth world nominal gdp per capita seventh gdp per capita ppp.u.s. dollar worlds primary reserve currency.in private sector estimated constitute .economy.economy reached postindustrial level development united states remains industrial power.august american labor force consisted .
United States	million people ..million people public sector leading field employment.largest private employment sector health care social assistance .million people.
United States	smaller welfare state redistributes less income government action highincome countries.the united states advanced economy guarantee workers paid vacation one countries world without paid family leave legal right.fulltime american workers get paid sick leave according bureau labor statistics although parttime workers get benefits.science technology united states leader technological innovation since late th century scientific research since midth century.methods producing interchangeable parts developed u.s. war department federal armories first half th century.technology along establishment machine tool industry enabled u.s. largescale manufacturing sewing machines bicycles items late th century became known american system manufacturing.
United States	factory electrification early th century introduction assembly line laborsaving techniques created system mass production.st century approximately twothirds research development funding comes private sector.united states leads world scientific research papers impact factor.in alexander graham bell awarded first u.s. patent telephone.thomas edisons research laboratory one first kind developed phonograph first longlasting light bulb first viable movie camera.latter led emergence worldwide entertainment industry.
United States	early th century automobile companies ransom e. olds henry ford popularized assembly line.wright brothers made first sustained controlled heavierthanair powered flight.the rise fascism nazism led many european scientists including albert einstein enrico fermi john von neumann immigrate united states.world war ii manhattan project developed nuclear weapons ushering atomic age space race produced rapid advances rocketry materials science aeronautics.the invention transistor key active component practically modern electronics led many technological developments significant expansion u.s. technology industry.turn led establishment many new technology companies regions around country silicon valley california.advancements american microprocessor companies advanced micro devices amd intel along computer software hardware companies adobe systems apple inc. ibm microsoft sun microsystems created popularized personal computer.

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